rhe National Institute of Standards and Technology was established in 1988 by Congress to "assist industry in

the development of technology . . . needed to improve product quality, to modernize manufacturing processes,

to ensure product reliability . . . and to facilitate rapid commercialization ... of products based on new scientific

discoveries."

NIST, originally founded as the National Bureau of Standards in 1901, works to strengthen U.S. industry's

competitiveness; advance science and engineering; and improve public health, safety, and the environment. One

of the agency's basic functions is to develop, maintain, and retain custody of the national standards of

measurement, and provide the means and methods for comparing standards used in science, engineering,

manufacturing, commerce, industry, and education with the standards adopted or recognized by the Federal

Government.

As an agency of the UiS. Commerce Department's Technology Administration, NIST conducts basic and

applied research in the physical sciences and engineering, and develops measurement techniques, test methods, standards, and related services. The Institute does generic and precompetitive work on new and

advanced technologies. NIST's research facilities are located at Gaithersburg, MD 20899, and at Boulder, CO 80303.

Major technical operating units and their principal activities are listed below. For more information contact the

Publications and Program Inquiries Desk, 301-975-3058.

Office of the Director

• National Quality Program

• International and Academic Affairs

Technology Services

• Standards Services

• Technology Partnerships

• Measurement Services

• Technology Innovation

• Information Services

Advanced Technology Program

• Economic Assessment

• Information Technology and Applications

• Chemical and Biomedical Technology

• Materials and Manufacturing Technology

• Electronics and Photonics Technology

Manufacturing Extension Partnership

Progaram

• Regional Programs

• National Programs

• Program Development

Electronics and Electrical Engineering

Laboratory

• Microelectronics

• Law Enforcement Standards

• Electricity

• Semiconductor Electronics

• Electromagnetic Fields'

• Electromagnetic Technology'

• Optoelectronics'

Chemical Science and Technology

Laboratory

• Biotechnology

• Physical and Chemical Properties^

• Analytical Chemistry

• Process Measurements

• Surface and Microanalysis Science

Physics Laboratory

• Electron and Optical Physics

• Atomic Physics

• Optical Technology

• Ionizing Radiation

• Time and Frequency'

• Quantum Physics'

Materials Science and Engineering

Laboratory

• Intelligent Processing of Materials

• Ceramics

• Materials Reliability'

• Polymers

• Metallurgy

• NIST Center for Neutron Research

Manufacturing Engineering

Laboratory

• Precision Engineering

• Automated Production Technology

• Intelligent Systems

• Fabrication Technology

• Manufacturing Systems Integration

Building and Fire Research

Laboratory

• Structures

• Building Materials

• Building Environment

• Fire Safety Engineering

• Fire Science

Information Technology Laboratory

• Mathematical and Computational Sciences^

• Advanced Network Technologies

• Computer Security

• Information Access and User Interfaces

• High Performance Systems and Services

• Distributed Computing and Information Services

• Software Diagnostics and Conformance Testing

'At Boulder. CO 80303. ^Some elements at Boulder, CO.
NIST Special Publication 915

NIST International Activities

Peter L. M. Heydemann, Editor

Director, Technology Services

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Gaithersburg, MD 20899-0001

U.S. Department of Commerce

William M. Daley, Secretary

Technology Administration

Gary R. Bachula, Acting Under Secretary for Technology

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Robert E. Hebner, Acting Director

July 1997
National Institute of Standards U.S. Government Printing Office

and Technology Washington: 1997

Special Publication 915

Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol.

Spec. Publ. 915

86 pages (July 1997)

CODEN: NSPUE2

For sale by the Superintendent

of Documents

U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, DC 20402
NIST INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES

A comprehensive report about NIST's international activities

in collaborating on measurement science, delivering

measurement services, carrying out research and

development, harmonizing standards and conformity

assessment, providing training and teaching, and rendering

assistance to U.S. industry.

Executive Summary

I. Economic Roles of Standards in International Trade

Gregory C. Tassey

n. Collaborate in Advancing Measurement Science

Katharine B. Gebbie

m. Provide Uniform and Accurate Measurements

Sharrill Dittmann

IV. Improve U.S. Access to Developing Markets Through Standards

Assistance and Training

Peter L.M. Heydemann

V. Support International Standards and Harmonization Efforts

Belinda L. Collins

VI. Develop Conformity Assessment Processes

James L. Cigler

Vn. Support U.S. Foreign Policy Objectives

B. Stephen Carpenter

Appendix 1 Recommendations on Standards in "National Export Strategy,

Report To Congress, 1996

Appendix 2 Acronyms
NIST INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES

HELPS BUILD

WORLD-WIDE

STANDARDS AND

MEASUREMENT

INFRASTRUCTURE

PROVIDES TRAINING

& ASSISTANCE TO

EMERGING

MARKETS

COLLABORATES IN ADVANCING

MEASUREMENT SCIENCE

WORLDWIDE

ASSURES U.S. INDUSTRY ASSISTS WITH

ACCESS TO THE INTERNATIONAL AND

MEASUREMENT ACCURACY REGIONAL

IT NEEDS AGREEMENTS

IMPLEMENTS

STANDARDS &

MEASUREMENT

COORDINATION

UNDER PL 104-113

U.S. Exports Accepted

Worldwide-Reduced Cost

& Time, and w/o

Duplicative Testing

World's Best

Measurement S&T

Transferred to U.S.

Industry

New Opportunities for

U.S. Foreign

Investment and Access

to Natural Resources

Increased U.S.

Industrial Productivity

and International

Competitiveness

Mar. 1997
NIST INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES

Executive Summary

The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) was established by Congress "to assist industry in the

development of technology...needed to improve product quality, to modernize manufacturing processes, to ensure product reliability... and to facilitate rapid commercialization.. .of products based on new scientific discoveries." An

agency of the U.S. Department of Commerce's Technology Administration, NIST's primary mission is to promote

U.S. economic growth by working with mdustry to develop and apply technology, measurements, and standards. It carries out this mission through a portfolio of four major programs:

- a strong laboratory effort, planned and implemented in cooperation with industry, that provides technical

leadership for the nation's measurement and standards infrastructure;

- a rigorously competitive Advanced Technology Program providing cost-shared awards to industry for research on

high-risk technologies with potentially broad-based benefits for the U.S. economy;

- a Manufacturing Extension Partnership through which a nationwide network of locally managed centers offers

technology and business assistance to smaller U.S. companies; and

- a highly visible quality outreach program associated with the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award.

This report on NIST's international activities focuses on the first of these programs—the NIST laboratory effort. NIST laboratories perform tasks vital to the country's technology infrastructure that neither industry nor the

government can do separately. The nation's measurement and standards infrastructure is the basis for confidence in

the development and exchange of technical information between scientists and engineers, between providers and

purchasers of goods and services, between governments and the private sector, and between governments. NIST

plays a cenfral and unique role in ensuring that this critical infrastructure meets the economic and social needs of the

nation.

NIST laboratories participate in international activities for two main reasons: (1) because they are a cost-effective

way to access the latest thinking along the frontiers of measurement science and technology in other counfries,

thereby contributing to NIST's mission; and (2) because they help to open foreign markets to U.S. technology-based

exports and mvestment. Secondary reasons are to enhance public safety and health throughout the world and to contribute to U.S. foreign policy objectives such as world peace, the environment, non-proliferation, and economic

and social advancement. NIST's international activities are an integral component of the NIST laboratory mission.

This report was conceived and prepared by Technology Services, one of NIST's major operating units, and will be

used as a basis for developing a strategic plan for NIST international initiatives in support of U.S. objectives,

especially export expansion. The report also responds to the October 1996 Report to the Congress, "The National

Export Strategy," by the Trade Promotion Coordinating Committee composed of the Heads of 20 U.S. government

agencies and chaired by the Secretary of Commerce. That Report states, "While we have long recognized the

importance ofstandards in definingfuture market sharefor its products, it is evident—particularly in the emerging

economies—that the U.S. must develop a more proactive, strategic standards commercial policy to ensure that U.S. companies are not unfairly precludedfrom competingfor contracts in our most promising markets. " (Appendix 1 contains the Report's recommendations on standards-related matters.)
The scope of this report is broad. It identifies all of the major international activities of NIST, states their rationale

in terms of expected benefits to NIST and the U.S. economy, and suggests approaches to solving the problems that

currently inhibit full realization of these benefits. As shown in the block diagram in front of this Executive

Summary, NIST's international activities can be categorized into five areas. NIST:

- Helps Build Worldwide Standards and Measurement Infrastructure. NIST does this so that the standards and

measurement technologies used by our tradmg partners are consistent with our own technologies, thereby facilitating

U.S. trade.

- Assures that U.S. Industry Has Access to the Measurement Accuracy It Needs. Our trading partners (and U.S.

domestic indusfries) will accept nothing less.

- Provides Training and Assistance to Emerging Markets. Unless we do this, the United States will lose tens of

billions of dollars in trade and investment opportunities to our European competitors.

- Assists with International and Regional Agreements. U.S. trade negotiators need NIST's technical expertise for

the mutual recognition agreements which will eliminate unnecessary costs and delays incurred by U.S. exporters and

will open new markets for U.S. products.

- Collaborates in Advancing Measurement Science Worldwide. U.S. leadership in international measurement

science and technology is possible only when NIST accesses the best technical judgement from whatever source.

NIST interacts closely with industry when unplementmg its international activities and its new standards

coordinating responsibilities under the Technology Transfer and Advancement Act of 1995 (PL 104-1 13). It is the

S&T infrastructure needs of U.S. industry that drive the NIST research agenda and related international activities. Working together, these five NIST international activities help to produce the benefits cited at the bottom of the

diagram, as well as such indirect benefits as bilateral and regional goodwill which, in turn, contribute to other U.S.

public policy goals.

NIST's international activities are a vital part of a complex chain of interlinked mechanisms, capabilities, and

organizations (both public sector and private sector; both domestic and international) that together form the

measurement-related infrastructure for U.S. trade in technology-based products and services. This chain is only as strong as its weakest link. For example, even if all international standards used by our trade partners were consistent

with U.S. standards, we might not be able to export if those partners refiise to recognize our conformity assessment

procedure.

Principal Finding. The responsibilities placed on NIST by the U.S. business community and the Congress for

such a domestic and international measurement-related infrastructure that better supports U.S. commercial

interests are strong. Our principal industrialized trading competitors devote more resources than we do to international standards and related measurement activities as dedicated instruments of national economic

and trade policy, especially in certain industrial sectors and developing economies. That effort will increase

competitive exports, often at the expense of U.S. exports. The stakes are high for the United States.

Accordingly, unless NIST mounts a more aggressive effort (in cooperation with U.S. industry and other

stakeholders), U.S. exports will be at a long term and serious disadvantage in penetrating foreign markets

and maintaining market share. In responding to that challenge and opportunity, NIST will focus on four

interrelated objectives in the international arena: (1) maintaining and strengthening U.S. scientific leadership

in metrology; (2) effecting a more influential U.S. presence in the major international standards-developing

bodies, and in international systems for conformity assessment and quality assurance in manufacturing; (3)

encouraging, through technical assistance and training, the adoption of international standards and related

2
practices (or, in their absence, U.S. standards and practices) by certain high growth-potential countries whose

measurement infrastructures are evolving; and (4) helping to gain acceptance by our major trading partners

of U.S. testing, conformity assessment, and quality assurance systems. These international activities will be

integrated with NIST's leadership and coordinating role, as recently mandated and strengthened by the

National Technology Transfer and Advancement Act of 1995, in strengthening the U.S. domestic standards

and conformity assessment infrastructure.

Abstracts of Chapters.

Chapter I: "Economic Roles of Standards in International Trade," by Gregory Tassey

U.S. firms have substantial concerns about the economic effects of standards because this form of infrastructure can

either facilitate or inhibit technological iimovation, market entry, and opportunities for both exporting and importing.

The type of standard that affects an element or attribute of a product can enable large markets to evolve and ensure

that investments in the R&D and production capability for products that are complementary to the standardized

product will benefit from a single, unified market. U.S. fums exporting into foreign markets want to extend these

domestic efficiency gains by conforming to the same product-element standard, or at least incurring minimal costs of

adaptation to a different standard. A second type of standard affects the environment in which the product is developed, produced, and marketed. Such standards provide information (test methods), ensure performance

(quality specifications), or enable compatibility or interoperability among several products making up a product or

service system (mterface standards). Thus, both types of standards offer major opportunities for U.S. business.

Alternatively, standards can evolve into multiple and inefficient forms, thereby acting as barriers to domestic growth

and international trade to the detrunent of U.S. economic welfare.

Chapter II: "Collaborate in Advancing Measurement Science" by Katharine B. Gebbie

Metrology, part of this country's "hidden infrastructure," plays a critical role in the modem world, especially the

fields of medicine, agriculture, and manufacturing. Any country's measurement infrastructure is ultimately limited

by the accuracy and stability of its primary standards. The hitemational Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM)

establishes the basic standards and scales of the principal physical quantities (such as the meter, kilogram, and

second). Since BIPM measurement technology is the basis for international standards, NIST's current leadership

role in that organization is important for U.S. trade mterests—losses in the U.S. scientific leadership in primary

standards franslate downstream mto lost opportunities in U.S. production of technology-based products and services,

and in their export. Yet NIST is not presently competitive with European national laboratories in such areas as realizing the basic unit of time or in frequency-based length standards. U.S. leadership in international measurement

technology is credible only to the extent that it is based on the best technical judgement available from whatever

source. Accordingly, NIST collaborates with its foreign counterparts on a broad range of projects, and benefits from

the cross-fertili2ation afforded by the over 300 visitmg foreign scientists at NIST, as well as multi-country use of

unique national measurement facilities. A list of priority metrology research projects needed for NIST to regain

wider international leadership in metrology and to meet mdustry requu-ements is provided.

Chapter III: "Provide Uniform and Accurate Measurements," by Sharrill Dittmann

NIST plays a critical role in facilitating U.S. exports by helping to ensure the accuracy and credibility of U.S.

measurements and measurement services. Currently, there is no universally recognized system to which all trading

partners adhere for ensuring measurement accuracy and credibility. U.S. exporters often must have their products

tested in the importing country when that country does not recognize the reliability of U.S. tests, resultmg in both

higher costs and lost markets. The challenge for NIST as the national metrology laboratory is to provide the critical

3
links between the various U.S. testing and laboratory accreditation systems and the U.S. national measurement

standards on the one hand, and foreign governments and bodies requiring U.S. Government assurance of the

reliability of U.S. test and measurement results on the other. NIST is well positioned to respond to this challenge.

NIST staff aheady are involved in a broad range of related international activities including as U.S. representatives

to several international bodies. However, NIST's capability to provide measurement services has continued to erode. In the interest of U.S. international (and domestic) trade, NIST must strengthen these services.

Chapter IV: "Improve U.S. Access to Developing Markets Through Standards Assistance and

Training," by Peter L. M. Heydemann

Trade in any market requires an infrastructure that includes not only transportation, mail and telephone systems,

electric power, and banking, but also a system of clear and reasonable normative standards, conformity assessments,

weights and measures, and import regulations. It also requires competent authorities to set and admmister the rules. When these conditions are not fulfilled, when there are arbitrary rules, corruption, or cheating in the market place,

then U.S. access to the market is impaired. Many developing markets, and even a few developed ones, do not meet

all of the conditions identified above. This chapter discusses the conditions in several developing markets and

describes the program that NIST Technology Services is embarking on to unprove access to those markets. We

concentrate here on influencing authorities to set reasonable normative standards compatible with U.S. or

international patterns; to recognize the results of testmg done in the United States; and to provide fair weights and

measures services. The major tools for achievmg these objectives are to establish relations with other governments

based on mutual trust and confidence; to provide training, advice, and consultation; and to assist in the establishment

of appropriate organizations. This will then be the basis to achieve the objectives described elsewhere in this report

for the harmonization of normative standards, for the evolution of a worldwide system of uniform and accurate

measurements, and for reaching the elusive goal of "one product, one standard, one conformity assessment." This

work is urgent. Other nations are many years ahead of us in establishing systems in developing markets that favor

their traders and exclude ours.

Chapter V: "Support International Standards and Harmonization Efforts," by Belinda L. Collins

Standardization issues facing the United States in the global market require development of more effective strategies,

both domestic and international. The World Trade Organization (WTO) commitment to harmonized international

standards is uniquely difficult for the United States, which relies extensively on numerous private sector standards

developers—with active participation by industry, government, consumers, and other interested parties. We have

high quality standards which support U.S. technology effectively, but which do not respond adequately to the

challenges of the global market. The current U.S. standards system is complex, multifaceted, and comprised of many

diverse elements, many of which appear unnecessarily redundant. The lack of central focus and fragmented sectorspecific approach is a handicap for the United States in the international standards arena. Much more effective

cooperation among government, standards developers, and industry is needed to build effective solutions for

supporting mtemational standards, and to work with international partners to develop standards which meet the

global challenges. This chapter identifies some of the problems and offers some solutions for NIST to help

strengthen the U.S. presence in the international standards arena.

Chapter VI: "Develop Conformity Assessment Processes," by James L. Cigler

The rapidity with which technological change is occurring m many mdustrial areas, combined with escalating

globalization of U.S. trade, has mcreased the need to standardize various aspects of the marketplace and to ensure conformance to standards. Conformity assessment is defined as "any activity concerned with determining directly or mdirectly that relevant requirements are fulfilled." Three activities collectively make up what is generally referred to

as conformity assessment: product certification (includes sampling and inspection); laboratory accreditation of

testing and calibration laboratories; and quality system registration. Conformity assessment has a great impact on

trade in both domestic and mtemational markets as reflected in international standards and their development.

4
recognition of competent parties to perform conformity assessment activities, and the ultimate goal of ensuring the

quality of consumer and safety needs. Conformity assessment activities are a vital link among normative standards,

product requirements, and the products themselves. NIST plays major role m these areas as the national

measurement laboratory and measurement research institute.

Chapter VII: "Support U.S. Foreign Policy Objectives," by B. Stephen Carpenter

International science and technology (S&T) cooperation is often an integral part of U.S. foreign policy, particularly

with countries where there are significant cultural differences and where trade and economic issues are challenging.

S&T cooperation can enhance vital linkages that promote goodwill and can often advance a specific U.S. policy

objective with a specific coimtry. S&T is an effective means through which the United States can encourage

political changes and economic growth in a country or region and it is in our interest to take advantage of our

position as a leader in S&T and to use it effectively to promote U.S. interests abroad. And, as described in other

chapters of this report, such S&T cooperation contributes directly to the NIST mission. NIST researchers have

developed collaborative relationships that have created a significant stimulus for new measurement capability and

new standards, and have made it easier to adopt a consistent measurement and standards system.

5
I. Economic Roles of Standards in International Trade

Gregory Tassey*

Abstract

U.S. firms have substantial concerns about the economic effects ofstandards because this form of

infrastructure can eitherfacilitate or inhibit technological innovation, market entry and opportunitiesfor both

exporting and importing. The type ofstandard that affects an element or attribute ofa product can enable large

markets to evolve and ensure that investments in the R&D andproduction capabilityfor products that are complementary to the standardizedproduct will benefitfrom a single, unified market U.S. firms exporting into

foreign markets want to extend these domestic efficiency gains by conforming to the same product-element standard

or at least incurring minimal costs ofadaptation to a different standard. A second type ofstandard affects the

environment in which the product is developed, produced, and marketed. Such standards provide information (test

methods), ensure performance (quality specifications), or enable compatibility or interoperability among several

products making up a product or service system (interface standards). Thus, both types ofstandards offer major

opportunitiesfor U.S. business. Alternatively, standards can evolve into multiple and inefficientforms, thereby

acting as barriers to domestic growth and international trade to the detriment of U.S. economic welfare.

Background

The internationalization of markets is a rapidly evolving phenomenon, resulting from both the larger

number of economies participating in world markets and attempts by all nations to increase their economic well

bemg through trade. Standardization is an increasingly important infrastructure supporting this expandmg trade.

Several reasons explain this frend. One is simply the increased volume and diversity of trade, which therefore

involves more products and services and the associated standards (roughly $150 billion in U.S. exports are affected

by standards).' Another reason is the greater complexity of both products and services—due prunarily to their

increased technological content.

Trends in Trade

The globalization of markets means both opportunities for and threats to domestic economic growth. In recent decades, the ability of an increasing number of nations to first acquire technology, develop it themselves, and

then become consumers of technology-intensive products has greatly expanded the number of markets in which U.S.

companies face both significant opportunity and competition.

In the past 25 years, U.S. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has increased by 618 percent, but exports have

grown by 1800 percent (and thus from 4 percent of GDP in 1970 to 1 1 percent in 1995). Unfortunately, imports

have grown even faster, resulting in a persistent trade deficit. In fact, because of this deficit, trade is a net dram on GDP. Without the trade deficit, U.S. GDP would have been $102.3 billion higher in 1995.

While many analysts point to the emergence of developing economies as a growmg source of competition

for U.S. domestic businesses, the fact is that these economies have a rapidly mcreasing demand for products and

services from industrialized nations. International Monetary Fund data show that the developmg counfries' frade

Gregory Tassey is Senior Economist, National Institute of Standards and Technology.

'Department of Commerce, Toward the Next American Century: A U.S. Strategic Response to Foreign Competitive Practices,

October, 1996. This figure represents roughly 20 percent of total U.S. exports.

6
balance with industrial countries, after remaining pretty much in balance in the 1980's, has become increasingly

negative in the 1990's, reachmg a deficit of $153 billion in 1995. This rapid growth m demand for industrialized

nations' products and services has helped fiiel a rapid growth in U.S. exports—but not at a sufficient rate to bring

U.S. trade into balance.

In fact, in the area of trade where industrialized nations should excel—technology-based products and

services—the United States' recent performance has not been encouraging. The broadly defined U.S. trade position

for technology-dependent manufacturing has been in persistent decline in the 1990's. The more narrowly defined

trade balance based on high-tech product fields is still positive, but the balance calculated on the somewhat broader

industry basis has been negative since 1994. And, of course, the overall trade balance has been negative for two

decades, in spite of widespread restructuring, downsizing, increased emphasis on technology, and so forth.

The U.S. position in services is much better. In 1995, exports of services reached $208 billion with a

substantial trade surplus of $81 billion. However, trade in services seems to be increasingly based on or driven by

advanced information technologies, in which other nations are rapidly expanding their investments. These nations can therefore be expected to become more competitive in the related services.

The above trends, even the positive ones, should be the subject of serious concern because overall export

growth is due in large part to a dramatic depreciation of the U.S. dollar against the currencies of our major trading

partners (48 percent against the German mark and 53 percent against the Japanese yen m the period 1985-95). The

fact that this depreciation has stopped and reversed direction somewhat implies that the U.S. trade deficit may

increase, rather than decline, in the future.

A depreciating currency is not a viable long-term solution to trade deficits. A sustainable long-run solution

to the trade deficit is a major expansion in exports of technology-based goods and services, which are somewhat less price sensitive than commodity items and which have relatively less competition. In other words, a promising

strategy is investment in competitive technology-based industries supported by the appropriate technical

infrastructure, including U.S.-compatible international standards and compatible assessment practices.

Employment Effects of Trade

About 8 million U.S. workers are employed in export-related jobs. A recent study by the Economics and

Statistics Administration (ESA) using time series data covering as much as 15 years foimd that exports by hightechnology manufacturing industries directly and indirectly supported 2.3 million U.S. jobs in 1992, and that the

workers in those jobs were paid higher wages than m most other industries. Equally important, exports in hightechnology manufacturing industries were found to leverage jobs in other industries to a much greater degree than in

the reverse case.

For example, 40 percent of the 2.3 million economy-wide jobs supported by high technology manufacturing

exports were in the service sector. In contrast, high-technology industries are far more dependent on their own

industries' exports than on other (non-manufacturing) mdustries' exports. Here, ESA data show that in 1992, of the

total 1.2 million jobs in high technology manufacturing industries supported by all types of goods and service

exports, 87 percent (1.0 million jobs) were supported by their own industries' exports. Such data not only indicate

the importance of technologically advanced manufacturing for economic growth but also demonstrate the leveraging

effect of this area of manufacturing on the service sector.

A second study by ESA, using data at the level of the individual manufacturing plant, shows that

employment grew 36 percentage points faster in plants that used advanced technology and exported, compared with

plants that used little technology and did not export. Technology and exports both contributed independently to employment growth. High-tech non-exporters increased employment by 13 percentage points more than comparable

(adjusted for plant size and industry) low-tech non-exporting plants, while low-tech exporters increased employment

by 21 percentage points more than high-tech non-exporters.

7
Similarly, high-tech exporting plants paid wages that were 16 percentage points greater than the baseline

low-tech non-exporting plants. Again, both high-tech non-exporting and low-tech exporting plants paid higher wage

rates, 7 and 8 percentage points, respectively, when compared to the baseline group of plants.

Barriers to Export Growth

For centuries, tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade have been erected to protect domestic industries from

foreign competition. Non-tariff barriers can be blatant when they specify product attributes that favor the domestic

industry's version of a product or service, or subtle when they require testing or certification of foreign products or

licensing of service operations that are excessive or simply deliberately delayed. Even though "economic recovery"

or "infant-industry" arguments are often devised by economists to rationalize these policies, such barriers are

basically politically-motivated and therefore must be dealt with primarily through a politically oriented process of

negotiation. The Trans-Atlantic Business Dialogue, involving over 100 CEOs from North America and Europe,

stated at a 1995 meeting in Seville, Spain that standards and conformity assessment practices are the greatest barriers

to their firms' export growth.

Because of the complexity of technology-based products and services, such non-tariff barriers can

themselves be complex and thus difficult to identify and negotiate away. In addition, such beirriers can have large

negative effects because of the importance of lead time in deciding whether or not to invest in a new technology.

Estimating commercialization opportunities and planning domestic and foreign market penetration strategies can be

thwarted by the lack of timely assurance of open markets in other countries, which can therefore negatively affect

these investment decisions.

Functions of Standards in a Technology-Based Economy

The role or function of standards has expanded since the industrial revolution when factories achieved

economies of scale through reduced vziriety and users saved enormous maintenance costs through interchangeable

parts. Today, standardization forms a pervasive infrastructure that affects the technology-based economy in many

important ways and hence imparts significant economic effects. In fact, whereas the traditional economic role of

variety reduction can restrict product choice in exchange for the cost reductions from economies of scale, some

modem functions of standards facilitate technological iimovation and product choice.

The multiple flmctions (described below) that are now played by standards, coupled with increased

pervasiveness of technology and shorter technology life cycles, combine to require faster responses from the

standards development process. Critical emerging technologies with impacts on large numbers of industries have

both a technical complexity and a "systems" character which raise the economic role of standards to a new, higher

level of unportance.

The costs of not dealing with these factors in a modem economy have not been lost on government policy

makers aroimd the world. In fact, more and more resources are being devoted to ensuring that standards are promulgated in order to leverage a domestic industry's "enabling" technologies and to provide the interfaces for

these technologies with other elements of advanced technology-based product or service systems. The content of

these standards and the timing of then- implementation are having significant impacts on industry behavior and

stmcture—trends which will have lasting relative impacts on the competitiveness of the world's industrialized

economies.^

All industrialized nations are increasingly conscious of the impacts of standards on technology-based markets. For

example, Japan is into its Seventh Industrial Standardization Long-Range Plan. In a 1990 position paper providing

recommendations for this plan, the Japanese Industrial Standards Committee stated that "it is important to maintain contact with

research and development activities in order to standardize measurement, testing and evaluation methods and to ensure

compatibility of products by forward-looking standardization. Thus, standardization can proceed in parallel with research and

development. In doing so, standardization itself can become the object of R&D, especially in testing and evaluation methods."

8
The analysis of these roles in terms of their interaction with corporate strategy and global economic trends

is complicated and thus may fiaistrate the casual observer. Technologies, market structures, and business strategies

all depend upon or interact with standards, and thus make this type of mfrastructure a complex element of

technology-based competition. Ignoring this complexity, however, guarantees poor strategy formulation and poor

infrastructure support for standards.

The economic functions of standards in domestic and foreign markets can be effectively analyzed by

placing them in four categories:^

Quality/Reliability: standards are developed to specify an acceptable level of product or service

quality/reliability along one or more dimensions such as performance levels, performance

variation, service lifetune, efficiency, safety, and environmental impact;

Information: standards provide evaluated scientific and engineering mformation in the form of

publications, electronic data bases, termmology, and test and measurement methods for evaluating

and quantifying product attributes;

Compatibility/Interoperability: standards specify properties that a product must have in order to work (physically or functionally) with a complementary product or other components within a

"system"; and.

Variety Reduction: standards limit a product to a certain range or niunber of characteristics such

as size or quality levels.

Types of Standards

These functions tend to be grouped to a significant extent by type of standard. One type affects a particular

element of a product or service. Examples are the architecture of a microprocessor or the operating system of a personal computer. These "product-elemenf standards primarily reduce variety and are often set through the

competitive dynamics of the marketplace. They are therefore de facto rather than promulgated standards.

The second type of standards primarily mcludes those that affect the environment of a product or service.

Examples of these "non-product" standards are:

• test and measurement standards that provide information about the performance of a product (such as signal strength loss in an optical fiber)

• mterface standards that specify the physical and/or functional interactions between two

components or a larger product system (such as the physical specifications and data

format requirements necessary for computer and prmter to work together)

Non-product standards providmg one of the four basic functions listed above are frequently related to other

standards m hierarchical structures. These hierarchies result from the need to ground or validate industry standards

by tracing their content back to morefundamental or basic standards, which are derived from scientific laws or

Source: G. Tassey, The Economics ofR&D Policy. Westport, CN: Quorum Books (forthcoming)

9
principles. A few basic standards can support large numbers of industry standards, but basic standards are not easily

transported or used by industry. Thus, as indicated in Figure 1, such standards are converted into working and

transfer standards which transfer the standardized mformation to industry. Large numbers of industry standards are based on (traced back to) the basic standards. Most industry standards are methods, procedural, or normative.''

Figure 1 . Path to an Industry Standard

Source: G. Tassey, The Economics ofR&D Policy. Westport, CN: Quorum Books (forthcoming)

Figure 1 illustrates how basic standards may be utilized to develop the infratechnologies upon which semiconductor

industry standards are based. The production of semiconductor components is a highly demanding process. The

densities of today's circuits are such that each conducting path ("line") on a chip is a small fraction of the width of a human hair. These widths must be consistent with respect to design specifications to avoid thermal, electrical, and

other problems.^ The semiconductor producer therefore needs to be able to measure the widths of cu-cuit lines that

make up a "chip." Particularly important are Ime widths on the "masks" which are used to inscribe the multiple

layers of circuit patterns on the chip itself. Such masks are used to make tens of thousands of chips. Their quality

greatly affects performance of the chips produced and hence a semiconductor manufacturer's production yield.

A normative standard is one in which a particular value (size, performance, quality, design) is selected from a range

of alternative values.

^ Line width measurement is just one of many infra technologies that a competitive semiconductor industry must

utilize. For example, current state-of-the-art chips consist of multiple layers of circuits. The circuits in each layer must be

connected to adjoining layers. Accomplishing this very difficult manufacturing step requires a precise alignment of the mask for each layer. Until recently, the alignment process required multimillion dollar optical equipment. NIST, however, developed a procedure that allows semiconductor manufacturers to ensure proper alignment of successive layers of an integrated circuit with a

precision better than 10 nm. This represents a more than fivefold improvement over current alignment calibration methods and is much less expensive. The cumulative economic impact of such advances in infra technologies is substantial and can greatly

affect price and hence competitive position for the domestic industry.

10
The line width measurement equipment must be calibrated against a physical standard, which has a pattern

of Imes whose thicknesses and spacmgs have been determined to a specified level of accuracy. This determination

is done by an authoritative source, such as NIST in the United States. The physical or "transfer" standard used by

industry must be easily transportable (a reticle in the above example) in order to ensure widespread and accurate

transfer of the infratechnology.

The information transferred by a physical standard is itself determined or certified by a so-called

"working" standard, which is laboratory-based and more accurate but not readily transferable. In this example, the

working standard is a laser interferometer which measures and certifies the physical dimensions of the Ime reticle

prior to transfer to industry. Finally, the laser interferometer is itself dependent for calibration on a "basic" standard

for length.*

Line-width measurement standards are just one of many non-product standards that affect a single industry.

The four basic functions of standards are all represented in this type of standardization in a single mdustry such as semiconductors. Many standards, such as line-width measurement, provide information, while others affect variety

reduction, quality/reliability or compatibility/interoperability. The collective economic impact of these standards is greatly magnified when an entire supply chain is considered. Semiconductors are a component of computers and

communications equipment, which, in turn, comprise a communications network. Each level in the supply chain

has an elaborate infrastructure of standards.^

Multiple standards of both types frequently exist in a single industry or market. Moreover, an economy's

structure consists of sets of vertically and horizontally integrated markets or "supply chains." When an entire

"supply chain" is considered (the linkage of markets for raw materials, components made from those materials,

equipment made from components, and finally systems of equipment or services based on these elements), the

number and variety of standards mvolved is typically substantial and so therefore is the cumulative economic impact.

Government Research in Support of Standards

Product element standards are frequently set through the competitive dynamics of the marketplace. Nonproduct standards, however, are typically based on infra structural technologies called "infra technologies."* Infra

technologies are "tools" that make the R&D, production, and market penetration stages of economic activity more

efficient. Examples of these tools mclude measurement and test methods, standard calibration protocols and

reference materials, qualified science and engineering data bases, and even entu-e process models or procedures.

Infra technologies achieve economic efficiency in two basic ways: (1) they increase static efficiency; that is, they

permit mcreased levels of productivity or quality; and (2) they increase dynamic efficiency by decreasmg learning

times through provision of more and accurate information in real time (as opposed to after-the-fact testing), which

allows companies in the early phases of a product life cycle to complete R&D or reach target production yields

faster.

The wavelength of light is used as the basic standard of length. The inverse of the wavelength is frequency, and the

length standard is actually derived from a frequency standard.

In communication networks, for example, there are published standards and interface protocols that allow hardware

components and software from many vendors to operate as a single product or as a system of products (i.e., a network). To

achieve efficient or "seamless" integration, the standards and protocols define what rules hardware components must adhere to in order to exchange signals between applications software and operating systems at different levels in the network.

g G. Tassey, "Infra technologies and Economic Growth" in M. Teubal et al (editors), Technology Infrastructure

Policy: An International Perspective. Norwell, MA: Kluwer, 1996.

11
However, industry under invests in infra technologies because (1) these tools often derive from a different

generic technology base than the core technology which industry draws upon to develop its products and processes,

(2) they are used simultaneously by many firms (i.e., as mdustry standards), which gives them an mfrastructure

character, and (3) infra technologies often cannot be embodied in products and processes (i.e., they are techniques),

which makes capturing the benefits from investment in them more difficult. The resulting under investment creates a need for govenmient support.

Alternatively, reasons for under investment in infra technologies (and hence in the technical basis for nonproduct standards) can be grouped under two major categories:

• appropriability problem. The economic value of an infra technology (e.g., a measurement or test method) mcreases the more widely it is used. Adoption as the basis for a standard unplies

widespread use, including among competing firms. This requirement of common use makes

standards a type of infrastructure, which, in turn, means that underlying infra technology is jointly

owned by the users of the standard. Hence, fiill or even substantial appropriation of the economic

benefits by the firm developing an infra technology is unlikely.

• research efficiency problem. Even when individual firms have sufficient need or when they

perceive sufficient appropriability of the research results to undertake infra technology research,

under investment frequently still occurs because the scientific or generic technology basis for the

infra technology is different from that requu^ed to develop and produce the firm's products. The

resuh of this mismatch is inefficient infra technology R&D by individual firms.

Thus, even though the aggregate benefits to the industry or group of industries from infra technologies and

the standards based on them are high, the rate of return to an individual firm is often not high enough to rationalize

the required investment.

Such under investment can sometimes be addressed adequately through collaborative research by the

benefitmg firms. However, even though this approach may expand the total amount spent on infra technology

research, appropriability and research efficiency problems remain. The persistent existence of "market failures"

(under investment) therefore requires government research, such as that provided in the United States by the

National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). NIST responds with a research program conducted either

entirely in its laboratories with subsequent transfer either directly to industry or to a standards setting organization or by a collaborative research arrangement with several mdustry partners.

NIST research programs, often undertaken in collaboration with industry, develop a wide range of infra

technologies for U.S.-based firms, including primary (basic physical and chemical) standards, manufacturing

process models, advanced measurement methods for specific technologies/mdustries, technical databases, product

performance tests, mteroperability protocols, calibrations, and quality assurance techniques.' Economic research

has shown that infra technology research produces social rates of return at least as high as for private-sector

investment in technology.

NIST has a number of bilateral research arrangements with industry partners and 15 consortia (two or more

companies). These partnerships are structured by use of a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement (CRADA).

12
Internationalization of Standards

Exporting offers the potential to increase the returns on investment in various economic assets (technology,

plant and equipment, training) over what is possible within the domestic market alone. Such expansion is especially

important in a global market environment because imports take away a portion of potential domestic sales from a product group in which a domestic firm has made an investment. This loss can be made up through exports of the

products in that group m which the domestic firm has a comparative advantage.

Along with other factors, successful exporting requires (1) standardization of certain product attributes, and

(2) conformance to these standards that is both timely and cost-effective relative to competition in foreign markets.

The availability of harmonized standards for international markets affects the ability of U.S. firms to use the same

production line for domestic and export markets and thereby determines the ability of these firms to realize

economies of scale in production. For example, consumer electronic devices and household appliances must be

adapted for different power supplies in the United States and Europe - 1 10 vohs/60 Hz and 220 volts/50 Hz,

respectively, and such economies are therefore not realized.

Automobile production lines must be switched between right-hand and left-hand drive cars for the United

Kmgdom and continental Europe or altered because safety requirements and environmental emission standards vary

between the United States and Europe. And, driver-side designation is just one of a number of cases of non- harmonization in this one industry. Design specifications affected by research and development, manufacturing

process, and other product-specific standards exist and raise costs of international trade. Other examples of such

design standards that differ between the United States and Europe include windshield wipers, safety belts, steering

control system unpact protection, and seating systems. Different testing and certification protocols (for example, in

pharmaceuticals) also may affect product design and hence commercialization decisions and production

requirements.

All national economies suffer to varying degrees from barriers to free trade, including those from ineffective

standards or from the deliberate use of standards to block imports. A statement accompanying release of a 1996

report by the National Research Council and two German research institutes on high-tech trade concluded that

"More and more countries are turning to restrictive trade measures and subsidies to develop the high-technology industries they believe will providefaster economic growth, higher

wages, and greater national autonomy. In the recent past, international trade disputes have

erupted over semiconductors, large commercial aircraft, and other technology-intensive products,

in part because establishedproducers believedforeign governments were unfairly supporting

their competitors.

The report also says that "unless sustained efforts are made to open high-tech markets

and encourage balanced cooperation, trade conflicts like the disputes on semiconductors and

Airbus will occur again. Renewed conflict may befueled by the rapid entry ofnewly

industrializing countries into the high-stakes, high-tech global marketplace. These disputes could

significantly damage not only the multilateral trading system but also the tradition of

international cooperation on scientific research and the prospectsfor collaborating in the

development ofnew technologies.

The economic stakes are truly large. A 1995 National Research Council report estunates that the removal

of all quantitative trade barriers (tariffs and quotas) for U.S. manufacturing industries such as textiles, apparel, autos,

and steel would result in 0.5 percent increase in U.S. national income ($25-$29 billion), and that the reduction in

economic growth from non-tariff barriers in these industries is equivalent to a 49 percent tariff.'"

National Research Council, Conformity Assessment and Trade, 1995, p. 107.

13
In addition, the relentless increase in the importance of technology means that the two generic types of

standards described above can arise within individual national economies as part of the competitive dynamics of

technology-based markets coupled with a domestically focused government infrastructure role. Problems arise when

the industries in each of two nations attempt to export into a third market, presenting buyers with multiple standards.

Further complicating such situations is the increasing tendency for alternative standards to arise around multinational

groups of firms, linked through joint ventures.

Recognition of these efficiency issues with respect to standards and trade has led to greater efforts to "harmonize" existing national standards and to develop new ones at the international level. However, the processes

of harmonization and cooperative development of new standards are often thwarted by conflicting economic growth

strategies in participating nations.

Thus, even though general agreement exists that effective stzindardization enhances economies of scale in

production, results in savmgs through reduced transaction costs, and, in many cases, provides access to products and

services in other countries that would otherwise not be available, individual nations or alliances of firms from several

nations often are unable either to agree on standards or to develop the technical basis for standards. Moreover,

industry alliances and nations often disagree over the appropriate methods for assessment of conformance to standards (which really should be viewed as an integral part of the complete standard). Therefore, international

standards development and conformity assessment often require the assistance of national governments working

through international standards organizations.

Even when the domestic economy's need for standardization has been met by government-industry

cooperation in developing the technical basis for a standard, other nations frequently have gone through a similar and

simultaneous process, with the resuh that multiple versions of the same generic standard arise. A solution often

requires government participation to help mdustries m several nations agree on rationalization (harmonization) of the

several competing standards. This participation typically includes critical technical input from respected third parties

(government laboratories or institutes) before final decision making by an international standards-setting process.

In summary, U.S. firms want (1) their production lines in the United States to be capable of efficiently

producing products for export, as well as for domestic markets (economies of scale), and (2) for export markets

where different product attributes are required, to be able to conform to these different market demands cost

effectively (economies of scope).

International Standardization and the Government Role

Because the U.S. domestic mzirket is leirge with consequent sufficient internal competition in most

industries, the U.S. economic philosophy has been to allow the competitive dynamics of the marketplace to set product-element standards. Issues of unfair advantage in related markets for the firm whose technology eventually

wins out as the industry standard are raised periodically. In other cases, several competing "local" standards often

coexist for some time, resulting in complaints of inefficiency. Still, the rapid growth of many such domestic markets

and the competitive success of U.S. firms in exporting argues for caution with respect to government intervention,

especially in product-element standardization.

However, to the extent that monopolistic control of a standard or the existence of multiple standards create economic inefficiency, the globalization of technology-based competition can accentuate these problems. An

increasing number of national economies is now capable of competing for the dominant product-element standard in technology-based industries. National governments often support the domestic industry's standard over alternatives.

Moreover, multinational alliances of firms now pursue their version of a product-element standard in emerging

technology-based markets. Thus, multiple standards can arise and persist for some tune. In such cases, multilateral

efforts should be undertaken to at least harmonize among these competmg standards, if not to select one as a single

international standard.

14
Many infra technologies also become the basis for international standards. In these situations, NIST

extends its research and domestic technology transfer roles to provide technical assistance to the international

standards setting process. To better perform all of these roles, NIST is increasing economic analysis and strategic

plaiming to understand the complex economic impacts of multiple standards within individual U.S. industries and

the under investment phenomena that create demands for government infrastructure support.

Example of the Economic Impacts of Multiple Standards: Numerically-Controlled

Machine Tools

The interfaces among individual components which make up advanced manufacturing systems, such as nimierically controlled (NC) machine tools, have a number of important economic impacts that affect rates of

economic growth and competitive position in international markets.

Standardization of these interfaces allows multiple proprietary component designs to coexist, with the

important economic consequence being a substantial increase in competition at the component level and therefore

greater design variety and price advantages for buyers. In effect, component competitors can irmovate on "either

side" of the interface, while the consumer of the system of components can select the particular vendors' components

that best meet system design requirements. Because a product system (in this case, the machine tool) has a number

of components with multiple interfaces, several mterface standards are needed to, in effect, "modularize" the product

and thereby allow custom design and prevent obsolescence at the system level.

However, the need for interface standards is not the entire story. The technical difficulty and hence the cost of constructing efficient interface standards increases substantially when all elements of the products on either side

of the interface are proprietary. The frequent solution to this problem is to standardize or "open" a product element

or attribute.

In the above example of machine tools, making the architecture of the machine tool controller "open"

creates the conditions for substantial increases in overall efficiency, including increased incentives for innovation.

An open architecture for machine tool controllers greatly facilitates the development of complementary hardware and

software components by allowmg all vendors to design their components to a global standard interface determined

by a single architecture. As opposed to multiple interfaces for multiple architectures, the existence of a single

standard interface unifies and thereby enlarges the prospective markets for components. Subsequent technological

improvements to the system of components are facilitated as well. Without an open architecture, controller upgrades

would likely not be accomplished without costly re-engineering of interfacing components such as sensors.

These interface standards increase the efficiency of systems integration by substantially reducing the

engineering costs of physically and fimctionally joining components from different manufacturers to form an optimal

system for a particular user, and by allowing efficient substitution of more advanced components as they become

available over time, thereby greatly reducing the risk of obsolescence of the entire system. Product-element

standards, such as open architectures, create a single, larger market, thereby providing greater incentive for

. innovation.

Moreover, both initial purchase and maintenance costs are reduced because standardization increases

competition among suppliers, reduces lead times for procuring components, and reduces mventory requirements.

Training costs are also reduced because the operator interface remains more constant as technology upgrades are made. In conclusion, interface standards, such as those affecting systems technologies such as factory automation,

are essential for significant market penetration.

15
Example: International Standardization: Semiconductor Wafer Dimension

Standards

In semiconductor manufacturing, the number of chips obtainable from a single silicon wafer has increased

as the size of the wafer has grown. Because of the many times a wafer must be moved during processing (over 300),

much of the production cost results from required deHcate and precise handling as well as the down time (from actual

processing) while the wafer is being moved. Larger wafers, by yieldmg more chips per wafer and increasmg the time

actually devoted to processing, resuh in proportionately less materials and process costs (previous transitions to larger wafer sizes have provided cost reductions greater than 20 percent per unit area)."

The current transition m wafer size is from 200 mm to 300 mm. Unlike previous transitions that sunply

raised the minimum efficient scale and hence mmimum unit cost of a chip manufacturing plant, the current changeover has some different potential economic impacts. In particular, the larger wafers may actually permit

reversal of the trend of mcreasing capital intensity of production. Larger wafers with proportionately greater yields

may make smaller production runs cost-effective and allow both more and smaller firms to operate production lines

efficiently. Such a development could at least partially reverse the trend away from captive production and allow

semi-custom chip designers to produce their own chips once agam.

Accomplishing this transition and the subsequent economic benefits will require a complex and mtegrated

standards development process. Because of the high degree of precision required to manufacture mcredibly dense

integrated circuits (IC), dimensional standards are required for the basic wafer, plus the transport cassette, and other

equipment that physically interact with the wafer. Interface standards must be developed for the mteractions

between processmg tools and wafer transport and positionmg equipment. Communications interface standards are needed to permit different vendors' equipment to interact functionally as a production system.

Past fransitions with the associated standards have been achieved by a single dominant IC manufacturer

providmg leadership in defmmg wafer specifications. The number of equipment suppliers involved was usually

limited to the IC leader's preferred vendor list. While such leadership by a single manufacturer might seem

desirable from the pomt of view of that firm's competitive position, imitation by rivals has been increasingly rapid

with each transition, meaning that the small advantage gained is overwhehned by the costs incurred in developing

and verifying the complex set of complementary standards that interface with the main standard (the 300 mm wafer

size).

The huge potential cost of 300 mm fabrication plants and the consequent financial risk was fmally

perceived as being too great for individual IC manufacturers to either undertake the standard development effort

alone or to risk their future competitive position to a "trickle-down" standardization process. As a result, the 300

mm standards are being developed through an international organization made up of 13 IC companies from three

continents and six countries, including six companies from the United States, three from Korea, and one each from

Taiwan, the Netherlands, Germany, and France. The standards development process began in 1992 and has

increased steadily in intensity. The consortium of IC companies has allocated $26 million for an 18-month effort in

1996-1997 to advance the standardization process. Ten Japanese companies have declined to participate in this

multmational process and have formed a separate consortium to develop the required set of standards. They have

also apparently allocated $370 million over 5 years to both standards development and to process technology

research.

In summary, this example indicates how the approach to standardization can evolve in the face of the high

costs involved m developing sets of related standards focused aroimd a lead standard. It also demonstrates,

however, how the struggle for competitive position might result in multiple standards.

R. Horwath and G. Lee, "300 mm: Not 'If but 'When' and 'How'," Channel, June-July, 1996.

16
Conclusion

Standards of both types—product and non-product—can greatly affect the overall efficiency and hence

competitive position of groups of related industries. Collectively, such industry groups provide substantial value

added (contribution to GDP) and therefore are important to national economic welfare. Increasingly, large portions

of this value added derive from exports, and therefore the roles and impacts of standards on design, production, and

finally on trade are more critical than in the past.

17
II. Collaborate in Advancing Measurement Science

Katharine B. Gebbie*

Abstract

Metrology, part ofthis country's "hidden infrastructure, "plays a critical role in the modern world,

especially thefields ofmedicine, agriculture, and manufacturing. Any country 's measurement infrastructure is ultimately limited by the accuracy and stability ofits primary standards. The International Bureau of Weights and

Measures (BIPM) establishes the basic standards and scales ofthe principal physical quantities (such as the meter,

kilogram, and second). Since BIPMmeasurement technology is the basis for international standards, NIST's

current leadership role in that organization is importantfor U.S. trade interests—losses in the U.S. scientific

leadership in primary standards translate downstream into lost opportunities in U.S. production oftechnologybasedproducts and services, and in their export. Yet NIST is not presently competitive with European national

laboratories in such areas as realizing the basic unit oftime or infrequency-based length standards. U.S. leadership in international measurement technology is credible only to the extent that it is based on the best

technicaljudgement availablefrom whatever source. Accordingly, NIST collaborates with itsforeign counterparts on a broad range ofprojects, and benefits from the cross-fertilization afforded by the over 300 visitingforeign

scientists at NIST, as well as multi-country use ofunique national measurementfacilities. A list ofpriority

metrology research projects neededfor NIST to regain wider international leadership in metrology and to meet

industry requirements is provided.

Background

The National Bureau of Standards, now NIST, was created to assist U.S. industry with uniform and accurate

measurements to strengthen the nation's economy and to compete successfully in mtemational markets. From the

begirming, NIST's managers and congressional overseers have recognized that the fundamental triad of standards,

measurements, and data can be addressed only in the context of an institution steeped in the scientific disciplmes and

actively participating in research in those disciplines. Our ability to lead the world—or even to be a major player

in establishmg imiform and accurate measurements, normative standards, and conformity assurance (as advocated in

subsequent chapters of this report) depends in large measure on the breadth, vigor, and excellence of our research

programs. Our leadership in international measurement metrology is credible only to the extent that it is based on

the best technical judgment available. And because a scientific effort of high vitality and creativity is characterized

by a free flowing atmosphere of ideas and people, we must work closely with scientists throughout the world,

collaborating on basic research, participating in workshops, comparing our standards, and sharing our facilities.

In the remainder of this chapter, we discuss the role of measurement science in our economy and NIST's

participation in international measurement science through the International Bureau of Weights and Measures,

through collaboration with scientists throughout the world, and through the use of international facilities. We then

discuss the continuing need for research in metrology, and finally we outline the efforts required to attain and

maintain a wider leadership role in the mtemational arena.

Katharine Gebbie is Director, Physics Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology

18
Critical Role of Metrology

Metrology, the science of measurement, is part of the hidden infrastructure of the modem world, which

registers hardly at all upon the public consciousness. Yet measurements have a direct influence on our lives in many

areas includmg health care, mformation technology, semiconductor electronics, construction, manufactured

products, and environmental technologies. Legal metrology is having an increasing impact on world trade.

Measurements are critical to our nation's ability to compete in the world market.

For example, metrology is part of medical diagnostics, as in the measurement of blood cholesterol level,

and part of medical therapy, as m the measurement of x-ray or gamma-ray dose for the treatment of some forms of

cancer. Here, permissible measurement uncertainties must be small enough so that they are of no clinical

significance, usually a few percent. Without the efforts that are abeady made to ensure accuracies of a few percent

in radiotherapy, for example, overdoses or under doses of a factor of ten would be common. Reliability is of the

utmost unportance, for errors can and have been known to kill. Even small errors are enough to confound clinical

trials that gather statistical evidence.

Metrology affects the quality of the food and drink that we consume. In agriculture, in the testing of food

products, and in programs to protect the environment, measurement is becoming increasingly important in providing

the basis for, and the means of verifying conformity to, a wide range of legislation. Some of this is related to ensuring that pesticides, heavy-metal residues, and bacteria m food are kept at safe levels; others are related to

labeling, packaging, and Eissuring the nutritional content of food stuffs.

Metrology affects manufacturing mdustries. About half of all manufactured products are discrete items,

such as aircraft, motor vehicles, and computers, together with their component parts. The other half comprises goods

manufactured in bulk. In the United States, the value of such discrete items exceeds $600 billion—more than 10

percent of the gross domestic product. Of this, about $240 billion is generated by the automotive mdustries, more

than $100 billion by aerospace, another $100 billion in instrumentation, control, and computers, and the rest by

diverse industries. For most of these products, their performance and perceived quality, and hence their commercial

success, is determined by how well they are made—sometimes in quite unexpected ways.

An example of how quality and commercial success can be linked to manufacturing precision appeared in

the early 1980's. Opening the doors of Japanese cars needed a force only one third that required for U.S. cars. This

difference could be attributed to the dimensional tolerance of 1 Mm on doors and door assemblies specified for

Japanese cars compared with 2 Mm for U.S. cars. Ease in opening the door appeared to be an important factor in the

customer's perceived quality of the whole product. In this case, the economic consequences of this difference in

the precision of manufacture and in perception of quality were dire for the U.S. automotive industry.

Engineering tolerances, i.e., the amounts by which dimensions are permitted to depart from nominal values,

have decreased in practically all industrial production by a factor of 3 every 10 years since 1960. The result is that

production engineers in the large-scale manufacture of automotive and electronic products are now required to work

at tolerances previously attempted only in fine, small-scale work. For example, the pistons of car engines are now

being made to a tolerance of about 7 Mm, roughly that used for the components of mechanical wrist watches.

There are basic motivations for this improvement of precision in manufacturing indusfries over the past 30

years. The first is that in traditional mechanical engineering, improvements in performance and reliability have been

possible only through improved precision in manufacture. The second is that many of the new technologies, often

the practical applications of recent discoveries in physics, simply do not work at all unless high precision

manufacturing is available.

19
Examples are found in the electro-optic industries using lasers, fiber-optics and video disks, in the

manufacture of large-scale integrated circuits, and in the production of navigation systems using signals fi-om atomic

clocks on satellites. Dimensional tolerances of 0. 1 Mm are required. And if the rate of information flow over data

networks and other telecommunications systems is to increase, we need to have accurate, internationally coordinated

time scales. Synchronization tolerances of a few nanoseconds are required. Such fine tolerances in actual

manufacturing and use require an accurate measurement capability at an even fmer level.

The International Bureau of Weights and Measures

There is no more fiandamental aspect to NIST's international metrology activities than its role on behalf of

the United States under the treaty known as the Convention ofthe Meter, which founded in 1875 the International

Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM).

The primary mission of the BIPM is to establish the basic standards and scales of the principal physical

quantities (meter, kilogram, second, ampere, volt, etc.), to maintain international prototypes, to carry out

comparisons of national and international standards, to assure coordination of the corresponding techniques of

measurement, and to carry out and coordinate determinations of flmdamental physical constants. This mission is becoming increasingly important for three reasons.

First, international trade, the manufacture of high technology products, scientific research, the protection of

the environment, and many aspects of health and safety, are increasingly dependent on accurate measurements and

require easy access to a stable, worldwide system of measurement. This is provided by the International System of

Units, maintained by the ensemble of national metrology laboratories working together with the BIPM under the

auspices of the Convention ofthe Meter.

Second, the increasing requirement for the strict application of performance criteria in the field of quality

certification and laboratory accreditation assumes the existence of the worldwide measurement system maintained

imder the Convention ofthe Meter. For member nations of the Convention, the activities of the BIPM are an

important and highly effective way of assuring this basis for measurement.

Third, the BIPM represents an efficient and cost-effective way of assuring the multiplicity of links

necessary to demonstrate the equivalence of measurement standards maintained by the many national laboratories

and to provide international traceability. At the same time, it provides certain unique and essential services such as the world's time scale and the calibration of mass standards in terms of the international prototype of the kilogram.

Through its calibration services, the BIPM provides an essential link to world metrology for certain metrological

services of member nations of the Convention ofthe Meter.

Under the terms of the Convention, the BIPM operates under the exclusive supervision of the Comit6

International des Poids et Mesures (CIPM), which itself comes under the authority of the Conference G6nerale des

Poids et Mesures (CGPM). The CGPM elects the members of the CIPM and brings together periodically

representatives of the goverrunents of Member States.

For advice on scientific and technical matters, the CIPM has created Consultative Committees, which bring

together the world's experts in each field of metrology. Among the tasks of the Consultative Committees are the

detailed consideration of advances in physics that directly influence metrology, the preparation of recommendations

for discussion at the CIPM, the instigation of international intercomparisons of standards, and the provision of advice

to the CIPM on the scientific work in the laboratories of the BIPM.

20
NIST's Role in the BIPM

The U.S.member on the CIPM historically has been the Director of NIST; the current U.S. member and

CIPM Vice President is the Director of NIST's Physics Laboratory. NIST managers and scientists alike are active

participants on all nine Consultative Committees. As such, they have a major role in organizing and contributing to international comparisons of the physical standards of measurement. These painstaking activities provide a measure

of the precision achieved around the world in realizing the definition of each unit and serve as an essential check on

the national scales of each participant. In addition, they often reveal systematic differences related to the different

techniques used in realizing the unit. As a result, the citizen who relies upon the measurement system is assured the

highest possible accuracy.

The evolution in the definition of length and the NIST role therein illustrate how a fiindamental unit has

been refined to keep up with changing needs. When NIST was founded, the standard of length was a ruled

Platinum-Iridium bar. However, abeady in 1893, Prof A. A. Michelson, on leave from the University of Chicago,

had visited the BIPM and demonstrated that the wavelength of a pronounced spectral line could serve as a more

universal and natural standard. After years of additional international research, and with growing industrial demand

for a more precise standard of length, the CGPM redefined the meter in 1960 to be 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of an

orange-red line in the **Kr spectrum. More recently, modem technology, such as lasers and fast electronics, has

allowed fiirther improvement. Today, the meter is defined as the distance traveled by light in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 seconds.

Such differences in definition are not cosmetic. It would have been impossible to build a metrology system

for today's micrometer world of semiconductors from a bar of platinum. This is a world given to rulers made of

light. Similarly, lasers offer improved accuracy and ease of use in surveying the great distances measured by civil

engineers. None of these advances would have occurred without international cooperative research and consensus

in metrology. This story is repeated for each and every one of the basic and derived units of measurement widely

used in the world today.

Collaborative R&D for Measurements and Standards

NIST is charged with responsibilities that extend beyond uniform and accurate measurements, and its several laboratories engage in research that applies the measurement system and advance engineering into new

domains. Space permits but a few illustrative examples to be given here.

NIST collaborates with national laboratories of other countries, including IMGC (Istituto di Mefrologia

"G. Colonnetti" of Italy), MPA NRW (Materialprufungfant Nordrhein-Westfalen of Germany), and NRLM (National

Research Metrology Laboratory of Japan), to unify Rockwell hardness scales. Throughout the world, hardness is the

most often specified materials-property test for manufacturing process control, product quality confrol, and product

acceptance. Nevertheless, hardness values obtained in different countries often do not agree within acceptable limits.

The differences result in part from the specification of the test method itself, which permits wide variation in the test cycle; efforts in MSEL (NIST's Materials Science and Engineering Laboratory) focus on minimizing these

differences in practice. Research in MEL (NIST's Manufacturing Engineering Laboratory) and MSEL has

demonstrated that small differences in the geometry of the diamond indenters used for the tests represent another

important source of the observed variation. These differences arise largely from the lack of satisfactory

measurement methods to establish that indenters meet the specified geometry. Such methods have now been

developed by MEL, and collaborations are in progress to qualify indenters used in the various national laboratories.

21
MIST chairs the Panel on Wind and Seismic Effects, established in 1969 as part of the U.S.-Japan

Cooperative Science Program. Eighteen U. S. agencies participate in the Panel to develop and exchange

technologies aimed at reducing damage from high winds, earthquakes, storm surge, and tidal waves. Since our two

nations share particular risks from these perils, tiiis cooperation leverages our efforts to learn what we can from

natural disasters to help prevent fiiture damage and suffering. The Panel has eleven technical committees that carry

out their work through the exchange of data, technical conferences, site visits, and cooperative research projects.

A similar Panel on Fire Research and Safety was established in 1975 to encourage, develop, and implement

the exchange of information in fire and smoke physics, toxicity, chemistry, and risk and hazard evaluation. This

activity alone has resulted in over 300 published research papers, the exchange of 40 guest researchers, and seven

targeted research projects. Cooperation in the conduct and interpretation of fire tests helped assure the acceptability

of wooden structural members in low-rise construction in Japan, thus opening a new export market for U. S. forest

products.

In the information sciences, common research problems include the development of tests and performance

metrics for emerging technologies. As one important example of activity in this area, NIST has collaborated with

Korea to develop better metrics for the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN).

Research with environmental application quite naturally requires international cooperation because of its global implications. To advance our imderstanding of the transport properties of alternative refrigerants, NIST is collaborating under the auspices of lUPAC with researchers from England, Germany, and Portugal to measure,

correlate and predict both thermal conductivity and viscosity. NIST has initiated and is chairing the activities of

Annex XVIII of the International Energy Agency, the objectives of which are to provide a forum for the exchange

of information and data and for the coordination of activities on the thermophysical properties of environmentally

acceptable refrigerants and the determination (including experimental measurements and the evaluation and

correlation of data) of the thermophysical properties of these fluids leading to the publication of comprehensive,

internationally accepted properties bulletins.

In electronics, Japan comes quickly to mind as a nation with much knowledge to share with the United

States. As part of the 1993 U. S -Japan Agreement on Cooperation in Research and Development in Science and

Technology, NIST is leading a bilateral program to advance the manufacture of optoelectronics components. This

U. S.-Japan Joint Optoelectronics Project is fimded primarily by Japan's Ministry of International Trade and

Industry (MITI). Participants in both the United States and Japan are able to obtam novel optoelectronic prototypes

from suppliers in the other country using the services of a broker. The spur for this project is the understanding that an ability to prototype is essential for rapid advancement in any underlying technology, as experience in siliconbased microelectronics has proved. The need for prototyping foimdries is even greater in optoelectronics than in

microelectronics because the technology is less mature and fabrication facilities are few in number, each with its limited set of capabilities.

Sometimes world affairs provide the necessary infroductions for fruitfril interactions. NIST is engaged m a number of collaborative projects with researchers in Eastern Europe, sponsored m part by such organizations as the

U. S. - Poland Maria Sklodowska-Curie Joint Fund, and the U. S.- Hungarian Science and Technology Program.

These many projects, mostly pairing NIST staff with university researchers, cover the gamut of the physical and

engineering sciences. Examples include the certified reference materials for bronzes and brasses, the measurements

of atomic transition probabilities, and advances in laser frequency stabilization in support of the needs of multiwavelength interferometry.

22
Role of Visiting Scientists

To maintain a free flowing atmosphere of ideas and people, NIST today hosts in total about 320 foreign

guest researchers, from every comer of the globe, working in every area of endeavor. A visitor from Egypt studies

organic thermochemistry; a visitor from China develops theories for the wear maps of ceramics; a scholar from

Croatia uses x-ray diffraction to study crystal structure; a student from Uruguay plots sfrategies for the application

of mdustrial robots; and a researcher from Mauritius studies the critical currents of superconductors used for

radiometric measurements. Similarly, over the past 5 years, over 60 NIST researchers have made extended visits to foreign nations to continue their research. Whether visiting Canada to study the effectiveness of oil-spill clean-ups,

England to use imique synchrotron facilities, or Japan to view first-hand the management of its telecommimications

network, these international assignments have a direct and positive influence on the success of NIST's mission.

International Use of Facilities

The high flux reactor at the Institut Laue Langevin (ILL) in Grenoble, France has hosted NIST staff for

measurements of crystal structure factors, which are required for x-ray and gamma-ray specfroscopy. This is the

only facility in the world that combines high resolution and neutron flux with a source changing mechanism capable

of introducing samples into the high flux region next to the reactor core. The same NIST group collaborates with

the Italian Instituto Nazionale per la Fisica Delia Materia, using the best data available on crystal structure to determine Avogadro's constant.

Conversely, NIST operates facilities such as the Research Reactor and Cold Neufron Research Facility that

attract foreign guest researchers involved in collaborative projects. Approximately 15 percent of the foreign guest

researchers at NIST work with neutrons produced at these facilities—on projects ranging from superconductors to

lipid bilayers to measurements of the fundamental interactions of neutrons.

Continuing Need for Research in Metrology

Powerful commercial and public pressures are demanding increased acciu-acy and reliability in elecfronic,

mechanical, physical, and chemical measurements, both for international compatibility and product quality assurance. As industry moves into the 21st century, customers will be won or lost depending upon the quality and

cost of their products. The ability to meet national and international standards and specifications will play an

increasingly sfrong role in assuring economic competitiveness. Product quality and international compatibility are driving industrial demand for increased measurement accuracy, not only in corporate metrology laboratories, but

right on the factory floor.

At the foimdation of ensuring international compatibility and all approaches to disseminatmg physical

standards of measurement lie the primary standards themselves—the standards to which all others are ultimately

related. Any coimtry's meastirement infrastructure must ultimately be limited by the accuracy and stability of its primary standards. Thus it is important that NIST is a world leader in realizing the ampere and the temperature

scale and a key player in efforts to replace the mass artifact by an elecfronic kilogram. Yet in realizing the unit of

time, where NIST a few years ago commissioned the world's most accurate frequency standard, the international

standard second is still—as it has been for 10 years—based essentially on the primary cesiimi clocks of a single

European laboratory. Even our claun of having the world's most accurate standard is now no longer true—in 1996

the French succeeded in realizing a cesium atomic foimtain frequency standard superior to the NIST optically

pumped cesium standard.

23
In many areas, technological advances have outpaced our ability to measure and control performance. For

example, the radiation standards available for calibrating cancer therapy treatment facilities are the same as those

used for the past 20 years—fine for calibrating nearly obsolete low-energy x-ray and gamma ray sources, but of no

use for the modem, high-energy electron-beam therapy units found in nearly every major hospital.

U.S. technological leadership is threatened. Many nations are increasing their support of metrology and

standards activities, especially m certain strategic areas. Success by its nature breeds complaisance. Without

increased attention to the vitality of the fundamental measurements, standards, and data programs in the laboratories

at NIST, we will not be able to claim the international technical leadership upon which the rest of our international

and domestic programs are based.

Plans for Future Activity

NIST managers and scientists have identified key areas of research required for NIST to regain wider

international leadership in metrology and to be, at the same time, responsive to the needs of U.S. industry. A list of

priority needs includes the following:

• Development of ionizing radiation standards and international intercomparisons to facilitate cooperative

agreements and commercial opportunities involving the radiation processing of food and materials and the

export of radiation therapy and radiation protection technology.

• Development of optical radiation standards and standard reference materials needed by U.S. industry to demonstrate conformity with international protocols on color and appearance of commercial products such

as photographic fibn, paint, coatings, electronic displays, and lighting products.

• Development of miniature fi^equency standards based on fimdamental, intrinsic properties of materials. This

would be done jointly with industry. Miniature cesium-cell standards will be built and systematic effects

evaluated to establish accuracy.

• Development of an atomic fountain clock with ten times higher accuracy than the present standard for the

xmits of time and fi-equency.

• Development of electro-optical techniques and standards for characterizing ultra short laser pulses, ultra

narrow-bandwidth light fields, and nonlinear optical materials used to generate and engineer pulsed laser

beams for photonic and laser processing applications.

• The development of infi-ared and visible imaging radiometric standards for thermometric temperature

gradient sensing in manufacturing process control and remote sensing applications.

• The development of an ac voltage standard based on the Josephson junction that will provide a fundamental, self-calibrating ac voltage standard useful in industrial electrical calibration laboratories.

• Development of ac resistance standards based on the quantum Hall effect, enabling higher accuracy

calibrations to be made in industrial settings.

• Development of quantum-based standards for capacitance and current, based upon the phenomenon of

single electron turmeling, offering the potential of simplified and more accurate primary electrical standards.

• Development of measurement techniques and standards for characterizing magnetic nanostructures and

giant magnetoresistive effects critical to the development of higher density magnetic storage devices for the

computer industry.

24
Development of the means to realize more accurately the unit of length through advanced mterferometry

and optical wavelength standards.

Development of test data and test methods for assessment of human-machine interface technologies (e.g.,

spoken and written natural language), mathematical and statistical software, and software diagnostics.

Development of new, critically evaluated databases for physical, chemical, and materials properties, e.g., machinability of materials needed for advanced manufacmring applications.

Development of electronic dissemination techniques for delivering reference data to industry for

computation-based product design and virtual engineering.

Development of an electronic kilogram to replace the standard artifact kilogram, the last remaining

international standard not related to fundamental physical properties.

Development of the first international standard for the chemical mole or "amount of substance," needed

to establish a system for traceability for chemical measurements on a worldwide basis.

Development of speciation analysis techniques and standard reference materials for radioactive materials in natural matrices such as Irish Sea and Arctic Sea sediments, as required to make measurements that will

make possible important international agreements and policies.

Development of a secondary, radiation-based internationally accepted temperature scale covering the range

from 0 " C to 962 ° C is required to support growing industrial reliance on non-contact temperature

measurement.

Development of a new generation of primary flow measurement standards which are both portable and

extensible, i.e., can be scaled for use over wide ranges of flow rate and fluid conditions, is required to enable intercomparisons of disparate national flow standards.

Development of high sensitivity, species specific partial pressure measurement systems based on optical

technologies will enable reliable intercomparison of primary standards of vacuum and humidity.

Development of second generation, controlled clearance piston gauges, based on computationally

optimized designs, to provide 10-fold reductions in uncertainties of primary high pressure standards.

Development of high accuracy, triple point cells of gases such as Ar, Nj, and SFg to serve as transportable,

reference points pressure measurements.

Development of a new series of reference methods and materials for measurement of pH at high

temperatures and pressures to address industrial process monitoring requirements.

25
ni. Provide Uniform and Accurate Measurements

Sharrill Dittmann*

Abstract

NISTplays a critical role infacilitating U.S. exports by helping to ensure the accuracy and credibility of

U.S. measurements and measurement services. Currently, there is no universally recognized system to which all trading partners adherefor ensuring measurement accuracy and credibility. U.S. exporters often must have their

products tested in the importing country when that country does not recognize the reliability of U.S. tests, resulting

in both higher costs and lost markets. The challengefor NIST as the national metrology laboratory is to provide the

critical links between the various U.S. testing and laboratory accreditation systems and the U.S. national

measurement standards on the one hand, andforeign governments and bodies requiring U.S. Government

assurance ofthe reliability of U.S. test and measurement results on the other. NIST is well positioned to respond to

this challenge. NISTstaffalready are involved in a broad range ofrelated international activities including as U.S. representatives to several international bodies. However, NIST's capability to provide measurement services has

continued to erode. In the interest of U.S. international (and domestic) trade, NIST must strengthen these services.

The Problems to Be Addressed

Unifonn and accurate measurements are the foimdation of free and equitable trade. They are vital to the

achievement of equity in trade, to the fair and honest transfer of goods, and to the minimization of risk in product

development and product rejection. Without measurements and standards, the quality, amount, and value of goods

traded cannot be known. Without uniform and accurate measurements and standards,' fair trade cannot take place.

As the impact of the global marketplace expands, it becomes increasingly important for U.S. manufacturers

and producers to demonstrate to the world community that the measurements underlying their products are firmly

integrated into the world system of measurements, and that their products meet international or foreign

specifications. The U.S. conununity is under substantial pressure to demonstrate the credibility of its measurements

and so, therefore, is NIST. Equally important, the relationship of NIST measurements to those of the rest of the

world must be demonstrated and more formally monitored and documented. These changes in the way

manufacturers and national metrology laboratories must operate have put new pressures on all laboratories, and

increased both the pace at which measurements must be made and the number of those measurements.

Even with the highest quality products, U.S. industry is not assured entry into the world marketplace and

maintenance of maiicet share. ITie flow of products around the world requires overcoming various barriers including

proof of comparability of national laboratory standards and services, conformity assessment, mutual recognition of

calibration laboratory accreditations and differences in national documentary standards.

The following is an example. The U.S. legal metrology system or "weights and measures" helps to ensure

equity in trade for commercial transactions comprising $3.36 trillion—half of the U.S. GDP in 1994. These

transactions include sales of foods, petroleum products, grain and feed, agrichemicals, paper products, building and

construction materials, and a wide variety of other materials and products which are sold by weight or measure

' The term "standard" in this chapter refers to physical or chemical measurement standards (etalons). Standard in

this usage is defined in tiie International Vocabulary ofBasic and General Terms in Metrology as "material

measure, measuring instrument, reference material or measuring system intended to define, realize, conserve or reproduce a unit or one or more values of a quantity to serve as a reference."

* Sharrill Dittmann is Chief, Calibration Program, National Institute of Standards and Technology

26
and have large international markets. Grain and feed sales alone account for $77 billion of the GDP, and even small

measurement errors in this and other areas can have an enormous cost unpact on either the buyer or the seller. For

example, the state of Ohio estimated that a 2 percent error in grain moisture measurements could result in losses up

to $44 million to Ohio grain producers. Equity in grain and feed sales also depends on accurate measurement of

protein, foreign material, pounds per bushel, and other quality factors that impact the cost of the grain. These

measurements are often quite sophisticated and involve support from several measurement services offered by the

national laboratory as well as the use of well-established protocols.

When U.S. grain is shipped overseas, the quality and quantity of grain must also be specified, which

includes measuring the factors identified above. However, when the grain is received overseas, these measurements

are repeated, and the results may be quite different. There is currently no way to establish whether any differences

are technically based or whether the confusion in measurement results has been used to mask a trade barrier or malfeasance. Such differences have resulted in grain shipments being rejected or purchased at feed-grain prices even

though the original specification was for grain for himian consumption. The lack of agreement has cost U.S.

suppliers substantial sums of money.

The U.S. Model

In the United States, measurements made for commercial trade purposes are the only ones regulated by

government, and only by State and local government. The Federal Government, through NIST, provides mechanisms

for harmonization and coordination of statutes and requirements among the states, and ensures measurement

traceability through State weights and measures laboratories and field offices. Only in the past 10 years has U.S.

legal metrology seen advantages to regulations requiring the preliminary evaluation of prototype commercial

measuring devices prior to allowing their sale in domestic markets. All other nations employ some type of

preliminary device evaluation prior to permitting their sale in their commercial marketplaces.

For other measurements made for industrial, scientific, and military pvuposes, there is a myriad of pathways

available to tie a commercial laboratory's measurements to those at the national laboratory. The Federal

Government's mandated role is to provide the measurement base to support these pathways to NIST. The buyer of

the service is free to audit the performance of the seller. Increasingly, buyers of measurement services are requiring

preliminary evaluation of a measurement service provider's ability to provide accurate measurements as demonstrated by third party accreditation programs (including NISPs National Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation

Program, NVLAP, which applies ISO standards).

When the Federal Government is the customer of calibration and testing services, the purchasing agency

usually audits the seller of these services or equipment to ensure proper quality and technical standards. Each

agency has established its own criteria; however, there is an increasing shift towards the federal agencies adopting

ISO standards.

The overall philosophy in the United States has been to allow whatever means and methods achieves the

measurement goals of the informed end user. This model has been quite successfiil at dealing with metrology in trade

at the domestic level; U.S. manufacturers and measurement service providers deliver high-quality products based on

the world's best measurements. Internationally, the story is quite different. There is no single U.S. coordinating

body, or agreement at the international level, that coordmates U.S. national metrology at all levels. However, many

nations demand that U.S. measurements and measurement services be tied together at the international level.

The current national and international system is not entirely adequate for our needs today. The U.S.

governmental bodies do not speak with a smgle voice, frustrating external trading partners who are attempting to meet trade and other regulatory requirements for sale of their products and services within the United States. There is not a sufficient number of mutual recognition agreements between the United States and its trading partners,

frustrating domestic exporters seeking recognition of their products and services overseas.

27
There is no central clearinghouse of information concerning the status of intercomparisons or resuhing data

from intercomparisons that complements political statements of equivalency of measurements at the international

level. There is no universally accepted set of links and pathways for establishing efficient measurement equivalence

among members of the Convention of the Meter and regional tradmg blocs, and among those intercomparing at the

highest measurement level with those intercomparing at the industrial and legal metrology levels.

At the International Level: The National Laboratory and Below

At the level of international and scientific metrology, the Convention of the Meter established the metric

system as the worldwide system of measurement and created the International Bureau of Weights and Measures

(BIPM) in Sevres, France, as the body that defines the units of measurement such as the meter and the kilogram.

Signatories to the Convention of the Meter, including the United States, frequently compare their national standards

with both the BIPM and signatory nations. This links the member nations and ensures that mefrology at the highest

level can be carried out accurately and uniformly around the world.

Therefore, the additional measurements and measurement coordination that are needed to facilitate trade are

possible. These take place not just between national laboratories but also secondary laboratories at the levels of

international, scientific, and industrial metrology and involve assessments of the delivery of measurement services

(calibrations, reference materials, reference databases, etc.) and of physical and chemical standards that are not

maintained by the BIPM. These include standards of force and hardness, reference materials for chemical

measurements like gas standards, and databases like properties of refrigerants.

International Legal Metrology

At the level of international legal metrology, the International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML),

established in 1955, works to harmonize the metrology regulations of its member nations. OIML produces

recommendations on the design and verification of measuring instruments; other guidance publications; and a

certificate system (product conformance documents) which facilitates trade in measuring instrumentation subject to

legal requirements. The NIST Office of Weights and Measures has adopted procedures permitting U.S.

manufacturers of scales to secure OIML certification based on measurements in the United States. This will allow

manufacturers to secure certificates in the United States that will be valid in those coimtries recognizing OIML

recommendations.

Laboratory Accreditation

Some governments require not only that a specified level of quantity or performance be achieved, but also

the assurance (1) that our private and governmental laboratories are competent and tied to our national laboratory

and (2) that our national laboratory maintain equivalency with theirs and deliver comparable measurement services on U.S. made goods to be sold in those countries. In many countries, measurements in private and governmental

laboratories are tied to national standards through a well-documented hierarchy involving assessments by one or more government or quasi-govemment bodies. The United States has a less bureaucratic and arguably more efficient

system. U.S. exporters must conform to the trading partner's model. NIST operates its National Voluntary

Laboratory Accreditation Program (NVLAP) and is seeking ways to tie all major accreditation bodies in the United

States into a confederation recognized by other nations and international bodies to meet the export needs of U.S.

companies.

Regional Cooperation

The international community has begun to address the need for efficient and imiform measurement by

forming regional cooperations analogous to and based on frade blocs. Within these regions, organizations have been

set up encompassing national metrology laboratories, accreditation bodies, and testing bodies. This chapter deals

only with metrology cooperations. For fijrther information on accreditation and testing regions, see Chapter VI.

28
There are now several metrology cooperations in the world. The United States is a member of two, the

North American Metrology Cooperation (NORAMET) with Canada and Mexico, and the Inter-American Metrology

System (SIM) with all of North, Central, and South America except Cuba. There are also regional cooperations in

Europe (EUROMET), eastern Europe (COOMET) and the Asia-Pacific area (APMP). Others are under

development in the Middle East and Africa.

Although these regional organizations have different structures and different goals reflecting the needs of

their members, they form the backbone of a worldwide metrology system. In the future, this system should

complement the role of BIPM through efficient international measurement comparisons. NIST has chaired

NORAMET, provided for its secretariat, and has agreed to operate several international interlaboratory comparisons

for SIM. NIST does not have the persormel resources to manage these interlaboratory comparisons, train the

participants, and provide technical consultations as the comparisons continue, with the dispatch that would maximize

exports.

U.S. Trade in Foreign Markets

Today, U.S. companies are faced with an overwhebning variety of regulations and demands leading to extraordinary needs for guidance, training, and measurement services to be sure that their products are of the

specified quality and will be accepted overseas. Brmging credibility to U.S. quality practices, measurements, and

standards requu^es active participation in the national metrology system by manufacturers using calibrations,

reference materials, and data, and participating in intercomparisons and proficiency testing. Furthermore, it requires

that our national metrology system be sufficiently flexible to meet any requirements imposed by other countries and

regions.

An example is a European standard for electromagnetic compatibility, which has caused particular distress

among U.S. manufacturers of electronic equipment. Not only must our manufacturers put their products through

extensive tests in Europe before they may be sold overseas, but there are also real difficulties in making meaningful

measurements. These difficulties are due in part to technical matters, and in part due to the interpretation of the

standard. Differences m measurement results may cause U.S. products to be withheld from the European market or

to be retested there (with time delays of several months and substantial additional costs). Several U.S. manufacturers

have decided to withdraw products from their lines either in Europe or worldwide.

Manufacturers need rapid access to information about mtemational and regional test methods and practices

and about intercomparisons that have been carried out between national metrology laboratories and metrology

regions. NIST maintains an excellent library of normative standards, which helps industry with the first task, but

NIST has no clearinghouse for information on intercomparisons. In addition, negotiations among standards

developers must be increased to reduce variations in test protocols that lead to variations in measurement results. The lack of adequate information about or operation of intercomparisons contributes to the use of mefrology as a

trade barrier.

Why NIST Should Address These Problems

The national metrology laboratory has both a national and an international responsibility. Not only must

that laboratory service its own mdustries and government, but it also must act as a liaison with the metrology systems

of other nations. The duties of a national metrology laboratory in today's world include performance of comparisons

to support measurements at all levels of accuracy and need, active membership in metrology region(s), examination

and characterization of measurements services of other nations, and provision of guidance and training to its customers and international trading partners. At the same time, the laboratory must carry out its traditional role of

research to support its measurement services to industry (see Figures 3.1 and 3.2 for examples of NIST services to

particular industries).

29
NIST has been mandated to maintain the U.S. national standards of measurement (with the exception of

time, which it disseminates but does not define) and to critically review reference data for industry's use and, as such,

is the body with which other nations will seek goverrmient-to-govemment agreements. NIST is imiquely qualified to serve industries' needs for quality assurance and to maintam the

international agreements necessary for free trade as a result of its long history of beneficial interactions with U.S. industry as well as strong ties with its counterparts at national laboratories around the

world.

NIST is active m the international measurement and

standards communities. Examples of this include NIST

representation of the United States in NORAMET and SIM, where

it works closely with major trading partners throughout the

Western Hemisphere; and NIST's chairmanship of the ISO

Reference Materials Committee (REMCO), which establishes

international guidelines for the production and use of reference

Measurement Services for the Petroleum

Industry:

American Petroleum Institute master

gauges

Analysis of gasoline & oil alcohol

chlorine

moisture

nickel

nitrogen

octane

sulfior synthetic oils trace elements

vanadium

Flared meters

Flow

Oil gauging tapes

Pressure

Temperature

Thermodynamic properties of

hydrocarbons

Measurement Services for the

Aerospace Industry;

Calibrations:

dimensional

electrical

mechanical

optical radiation

thermodynamic

time & frequency

Reference Materials:

aerospace alloys

fiiels lubricants

non-destructive evaluation

surface finish

thermodynamic properties

Reference Data:

ivanthermo*pc (Moscow)

materials properties

thermodynamic & thermochemical

properties

phase diagrams for ceramists

structural ceramics

corrosion performance

industrial fluids & chemical engineering

Figure 3.1 NIST Services for the U.S.

Aerospace Industry

materials, for 12 of the last 18 years allowing us to play a major

role in this critical area. NIST is the U.S. representative to OIML, giving the legal metrology community a strong voice in

international policy deliberations. The Director of NIST's

Physics Laboratory is the U.S. representative to the

International Committee on Weights and Measures, which

du-ects the BIPM, and NIST staff represent the United States on

the BIPM Consultative Committees which advise the BIPM on

technical issues.

Figure 3.2 NIST Services for the U.S.

Petroleum Industry

30
In addition, NIST serves the national measurement system with caHbrations, reference materials, reference data of

unparalleled quality, and with research into new and improved measurement sensors, methods, and models. NIST

staff work closely with interested industries, and NIST has developed stringent criteria for the establishment of

calibration services and evaluation of data and reference materials. In support of its role in maintaining the mtegrity

of national measurement standards, NIST has the mission of promoting the development and implementation of

uniform weights and measures standards and practices to ensure equity in commercial weighing and measuring

transactions.

The Approach

The international system is continuing to evolve with the establishment of formal and informal regional

trading blocs. With the lack of firm guidance in the form of an international agreement, each nation and region is free

to establish its own criteria for the acceptance of measurements and standards from outside its own boundaries.

Addressing this problem will require active cooperation within and between the established mefrology regions,

agreement on the interpretation of existing international intercomparison protocols, guidance to and feedback from

U.S. industry on existing criteria for determining measurement equivalence, and technical assistance in meeting those

criteria.

A system is being developed to minimize the number of international intercomparisons needed to link

national metrology laboratories together. Properly chosen and executed, this system will facilitate the uninhibited

flow of goods across national boundaries by allowing measurements required in the country of destmation to be

made in the country of origin. Through NORAMET, NIST is working to develop and adopt a system to accomplish

this. As the members of each region tie their measurement systems together, one (or more) designated regional

laboratory(ies) will participate in intercomparisons with laboratories in other regions. In this way, each national

laboratory can intercompare with the national laboratories of all its trading partners with greater efficiency at lower

costs in resources and time. NORAMET, and NIST's role therein, is an example of how such systems should work

elsewhere.

In addition, members of NORAMET ultimately will undertake whatever examination and verification of

each other's measurement services is required so that manufacturers do not need to ship products to the buyer's

country for calibration or verification. This will end the inefficiency of having to maintain corporate standards

traceable to the home country AND pay for calibrations in the country of destination.

For example, NIST's Office of Weights and Measures is working to reduce non-tariff frade barriers that

weighing and measuring device manufacturers encounter when exporting their equipment to Canada and other

countries. Through agreements between the U.S. National Conference on Weights and Measures and Canada's

Measurement Canada, (formally known as Legal Mefrology Branch), NIST's Office of Weights and Measures has

worked to establish mutual recognition of instrument prototype evaluations of weighmg and measuring equipment.

This program enables the manufacturer to obtain equipment approvals for both the United States and Canada through

a single evaluation, thereby reducing the overall approval costs. Industry has expressed interest in establishing

similar agreements with other frading blocs especially with the European Union.

NIST is working with U.S. industry to provide not only measurements, reference standards, and reference

data, but to provide the interpretation, guidance and fraining in meeting foreign standards necessary to compete in

the world marketplace. Many of the regulations that other regions and nations have put in place are product-based,

not performance-based, and the measurements that must be performed to verify compliance are often ambiguous.

NIST must have the measurement capabilities in place to assist industry in its development of the quality assurance systems necessary for frade in today's world. The United States stands poised in some areas to assume

market leadership (e.g., telecommunications synchronization). NIST must assist in the development of new and/or

better measurements, in parallel with its work on normative standards and protocols, to ensure that our products have

a fair chance to take their rightfiil place in the world market.

31
Options for Future Activities

NIST will continue to be an active participant in NORAMET, SIM, OIML, the International Committee of

Weights and Measures (CIPM) and the Consultative Committees for BIPM, and other international or regional

bodies as appropriate. Work has begun in NORAMET to document the level of comparability of measurement

services among the three members. A report on establishing uniform and accurate measurements worldwide was

issued by NORAMET. In SIM, our efforts will be concentrated on continuing international mtercomparisons of

national standards. A 34-country intercomparison of mass standards is underway. Future intercomparisons will be

designed not only to establish measurement links among the members, but also to facilitate trade in goods and

services. An example would be intercomparisons in electrical and pressure sensors to meet the regulations of the

U.S. Federal Aviation Admmistration (FAA) requiring that aircraft repair facilities for all planes landing in the

United States be traceable to NIST. Failure to determine whether traceability to other national laboratories by

foreign aircraft repair facilities is equivalent to traceability to NIST would seriously damage our relations with many

of our trading partners and their economies, possibly jeopardizing their willing purchase of U.S. goods and

services.

NIST will ensure the development and maintenance of a database of international intercomparison results. These data are urgently needed by companies that buy or manufacture products overseas to ensure that the standards on which they are based are frnnly tied to the other nation's standards. This database will be accessible on-line to industry and all trading partners including members of NORAMET and SIM.

Another way to increase U.S. exports is to assist our trading partners as they strengthen their national

metrology systems. NIST in partnership with private instrument manufacturers and professional scientific and

engineering organizations can provide training in technical matters as well as in United States metrology practices

and codes, opening up markets for equipment manufacturers while establishing strong technical ties with the staff

members of these laboratories. NIST should provide technical training and consultations to the scientific and

technical organizations of our trading partners, especially members of SIM and the so-called Big Emerging Markets.

Until these nations can make uniform and accurate measurements at an appropriate level, trade will continue to be

hampered.

In order to support U.S. industry's need for measurement services, training and intercomparisons (both

domestic and mtemational), NIST must maintain state-of-the-art measurement capabilities.

NIST aligns its capabilities with industry's needs by strategic plarming, priority setting, and partnering with

its mdustrial and scientific peers to acquire new staff, equipment, training facilities, and upgraded facilities wherever

necessary. New Standard Reference Materials and Data will be developed to help U.S. manufacturers meet new

challenges. NIST will concentrate its work with existing international bodies to ensure that these new measurement

services are understood by our trading partners and fiilly accepted by them as suitable standards. NIST will continue

to pursue the creation of mutual recognition agreements where necessary.

To fiirther assist industry, NIST will also increase its participation in proficiency testing to support the

National Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation Program (see Chapter VI). NIST will develop both intrinsic standards

and first-principles sensors to enable industry to make measurements with the highest possible accuracy. NIST will

also mcrease the amount of measurement trainmg and consultation that it provides to U.S. industry both to unprove

the quality of U.S. products and to explain measurement protocols and techniques required by foreign regulations

and guidelines.

Through a cooperative agreement between the U.S. Department of Agriculture and NIST's Office of

Weights and Measures, NIST is striving to improve measurement accuracies in the importing and exporting of grain

as well as in domestic grain transactions. Through this same Office, NIST will support states and local jurisdictions

with protocols, model legislation, traceability to NIST, training, and technical expertise for a variety of measurement

capabilities to ensure accurate measurements and equity m trade.

32
NIST will provide training for industry and legal metrology jurisdictions covering requirements and

standards for legal metrology. The most efficient way to reach the largest number of participants is to train the

trainers, and NIST has been doing this successfully in selected arenas for decades. This program will grow from five

classes per year in 1996 to 50 classes per year m 2003. The impact of commercial legal metrology is enormous and

the number of areas to be covered is large—approximately 17 different subject areas have been requested for

training. Only by trainmg trainers can NIST serve all of industry's needs in this area.

33
IV. Improve U.S. Access to Developing Markets Through Standards

Assistance and Training

Peter L.M. Heydemann*

Abstract

Trade in any market requires an infrastructure that includes not only transportation, mail and telephone

systems, electric power, and banking, but also a system ofclear and reasonable normative standards,' confi)rmity

assessments, weights and measures, and import regulations. It also requires competent authorities to set and

administer the rules. When these conditions are notfulfilled, when there are arbitrary rules, corruption, or cheating

in the market place, then U.S. access to the market is impaired. Many developing markets, and even afew

developed ones, do not meet all ofthe conditions identified above. This chapter discusses the conditions in several

developing markets and describes the program that NIST Technology Services is embarking on to improve access to those markets. We concentrate here on influencing authorities to set reasonable normative standards compatible

with U.S. or international patterns; to recognize the results oftesting done in the United States; and to providefair

weights and measures services. The major toolsfor achieving these objectives are to establish relations with other

governments based on mutual trust and confidence; to provide training, advice, and consultation; and to assist in the establishment ofappropriate organizations. This will then be the basis to achieve the objectives described

elsewhere in this reportfor the harmonization ofnormative standards, for the evolution ofa worldwide system of

uniform and accurate measurements, andfor reaching the elusive goal of "one product, one standard, one

conformity assessment. " This work is urgent. Other nations are many years ahead ofus in establishing systems in

developing markets thatfavor their traders and exclude ours.

Bacl^round

Exports are vital for the United States. About 1 1 percent of the U.S. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is exported. Exports finance many high-paying U.S. jobs. Much of the growth of GDP in past years was due to increased exports. Over the past 10 years, U.S. exports have increased about 10 percent annually—substantially

more than the U.S. GDP increase, but not as much as international trade worldwide.

A Manufacturer Trading in the Global Market needs:

- Competitive products

- Uniform and accurate measurements

- Compatible standards, codes, and regulations

- Agreements on conformity assessment

A manufacturer trading

in the global market must have

competitive products; that is, products that can compete on

the basis of customer

preferences, innovation, quality,

and price. Traders must also

have access to uniform and

accurate measurements, usually

traceable to a National

Measurement Laboratory; compatible normative standards, codes, and regulations; agreements on mutual

recognition of accredited laboratories for conformity assurance; registered manufacturmg quality management

systems; and, soon, environmental quality management systems, all in order to satisfy the importing country's

policies and rules (Figure 4.1). The importing country must have competent organizations and staff to set and

administer these trade policies and rules in a predictable and transparent manner (Figure 4.2).

Figure 4. 1 Market Requirements

'A normative standard is one in which a particular value (size, performance, quality, design) is selected fi"om a range

of alternative values.

Peter L.M. Heydemann is Director of Technology Services, National Institute of Standards and Technology

34
In the domestic markets of many countries, the national weights and measures organizations assure manufacturers, traders, and their customers of measurement uniformity and accuracy. For international markets,

however, weights and measures systems have not kept pace with the needs of traders. Further, for all legal

metrology, for trade in regulated applications, and for complying with contract requirements, these measurements

must be "traceable" to specific national standards.^ Chapter III of this report discusses the actions necessary to provide these traceable, uniform, and accurate measurements for the world market. In 1994, foreign requu-ements

for testing, inspection, and certification affected more than $150 billion of global U.S. exports.

The European Union (EU) is included in the discussions in this chapter because European efforts in key

emerging markets, particularly Latin America and the former Soviet Union, impact our efforts to open these markets

to U.S. exports.

Problems that Must Be Addressed:

The world market is becoming increasingly

competitive. This has led to technical barriers to trade,

both intentionally and

unintentionally, limiting access to markets, including in

large emerging markets such

as Latin America. Many of the

problems are related to normative standards,

conformity assessment

testing, and metrology. These

technical barriers to trade can be overcome, but there is an enormous amount of work to Figure 4.2 Organizations and Functions Needed to Trade in International Markets

be done.

Normative standards, codes, and regulations are developed by national or international volimtary standards

development organizations and by goverrmients. Where the underlying philosophy or the purpose of the normative

standards in the buyer's and seller's country differ, difficulties arise in specifymg products and in assuring

conformity. For example, in the United States, conformity assurance issued by the supplier is usually sufficient for

some sectors. In foreign, regulated markets, third party conformity certification by an accredited laboratory in the

buyer's covmtry is the rule, unless a mutual recognition agreement exists. Registration of the seller's manufacturing

quality management system under the guidelines of ISO 9000 is usually requu-ed. In the future, registration of

manufacturers' environmental quality management systems under Guidelines of ISO 14000 will likely be imposed.

In the United States we prefer performance-based normative standards developed by private industry in

contrast to design-based normative standards frequently used in the EU and the Commonwealth of

Independent States (CIS, the former Soviet Union). Design-based standards tend to inhibit iimovation. Some EU

normative standards are so difficult, tune-consummg, or expensive to conform to, that U.S. companies have

^"Standard" means physical or chemical measurement standards (etalon), in contrast to normative

standards.

A Country Trading in the Global Market Needs:

- A national or regional metrology laboratory

- Measurement standards traceable to other major standards laboratories

- Calibration services for physical and chemical measurements

- A weights and measures organization

> Voluntary standards development organizations

- Regulatory agencies

- Normative standards compatible with international standards

- Mechanisms to meet conformity assurance regulations of trading partners

- Trade agency empowered to negotiate trade agreements

- Information on other countries' standards, assessment rules, etc.

35
begun to withdraw products from the EU market. There are as yet no mutual recognition agreements for testing

between the United States and the EU. The United States has offered European phone companies free access to the

U.S. telecommunications market, but had to withdraw the offer because of the European refusal to give our industry

similar access.

European, especially German, organizations are spending substantial resources on introducing developing

countries to the European system of normative standards

and conformity assessment. Germany currently spends

about $40 million annually on 3 and 5 year metrology

projects in South and Central America (see Figure 4.3);

Germany is spending several million dollars in India on the

new Quality Council of India and its laboratory

accreditation; Germany is setting up a Science and

Technology Center in Muscat, Oman; Germany has

assisted in the design and construction of laboratory

buildings of the Saudi Arabian Standards Organization

(SASO) in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Germany is also Figure 4.3 U.S. vs. German Trade Support

planning to donate $2 million for mefrology activities in

Saudi Arabia. Germany uses this program, as it does in

many other countries, to gain a foothold in foreign markets. It infroduces German equipment, DIN normative

standards, European Union (EU) Directives, and design-based normative standards to tie the host countries to the

German or European markets. Other European governments, particularly France and the United Kingdom and their

standards bodies, provide similar training, technical assistance, and copies of their national standards to emerging

economies in Latin America, Central Europe, and Asia. The European Commission has allocated $2 billion over 4

years for fraining in developing coimfries. This is not m the interest of the United States, particularly when it happens in areas of particular interest to us, as in Latin America. NIST needs to coimteract this initiative with its own stronger, better focussed, and executed program. The United States has no standards program to match the

European effort at this time. If the Europeans succeed in taking control, the United States will not have equal access

to emerging high growth markets.

An area that requires a great deal of U.S. attention for economic as well as political reasons are the

countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). They use normative standards developed by the

former Soviet Union's standards organization, GOSSTANDART. These normative standards are incompatible with

U.S. or international standards, and certification of U.S. built equipment to these standards is vutually impossible.

U.S. companies exporting to the CIS, as well as those with investments there, try to comply with local normative

standards and codes. However, the lack of consistent and well-publicized certification and licensing procedures

makes compliance time-consummg, expensive, and frustrating. Company complamts focus on three primary issues:

(1) lack of written standard procedures and requirements for certification, and their discriminatory application, (2)

lack of acceptance of internationally recognized normative standards, and (3) lack of fimdmg for the CIS agencies

involved in the certification and licensing process, leadmg to arbitrary and excess charges. Examples of problem

product areas include oil and gas equipment, telecommunications equipment, aerospace, and automotive equipment.

These countries also use design-based normative standards. Nor are there any mutual recognition agreements for

accredited laboratories with the United States.

Standards organizations in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus participate in international normative standards

development m the International Standards Organization (ISO), the International Elecfrotechnical Commission

(lEC), and the International Telecommunications Union (ITU). Standards organizations in other NIS (Newly

Independent States) countries have little or no direct experience in international standards matters. Their regulatory

agencies are unfamiliar with the practical application of international normative standards such as those developed

in ISO and lEC, and they do not have the necessary infrastructure m place to carry out product certification

efficiently. The situation is exacerbated by the fact that NIS standards organizations are distrustfiil of private

business. Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus are the focus of intense competition in economic and trade development

between the European Union and the United States. These countries also pose a serious political vacuum.

Germany spends more in Guatemala to

influence the flow of trade, than NIST

can spend in the entire world.

The United States is 26th in the world

in export trade support.

36
The Central Asian Republics (CAR) around the Caspian Sea are sitting on the world's largest remainmg oil reserves. Improvmg U.S. access to these markets requires a complete change from their design-oriented,

government-imposed normative standards to performance-oriented, normative standards developed by manufacturers

and users. Kazakstan and the other Central Asian NIS rely on Russia's GOSSTANDART organization for

development and dissemination of normative standards, and use GOSSTANDART's normative standards to manage

industrial development.

These normative, design-based standards are enforced by a cadre of CAR inspectors familiar with

GOSSTANDART normative standards but who are unable to comprehend or even read the normative standards

used by the U.S. oil industry (Chevron, Mobil) in Kazakstan—the standards of the American Society for Mechanical

Engineering (ASME); the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE); the American Petroleum Institute (API); and

ISO. An example is the ASME Pressure Vessel Code, which is used around the world but not in the CIS/CAR.

Chevron is the largest stakeholder among eight non-CIS companies in the pipeline project from Kulsary to Novorossiysk. Chevron encoimters serious difficuhies with the import and operation of U.S. equipment because of

the unfamiliarity of Kazak mspectors with international or U.S. normative standards. U.S. industry is urging NIST to

assist these countries and GOSSTANDART to help access these important markets. Chevron has invested at least

$700 million in the Tengiz Oil Field but has had to reduce its spending because of the limited current pipeline

capacity.

Saudi Arabia recently introduced an International Conformity Certification Program (ICCP) that may soon be extended to the other Gulf Cooperation Council states—a $14 billion market. This program is designed to prevent importation of low quality merchandize from Asia. However, the rules apply to every country of origin,

including the United States, and mvolve extensive testing of merchandise and pre-inspection of all shipments in and

from the coimtry of origin. At best, this creates a delay of several weeks and added cost. Nor does it conform to the

rules of the World Trade Organization and the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade. U.S. exports to oil-rich

Middle East nations with decreasing real income are declining, and more efforts are needed to increase U.S. market

share against strong European competition. The Middle East Peace Process requires U.S. assistance in economic

development. NIST's Standards for Trade program could contribute significantly to this goal. This NIST program

could also be applied to the rest of the Islamic nations in the Middle East and North Africa. NIST has relevant

activities and contacts in several of these countries.

Few cotmfries constituting the emerging Market of the Americas (planned Free Trade Area of the

Americas, FTAA) have established the organizations and mechanisms (Figure 4.2) needed to deal efficiently with

international trade. This poses a problem for realization of the FTAA, and for U.S. exporters. At the 1994 Summit

of the Americas in Miami, all Heads of State of the Americas (except Cuba) affirmed their commitment to a Plan of

Action leading to the formation of a Market of the Americas. However, most of these countries cannot collaborate

effectively because they lack a technological infrastructure, measurement standards, weights and measures,

normative standards, and a conformity assessment process. Support from NIST for the establishment of these

technical infrastructures would strengthen long term U.S. trade opportunities appreciably.

The Asia-Pacific market covers a few very sophisticated countries with sfrong trade policies and technical

barriers to frade. Other Asia-Pacific nations are less developed but growing rapidly. The Asia-Pacific Economic

Cooperation (APEC), of which the U.S. is a member, has committed to free trade throughout that region by 2020 and

is actively working on development of the supporting infrastructure.

37
What Can NIST Do To Improve Access to these Markets?

A. Current NIST Activities by Geographic Area

At the request of the Secretary of Commerce, NIST supports the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative in

international negotiations on normative standards and conformity assurance issues, such as negotiations on Mutual

Recognition Agreements with the EU. Under the WTO and the U.S. Trade Agreements Act of 1979 which

implemented the predecessor Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), NIST has a range of obligations,

including maintenance of the National Center for Standards and Certification Information and the WTO-TBT

Inquiry Point.

Canada

Our largest tradmg partner is Canada, and U.S. access to that market is generally excellent. There are few

problems. We cooperate closely with Canada in the North American Metrology Cooperation (NORAMET) and the

North American Calibration Cooperation (NACC). Both countries work closely with Mexico, our third NAFTA

partner.

Mexico

Mexico requires a major effort. In Mexico, the government exercises much more influence on the

development of normative standards, conformity assessment, and metrology than in Canada or the United States. A

system for developing voluntary normative standards has not evolved yet. There is also a palpable fear that the big

industrialized neighbor, the United States, is going to impose its policies on the smaller, developing country. At

Congress' request, NIST has placed a Standards Attache in the U.S. Embassy in Mexico City. Also, NIST recently

organized a very successful workshop on normative standards in trade for Mexican leaders from government and the

private sector. The contacts made by our representative and the understanding gained in this workshop will be very

valuable for fiiture collaborations.

Market of the Americas

Beyond Mexico lies the Market of the Americas—Central and South America. NIST collaboration with the

Interamerican System of Metrology (SIM), which embraces all coimtries in the Americas, is described m Chapter III. NIST staff and funding resources in this region amount to only one or two percent of the German standards

investment. NIST recently placed a Standards Attache at the U.S. Embassy m Buenos Aires to advise the U.S.

Ambassador, to collaborate with the Senior Foreign Commercial Counselor and with the U.S. busmess community,

and to work with local standards officials. The objective is to harmonize normative standards and overcome the numerous standards-related hurdles to U.S. exports. Commerce Department-led Business Development Committees

and their working groups on standards are operating in Brazil and Argentina with NIST staff support. NIST's

National Quality Program has assisted several Latin American and other countries in developing quality award

programs.

Newly Independent States (NIS) Including the Asian Central Asian Republics (CAR)

NIST, with -funding and excellent support from the SABIT (Special American Business Internship Training)

program, has organized a series of Standards in Trade workshops to familiarize NIS/CAR standards experts with the

U.S. system of voluntary and regulatory normative standards, conformity assessment, and metrology, and to establish

personal contacts. NIST staff, in collaboration with the ISO, have also conducted seminars in the Cenfral Asian

Republics. Seven SABIT workshops have been held for people with responsibility for, among others, medical

38
devices, construction, oil and gas production, and

automobiles. Another workshop was organized

and funded by NIST for highest level

representatives of the standards organizations of

Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, and Kazakstan. The

NIS delegation was led by the President of

Russia's GOSSTANDART. These workshops

have been very successful in generating a better

understanding of each other's systems and a level

of mutual trust and confidence that bodes well for

future interaction.

This work is complemented by the

Commerce Department's Business Development

Committees (BDCs) and specifically their

Working Groups on Standards. BDCs have been

set up for developing markets such as Russia and

Ukraine. The Standards Working Groups are supported by NIST staff.

Senior standards officials in the Central

Asian Republics lack access to official Russian

translations of international normative standards, and have received no training in the interpretation and use of these

standards. As members of the NIS Intergovernmental Council on Standards, Certification, and Metrology, chaired

by GOSSTANDART, they are committed to adopt the national normative standards of the Russian Federation as intergovernmental standards, and to cooperate in establishing a common certificate of compliance throughout the

NIS. This has not been achieved. In the case of Kazakstan, for example, NIST staff have discussed the situation

with the local U.S. business community and with the leaders of KAZAKSTANDART, their national standards

organization. However, NIST does not have sufficient staff resources to undertake meaningful negotiations and

training.

Middle East

In Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, NIST is represented by a U.S. engineer who works under our contract with the

Foreign Conraiercial Counselor at the U.S. Embassy and, under a long-term standing agreement, with the Director of

the Saudi Arabian Standards Organization (SASO). To illustrate the benefits and cost-effectiveness of this program,

the American Business Roundtable in Riyadh states that the work of the NIST Standards Representative supported

by staff at NIST has increased U.S. exports to Saudi Arabia by between $300 and $500 million per year, with a cost

to the U.S. Government less than $500,000. This very successful work of the NIST Standards Expert is described in

detail in Chapter V. The agreement with SASO was expanded recently to include all of the Gulf Cooperation Council

(GCC) countries. NIST also pursues contacts with other countries in the Middle East including Egypt, Turkey, and

Israel, but no major or formal effort exists as yet to collaborate closely on standards and related matters.

Asia-Pacific

NIST enjoys good contacts and works closely with the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation group, but there

is no major collaborative standards program under way. Through its membership in ANSI, NIST participates in the

Pacific Area Standards Congress (PASC), a regional body devoted to information exchange and cooperation on

standards activities. Collaborations on conformity assessment are described in Chapter VI. NIST has an office of

the Standards Representative in New Delhi, India, located at the Indian National Physical Laboratory, and that is staffed with a local hire. NIST maintains excellent contacts in India that were recently expanded by a very

successful workshop on Standards in Trade. Markets in South Asia, particularly India, are expected to develop

rapidly in the next few years.

Figure 4.4 The Central Asian Republics around the Caspian Sea

39
European Union (ELD

The U.S. Trade Representative (USTR) has negotiated for 3 years on Mutual Recognition Agreements

(MRAs) for mutual recognition between the United States and EU of each other's testing, inspection, certification, or

other conformity assessment procedures. Under an MRA, a manufacturer can meet both U.S. and EU standards by

undergoing testing, inspection, or certification procedures in whichever coimtry is most appropriate for conformity

assurance testing. Two experienced NIST staff members support the USTR in these negotiations and are backed up

by additional resources in NIST's Office of Standards Services. Progress on the MRAs is still elusive. At Congress'

request, NIST has placed a Standards Attach^ in the U.S. Mission to the European Union to assist the Ambassador

and the Senior Foreign Commercial Counselor in their efforts to gain and maintain U.S. access to the European

market.

In November 1995, industry in Europe and in the United States organized the Transatlantic Business

Dialog in Seville, Spain. This was a business-driven meeting auned at developing an agenda to reduce remaining

impediments to transatlantic trade and investment. At this meeting, committees were formed to deal with specific

problems. One of these committees deals with standards, certification, and regulatory policy. Participants view tiiis particular committee as the one most likely to succeed.

Current NIST Budget

The NISTFY1996 budget for

strengthening access to market activities is shown in Figure 4.5. The amounts shown

are expended in-country. In addition there

are expenses for the support staff in

headquarters.

B. NIST Action Plans for Substantially

Improving U.S. Access to Key

Developing Markets

As stated earlier, a coimtry must

have competent organizations and staff to establish and administer reasonable

standards-related policies in a predictable

and transparent manner (Figure 4.2).

Otherwise, manufacturing and trading is risky and expensive. There are many

foreign markets where these functions are not available or are carried out in a haphazard fashion, and often riddled with incompetence or even corruption. To

improve the situation for U.S. trade interests requires extensive training in a broad range of disciplines, and

assistance in setting up and operating competent standards policy and trade organizations. Before that training and

assistance can be undertaken, however, the exporting country's authorities, in this case NIST, must develop close

professional relationships with the importing country's actual or potential policy makers, metrologists, standards

developers, and other government and private sector leaders.

Current (FY96) Technology Services

(TS) Budget for Strengthening U.S.

Access to Developing Markets

Market of the Americas (FTAA)

Commonwealth of Independent States Central Asian Republics (CAR)

(CIS)

$k

647

400

25

Middle East and North

Asia Pacific Economic

Africa (MENA)

Cooperation (APEC)

390

30

South Asia (SA)

Africa (AFR)

50

0

Total 1,542

Figure 4.5 FY1996 Budget for Improving Access to Developing

Markets.

40
There are seven major regional markets, where unproved access for U.S. companies is particularly

important. In setting priorities for markets where improved access for U.S. traders is required, Technology

Services (NIST-TS) follows the advice of the U.S. government's trade agencies—the International Trade

Administration (DOC) and the U.S. Trade Representative (USTR). NIST-TS also considers the Commerce

Department's list of Big Emerging Markets (BEM), and responds to pressure from U.S. industry. Figure 4.6 shows

NIST's targeted markets in priority order. In addition. Technology Services works with the European Union and

with a variety of countries not listed in Figure 4.6.

Some of these, for example the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation group, include countries that are already fully integrated into the global market, such as Australia, while others require a great deal of work, often at a policy level, such as Korea and China. Some require a great deal of effort immediately. Others, such as Subsaharan Africa, will not merit much attention for many years.

We have developed programs for each of these markets based on information from Commerce's

International Trade Administration and its contacts with U.S. companies trading in these markets, and from NIST's

own experiences. All of the NIST training and assistance will be very labor intensive, will be tailored to the

particular circimistances of each country, and will rely on working with such organizations as the National

Conference of Standards Laboratories (NCSL), the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), several U.S.

colleges, retired NIST staff, and with many other resources. All efforts will be coordinated closely with the

respective countries themselves and with any regional blocs to which they belong. NIST's work in this area is an

integral element of "The National Export Strategy" reported to the Congress m October 1996 by then Commerce

Secretary Michael Kantor, Chairman of the U.S. Trade Promotion Coordinating Committee.

Each area and country has its specific needs. In the case of the CIS, for

example, for fraining purposes and use by

local inspectors we need to franslate

relevant U.S. and international standards

into Russian. The result of this concerted

effort will be a cadre of well tramed,

competent, and experienced CIS staff to carry out the fimctions listed m Figure 4.2.

But perhaps the main value is in having

Figure 4.6 Markets in Priority Order for NIST Standards '^^^^^ professional and personal contacts

Assistance & Training Activities ^i* *e people that run the standards and

conformity assessment system m the those

markets. NIST and U.S. industry will use

these contacts extensively. This is the same strategy under which Germany invests $40 million in Latm America

alone, with more standards-related investments in other markets including the CAR. As soon as competent

organizations and staff are available, we will begin the harmonization of standards, the establishment of conformity

assessment structures, and the organization of national or regional measurement laboratories overseeing weights

and measures systems. We will attempt to collect used equipment from various sources for the new metrology

laboratories and to use in training courses. In Figiu-e 4.7 we list a common set of actions that need to be taken in all of the listed markets in order to achieve and maintain U.S. market access. Once access is achieved, harmonization

of standards or development of conformity agreements can begin. NIST proposes to take the following general

actions:

(1) More Effective Participation in International Voluntary Standards Development. It is absolutely

imperative that U.S. mdustry participate more vigorously in the work of ISO, lEC, ITU, OIML, and that the U.S.

government encourage and support these efforts very strongly. These four international organizations develop most

of the international normative standards. The United States needs to influence the formulation of these standards

and to expand their use worldwide in order to increase U.S. access to the priority markets identified m Figure 4.6

and to maintam access in all other markets. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is the U.S.

Free Trade Agreement of the Americas (FTAA planned)

Commonwealth of Independent States/CIS ( Russia, Ukraine,

Belarus)

Central Asian Republics/CAR (Kazakstan, Uzbekistan)

Middle East and North Africa (MENA)

Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)

Soudi Asia (SA)

Africa (AFR)

41
representative to ISO and shoulders most of

the cost of U.S. membership ($2 million per

year), and the burden of administering U.S.

participation in the numerous committees and

task groups. The total U.S. government

contribution is a minuscule $30,000 per year. We believe the cost of membership is part of

the government task of providmg the scientific

and technical mfrastructure, and that,

accordingly, a "fair share" of the cost should

be borne by the government on behalf of all of

the country's businesses, government agencies,

and the public. That is, there is a need in the

United States for a more reasonable federal

agency dues structure than exists today. NIST

will also work with U.S. industry to assume leadership m more committees and task groups, and get qualified NIST

staff to participate consistently in the standards development activities.

(2) Developing Local Contacts and General Training in Standards-Related Subjects. Workshops and

training courses for foreign senior executives and other decision makers will continue to be held at NIST; some

courses will be given at selected U.S. colleges. We have discussed such opportunities with several colleges in the

United States and with the University of Puerto Rico. In the past, NIST workshops, several of them funded by the

U.S. Agency for International Development (AID), have proved to be extremely effective in developing needed

contacts with foreign decision makers. Workshops with executives fi-om the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) aheady have led to tangible results. NIST will make further contacts in order to plan programs that address

the standards-related problems identified by authorities in these coimtries.

(3) Competence Development: Normative Standards. In collaboration with the American National

Standards Institute and other organizations, NIST will train industry representatives fi-om partner countries in

developing normative standards and participating effectively in international organizations (ISO, lEC, ITU, OIML).

We will follow U.S. or international practices. Through executive seminars for foreign government officials and

private industry representatives, NIST will assist foreign governments to rely much more on voluntary, private sector normative standards. NIST, working with U.S. normative standards organizations, also will provide

developing coimtries with access to relevant databases which promote use of U.S. or international normative

standards.

(4) Competence Development: Conformity Assessment. Our aim will be to develop an international

conformity assessment architecture based on the concept of "One Product, One Standard, One Conformity Test." To achieve this, NIST needs to develop a high level of mutual trust and confidence with our trading partners. NIST

is in an excellent position to do this with its workshops and training courses, its international prestige as a highly

respected and neutral organization, and its broad contacts with U.S. industry. In most foreign countries, conformity

testmg is done by government testing laboratories or by commercial laboratories under strict government rules. But

changes are also needed in the United States where a large array of commercial testmg laboratories engage in

conformity testing. These laboratories are accredited by a large number of accrediting organizations, both

government and private. This pluralistic system is not very transparent, and does not mvoke great trust by foreign

governments. Efforts by NIST, ANSI, and others to create an appropriate U.S. structure for the accreditation of

conformity testing laboratories must be completed promptly. In fact, this initiative has akeady started. Details are discussed below in Chapter VI.

The actions to be taken are:

Develop and maintam professional contacts Provide training in standards*related subjects

Plan collaborative activities

Provide competence development: normative standards

Provide competence development; conformity assurance Provide competence development; quality systems management

Provide competence development: metrology

Figure 4.7 NIST Actions to Strengthen U.S. Access to Developing Markets

42
(5) Competence Development: Quality Systems Management. The provisions of the final Uruguay Roimd

have created a more competitive trading environment. Competition in international markets is now focussed more

narrowly on products and processes, price, and quality. However, buyers are putting additional demands on sellers for certification of compliance with ISO 9000, and, in an increasing number of cases, certification that products or processes are envirormientally friendly (ISO 14000). Buyer demand for thu-d party certification of compliance to ISO 9000 is becoming increasingly widespread. In addition to concerns related to quality systems, there is now an ongoing effort by industrialized countries to promote environmental management systems not only for enterprises

within their national boundaries, but also in international trade, through supplier-customer chains. Diverse national measures related to environmental management, as well as the success of the ISO 9000 series on quality management

systems, encouraged the International Standards Organization (ISO) to enter the field of environmental management

and develop the ISO 14000 series of guides for environmental quality management systems. Developing coimtries

have to learn to respond to the requu-ements imposed on them by the management systems of their customers.

Developing countries also have to learn to develop reasonable systems to assure quality merchandize imports (ISO

9000) and protection of their environment (ISO 14000). The emphasis here is on "reasonable", i.e., standards that

importers, especially U.S. companies, can comply with. The development of reasonable standards requires a level of

competence that we plan to impart to staff dealing with these issues m our priority market coimtries.

(6) Competence Development: Metrology. Most of the countries in these targeted markets have only

rudimentary weights and measures systems. Without a system of imiform and accurate weights and measures,

fairness in market access is not assured. Disputes about measurements of amounts or characteristics of merchandise

are causing losses to U.S. industry in developing markets. NIST needs to lead a worldwide effort to set up a network for accurate and uniform measurements. We will work with the targeted countries to set up such weights

and measures systems that will facilitate U.S. exports. Traditional measurements such as in mass and volume must

be complemented by performance measurements such as for digital computer and telecommunications systems,

chemical analyses of toxic contaminants in food stuffs, and environmental pollution. The NIST technical

laboratories, together with U.S. industry, will train foreign professionals, develop suitable instrumentation for

measurement transfer standards, and set up chains of traceable measurements fi"om NIST to foreign standards

laboratories. Details on this phase are discussed m Chapter III.

Conclusion

The future of U.S. exports lies in the emerging markets. The Europeans know this and are pursumg a

purposefiil and aggressive strategy to outmaneuver us by means of standards-related programs and other forms of

assistance, in an effort to permanently tie those markets to Europe. The stakes are very high, and we need to act

forcefiilly now to preserve U.S. access to those high growth markets.

43
V. Support International Standards and Harmonization Efforts

Belinda L. Collins*

Abstract

Standardization issuesfacing the United States in the global market require development ofmore effective

strategies, both domestic and international The World Trade Organization (WTO) commitment to harmonized

international standards is uniquely difficultfor the United States, which relies extensively on numerous private

sector standards developers—with active participation by industry, government, consumers, and other interested

parties. We have high quality standards which support U.S. technology effectively, but which do not respond

adequately to the challenges ofthe global market. The current U.S. standards system is complex, multifaceted, and

comprised ofmany diverse elements, many ofwhich appear unnecessarily redundant. The lack ofcentralfocus and

fragmented sector-specific approach is a handicapfor the United States in the international standards arena. Much more effective cooperation among government, standards developers, and industry is needed to build effective

solutionsfor supporting international standards, and to work with international partners to develop standards

which meet the global challenges. This chapter identifies some ofthe problems and offers some solutions for NIST

to help strengthen the U.S. presence in the international standards arena.

Goals for World Trade: The World Trade Organization

Global markets are changing dramatically, with markedly increasing trade in goods and services among

international partners in all regions of the world. In 1995, the United States exported about $700 billion worth of

goods and services, and showed its support for world trade by signing both the NAFTA and World Trade

Organization (WTO) treaties.

Yet, a large domestic market, good quality, and reasonable price no longer guarantee international market

access for U.S. products. Competition is intense and technical barriers to trade often limit or close off access to foreign markets. The Department of Commerce estimates that we could produce additional exports worth $20 to $40

billion right now, if we could overcome all existing technical barriers to trade (TBTs).

Most TBTs result fi-om differences m standards and conformity assessment practices between the United

States and its trading partners. While some are legitimately designed to protect human health, safety, or the

environment, others exist only to protect a domestic market. The signing of the WTO Treaty makes such

protectionist measures obsolete, however. For the WTO to work effectively, the international goal for normative

(documentary) standards must be "one standard, accepted internationally, for a given product, process or system."

Similar agreement is needed on the procedures used for various forms of conformity assessment, such as product

certification and laboratory accreditation or management system registration, to avoid the need to repeat any required

testing from country to country. The global marketplace can no longer tolerate needless duplication of effort

imposed by the current multiplicity of national standards and duplication of demonstrations of conformity to these

standards in different countries. Successfiil international trade can no longer tolerate a multiplicity of national

standards to which a particular product produced in many different countries must conform.

The Uruguay Round of talks, which cuhninated in the WTO Treaty, gave considerable impetus to the

desirability of one standard for a given product—accepted internationally. The Uruguay Round created the WTO as a new institution, and successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The WTO provides a

single, coordinated mechanism to ensure full implementation of an effective, worldwide trading system. The

Technical

* Belinda L. Collins is Director, Office of Standards Services, National Institute of Standards and Technology

44
Barriers to Trade (TBT) Agreement is a key element of the WTO Treaty. Designed to eliminate use of standardsrelated measures as deliberate barriers to trade, the TBT Agreement establishes international rules between

governments which regulate the procedures by which such measures are prepared, adopted and applied.

The Agreement applies primarily to the central government of a nation, which in turn is responsible for

ensuring compliance by local government and non-government bodies. Unlike the earlier General Agreement

(GATT) on Technical Barriers to Trade Standards Code, the WTO Treaty requires full participation of all member

countries in all aspects of the Agreement. This change effectively triples the membership in the TBT Agreement

from about 40 for the GATT to 120 for the WTO Treaty, and gives much more unplementation force. The new TBT

Agreement, unlike the prior GATT Standards Code, is binding on all members and can be enforced through the full WTO dispute settlement system process. It allows the use of the unified WTO dispute settlement system, and

permits withdrawal of concessions under any of the WTO agreements.

The TBT Agreement addresses the

following:

+ Technical regulations and standards'

+ Conformity Assessment + Information and assistance + Transparency and information

Figure 5.1

It asks members to use international standards, or relevant parts, as a

basis for technical regulations except when such use would be ineffective or inappropriate. It also asks that all members participate in the

preparation of international standards, and to give positive consideration

to accepting technical regulations of other parties as equivalent. Further,

the Agreement states that whenever appropriate, technical regulations

should be based on product requirements in terms of performance, rather

than on design or prescriptive characteristics. Finally, imports should be

treated no less favorably than products of national origin, and technical

regulations must not be prepared, adopted or applied with a view to, or with the effect of, creating uimecessary obstacles to trade.

Unlike the earlier GATT Standards Code, the TBT Agreement also covers conformity assessment

procedures explicitly. Conformity assessment is defined as: any procedure used, directly or indirectly, to determine

that relevant requirements in technical regulations or standards are fulfilled. Conformity assessment procedures

explicitly covered include: sampling, testing and inspection, evaluation, verification and assurance of conformity,

and registration, accreditation, and approval. As with new standards, proposed new conformity assessment

procedures are subject to the Agreement's notification requirements and must not be prepared, adopted or applied so

as to create unnecessary obstacles to international trade. The TBT Agreement encourages worldwide use of relevant

guides or recommendations by international standardizing bodies. Furthermore, it encourages members to negotiate

mutual recognition of the results of each other's conformity assessment procedures to facilitate trade m the products

concerned. Finally, the Agreement encourages direct participation by conformity assessment bodies (such as

laboratories and accreditors) m foreign conformity assessment procedures.

A key element of the WTO, and its predecessor GATT, is information exchange and transparency. All

WTO members are expected to maintain Inquiry Points for providing information to the WTO Secretariat on

proposed changes m their regulations that may affect trade. Members are also requested to provide technical

assistance regarding establishment of a national standardizing body, regulatory bodies, or bodies for the assessment

of conformity with technical regulations. This includes establishment of institutions which would enable members to

fulfill the obligations of membership or participation in international or regional systems for conformity assessment.

The TBT Agreement also encourages bilateral and muhilateral agreements between member countries on issues

related to technical regulations, standards, and conformity assessment procedures.

' In the TBT Agreement, technical regulations are defined as product characteristics or related processes and

production methods with which compliance is mandatory. Standards, on the other hand, are defined as documents

approved by a recognized body that provide for common and repeated use of rules, guidelmes or characteristics for

products or related processes and production methods with which compliance is not mandatory.

45
In response to the GATT, and now WTO, requirements, NIST established and maintains the National

Center for Standards and Certification Information (NCSCI). This Center serves as the U.S. Inquiry Point for nonagricultural products for both the WTO and NAFTA. It also serves as the U.S. ISONET member, meaning that it provides standards-related information to all ISO members. Proposed regulations for animal health, safety, and

pesticides are notified by the U.S. Department of Agriculture to the WTO. NCSCI notifies all other proposed U.S.

regulations to the WTO. In 1995, NCSCI notified 29 proposed regulations to the WTO Secretariat, primarily for

motor vehicles, medical devices, food additives, upholstered furniture, and meat and poultry products (primarily for

labeling and packaging).

International Standards Activities - Background

Although the WTO Agreement stresses the need for members to participate in the development of

international standards, it does not specify the organizations which develop such standards. There are, however, two

primary international voluntary standards organizations, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and

the International Electrotechnical Commission (lEC). The United States is represented at ISO by the American

National Standards Institute (ANSI) and at lEC through the U.S. National Committee (USNC) to the lEC, sponsored

by ANSI. The United States participates in most of the 184 ISO Technical Committees (TCs) and the 87 lEC TCs,

as well as in the Joint Committee, JTC-1, for information technology issues. The United States is a P-member

(voting) on 141 TCs and on 612 Subcommittees (SCs) for ISO, and 80 TCs and 100 SCs for lEC, as well as on JTC1. Furthermore, the United States holds the Secretariat for 33 TCs and 91 SCs for ISO, and 13 TCs and 21 SCs for

lEC, and chairs approximately 27 committees and subcommittees for the two organizations.

As presented above, the standards picture appears straightforward, but numerous complications occur because a product, system or process may be covered by voluntary standards in one nation, yet be a regulated entity

in another. The mismatch among standards and regulations further complicates agreement on international

procedures for accepting foreign products. Thus, in addition to ISO and lEC, there are numerous international treaty

organizations in which govemment-to-govemment discussions of both standards and technical regulations occur. These include Codex Alimentarius (for food products); the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe

(UNECE, in which many standards for European automotive products are produced); the Organization for Economic

Cooperation and Development (OECD); the International Telecommunications Union (ITU); the International

Organization for Legal Metrology (OIML); and the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM), among

others. The United States is represented in these organizations by the U.S. Department of State, with technical

assistance from relevant Federal agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the U.S. Envu-onmental

Protection Agency (EPA), the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), and the National Institute of Standards

and Technology (NIST). The United States is also represented in regional agreements, such as the North American

Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the proposed Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) and the Asia-Pacific

Economic Cooperation (APEC), by the State Department with active participation by the Office of the U.S. Trade

Representative (USTR) and the Department of Commerce International Trade Administration (ITA). The various

govemment-to-govemment trade agreements are negotiated by the USTR, and then implemented by the appropriate

Federal agencies. Another international discussion concerning trade and standards, the Transatlantic Business

Dialogue (TABD), is an alliance of industry representatives fi-om both sides of the Atlantic who became concemed

with the slow pace of the Mutual Recognition Agreement (MRA) talks between the United States and the European

Union. They first met in Seville in 1995 and recently in Chicago to explore common issues and arrive at some

mutually agreeable solutions for the trade negotiators to consider. At the heart of these talks is a discussion of

common standards and conformity assessment concerns which hamper the flow of goods and services across the

Atlantic in both du^ections.

46
Domestic Standards Issues and Problems

The United States is faced with a particularly difficult situation in the international arena where most

nations are represented by central national standards bodies. Most countries participating in international standards

activities have a single, government-recognized, and often govemment-ftmded national standards body. The United

States does not. Unlike most other nations, the standards development system m the United States is private and

voluntziry, with almost no direct support fi-om the Federal Government.

As the United States competes in the global trading market, it is faced with numerous problems due to the

absence of an agreed-upon national infi-astructure for standards and conformity assessment. It is not that there are no

structures for these activities; on the contrary, there are many successful (and competing) entities for both

standards and conformity assessment activities in the United States. The U.S. systems for standards and conformity

assessment are diverse, decentralized, often competitive, and divided among the public and private sectors. Without

any central responsibility or authority, these activities have proceeded very successfully along sector-specific lines

for abnost a century. U.S. decisions about authority and responsibility have not been made deliberately with a view

to providing support for international trade, although they do work well to support the goals of health, safety, the

envu"onment, and above all else, specification of products, processes and systems. While the European Union (EU)

has been most active m building a regional, agreed upon technical infrastructure for its members, the United States

has continued to adhere to a pluralistic and uncoordinated series of systems for its many standards- and

measurement-related activities. Continued reliance on the existing systems significantly hampers the United States as a major player m the global market. The United States does not play a leadership role m defming the elements of, or procedures for, ensuring that the technical mfrastructure works to support industry's needs worldwide.

Consequently, we work in a reactive mode, and our good technical procedures and standards are often ignored,

because they are not reinforced or promoted by a recognized authority.

It has been extremely difficuh to develop strategic policy positions and coordinate efforts among U.S.

entities concerned with standards due to the numerous players. There are approximately 400 U.S. standardsdeveloping organizations (SDOs) which develop standards for an enormous variety of products, processes, and

.services, usually along sector lines. The resuh is approximately 41000 voluntary standards, developed primarily by

about 20 SDOs (of the 400 mentioned above), and used m all mdustrial sectors—ranging from agriculture, building

technology, and fragrances, to vehicles and information technology. Figure 5.2 presents an overview of the mix of

SDOs and topic areas.

The ten major U.S. domestic standards developing bodies, based on the number of standards they develop and

maintain:

ASTM (formerly the American Society of Testing and Materials)

U.S. Pharmacopeia

Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC)

American Petroleum Institute (API)

Cosmetic, Toiletry and Fragrance Association (CTFA)

Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)

Aerospace Industries Association (AIA)

Association of American Raihoads (AAR)

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)

American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)

Figure 5.2

Other major U.S. standards developers are: the Electronic Industries Association (EIA), the Institute of Electrical

and Elecfronics Engmeers (IEEE), and the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). While the U.S. standards scene is largely organized by sector (as indicated by the list above), there is some overlap. Thus, NFPA, ASTM

and UL (Underwriters Laboratories) all write standards related to fire and building safety. SAE, ASTM and API

47
write standards for petroleum products and vehicle emissions. Selecting among these apparent competitors can be

difficult for a user, whether in government or in the private sector. ANSI has moved recently to require that any

ANSI accredited standards developers file a notice summarizing the intended content of a proposed new standard

and asking for comment. If there is duplication with an existing activity, ANSI will work with the SDO to resolve it. The extent to which the presence of competition among U.S. SDOs helps or hinders the use and growth of U.S.

technology is unclear.

While the process for developing standards within the United States is reasonably clear, as long as one

accepts the premise that it typically (but not always) proceeds along sector lines, it is not clear at the international

level. Many U.S. SDOs develop standards which are used internationally. Thus, ASTM, IEEE, NFPA, ASME and

SAE, among others, publish standards which are used mtemationally, and which often have extensive international

participation in their development. Unlike ISO and lEC, membership in these organizations is by mdividuals, not

national bodies. Their standards development process is transparent and open to all interested parties. Many

standards developed by these U.S.-based organizations, such as the ASME Boiler and Pressure Code which is used

in 54 countries, are adopted by national bodies or by foreign goverrmients. The result is that U.S. standards often

support the technical regulations of some foreign countries, even though those standards may not have gone through

the ISO/IEC standards acceptance process. Consequently, these U.S.-based standards are often truly international in

nature, reflecting the best technical input from experts from around the world. However, because they are not

supported or recognized by "national" bodies, as in the ISO/IEC process, they are not perceived or identified as bemg international, and may therefore be disregarded. This is particularly true if a nation or region wishes to field a competing standard which freezes out U.S. or other national technology. There are suggestions that this type of

behavior is common within the European standardizing bodies (CEN and CENELEC), which develop regional

standards, and then support them m ISO and lEC. Their 18 votes readily outweigh one U.S. vote. Meeting this

challenge requires coordinated policy development among U.S. industry, U.S. government agencies, and U.S.

voluntary standards bodies.

We believe the international community must consider the central tenets of each U.S. SDO as it works

through issues related to international standardization. These include: commitment to the voluntary consensus

process including consensus voting, openness, transparency, balanced membership, and due process with a right for

appeal. Another central commitment in the United States is to active participation by all affected parties, including

industry and govenmient, but without government domination. The standards development process usually works

well withm a sector and secures the best technical input and resulting standard for its members. For many years, U.S. standards have been the handmaiden for U.S. technology. If a product's characteristics are specified by a U.S.

standard, that product is likely to represent the best U.S. technology. Acceptance of the underlying standard supports

U.S. technology. Clearly, U.S. technology will benefit to the extent that U.S.-developed standards, based on U.S.

technology, are accepted as the "international" standard. Because the United States does not have an automatic

process for sending its standards through the international process, and because it has not always participated in the

development of ISO/TEC standards, it is particularly and peculiarly handicapped in getting its standards formally

accepted at the international level. At the same time, a nimiber of countries use standards developed by U.S.-based

SDOs, and are uncertain whether to replace these with standards carrying an "international" label.

Although the language of the WTO Agreement supports the goal of one standard for a given product,

recognized (and used) internationally, the many signatories are a long way from meeting this goal. Obviously, the

U.S. standards system with its multiplicity of SDOs and standards is particularly vexing to those lookmg to harmonize or accept one standard for a product for international use.

The United States also mcurs significant domestic costs as government agencies and industry face

muhiple, duplicate standards and conformity assessment procedures. A recent survey indicates that a single

laboratory could need between two and ten accreditations to meet the differing demands for documentation, not

accuracy, imposed by its customers; one laboratory reported that it was the proud possessor of 101 separate

accreditations! These increase product cost, waste time and manpower resources, and may be perceived as a

technical barrier to trade.

48
Still another concern, a major one for U.S. SDOs, is the possibility that their activities may be preempted by

an organization such as ISO/IEC, thereby depriving them of their mtellectual property and publication income. As

foreign governments specify use of international (meaning ISO/IEC) standards, U.S. SDOs and U.S. product

technology supported by these standards become increasingly threatened. While this might appear to be purely a revenue issue for the SDOs, it is not that simple, because many U.S. standards are part of the U.S. business structure and have become part of the U.S. regulatory mfrastructure through adoption and use by governments at all levels. Since many standards are used in regulation at the national, state, and local level (for example, NFPAs Life Safety

Code is referenced in whole or part by most building code authorities throughout the nation), these issues are of vital concern to the health, safety and protection of the envirormient within the United States, as well as to those

concerned with trade promotion and export of U.S. technology. There is, for example, the potential for an ISO/IEC

standard to be developed that freezes U.S. interests out of a particular market sector because we could not resolve

individual SDO concerns about revenue stream and intellectual property, or because a U.S. company and other

interested parties failed to support U.S. participation in the relevant international committee. We must determine

the extent to which competition among SDOs keeps the United States from speaking with one voice at the

international level, and then develop sfrategies to ensure that our commitment to free-market competition, sound

technical input, and openness and transparency in the standards development process do not sandbag us in the

international arena.

The WTO Agreement commitment to work toward harmonized standards is particularly difficult for the

United States because of its fragmented standards system. There is no official, formal commitment in the United

States to support or achieve harmonization with international standards. In contrast, the Japanese government

recently committed Japan to replace its existing standards with harmonized international (ISO/IEC) standards.

Canada has made similar commitments for using lEC standards. A key challenge to the United States m making the

WTO and NAFTA effective realities is a commitment to harmonization, while working to ensure that U.S. concepts

and technology have a real influence on the standards accepted around the world, and on the organizations which

develop these standards.

There are some on-going formal harmonization efforts within the United States, most notably with Canada.

For a number of years. Underwriters Laboratories has worked to harmonize many U.S. and Canadian standards for

electrical safety. Similar efforts have been undertaken, again in the electrical sector, including with Mexico under a

trilateral NAFTA standards activity. This activity recently has been hampered because the Canadian government

has decided to adopt lEC standards, but the United States has made no such commitment. Other efforts within the

United States involve gas appliances and the building conmiunity, where the three U.S. model building code

organizations (ICBO, BOCA, and SBCCI) are working toward greater harmonization and a possible national

building code in the future. Thus, the United States ah-eady has a National Electric Code and a Life Safety Code,

and is working slowly toward a national plumbing code(s). ICBO is also working closely with authorities in western

Canada and Japan to harmonize certain building code requirements.

Despite these limited, sector-specific and private sector based, movements toward harmonization, the

United States has yet to make a national conmiitment to harmonization. However, it is very clear that industry the

world over will benefit from achieving the goal of one harmonized standard, accepted worldwide. Yet, and as indicated earlier, the various players in the U.S. standards system have failed to develop a coherent strategy for

achieving this goal or presenting a better goal—and thus do not meet industry and consumer needs. This hurts the

United States as we implement the WTO, and work with international standards bodies such as ISO and lEC. Often

the United States is perceived by other international participants as not mterested in, or unconunitted to, international

standards efforts.

Participation in ISO/IEC activities is frequently funded by multinationals or by governments. Since the

U.S. Government does not fund such participation directly, it is left to industry to get itself to the table. Yet, many

emerging high tech U.S. companies are small to medium-sized, and have difficulty m participating m domestic or

international activities; their views frequently do not get considered in standards activities, particularly at the

49
international level. The U.S. standards developers and industry must make greater efforts to involve these

companies, and their trade associations, in international activities. NIST could further this process through greater

attention to international standards development by its Manufacturing Extension Partnership Program (MEPP)

centers so that small and medium-sized companies are aware of developments and opportunities to participate.

The lack of U.S. commitment to international standards has led to wide differences in U.S. participation in

such activities. In some sectors, particularly mformation technology through JTC-1 and construction machinery,

U.S. participation has been strong and consistent. In other sectors, there has been no activity. Without strategic

planning across all sectors, our efforts are suboptimal, and reactive rather than proactive. Despite our lead m many

technologies and our strong economy, we fail to set the agenda for the world, or even to show up for some activities.

Continued failure to develop U.S. national policies will harm our industry irrevocably because the

technical standards it needs to fiinction in the global market will be set by others. The various public and private

entities concerned with standards-related measures must work together to build workable systems for domestic

activities within the United States—systems which also function effectively internationally and support U.S.

technology and industry in the global market.

The U.S. Objective

The U.S. standards community has begun to recognize the urgency for strategic plarming to meet national

needs in the global market. For several years, the ANSI leadership has worked with its constituents, including SDOs,

industry, and government to improve domestic cooperation for more effective international representation of U.S.

interests, and to build alliances with foreign national and regional standards bodies. NIST is working with ANSI to help delmeate responsibilities of and develop workable relations among industry, SDOs, and government agencies,

and to improve communications among all parties to strengthen the voluntary standards system and to provide a

coherent U.S. voice in international discussions.

All of the standards entities m the United States must work together to define and implement strategic

standards goals to ensure that U.S. products can compete successfully on a level playing field and that U.S.

technology has an opportunity to form the backbone for standards used worldwide. We must decide whether our

current disaggregated strategies truly meet our long-term interests effectively. Government and the private sector must work together to develop and implement plans to ensure that the standards process continues to contribute to the nation's economic welfare. We must address the particular and unique U.S. issue of competition among

standards developers, both domestically and mtemationally, and determine the extent to which such continued

competition meets industry and govenmient's needs effectively. It is time to consider whether the focus or support

should be on the standards industry or the manufacturing and service commimities, and modify our strategies

accordingly. The time has passed for internal conflicts to keep us from providing strong international leadership in

standards. Effective resolution of these issues requires active cooperation among all parties—standards developers,

industry, and governments at all levels, as well as a keen awareness of the benefits from such heightened

cooperation.

The Unique Position of NIST

NIST is uniquely positioned to assist in developing solutions for the standards issues and problems

identified above. Because the international standards arena relies on governmental entities as responsible for

standards and conformity assessment policies, some U.S. goverrmient backing of a U.S. standards process is needed

to assure their acceptance by the international bodies. This does not mean that the government must write the

standards, but that it must stand behind those who do. NIST can put forth the U.S. government's policy proposals for

harmonization of standards as a neutral third party, and in its traditional role of technical expert. Furthermore, our tradmg partners demand measurement traceability to national standards; NIST serves that key role too.

50
On March 7, 1996, the President signed the National Technology Transfer and Advancement Act (PL 104-

1 13) into law. The Act directs NIST to coordinate with other federal government agencies to achieve greater

government reliance on voluntary standards and conformity assessment bodies, with lessened dependence on mhouse regulations (such as mil-specs). The Act also instructs NIST to coordinate with state and local agencies on

standards matters, and gives NIST a central role in coordinating conformity assessment activities with government

agencies and the private sector. NIST developed and reported an Implementation Plan to Congress in June 1996

which outlmed activities with other government agencies and the private sector to build workable systems for

standards and conformity assessment that will meet the needs of U.S. industry in a global market. PL 104-1 13 grew

out of recommendations made by the National Research Council (NRC) in its publication, "Standards, Conformity

Assessment and Trade for the 21st Century." The participants in the NRC study, including industry, recommended

greater responsibilities for NIST and asked for a NIST-ANSI Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) to define the

NIST and ANSI roles in developing, implementing, and supporting a national standards strategy.

NIST believes strongly that the U.S. standards development system must continue to be industry-led,

government-supported, and based on a private sector, voluntary process. Resolution of our problems is not greater

federal control, but greater cooperation and communication among all affected parties. NIST must work with ANSI

and the SDOs to ensure that other nations recognize the key U.S. governmental role in the U.S. standards system

and to ensure that U.S. private sector entities recognize the new U.S. international responsibilities entailed by the

WTO. Many U.S. manufacturers clearly believe that the current standards system is not adequate to deal with the

changing international scene, and believe that all concerned must work together more to develop viable strategies for

the future. The United States is committed to the international harmonization of standards and conformity

assessment activities; we must implement that goal without relinquishmg the strengths of our existing standards

systems.

Current NIST Standards-Related Activities

NIST has long been a source of scientific and technical information and assistance to the U.S. private sector and Federal agencies, as well as to state and local agencies. NIST publishes and updates a wide range of

informational du-ectories on standards-related activities, including domestic product certification programs,

laboratory accreditation, standards developers, and extensive technical information used in the development of

specific standards. NIST staff participate as technical experts on many standards committees, both domestic and

international. Currently, about 365 NIST staff are active on standards committees, 255 domestic and 1 10

international. There are a total of 1 173 NIST memberships in various standards committees, representing 71

national organizations and 27 international organizations. NIST staff also serve as members of numerous SDO

boards, including ASTM, CIE, ASME, IEEE, ASHRAE, lESNA; and the NIST Du-ector is a permanent member of

the ANSI Board of Directors.

The breadth and depth of NIST involvement in the development of international standards is extensive.

NIST has long been a world resource for technical input to international standards. Each of the seven technical

laboratories has provided extensive technical and policy support for a wide range of activities. This long-term

support for standards has extended from optics to building technology, from information technology to materials, and

fi-om chemical measurements to machine technology and semiconductors. For example, NBS/NIST staff were active

in the 1920's in developing the "CIE standard observer" which is an integral response function included in all photometric instrumentation today. NIST staff have actively worked to promote international performance based

standards that allow easier introduction of innovative building technology. Similarly, NIST staff have developed

international interface standards for flat panel displays, as well as in developing the global standards for

interoperability among peripherals (printers, discs, tapes, etc) used in small computers such as laptops and personal

computers. Other specific examples include: NlST's technical, policy, and secretarial support for software and

standards for the exchange of product model (and architectural design) data (STEP) among manufacturers (now ISO

standard 10303); characterization of ceramic powders and input into international standards; and the basic

measurement technology and technical input needed in standards for optical fibers used in the telecommunications

and other high-tech industries. NIST membership in international organizations and their committees is: ISO (54);

lEC (23); JTC-1 (22); CIE (14); RILEM (5); CGPM (5); ITU (4); and VAMAS (3).

51
NIST cooperation in the U.S. voluntary standards process, including active participation in the ANSI

Federation, has long been a priority. In fact, NIST (NBS at the time) and private sector SDOs jointly established

ANSI in 1919. The ANSI-NIST MOU of 1995 commits both parties to facilitate communication throughout the

U.S. standards community and to work to make the U.S. standards system more effective. The MOU recognizes

ANSI's role as the U.S. member body of ISO, lEC (through the U.S. National Committee), PASC and COPANT.

NIST and ANSI are also cooperating in the development of the National Standards Systems Network (NSSN) which

will shortly provide on-line access to information on standards and conformity assessment information, both

domestic and international. This system will speed the flow of information, provide access to standards, and allow

development of standards on-line.

To expedite the flow of standards-related information, NIST supports a network of standards experts

stationed in major markets (the European Union, Saudi Arabia, India, Mexico, Argentina, and soon Russia). These

experts provide technical assistance to Embassy staff on standards-related issues, provide information to U.S.

business, facilitate information exchange with foreign regulators and standards developers, and provide information

to other U.S. Federal agencies. In addition, NIST offers formal traming for standards and metrology experts from

around the world on U.S. standards, regulations, and conformity assessment practices. NIST has conducted ten twoweek training sessions for representatives from the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), Mexico, Argentina,

and India, and shorter sessions for China, Japan, and the international telecommunications sector. Staff from NIST,

other Federal and state agencies, SDOs, and other private sector representatives participate in these seminars,

providing a valuable opportunity for education, information exchange, establishment of important contacts, and

development of common goals between U.S. and foreign counterparts.

NIST has franslated key documents and handbooks (including some in weights and measures and laboratory

accreditation) into Spanish to support NAFTA and hemispheric initiatives. These efforts spur greater use of U.S.

technology, standards, and testing practices, and strengthen our competitiveness in the global marketplace while

reducing technical barriers to trade. As noted earlier, NIST's WTO and NAFTA Inquiry Points provide essential

information on standards and regulatory developments that might affect global trade.

In support of the development and use of secure mformation technology (IT) products and services, NIST is providing leadership for the harmonization of Common Criteria for IT Security. As the worldwide market

increasingly demands secure computer systems (to support electronic commerce among other services), timely

international standards on security requirements and evaluation procedures will benefit U.S. providers. U.S.

providers will benefit from NIST leadership as the international standards critical to their continued competitiveness

are developed. (In 1994, the leading U.S. providers of IT products and services had worldwide revenues of $323

billion, and employed more than one million people in the United States.) NIST is also supporting the IT industry by

working for international acceptance of U.S. test results. One way in which NIST accomplishes this is by

participation in organizations such as the North American Interoperability Policy Council (IPC), with membership

from Canada, the Information Technology Industry Council (ITI) and NIST. The IPC provides the North American

focal point for the development, coordination, and harmonization of policy as it pertains to demonstrating

interoperability for Information Technology and Telecommunications (IT&T) products worldwide. This activity

illustrates the proactive public and private sector cooperation underway in the IT arena in North America.

As demonsfrated by the IT activities, NIST must continue to work actively with U.S. industry in all sectors

to get more participation in international standards activities. Only through regular participation by informed

experts can the United States hope to work effectively in the IT mtemational arena. A recent issue related to water

meters, in which an ISO standard did not reflect U.S. technology, arose in part because the United States did not

participate in the relevant committee for ten years. Similarly, NIST must work with its colleagues throughout the

Americas and Asia to develop international standards which are truly global, not just European. Again, participation

by all who are likely to use the resulting standards is key.

52
other Federal Activities and NIST Role

The Federal Government currently takes part in the U.S. voluntary standards process as a purchaser,

participant in standards development, provider of technical input and advice, trade promoter, and partner with the

private sector. The government also issues regulations which can complement, override, supersede or conflict with

voluntary standards activities. The October 1993 revision of 0MB Circular A-1 19, and the National Technology

Transfer and Advancement Act (PL 104-1 13) strongly encourage agencies to increase their reliance on voluntary

standards, particularly those that are internationally accepted. The Federal Government as a whole has been

challenged to work more effectively with the private sector to improve the current standards process to deal with the

changing international scene and to implement PL 104-1 13.

The sector-specific approach used for the U.S. standards developers is replicated at the Federal level

making it difficult to approach standards-related issues strategically. Yet, coordination among all Federal agencies is

essential as the United States works to develop and implement standards strategies that are effective internationally.

NIST has redoubled its efforts to work with other federal agencies in standards policies and activities through the

Interagency Council on Standards Policy (ICSP) which it chairs for the Secretary of Commerce. The ICSP,

consisting of senior standards officials from Federal agencies, coordinates federal efforts on standards and

conformity assessment under the authority of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) Circular A-1 19, and

now PL 104-1 13. The ICSP now meets quarterly, and has designated working groups for database directories,

ISO 9000, laboratory accreditation, regulatory issues, and standards policy. The work of one of these groups

resulted in the formation of the Government and Industry Quality Liaison Panel (GIQLP). This panel consists of key

Federal procurement agencies and industrial suppliers who have signed a Memorandum of Understanding which

commits them to reqube only one quality system, such as ISO 9000, for their suppliers. The ICSP reports annually

through the Secretary of Commerce to the OMB with respect to agency use of, and participation in, voluntary

standards for regulations and procurement.

Thus, NIST works with other U.S. Federal agencies to develop and implement an effective strategy to balance industry and regulatory needs while also pursuing trade objectives. NIST is taking a close and

comprehensive look at the demands placed on such agencies, and is coordinating the setting of priorities to minimize duplicative or competing activities while encouraging implementation actions. Reliance on a coherent

standards strategy will enable us to present unified U.S. positions to the outside world. New activities in the

occupational safety and environmental areas being considered by ISO and lEC provide a critical test of the

effectiveness of the cooperative relationship being built between the U.S. Government and the private sector in the

standards arena.

In short, close coordination and cooperation between the U.S. private sector and federal agencies will

provide systems for standards and conformity assessment that are led by the private sector, but which have the

government seal of approval demanded by our trading partners. We must ensure that the United States speaks with

a single voice in the international arena. Together, we can make the dream of open markets that meet the health,

safety and environmental needs of consumers a reality.

Problem Resolution

General Approach

The breadth and depth of the preceding issues make it clear that a vast array of tasks must be completed by

many parties over the next several years to achieve the goal of effective participation in, and harmonization of,

international standards. Of necessity, these efforts must occur in sequence, and will require commitment to a

continuing and increased annual effort by NIST, Federal agencies, and the standards community.

Working with affected interests, NIST has identified specific tasks needed to achieve a workable technical

infrastructure in standards and conformity assessment. Completing these tasks requu-es NIST's continued strong

participation in the ANSI Federation and work with all Standards Developing Organizations (SDO's) toward a

national but decentralized system. By law, NIST and the ICSP must develop consistent federal policies for use of

53
voluntary standards and participation in the standards development process. The Technology Transfer and

Advancement Act commits NIST to work with state and local governments to coordinate and facilitate their

participation in the standards arena. NIST must provide the public sector leadership to make our distributed system

of standards and conformity assessment practices support U.S. goals for world trade and outreach to developing

markets.

Supporting Analyses

An essential first step in developing a U.S. national strategic standards policy to meet both domestic and

international standards needs is a determination of the effectiveness of the current U.S. standards system for the

constituents it serves. The preceding sections have identified a niunber of problems which should be analyzed in

much detail. We need to identify which ones really exist and those which are purely perceptual, and then determine

the "economics" of the principal ones.

First, NIST should analyze the cost of the diffuseness of the U.S. standards system on industry and

technology. We must determine if this hurts U.S. technology internationally, as well as the impact on U.S. multinationals (who may prefer an international standard to a U.S. standard because they sell products to the world

market). This analysis should be on a sector-by-sector basis. It should include: definition of major sectors; identification of key regulations and relevant regulatory agencies; identification of key standards and relevant

standards-developing bodies; and identification of relevant conformity assessment requirements such as product

certification, manufacturers' self-declaration, laboratory accreditation, and management system registration—again on a sector-by-sector basis. This analysis must also assess the benefits of standards and of participation in their

development.

In conjunction with ANSI and the SDOs, NIST should ascertain the extent to which the United States uses

"international" standards. This analysis is not straightforward, because ISO standards are often used directly in the

United States, rather than being formally adopted by many other countries as national standards. Nonetheless, direct use of an ISO or lEC standard is genuinely global harmonization in the best sense. The analysis should determine:

the extent to which ISO standards are used directly; the extent to which they are formally adopted as U.S. standards;

the extent to which U.S. standards (such as ASME, ASTM, IEEE, NFPA, etc.) are used as global, regional (foreign) or local (foreign) standards; and the extent to which U.S. standards are isolated from the international scene.

With assistance of Conmierce's International Trade Administration (ITA), NIST should determine the

extent to which foreign monies are spent to get standards in developing nations harmonized to particular local,

regional, or international standards. For example, the European Union has authorized significant EC monies to CEN

and CENELEC to get Central and Eastern Europe to adopt EC directives as part of their national standards systems.

Similar efforts are underway at the national level, particularly by Germany and Japan. The amount of money (and

time) spent by the United States is trivial by comparison. This analysis should compare the funds expended for the

various tasks in standards and conformity assessment by the United States and other international players.

Finally, NIST should determine the extent of funding (both public and private sector) for U.S. policy and

technical participation in and support of international standards efforts. Current support is often diffuse and imeven.

It is vigorous in some areas. For example, the U.S. TAG to ISO 207 has about 500 members, but other ISO

conmiittees have no or only token U.S. participation. Because U.S. participation is not directly supported financially

by government, ANSI, or the SDOs, the United States is not always represented at all committee meetings, does not

participate regularly, or is not represented effectively by the appropriate technical/policy expert. Spotty, intermittent

attendance is not the way to participate effectively in a standard's development, or influence its outcome. In conjunction with ANSI which has began this analysis for the U.S. voluntary sector, the NIST analysis should focus on the extent to which the United States participates in ISO/IEC conmiittees (as well as OIML, BIPM, Codex

Alimentarius Commission, UNECE, OECD and other government treaty organizations); examine attendance records

and voting positions; and provide recommendations for appropriate financial and policy support.

54
The analyses identified in this section will provide the input needed for recommended changes. They will

enable us to work with the standards constituency to identify and implement reasonable policies for a more effective

U.S. voice in the international arena, and explam some of the costs and disadvantages of the current fi-agmented

approach.

Federal Agency Coordination

Regulatory harmonization is rapidly becoming a major international issue in concert with standards

harmonization. Achieving regulatory harmonization will require continuing govemment-to-govemment discussion

(such as the EU-MRA discussions) in specific regions of the world. A critical issue is that products regulated in one

country might not be regulated in another country. For example, building products are regulated in Japan, but

largely covered in the private sector in the United States. Regional discussions are now going on at the

governmental level: with the European Commission and through the industry-to-industry discussions in the

Transatlantic Business Dialogue; with the Americas under the auspices of the Free Trade Area of the Americas

discussions; and with Asia through the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation.

As with harmonization of standards, coordination on regulatory policies and supporting procedxires is needed among Federal agencies. The ICSP must take a stronger role m coordinating U.S. regulatory approaches and

policy issues across Federal agencies. Agencies must coordinate activities where there is overlapping impact on

trade, and on the technical infi-astructure for conformity assessment needed to facilitate trade. NIST is working with

Federal agencies to strengthen the ICSP as a coordinating body of Federal agencies for developing effective

standards- and conformity assessment-related policies. Each agency must develop and unplement a strategy that sets

priorities and integrates use of voluntary standards to overall agency objectives. Strategies will differ among

agencies for regulatory, procurement, and trade purposes, with some competing interests that must be reconciled

through interagency coordination.

NIST will continue to work with other Federal agencies to provide technical support in fora aimed at govemment-to-govemment harmonization of government regulations and voluntary standards. This includes

participation in the UNECE Working Party on Regulatory Harmonization and Standards (formerly the Standards

Working Party). This group, which has recently expanded its scope into the regulatory arena, is one of the few fora

where experts fi"om Central and Eastem Europe as well as the Commonwealth of Independent States meet with

coimterparts fi"om Westem Europe and the United States.

In conjunction with OMB, NIST will develop mechanisms to collate inputs fi-om Federal agencies regarding

their participation in private sector standardization activities and reliance on private sector conformity assessment

mechanisms. NIST is also working with OMB to revise OMB Circular A- 11 9 to docimient NISTs new

responsibilities for conformity assessment, and to suggest mechanisms for greater coordination on standards policies. In addition, the ICSP will request input fi-om agencies on their use of voluntary standards to replace or supplement

agency regulations, their relationships with the private, volxmtary standards community, and any policy changes

required to implement the Technology Transfer and Advancement Act. The ICSP and its member agencies must

develop a standards-based culture within each agency, with supporting strategic plans. They must also develop

strategies for addressing cross-cutting issues. Specific steps should be taken regarding activities led by the ICSP, by

individual agencies, and/or by the private sector. While NIST is responsible for overall leadership and guidance, it cannot accomplish the national standards goals without the active cooperation of other Federal agencies and the

private sector.

Finally, NIST will continue to emphasize efforts to make the ICSP a viable and effective forum for

coordmating federal efforts in both standards and conformity assessment, and for encouraging and docimienting

agency use of private sector voluntary standards. NIST will also work vigorously with the states and localities in

standards and conformity assessment activities to achieve the goal of a national system or systems that will be

recognized and accepted worldwide. All these efforts will require active cooperation among federal, state and local

governments with the private sector in an effort to build systems that support U.S. trade while maintaining high

standards of safety, health, and the protection of the environment.

55
Meeting the Standards Challenge of the Global Market

A key issue for entities concerned with standards in the United States is: can our fragmented, dog-eat-dog,

frontier-type "system" survive in a world where cooperation and harmonization are increasingly the mode of

operation? NIST remains committed to working with ANSI as the U.S. member body to ISO and lEC (through the

national committee) and as the prime coordinator of private sector standards activities. ANSI's position as the

coordinator for the voluntary standards system must be strengthened while allowing each SDO to retain its position

as major standards developer in a particular sector or sectors. At the same time, ANSI's role as focal point and

facilitator of the U.S. voluntary stJindards system must be recognized and strengthened. NIST must work with other

U.S. Federal agencies to determine the U.S. Government's "fair share" of ANSI's funding. A sound financial

footing is essential for ANSI to serve as the U.S. standards coordinator, accreditor of standards developers, and

representative to voluntary international standards organizations. These activities are truly a matter of public policy;

we must reinforce ANSI's position without dominating decision making. Federal agencies need to become an active,

effective part of the ANSI Federation, using the voluntary standards process appropriately to carry out or supplement agency missions. This Federal agency participation must extend to the international arena in standards

and conformity assessment policy and in standards committees.

A key step in meeting these challenges is a joint study by a combined team of NIST, ANSI, SDO's, and U.S.

regulatory and procurement agencies. This study should address the need for giving some sectors (e.g., computers

and telecommunications) priority support due to their rapid technological changes, as well as the need for support to

older, established technologies and industries. The study must address our standards priority setting in general, as well as any focus on particular regions of the world. NIST, ANSI, and other players in the standards system must

provide strong policy and strategic support, as well as active participation in key international policy organizations

such as ISO-DEVCO (Developing Nations Committee), INFCO (Information Committee), REMCO (Reference

Materials Committee) and Conformity Assessment Committee (CASCO), as well as ISO 9000, 14000, and other

cross-cutting management system standards. Foremost, however, is the need to "get our act together" domestically so that we can meet the international challenges effectively and rapidly.

It is imperative that NIST and the ICSP develop mechanisms for federal coordination with the private

sector, including ANSI, to stimulate more effective interaction with ISO and lEC. An important fu"st step is for

NIST and the ICSP to convene a public forum to discuss the issue of international standards and U.S. interests. This

forum must address frankly the issues of national voice, financial stresses, and public benefits. In addition, the ICSP

must examine the need, and reasonable means for, increasing federal fmancial support for the U.S. voluntary

standards system, particularly to support U.S. participation in ISO and lEC. (The ANSI dues for these two

organizations are about $2M; the Federal Government's share is approximately $30K.)

Conclusion

It is clear that U.S. government agencies and private sector interests must develop an improved, workable

standards process for the United States that will enable us to respond to the challenge created by the global market.

We must work together to build domestic structures that support us effectively internationally. NIST is committed to working with other government agencies and the private sector to develop and implement a process that meets the

needs of industry, regulators, and standards developers. In the end, we will build together an effective standards

process that will contribute to a strengthened economy and improved international frade, while protecting health,

safety, and the environment.

56
VT. Develop Conformity Assessment Processes

James L. Cigler*

Abstract

The rapidity with which technological change is occurring in many industrial areas, combined with

escalating globalization of U.S. trade, has increased the need to standardize various aspects ofthe marketplace and

to ensure conformance to standards. Conformity assessment is defined as "any activity concerned with determining

directly or indirectly that relevant requirements arefulfilled. " Three activities collectively make up what is generally referred to as conformity assessment: product certification (includes sampling and inspection); laboratory

accreditation oftesting and calibration laboratories; and quality system registration. Conformity assessment has a

great impact on trade in both domestic and international markets as reflected in international standards and their

development, recognition ofcompetent parties to perform conformity assessment activities, and the ultimate goal of

ensuring the quality ofconsumer and safety needs. Conformity assessment activities are a vital link among

normative standards, product requirements, and the products themselves. N1STplays a major role in these areas as

the national measurement laboratory and measurement research institute.

Background

The extent of the impact of conformity assessment activities is evident when one considers specific product

examples. A state-of-the-art computer is of no benefit without compatible software. A new and technologically

superior appliance is useless if its plug does not fit the outlet; or (worse yet) appears to fit, but actually increases the

potential for fire or electrical shock. Nor does one want to purchase a product or service that appears to meet one's needs and then discover that it has inherent and undetected defects. If we purchase products or services on a regular

basis, we don't want to find that they are periodically unacceptable due to variations in their production or delivery

processes.

Conformity assessment is defined in ISO/IEC Guide 2 as: "any activity concerned with determining directly or indirectly that relevant requirements are fulfilled." Conformity assessment procedures provide a means of

ensuring that the products or services produced have the required characteristics, and that these characteristics are consistent among products of the same kind or from service to service. Conformity assessment activities include:

product certification (includes samplmg and mspection); laboratory accreditation of testing and calibration

laboratories; and quality system registration.

Some product and service characteristics are vital for safe and effective performance, and many of these

characteristics cannot be assessed simply by pickmg up and examming the product in the marketplace. Such

characteristics need to be determined through the conformity assessment process.

The impact of conformity assessment on trade in both domestic and international markets was noted

prominently in the 1994 Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT Agreement) of the international General

Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) of the World Trade Organization (WTO). The TBT Agreement recognizes

that conformity assessment activities can expedite or seriously hmder the free flow of goods in international

commerce and establishes procedural requirements for conformity assessment schemes to avoid the establishment or continuance of uimecessary obstacles to trade. The Agreement requu-es that conformity assessment procedures be

"prepared, adopted and applied so as to grant access for suppliers of like products origmatmg m the territories of

other Members [WTO members] under conditions no less favorable that those accorded to suppliers of like products

of national origin or originating in any other coimtry... ." It also requires that such procedures not be "prepared,

adopted or applied with a view to or with the effect of creating unnecessary obstacles to international trade."

James L. Cigler is Chief of the Laboratory Accreditation Program, National Institute of Standards and Technology

57
A major international goal must be the development of internationally agreed-upon procedures for each

element of the conformity assessment process. Domestic recognition of competent parties to carry out these

procedures is an essential element of this technical infrastructure. Ideally, a properly designed and conducted

conformity assessment program benefits, not hinders, the free flow of goods. Conformity assessment can verify that a particular product or service meets a given level of quality or safety, and can provide the user with explicit or

implicit information about its characteristics, consistency of those characteristics from product to product or service

to service, and/or performance of the product/service. Conformity assessment can also increase a buyer's confidence

in a product/service.

Conformity assessment activities form a vital link between normative standards, which define the necessary

characteristics or requirements for such products/services, and the products/services themselves. As such, all three

the product/service, the standard(s) for the product/service, and the conformity assessment process—are interrelated.

This chapter discusses some of the issues involved in each type of conformity assessment activity, interrelationships

among these activities, and some topics regarding the standards used. It also covers the impact that each activity can have on the degree of confidence in the output of the conformity assessment process.

Areas of U.S. Concern

Chief areas of conformity assessment concern to U.S. industry and Federal agencies include: 1) international

recognition of U.S. laboratory testing and accreditation; 2)

international acceptance of U.S. quality system registrations;

3) international acceptance of U.S. product certification, and

4) U.S. calibration and standard reference material (SRM)

services.

Laboratory accreditation is often performed by a

third party (public or private sector) accrediting body, and is intended to make a determination that a testing or calibration

laboratory is competent to perform the services which it offers

to its customers. Second party (buyer) accreditations, often

confiised with audits or vendor qualification inspections, are not recognized internationally; the ability of a buyer to evaluate a supplier's competency is often questioned, because

the buyer normally has no formal program or training in the

accreditation process.

Chief Areas of Conformity Assessment

Concern To U.S. Industry and Federal

Agencies

- International recognition of U.S.

laboratory testing and

accreditation

- International acceptance of U.S.

quality system registrations

- International acceptance of U.S.

product certification

- U.S. calibration and standard

reference material (SRM) services

Figure 6.1 Quality system registration usually refers to the

assessment of a supplier's quality system against one of the

quality system models described in the ISO 9000 Standards Series. The ISO 9000 standards were originally written

for use by third party assessors in procurements, but are now widely used by buyers in a second party sense as part of

contractual requirements. The quality system in place may be intended to drive production of either goods or

services. The advent of ISO 14000 standards is rapidly attracting attention for the assessment of environmental

quality systems. The focus of quality system registration programs such as these is the validation of a documented

system process that satisfactorily addresses the specific quality or environmental process elements described in the

standards.

Product certification is the inspection and testing of product(s) to ensure conformance with a performance

or design specification. It may result in placement of a mark on the product(s), such as the familiar Underwriters

Laboratories UL identification or the Good Housekeeping Seal of Approval, or the issuance of a certificate of

approval to mdicate compliance with accepted standards. This has become a topic of great discussion as the United

States negotiates with the European Union (EU) for mutual recognition agreements for regulated products.

58
The U.S. Calibration and Standard Reference Materials Services are critical to the conformity assessment

process. Test and calibration data used to determine compliance with standards must be based on measurements that are traceable to national calibration or reference material standards ultimately based on the international system of

units (SI). There must be an ongoing effort to ensure that the U.S. national laboratory (NIST) continues to provide

calibration and measurement services that are accepted internationally. This topic is treated in more detail in

Chapter III.

Background To U.S. International Conformity Assessment Challenges

The U.S. approach to conformity assessment has emphasized the concepts of self-declaration of either

products or services and second party verification as a contractual requirement. There are instances of requirements

for product marking where consimier safety has been a concern, and governmental regulatory programs have focused on ensuring that public safety and health standards are maintained. The U.S. "system" can best be described as one

of considerable decentralization among public sector (federal and state government) and private sector conformity

assessment bodies. In contrast, the vast majority of other coimtries centralize conformity assessment activities imder

the government or a private sector entity recognized by the government. Little, if any, competition is allowed in

conformity assessment in foreign countries—the significant difference between the United States and foreign

coimtries that causes serious problems in negotiating international trade agreements.

Product Certification

Product certification involves the inspection and testing of product(s) to verify that they meet the standards

which relate to their production. As already stated, with the exception of regulatory requirements, the U.S. approach

relies on a supplier's self-declaration that his product conforms to the relevant standards or certification programs

operated within the private sector. Third party private sector certification programs are operated successfully for

technical and fire safety by such certification bodies as the Underwriters Laboratories (UL), Factory Mutual

Research Corporation, and MET Electrical Testing Company. While these have become accepted as "nationally

recognized testing laboratories, or NRTLs" for workplace safety, they existed long before the Occupational Safety

and Health Administration (OSHA). Furthermore, their certifications are widely recognized by consumers as marks

to look for when buying consumer products. Consumer protection is also afforded by the U.S. legal system, which

holds a manufacturer liable for problems related to the safety or performance of the product.

With the advent of regional economic imions such as the EU, and the Asia Pacific Economic Community

(APEC), the issue of international trade in regulated products has become a major point of discussion. The U.S.

Government is currently negotiating agreements with the EU in the areas of exported, regulated products, and the

subject of product certification by the EU's govemmentally designated bodies, referred to as "notified bodies," are at the forefi^ont. NIST issued a Federal Register Notice (Vol. 61, No. 89, May 7, 1996) requesting information fi-om

U.S. organizations that believe they can perform certification of products that might enter the EU in the areas of

telecommunications terminal equipment (TTE), electromagnetic compatibility (EMC), low voltage electrical

equipment (LVD), and recreational craft. Responses will assist in the potential designation of the equivalent of

"notified bodies" in this coimtry. Since the U.S. system of product certification is quite different fi-om those in

foreign countries, considerable effort will be required to get these countries to accept our system.

Oualitv Svstem Registration

In the United States there are approximately 50 private sector registrars performing ISO 9000 quality

system registrations.' Many of these are certified by the American National Accreditation Program for Registrars of

Quality Systems (ANAPRQS) under the auspices of the Registrar Accreditation Board (RAB) and American

National Standards Institute (ANSI). Requirements for U.S. companies to have their quality systems registered to ISO 9000 are growing every day, due in part to the increasing demands fi-om the international market place and

increasing inclusion in contract language inspired by the total quality management (TQM)

' Breitenberg, Maureen A., The ABC's Of The U.S. Conformity Assessment System, Draft NISTIR.

59
movement in the United States. There is also a trend for U.S. government agencies to embrace use of commercial

normative standards, including ISO 9000, as part of the government procurement process. The recognition of

ANAPRQS or the ANSI-RAB program by the international quality system registration community will depend in

large part on the direction that the United States takes in coordinating its conformity assessment activities.

United States Laboratory Accreditation

The U.S. "system" of laboratory accreditation has evolved over many years with no true government

coordination. Federal regulatory agencies started programs for accrediting testing laboratories in public safety and

health, and today there are numerous programs in agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA),

Federal Highway Administration (FHA), and Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). There are also many private sector accreditation programs such as the American Association for Laboratory Accreditation

(A2LA) and ETL Testing laboratories, Inc. which developed to ensure competency in testing laboratory operations

in such products as doors, windows, electrical appliances, insulating materials, medical products, and so forth. By

some estimates, there are between one and two hundred public and private sector laboratory accreditation bodies in

the United States with no system of recognition or approval by the Government. This is a major concern by other

nations which, as a rule, restrict laboratory accreditation responsibilities to a single body or a group of bodies

recognized by the Government.

In 1976, the National Bureau of Standards (NBS, now NIST) established the National Voluntary

Laboratory Accreditation Program (NVLAP). Early NVLAP accreditation programs were established in the testing

laboratory community, mostly at the request of federal regulatory agencies. In 1988, a program was developed to accredit asbestos testing laboratories. This was mandated by the Asbestos Hazard Emergency Response Act

(AHERA), and continues today as a major NVLAP program. Other NVLAP programs have been developed at the

request of federal regulatory agencies, such as the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) for dosimetry processing

laboratories, the Department of Energy (DOE) for energy efficient lighting laboratories, and the Department of

Housing and Urban Development (HUD) for carpet testing laboratories. NVLAP has also developed programs when

requested by private sector organizations such as the National Conference of Standards Laboratories (NCSL). The

program for the accreditation of calibration laboratories was requested by NCSL and started in May of 1994.

NVLAP mamtams an active accreditation program for over seven hundred testing and calibration laboratories and

participates with other NIST staff in international standards development, national standards development, standards

information, and training activities. By its own operating procedures, published in the U.S. Code of Federal

Regulations (Part 285, Title 15), NVLAP offers programs only where required by law, at the request of other

government agencies, or when requested by the private sector in areas where a need is clearly demonstrated and

where not already available in the public or private sector. NVLAP's scope of accreditation services is therefore

limited.

Problems

Laboratory Accreditation. The major problem in conformity assessment in the United States stems from

the highly decentralized nature of the U.S. system. Countries, or geographic regional associations such as the

European Cooperation for Accreditation of Laboratories (EAL) and the Asia Pacific Laboratory Accreditation

Cooperation (APLAC) have government-led systems, and want us to have a single focal point for govemment-togovemment mutual recognition agreements. Accordingly, we are faced with the problem of gaining consensus among the hundreds of public and private sector accreditation bodies to operate in accordance with international

standards, and for accreditors, their customer laboratories, and the customers of those laboratories to recognize that

competent programs operating in similar areas (e.g., water quality testing programs operated m several states and

accredited by the individual state authorities) are equivalent. This is the task of the Laboratory Accreditation

Working Group (LAWG), sponsored by NIST, ANSI, and ACIL (formerly the American Council of Independent

Laboratories) which has proposed a public/private entity (tentatively called NACLA , an acronym for the National

Council for Laboratory Accreditation) to help achieve recognition of laboratory accreditation nationally and

internationally.

60
Another problem relates to recognition of national measurement services by the national measurement

institutions (NMIs), their customers, accreditation bodies, and government regulators. Recognition by accreditors

and laboratory customers of the equivalency of laboratory accreditations in this country and abroad implies that

traceability of measurements to the national laboratories in foreign countries is also accepted. This can be achieved

only through agreements among the NMIs of each country involved (NIST in the United States). Similarly, U.S.

regulatory agencies, such as the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), require measurements that are made as part

of maintenance actions on U.S. aircraft in foreign countries be traceable to NIST. Reliance on foreign accredited

laboratories which maintain traceability to their countries' NMIs could be obtained if there were better

documentation of national measurement equivalence agreements between the NMIs and the accrediting bodies. This

is a major problem in the developing nations of South and Central America, and is being addressed through training

seminars and workshops sponsored by the NIST Calibration Program in this country and m the Americas.

Equivalency of measurement services at the national laboratory level is a major focus of groups of national

laboratories in organizations such as the North American Metrology Program (NORAMET), the European

Metrology Program (EUROMET), and the Asia Pacific Metrology Program (APMP). Achieving mtemational

agreement on measurements is also a goal of the Organization of International Legal Metrology (OlML).

Product Certification. Expansion of international trade has led to increased foreign concerns with the U.S

system of product certification. Global trade negotiations between the United States and the EU are surfacing

questions about the methods by which U.S. manufacturers certify their products. The areas of concern include: 1)

the confusing U.S. system of self-declaration, often

unacceptable in the international arena; 2) lack of

the use of accredited laboratories as a source of test

data; 3) the large numbers of redundant,

performance-based and design standards used to

certify the same products in this country and abroad;

and 4) the variability of program procedures and

policies among U.S. certification programs.

The NIST Mission Includes

Quality System registration. With respect

to ISO 9000, the major problem is the lack of an

internationally recognized accreditation program for

registrars in this country or elsewhere. A U.S.

company wishing to do business in a foreign country

must carefully select a registrar whose registration

will be accepted in that country. Registrars in the United

States, certified by ANSI-RAB, are seldom recognized in

the international arena as there are no international

mutual recognition agreements between ANSI-RAB and

foreign registrar accreditation bodies. In many instances,

U.S. companies have been informed by European buyers

that access to the European market requires registration

by a registrar accredited in Europe. There is also great concern in this coimtry with the qualifications of U.S.

registrars and their competency to ascertain whether or not the quality system m question is acceptable by ISO

9000 standards.

In addition, the areas of quality system

registration and laboratory accreditation overlap and there

are different customer, regulator, and product specifier

preferences with respect to which process is preferred to assure competency in testing or calibration laboratories.

Fmally, there are emerging problems in the registration of

environmental management systems using ISO 14000,

with a U.S. position still being formulated.

Technology transfer

Coordination of Federal Agencies

in use of commercial standards

Technical support for U.S.

industry

Maintenance and operation

NIST Approaches

A. Work toward mutual recognition

agreements in laboratory accreditation

B. Provide technical support in international

trade negotiations on technical barriers to

trade

C. Expand role in development of

international standards

D. Coordinate development of a public/

private entity to recognize U.S.

laboratory accreditation bodies

Figure 6.2

61
Why Should NIST Be Concerned?

One of NIST's missions is technology transfer. The recent passage of the National Technology Transfer

and Advancement Act of 1995 has reconfirmed and strengthened NIST's role as a coordinator of the Federal agency

movement toward the use of U.S. commercial and international normative standards and away from developing new

federal specifications and standards. U.S. domestic and international activities in conformity assessment have a

positive effect on U.S. industry competitiveness and without a strong technological measurement infrastructure

which can be related to national standards there can be no basis for assessment of product conformance to

specifications.

NIST supports the U.S. Trade Representative and Department of Commerce trade agreements negotiations

under the framework of NAFTA, WTO, and other fora. NIST is the appropriate agency to spearhead technical

efforts in standards and conformity assessment aimed at reducing barriers to trade.

Approaches

A. NIST will continue to work toward mutual recognition agreements (MRAs) in the area of laboratory

accreditation, especially on a national, and uhimately international, basis where such government involvement in

laboratory accreditation is required by the trading partner. Agreements will be sought with regional groups such as EAL, APLAC, and NACC, but will also be undertaken bilaterally with individual countries as the situation warrants. NIST will work toward implementation of NACLA to serve as the focal point for U.S. efforts to bring coherence to the U.S. domestic system and its recognition internationally.

B. NIST will provide more technical support to U.S. negotiations with the EU, NAFTA, and other regional

organizations regarding technical barriers to trade, and expand training seminars in the United States.

C. NIST will play an expanded role in international activities to develop normative standards for

conformity assessment procedures. Greater worldwide acceptance and adoption of international normative standards

will reduce barriers to trade that arise from redundant conformity assessment activities due to different requirements

in various countries where business is sought.

D. NIST will play a key role in developmg one or more public/private entities to imify conformity

assessment activities in the United States. With U.S. Government recognition, this will facilitate acceptance

worldwide of U.S. conformity assessment data. The Interagency Council on Standards Policy (ICSP) chaired by

NIST, along with its working groups, will help coordinate the activities of government agencies in this area, as well

as helping to set policy in standards, and accreditation of laboratories and in other conformity assessment activities. (See Chapter V.)

E. Through its National Volimtary Conformity Assessment Systems Evaluation Program (NVCASE), NIST

will support quality systems registration in the ISO 9000 and ISO 14000 arenas. NIST will also seek to incorporate

the U.S. accreditation of registrars in both arenas into a public/private sector oversight body. In the product

certification arena, this oversight body, ideally, will recognize those who accredit product certifiers—or less ideally,

those who certify product(s).

F. NIST will increase its long term trainmg role in the international arena. Many emerging economies are

potential U.S. tradmg partners, but have yet to develop the necessary infrastructure for standards and conformity

assessment.^ NIST can help these nations establish that infrastructure through training workshops and seminars on

the development and use of standards and conformity assessment. (Chapter IV contains details.)

^ ASME International, The Impact of Government Budget Changes and Restructuring on Engineermg, ASME, and

the Public, April 1996, pp. 17-25.

62
G. NIST will also expand its role with U.S. industry in promoting national and international standards for

conformity assessment. Topics for workshops and other outreach programs include: 1) use of performance versus design standards for conformity assessment; 2) product certification in the United States and abroad; 3) laboratory

accreditation programs in the United States and abroad; 4) registration of quality systems in the United States and

abroad, and 5) development of innovative procedures for ensuring conformity to performance standards.

Summary

The U.S. system for conformity assessment is complex, multifaceted and comprised of many diverse

activities including: testing, certification, quality system registration, accreditation and accreditation program

recognition. These activities are distinct operations, but are closely interrelated. The inclusion or absence of any of

them, as well as the quality with which each is performed, can have a significant effect on the confidence and

reliance placed on the results of the overall conformity assessment process. In addition, the normative standards that

underlie each of these activities can also have a major impact on the outcome of each and a cumulative effect on the

whole.

Together, standards and conformity assessment activities affect almost every aspect of life, and the ability

of U.S. industry to compete effectively in the global marketplace. Conformity assessment is important for

marketplace communications—a means of exchanging information between buyer and seller about the ability of a product to conform to a standard. Buyers, sellers, and other interested parties therefore must understand the

conformity assessment process, judge the value of a particular assessment scheme, and use the resuhing mformation

to make intelligent choices. The quality of the information conveyed depends on: the impartiality and competence of

the assessment body; the types of assessment activities included in the scheme; and the adequacy and appropriateness

of the standards against which the product or service is evaluated.

Poorly performed conformity assessment may result in buyer deception, inadvertently or deliberately, if the

performance characteristics or test methods contained m a standard are insufficient to ensure adequate

product/service performance, or if the buyer is misinformed as to the competency of the conformity assessment body

or the extent to which the product/service characteristics have been evaluated. By contrast, properly conducted

conformity assessment furnishes valuable information to the marketplace and can facilitate and enhance

opportunities for trade. The United States and its trading partners must work toward mutually agreed upon systems

of conformity assessment to facilitate the fi-ee flow of goods across international boundaries.

NIST has a major role to play in supporting the U.S. conformity assessment process as the national

measurement institution m this country. To quote the words of John Quincy Adams, "Weights and measures may be

ranked among the necessaries of life to every individual of human society. They enter into the economical

arrangements and daily concerns of every family. They are necessary to every occupation of human industry; to the

distribution and security of every species of property; to every transaction of trade and commerce; to the labors of

the husbandman; to the ingenuity of the artificer; to the studies of the philosopher; to the researches of the

antiquarian; to the navigation of the mariner, and the marches of the soldier; to all the exchanges of peace, and all the

operations of war. The knowledge of them, as in established use, is among the first elements of education, and is often learned by those who learn nothing else, not even to read and write. This knowledge is riveted in the memory

by the habitual application of it to the employments of men throughout life."

Without weights and measures, including the standards by which products and services are assessed, there is no basis for determinations of acceptability. It is NIST's mission and obligation to ensure that there are appropriate

standards of measurement.

63
VII. Support U.S. Foreign Policy Objectives

B. Stephen Carpenter*

Abstract

International science and technology (S&T) cooperation is often an integral part of U.S. foreign policy,

particularly with countries where there are significant cultural differences and where trade and economic issues are

challenging. S&T cooperation can enhance vital linkages that promote goodwill and can often advance a specific

U.S. policy objective with a specific country. S& T is an effective means through which the United States can

encourage political changes and economic growth in a country or region and it is in our interest to take advantage

ofour position as a leader in S&T and to use it effectively to promote U.S. interests abroad. And, as described in other chapters ofthis report, such S&Tcooperation contributes directly to the NIST mission. NIST researchers

have developed collaborative relationships that have created a significant stimulus for new measurement capability

and new standards, and have made it easier to adopt a consistent measurement and standards system.

Background

Historically, international science and technology (S&T) cooperation has been used as an instrument to promote U.S. foreign policy objectives. This is true for a variety of reasons. When cultural differences are vast,

and trade and economic issues appear insurmoimtable, science and technology cooperation is often the least controversial mechanism available to project the U.S. position abroad. S&T cooperation can enhance vital linkages

between public and private researchers and educators m the United States and those in other coimtries. These unique

linkages can promote goodwill with the general public and policy makers, and can often be used to advance a

specific U.S. policy objective with a specific country.

An example is protection of intellectual property rights. As a resuh of the 1988 Omnibus Trade and

Competitiveness Act, the U.S. Government is now required to consider the protection of intellectual property in all

its S&T relationships. The United States, recognizing increasing infringement of U.S. patents and copyrights from

foreign countries, wanted to utilize any and all means to make other countries aware of the urgent need to provide

adequate and effective protection for intellectual property. This is true not only with countries that do not currently

protect intellectual property, but also with developed countries that may not have considered this an important

component of foreign policy and S&T cooperation. In addition, the United States recognized the potential for loss

of intellectual property developed in the course of international scientific and technical exchanges, and needed a mechanism to provide for its protection. Because formal S&T agreements are highly regarded in many foreign

countries, the United States developed the strategy of using S&T agreements to leverage better intellectual property

protection abroad. Unfortunately, this has not always been successfiil. In China, for example, after years of

negotiation, the United States and China did reach agreement on protection of intellectual property in our S&T

relationship. This, however, has not reduced cases of Chinese infringement of U.S. patents and copyrights, which

recently resulted in the threat of U.S. trade sanctions against China.

S&T cooperation also is an effective means through which the United States can encourage political

changes and economic growth in a country or region which, in turn, can benefit the United States. The United States recognizes that foreign coimtries still look to us as a leader in most scientific and technical fields. Through the

establishment of official S&T relationships, foreign countries hope to gain access to and participate in on-going

R&D activities in the United States in order to improve their own scientific and technical base, strengthen linkages

for their research professors, and hopefully stimulate domestic economic growth. That growth creates a market for

U.S. trade and investment.

* B. Stephen Carpenter is Director, Office of International and Academic Affairs, National Institute of Standards and

Technology

64
The NIST mission also benefits by participation in these S&T arrangements. NIST has the unique

responsibility to assure that U.S. industry has access to the measurements and standards that it needs to compete in a global market. Because advancing technology is a significant stimulus for new measurement capability and new

standards, NIST maintains a world class research and development program to support emerging measurement

needs. These new capabilities generally are first available within the country in which the advances are made, so it

is important that the United States maintains a leadership role, and that customers and suppliers quickly gain access

to new metrology in the global market. In addition, NIST's measurement capabilities help to support U.S. regulatory

agencies in their effort to ensure the health and safety of U.S. citizens abroad. NIST targets participation in

international conferences and international standards committees in those areas in which U.S. industry needs a broader metrology base than that which currently exists. When NIST scientists and engineers have worked with their

counterparts from other countries in the development of measurement science supporting the new measurement

capability, it is generally easier to adopt a consistent measurement system.

NIST's Role in Bilateral and Regional Activities

People's Republic of China

In the 1960's when the United States was opening its doors to the People's Republic of China, one of the

very first formal arrangements was the establishment of a cultural and educational exchange program. From this

exchange program, a Science and Technology Agreement was bom which involved (and still involves) almost all of

the U.S. govenmient technical agencies. While many of these arrangements were created initially for political reasons, most have prospered into mutually beneficial cooperative programs. Not only did the United States benefit

from the scientific expertise of researchers from China who came to work in U.S. facilities, the U.S. Government's

objectives of enhancing the U.S. position in China, gaining access for U.S. researchers into Chinese facilities and

research centers, and promoting Chinese access to the western world were also met. Thus, through this S&T

program, the United States has an entre into China's research commimity. While the U.S. relationship with China

has had its ups and downs, especially following the events of Tiananmen Square in 1989, the S&T relationship has

continued to grow.

NIST's cooperation with Chma focused initally on scientific exchanges with the Chmese State Bureau of

Technical Supervision, but over the years this cooperation expanded to include several research institutions in China.

Despite U.S. concerns regardmg the protection of intellectual property in our S&T relationship, mutually beneficial

cooperation remams an important component of the U.S. relationship with China. For example, scientific exchanges

are still encouraged and, at NIST, large numbers of Chmese researchers continue to participate in NIST's Foreign

Guest Researcher Program. One area that the United States regards as very promising for cooperation is materials

science. In 1995, the Director of the NIST Materials Science and Engineering Laboratory led a U.S. delegation to China to explore opportunities for cooperation in that field. A Chinese delegation reciprocated this past summer

(1996) and discussions are underway on future areas for cooperation. This type of cooperation not only supports the

U.S. objective of maintaining our scientific ties with Chinese researchers, but also may provide imique opportunities

for first class research results.

India

Another example of an S&T program that was established to promote goodwill is the U.S.-India S&T

Program. Cooperation began in the late 1950's with U.S. and Indian scientists collaborating on agricultural research

projects supported by P.L. 480 fimds (non-convertible rupees) from the sale of U.S. agricultural commodities to

India. In the early 1960's, the U.S. Agency for International Development (U.S. AID) began to expand the

collaboration to other areas of science and to improve the educational system in India by assisting in the

establishment of the Indian Institute of Technology at Kanpur. Then, several U.S. technical agencies, such as the

Department of Health and Human Services, the National Institute of Standards and Technology, and the Smithsonian

Institution, initiated a number of projects fimded with PL-480 rupees. In 1974, as the science and technology

collaboration increased and became a major element m broadening the relationship between the two countries, then

Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and Minister of Foreign Affau-s B. Y. Chavan, signed an agreement to establish a

Joint Commission with Subcommissions for Science and Technology, for Education and Culture, and for Economics

and Commerce. During that same year the U.S. Government returned more than half of the PL-480 rupees to the

65
Government of India and agreed to use the remainder of the U.S.-owned rupees to collaborate on science,

technology, education and cultural activities. U.S.-India science and technology cooperation was enhanced and

gathered more political weight and commitment from both sides when the Science and Technology Initiative was

signed in 1982 by the U.S. President and the Indian Prime Minister. In 1987, this collaboration was raised to a new

level when both governments signed the agreement establishing the United States-India Fund (USIF). NIST has

played an integral role in the U.S.-India science and technology collaborations, and currently has 25 active projects

under USIF.

NIST has used this collaboration to unprove measurement capability. For example, NIST staff collaborated

with scientists in India to develop an improved model for the propagation of light through optical fibers. The

information gained was disseminated to U.S. industry through, for example, short traming courses on optical fibers.

Today, U.S. fiber suppliers are major players in the world market, and measurement standards used worldwide are

consistent with U.S. domestic standards.

Japan

Japan is the second largest economy in the world, our second largest trading partner, and our leading

trading partner in high technology products. Yet, our bilateral trade deficit with Japan is still the largest that we have

with any nation. Japan is the leader in its part of the world for innovations in science and technology. For over

three decades the United States and Japan have collaborated in a growing range of S&T areas. Much of this

collaboration has been mutually beneficial. On March 14, 1996, Robert Hebner, Acting Deputy Director, NIST and

Hajimo Irisawa, Executive Director, Japanese Real World Computmg Partnership (RWCP), signed an agreement to undertake a Joint Optoelectronic Project between NIST and RWCP of Japan's Ministry of International Trade and

Industry. Under the RCWP, NIST functions as a broker in facilitating connections between the user who has a novel

design, and the suppliers who perform fabrication. This is a promising attempt at the mutually beneficial exchange

of precommercial technical information. In March 1996, NIST participated in the U.S.-Japan Panel on Fire Safety.

The objectives of the panel, established in 1975, are to: encourage, develop, and implement the exchange of

information and data in fire and smoke physics, toxicity, chemistry, and risk and hazard evaluation; promote

cooperative research in areas of fire safety and combustion toxicity; encourage innovations in risk assessment

methods, fire test methods, and design standards; establish a multi-national consensus of computer-based fire modeling; develop performance fire codes; and develop new fire protection and prevention technology appropriate

to modem products and design. The Japanese sent a delegation of 25 scientists for the 1996 meeting, and the United

States had 48 participants including many NIST staff.

Harmonization of standards is an increasingly critical issue. Although standards can facilitate international

trade by making transparent the technical thresholds that must be met, standards also can be used as barriers to

trade. In 1995, for example, a Japanese standards organization armounced its intention to impose requirements for

certification that would have resulted in the disclosure of proprietary software data by U.S. exporters. An example

of using S&T to further U.S. foreign policy objectives such as harmonization of standards to facilitate trade is NIST

work with the National Aerospace Laboratory (NAL)/Kakuda Research Center in Japan. NIST has signed an MOU

with NAL to compare measurement techniques for the thermal conductivity of functionally graded materials (FGMs)

and graded ceramic coatings intended for a wide range of aerospace and industrial applications. In March of 1996

NIST signed an agreement with the Communications Research Laboratory of Japan to pursue a contractual

arrangement to construct and evaluate an optically pumped primary frequency standard.

South Africa

Another example of S&T in support of U.S. foreign policy objectives is the United States-South Africa

Science and Technology Agreement which was signed under the auspices of the Gore-Mbeki Economic Partnership.

The United States is a strong supporter of the democratically elected govenmient of South Africa and remains

committed to assisting the South African Government in economic development. The U. S. policy has been to explore opportunities for cooperation m areas that will promote infrastructure development and provide

opportunities for the previously disadvantaged population. By providing opportunities for cooperation the GoreMbecki Initiative is expected not only to enhance govemment-to-govemment scientific cooperation, but also to promote more opportunities for U.S. industry in South Africa and throughout the southern African region.

66
NIST has been working with its counterparts in South Africa under the S&T Agreement, and has

developed and signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with South Africa's CSIR which is the agency

responsible for competitiveness, technology for development, and technology for decision making. The mitial focus

ofthis MOU is to explore cooperation in the areas of building, construction, and advanced materials. This MOU

could serve to promote NISTs interest in the entire south African region since the CSIR has become the "Gateway

Metrology" laboratory for that region. Thus, if NIST is successful in ultimately establishing some level of

equivalency between measurements at NIST and measurements at CSIR, NIST can take advantage of the local

activities in Africa to assiu-e a broader measurement consistency. NIST has begun developing linkages with the

region through visits and workshops that have been very successfiil, especially the regional workshop on "The Use of

Standard Reference Materials for Chemical Metrology" held in Harare, Zimbabwe in 1994.

The Americas

The United States also has used S&T cooperation as a means to promote regional efforts m the Americas.

A key example is through the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Under this regional pact, Canada,

Mexico and the United States established metrology systems to underpin most indusfrial and trade activities

mcluding standards development and conformity assessment. These systems are the North American Metrology

Cooperation (NORAMET) and the North American Calibration Cooperation (NACC). NACC concerns itself with

the development of mutual confidence in national calibration laboratories through accreditation programs, while

NORAMET coordinates the development of a joint system for imiform and accurate measurements. NORAMET

objectives are: to develop closer collaboration in measurement and metrological services; to optimize the utilization

of resources and services towards metrological needs; to encourage the sharing of major facilities; and to improve

measurement services and to make them accessible to Member nations within agreed-upon lunits.

In December 1994, the 34 Presidents of the Member States in the Organization of American States (OAS)

participated in the "Summit of the Americas" held in Miami, Florida. The resulting "Declaration of Principle,"

seeks prosperity through economic integration and free trade by usmg metrology to eluninate technical trade

barriers. Then in January 1995, NIST and the OAS organized a coordinating meeting for the representatives of the

national metrology laboratories within the Americas which was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. During this meeting,

the representatives from 25 national laboratories agreed to revitalize the old Inter-American Metrology System

(SIM) and to mclude all 34 of the OAS member nations. This meeting established SIM's structure, objectives, and

action plans. SIM has planned a series of mtercomparisons among the regions in various measurement disciplines

that will link the regions together and lead to traceability. The first intercomparison, on mass, is underway.

NIST anticipates that actions by NAFTA and the proposed Free Trade Area for the Americas (FTTA) will

reflect global market considerations, and that NAFTA and FTTA will work with other regional groups such as the

European Union and the Asia Pacific group, as well as with the many other counfries with whom trade and S&T

cooperation have been established. Close cooperation and assistance of SIM and NORAMET will fiirther strengthen

the mefrological capabilities and services in the Americas thereby enhancing efficiency in production and

distribution of goods and services for the benefit of all globally.

Spurred by the NAFTA agreement, there has been a particularly strong effort to coordinate measurement

technology with Mexico. Two years ago, Mexico established a new national measurement laboratory. A number of

European nations donated sophisticated measurement equipment to this laboratory in hopes of opening broader frade

opportunities. NIST has established extensive staff exchanges with Mexico. As a result, there is a good personal

and professional working relationship between nearly all of the key technical leaders of the laboratory in Mexico and

their NIST counterparts. An example of the benefits is a new cooperative approach to developing the standard

reference materials needed to measure industrial emissions in both the United States and Mexico. Each nation will

have access to the same measurement base. Total development cost is likely to be lower than if the work had been

done independently.

67
Middle East

Still another example of using S&T to promote U.S. foreign policy objectives in a regional environment is the Middle East. Followmg the signmg of the Camp David Peace Accords by the United States, Israel, and Egypt,

the United States developed a program through the U.S. Agency for International Development to encourage

regional S«&T cooperation. This program, entitled the Middle East Regional Cooperative (MERC) Program,

provided a means through which researchers from the different countries in the Middle East, who previously had no means of communications, let alone conducting jomt research, could work together on research projects of regional

interest. While the initial projects included researchers from only Egypt, Israel, and the United States, now many of

them include scientists from other Middle Eastern counfries. Despite cultural differences and the slow progress of

the Middle East Peace Process, under the MERC Program researchers from countries m the region are currently

working together on environmental, agricultural, and biomedical problems endemic to the region.

NIST has been involved in Middle Eastern regional activities for a number of years. In 1993, NIST hosted

a regional workshop with the Egyptian National Institute of Standards (NIS) on "Science and Applications of the

Measurement of Time and Frequency." Participants represented Israel, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia. In 1994, NIST,

the U.S. Envu-onmental Protection Agency, and the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency hosted a regional

workshop entitled "Quality Management Systems for Environmental Monitoring and Measurements" which

involved researchers from Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Morocco, Tunisia, Turkey, the EU, Japan, Russia, and the United

States. In 1996, NIST sent two representatives to a regional meeting, held under the auspices of the Peace Process,

to discuss standards development in the Middle East. NIST is plarming another regional workshop, with ftinding

from the U.S. Department of State, on standards, metrology, and conformity assessment scheduled for 1997.

Israel

While our regional efforts in the Middle East support the U.S. objective of encouraging the Peace Process, our bilateral relationships with Middle Eastern countries also support other sfrategic policy objectives. In the early

1970's the United States and Israel began a long and fruitfiil relationship supporting S&T-related activities. The

Bmational Science Foundation was established to support basic research cooperation. This Foundation has an endowment of $1 10 million consisting of equal contributions from the U.S. and Israeli Governments. The

Foundation continues to fund joint projects with the interest earned on the endowment. A similar program, the

Binational Agricultural Research and Development Foundation, supports joint agricultural cooperation and is endowed m a similar manner. A third foundation, the Binational Industrial Research and Development (BIRD)

Foundation, was established to promote industrial R&D of mutual benefit to the United States and Israel. BIRD

supports U.S.-Israel company partnerships dedicated to developing and commercializing non-defense-related

innovative products or processes. The grants are paid directly to the participating companies. BIRD frauds 50

percent of the companies' expenses in developing a product to the stage of commercial readmess. Financial support

for BIRD is derived from two sources: interest earned on the $1 10 million endowment granted in equal parts by the

United States and Israeli Governments, and repayment income from companies participatmg in successfiil BIRDfiinded projects.

Egypt

Science and technology cooperation with Egypt is a high priority as it too supports the U.S. foreign policy

objectives for the country and for the region. Not only does Egypt play a critical role in the Middle East Peace

Process, Egypt may also serve as a gateway for U.S. industry into the Arab coimtries of the Middle East. Working

with Egypt in the areas of standards, metrology, and conformity assessment could advance NIST efforts to assist

U.S. industry overcome technical barriers to frade in the region. Under the auspices of the Science and Technology

Joint Board of the Technology Subcommittee of the Gore-Mubarek Economic Initiative, the Egyptian Ministry of

Scientific Research has proposed the establishment of a Memorandum of Understanding between the Egyptian

National Institute of Standards (NIS) and NIST to promote cooperation in standards-related activities. As a result of

the October 1995 S&T Joint Board meeting, the United States and Egypt identified cooperation in standards-related

activities, biotechnology, and environmentally friendly manufacturing to be high priority areas for cooperation. In follow-up, with fimding from the Joint Board, NIST and NIS hosted a workshop in Alexandria, Egypt, June 9-13,

1996 on standards, mefrology and conformity assessment.

68
Saudia Arabia

The United States has a long history of cooperation with Saudi Arabia. For the past 4 years NIST has

worked closely with the Saudi Arabian Standards Organization (SASO) in Riyadh. NIST maintains an experienced

engineer in Rijadh working with SASO and with the Foreign Commercial Counselor in the U.S. Embassy. The NIST

Standards Expert assists SASO with writing and revising documentary standards that have a strong influence on

bilateral trade. That Expert sends to NIST those standards that do not agree with either international or U.S.

standards where, with the help of staff from U.S. industrial associations, they are revised and then returned to SASO for further consideration. The NIST Standards Expert also assists with conformity assessment and

certification to facilitate access of U.S. products to the Saudi market. The American business community in Saudi

Arabia credits this arrangement with a substantial increase in U.S. exports to the Kingdom.

At the request of the U.S. business community, NIST is planning to expand this service to the remaining

countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). NIST recently signed an MOU with the GCC which documents

the agreement to cooperate. Both sides are committed to cooperate on measurement, normative standards, and

conformity assessment. This cooperation will include training and consultations, workshops and seminars,

development of special codes such as automobile safety or building codes, and the exchange of information.

The NIST Standards Expert now working with SASO will manage this U.S. cooperation with the GCC

coimtries. The chairman of the Standardization and Metrology Organization for the Gulf Cooperation Council is

also chairman of the Saudi Arabian Standards Organization. NIST expects this expanded cooperation to benefit the

U.S. business commimity and increase the effectiveness of NIST services in the region.

Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union

The United States has also used S«&T cooperation as a means to prevent foreign scientific isolation and to encourage democratization by exposing the scientific and academic elite of communist and socialist countries to the

western world. In the Former Soviet Union (FSU), for example, the United States developed an S&T program which

brought scientists from the FSU to the United States to work in U.S. facilities, and sent U.S. scientists into FSU

laboratories. This was done under the U.S.-USSR S«&T Agreement. NIST developed the exchange program with

the USSR Academy of Sciences, and recently signed an agreement to continue these exchanges with the Russian

Academy of Sciences.

In Eastern Europe, similar programs were established to promote S&T cooperation, prevent scientific

isolation, and encourage democratization. For example, with Hungary, Poland, and the former Czechoslovakia and

Yugoslavia, jointly funded programs were initiated in the 1980's to support S&T cooperation in areas such as

agriculture, engineering, enviroimiental sciences, health and biomedical research, geology, basic research and

energy-related research. With their foreign coimterparts in these countries, NIST researchers have competed

successfully for funding, and research projects were developed that continue today.

NIST scientists, Dr. Peter Pella and Dr. Richard Deslattes, collaborated with Dr. Marek Lankosz of the

University of Mining and Metallurgy, Krakow, Poland. This project draws on the expertise of both countries to develop a imique in situ quantitative procedure for application to thin film analysis needed in the semiconductor

industry. On other projects, NIST's Dr. William McLaughlm has successfully competed for funding twice. His

work in chemical dosimetry explores advantageous techniques that are used in Eastern Europe but that are vutually

imknown in the United States. This work has industrial and medical applications.

69
While the nature of the U.S. relationship with the FSU and Eastern Europe has changed dramatically over

the years, the United States continues to support S&T cooperation. One important reason is to try to retam the

scientific base in these coimtries. With the dissolution of the USSR, funding for S&T was severely diminished, and

many Soviet researchers began looking elsewhere for support. Many of them began to emigrate to the "western

world" where funding for S&T is easier to obtam. While this emigration certainly has the potential to enhance

scientific efforts in many western countries, the brain drain fi-om the FSU could severely hurt economic growth in the

region, which could be devastatmg, not only regionally but globally. Therefore, it is within the strategic interest of

the United States and, in fact, the world to assist in the development of a strong market economy in FSU countries.

Many such efforts are underway in the United States to support the scientific base in the FSU, to encourage

cooperation with scientists in the United States, and to develop a more stable scientific and technical infi-astructure.

In FSU countries with nuclear capabilities, the United States has been very interested in working with FSU

researchers to maintain nuclear safety standards. A major concern in the United States is that these researchers

might be enticed to sell their expertise to the highest bidder in countries wishing to develop nuclear weapons. The

Departments of Defense and Energy developed several programs to help support FSU scientists financially. One

example is the recently established Civilian Research and Development Foundation (CRDF). The CRDF is a private,

non-profit organization established by the U.S. Government to respond to the dramatic reduction m resources

available for civilian scientific and engineering research in the successor states of the FSU. Legislation authorizmg

the CRDF was passed by the U.S. Congress m 1992. Initial funding for the CRDF derives fi-om a $5 million

contribution fi-om the U.S. Department of Defense "Nunn- Lugar" program to promote demilitarization m the FSU

and fi-om a matching $5 million gift to the National Science Foundation by philanthropist George Soros. This unique

public/private partnership supports joint research between public and private sector organizations in the United

States and FSU countries. It funds civilian basic and applied research conducted in the FSU and promotes defense

conversion and development of market economies in the region. NIST has been involved in this program fi-om its inception, helped draft proposal criteria, and helped develop a mechanism for reviewing industry proposals.

In September 1996, the CRDF annoimced the results of its first cooperative research grants competition and

acknowledged financial commitments by countries of the FSU to jomt funding. The awards totaled $10.1 million m

238 cooperative research grants to teams of scientists m the United States and FSU. Two of these projects involve

NIST scientists. Funding for a second round of competition for CRDF grants derives fi-om a $1 million contribution

fi-om the National Institutes of Health, a $2 million contribution from the National Science Foundation, and a matching $3 million contribution from the Department of Defense funds in the "Nunn-Lugar" program.

Central Asia

In the Central Asian Republics, the United States continues to support S&T cooperation to help gain U.S.

access to the various natural resources in the region and to provide commercial opportunities for U.S. industry,

particularly the gas and oil industry. Kazakstan is the largest of the Central Asian Republics. Smce the breakup of

the USSR, the government of Kazakstan has initiated a nimiber of reforms, and is committed to the development of a

free market economy and full integration into the world economy. From the U.S. perspective, Kazakstan represents a substantial market for oil and gas equipment and services and other mfrastructure-related technologies. U.S.

market access would be facilitated by harmonization of standards and certification procedures. NIST recently signed an MOU with Kazakstan' s Committee for Standardization, Metrology and Certification to facilitate the

harmonization of Kazak standards, metrology and technical regulations with internationally accepted practices.

70
NIST's Role in Regulatory Activities

NIST's involvement in international activities also supports objectives of other U.S. government agencies,

including regulatory agencies which use measurements to assure the health and safety of U.S. citizens abroad.

Regulatory agencies maintain this assurance through regulations, audits, and laboratory accreditation, which may

require compliance with measurement standards, including those derived at NIST. This is the case with the Federal

Aviation Administration which regulates and accredits aircraft repair stations, both foreign and domestic. These

repair stations maintain the airworthiness of U.S. flag carriers and have to comply with the Federal Aviation

Regulations (FAR). One ofthese FARs identifies traceability to NIST directly. The particular FAR that has

required NIST to become mtemationally active is FAR 145.47(b) which states that the station shall ensure that

all inspection and test equipment is tested at regular intervals to ensure correct calibration to a standard derived from

NBS/NIST or to a standard provided by the manufacturer. In the case of foreign equipment, the standard of the

country of manufacture may be used if approved by the Administrator."

This provision requires that all foreign repair stations have their calibrations traceable to NIST. The

problems that those repair stations have in complying with this FAR are: the expense m time and money of sending

their equipment to NIST for calibration or to "traceable laboratories" that are not in the country; the by-passing of

their countries' national metrology laboratory if no mutual equivalency agreement exists between that laboratory and

NIST; and the risk of loss or damage to their equipment. In addition, this provision impacts countries with

national au-lines that have planes on lease from the United States, since these planes have to comply with the same

regulations as the planes of U.S. flag carriers. NIST is placed in the position of resolving the issue with the repair

station, the foreign national metrology laboratory, and the FAA. NIST works with the respective national metrology

laboratories or with the regional group to which those national laboratories belong on intercomparison measurements

through which the laboratories provide the necessary traceability via their calibration services. Additionally, NIST

through its National Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation Program could develop a mutual recognition agreement

with the accrediting body in the respective country. NIST also has to work with the FAA to ensure that the actions

being taken are recognized by the FAA and will be reflected in their fiiture regulations.

Conclusion

S&T cooperation has made a significant contribution to U.S. foreign policy objectives. For example, in

the Middle East, S&T cooperation has been a key component of our efforts to promote peace. Smce 1979, with

support from the United States, Middle Eastern researchers have been workmg together to address important S&T

issues which affect the entire region. In addition, S&T is a key component of the on-going Middle East Peace

Process, especially research and development that transcends national boundaries such as improving trade,

combating diseases, and reducing environmental degradation. Cooperation with the former Soviet Union and

Eastern Block nations during the Cold War not only provided U.S. researchers access to state of the art research in

those countries, it also supported the U.S. effort to promote democratization by exposing those researchers to the

western world. In Mexico, cooperation has played a significant role in promoting economic growth by assistmg

the Mexicans in establishing their own national metrology laboratory which serves as one of the lead laboratories in

the Interamerican System of Metrology.

As can be seen through these few examples, NIST plays and will continue to play an important role in S&T

cooperation in support of a variety of U.S. foreign policy objectives. This role m some instances is a "carrot" or is a leveraging mechanism. Where NIST plays a particularly strong role is when the S&T agreement is intended to be a

stepping stone for economic development in the countries on the receiving end. S&T cooperation also is a nonthreatening form of interaction in which all countries want to participate. Many countries are especially interested

in cooperation with NIST because they see such cooperation as particularly beneficial to their own economy.

71

Appendix 1

"The National Export Strategy

Toward the Next American Century:

A U.S. Strategic Response to

Foreign Competitive Practices"

Fourth Annual Report by the U.S. Trade Policy Coordinating Committee to the United

States Congress, October 1996: Recommendations from the Standards Chapter entitled,

"Strategic Standards Commercial Policy"

"Standards and conformity assessment requirements imposed by other national and regional

authorities have become a critical factor in determining the competitiveness of American

firms and workers. Our trading partners are increasingly using product standards as a tool to

gain competitive advantage for thejr exports to rapidly developing countries.

This can occur through a variety of approaches, through foreign assistance programs which

target the development of key elements of a country's technical infrastructure (such as the case with Japan and Australia in the Pacific Rim, or European programs in Central and South

America, Eastern and Central Europe and Asia) or through the negotiation of trade

agreements covering the harmonization of standards (EU agreements throughout Central

Europe, and ongoing EU discussions with Russia, Ukraine, and some Latin American

countries). Standards practices can be an obstacle to entire markets for U.S. companies

particularly small companies—without the resources to counter these efforts.

We must implement both near term efforts—to gain increased foreign recognition of

standards in broad use by U.S. industries—as well as a long-term program focused on

harmonization at the international level. Our goal is a single test of a given product against a given standard, accepted world-wide, and to help U.S. industry adjust when these new

standards differ from those currently used in the United States." (From Executive Summary.)

Recommendations

"Emphasize technical assistance programs as a basis for long term internationalization of

standards and harmonization efforts by:

Working with U.S. industry and standards developers to identify and implement proactive

strategies for participating in the development of international standards that support U.S.

needs.

Encouraging U.S. industry, standards developers, and government agencies to review WTO

notifications and proactively comment on proposed foreign market regulations with a view to

achieving greater harmonization reflective of U.S. technologies and practices.

1
Examining the feasibility of posting U.S. standards experts at additional key embassies in

Asia, Eastern Europe, Russia and Latin America and support them with comprehensive

technical assistance from the U.S. public and private sectors.

Continuing focused programs dedicated to standards-related training and outreach to

overcome our competitors' advantage in developing global markets. Expand existing

programs, such as the SABIT Standards Program, to reach markets where the trade potential

is greatest and where adoption of standards compatible with ours will best leverage future

U.S. exports, such as Asia, Eastern Europe, South and Central America.

Working with U.S. standards developers to provide up-to-date copies of U.S. standards in

target markets.

> Strengthen Competitive Commercial Policy with Multilateral and Bilateral Standards

Initiatives:

Continue to seek fiill and effective implementation of the WTO TBT Agreement. Through

the Trade Policy Staff Subcommittee (TPSC), and in consultation with appropriate advisory

and congressional committees, the United States will consider ways to strengthen the discipline

of the Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Agreement to resolve standards-related barriers to trade

and will advance its proposals in preparation for the TBT Committee's first triennial review

of the operation of the Agreement.

Negotiate MRAs to achieve broad acceptance of demonstrably valid test data and product

approvals. Our first priority should be conclusion of a U.S.-EU MRA. The next step is to set clear priorities for target markets for additional MRAs, and to begin preliminary discussions.

We will consult broadly within the government and with private sector representatives to

determine these priorities.

Work toward full implementation ofNAFTA's provisions on conformity assessment, and

using regional fora, including FTAA and APEC, to advance discussions on how to improve

market access and resolve conformity assessment issues.

> Increase the role and effectiveness of the U.S. private sector, including better use of

advisory committees to achieve market access in standards related matters.

We will work cooperatively with the Industry Functional Advisory Committee, interested

Industry Sector Advisory Committees, Business Development Committees (BDCs) in

emerging markets and the USEU Transatlantic Business Dialogue (TABD) to develop

appropriate goals for our commercial strategy and leverage private sector involvement in

bilateral discussions of standards-related issues.

2
Ensure that future private/government trade groups focus on key technical infrastructure

issues and sectorial priorities, and establish focused work programs; and

Provide a link between BDCs and government negotiators to encourage government

implementation and adoption of BDC initiatives in standards-related areas.

> Strengthen U.S. technical infrastructure implementation:

In cooperation with the private sector, the National Institute of Standards and Technology

will work to implement—as soon as possible—a laboratory accreditation infrastructure for

recognizing all competent U.S. laboratories and accreditors, leading toward the objective of a

single test of a given product, conducted by a suitably accredited laboratory, with results

acceptable to all users, both domestic and foreign. This will require development of a

constitution and procedures, commitment and support from other Federal and State agencies,

and linkage with international bodies.

Extending the concept of a unified laboratory accreditation system to encompass other forms

of conformity assessment, including product certification and management system audits

under ISO 9000 and ISO 14000.

Building regional networks for fundamental physical measurements, such as the North

American Calibration (NACC) and the Metrology Cooperation (NORAMET). These efforts

should be extended to other regional metrology organizations as well.

> Develop initiatives targeted to facilitate small business access to international standards

activities by:

Addressing the burdens of differing certification systems in the international marketplace by

assessing the potential for mutual recognition agreements, equivalency agreements, and

reliance on manufacturer's certification to technical requirements. These kinds of bilateral or

regional agreements should greatly reduce the cost and delays of compliance with standards

requirements.

Ensuring that U.S. technical and commercial agencies as well as standards developers make

available accurate international standards information in a comprehensive and timely way to

the small business community through trade associations, technical societies and government

outreach programs, including an Internet site.

Placing particular emphasis on addressing small business market access concerns about

technical issues such as standards, testing and certification, and assisting small business to

influence the developers of foreign market requirements to maintain and expand open

markets."

3

Appendix 2

Acronyms

in

NIST International Activities Report

Acronym Definition

A2LA American Association for Laboratory Accreditation

ACIL Formerly American Council of Independent Laboratories

AID Agency for International Development

ANAPRQS American National Accreditation Program for Registrars of

Quality Systems

ANS American National Standards

ANSI American National Standards Institute

ANSI-RAB American National Standards Institute - Registrar

Accreditation Board

APEC Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation

API American Petroleum Institute

APLAC Asia Pacific Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation

APMP Asia Pacific Metrology Program

ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, & Air

Conditioning Engineers

ASME American Society for Mechanical Engineering

ASTM Formerly the American Society for Testing and

Materials

1
Acronym Definition

BEMs Big Emerging Markets

BIPM International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM operates

under the CIPM or the Comite International des Folds et

Mesures which itself operates under the CGPM or the

Conference Generale des Poids et Mesures.)

BIRD Binational Industrial Research and Development

program (U.S.-Israel)

BOCA Building Officials and Code Administrators International, Inc.

CAR Central Asian Republics

CCE Consultative Committee for Electricity (BIPM)

CEN European Committee for Standardization

CENELEC European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization

CGPM See BIPM

CIB International Council for Building Research, Studies and

Documentation

CIE International Commission on Illumination

CIPM See BIPM

CIS Confederation/Commonwealth of Independent States (former

Soviet Union)

Codex Alimentarius International govemment-to-govemment body for food

Commission standards and codes (FAO/WHO Food Standards Program)

2
Acronym Definition

COOMET Eastern European Metrology Cooperation

COPANT Pan American Standards Commission

CRDF Civilian Research and Development Fund (U.S. funds for

former Soviet Union)

CSIR Formerly called the Council of Scientific and Industrial

Research (S. Afiica)

DIN The German standards developing body

EAL European Cooperation for Accreditation of

Laboratories

EC European Community

ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute

EU European Union

EU-MRA European Union - Mutual Recognition Agreement

EUROMET European Metrology Program

FACA Federal Advisory Committee Act (U.S.)

FSU Former Soviet Union

FTAA Free Trade Area of the Americas (planned)

GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

GCC Gulf Cooperation Council (Middle East)

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GIQLP Government Industry Quality Liaison Panel (U.S.)

3
Acronym Definition

GOSSTANDART

ICBO

ICSP

lEC

lECEE

IEEE

lESNA

ILAC

IMGC

INMETRO

IPC

ISDN

ISO

ISO 9000

ISO 14000

ISO-CASCO

ISO-DEVCO

ISO-INFCO

Russia's standards organization—also metrology and

certification

International Conference of Building Officials

Interagency Council on Standards Policy (U.S.)

International Electrotechnical Commission

lEC's System for Conformity Testing to Standards for Safety of

Electrical Equipment

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

Illuminating Engineering Society ofNorth America

International Laboratory Accreditation Conference

Istituto di Metrologia "G. Colonnetti" (Italy)

National Metrology Laboratory (Brazil)

Interoperability Policy Council (of North America)

Integrated Services Digital Network Chapter

International Organization for Standardization

Series of standards for quality management systems

produced by the ISO

Series of standards for environmental management systems

produced by ISO

ISO's Conformity Assessment Cormnittee

ISO's Developing Nations Committee

ISO's Information Committee

4
Acronym Definition

ISONET ISO's Information Network

ISO-REMCO ISO's Reference Materials Committee

ITI Council Information Technology Industry Council

ITU International Telecommunications Union

lUPAC International Union of Pure & Applied Chemistry

JTC-1 ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee on Information

Technology

LAWG Laboratory Accreditation Working Group

MERC Middle East Regional Cooperation program

MOU Memorandum of Understanding

MPA NRW Materialprufimgfant Nordrhein-Westfalen (Germany)

MRA Mutual Recognition Agreement

NABL National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration

Laboratories (India)

NACC North American Calibration Cooperation

NACLA National Council on Laboratory Accreditation (proposed)

NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement

NCSCI National Center for Standards and Certification Information

NCSL National Conference of Standards Laboratories

NCSL National Council of State Legislatures

NCWM National Conference on Weights and Measures

5
Acronym Definition

NELAC National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation

Conference

NFPA National Fire Protection Association

NIS National Institute of Standards (Egypt)

NIS Newly Independent States (former Soviet Union)

NMI National Measurement Institution (NIST in the U.S.)

NORAMET North American Metrology Cooperation

NRLM National Research Laboratory of Metrology (Japan)

NSSN National Standards Systems Network (NIST/ANSI)

NTRLs Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratories

NVCASE National Voluntary Conformity Assessment Systems

Evaluation Program (NIST)

NVLAP National Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation

Program (NIST)

OAS Organization of American States

OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

OIML International Organization of Legal Metrology

OSS Office of Standards Services (NIST)

PASC Pacific Area Standards Congress

QCI Quality Council of India

RILEM International Union of Testing & Research Laboratories for

Materials and Structures

SABIT Special American Business Internship Training

6
Acronym Definition

SAE Society of Automotive Engineers

SASO Saudi Arabian Standards Organization

SASO-ICCP Saudi Arabian Standards Organization - International

Conformity Certification Program

SBCCI Southern Building Code Congress International Inc.

SDOs Standards Developing Organizations

SDS Service Development Surcharge

SI International Systems of Units

SIM Inter-American System of Metrology

SIT Standards in Trade ( a NIST program)

SMO-GCC Standards and Metrology Organization for the Gulf

Cooperation Council (Middle East)

SRM Standard Reference Material

SRR Social Rate of Return

STRS Science & Technology Research & Services (NIST $)

TAG Technical Advisory Group

TBT Technical Barriers to Trade

TBT Agreement Technical Barriers to Trade Agreement (GATT/WTO)

TC Technical Committee (eg. of ISO)

UL Underwriters Laboratories

UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe

USIF U.S.-IndiaFund

7
Acronym Definition

USNC U.S. National Committee (to the lEC)

USTR U.S. Trade Representative

VAMAS Versailles Project on Advanced Materials and Standards

VIM the International Vocabulary of Basic and General Terms

In Metrology (the "VIM")

WCF Working Capital Fund

WTO World Trade Organization

8
Technical Publications

Periodical

Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology—Reports NIST research

and development in those disciplines of the physical and engineering sciences in which the Institute is

active. These include physics, chemistry, engineering, mathematics, and computer sciences. Papers cover a broad range of subjects, with major emphasis on measurement methodology and the basic technology

underlying standardization. Also included from time to time are survey articles on topics closely related to the Institute's technical and scientific programs. Issued six times a year.

Nonperiodicals

Monographs—Major contributions to the technical literature on various subjects related to the

Institute's scientific and technical activities. Handbooks—Recommended codes of engineering and industrial practice (including safety codes) developed in cooperation with interested industries, professional organizations, and regulatory bodies.

Special Publications—Include proceedings of conferences sponsored by NIST, NIST annual reports, and

other special publications appropriate to this grouping such as wall charts, pocket cards, and bibliographies.

National Standard Reference Data Series—Provides quantitative data on the physical and chemical

properties of materials, compiled from the world's literature and critically evaluated. Develof)ed under a worldwide program coordinated by NIST under the authority of the National Standard Data Act (Public

Law 90-396). NOTE: The Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data (JPCRD) is published

bimonthly for NIST by the American Chemical Society (ACS) and the American Institute of Physics (AIP).

Subscriptions, reprints, and supplements are available from ACS, 1155 Sixteenth St., NW, Washington, DC

20056.

Building Science Series—Disseminates technical information developed at the Institute on building

materials, components, systems, and whole structures. The series presents research results, test methods, and

performance criteria related to the structural and environmental functions and the durability and safety

characteristics of building elements and systems.

Technical Notes—Studies or reports which are complete in themselves but restrictive in their treatment of

a subject. Analogous to monographs but not so comprehensive in scope or definitive in treatment of the

subject area. Often serve as a vehicle for final reports of work performed at NIST under the sponsorship of

other government agencies.

Voluntary Product Standards—Developed under procedures published by the Department of Commerce

in Part 10, Title 15, of the Code of Federal Regulations. The standards establish nationally recognized

requirements for products, and provide all concerned interests with a basis for common understanding of

the characteristics of the products. NIST administers this program in support of the efforts of private-sector

standardizing organizations.

Order the following NIST publications—FIPS and NISTIRs—from the National Technical Information

Service, Springfield, VA 22161.

Federal Information Processing Standards Publications (FIPS PUB)—Publications in this series

collectively constitute the Federal Information Processing Standards Register. The Register serves as the

official source of information in the Federal Government regarding standards issued by NIST pursuant to the Federal Property and Administrative Services Act of 1949 as amended. Public Law 89-306 (79 Stat. 1127), and as implemented by Executive Order 11717 (38 FR 12315, dated May 11, 1973) and Part 6 of

Title 15 CFR (Code of Federal Regulations).

NIST Interagency Reports (NISTIR)—A special series of interim or final reports on work performed by

NIST for outside sponsors (both government and nongovernment). In general, initial distribution is handled

by the sponsor; public distribution is by the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA 22161,

in paper copy or microfiche form.