THAILAND

Lopburi• •NakhonRatchasima

•UdonThani

Lopburi•

•Phuket

•SuratThani

•ChiangMai

•Phitsanulok

USForcesPaciĕc

CultureGuide

Malaysia

Cambodia

Vietnam

Laos

Myanmar

(Burma)
This guide is designed to help prepare you for deployment to 

culturally complex environments and successfully achieve 

mission objectives. The fundamental information it contains will 

help you understand the decisive cultural dimension of your 

assigned location and 

gain necessary skills to 

achieve mission success.

The guide consists of two 

parts: 

Part 1: Introduces 

“Culture General,” the 

foundational knowledge 

you need to operate

effectively in any global environment – Southeast Asia in 

particular (Photo: AF Chief shows family photos to Thai youth).

Part 2: Presents “Culture Specific” information on Thailand, 

focusing on unique cultural features of Thai society. This 

section is designed to complement other pre-deployment 

training. It applies culturegeneral concepts to help

increase your knowledge of 

your assigned deployment 

location (Photo: Exercise 

Cope Tiger Commander 

dines with children in Udon 

Thani, Thailand).

For further information, visit

the Air Force Culture and Language Center (AFCLC) website

at https://wwwmil.maxwell.af.mil/afclc or contact AFCLC’s

Region Team at AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the expressed permission 

of AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the US 

government, Wikimedia, and other sources as indicated.

About this Guide

Thailand Culture Guide
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes 

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to 

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the 

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that 

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture, 

and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs 

and values. 

Members of a culture also usually assign the same meanings 

to the symbols in that culture. A symbol is when one thing – an 

image, word, object, idea, or story – represents another thing. 

For example, the American flag is a physical and visual symbol 

of a core American value – freedom. At the same time, the 

story of George Washington 

admitting to having chopped 

down a cherry tree is also 

symbolic, representing the 

importance Americans place 

on personal honesty and 

leadership integrity. 

Force Multiplier

The military services have 

learned through experience the importance of understanding 

other cultures. Unlike the 20th-century bipolar world order that 

dominated US strategy for nearly half a century, today the US 

military is operating in what we classify as asymmetric or 

irregular conflict zones where the notion of cross-cultural 

interactions is on the leading edge of our engagement 

strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive 

feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on 

influencing constructive change through peaceful means where 

possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local 

nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

GENERAL

CULTURE 
economic institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and 

traditions.

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively 

influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success.

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry internally, 

but also by our behaviors and by the systems members of a 

culture create to organize their lives. These systems, such as 

political or educational institutions, help us to live in a manner

that is appropriate to our culture and encourages us to 

perpetuate that culture into the future. 

We can organize these behaviors and systems into categories 

– what the Air Force refers to as “cultural domains” – in order to 

better understand the primary values and characteristics of a 

society. A cross-culturally competent military member can use 

these domains – which include kinship, language and 

communication, and social and political systems among others

(see chart on next page) – as tools for understanding and 

adapting to any culture. For example, by understanding the 

ways different cultures define family or kinship, a deployed 

military member can more 

effectively interact with 

members of that culture.

Social Behaviors Across 

Cultures

While humankind shares basic 

behaviors, various groups 

enact or even group those 

behaviors differently across 

cultural boundaries. For example, all societies obtain food for 

survival, although agrarian societies generally produce their 

own food for limited consumption using very basic techniques.

Conversely, industrialized nations have more sophisticated 

market economies, producing foodstuffs for universal 

consumption. Likewise, all cultures value history and tradition, 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
although they represent these concepts through a variety of 

unique forms of symbolism. While the dominant world religions 

share the belief in one God, their worship practices vary with

their traditional historical development. Similarly, in many kinbased cultures where familial bonds are foundational to social 

identity, it is customary for family or friends to serve as 

godparents, while for other societies this practice is nearly nonexistent.

Worldview

One of our basic human 

behaviors is the tendency to 

classify others as similar or 

different according to our 

cultural standard. As depicted 

in the chart below, we can 

apply the 12 cultural domains 

to help us compare similarities 

and differences across 

cultures. We evaluate others’ behavior to determine if they are 

“people like me” or “people not like me.” Consequently, we 

assume that individuals falling into the “like me” category share 

our perspectives and values. 

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CULTURE 
This collective perspective forms our worldview – how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider 

your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for our actions and a logical 

explanation of why we individually or collectively act in a certain 

manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system sets its universal standards of what 

is good and bad, defines right and wrong behavior, and assigns 

a value of meaningful or meaningless. Our beliefs form the 

fundamental values we hold to be true – regardless of whether 

there is physical evidence to support these ideas. Beliefs are a 

central facet of human culture. They are shared views about 

world order and how the universe was physically and socially 

constructed. 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, right or wrong depends on our deeplyheld beliefs we started developing early in life that have help 

shape our characters. Likewise, 

these values are ingrained in our 

personalities and shape our 

behavior patterns and our selfidentities. Because cultural beliefs 

are intensely held, they are 

difficult, though not impossible, to 

change. 

Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence 

certain behaviors and also serve to 

rationalize those behaviors. 

Therefore, knowledge of individual 

or group beliefs can be useful in 

comprehending or making sense of their activities. We will use 

the iceberg model for classifying culture to illustrate two levels 

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CULTURE 
of meaning, as depicted. Beliefs and values, portrayed by the 

deeper and greater level of the submerged iceberg, are seldom 

visible, but are indicated / hinted at / referenced by our 

behaviors and symbols (top level). It is important to recognize, 

though, that the parts of culture that are not visible (under the 

waterline) are informing and shaping what is being made 

visible (above the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews may present behaviors that 

are contrary to our own beliefs, particularly in many regions 

where US forces deploy. Your ability to suspend judgment in 

order to understand another perspective is essential to 

establishing relationships with your host-nation counterparts. 

The ability to withhold your opinion and strive to understand a 

culture from a member of that culture’s perspective is known as 

cultural relativism. It often involves taking an alternate

perspective when interpreting others’ behaviors and is critical 

to your ability to achieve mission success. 

As you travel throughout Southeast Asia, you will encounter 

cultural patterns of meaning that are common across the 

region. What follows is a general description of 12 cultural 

domains which are used to frame those commonalities. 

1. History and Myth

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of 

the past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can 

act as a type of historical record, although it is usually a story 

which members of a culture use to explain community origins 

or important events that are 

not verifiable or which 

occurred prior to written 

language. 

Southeast Asia includes 5 

countries on the mainland

(Burma, Thailand, Laos, 

Cambodia, and Vietnam)

and 5 maritime countries in 

CULTURAL DOMAINS

GENERAL

CULTURE 
the North Pacific Ocean and the South China Sea (Malaysia, 

Singapore, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Brunei). As early as 

150 BC, the scattered communities on the mainland traded 

with and paid tribute to the dominating kingdoms of China and 

India. China maintained a presence in Vietnam for over 1000 

years, while’s India’s influence was felt mainly as its inhabitants 

spread Hinduism, Buddhism, and later Islam across the region. 

Southeast Asia’s most famous ancient empire, the Khmer, 

ruled for 4 centuries beginning around 800 AD from its center 

at Angkor in Cambodia. Later, Thai kings expanded across the

mainland, while a Hindu kingdom from India united the 

Indonesian archipelago.

China began to halt its 

expeditions to the region 

in mid-15th century, just 

as European nations 

began sending theirs. The 

Portuguese were the first 

to conquer a Southeast 

Asian settlement in 1511, 

although their influence in the region was short-lived.

Observing their success, the Dutch and English moved into the 

area as well. The Europeans sought to acquire trade routes 

and territories, and from the 17th through the 19th centuries the 

Dutch worked to consolidate their power in today’s Indonesia, 

the Spanish their control of the Philippines, the English their 

hold over Burma and Malaysia, and the French their control 

over Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. By the beginning of the 

20th century, virtually all of Southeast Asia was controlled by 

colonial powers; only Thailand remained independent. 

During World War II, Japan invaded and occupied portions of 

Malaysia, Burma, Thailand, and the Philippines. After the war, 

independence movements regained traction, and following 

years of struggle against the occupying Americans, the 

Philippines became the first country in Southeast Asia to gain 

its independence in 1946. Other countries endured years of 

instability and conflict on their way to independence. In 

Vietnam, communist rebels battled and defeated the French 

but then engaged the US in a controversial war. A civil war in 

Cambodia ended in the rise to power of the Khmer Rouge, 

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CULTURE 
during whose reign in the late 1970s almost 2 million people 

died. A few years after the Dutch ceded power in Indonesia, a 

dictator took control in a coup and ruled for 32 years before 

resigning in 1998. Similarly, a military junta wielding absolute 

power has ruled Burma since 1962. Since the 1990s, 

Southeast Asia has largely enjoyed renewed stability. Both 

Thailand and Malaysia now have an affluent, educated middle 

class; Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam are well on the road to 

recovery from decades of conflict; and even Burma has 

recently held elections and initiated reform to a civilian 

democracy.

2. Political and Social Relations

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to 

others in their community. 

Differences in the physical 

environment affected the 

social and political structures 

that historically developed in 

Southeast Asia. Where 

people were nomadic or 

semi-nomadic, systems of 

government were less permanent and bureaucratic. In areas 

where populations were more settled, a reliable tax base 

allowed the development of more elaborate and permanent 

governing structures. These early states, though, often found it 

difficult to extend their authority into the remote highlands, 

where small tribal groups resided, and the islands, where some 

groups lived permanently in water communities of small boats. 

Significant changes occurred in Southeast Asia around 2000 

years ago as peoples from China and India began to move into 

the region (see History and Myth). New leaders formed new 

empires and states, and spiritual beliefs and practices changed 

as religious leaders introduced new religious traditions (see 

Religion and Spirituality). 

Many colonial-era governments, fearing the threat that an 

educated class might hold, largely denied education and civil 

liberties to most Southeast Asians and discouraged political 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
activities. Political participation swelled around the time of 

independence, although many post-independence political 

structures in the region were dictatorial and repressive. While 

most countries are healing from their 20th century conflicts, 

many governments continue to reflect authoritarian elements. 

Elites across the region continue to seek to control access to 

the political system. They are typically from the country’s 

dominant class, which is often comprised of members of a 

particular ethnic group. 

Some countries, such as Vietnam and Cambodia, are 

somewhat ethnically homogenous, while others, such as the 

Philippines and Indonesia, are much more diverse. Many 

countries also have minority communities of ethnic Chinese 

and Indians. So-called hill tribes, minority groups with distinct 

ethnic and linguistic identities, are found in Burma, Laos, 

Thailand, Vietnam, and the Philippines.

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), formed 

in 1967, is a regional intergovernmental organization whose 

goal is to promote economic and political cooperation among 

its members, including the creation of a free trade community 

by 2015. ASEAN priorities include fostering economic and 

diplomatic relations with India and China, which have been 

strained due to longtime territorial disputes in the region. The 

European Union has a strong relationship with the organization 

and has taken steps to deepen trade and business links. The 

US also has close political, 

security, and economic 

relations with most of the 

member states. 

The relationship between 

Japan and the countries of 

Southeast Asia has 

improved significantly since 

World War II, and Japan is 

a crucial economic and aid 

partner today. 

3. Religion and Spirituality

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They 

also create social unity by defining shared identity, offer 

individuals peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in 

a society. 

The earliest populations of Southeast Asia were animists, 

which means they believed that many different spirits inhabited 

elements in the natural environment, such as trees and rocks, 

or were represented in natural phenomena, such as thunder 

and lightning, or represented deceased ancestors. In many 

areas today, these traditional beliefs are still very important, 

and many Southeast Asians incorporate them in their practice 

of Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity.

Indian traders and priests first brought Hinduism to Southeast 

Asia in the 1st century AD, where it eventually became the 

dominant religion in several kingdoms. In the 14th century the 

influence of Hinduism began to wane as people turned to 

Islam. Today, although there remain only small communities of 

Hindus in Indonesia, the Hindu principles of absolutism and 

hierarchy remain significant in politics across the region. 

Indian merchants also brought Buddhism to Southeast Asia 

beginning in the 1st century AD where it became well 

established in Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Indonesia, 

and Malaysia. Later, Chinese immigrants introduced Buddhism 

to Vietnam and Singapore. Many Southeast Asian mainlanders 

are Buddhist today, 

although their beliefs and 

practices may also include 

some animist and Hindu 

traditions. 

Chinese people spread the 

teachings of Confucius 

primarily in what is today 

Vietnam and Singapore. 

These teachings embody a complex belief system emphasizing 

stability, consensus, hierarchy, and authority that still 

influences ideas of social harmony across the region.

Islam reached Southeast Asia beginning in the 10th century 

through Muslim traders from the Middle East, China, and India, 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
with a large number of Southeast Asians converting to Islam 

beginning in the 14th century to escape the Hindu caste 

system. The largest population of Muslims in the world, 

approximately 234 million, lives in Indonesia today. Muslim 

minority communities in Thailand and the Philippines have 

historically suffered economic and political marginalization.

Christianity was introduced to the region by European 

colonizers beginning in the 16th century. Today, although parts 

of Indonesia have Christian communities, the Philippines is the

only predominantly Christian country in Southeast Asia.

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong 

emotional bonds that influence them to treat each other like 

family members (often called 

“fictive kin”).

Family life is very important 

to Southeast Asians and 

relationships among family 

members are highly valued. 

As in the US, kinship is 

generally traced through both 

parents. Children are 

generally very respectful of their parents, and parents are 

devoted to their children, making economic or other sacrifices 

as a matter of course to ensure their well-being. 

Traditionally, close proximity of kin was a valuable resource in 

Southeast Asia’s agriculturally-based villages. Families were 

large and close-knit as individual members supported each 

other economically and socially and the rhythms of family and 

village life mirrored those of the agricultural cycle.

Family life in Southeast Asia has changed in recent decades as 

societies have become more economically and socially diverse 

due to industrialization and urbanization. Today, a much wider 

variety of occupations is open to both men and women, and the 

middle class is growing in cities across the region. Women 

have fewer children today than they did 3 decades ago, and 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
many households in the cities no longer contain 3 or 4 

generations of extended family but are mostly nuclear families.

Many Southeast Asian countries that have large rural 

hinterlands, such as Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand, 

also have large metropolises, such as Jakarta, Manila, and 

Bangkok. In these sorts of countries, there is a sharp ruralurban divide in economic and educational opportunities that 

results in stark differences in rural and urban family life. In rural 

villages, extended families may remain intact whose activities 

revolve around agricultural production, while in urban centers 

the household is usually much smaller and family structures 

are much more diverse.

Although arranged marriages are much less common today, 

most Southeast Asians depend on their family’s input when 

choosing a marriage partner. The ages of both the bride and 

groom have increased as young people postpone marriage to 

pursue economic and educational opportunities, and divorce 

rates have risen in recent decades. Of note, in Indonesia and 

Malaysia Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny, or have 

more than one wife, if they can afford to support them all. For 

these Southeast Asians, matrimony and divorce are under the 

jurisdiction of Islamic law.

5. Sex and Gender

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive 

differences between males and 

females, while gender is a more flexible 

concept that refers to a culture’s 

categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. 

Southeast Asia’s dominant philosophies 

and religions (Confucianism, Daoism, 

Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity) 

privilege the male’s role as provider and 

stress female subordination. Despite most countries’ 

commitment to gender equality, women across Southeast Asia 

may find participation in the business and political spheres 

difficult, and in some countries there is still a marked 

preference for sons over daughters.

GENERAL

CULTURE 
Despite these challenges, there is widespread acceptance of 

women in the workplace, though women usually receive less 

pay than men. Industrialization has provided new opportunities 

for women, and many Southeast Asian women continue to 

work beyond marriage and children. Hundreds of thousands of 

Southeast Asian women even relocate to other countries to 

work as nurses and domestic workers. 

Within the agricultural sector, women produce about 50% of 

food in the region and represent a significant share of the 

agricultural labor force. They are particularly involved in 

harvesting rice, tea production, and working on rubber and fruit 

plantations. Women generally have access to education and 

training, and in Thailand and the Philippines there are actually 

more post-secondary female graduates than males.

Opinion on sexual orientation and gender identity is most 

liberal in the Philippines, where homosexuality is legal and 

there have been attempts to pass anti-discrimination legislation 

to protect sexual minorities. But in many parts of Southeast 

Asia homosexuals suffer discrimination and stigmatization. 

Malaysia criminalizes homosexuality and cross-dressing, and 

in Indonesia transgender individuals are often the victims of 

violence and exploitation.

6. Language and Communication

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural 

practice of sharing 

meaning in interaction, 

both verbally and nonverbally.

Southeast Asia is 

linguistically very 

diverse; of the 

approximately 6000 

languages spoken in the 

world today, about 1000 of them are found in Southeast Asia. 

Many of the ancient indigenous languages that were present in 

the region have become extinct as a result of war, cultural and 

economic domination, and small population size.

GENERAL

CULTURE 
The languages of mainland Southeast Asia belong to 3 groups:

Austro-Asiatic (such as Cambodian and Vietnamese), Tai 

(such as Thai and Lao), and Tibeto-Burmese (including 

highland languages and Burmese). Languages that belong to 

these 3 groups are also found in India and China. Conversely, 

most of the languages spoken on the islands of Southeast Asia 

belong to the Austronesian family, a group of languages 

originating from southern China and Taiwan.

The colonial powers that controlled Southeast Asia until the 

20th century primarily promoted and used their own languages

including French, Dutch, English, and Spanish. Since 

independence, several states have named one local linguistic 

variety as the “standard,” such as Bahasa Indonesian and 

Bangkok Thai, and promoted its use over both European and 

other local languages. Recently, after years of aggressively 

promoting their national languages, many Southeast Asian 

countries have re-introduced English as a language of 

instruction in school and 

allowed ethnic Chinese 

and Indians to attend 

school in their own 

languages. 

Ancient Southeast 

Asians developed their 

own writing systems 

based on scripts from 

India and China. Today, 

Vietnamese, Malaysian, Indonesian, and Filipino, like English 

and most western European languages, use the Latin alphabet, 

while Burmese, Laotian, Thai, and Cambodian use writing 

systems derived from ancient Indian scripts.

Southeast Asians are rarely confrontational or highly 

demonstrative and emotional in their communication. They 

value respect as a key component in maintaining social 

harmony, and conveying respect is a significant aspect of both 

verbal and non-verbal communication. For example, proper 

greetings, such as pressing the palms together and slightly 

bowing as is common in Thailand, are extremely important 

across Southeast Asia.

GENERAL

CULTURE 
7. Learning and Knowledge

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and 

health requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, 

behaviors, and symbols that have meaning to the community). 

This knowledge transfer may occur through structured, 

formalized systems such as schools or through informal 

learning by watching adults or peers. 

Throughout their history, the cultures of Southeast Asia have 

willingly borrowed and adapted ideas, practices, and 

institutions from beyond the region. This willingness is evident 

in the history of education. Prior to colonization, both Hindu and 

Muslim traders and migrants from India and beyond brought 

their own traditions of education to the region, and local 

Southeast Asian communities adopted these curricula and 

educational methods to 

their needs. 

Later, during the colonial 

period, the European 

powers were largely 

uninterested in providing 

education to Southeast 

Asians because they 

viewed them principally as 

agricultural laborers. If the 

colonial powers did provide educational opportunities, they 

were largely confined to members of privileged groups. 

Still later, as populations across the region began to resist 

colonization, the lack of educational opportunities became a 

topic around which to rally. In many countries, local activists 

adopted western educational methods but also drew on local 

traditions to devise new educational opportunities through 

which they articulated their arguments for independence.

Today, education in Southeast Asia is viewed as both a tool for 

developing the region and as a human right. Consequently, in

most countries education is open to every citizen regardless of 

race, ethnicity, religion, or socio-economic background. Rapidly 

growing populations challenge most national governments in 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
their goals of providing 12 years of basic education to all, often 

forcing a sacrifice in the quality of services. Students in both 

urban and rural areas often suffer from a lack of adequate 

classrooms, teachers, and good text books, although primary 

school enrollment averages an excellent 93% in the region.

8. Time and Space

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that 

are not directly linked to physical survival. In most western 

cultures, people tend to be preoccupied with strict time 

management, devoting less effort to relationship-building. 

Conversely, in most Southeast Asian cultures establishing and 

maintaining relationships within the group can take precedence 

over accomplishing a task in the most efficient manner. 

Southeast Asians’ emphasis on the well-being of the group and 

maintaining social 

harmony often 

means people will 

deliberately avoid 

embarrassment of 

themselves and 

others, a strategy 

often referred to 

as “saving face.” 

Many Southeast 

Asians try to 

manage their time 

efficiently while still showing respect to their co-workers and 

maintaining “face.”

Time is maximized by multi-tasking, and engagements usually 

start when scheduled. Networking is very important in 

Southeast Asia, and new contacts are often best made through 

a high status third party who knows both parties well. Only after 

the establishment of a good rapport can business negotiations 

proceed. 

Public and private spaces often overlap in a way that is 

unfamiliar to Americans. Shop owners may also live at their

place of business, so entering into a public space can also 

mean entry into an individual’s private space. Consequently,

customers and clients should always show proper respect. 

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CULTURE 
9. Aesthetics and Recreation

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Most of Southeast Asia’s forms of creative expression, 

such as art, architecture, dance, music, and theater, reflect the 

diversity of cultures and ethnicities of the region as well as the 

influence of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam. Ancient and 

elaborate Hindu temples and highly symbolic statues of 

Buddha are found in many countries. Similarly, across 

Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines, Islamic art and 

architecture intermingle with examples of Hindu and local 

animist traditions.

Traditional classical 

dance and theater 

are enjoying a 

revival after some 

forms came close to 

extinction during the 

wars and conflicts of the 20th century. These traditions trace 

back to the ancient kingdoms of the region and often include 

dancers dressed in elaborate masks and costumes. Ancient 

forms of shadow-puppet theater, in which paper puppets are 

manipulated against a lighted backdrop, are also popular in 

several countries.

Combat sports of Asian and Western origins are popular in 

Southeast Asia today. With the end of the colonial-era ban on 

martial arts, indigenous forms such as Pentjak Silat and 

Bersilat combined with other Asian forms to make up Muay 

Thai, Pencak Silat and Kali, the main components of today’s 

Mixed Martial Art fighting. 

The Southeast Asian Games are an important regional sporting 

event. These biennial games bring together over 4,000 athletes 

for 11 days of competition in the Olympic sports and promote

regional cooperation and understanding.

10. Sustenance and Health

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures and economics. Theories of disease 

GENERAL

CULTURE 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness. 

As expected from Southeast Asia’s location on the water, more 

fish is consumed than any other form of animal protein. Rice, a 

grain that has been cultivated in the region for thousands of 

years, is the primary food staple. Everyday meals are typically 

simple, consisting of chopped pieces of meat and vegetables 

that are fried or steamed and served with rice, often 

accompanied by spicy chili condiments. Influences from India 

and China are obvious in popular dishes such as spicy curries 

and rice noodle soups. Members of Muslim communities in 

Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines typically do not eat 

pork or drink alcohol. 

Malaria, HIV/AIDS, and the lack of clean drinking water are the 

main health concerns in Southeast Asia. With an estimated 

15% of worldwide cases coming from the region, malaria is a 

major problem. The HIV/AIDS epidemic was delayed in 

reaching Southeast Asia 

but turned into a major 

cause of death 

throughout the 1980s 

and 1990s. Since then, 

due to successful HIV 

prevention programs 

including those aimed at 

sex workers and their 

clients, transmission 

rates have steadily declined, and recent HIV/AIDS incidence 

rates have been similar to those of the US. Access to clean 

water has increased in most regions but in Cambodia and Laos 

half of the population still lacks access to clean drinking water. 

All countries are faced with the rise of non-communicable 

diseases among their aging populations, and most face the 

threat of emerging infectious diseases, such as the avian flu. 

The countries of Southeast Asia confront many challenges in 

providing health care for their growing populations. Rapid but 

unequal socioeconomic development has resulted in significant 

disparities in health and access to healthcare. Despite these 

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CULTURE 
challenges, most countries have experienced a continual 

increase in life expectancy since the 1950s.

11. Economics and Resources

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and 

services. Most Southeast Asian communities practiced wet-rice 

and slash-and-burn agriculture for centuries before the arrival 

of Europeans in the 16th century. In addition, Southeast Asia’s 

geographical location between China and India as well as its 

position on navigable waterways which connect the West and 

Middle East with Asia and Australia made the area an 

important center of trade well before European presence.

With European expansion into the area came the introduction 

of plantations and the mechanization of agriculture as well as 

the entry of the region into the global marketplace. Worldwide 

demand for rice increased dramatically in the 19th century, 

further changing the agricultural landscape of the region. 

Today, all 3 agriculture types – wet-rice, slash-and-burn, and 

plantation – are still practiced in the region and all have caused 

serious ecological damage such as massive deforestation and 

an increase in the production of greenhouse gases. 

Beginning in the 20th century the region experienced a 

dramatic industrialization process with growth rates exceeding 

even those of developed 

nations. Explosive growth 

in exports such as textiles, 

electronics, auto parts, 

and petroleum lead to 

double-digit economic 

growth, greatly increasing

local GDPs. Though 

roughly 1/3 of the 

population currently lives 

below the poverty line, 

regional economies have grown and now supply both skilled 

and semi-skilled workers to other countries.

The 2008 global financial crisis caused damage to the 

economies of Southeast Asia. While the financial sector did not 

engage in high-risk lending practices, there was a severe drop 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
in exports due to a global reduction in spending from which the 

countries are still recovering. 

12. Technology and Material

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. After the colonial period, the countries of Southeast 

Asia have expanded at different rates and currently experience 

varied levels of economic development. Their places in the 

global market range from 

Singapore, which has the 

third-highest GDP worldwide, to Burma and 

Cambodia which are 

ranked among the poorest 

countries in the world.

Prior to colonial rule, the 

region’s inhabitants were 

expert farmers, having adopted domesticated rice from India

and China and developed complex rice-farming techniques, or 

mariners who traded across the region. European colonists 

brought additional skills in metalworking, agriculture, sailing, 

and navigation. The introduction of commercial agriculture, 

mining, and an export-based economy during the colonial 

period placed Southeast Asia on its current technological path.

Southeast Asian nations are generally open to trade and 

investment, having transformed from inward-looking economies 

dominated by agriculture to outward-looking, market-oriented 

economies in just a few years. As China’s “backyard,” 

Southeast Asia is often seen as the site of economic 

competition between China and the US and between India and 

Japan. Despite lingering mistrust of China because of several 

unresolved maritime territorial disputes, some Southeast Asian 

nations welcome China’s investment in infrastructure, energy, 

agriculture, and mining. About 15% of Southeast Asia’s total

trade is conducted with China. By comparison, about 12% of 

Southeast Asia’s trade is conducted with the US.

Now that we have introduced general concepts that 

characterize Southeast Asian society at large, we will focus on 

specific features of Thai society.

GENERAL

CULTURE 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Overview

As the only nation in Southeast Asia to avoid direct European 

colonization, the Kingdom of Thailand (known as Siam for 

much of its history) traces its founding to 1238 and its present 

monarchy to 1782. Since converting from an absolute to a 

constitutional monarchy in 1932, Thailand has experienced a 

series of coups and military dictatorships interspersed with

periods of democratic governance. 

Prehistoric Thailand

Scientists believe humans have lived in the territory of modernday Thailand for at least 40,000 years. Archaeological 

evidence at Ban Chiang in northeast Thailand suggests that by

2000 BC inhabitants engaged in wet-rice agriculture, animal 

domestication, bronze metalwork, and ceramics manufacture.

Early History

The Mon and Khmer ethnic groups were early settlers in the 

region. In the first millennium AD, the ancestors of the modern 

Thai people, called the Tai, gradually 

migrated from southern China through 

Vietnam and Laos into Thailand. 

Between the 6th and 9th centuries, a 

Mon civilization called Dvaravati 

dominated Thailand’s central plains as

Indian culture and religion arrived 

through trade routes (see p. 3 of 

Religion and Spirituality). From the 9th13th centuries, the Khmer Kingdom expanded from its capital 

at Angkor, Cambodia into much of present-day Thailand. 

Greatly influenced by the Khmer’s Hindu- and Buddhist-based 

ceremonies, dance, and literature, Tai people formed several 

small city-states within the Khmer Kingdom by the 12th century

(Photo: 10th century Khmer sculpture).

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

1. HISTORY AND MYTH
HISTORY &

MYTH

Sukhothai Period

Thailand’s founding in 1238 occurred when Tai leaders 

declared independence from the Khmer, establishing the first 

Tai-speaking kingdom at Sukhothai in central Thailand. To 

distinguish themselves from other Tai groups still under foreign 

rule, these people called themselves Thai, meaning “free.” Of 

note, Sukhothai King Ramkhamhaeng, The Great, developed a 

writing system that became the basis of the modern Thai 

alphabet (see p. 1 of Language and Communication). 

Meanwhile, in the northern part of Thailand, the Tai Kingdom of 

Lanna with its capital at Chiang Mai became an independent 

city-state in 1296. 

Ayutthaya Period

Founded in 1350, the Kingdom 

of Ayutthaya expanded in 

subsequent decades, 

capturing Angkor, Cambodia in 

1431 and absorbing the 

Kingdom of Sukhothai in 1438. 

The Kingdom of Ayutthaya adopted many aspects of the 

Khmer’s Hindu-influenced culture, including the idea that the 

ruler is divine (Photo: Ruins of a Buddhist temple at Ayutthaya). 

At its greatest extent, the Kingdom of Ayutthaya covered most 

of present-day Thailand plus parts of Cambodia, Laos, and 

Burma. Aspects of Ayutthaya culture had long-lasting impact. 

In 1360 the king declared Theravada Buddhism the official 

religion (see p. 2 of Religion and Spirituality). In addition, he 

combined Hindu texts and Thai customs to produce legal 

codes that remained in effect through the late 19th century. 

The Kingdom exchanged diplomats and benefitted from strong 

commercial ties with many European and Asian countries –

including England, France, the Netherlands, India, Japan, and 

China – in the 16th and 17th centuries. Anti-European feelings 

arose in the late 17th century due to 2 reasons: the growing 

presence of French Christian missionaries (see p. 7 of Religion 

and Spirituality) and the appearance of European warships off 

the Kingdom’s coast. The Kingdom expelled the French in 

1688 and strictly limited contact with other Western nations for 

the next 150 years.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Fall of Ayutthaya: Beginning in the 16th century, the Kingdom

experienced repeated conflicts with neighboring Burma. After 

repeated attempts, Burmese forces invaded in 1765 and lay 

siege to Ayutthaya. In 1767, the Burmese sacked and burned 

the city, leaving it in ruins and taking thousands of prisoners.

Thonburi Period

Two years later, a Chinese-Thai general later known as Taksin 

the Great engaged and defeated the Burmese, in the process 

re-establishing Thai control of the region. After promoting 

himself king, Taksin established his capital at Thonburi, across 

the river from Bangkok. Although Taksin enjoyed diplomatic 

relations with many countries, he especially encouraged 

Chinese merchants and craftsmen to settle in the new capital. 

While Taksin successfully extended the reach of Thai control to 

Lanna, Cambodia, and much of Laos, his increasingly erratic 

behavior disturbed his followers. In 1782, General Chao 

Phraya Chakri led a group of followers in Taksin’s overthrow. 

The Rise of Modern Thailand

General Chakri took the throne in 1782, becoming King Rama I 

and establishing the monarchy that endures today. As a first 

act, he moved his court to Bangkok. Later, he worked to 

expand his kingdom in addition to reestablishing court rituals 

and issuing legal codes. Rama I took a particular interest in 

reinvigorating Buddhism. To this end, he modified the Buddhist 

monastery system and constructed 

Bangkok’s famed Temple of the Emerald 

Buddha (see p. 3 of Religion and 

Spirituality).

While Chakri’s successors pursued 

diplomatic and trade relations with 

several countries, historians credit the 

actions of Mongkut or King Rama IV 

(reigned 1851-1868) as having the 

greatest impact on Thailand’s historical 

trajectory. Through successful treaty 

negotiations, Rama IV avoided colonization by a Western 

country while embracing many new ideas and innovations that 

spurred Thailand’s modernization (Photo: Mongkut or King 

Rama IV on his throne). 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Basis of Modern Thailand

Modernization continued 

when Chulalongkorn or King 

Rama V (reigned 1869-1910) 

implemented significant 

reforms. These included 

abolishment of slavery and 

the system of forced labor; the 

introduction of a conscription-based army; the centralization of 

the state administration; and the establishment of courts of law. 

Forced by Britain and France to renounce its claims in 

Cambodia, Burma, Laos, and Malaysia, the Kingdom managed 

to retain its independence during this period by acting as buffer 

between the British and French colonies on either side.

King Rama VI (reigned 1910-1925) supported educational 

reforms and opened Thailand’s first university (see p. 1 of 

Learning and Knowledge). To integrate the Kingdom’s Chinese 

population, Rama VI identified a standard Thai dialect (see p. 1

of Language and Communication) that all students were 

required to read, write, and speak. A number of Thai resented

the Chinese residents because they dominated government 

positions and the rice trade. To promote unity, Rama VI 

pursued policies intended to inculcate loyalty to nation, religion 

(Buddhism), and king among all of Thailand’s residents. 

The Shift to Constitutional Rule

Economic hardships during the 1930s fueled popular 

discontent with the monarchy. Meanwhile, a rising middle class 

grew frustrated with its exclusion from political decisionmaking. In 1932, Western-oriented, nationalist government 

officials and army officers led a coup against King Rama VII 

that ended the absolute monarchy. Agreeing to transfer power 

to a constitution-based system of government, Rama VII 

signed Thailand’s first constitution.

The First Military Dictatorship

Six years later, democracy had not yet taken root, and the 

military was becoming more politically assertive. In 1938, Army 

Field Marshal Phibunsongkhram (known as “Phibun”) took 

control as a military dictator, a position he would hold through 

most of World War II. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

A staunch nationalist, Phibun pursued an anti-Chinese, proJapanese agenda. His government heavily taxed Chineseowned businesses while subsidizing Thai-owned ones. While 

strengthening relations with Japan, Phibun attempted to 

reclaim territory in Laos and Cambodia that Thailand had 

earlier ceded to France.

World War II

In December 1941, shortly before Japan’s attack on Pearl 

Harbor, Japanese forces landed on the isthmus connecting

Thailand and the Malay Peninsula. Seeking passage across 

Thai territory in order to attack the British in Malaya and Burma, 

the Japanese engaged Thai troops. Having few other options, 

Thailand surrendered. Encouraged by a string of Japanese 

victories against the US and its allies in the following months, 

Phibun signed a mutual defense pact with Japan. Although 

Thailand declared war on the US and Britain in early 1942, the 

Thai ambassador in Washington never delivered the 

declaration. Consequently, the US did not declare war on 

Thailand. Instead, the US supported a “Free Thai” movement 

by training Thai for anti-Japanese underground activities. 

During the war, Japan 

stationed some 150,000 

troops in Thailand. Among 

other activities, the Japanese 

built the so-called “death 

railway” to Burma across the 

River Kwai (pictured) using 

Allied prisoners of war. Thai 

public opinion eventually 

turned against the Japanese, 

forcing Phibun to resign his office in 1944, a full year before 

Japan surrendered and World War II officially ended.

Immediate Postwar Years

Thailand’s initial postwar years were tumultuous. In 1946, 

Thailand’s teenaged king died under unclear circumstances. 

Political opponents then hampered the newly-elected civilian 

Prime Minister (PM) in the ensuing investigation. In 1947, the 

military toppled the civilian government, setting the stage for 

Phibun’s return as PM in 1948.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Military Rule & Anti-Communism

Because China had come under 

communist control, Phibun’s antiChinese stance shifted to include anticommunism. To prevent a feared 

communist insurgency in Thailand, 

Phibun (pictured) took several steps. 

First, he aligned his government 

closely with the US, receiving in 

return substantial economic and 

military aid that fueled the military’s 

rapid growth. In addition, he provided 

troops to support United Nations (UN) 

forces fighting the North Korean 

communist regime during the Korean 

War. Internally, he closely monitored 

and even restrained Chinese residents in Thailand. 

Phibun’s term ended abruptly in 1957 when Field Marshall Sarit 

Dhanaraj deposed him in a coup. Despite brief periods of 

civilian leadership, the military effectively retained control of the 

country through 1973. During this time, Thailand’s foreign 

policy focused on anti-communism. Thailand provided US 

forces a staging area for the war in Vietnam, where more than 

11,000 Thai troops served by 1969. Because of this support, 

Thailand received huge revenues from the US that enabled

economic development but also contributed to the growth of 

corruption. While the government laid plans for transition to a 

popularly-elected government in the early 1970s, popular 

discontent, particularly among impoverished groups, grew. 

Demonstrations against Military Rule

Three issues fueled demonstrations in 1973: the public’s 

dissatisfaction with the government, a fear that the monarchy 

was vulnerable to being overthrown, and growing antiAmericanism. In October 1973, some 250,000 people gathered 

in Bangkok, prompting government forces to fire on them, 

killing 75. The king stepped in, forcing government leaders to 

resign or go into exile. Despite this move, the subsequent

period of parliamentary democracy was brief. Following 

elections, 2 separate coalition governments were unable to 

stabilize the situation. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

In October 1976, security forces again violently suppressed 

demonstrations, killing hundreds of students and arresting 

many more. With communist governments ruling Laos, 

Cambodia, and Vietnam, there was fear of communism’s 

spread to Thailand. The military stepped in again, suspending 

the constitution, banning political parties, and declaring martial 

law (Photo: Bangkok’s Democracy 

Monument, site of the protests). 

A Cycle of Coups

The 1976 coup polarized the 

country, causing many opposition 

members to join insurgencies and 

the Communist Party of Thailand. 

In response, the new government 

became even more repressive, supporting strict censorship, 

tightly controlling the labor unions, and purging suspected 

communists from the civil service and the educational system.

Despite these measures, political stability remained elusive. 

The monarchy mediated a power-sharing agreement between 

the military and parliament in 1980, yet the cycle of 

coup/reform/new elections kept repeating. The government 

quelled most dissent in the 1980s by granting amnesty to all 

communist insurgents. Nevertheless, students and democratic 

activists continued to protest the government’s authoritarian 

actions. In 1991, Thailand saw its 17th coup since 1932.

Multiparty Democracy

While demonstrations and repression again followed the 1991 

coup, the 1992 elections signaled the beginning of Thailand’s 

most democratic period. With no party winning the simple 

majority in the 1992, 1995, and 1996 elections, majority parties 

formed successful coalitions. By 1996, for the first time in 

Thailand’s history, more Senators were civilians than military 

members. In 1997, Thailand published a new constitution.

Financial Turmoil: A major Asian financial crisis in 1997 

caused the sudden devaluation of the Thai currency (the baht

– see p. 1 of Economics and Resources). Despite the

economy’s failure to rebound quickly, Thailand retained its 

democratic process as power transferred between civilian 

leaders without the military’s interference. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Thaksin Shinawatra

In the 2001 election, Thaksin 

Shinawatra’s (known as “Thaksin”) Thai 

Rak Thai (TRT) party took power as 

leader of a coalition. A Chinese-Thai from 

the North, Thaksin (pictured) was a multimillionaire entrepreneur who cultivated 

influence in Thailand’s business world, 

not with the military and monarchy. In 

addition, his focus on providing affordable 

healthcare to Thailand’s rural poor provided him broad-based 

support. As PM, Thaksin launched an intensive anti-drug 

campaign and stepped up the fight against terrorist violence. 

When Islamic militants in the Malay Muslim South carried out 

coordinated attacks on police bases in 2004, Thaksin ordered 

the use of military force to suppress the insurgency (see p. 9 of 

Political and Social Relations). The strategy exacerbated the 

conflict and intensified the violence, influencing Thailand’s royal 

family and key military figures to criticize its effectiveness.

Anti-Thaksin “Yellow Shirts”

In 2005, the TRT increased its dominance, winning 75% of the 

vote and forming a single-party government for the first time in 

Thailand’s history. In Thaksin’s 2nd term as PM, evidence of 

corruption emerged. Protestors nicknamed “Yellow Shirts” (see 

p. 6 of Political and Social Relations) called for Thaksin’s 

resignation. Since he no longer held the loyalty of many military 

leaders, Thaksin was not able to order the military to suppress 

the demonstrations. Instead, he called for a snap election

which the opposition parties boycotted, resulting in the 

Supreme Court invalidating the results. While Thaksin was at 

the UN in New York in 2007, the military staged another coup, 

suspended the 1997 constitution, and set up a militarycontrolled regime. These events signaled the end of Thailand’s 

longest democratic period. 

Although initially welcomed in Bangkok, the coup leaders

declined in popularity after violence with Islamic separatists in 

the South flared and progress toward a new constitution was 

slow. In a clear rejection of the coup, voters gave their support 

to a restoration of Thaksin’s banned TRT in December 2007 

elections. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Democracy was restored, yet Yellow Shirts began 

demonstrating again in mid-2008, claiming the new PM was a 

puppet for the exiled Thaksin. Consequently, the parliament 

elected a different PM, Thaksin’s brother-in-law. Despite this 

change, protests continued and gradually became increasingly 

violent. When the PM rejected the army’s call for new elections, 

the Constitutional Court removed the new PM from office. In 

just over 2 years, Thailand had 5 PMs.

Pro-Thaksin “Red Shirts”

Thaksin’s supporters, the “Red Shirts” (see p. 6 of Political and 

Social Relations), periodically held demonstrations through 

2009. In early 2010 the Supreme Court stripped Thaksin’s 

family of half its wealth, stating he had acquired it illegally while 

in office. Objecting to these and other judicial acts they deemed 

undemocratic, Red Shirts paralyzed Bangkok with protests. 

The subsequent military crackdown resulted in the deaths of 

nearly 100 Red Shirts. In mid-2011 elections, the Phak Puea 

Thai party headed by Yingluck Shinawatra, Thaksin’s sister, 

won a landslide victory. As the 1st female PM, Yingluck was 

popular among rural people, 

although many Thai saw her as 

her brother’s puppet.

Thailand’s Latest Coup

In late 2012, Yellow Shirts called 

for Yingluck’s ouster. The 

situation escalated in 2013 when 

Yingluck’s government attempted 

to pass a bill granting amnesty to Thaksin. Some 200,000 

people gathered in Bangkok to demonstrate against Yingluck 

and Thaksin. Yingluck dissolved parliament and called for new 

elections in February 2014. After the election was disrupted, 

the courts ruled the results invalid. Before the rescheduled 

elections could take place, the Constitutional Court in early 

May ordered Yingluck to leave office and appointed an acting 

PM. On May 20, Army General Prayuth Chan-ocha (“Prayuth”) 

declared martial law. Two days later the military staged a 

bloodless coup, suspending the constitution and naming 

Prayuth head of a military council to lead the country (see p. 3-

4 of Political and Social Relations) (Photo: Prayuth receives the

US Legion of Merit from US Army General Odierno in 2013).
HISTORY &

MYTH

Myth Overview

In contrast to history, which is supposed to be an objective 

record of the past based on verifiable facts, myths embody a 

culture’s values and often explain the origins of humans and 

the natural world. Myths are important because they provide a 

sense of unique heritage and identity. In Thailand, myths are 

used to convey moral lessons based on Buddhist teachings or 

tell of the gods’ participation in historical events. Yet others use 

animals to represent desirable human characteristics.

Myths of Himapan Forest and Rajasiha the Mighty 

Popular in Thai mythology is the legend of Himapan Forest, a 

fictitious woodland in the Himalayas believed to exist below the 

mythical Buddhist heaven invisible to mortals. The fabled forest 

is home to a great number of mythical beasts that represent

exemplary Thai traits. Some of these creatures are half human 

and beast; others a pairing of dissimilar animals.

There are also a variety of stories in classical Buddhist 

mythology pertaining to Rajasiha, a mighty lion living in India’s 

Himalayan jungle. The Thai adapted this customary Indian 

legend to their own cultural traditions. As a symbol of authority 

and power, the Rajasiha is depicted on the emblem of the Thai 

Ministry of Interior – the overseer of the central provisional 

government. During the coronation of Ayutthayian kings, a 

lion’s skin was used for the king to sit on as a symbol of royal 

authority and might. 

King Rama IX

Bhumibol Adulyadej (“Strength of the Land, 

Incomparable Power”), grandson of Chulalongkorn, 

King Rama V, was born in 1927 in Massachusetts

while his father was attending Harvard University. After 

spending World War II in Switzerland, Bhumibol took 

the throne as King Rama IX in 1946 and continues to 

reign today. Although it was 1951 before he 

permanently returned to Bangkok to assume his duties, 

he quickly became a beloved figure and is the world’s 

longest-serving head-of-state.
Official Name

Kingdom of Thailand

Ratcha Anachak Thai

ราชอาณาจักรไทย (Thai)

Political Borders

Cambodia: 499 mi

Laos: 1,090 mi

Burma: 1,118 mi

Malaysia: 314 mi

Coastline 2,000 mi

Capital

Bangkok

Demographics

Experts estimate Thailand’s 

population at about 68 million,

making it the world’s 21st most 

populous country. Thailand’s 

annual population growth has 

slowed significantly in recent years, reaching its present rate of 

just 0.35% per year. This low growth trend is due to several 

factors including dramatically decreased fertility rates due to

successful family planning programs (see p. 3 of Sex and 

Gender) and the effects of an HIV/AIDS epidemic lasting over 2 

decades (see p. 6 of Sustenance and Health). Thailand is 

primarily rural: only 34% of the population lives in urban areas.

Flag

Officially adopted in 1917, the 

Thai flag consists of 5 

horizontal red, white, and blue 

stripes. Red represents the

nation and the blood of life. 

White symbolizes Buddhism, 

Thailand’s predominant religion

(see p. 1 of Religion and Spirituality). The double-width center

blue band symbolizes Thailand’s monarchy. 

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Geography

With most of its territory in the middle of mainland Southeast 

Asia, Thailand also extends down the Malay Peninsula on the 

Isthmus of Kra. Thailand shares a border with Laos to the 

Northeast and East, Cambodia to the Southeast, Malaysia to 

the South, and Burma to the West and Northwest. The 

southern coast of Thailand faces the Gulf of Thailand, while the 

Isthmus of Kra is bordered on the East by the Gulf of Thailand 

and on the West by the Andaman Sea. Several small islands in 

the Gulf and Andaman also belong to Thailand, including 

Phuket, a well-known tourist destination. Thailand’s total land 

area is about 198,000 sq mi – slightly smaller than Texas

(Photo: Mu Ko Ang Thong 

National Park in the Gulf of 

Thailand).

Thailand has 4 main 

geographical regions with 

distinct topographical features. 

While the upland Khorat Plateau

dominates the Northeast, steep,

forested mountains characterize

the continental highlands of the Northwest. Here, Thailand’s 

highest peak, Doi Inthanon, rises 8,415 ft. Known as Thailand’s 

“rice bowl,” the central plains of the Chao Phraya River basin 

are home to several cities, including Bangkok, Samut Prakan, 

and Nonthaburi. The southern Isthmus of Kra comprises low 

hills covered in dense rainforests.

Climate

Thailand’s tropical climate has 3 distinct seasons: a rainy 

season characterized by southwest monsoons (June through 

mid-November), a dry and cool season (November through 

February), and a hot season (March through May). The Gulf of 

Thailand coast experiences a slightly different weather pattern, 

characterized by monsoonal rains coming from the northeast 

between October and January. While the North may 

experience lower temperatures during the cool season, 

temperatures in the South are consistently warm throughout 

the year. Temperatures in the central plains range from 73°F90°F during the rainy season, 68°F-86°F in the cool season, 

and 77°F-95°F in the hot season.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Natural Hazards

Thailand is vulnerable to several 

types of natural hazards. The 

Northeast is most susceptible to 

drought, while the plateau, the 

central valley, and the southern 

coastal areas experience flash 

floods caused by heavy 

monsoonal rains and exacerbated by deforestation (see 

“Environmental Issues” below). In 2011, Thailand suffered 

severe flooding that affected over 75% of the country, killing 

more than 850 people and causing over $45 billion in economic 

loss. The flooding was the worst in over 5 decades, crippling 

the manufacturing industry and causing global shortages of 

several goods (see p. 1 of Economics and Resources) (Photo: 

US Navy helicopter flies over flooding in 2011). 

Tsunamis, large ocean waves caused by earthquakes and 

other geologic disturbances, threaten Thailand’s shores. In 

December 2004, a massive tsunami generated by an undersea

earthquake off the coast of Indonesia struck southern Thailand

and neighboring countries. More than 230,000 people (over 

5,300 in Thailand) were killed and much of Thailand’s tourism 

infrastructure along the Andaman Sea coastline was destroyed.

Environmental Issues

Deforestation due to illegal logging and commercial farming

causes environmental degradation across Thailand. Negative 

outcomes include loss of biodiversity and soil erosion, resulting 

in increased flooding and landslides. Farm, industry, and 

untreated sewage run-off contaminate Thailand’s water supply, 

often causing disease outbreaks. Depletion of Bangkok’s water 

table often results in land sinkage. Urban areas suffer air and 

noise pollution.

Government

Between 1932 and May 2014, Thailand had a constitutional 

monarchy consisting of a parliamentary government marked by 

periods of military dictatorship. In 2014, the Royal Thai Army

staged a coup, declared martial law, dissolved the elected 

government, and suspended the 2007 constitution while 

maintaining the monarchy (see p. 9 of History and Myth). 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Although King Bhumibol Adulyadej (known as King Rama IX –

see p. 10 of History and Myth) remains the head-of-state, a 

group of senior military leaders known as the National Council 

for Peace and Order (NCPO) currently governs the country. 

In July 2014, the NCPO endorsed an interim constitution

effective until the next election (currently unscheduled) that 

gives considerable power to the military government. In 

addition to establishing a new Cabinet and legislature, the 

interim constitution created a National Reform Committee to

propose political improvements. It also established a

Constitution Drafting Commission charged with delivering a 

permanent constitution by July 2015. With the powers granted 

it in the interim constitution, the NCPO remains politically 

active. For example, it collaborates with the Prime Minister 

(PM) and his Cabinet in all peacekeeping and security matters.

Executive Branch

According to the dissolved 2007 constitution, executive power 

resided in the PM, who led the Council of Ministers and was 

head-of-government. Elected by the legislature and formally 

appointed by the King, the PM was typically the leader of the 

majority political party at the time of a national election. 

Royal Thai Army Commander Prayuth Chan-ocha currently 

serves as PM after dissolving previous PM Yingluck 

Shinawatra’s democratically-elected government in the May 

2014 coup (see p. 9 of History and Myth) with the King’s 

endorsement. Since assuming office, Prayuth has approved 

the arrest of academics, dissidents, and rival politicians, among 

other repressive acts.

Legislative Branch

The dissolved 2007 

constitution established

Thailand’s legislature as a 2-

chamber parliament called 

the National Assembly

(pictured), consisting of a 

500-seat House of Representatives and 150-seat Senate. 

While legislation originated in the House, the Senate ultimately 

controlled most legislative powers, including amending the 

constitution, appointing positions in government, approving 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
declarations of war, and modifying and passing legislation. As 

head-of-state, Thailand’s King approved bills passed by the 

Senate.

In May 2014, the NCPO dissolved the 

National Assembly and temporarily 

assumed all legislative power. With the

interim constitution, the NCPO created 

a provisional 1-chamber National 

Legislative Assembly that consists of 

220 members appointed by the NCPO. 

The NCPO has filled a majority of the 

seats (120) with military officers, while it

hand-picked the remaining members

from public, private, civil, academic, and 

professional sectors. Potential 

members are ineligible if they have been associated with a 

political party in the last 3 years – a restriction designed to reengineer Thailand’s political landscape (Photo: A member of 

Thailand’s Military Security force).

Judicial Branch

The judiciary includes a 3-level court system consisting of the

Supreme Court, a Constitutional Court, and Supreme 

Administrative Courts and collectively known as the Courts of 

Justice. As the highest court, the Supreme Court is the final 

court of appeal for both civil and criminal cases. A system of 

lower courts of first instance and courts of appeal oversee

minor cases. Both the Judicial Commission and the King may 

appoint judges followed by confirmation from the Senate. 

The judicial branch continues to operate under NCPO oversight 

following the May 2014 coup. Granted the power to keep 

“public order” under the interim constitution, the NCPO 

ultimately controls all judiciary actions through its ability to 

overturn verdicts and control other court actions.

Political Climate

Since becoming a constitutional monarchy in 1932, Thailand 

has endured a series of military coups, the most recent 

occurring in May 2014 (see p. 4-9 of History and Myth). This 

ongoing political instability is linked to a long-standing classbased, regional, and ideological divide between Thailand’s 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
urban, conservative, and wealthy elite who live largely in 

Bangkok, and its poorer, more rural population, many of whom 

live in the country’s North.

Typically supportive of both the monarchy and the military, the 

urban elite were the driving force behind the “Yellow Shirts”

campaign that drove PM Thaksin out of office in 2007 (see p. 

8-9 of History and Myth). Generally, the Yellow Shirts favor a 

weak centralized government backed by a powerful military 

and an elite faction of bureaucrats.

Pro-Thaksin supporters called the “Red Shirts” were behind 

mass demonstrations in 2009 and 2010 that eventually resulted 

in Thaksin’s sister, Yingluck, becoming PM in 2011. The Red 

Shirts generally resent the control of the Bangkok elite, prefer

decentralized government power, seek more affordable 

healthcare, and desire increased aid to rural communities. 

Clashes between the 2 groups escalated into vigorous street 

protests in recent years, resulting in the worst demonstration 

violence in decades. In an effort to curtail violent protest, 

Thailand’s current military government has declared martial 

law, imposed a night curfew, arrested both Red and Yellow 

Shirt leaders, and limited public gatherings to 5 or fewer

people. Compounding the political instability is pervading 

anxiety concerning King Rama IX, aged 87 and in poor health

(see p. 10 of History and Myth). Because the king’s universal 

popularity has traditionally provided a pillar of stability for 

Thailand, the inevitable royal succession could destabilize the 

country in an unforeseen way.

Defense

Thailand’s armed forces consist

of ground, maritime, and air 

branches, with a joint strength 

of approximately 360,850 active 

duty and 200,000 reserve 

personnel. The armed forces 

are charged with defending the 

monarchy against both foreign and domestic threats, ensuring 

public order, and aiding in disaster relief and peacekeeping 

operations (Photo: Royal Thai and US Marines during an 

exercise in Thailand). 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
In addition, the forces ensure national defense, including 

operations against Malay Muslim insurgents in the South and

incursions from Burma in the West and North (see “Security” 

below).

The military plays a significant role in Thai politics, having

orchestrated several coups over the years (see p. 4-9 of 

History and Myth). As the largest military unit, the Royal Thai 

Army is the dominant service 

whose commander-in-chief 

wields considerably more 

political power than the other 2 

service chiefs. This notion is 

evidenced by recent

appointment of Royal Thai 

Army Commander Prayuth 

Chan-ocha as Thailand’s Prime 

Minister (see “Executive Branch” above) (Photo: US Chairman 

of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Gen. Martin E. Dempsey speaks 

with Thailand’s Joint Chiefs during a visit to Bangkok in 2012).

Royal Thai Army (RTA): The RTA is a well-equipped, welltrained force of 245,000 active-duty troops. It has 4 regional 

commands, 2 Special Forces units, 13 maneuver divisions and 

brigades (including mechanized, light, and aviation), numerous 

combat support divisions, and 4 combat service support 

divisions for economic development.

Royal Thai Navy (RTN): Consisting of 69,850 active-duty 

personnel, the RTN is a well-equipped force of naval aviation, 

marine, and coastal defense units. It has 11 principal surface 

combatants, 84 patrol and 

coastal combatants, 17 mine 

warfare and countermeasure 

vessels, and 14 logistics and 

support vessels. 

Royal Thai Air Force

(RTAF): The RTAF consists 

of 46,000 active-duty 

personnel and has 4 air divisions with 163 fighter aircraft and 

20 squadrons (Photo: A RTAF F-16 conducting a tactical flight 

in 2013).

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Security Issues

Thailand’s security concerns 

focus on 3 main issues: an 

influx of refugees from 

neighboring Cambodia, Laos, 

and Burma; an ongoing 

insurgency in the southern 

provinces; and clashes on the 

Burmese border (Photo: 

Royal Thai Army soldiers). 

Malay Muslim Insurgency: Thailand’s main security concern 

is sectarian violence in its Malay Muslim majority southern 

provinces. Since 2004, clashes between insurgents and the 

Thai military have left around 6,000 dead and over 11,000 

wounded. The insurgency comprises individuals and groups 

with varied agendas: separatists, members of organized crime 

syndicates, Islamic radicals, and corrupt police forces. While 

the movement’s overarching motivation remains unclear, there 

is some speculation that its overall goal may be to create an 

autonomous Islamic state. 

The Thai government responded harshly to the insurgency, 

declaring martial law in the region when the violence flared in 

2004 (see p. 8 of History and Myth). Since then, critics charge 

the Thai government has mistreated suspects and fueled local 

resentment with its counter-insurgency tactics. Although the 

Thai government attempted peace talks in 2013, it has been 

unable to identify and establish relations with figures of 

authority within the movement. 

Thai-Burmese Border: Thailand has a long, tense history with 

Burma (see p. 3 of History and Myth). The 1,100 mi ThaiBurmese border is a major security concern, plagued by 

clashes between the Thai military and various armed Burmese 

groups including insurgents, drug-traffickers, and refugees.

The most significant clashes are skirmishes between the Thai 

military and Burmese ethnic minority rebel groups who oppose 

the central Burmese government. Living in Burma’s

mountainous border region, some of these rebel groups

regularly smuggle illegal drugs into Thailand, further 

exacerbating Thai-Burmese tensions.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Foreign Relations

Thailand’s foreign relations center on its relationship with the 

US, lucrative trade relationships with several countries, and its 

role in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). 

Relations with the US: US-Thai relations were formally 

established in 1954 and cemented through Thailand’s support 

of US operations during the Korean and Vietnam wars (see p. 

6 of History and Myth). More recently, Thailand provided 

support to US operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. The US in 

turn provides Thailand financial assistance for the purchase of 

weapons and other military equipment along with training for 

Thai military members and police officers. Further, the US and 

Thailand collaborate in regional intelligence gathering and in 

military exercises (Photo: A Thai soldier shows US troops how 

a constrictor kills its 

prey during Cobra Gold 

exercises, the largest 

multilateral military 

exercises in Asia). 

Thailand provides the 

US access to strategic 

military facilities, 

including the U-Tapao 

Royal Thai Navy 

Airfield and the 

Sattahip Royal Thai Naval Base. These facilties enable

logistical support for US relief operations in Southeast Asia and 

for US forces serving in the Middle East. Following the 2014 

coup, the US suspended some funding to Thailand, including 

freezing military assistance and training programs.

Relations with China: Thailand has strong ties with China, 

which has sold weapons and other equipment to the Thai 

military since 1980. Bilateral trade has boomed since a 2010 

China-ASEAN Free Trade Agreement. In 2011 the Chinese 

and Thai militaries launched joint patrols along the Mekong 

River after Burmese insurgents attacked 2 cargo ships and 

killed 13 Chinese sailors. Further, Thailand has served as a 

mediator between China and ASEAN nations engaged in

territorial disputes.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Relations with Burma: Some 150,000 Burmese refugees live 

in Thailand. While the Thai government has been tolerant of

the displaced population, frustration with their long-term 

presence plus a seemingly unending flow of new arrivals has 

caused the Thai government to close its borders with Burma

periodically (Photo: A ThaiBurmese border checkpoint 

in Mae Sai, Thailand).

Thailand promotes an 

economic relationship with 

Burma as a way to

encourage Burmese political 

stability. For example, 

Thailand financed much of 

Burma’s natural gas 

infrastructure, while becoming the primary importer of Burmese 

natural resources and encouraging investment in Burma. 

Thailand seeks to further improve relations by supporting the 

inclusion of Burma in regional security initiatives, such as the 

Cobra Gold exercises (see “Relations with the US” above).

Relations with Malaysia: Violence associated with the Malay 

Muslim insurgency has heightened tensions with Malaysia. The

Malaysian government does not support the insurgency and 

has developed joint initiatives with Thailand to help counter 

extremist groups. Nevertheless, some Malaysians criticize the 

Thai government’s harsh response to the insurgency, citing 

human rights violations. Meanwhile, the Thai government 

occasionally has accused the Malaysian government of 

allowing insurgents passage across its border.

Relations with ASEAN: As the largest and one of the most 

economically developed nations in Southeast Asia, Thailand 

takes a leadership role within ASEAN (consists of Indonesia, 

Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Brunei Darussalam, 

Vietnam, Laos, Burma, and Cambodia). Despite some 

intermittent tensions, Thailand maintains close economic and 

political relations with its ASEAN counterparts. Having much to 

gain from regional economic integration, Thailand supports the 

long-planned ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) (see p. 4 of 

Economics and Resources).

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Ethnic Groups

Approximately 75% of Thailand’s population are ethnic Thai, a

group which divides broadly by dialect and region. Sub-groups 

include the Central Thai, Northern Thai, Southern Thai (also 

known as the Thai Pak-Thai), and the Northeastern Thai (also 

known as the Thai-Lao). While members of all Thai groups 

speak regional Thai dialects, standard Thai is based on the 

Central Thai dialect (see p. 1 of Language and 

Communication). 

Chinese-Thai: About 14% of the population is ethnic Chinese,

primarily descendants of Chinese immigrants who arrived in 

the late 19th and early 20th centuries (see p. 4 of History and 

Myth). Most have assimilated fully into Thai society, many by

intermarrying with the Thai. Today, many Chinese-Thai are 

successful businesspeople, controlling much of the country’s 

wealth (see “Thaksin Shinawatra,” p. 8 in History and Myth).

Thai Malays: Thailand’s southern provinces are home to the 

Thai Malays. Making up about 4% of Thailand’s population, the 

Thai Malays are members of the Malay ethnic group that is 

predominant in neighboring Malaysia. In contrast to the 

majority Thai population, most Thai Malays are Muslim and 

Malay speakers, although most also speak Thai. 

Hill Tribes: About 1% of the 

population are members of 

about 20 indigenous minority 

groups known as “hill tribes,” 

predominantly residing in 

Thailand’s mountainous North. 

The largest tribes are the Karen

(or Kariang), Hmong (or Meo), 

Yao (or Mien), Lahu (or 

Messur), Akha (or Ekaw), Lisu (or Lisaw), and Lawa – each

having a distinct culture and language (Photos: Members of the 

Kayan, a Karen subgroup). 

Other Groups: Thailand is also home to small groups of other 

non-Thai peoples, including Khmer (Cambodians), 

Vietnamese, and Indians. Thailand further hosts about 500,000

refugees and stateless people, mostly displaced from 

neighboring Burma, Laos, and Cambodia.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Social Relations

Before King Rama V’s reforms in the late 19th century (see p. 4

of History and Myth), Thai society was stratified and 

hierarchical. Citizens received economic, legal, and social 

privileges based on their rank and status, which ranged from 

slave, peasant, and artisan to government official and royalty. 

Today, Thai society affords its citizens more social mobility,

although it remains hierarchical. In addition to occupation, 

wealth, and family connections, education also defines a 

person’s position in the social hierarchy. At the pinnacle of Thai 

society are the king and royal family, followed by Buddhist

monks (see p. 5 of Religion and 

Spirituality). Thai admire all successful 

people and have a high regard for civil 

servants and teachers. Manual laborers

have the lowest social status (Photo: 

Thai men show respect for a Buddhist 

monk). 

Significant disparities in wealth, 

infrastructure, and services between 

city and village reflect a pronounced 

rural-urban divide often revealed 

through political schisms (see “Political Climate” above). The 

majority rural population further divides into more prosperous 

central plains farmers and poorer northern subsistence 

farmers. 

Other social cleavages follow ethnic lines. Fearing further 

marginalization, Thai Malays historically resist Thai nationalist 

rhetoric and control. Instead, the Muslim-majority provinces 

seek some autonomy through a separate regional economy 

and education system (see p. 5 of Learning and Knowledge). 

Finally, Thailand’s northern hill tribes exist on the fringes of 

Thai society. Most members are poor, living in rural, isolated 

communities where they pursue a subsistence agricultural

lifestyle. Although the Thai government has implemented

economic development programs in these regions, some 

members must earn their livelihoods solely through the 

intermittent sale of handicrafts, jewelry, and textiles to Western 

tourists (see p. 5 of Aesthetics and Recreation).

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Overview

Along with nation and king, 

Buddhism is a traditional 

pillar of Thai society (see p. 

4 of History and Myth). 

According to the 2010 

census, 93% of Thailand’s 

population is Buddhist, 

mostly of the Theravada 

school of Buddhism. About 

5% of Thai are Muslims who reside in Thailand’s far southern 

provinces. About 0.7% of the population identifies as Christian. 

Followers of the Baha’i faith (a monotheistic religion founded by

Bahá'u'lláh in 19th-century Persia), Hindus, and Sikhs together 

make up another 0.7% of the population (Photo: Bangkok’s 

famed Wat Phra Kaew or Temple of the Emerald Buddha). 

Thailand’s 2007 constitution and other laws protect religious 

freedom and forbid discrimination based on religious belief. 

Thailand’s government officially recognizes 5 religious groups: 

Buddhists, Muslims, Brahmin-Hindus, Sikhs, and Christians. 

The constitution names no official religion, requiring the state to 

promote harmony among followers of all religions. 

Nevertheless, it also specifies that the state shall patronize and 

protect Buddhism while requiring the monarch to be Buddhist. 

Consequently, although the government is officially secular, 

Buddhist organizations, education, temples, and the Buddhist 

monkhood receive significant state support. 

Thai are typically very tolerant of other faiths, although ongoing 

separatist violence (see p. 9 of Political and Social Relations) 

has caused some tensions between Thai Buddhist and Malay 

Muslim communities in the southern Muslim-majority provinces. 

Since ethnic and religious identities are interlinked for both 

groups, this violence is perhaps as much ethnic-based as 

religious. Regardless of their origins, such violent events 

negatively impact both groups’ ability to engage in religious 

activities (see “Religion and the Law” below). 

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
The Region’s Early Spiritual Landscape

Many early inhabitants of Southeast Asia practiced animism, 

the belief that a spirit or consciousness resides in all objects, 

both animate and inanimate. Animism promotes the notion that 

all natural objects—for example, trees and animals—are 

sacred, and this conviction establishes a close connection 

between animists and their environment. Some local religious 

traditions also recognized guardian spirits that inhabited 

homes, gardens, and rice fields, while others acknowledged 

spirits of the dead who could help or hinder the living.

The Origins of Buddhism

Buddhism traces its beginning to around 500 BC, when 

Siddhartha Gautama, a South Asian prince, attained spiritual 

insight through meditation. Buddhists believe that humans are 

fated to suffer, that suffering is caused by greed or desire, and 

can be stopped by following a spiritual path that includes 

unselfish living and meditation. Buddhists’ ultimate goal is to 

achieve nirvana, a state of 

peace and unity with the 

universe. 

Although Buddhism is based on 

a substantial set of scriptures, it 

does not focus on the worship 

of a god or gods. Instead, it 

emphasizes ethical and moral 

instruction to help people follow a spiritual path. Buddhism also 

offers an explanation of life after death, specifically, that 

humans proceed through cycles of birth, death, and rebirth or 

reincarnation. 

Several centuries after its founding, Buddhism split into 2 main 

streams: Mahayana and Theravada. Although the 2 traditions

embrace and practice the same core teachings, they differ in 

several monastic rules and academic points. As the dominant 

form of Buddhism in China, Japan, and South Korea today, 

Mahayana Buddhism encompasses a variety of schools. 

Buddhism’s 2nd stream, Theravada, focuses more strictly on 

scripture and is considered the more orthodox form of 

Buddhism. It is the predominant form of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, 

Cambodia, Laos, Burma, and Thailand today.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
The Spread of Buddhism in Thailand

During the early centuries of the first millennium AD, Indian 

traders on their way to China carried Hindu and Buddhist 

beliefs and practices to Thailand. Members of Thailand’s Mon 

ethnic group became the first inhabitants of Southeast Asia to 

adopt Buddhism. Between the 6th 

and 9th centuries, Buddhism spread 

through the Dvaravati kingdoms of 

central Thailand (see p. 1 of History 

and Myth). 

Meanwhile, the Theravada school of 

Buddhism gained influence on Sri 

Lanka, an island off the southeast 

coast of India, which became the 

center of the Theravada movement 

in the 10th century. By the 13th

century, Sri Lanka’s Theravada 

missionary monks were spreading the religion in Southeast 

Asia, including the Tai kingdoms of Sukhothai and Lanna (see 

p. 2 of History and Myth) (Photo: Sukhothai Period depiction of 

the Buddha).

In 1360, Theravada Buddhism became the state religion of the 

Kingdom of Ayutthaya (see p. 2 in History and Myth). When 

Ayutthaya leaders conquered the Khmer capital of Angkor (see 

p. 2 of History and Myth), they incorporated certain Hindu ideas 

and practices into Theravada Buddhism. Over the next 400 

years of the Ayutthaya Period, Theravada Buddhism took deep 

root in Thai society. As the monkhood (sangha) was 

established, the temple became the center of community life.

Like previous rulers, those of the Chakri dynasty, which began 

in 1782 and continues to this day (see p. 3 of History and 

Myth), adopted Buddhism as the state religion. The dynasty’s 

first king, Rama I, issued religious laws, re-established 

Buddhist court rituals, reorganized the sangha, and constructed 

Bangkok’s Temple of the Emerald Buddha.

Subsequent monarchs instituted other changes. A Buddhist 

monk for 27 years before he took the throne, King Rama IV 

disapproved of prevailing Buddhist practices, even calling them 

superstitious beliefs. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Consequently, he started a new fundamentalist Buddhist sect 

in the 1830s. Although adoption of the sect’s philosophy was 

not widespread, his other reforms, such as those 

institutionalizing the sangha’s hierarchy, were significant.

Rama V’s Sangha Law of 1902 further solidified the 

relationship between the sangha and the state by formalizing 

the hierarchy of monks with the king in Bangkok at its apex and 

bringing disparate regional forms of Buddhism under his 

authority. Later, the 1932 switch from an absolute to a 

constitutional monarchy (see p. 4 in History and Myth) formally 

recognized the monarchy, Buddhism, and nation as the pillars 

of Thai society. 

Buddhism Today

Today, Thailand’s king is both head-of-state and protector of 

Theravada Buddhism. Although religion is a regular part of 

everyday life for many Thai Buddhists, most do not focus on 

achieving nirvana or enlightenment. Instead, most followers 

look to Theravada Buddhism as a guide for living. 

Specifically, the faithful follow Buddhism’s instructions to take 

the so-called Middle Way between extreme self-denial and 

sensual indulgence, to avoid evil, and to acquire bun or merit. 

To obtain bun, followers may perform a variety of acts, 

generally trying to live according to the Buddhist ethical code. 

They may also perform good deeds, give alms or shelter to 

monks, provide offerings at a temple, 

perform worship regularly, or enter 

the monkhood temporarily (see “The 

Monkhood” below).

The Wat: This term refers to a 

Buddhist temple complex that 

typically includes prayer rooms, 

libraries, meeting halls, healthcare 

and education facilities, guesthouses, 

living quarters for monks, and a 

crematoria and/or buildings to house 

the cremated remains of departed 

family members (Photo: Buddhist wat in Chiang Mai). Almost 

every community in Thailand has a wat.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Worship: Buddhist temples do not hold 

formal, collective, regularly-scheduled 

worship services. Instead, followers 

worship by chanting, praying, or 

performing other acts of devotion before 

an image of the Buddha when it is 

convenient for them. Some followers 

may assemble at the wat on special 

occasions, such as during certain 

phases of the moon or for festivals. On 

such occasions, a monk may preach a 

short sermon while followers engage in 

meditation, make lotus bud offerings, and burn candles or 

incense at altars (Photo: Shrine at Wat Kham Chanot in Udon 

Thani province).

The Monkhood: Traditionally, all Thai males spent at least a 

few months of their lives as Buddhist monks, often during 

childhood or before marrying (see p. 3 of Family and Kinship). 

While fewer males follow this practice today, ordination 

ceremonies continue to be important community events. 

After education and ordination, during which they take 227 

vows associated with piety and celibacy, monks typically live in

a wat and administer its many activities. In addition, they may

spend considerable time studying 

scriptures, meditating, collecting 

alms from the community

(pictured), and carrying out rituals, 

such as weddings and funerals. 

Some monks work as missionaries 

in the northern border areas 

among the hill tribes (see p. 12 of

Political and Social Relations). Still

others focus on alleviating social 

injustice, protecting the 

environment, and participating in interfaith dialogues. Of note, 

while Buddhist monk is traditionally a male-only occupation, 

females may enter the sangha as nuns, although they have 

fewer roles and responsibilities and enjoy less respect and 

prestige than their male colleagues.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Beliefs and Rituals from Other Traditions: Thailand’s form of 

Theravada Buddhism contains elements from other religious 

traditions such as Southeast Asia’s animist “spirit houses” 

constructed to distract harmful spirits from homes (see p. 2 of

Family and Kinship). The Thai court engages Brahmin-Hindu 

religious specialists to carry out certain rituals. Many Thai 

regularly visit shrines dedicated to 

Hindu deities, such as the 4-faced 

Hindu creation god Brahma (pictured)

or the elephant-head deity, Ganesha. 

Finally, the Thai tradition of consulting 

astrologers (see p. 4 of Family and 

Kinship) has Hindu-Brahmin roots.

Islam

Islam has a long history in Southeast 

Asia. Arab and Persian Muslims on their 

way to East Asia probably first brought Islam to the Malay 

Peninsula not long after Islam’s founding in the 6th century. By 

the 10th century, several city-states on the Malay Peninsula 

controlled regional trade and extended Muslim influence in the 

region. By the 1400s, most of peninsular Malaysia was Muslim. 

The Malay inhabitants of southern Thailand converted to Islam 

during the 14th and 15th centuries. Over the next 400 years, 

Thai kingdoms and Malay states contested control of the 

region. Although the Thai state eventually prevailed, it was 

1909 before the present Thai-Malaysian border was set. 

Despite centuries of dominion 

by Thai Buddhists, Malay 

Muslims in the southern 

provinces have largely 

retained their own language 

and religion. 

While most Muslims in the

southern provinces are ethnic 

Malay, Muslims in other parts 

of the country include ethnic Thai as well as descendants of 

immigrants from South Asia, China, Cambodia, and Indonesia. 

Like 85% of the world’s Muslims, most of them in Thailand 

identify with the Sunni sect (Photo: Mosque in Chiang Rai).

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Christianity

Christian missionaries first arrived in Thailand in the 16th 

century but were expelled in 1688 when a pro-Christian 

Ayutthaya king was forced from the throne. In 1785, King 

Rama I (see p. 3 of History and Myth) invited Catholic 

missionaries to return. While their schools and hospitals had a 

significant influence on Thailand’s educational and healthcare 

systems, their religious influence in ensuing years was much 

smaller. Christian missionaries have had the most success

among Thailand’s ethnic minorities, including Chinese Thai and 

members of Thailand’s hill tribes (see p. 12 of Political and 

Social Relations). 

Religion and Education

By law, both primary and secondary 

level students must attend religious 

education classes. Public school 

lessons generally provide an overview 

of Thailand’s officially recognized 

religions. Students in pursuit of indepth studies need to receive private 

religious instruction (Photo: Figure at 

Bangkok’s Temple of the Emerald 

Buddha).

Islamic Education: Government schools in Thailand’s Muslimmajority southern provinces offer Islamic education as part of 

the national curriculum. Even so, some Muslim Malays reject 

the state-sponsored curriculum, viewing it as an effort to 

impose Thai Buddhist culture on the region. Consequently, 

many Muslim students take advantage of other Islamic 

education opportunities (see p. 5 of Learning and Knowledge). 

Religion and the Law

Although the government subsidizes activities of the 5 

recognized religious communities, its primary support goes to

the Buddhist community and then to the Muslim. Those 

subsidies are used to support Buddhist monks and Muslim 

clerics and fund the renovation and repair of Buddhist temples 

and Islamic mosques. While the government provides no 

support to non-Muslim, non-Buddhist clergy, it supports the 

restoration of their religious buildings.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Despite the government’s official support to all religions, human 

rights groups accuse the government of preferential treatment 

of Buddhist communities. For example, the government has 

provided armed escorts to Buddhist monks and protection of 

Buddhist temples in the southern Muslim majority provinces, 

support that some Malay Muslims perceive as the militarization 

of Buddhist temples. Other observers charge that government 

forces have abused Malay Muslim suspects, including 

committing extrajudicial killing, arbitrary detention, and torture. 

Visiting a Wat

Both Buddhists and Non-Buddhists alike are 

welcome temple visitors. All guests should dress 

modestly – long pants for men and long skirts/pants 

for women. Women should also wear blouses that 

cover their shoulders. All visitors must remove their 

shoes before entering, remain quiet inside, and 

refrain from touching any artwork. Photography is 

usually allowed, but visitors should always ask first. 

Although monks may choose to engage visitors in 

conversation, monks should not be interrupted 

during prayer or meditation. It is proper to show 

respect to monks by ensuring the level of one’s head

remains below that of the monks. For example, 

visitors should not stand above a seated monk. This 

rule holds true even outside the temple: if a monk is 

seated on a bus, a fellow traveler should never 

stand so that he looms over him.

Thai regard all Buddhist statues and images as 

sacred, treating them with great respect and expect 

non-Buddhists to do the same. Inappropriate 

treatment includes climbing on a statue, using a foot 

to point at a statue, or using a statue or image as a 

backdrop for a photo. Anyone who commits a 

disrespectful act against a Buddhist statue or image 

is subject to punishment, including imprisonment.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Overview

Traditional Thai family and village organization emphasized 

respect for elders while privileging men over women.

Historically, most Thai lived in rural areas where traditional 

values such as respect, obligation, and harmony infused family 

life. In recent decades, many Thai have moved to urban areas 

seeking education and employment. While many urban 

dwellers retain strong ties to their rural roots and kin, others 

have totally adapted to urban life.

Residence

In rural areas, extended families consisting of multiple

generations traditionally live in one house together or in 

separate houses grouped in a compound. In urban areas, 

households typically comprise nuclear families (2 parents and 

their children) residing in multi-family apartment buildings.

Typical home décor includes 

statues of the Buddha and 

pictures of the royal family.

Traditional: A traditional Thai 

home (pictured) stands on

stilts so that the family’s living 

quarters always remain above 

flood waters. The home is 

typically constructed of

bamboo or teak wood with a thatched roof. A balcony or space 

beneath the home serves as a kitchen, storage area, 

workspace, or livestock pen. The living quarters typically 

consist of 1 large room with movable partitions. Residents fold 

and stack bedding in a corner during the day and bring it out at 

night. Otherwise, the room is largely unfurnished.

Modern: Most modern homes and apartment buildings are 

constructed of brick and concrete. Many urban families

experience cramped living conditions in single-room

apartments. Residents often cook on their balconies and share 

a bathroom with other apartments. Some Thai live in 

houseboats called “floating homes” on rivers and canals. 

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Spirit Houses: Many residences – even many office buildings 

and hotels – feature a traditional "spirit house” (pictured). This 

small, doll house-like structure is usually mounted on a 

pedestal or placed on a shelf. It provides a residence for the 

spirits of the land’s previous dwellers. 

Thai offer food, beverages, and flowers 

before the house to appease and 

maintain good relations with the spirits.

Family Structure

Family is a central focus of life in 

Thailand, providing a strong sense of 

continuity and security. Like Thai 

society itself (see p. 13 of Political and 

Social Relations), Thai families are

hierarchical. The oldest male is typically 

head of the household, while younger members must show 

proper deference to older relatives. Thai generally feel a strong 

obligation to kin. In addition to caring for the elderly, this 

obligation includes extending hospitality to visiting relatives and 

assisting even distant kin find jobs or finance their education.

In urban areas, a child typically lives with his parents until 

marriage, at which point the couple moves into separate 

quarters. In rural areas, newlyweds often continue to live with 

the bride’s parents until their first child is born. Although all 

adult children expect to care for their elderly parents, the eldest 

son also typically provides financial support. Traditionally, the 

youngest daughter inherited her parents’ home. In return, she 

and her husband assumed responsibility for her parents’ dayto-day care in their old age.

Children

Thai treasure their children and tend to pamper the younger

ones. Even so, Thai also teach children their place in the family 

hierarchy from a young age. Family members typically share 

childcare duties, teaching children to respect and obey their

older siblings, parents, and grandparents. Children may 

assume responsibilities such as tending to younger siblings or 

livestock around age 8, then gradually acquire more roles and 

responsibilities. As they grow older, children learn other duties 

and obligations towards the family.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Birth: Thai typically incorporate animist, Brahmin-Hindu, and 

Buddhist rituals and traditions (see p. 6 of Religion and 

Spirituality) to celebrate a child’s birth. Believing that evil spirits 

are particularly interested in small children, Thai engage in 

certain strategies to divert the spirits’ interest. Shortly after 

birth, many families hold a ceremony to promote and 

strengthen the baby’s khwan, its

life force or soul, so that the spirits 

cannot steal the baby during its 

vulnerable first month of life. 

During this period, Thai may also 

speak of a baby’s ugliness instead 

of its beauty as another way of 

warding off the spirits (Photo: 

Elderly woman with small child). 

Approximately 1 month after birth, 

the parents take the baby to a 

Buddhist temple for another

khwan-promoting ceremony. At 

this time, a monk cuts or shave 

the child's hair and places it in a 

bowl with lotus buds or other flowers as an offering. Family 

members then tie cotton thread around the baby's wrist and 

offer prayers. 

Initiation into the Monkhood: Historically, some young boys 

entered a Buddhist monastery (see p. 5 of Religion and 

Spirituality) as a samanen (novice monk) between the ages of 

8 and 10 in order to receive an education (see p. 1 of Learning 

and Knowledge). Today, both young boys and young men may

receive temporary ordination and enter a monastery for few 

weeks or months of prayer and scripture study. At age 21, a 

young man may receive the higher ordination and become a 

full monk (see p. 5 of Religion and Spirituality).

Birthdays

According to Thai astrology, time divides into 12-year cycles, 

each associated with a particular animal. Instead of celebrating 

annual birthdays, Thai traditionally commemorate a person’s 

birth-year animal every 12 years. In other words, Thai celebrate 

when a person turns 12, 24, 36, etc., with the 60th year 

celebration the most important. 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Marriage

Traditionally, most marriages were arranged, and potential 

marriage partners had little contact beforehand. Today, young 

people choose their own partners. While a couple in a rural 

area may have a long period of chaperoned courtship, young 

people in urban areas may engage in group socialization or 

even Western-style dating. Once he has identified a potential 

partner, a young man must become acquainted with the young 

woman’s family members and earn their approval.

If he wishes to marry, the groom then sends his parents to 

announce his intentions to the bride’s family. Once the families 

agree to the union, the couple may consult a Buddhist monk or 

an astrologer to determine a wedding date and time that will 

promise good fortune. 

Brideprice: Brideprice is a payment that the groom’s family 

makes to the bride’s in order to compensate for the loss of the 

bride’s labor and presence. Today this brideprice usually 

includes cash, gold, or a diamond ring that the bride’s parents 

pass onto the couple as a wedding gift.

Naming Conventions

Parents often consult an astrologer for an appropriate

and prestigious name for their newborn. The 

astrologer notes the day, month, and year of the birth 

and consults a chart to determine the starting letter of 

the name. He then suggests a name beginning with 

that letter. 

Family members rarely call the child by their legal 

name for 2 reasons. First, Thai names are typically 

too long for easy use (see p. 4 of Language and 

Communication). Second, Thai traditionally engage in 

strategies to confuse any evil spirits who might want 

to kidnap the child. Consequently, parents almost 

always give their children short nicknames, such as 

Lek (small) and Moo (“pig” as in chubby). Most Thai 

retain these nicknames for their entire lives.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Weddings: A typical Thai wedding celebration involves several 

elements, including blessings by a Buddhist monk, a wedding 

ceremony, and a reception. Although Buddhist monks play 

important roles in most Thai weddings, they are not licensed to 

grant a marriage contract. 

Consequently, couples must 

visit a local government office 

to legally record the marriage. 

The night before the wedding,

the couple usually visits a 

Buddhist temple and offers

money or gifts as offerings. 

On the wedding day, monks 

come to the bride's house to 

bless her and offer prayers. Although brides traditionally wear a 

pink dress, some now wear a Western-style white gown 

(pictured). Grooms usually wear a suit or pants with a 

traditional high-neck jacket called sua phra ratchathan (see p. 

1 of Aesthetics and Recreation).

During the ceremony, a white garland is placed over the head 

of the bride and groom, and their wrists are tied loosely 

together with white thread to symbolize their unity. Family and 

friends pour water over the couple’s hands from a conch to 

wish them happiness. Today, many couples also exchange

rings according to Western tradition.

Receptions vary in size and style and often include a meal with 

toasts and speeches. In urban areas they may occur at home 

or in a hotel ballroom. In rural areas, they often take place on a 

specially-built pavilion or stage. To cover the high costs, 

wedding invitations often include an envelope for monetary 

gifts. Other common gifts for the couple are household items. 

Divorce: Separation and divorce are common in Thailand and 

do not carry a social stigma. From 2005-2014 the divorce rate

increased 27%, representing a 35% divorce rate for new 

marriages. This increase is attributed to the stress facing new

couples when they are separated from their families and the 

economic independence of women in double income 

households (see p. 1 of Sex and Gender).

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Death

Thai Buddhists typically memorialize the passing of a loved one 

by cremating then burying the remains. Many Thai believe that 

the deceased’s spirit lingers near the body after death. 

Consequently, loved ones do not leave the deceased alone

until the remains have been buried.

According to Buddhist custom, the deceased body is washed 

and dressed. A Buddhist monk ties the deceased’s palms 

together before his chest in the wai greeting (see p. 3 of 

Language and Communication). He also places a coin in the 

deceased’s mouth so that the spirit may buy release from 

purgatory. The deceased is then placed in a white coffin. 

Family members may place candles, incense, and money into 

the coffin, then decorate it with flowers and photographs. 

The coffin remains in the home or in a Buddhist temple’s 

funeral building for up to 7 days. During this time, monks chant

prayers while mourners sit in silence 

and burn incense. Colleagues and 

friends may visit to extend 

condolences and provide meals to 

family members.

Following this period, an elder family 

member leads a procession 

accompanying the coffin to the 

temple’s crematorium (pictured). After 

cremation, family members place the 

ashes in their burial vault at the 

temple. At this point the mood lightens

as guests celebrate the life of the deceased with food and 

music. The family may offer prayers for the deceased an 

additional 100 days to help the deceased’s soul gain merit in 

the next life (see p. 4 of Religion and Spirituality).

In line with Islamic tradition, Malay Muslims in Thailand’s 

southern provinces (see p. 12 in Political and Social Relations) 

bury their loved ones as soon as possible after death. The 

deceased is bathed and wrapped in a white cloth, then carried 

to a mosque for prayers and services. Afterwards, the 

shrouded body is buried in a cemetery.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Overview

Traditional Thai family and village organization privileged men 

over women. Although they often controlled household 

finances, women were considered their husbands’

possessions. Women’s status began to change beginning in 

the 20th century when they acquired equal education and 

voting rights. Today, women hold prominent positions in 

government and business. Despite government programs to 

empower women and establish gender equality, women remain

underrepresented in politics, experience gender discrimination 

at work, and suffer high rates of domestic violence. 

Gender Roles and Work

Domestic Work: Women in Thailand traditionally held 

responsibility for their children’s care and all housework. By 

contrast, responsibility for other chores, such as farm labor,

varied by geographic location. For example, men planted the 

crops in northern Thailand, while this responsibility fell to 

women in the central plains. 

Even if they work outside the home today, Thai women 

continue to hold primary responsibility for their children’s care, 

the housework, and the care of elderly and ill family members.

Labor Force: About 64% of Thai women work outside the

home, compared to 57% in the US. Women work in all sectors, 

including agriculture, manufacturing, and services but are 

particularly well-represented in 

the tourism and hospitality 

industries. Of note, women 

work in construction (pictured) 

and other physical laborintensive jobs at higher rates 

than in most Western countries. 

Further, over half of Thailand’s 

university graduates are 

women (see p. 4 of Learning and Knowledge). These women 

often occupy influential positions in business, medicine, 

politics, government, and education. 

5. SEX AND GENDER

SEX &

GENDER
Despite this high participation in the labor force, women 

typically receive less pay and work longer hours than their male 

counterparts. Many women work in family-owned business yet

receive no wages. Nearly one-third of women who work in 

agriculture earn below subsistence levels. 

Gender and the Law

The presently-suspended 2007 constitution stipulates equal 

gender rights, while legislation specifies equal education and 

inheritance rights. Some laws and practices support gender 

disparities. For example, women may legally own land and 

jointly control marital property, yet few women hold formal title 

to land. Instead, land is usually registered in the husband’s 

name, even if the wife inherited the land from her family.

Many Thai men support so-called “minor wives” or mistresses 

in addition to their lawful wives. This practice has some official 

support before the law: while a wife’s unfaithfulness is ample 

grounds for a husband to demand divorce, a woman must 

present further justification than her husband’s adultery to 

demand divorce from him. 

Gender and Politics

Although Thailand became the 

first Asian nation to grant 

women full voting rights in 

1932, it was 1982 before 

women achieved the right to 

become a phuyaiban (village 

chief). As Thailand’s first female Prime Minister, Yingluck 

Shinawatra (pictured with President Obama) served from 2011 

to 2014 (see p. 9 of History and Myth). In 2014, women held 

16% of Parliament seats, compared to 18% in the US House of 

Representatives.

Gender Based Violence (GBV)

Rape and sexual harassment are illegal in Thailand, yet 

vaguely worded laws make prosecution difficult. A 2013 survey 

indicated that nearly 1/3 of households experienced instances 

of domestic violence. Some observers credit these high rates 

to Thailand’s tradition of male privilege. Recent efforts to 

diminish GBV include measures to create new models of 

manhood based on equality and respect.

SEX &

GENDER
Sex and Procreation

Most Thai consider intimacy a private matter. While women are

expected to abstain from sex until marriage, male promiscuity

is tolerated if not openly acknowledged (see “Gender and the 

Law” above). Thai consider nudity inappropriate in all but the 

most private contexts. They seldom wear revealing clothing in 

public with the exception of urban areas like Bangkok where 

some younger females prefer short dresses and miniskirts. 

Before 1970, Thai women bore an average of 6 children each. 

Successful family planning programs begun in the 1970s 

resulted in a significant reduction in fertility: by the 1990s the 

average Thai woman gave birth to 2.2 children. Fertility 

continued to decline in subsequent years. Since the mid-2000s, 

Thailand’s fertility rate has hovered around 1.5 children per 

woman, a rate below the average required to maintain the 

current population (see p. 1 of Political and Social Relations). 

Prostitution

Prostitution is illegal yet openly and widely practiced, 

comprising an estimated 7% of Thailand’s GDP and involving 

around 200,000 sex workers. Many bars, massage parlors, and 

other venues serve as thinly disguised fronts for prostitution. 

Although some foreigners travel to Thailand to engage in “sex 

tourism,” local demand also supports the practice. Child 

prostitution is a serious problem, 

involving perhaps 30,000 children under 

the age of 16. US military personnel are 

prohibited from patronizing businesses 

tied to prostitution or human trafficking.

HIV/AIDS: Thailand faced a serious 

HIV/AIDS epidemic in the 1990s when 

almost 36% of female sex workers were 

HIV positive. Through a widespread safe 

sex campaign targeting prostitutes and 

their clients, Thailand successfully 

reduced HIV infection among female sex workers (see p. 6 of 

Sustenance and Health) to 20% by 2007. Thailand continues to 

prioritize preventing further spread of the disease as well as 

treating infected individuals (Photo: US Navy personnel 

distribute toys to HIV infected children in Thailand).

SEX &

GENDER
Sex Trafficking and Forced Labor

Thailand is a notorious destination, source, and 

transit point for human trafficking. Members of 

Thailand’s ethnic minorities and citizens of 

neighboring countries are at particular risk of 

exploitation. Despite plans to bring the country in 

compliance with minimum international standards to 

eliminate human trafficking, Thailand has shown little 

significant improvement in recent years. Observers 

note that this lack of improvement is due at least in 

part to corrupt government officials who collaborate 

with labor brokers and sex traffickers.

Although female victims are typically exploited in the 

sex industry, many male victims are forced to labor in 

the fishing industry. In 2013 an estimated 17% of 

Thailand’s fishermen were working against their will.

LGBT Issues

Thailand has a reputation of relative openness to 

homosexuality: gay and lesbian activity became legal in 1956; 

Thailand’s tourism authority specifically welcomes homosexual 

visitors; and Thailand is 1 of only 7 Asian signatories to the 

United Nation’s declaration of LGBT rights. Further, activists 

are moving toward their goal of making Thailand the first Asian 

country to adopt a same-sex partnership law.

Nevertheless, homosexuals do not enjoy societal acceptance. 

Some suffer discrimination, bullying, and violence. A 2013 

study found that 1/3 of surveyed homosexual students suffered 

physical abuse because of their orientation. Consequently, a 

number of homosexuals withhold their sexual preference.

Thailand’s transgender kathoeys (“lady boys”), well-known for 

their shows in nightclubs and on television, are accepted but 

often ridiculed. Generally, transgender people face severe 

discrimination in all employment but the entertainment and sex 

work industries, are vulnerable to violence from the police, and 

face difficulties securing health insurance. 

SEX &

GENDER
Language Overview

Spoken by about 94% of the population, Standard Thai is 

Thailand’s national language. It is the primary language of 

instruction in schools and dominates print and broadcast 

media. Many Thai, including members of minority groups (see 

p. 12 of Political and Social Relations) such as Chinese-Thai, 

Thai Malays, hill tribespeople, and refugees from neighboring 

countries, speak additional languages. These include Chinese, 

Malay, Lao, and Mon-Khmer, among others. Further, the Thai 

language itself encompasses several regional dialects such as 

Northern Thai (or Kammüang) and Southern Thai (or Pak Tai). 

In total, scholars estimate that Thailand’s inhabitants speak 74 

different languages. 

Standard Thai

Based on the Central Thai dialect, Standard Thai is a member 

of the Tai group of the Tai-Kadai language family that also 

includes Lao, the national language of neighboring Laos. Like 

Chinese, Thai is a tonal language – it uses tone or pitch to alter 

the meaning of individual syllables and words. Standard Thai 

has 5 tones: low, mid, falling, high, and rising. Depending on 

the tone used, Thai words can have several different 

meanings. For example, the Thai word mai can alternatively 

mean “no,” “new,” “burn,” or 

“wood” depending on the 

speaker’s tone. 

Writing System: According to 

tradition, the Thai writing 

system traces its roots to the 

13th century when a Sukhothai

Period king (see p. 2 of History 

and Myth) adapted the ancient 

Indian-based Khmer (Cambodian) alphabet to the Thai 

language (Photo: 13th century Thai script). The modern Thai 

alphabet is syllabic, consisting of 44 consonants and 15 

vowels, which means that written Thai, like English, uses 

symbols to represent sounds. It does not consist of characters 

that represent entire words or ideas, like in written Chinese.

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Thai write from left to right in horizontal lines, with no spaces 

between words. Instead, spaces are used to indicate the end of 

a sentence or a clause. Writers place vowels above, below, 

before, or after a consonant to modify it. The appropriate tone 

of the written syllable is indicated in various ways depending on 

the (1) length of the vowel (short or long) (2) use of a tonal

marker (3) type of consonant used (low, mid, high) (4) and

whether the syllable is open or closed. Of note, although Thai 

often use Arabic numerals to express dates, they often utilize

their own system of numbers. For example, in this system

๑indicates 1.

The Thai government recently instituted The Royal Thai 

General System of Transcription (RTGS) to standardize the 

transliteration of Thai words into the Latin alphabet. Although 

RTGS is used on official documents, maps, and most road 

signs, locally-produced renderings are rarely standardized, 

consequently exhibiting significant variations. 

English

Residents of large urban centers, such as Bangkok and Samut 

Prakan, are likely to understand some English. It is a 

compulsory subject in school (see p. 2 of Learning and 

Knowledge), and students who attend elite institutions become 

the most proficient English speakers. Consequently, many Thai

view English as a language 

of the middle and upper 

classes. Some street signs

include English translations 

(pictured). 

Communication Overview

Communicating competently 

in Thailand requires not only 

knowledge of Thai, but also 

the ability to interact effectively. This broad notion of 

competence includes paralanguage (rate of speech, volume, 

intonation), nonverbal communication (personal space, touch, 

gestures), and interaction management (conversation initiation, 

turn-taking, and termination). When used properly, these forms 

of communication help to ensure that statements are 

interpreted as the speaker intends.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Communication Style

Thailand is often called the “land of smiles,” reflecting the Thai 

tendency to prioritize harmony and agreement in interaction.

Thai tend to have cheerful and gentle dispositions and pride 

themselves on their ability to make others feel at ease. In 

addition, Thai try to incorporate sà nùk (fun and enjoyment) in 

all aspects of life, including tedious or difficult tasks. In this 

way, Thai seek to avoid loneliness and encourage positive

work environments. 

Due to their desire to “save face” (avoid embarrassment to 

themselves or others), Thai rarely express strong opinions and

avoid negative subjects in conversation. Thai consider raised 

voices, angry tones, and loss of temper in public to be rude.

Thai typically treat people of different age, wealth, educational 

backgrounds, and political positions with varying levels of 

respect. Because royal family members are at the pinnacle of 

Thai society (see p. 13 of Political and Social Relations), Thai 

are extremely deferential toward them. They are also very 

respectful of Buddhist monks, public officials, civil servants, 

and teachers. Thai use various forms of greeting and address 

to communicate these different levels of respect.

Greetings

Thailand’s most common greeting is the wai, performed by 

bringing flat palms together at chest level and bowing the head 

slightly. The wai can communicate numerous messages,

ranging from respect, apology, gratitude, and politeness to 

greetings and farewells (Photo: A US Airman exchanges a wai

with a Thai woman). 

Thai also use the wai to 

acknowledge different status

within Thai society. Thai of 

lower status always initiate 

the wai with a person of 

higher status. Further, Thai 

place their hands higher on 

the chest to symbolize greater respect. Royal family members 

and monks do not return the wai. While some younger and 

more educated Thai shake hands in greeting, the custom 

remains largely uncommon and limited to foreign nationals.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Forms of Address

In their hierarchical society (see p. 13 of Political and Social 

Relations), Thai commonly use titles to signify role and status. 

Every relationship, whether societal, family, or work, comprises

an elder or higher status position (pôo yài) and a younger or 

junior position (pôo nóy). Thai use the former term to address

parents, public officials, bosses, and others and use the latter 

term to address anyone subservient or of lower status to the 

pôo yài (Photo: Thai girl 

performing a wai before 

Buddhist monks). 

The use of these terms also 

reflects the obedience and 

respect owed the elder: the 

junior must never criticize or 

question the elder. Even in 

business contexts, junior employees typically do not speak up 

in meetings, performing all tasks assigned to them without 

question. Thai may use other forms to show respect to their 

conversation partner – women use the term kâ and men use 

kráp to indicate respect for their conversation partners.

Names: Thai rarely use their full legal names to address each 

other (see p. 4 of Family and Kinship). Instead, they mostly

address one another using the first name (or a shortened 

version of it) or a short, one-syllable nickname, often prefaced 

by the polite, gender-neutral term khun. It is proper to greet 

Johnathan Wesley as “khun John.” In addressing someone of 

higher status, the proper term is taan, as in “taan Prayuth” for

Prime Minister Prayuth Chan-ocha. Thai use last names only 

on formal occasions or in written communications. 

Conversational Topics

Thai typically begin conversations with general questions 

concerning occupation, age, and place of birth. They refrain 

from asking about family and other personal topics until 

familiarity is established. Generally, Thai avoid questions 

regarding income and wealth, although in some specific

contexts, it is acceptable in order to determine the other 

person’s status. In addition, Thai generally consider criticism of 

religion or Buddhist monks in particular to be extremely rude. 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Despite these social constraints, Thai do appreciate inoffensive

humor, especially enjoying jokes that do not insult or 

embarrass someone. Of note, Thai enjoy speaking about food, 

often demonstrating interest and concern for another person by 

asking if he has eaten.

Lèse Majesté Laws: First enacted in 1908, Thailand’s strict 

lèse majesté laws make it illegal to publicly criticize, insult, or 

threaten the monarchy. Since no definition for “insult to the 

monarchy” exists, the laws enjoy very broad interpretation in 

court. For example, a court recently ruled that the laws apply to 

all members of Thailand’s monarchy, both living and dead. 

Any Thai may file a lèse majesté complaint against anyone, 

including a foreign national. The number of charges filed

against academic, political, and media figures has increased 

since 2006, with over 10,000 instances of lèse majesté

complaints in recent years. The police take these complaints 

very seriously, investigating all charges. Offenders may receive 

as many as 15 years’ imprisonment (Illustration: Portrait of 

current King Rama IX as a young man).

Gestures

Thai typically do not use gestures to 

augment conversations. Foreign nationals 

may use them while speaking with Thai

but should avoid aggressive body 

language. In particular, Thai consider it 

rude to point an index finger at someone 

else.

Because they consider the feet to be the 

lowest and dirtiest body part, Thai refrain from showing their 

soles and using their feet to point. In addition, Thai never allow

their feet to touch sacred items, such as a statue of the Buddha

(see p. 8 of Religion and Spirituality) or even images of the 

king. Because they consider the head the most sacred part of 

the body, Thai never touch another’s head or pass anything 

over it (see p. 3 of Time and Space). 

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil/resources/index.aspx for 

language training resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Words and Phrases

English Romanized Thai Thai

Hello sa wat di (khrap / 

kha)

สวัสดี(ครับ / ค่า)

My name is___

phom chue___

(male) / dì-chan 

chue___ (female)

ผมชื่อ (male)/ ดิฉันชื่อ

(female)

What’s your name? khun chue a-rai? คุณชื่ออะไร?

Can you speak 

English?

khun phut pasa 

ang-grìt dai rue 

plao?

คุณพูดภาษาอังกฤษได้หรือเป

ล่า?

Nice to meet you Yin di thi dai ru jak ยินดีที่ได้รู้จัก

Yes Krab / Kha (ครับ / ค่า)

No mai / mai chai ไม่ / ไม่ใช่

Thank you Khob khun ขอบคุณ

Ok tok long ตกลง

Excuse me/ I’m 

sorry

kho thot (khrap/

kha) / (phom / 

dichan) sia jai

ขอโทษ (ครับ/ค่า) (ผม / 

ดิฉัน) เสียใจ

Please ga roo naa กรุณา

Can someone 

assist us?

ja mi krai chuay 

phuak rao dai mai?

จะมีใครช่วยพวก

เราได้ไหม

How do you say___

in Thai?

phasa thai ___ phut 

wa yang-rai?

ภาษาไทย ___

พูดว่าอย่างไร

I want___ (phom / dichan) 

tong kan___ (ผม / ดิฉัน) ต้องการ__

I do not want___ (phom / dichan) mai 

tong kan___ (ผม / ดิฉัน) ไม่ต้องการ__

Do you have___? khun mi ___ mai? คุณมี ___ ไหม

What? a rai? อะไร

When? muea rai? เมื่อไหร่

Where? thi nai? ที่ไหน

Who? khrai? ใคร

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy

• Total population over age 15 who can read and write: 94%

• Male: 96%

• Female: 92% (2005 estimate)

Education before the 20th Century

Formal education in Thailand dates to the 13th century, when 

Buddhist monks provided moral and literary education to elite 

males (see p. 3 of Religion and Spirituality). This system of 

education prevailed until the late 19th century, when King 

Rama V began to introduce far-ranging reforms to spur 

Thailand’s modernization (see p. 4 of History and Myth). 

As part of these reforms, the king created Thailand’s first 

formal Ministry of Education in 1887, thereby establishing a 

secular system of education catering primarily to elite males. 

Some of these new schools emphasized instruction in English 

with the goal of preparing

students for overseas study in 

European and American 

universities. 

20th Century Education 

Continuing on his father’s 

reform path, King Rama VI in 

1917 established Thailand’s first university, Chulalongkorn 

University, named after his father. Further reforms in the 1920s 

introduced 4 years of compulsory primary school and opened 

education to all citizens, including females and non-elites. With 

the goal of inculcating loyalty among all Thai citizens, a new 

curriculum required students to read, write, and speak 

Standard Thai (see p. 1 of Language and Communication). By 

the late 1930s almost all children of appropriate age attended 

at least 4 years of primary school. Over the next decades, the 

Thai education system grew rapidly to include secondary and 

tertiary institutions, monastic schools, and military and police 

academies. By 2011 Thailand had achieved the highest literacy 

rate among the 10 ASEAN member nations (Photo: Chemistry 

building at the Chulalongkorn University in 1939). 

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Modern Education System

In early 2009, the government instituted a program 

guaranteeing 15 years of free public education. The official 

language of instruction of Thailand’s public school system is 

Thai. In primary school, children begin learning English while 

many schools and universities offer programs of study entirely 

in English. 

The structure and quality of education in Thailand varies by 

region. In Thailand’s southern provinces, schools incorporate 

an Islamic curriculum to accommodate the Muslim-majority 

population (see “Religious Education” below). In the rural North 

and Northeast, members of minority groups and refugees (see 

p. 12 of Political and Social Relations) often lack access to 

quality education. This deficit is mainly due to their geographic 

isolation and lack of Standard Thai language skills (see p. 1 of 

Language and Communication). Public schools across the 

country are often understaffed, resulting in large class sizes 

and limited one-on-one student-teacher interaction. 

Most instruction is lecture-based, focusing on memorization of 

facts rather than the analysis of material. Some experts criticize 

the education system as inefficient, suggesting that students 

are forced to study too many subjects simultaneously. Critics 

also claim school subjects do not match labor market 

demands, resulting in high unemployment among graduates. 

Pre-Primary and Primary: Although not compulsory, 97% of 

Thai children attend pre-primary school. Intended for children 5 

and younger, several types of facilities offer pre-primary 

education, including child 

development centers, private 

academies, and public 

schools (Photo: US Marine 

poses with Thai children). 

Consisting of 6 grades and 

starting at age 6, primary 

school (Prathom), is 

compulsory, with 91% of children of the appropriate age 

enrolling. Rather than individual subjects, the curriculum 

focuses on core competency areas including basic skills (math 

and Thai), life experiences (science and social studies), 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
character development (art, ethics, and physical education), 

work experiences (technology and vocational skills), and 

special education. The latter includes English and elective 

subjects tailored to local needs. 

Due to recent reforms, students receive instruction in English 

beginning in the first grade. To advance to the next grade, 

students must pass examinations in math and Thai at the end 

of the 3rd grade and in math, Thai, science, and English at the 

end of the 6th grade. 

Secondary: Admission to the top public secondary schools is 

based on rigorous entrance exams. About 79% of primary 

school graduates move onto lower secondary school. Known 

as Matayom 1-3, lower secondary or middle school (grades 7-

9) is compulsory. 

Middle school general education includes 5 main subject areas, 

including Thai and foreign languages (most often English), 

science and math, social studies, arts, and vocational 

education. Students who wish to continue onto upper 

secondary school (Matayom 4-6) must pass an entrance 

examination encompassing math, Thai, science, English, and 

social studies. 

Upper secondary or high 

school (grades 10-12), 

provides either general 

(academic) or vocational 

education. The general or 

academic track prepares 

students for university 

entrance examinations, 

requiring them to pass a 

final examination to 

graduate. By contrast, vocational programs prepare students 

for employment upon graduation and often include training in 

private sector work sites where students receive on-the-job 

instruction. Of those enrolled in upper secondary school, 

approximately 60% enroll in the general education track and 

40% pursue vocational programs (Photo: High school students 

sing during a flag raising ceremony). 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Post-Secondary

Approximately 48% of high school students pursue higher 

education at one of Thailand’s 170 universities, institutes of 

technology, teachers’ colleges, vocational and technical 

colleges, or other institutions such as nursing colleges and 

police and military academies. Most institutions are highly 

selective and require entrance exams. Thailand has 2 “open” 

universities that require no entrance exams, collectively 

enrolling over 2 million students, some in online programs. 

Technical and professional institutes offer 2-year Associate 

degrees. Most universities offer 4-6 year bachelor degrees, 2 

year master’s degrees, and 2-5 year doctoral degrees. 

Regional Disparities in Higher Education: Students from 

Thailand’s remote, rural areas of the North, Northeast, and 

South have historically lacked access to higher education. To 

combat regional disparities in access, many universities have 

adopted a quota system that allocates a number of guaranteed 

places to students from specific regions. Several large 

universities, many located in Bangkok, have also established 

regional branches in an attempt to better serve rural 

inhabitants. 

Religious Education

By law, primary and 

secondary students in both 

public and private schools 

must attend religious 

education classes. These 

lessons largely provide 

historical, cultural, and 

philosophical overviews of 

Thailand's 5 officially recognized religions (Buddhism, Islam, 

Brahmin-Hinduism, Sikhism, and Christianity – see p. 1 of 

Religion and Spirituality). Some local school systems provide 

additional religious studies courses in conjunction with the 

Supreme Sangha Council (Buddhist studies) and the Central 

Islamic Committee of Thailand (Islamic studies). The 

government provides some financial support to Buddhist and 

Islamic institutions of higher education (Photo: School in 

Thailand’s central Lopburi Province).

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Islamic Education: Government schools in Thailand’s 

southern Muslim majority provinces offer Islamic religious

studies within the framework of the national curriculum. 

Nevertheless, some Muslim Malays prefer their own Islamic 

educational institutions. In these cases, the public school 

system may accept credit from approved external courses. 

Private Islamic institutions include traditional pondoks, or 

private Islamic day schools, which offer an Islamic curriculum 

to students of all ages. Some private Islamic schools also offer 

non-Qur’anic subjects, such as foreign language. Mosques

often offer tadika, after-school religious instruction for primaryaged children. 

Recent Reforms

Fueled by the promise of regional economic integration through 

the planned ASEAN Economic Community (see p. 4 in 

Economics and Resources), 

Thailand is reforming its 

education system to promote 

higher quality learning. 

Enacted in 2008, the Second 

15-year Long Range Plan for 

Higher Education is expected

to expand access to higher 

education to rural communities 

and improve educational quality standards by 2022. The plan 

includes a larger education budget, and provisions for 

improving research capacity, reforming administrative systems, 

and expanding curricula (Photo: A primary school classroom in 

Thailand’s eastern Nakhon Phanom Province).

Seeking to improve regional academic mobility, Thailand has 

recently promoted the ASEAN International Mobility for 

Students (AIMS) program. Its aim is to standardize regional 

educational quality and allows students of member nations to 

easily transfer between Southeast Asian schools. Currently, 7 

Thai universities and 52 regional institutions are implementing 

the AIMS program. Of note, Thailand’s recent political turmoil 

(see p. 9 of History and Myth) threatens to stall planned 

educational reforms. It remains unclear if and how future 

administrations will prioritize Thailand’s educational system in 

the future.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Overview

Thai customarily emphasize community, wellness, and quality 

of life over personal achievement and material wealth. They

also value loyalty and trust among employees and colleagues, 

taking the time to build strong business relationships. Social 

status and gender dictate appropriate space and body contact

during interactions (Photo: Bangkok 

street).

Time and Work

Thailand’s work week runs from 

Monday-Friday. Business hours vary 

by establishment type: most banks are

open from 9:30am-3:30pm while

private businesses operate from

9:00am-5:00pm, except on public 

holidays. Post offices are open from 

8:00am-4:30pm Monday-Friday and

9:00am-1:00pm on weekends. Although most stores are open 

from 10:00am-10:00pm 7 days a week, local convenience 

stores typically open earlier and close after midnight. Museums 

are typically open from 9:00am-4:00pm daily, closing 1 day per 

week.

Working Environment: Many Thai businesses are familyowned. Employees tend to be very loyal, often devoting their 

entire careers to one company. Managers, in turn, are 

obligated to their employees. In addition to meeting their workrelated needs, managers also typically support their 

employees’ general welfare. Benefits include defending 

employees when they’ve made a mistake, presiding over their 

weddings, and helping their relatives find jobs. Almost half of 

the Thai workforce averages a 48 hour work week. The selfemployed and workers in manufacturing and other laborintensive industries average even longer work weeks.

Time Zone: Thailand observes Indochina Time (ICT) which is 

7 hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) and 12 hours 

ahead of Eastern Standard Time (EST). Thailand does not 

observe daylight saving time. 

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
Date Notation: Thai use the Western (Gregorian) and the 

Buddhist calendars concurrently. Because it begins with 

Buddha’s death in 543 BC, the Buddhist calendar is 543 years 

ahead of the Western calendar. Thus, the year 2000 in the 

Western calendar is also the year 2543 BE (Buddhist Era).

National Anthem: The Thai National Anthem is played on all 

television and radio stations 

at 8:00am and 6:00pm

daily. When in public, 

foreign nationals should 

stand and remain quiet 

during the anthem.

Moviegoers must rise for

the King’s Royal Anthem, 

played before all film 

screenings (Photo: Pictures

of King Rama IX on Bangkok’s Thai Military Bank). 

Time and Business

Generally, business interactions tend to progress at a slower 

pace in Thailand than in the US for several reasons. First, Thai 

prefer to build personal relationships and establish trust before 

doing business. Thai generally make business decisions after

lengthy negotiations held over multiple meetings. In addition, 

several levels of firm management must approve the 

proceedings. Information typically flows slowly between 

managerial tiers, further delaying progress. Thus, initial 

meetings may consist solely of polite conversation, yielding few 

results or plans of action. A number of Thai prefer to work later 

in the evening and conduct fruitful business discussions during 

meals and other casual settings.

Thai behave in business settings in a manner that permits them

to “save face” (see p. 3 of Language and Communication) and 

communicate respect. For example, Thai admire punctuality 

because it communicates respect, but in reality, they are 

typically not punctual. In addition, Thai reject confrontational 

behavior in interactions, valuing instead tact and harmony. 

Accordingly, a foreign national should never assign blame or 

directly criticize a Thai colleague in a public forum. Instead, he 

should only provide constructive feedback in a 1-to-1 setting. 

SPACE

TIME &
Personal Space

The distance speakers maintain while conversing varies by 

setting and the nature of the relationship. When speaking with 

strangers, Thai tend to remain at least an arm’s length apart. 

By contrast, friends and family typically stand much closer. 

When in the presence of people of higher social status, Thai 

prefer to occupy a lower physical plane (see p. 8 of Religion 

and Spirituality). For example, a worker may walk in a bent 

position if his employer is seated, while waiters may stoop 

when serving restaurant customers. Further, when walking with 

an elder or superior, Thai may trail a few paces behind.

Touch

Close friends and family members commonly touch one 

another while speaking. Similarly, friends of the same gender

may hold hands in public, indicating their platonic friendship. 

Thai women are especially affectionate with female friends,

often linking arms and sitting close to one another. Thai with

higher social status may touch subordinates to demonstrate

kindness or concern. Of note, Thai consider displays of 

affection between people of the opposite sex inappropriate. 

Foreign nationals should avoid all physical contact with 

members of the opposite sex, especially in rural areas. Thai 

also view the head as the most sacred part of the body (see p. 

5 of Language and 

Communication) and, therefore, 

never touch another’s head or 

pass anything over it. Even 

clothing associated with the 

head must be treated with 

respect. Patting a small child’s

head to show affection is the 

only exception to this custom. Women must never touch 

Buddhist monks (pictured). If they must give a monk an object, 

they should pass it to the monk through a male intermediary.

Eye Contact

Thai typically maintain direct eye contact when speaking with 

friends, acquaintances, and strangers, as they consider a lack 

of eye contact a sign of insincerity. However, in conversations 

with an elder or superior, a subordinate may bow his head and 

engage only in occasional eye contact to demonstrate respect.

SPACE

TIME &
Photographs

Foreign nationals should seek permission before taking 

photographs. Although photography is usually permitted on the 

grounds of Buddhist temples, it may be prohibited inside.

Driving

With 38 fatalities per 100,000 people in 2010, Thailand has the 

world’s 3rd highest traffic-related death rate. Drivers tend to be 

aggressive, often ignoring speed limits or traveling against the 

normal flow of traffic. Many streets in Bangkok are unmarked 

and highly congested, while roads in rural areas are often

poorly lit. Of note, Thai drive on the left side of the road. 

National Holidays

• January 1: New Year’s Day

• February/March: Makha Bucha Day*

• April 6: Chakri Memorial Day (commemorates 

King Rama I – see p. 3 of History and Myth)

• April 13-15: Songkran (Traditional New Year’s)

• May: Royal Ploughing Ceremony Day (marks 

the beginning of the rice growing season)

• May/June: Visakha Bucha* (see p. 2 of 

Aesthetics and Recreation)

• May 1: Labor Day

• May 5: Coronation Day

• July: Asalha Bucha Day*

• August 12: The Queen of Thailand’s Birthday

• August 12: Mother’s Day

• October 23: Chulalongkorn Day

(commemorates King Rama V – see p. 4 of 

History and Myth)

• December 5: The King of Thailand’s Birthday

• December 5: Father’s Day

• December 10: Constitution Day

• December 31: New Year’s Eve

* Commemoration in honor of the Buddha

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

Thai enjoy diverse artistic and recreational activities, often 

incorporating sà nùk (fun and enjoyment – see p. 3 of 

Language and Communication) into a range of traditions, from 

energetic martial arts to intricate dance and colorful crafts. 

Many activities reflect regional cultural and religious influences.

Dress and Appearance

Traditional: Made of silk and cotton, Thai clothing historically 

varied by region. Today, many Thai wear a variety of traditional 

styles on both formal and informal occasions. For special 

occasions, women often wear a pasin, a full-length silk version 

of a sarong (a length of fabric wrapped around the waist). The 

pasin sometimes is paired with a long-sleeved silk blouse 

and/or sash draped over one shoulder. Men wear a sua phra 

ratchathan, a short- or long-sleeved high-necked cotton or silk 

jacket, usually white, with black trousers. They may add a 

colorful silk cummerbund during very special occasions.

In rural areas, some Thai wear 

traditional dress on a daily basis. 

Around their waists, men may 

wear a phakoma, a rectangular 

piece of cloth that serves as a 

towel, handkerchief, and head 

protection against the sun. Rural 

women may wear a sarong with 

a simple blouse or wear tie-dyed clothes called mawn khwaan. 

Thailand’s hill tribes have their own distinctive traditional styles, 

including intricate headdresses (pictured).

Modern: Western-style clothing is common in Bangkok and 

other urban areas. Businessmen and women wear Westernstyle suits and dresses, while younger people prefer jeans and 

T-shirts. School children usually wear uniforms. Of note, most 

Thai consider revealing clothing such as shorts or low-cut or 

tight clothing inappropriate. Urban dwellers and foreign 

nationals typically wear swimsuits, while some Thai prefer to 

swim fully clothed.

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Recreation

In rural areas, social life revolves around festivals and Buddhist 

temple events. Many city-dwellers travel to their home villages 

to participate in these occasions. Because they have limited 

socializing space at home (see p. 1 of Family and Kinship), 

urban Thai enjoy meeting their family and friends at 

restaurants, bars, or other venues. Other popular pastimes in 

the city include visiting Internet cafes, shopping, and watching 

movies and television. Many Thai enjoy traditional medicinebased massages (see p. 3-4 of Sustenance and Health).

Festivals: Thai celebrate diverse holidays and festivals that 

commemorate historic and religious events, honor the

monarchy, mark agricultural phases, or simply promote sà nùk. 

One important holiday is Visakh Bucha, a remembrance of the 

Buddha’s birth, death, and enlightenment (see p. 2 of Religion 

and Spirituality). Thai celebrate the Queen’s and King’s

birthdays by decorating with pictures of the royal family, flags, 

and flowers and honoring their own mothers and fathers (see p. 

4 of Time and Space for a list of national holidays.)

Sports and Games

Muay Thai: Based on an

ancient form of military 

combat, muay thai (Thai 

boxing, pictured) is the

national sport of Thailand. 

Boxers use knees, elbows, 

shins, and feet to deliver blows to all body parts except the 

head or groin. Unlike American boxing, Thai boxers may clinch, 

a technique in which boxers hold an opponent while delivering 

blows. Muay thai matches involve several traditions, including a 

dance-like pre-match ritual honoring trainers and supporters. 

Other sports: Other sports unique to Thailand include krabikrabong, a traditional form of fencing utilizing various swords 

and clubs, and sepak takraw, a competitive form of kick 

volleyball played with small rattan balls. Football (soccer) is 

also popular, with several active national and youth leagues. 

Badminton, table tennis, volleyball, and basketball are played 

widely. Golf has received increased interest in recent years 

with the success of Tiger Woods, whose mother is Thai.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Games and Activities: Thai enjoy playing board games such 

as makruk, similar to chess. Other popular activities include 

kite-flying and kite-fighting, in which teams attempt to ‘snag’ an 

opponent’s kite. Some villages in eastern Thailand hold 

amateur rocketry competitions before the annual rainy season. 

Music

Traditional: Unlike Western music, classical Thai music is 

non-harmonic and typically delivered with several instruments 

simultaneously playing variations of a melody. Instruments are 

numerous and varied and include the ranad (curved 

xylophone), glong (drums), and ching (cymbals). Although 

different ensembles combine varied types and numbers of 

instruments, they almost always include a khawng wong, a set 

of tuned gongs arranged in a semi-circle.

Modern: Modern Thai artists, such as soloist Thongchai “Pi 

Bird” Macintyre and the group Carabao often blend traditional 

sounds with pop or rock. Other modern genres include luk 

thung, which uses electric guitars and keyboards and is 

comparable to American country music, and mor lam, a fastpaced pop-Thai mix played with khaen (bamboo mouth 

organs) and phin (small guitars).

Dance and Theater

Classical dance (pictured), once performed solely for the royal 

court, is often part of weddings, festivals, and other special

occasions. Thai also enjoy 

Western-style dancing as well as

ramwong, a Thai folk dance 

popularized during World War II.

Dance-dramas: Traditional 

dance is featured prominently in

theatrical productions known as 

dance-dramas. Khon showcases segments of Ramakien (see 

textbox next page) with energetic dances performed by 

dancers in colorful costumes and masks. Lakhon combines 

graceful movements with jātakas (stories from past lives of the 

Buddha) and traditional folklore. Likay, a casual, opera-style 

performance, often features humorous or rowdy pieces focused 

on modern topics such as politics or social issues. 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Nang yai: This is a type of traditional shadow-puppet theater

popular in southern Thailand. During performances, skilled 

puppeteers manipulate 3-6 foot tall puppets so that they cast 

shadows on a white screen. Performers use songs, chants, 

and music to tell a folktale or legend.

Cinema

Thailand’s film industry dates to the 1920s. The first Thai film to 

win the Cannes Film Festival Golden Palm award was titled

Uncle Boonmee Who Can Recall His Past Lives from 2010.

Another well-known Thai film was the 2013 comedy Pee Mak, 

one of Asia’s highest grossing films of all time.

Literature

Thai written literature dates to the 12th century when Buddhist 

monks composed poetry praising rulers, exploring Buddhist 

philosophy, and promoting morals and values. One of 

Thailand’s best-known works of literature is the 19th-century 

epic poem Phra Aphaimani. Contemporary Thai literature often 

centers on love and family. Some authors explore how 

modernization and Western influences affect Thailand, 

focusing on corruption, globalization, or inequality.

Ramakien – Thailand’s National Epic

Ramakien is an adaptation of the ancient Hindu epic 

poem Ramayana. In the Hindu version, King Rama is 

a reincarnation of the Hindu deity Vishnu. The story 

recounts Rama’s efforts to save his wife Sita from the 

demon Ravana. Thai people adopted the story in the 

first millennium AD, adapting it to their Buddhist 

beliefs and values. Consequently, in the Thai version, 

first documented in the 18th century, Rama represents 

a former life of the Buddha. The morals and principles

highlighted in the poem – including justice, hospitality,

gratitude, integrity, reverence for kings, respect for 

elders, and honor for the dead – remain important 

cultural values today.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Arts and Crafts

Early Thai artisans labored to honor the Buddha and to gain

religious merit (see p. 4 of Religion and Spirituality). Although 

many modern artists are inspired by religious themes, others 

incorporate political and social themes in their work.

Buddha Statues: Statues of the Buddha are common in 

Thailand. Made of bronze, stone, wood, ivory, stucco, 

terracotta, or ceramic, they vary in style and appearance. 

Statues display the Buddha in a variety of poses and positions

(sitting, walking, or lying) and using various hand gestures and 

finger postures (mudras). These poses and gestures may 

symbolize a characteristic of the Buddha or refer to specific 

events in his life. These characteristics or events include the 

Buddha teaching, bestowing charity, reassuring, or meditating, 

among others. All images of the Buddha are considered sacred

(see p. 8 of Religion and Spirituality) and may not be removed

or destroyed without the government’s permission. Worn 

statues often are refinished or used to fashion new pieces.

Architecture: Thailand is renowned for the architecture of its 

Buddhist temples (see p. 4 of Religion and Spirituality). Usually 

separated from the outside world by enclosing walls, temple 

buildings typically have intricate 

decorative features such as high 

pitched roofs, carved doors and 

window sills, and murals. Temple 

architecture and decoration often 

feature glass, gold leaf, mother of 

pearl inlay, porcelain, and other fine

materials.

Other Arts and Crafts: Thailand has 

an ancient tradition of pottery-making. 

Its celadon (green ceramic) and 

lacquerware products were traded throughout Asia. Thailand is 

also known for its neilloware (silver engraving), gemstone 

cutting, woven bamboo and rattan baskets, and high quality 

silk. Members of Thailand’s hill tribes (see p. 12 of Political and 

Social Relations) produce embroidered and woven cotton 

textiles (pictured) that they fashion into clothing, scarves, 

purses, pillows and other products. 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Sustenance Overview

The cuisine of Thailand incorporates a variety of flavors and 

traditions from Southeast Asia, China, and Europe. Thai 

cuisine varies widely by region, from spicy in the Northeast and 

South to mild in the central lowlands. Of note, the most wellknown Thai food originated with the monarchy’s palace chefs.

Dining Customs

Rural Thai often eat while sitting on the floor on straw mats 

(pictured). By contrast, many urban residents sit in chairs at 

Western-style tables. Dinner is the main meal of the day, which 

the family usually enjoys 

together. Breakfast and lunch 

are typically simpler affairs. At 

meals, each individual receives 

a portion of rice and shares

several other dishes with the 

group. Thai customarily use a 

fork held in the left hand to 

push food onto a spoon held in 

the right hand, from which they eat. Thai rarely use knives as

most food is served in bite-sized pieces. Thai use chopsticks to 

consume a few dishes such as noodles or spring rolls.

Diet

Rice (khaao) is the most common staple. Its importance is 

evident in the Thai language: the Thai word for “eat”, kin 

khaao, also means "to eat rice." Northern Thai prepare sticky

(glutinous) rice, while long-grain jasmine rice is common 

elsewhere. Another common staple are noodles (kway, tiaw, 

or bamee) made from rice, egg, wheat, or bean starch.

Seafood, poultry, and pork are common proteins, although rural 

Thai may also eat snake, turtle, deer, or frog. A variety of 

vegetables including onion, pepper, mushroom, and bean 

sprouts are featured in many dishes. Thai also enjoy tropical 

fruits such as mango, pineapple, and native South/Southeast 

Asian jackfruit, rambatan, and durian – a fruit with an odor so 

strong, it is sometimes banned from hotels or public transit.

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Meals and Popular Dishes

Although Thai cuisine varies regionally, most meals combine

spicy, sour, sweet, and mild flavors. Breakfast traditionally 

includes rice porridge, khaao tom (rice with minced meat, fish 

sauce, and dried chilies) or a vegetable omelet. Lunch is often 

a rice or noodle dish. Typical dinners include rice, soup, salad, 

and a stir-fry or curry entrée. Thai also commonly eat several

snacks throughout the day, such as fruit served with salt or chili 

powder, fruit drinks, or noodles.

Popular dishes include pad thai, stir-fried rice noodles with 

meat, lime juice, garlic, chilies, bean sprouts, and crushed 

peanuts; plaa pao, 

grilled peppered fish;

kaeng khio wann, 

green curry with chicken 

or beef; som tam, a 

salad with spicy chilies, 

green papaya, and lime 

juice; and tom yum, a

spicy soup flavored with 

lemongrass, kaffir lime 

leaves, and galangal, an 

aromatic ginger (Photo:

tom yum with catfish). Thai use many different sauces and 

condiments such as chilies, fish sauce, ground peanuts, and 

vinegar to complement their dishes.

Sweets: Typically served as a snack and not as dessert, Thai 

sweets usually incorporate a variety of creams or syrups. Some

include combinations unusual to Westerners, like red bean and 

corn ice cream or gelatin with coconut and spring onions. Other 

sweets include banana fritters, pumpkin custard, mango sticky

rice with coconut cream, and syrup over crushed ice.

Dining Out: City dwellers in particular enjoy eating out. Urban 

areas offer a range of choices, from restaurants featuring 

international cuisine to simple noodle shops. When Thai eat 

out, the person who extends the invitation generally pays the 

entire bill. Tipping is uncommon except in high-end restaurants.

Fast food and coffee shops are becoming widespread and are 

popular among younger Thai.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Street vendors: Common in urban areas, street vendors sell a

range of food items from full meals to simple snacks. The food 

is typically of high quality, authentically Thai, and enjoyed by 

rich and poor alike. Some vendors sell specialties such as fried 

ants, grasshoppers, silkworms and cockroaches (Photo: A US 

Marine eats a cooked 

insect during 2012 Cobra 

Gold exercises).

Beverages

Thai enjoy a variety of 

beverages. While they

typically drink tea without 

milk or sugar, Thai prefer 

coffee flavored with

chicory and may drink it

black or with condensed milk. Many Thai also enjoy fruit juices 

flavored with syrup and salt, such as naam manao (iced lime 

juice with sugar). Because beer and wine are heavily taxed

(see “Modern Healthcare System” below), many Thai prefer 

more inexpensive brandy, whiskey, and rice liquors.

Health Overview

Since the 2002 introduction of universal coverage, 99% of Thai 

citizens now have health insurance, and Thailand has seen a 

steady decrease in maternal and infant mortality rates.

Meanwhile, life expectancy at birth has risen to 75 years, 

significantly higher than the regional average of 67 and the 

global average of 70. While government healthcare spending 

has increased substantially in recent years, disparities in 

healthcare quality and availability persist between rural and 

urban areas. 

Traditional Medicine

Traditional medicine consists of the knowledge, practices, and 

skills derived from a native population’s beliefs, experiences, 

and theories. Thai traditional medicine (TTM) aims to achieve 

balance in the body by considering the 4 environmental (earth, 

fire, wind, and water) and certain seasonal elements. Primary 

therapies include therapeutic massage, herbal steam baths, 

traditional midwifery, and herbal, animal, or mineral-based 

medications. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Over centuries, practitioners have standardized and passed 

along TTM to succeeding generations, although TTM suffered 

a decline in popularity following the arrival of Western 

medicine. After renewed interest and international 

encouragement in the 1970s, TTM enjoyed resurgence and is 

now a separate branch of the official healthcare system. Many 

Thai, particularly in rural areas, use TTM as part or all of their 

healthcare practices. 

TTM practitioners must receive a degree from an accredited 

university or certified institution, then pass examinations and

complete an apprenticeship before obtaining a license. 

Although only certified TTM practitioners historically prescribed 

TTM treatments, health officials are beginning to incorporate 

TTM practices into the Western-style medical system. Thus, 

medical staff are trained on 

TTM treatments and the use 

of herbal medicines (Photo: 

Medicinal herb garden at a 

Thai hospital). 

Modern Healthcare System

In 2002, Thailand introduced 

its Universal Health Coverage

Scheme (UCS), also known 

as the "30 Baht Plan." USC quadrupled government healthcare 

funding and reduced individual costs to a 30-baht ($.75) copay,

a fee which was later waived completely. The scheme

succeeded in substantially decreasing infant mortality in rural

areas. It also provided the poor access to reproductive and 

primary healthcare and reduced mortality rates due to 

infectious diseases.

Experts generally praise Thailand’s innovative healthcare

system, which focuses mainly on primary healthcare, along 

with its progressive health promotion program. The latter

utilizes tobacco and alcohol taxes to finance health promotion 

activities. Despite its successes, critics argue the scheme may 

be unable to match increased demand. Critics also point to 

disparities between the various healthcare plans within the 

scheme. For example, some high quality services are available 

only at expensive private institutions.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Health Challenges

Thailand faces several challenges in the delivery of healthcare. 

In 2010 the country had just 0.4 physicians per 1,000 people, 

below the regional average of 0.6 per 1,000 people and far 

lower than the US average of 2.4. Since most doctors practice

in the cities, many hospitals and clinics in rural areas lack

qualified personnel. Likewise, many Thai doctors specialize, 

thereby limiting the number of general practitioners available to 

treat routine ailments. Emergency transportation is inefficient 

and hampered by heavy congestion in major cities.

As healthcare’s overall quality has increased, rates of most 

infectious diseases have declined significantly. While malaria 

and tuberculosis remain threatening in some remote areas, just 

22% of all deaths in 2012 were due to communicable diseases, 

compared to the regional average of 40%.

As is common in countries with ageing populations (see p. 1 of 

Political and Social Relations), the incidence of 

noncommunicable diseases in Thailand has increased. In 

2012, 62% of all of deaths were attributed to stroke, heart 

disease, diabetes, lung disease, and other such diseases. 

Obesity and alcohol and drug abuse rates are also increasing.

Despite heavy-handed enforcement policies, abuse of 

methamphetamines in pill form (ya ba) remains high. 

Injuries resulting in death 

occur at a higher rate than 

the regional average. 

Thailand has the 3rd highest 

incidence of death by road

accidents in the world (see p. 

4 of Time and Space) (Photo: 

Hospital in Kamphaeng Phet 

Province).

Refugees and Migrant Workers: An estimated 2.4 million

migrant workers and about 645,000 refugees, asylum-seekers, 

and stateless people reside in Thailand. Most are not eligible 

for health coverage, have a higher disease burden, and are 

more vulnerable to public health hazards. The government

recently proposed an insurance scheme for migrants, 

regardless of their legal status.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
HIV/AIDS: Through its safe-sex campaign and provision of

antiretroviral treatment to infected pregnant women, Thailand 

has successfully slowed its HIV/AIDS epidemic. The number of 

annual new HIV infections has declined steadily from a high of 

143,000 in 1991 to 61,000 in 2001, 24,000 by 2009, and 

approximately 8,100 in 2013. Experts estimate that 450,000 

adults live with HIV in Thailand today. Others estimate a 

slightly higher prevalence rate of 1.1% of the adult population.

Regardless of the exact figures, Thailand’s HIV/AIDS infection 

rate remains significantly higher than the regional average.

Over the past decade, HIV infection patterns have changed: 

the virus is now spreading rapidly among homosexual men, 

transgender people, and male sex workers (see p. 3 of Sex 

and Gender). Approximately 41% of new HIV infections are 

among these groups, and studies estimate that 30% of 

homosexual men in Bangkok are HIV positive. To fight this

alarmingly high infection rate, in 2014 Thailand began offering 

free antiretroviral drugs to all HIV patients, including 

undocumented migrants. Efforts to expand the state’s 

HIV/AIDS monitoring and treatment systems are hampered by 

many men’s reluctance to report suspected infection due to 

their fear of social exclusion or discrimination on the job.

Medical Tourism

Thailand has become the world’s foremost destination 

for “medical tourism,” a form of travel undertaken 

solely for healthcare procedures. Individuals from 

Asia, Europe, and the Middle East travel to Thailand to 

purchase treatments and procedures ranging from 

plastic and cosmetic surgery to open heart surgery.

These patients typically pay a fraction of the cost 

charged in their home countries. Many patients stay in 

Thailand to recuperate post procedure, since 

accommodations are typically inexpensive. Although 

medical tourism supports Thailand’s economy, critics 

accuse medical tourists of monopolizing services and 

resources intended for Thai patients.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Overview

Prior to 1960, Thailand’s economy was based largely on the 

production of rice and other crops for domestic consumption. 

By the 1980s, Thailand began to develop a manufacturing 

infrastructure supporting new export policies. The rapid pace of 

industrialization in the 1980s and 90s took a toll on the 

environment. Large swaths of land were transformed as the 

government built hydroelectric complexes to meet growing 

energy needs. Consequently, thousands of people were 

displaced and natural flood patterns and forests disrupted.

Because industries relied heavily on foreign investment, a

sudden decline in Thailand’s currency, the baht, in 1997 

spurred a debt-fueled financial crisis that spread through much 

of Asia. Meanwhile, Thailand’s export-oriented growth strategy 

left the country vulnerable to foreign economic issues. Hit hard 

by the 2007 global economic recession, industries experienced 

severe drops in profit as 

Thailand’s exports significantly 

shrank (Photo: Bangkok street). 

Economic recovery began but 

then slowed after record-setting 

floods destroyed Bangkok’s 

manufacturing centers in 2011, 

crippling the manufacturing 

industry for over a year (see p. 3 of Political and Social 

Relations). To prevent future economic loss, the government 

allocated $12 billion in flood mitigation projects and $75 billion 

in infrastructure development. Due to recent political unrest

(see p. 9 of History and Myth), spending on infrastructure has 

been suspended with economic growth remaining slow. 

In spite of these setbacks, the standard of living in Thailand

has steadily increased over the last decade. While slow, the 

economy is growing as unemployment remains extremely low 

at 0.7% - currently the 3rd lowest in the world. Even though

Thailand still ranks poorly on the income inequality index, its

poverty rate decreased from 43% in 2000 to 13% in 2011. 

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Today, about 88% of the impoverished live in the rural North 

and Northeast. 

Although the government raised the daily minimum wage to 

300 baht (currently about $9) in 2013, the cost of living (food, 

fuel, and utilities) has risen as well. Further, household debt 

has increased, attributed to easy access to credit cards and 

incentives introduced to spur domestic spending after the 2011 

floods. Despite its fragile political state (see p. 5-6 of Political 

and Social Relations), slow economic growth, and wealth

disparities, Thailand remains the world’s 25th largest economy 

and the 2nd largest in Southeast Asia behind Indonesia. 

Services

Accounting for 44% of GDP and 48% of employment, the 

services sector is the largest component of Thailand’s 

economy. Primary services include wholesale and retail sales, 

tourism, banking, and finance. The majority of both wholesale 

and retail establishments are small, family-owned shops.

Tourism: The tourism industry is vital to Thailand’s economy. 

Accounting for over 20% of the country’s GDP and 7% of all 

employment, tourism drew over 26 million visitors in 2013. 

Chinese, residents of ASEAN countries, Russians, Japanese, 

South Koreans, Indians, Australians, British, and Americans

accounted for the majority of visitors. Although tourism has 

slowed since the May 2014 coup (see p. 9 of History and 

Myth), the industry has historically recovered quickly after 

similar events. Consequently, Thai officials expect visitor 

numbers to rebound in 

2015 (Photo: Phuket, a 

popular tourist destination).

Industry

Thailand’s economic 

growth in the 1980s and 

90s was primarily due to 

industrial activities. Despite 

recent growth in the 

services sector, the industrial sector remains significant. It is

only slightly smaller than the services sector, accounting for 

44% of GDP and 14% of employment. 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Manufacturing: Accounting for 38% of GDP, manufacturing is 

the foremost component of Thailand’s industrial sector. The 

majority of Thai companies specialize in food and beverage 

processing (25%), followed by apparel (18%) and textile (18%)

production. Other goods include motor vehicles, computer 

parts, and electrical machinery. Although some large-scale 

businesses exist, 94% of establishments are small-scale, 

employing fewer than 15 workers. 

Construction: Construction currently accounts for about 4% of 

GDP and 7% of employment. Projects include private-sector 

housing development and large-scale public infrastructure

development. Projects also include rail and highway 

extensions, as well as the construction of deep seaports and 

other coastal improvements.

Agriculture

Consisting of farming, fishing, 

and forestry, the agricultural 

sector was traditionally the 

backbone of Thailand’s 

economy. Despite the recent 

expansion of the service and 

industry sectors, agriculture still accounts for 38% of 

employment and 12% of GDP. The majority of agricultural 

production occurs on small, family-owned farms (pictured). 

Farming: About 36% of Thailand’s territory is suitable for 

cultivation, with the largest concentrations of farmland in the 

northern, northeastern, and central regions. While most farms 

only cultivate crops, about 1/3 also produce livestock. 

Important food crops include rice, cassava (a tuberous starchy 

root), rubber, corn, sugarcane, coconuts, and soybeans. 

Fishing: Thailand is the world’s 3rd largest seafood exporter, 

having a fishing industry worth over $7 billion. Profitable 

harvests include shrimp, squid, and tuna. Recently, the industry

has come under international scrutiny for dismal working 

conditions. Fishermen typically toil extremely long hours, 

averaging 62 hours per week. Migrant workers, some of whom 

are victims of trafficking (see p. 4 of Sex and Gender), often

endure slave-like conditions, working for little or no pay and

under constant threat of violence. 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Forestry: After widespread deforestation in the 1980s and 90s, 

the government banned logging in natural forests. 

Consequently, the timber industry remains small, consisting 

mostly of teak and rubberwood production from planted forests.

Currency

Thailand’s currency is the baht (฿), issued in 5 banknote values 

(20, 50, 100, 500, 1,000), and 4 coin values (1, 2, 5, 10). 1฿ is 

subdivided into 100 satang (cents), issued in 5 coin values (1, 

5, 10, 25, 50). Although exchange rates vary, $1 has averaged

about 32฿ over the past 5 years. Thai prefer cash for everyday 

purchases, although some locales accept credit cards.

Foreign Trade

In 2013 exports totaled $225 billion and imports $219 billion. 

Exports primarily included electronics, cars, computer parts, 

electrical appliances, heavy machinery, textiles, fishery 

products, rice, and rubber. The largest buyers of Thai goods 

included China (12%), Japan (10%), the US (10%), Hong Kong 

(6%), Malaysia (5%), Indonesia (5%), Singapore (5%), and 

Australia (4%). Imports included capital goods, raw materials, 

consumer goods, and fuels purchased from Japan (20%), 

China (15%), UAE (6%), Malaysia (6%), and the US (5%).

ASEAN Economic Community

Using the European Union as its model, the ASEAN Economic 

Community will unite 10 member nations (see p. 11 of Political 

and Social Relations) as a single market by late 2015. This 

union will facilitate movement of

goods, services, capital, and 

labor among member nations. 

Foreign Aid

Thailand receives financial 

assistance from the US, the UK, 

Australia, Japan, and others to 

supports its military and for 

disaster relief, humanitarian assistance, and infrastructure 

projects. The US alone provided over $37 million in 2013. 

Recently, donors have suspended assistance while others are 

reviewing their aid portfolios amidst concerns for Thailand’s

future stability (see p. 3-4 of Political and Social Relations) 

(Photo: US Navy delivers equipment in the Gulf of Thailand).

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

Thailand has one of the best developed physical infrastructures

in Southeast Asia. While mobile phone service extends 

throughout the country, reliable Internet connectivity is limited 

to urban areas.

Transportation

Thailand has a far-reaching and efficient public transit system. 

In and around Bangkok, for example, travelers have the option 

of traveling by bus, subway, “sky” train (above-ground rail 

system), or long-tail boats that navigate the city’s many canals. 

Usually fast and efficient, buses are a common means of 

transit between cities. Of note, long-distance overnight buses 

historically have had high accident rates (see p. 4 of Time and 

Space), due to drivers’ aggressive habits and use of stimulants.

In rural areas, songthaews (open vans equipped with benches

for passengers) and share-taxis (air-conditioned minibuses) 

supplement the bus networks. Ferries provide access to all 

major islands. Widely-available taxis come in various forms, 

including tuk-tuks (pictured - 3-wheeled, open sided vehicles), 

samlors (tricycle rickshaws), and motorbikes. Of note, taxi 

drivers do not usually 

expect tips.

Roadways: Thailand 

had about 112,000 mi of 

roadways in 2006. About

98% of all major 

highways are paved.

Inspired by the probable 

increase in intra-regional 

trade brought by the 

2015 ASEAN Economic Community (see p. 4 of Economics 

and Resources), Thailand plans to expand and repair its

current road system. The signs on major routes typically 

include both English and Thai. Roads in more rural areas are 

less well-marked. With 206 cars per 1,000 people in 2012, Thai 

car ownership levels are well below the US rate of 786.

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Railways: Although slower, railways are a safe alternative to 

Thailand’s buses for long distance travel. The 4 main routes 

are the North, Northeast, East, and South, with Bangkok 

serving as the main hub. In 2014 Thailand had only about

2,500 mi of railways, compared to 16,900 mi in Japan. All 

railways are controlled by the State Railway of Thailand. 

Ports and Waterways: Major seaports are Bangkok, Laem 

Chabang, Ranong, Phuket, and Songkhla. In addition, Thailand 

has about 2,500 mi of inland waterways navigable by small 

boats. Bangkok’s Chao Phraya River and Khlong Saen Saeb 

canal transport over 360,000 passengers daily.

Airways: Thailand has 101

airports and airstrips, of which 

63 have paved runways. The

primary international transit 

hub is Bangkok’s 

Suvarnabhumi Airport, which

is linked by shuttle to Don 

Muang Airport, serving lowcost carriers and domestic 

flights. Other major international hubs include Chiang Mai 

International Airport, Mae Fah Luang–Chiang Rai International 

Airport, Hat Yai International Airport, and Phuket International 

Airport. Thailand’s 2 major airlines are Thai Airways and 

Bangkok Airways (Photo: Thai Airways passenger jet).

Energy

Thailand is the world’s 24th largest energy producer,

generating 89% of its electricity from fossil fuels and the 

remainder through hydroelectric plants. Thailand is also the

leading producer of biofuels in Southeast Asia, including 

biodiesel from palm oil and ethanol from molasses and 

cassava. 

Thailand is the world’s 23rd largest energy consumer and 2nd 

largest in Southeast Asia behind Indonesia. Experts expect 

energy consumption to increase by 75% in the coming decades

as the economy continues to grow and as society becomes 

more affluent. To meet the growing demand, Thailand is 

expanding oil and gas production in the Gulf of Thailand and 

working to develop alternative energy sources.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Media

Following the 2014 coup (see p. 9 of History and Myth), the 

Thai military gained control of the media, blocking any

commentary deemed divisive, defamatory, or subversive to the 

government or monarchy. Military censorship persists, while 

many media outlets perform self-censorship.

Newspapers are popular in Thailand. With a circulation of over 

1 million daily, the Thai Rath (“Thai State”) is the largest. The 

2nd best-selling paper is the Daily News, followed by Khao 

Sod (“Fresh News”) and Matichon. English-language 

newspapers include The Nation and Bangkok Post. The latter 

was founded in 1946 and is Thailand’s oldest newspaper.

TV and Radio: Thailand has 6 state-controlled TV channels 

providing primarily Thai-language programming and countless 

satellite channels, some providing international programming. 

The publicly-owned Mass Communication Organization of 

Thailand (MCOT) is the largest broadcaster. The CTH Public 

Company Limited (CTH) and the privately-owned TrueVisions 

also have extensive reach. Thailand has more than 500 AM 

and FM radio stations. 

Telecommunications

Thailand’s telecommunications 

infrastructure is well developed in 

major urban centers but remains less

developed in rural parts of the North 

and Northeast. Most of the country 

has access to mobile phone 

networks. Notably, Thailand has more 

mobile phone subscriptions (88

million) than people (67 million), indicating some subscribers 

own multiple accounts. Mobile carriers include Advanced Info 

Service, CAT Telecom, Total Access Communication (DTAC), 

and True Move (True Corporation) (Photo: A village woman 

uses a cell phone).

Internet: About 30% of Thai are regular Internet users. 

Broadband (wired) Internet is available in large cities, although 

many rural areas have yet to gain access. About 34% of users 

access the Internet using mobile phones, while the rest use 

pre-paid dial-up cards, Internet cafes, and computers at home.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
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