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National Institute of Standards and Technology

Technology Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce

NIST Technical Note 1546

Measurements to Support Modulated

Signal Radio Transmissions for the

Public-Safety Sector

K.A. Remley

G. Koepke

C.L. Holloway

C. Grosvenor

D. Camell

J. Ladbury

R.T. Johnk

D. Novotny

W.F. Young

G. Hough

M.D. McKinley

Y. Becquet

J. Korsnes

loo

NIST Technical Note 1546

Measurements to Support Broadband

Modulated-Signal Radio Transmissions for

the Public-Safety Sector

K.A. Remley

G. Koepke

C.L. Holloway

C. Grosvenor

D. Camell

J. Ladbury

R.T. Johnk^

D. Novotny

W.F. Young

G. Hough^

M.D. McKinley^

Y. Becquet"^

J. Korsnes^

Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory

National Institute of Standards and Technology

325 Broadway

Boulder, CO 80305

1. Institute for Telecommunication Sciences, Boulder, CO

2. Fire Department of New York City, NY

3. Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA

4. Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden

June 2008

,e»»^o'=co^^

U.S. Department of Commerce

Carlos M. Gutierrez, Secretary

National Institute of Standards and Technology

James Turner, Deputy Director
Certain commercial entities, equipment, or materials may be

identified in this document in order to describe an experimental

procedure or concept adequately. Such identification does not imply recommendation or endorsement by the

National Institute of Standards and Technology, nor does it imply that the entities, materials, or equipment

are necessarily the best available for the purpose.

National Institute of Standards and Technology Technical Note 1546

Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Tech. Note 1546, 256 pages (June 2008)

CODEN: NTNOEF

U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington: 2008

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office

Internet bookstore: gpo.gov Phone: 202-512-1800 Fax: 202-512-2250

Mail: Stop SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-0001
Contents

Executive Summary v

1. Introduction 1

2. Measurements for Modulated-Signal Path Characterization 4

2.1 Overview 4

2.2 Narrowband Received-Power Measurements Using a Calibrated Narrowband

Communications Receiver 4

2.3 Wideband Excess-Path-Loss Measurements and Time-Delay Spread 9

2.3.1 VNA-based measurement system 9

2.3.2 Excess path loss 11

2.3.3 RMS delay spread 13

2.3.4 Measurement set-up 14

2.4 Error Vector Magnitude Measurements 15

2.4.1 Error vector magnitude for OFDM channels 15

2.4.2 Measurement set-up 16

3. Apartment Building Measurements 18

3.1 Overview 18

3.2 Narrowband Received-Power Measurements 20

3.3 Excess Path Loss and RMS Delay Spread 25

3.4 Error Vector Magnitude and Modulated-Signal Spectra 30

4. Office Corridor Measurements 34

4.1 Overview 34

4.2 Narrowband Received-Power Measurements 37

4.3 Excess Path Loss and RMS Delay Spread 42

4.4 Error Vector Magnitude and Modulated-Signal Spectra 48

5. Oil Refinery Measurements 52

5.1 Overview 52

5.2 Narrowband Received-Power Measurements 53

5.3 Excess Path Loss and RMS Delay Spread 58

5.4 Error Vector Magnitude and Modulated-Signal Spectra 63

6. Subterranean Tunnel Measurements 67

6.1 Overview 67

6.2 Narrowband Received-Power Measurements 70

6.3 Excess Path Loss and RMS Delay Spread 77

7. Discussion 82

7.1 Classification of Channel Types 82

7.1.1 AWGN channel 82

7.1.2 Rayleigh flat-fading channel 82

7.1.3 Rician fading channel 83

7.1.4 Simple building attenuation 83

7.1.5 Waveguide below cut-off propagation 84

7.1.6 Wideband-fading channel 84

7.1.7 Site-specific physical effects 85

III
7.2 Classifying Propagation in the Different Structures 86

7.2.1 Apartment building 86

7.2.2 Office corridor 89

7.2.3 Oil refinery 94

7.2.4 Subterranean tunnel 97

8. Conclusion 101

9. References 102

Appendix A: Single-Frequency Received-Power Data Collected Using a Calibrated

Communications Receiver: Apartment Building 104

Appendix B: Single-Frequency Received-Power Data Collected Using a Calibrated

Communications Receiver: Office Corridor 110

Appendix C: Single-Frequency Received-Power Data Collected Using a Calibrated

Communications Receiver: Oil Refinery 117

Appendix D: Single-Frequency Received-Power Data Collected Using a Calibrated

Communications Receiver: Subterranean Tunnels 124

Appendix E: Wideband Excess Path Loss Measured With a Synthetic-Pulse VectorNetwork-Analyzer-Based System: Apartment Building 127

Appendix F: Wideband Excess Path Loss Measured With a Synthetic-Pulse VectorNetwork-Analyzer-Based System: Office Corridor 136

Appendix G: Wideband Excess Path Loss Measured With a Synthetic-Pulse VectorNetwork-Analyzer-Based System: Oil Refinery 167

Appendix H: Wideband Excess Path Loss Measured With a Synthetic-Pulse VectorNetwork-Analyzer-Based System: Subterranean Tunnels 184

Appendix I: Modulated-Signal Spectra Measured With a Vector-Signal Analyzer:

Apartment Building , 215

Appendix J: Modulated-Signal Spectra Measured With a Vector-Signal Analyzer: Office

Corridor 230

Appendix K: Modulated-Signal Spectra Measured With a Vector-Signal Analyzer: Oil

Refinery 237

IV
Executive Summary

This is the fifth in a series of NIST Technical Notes (TN) on propagation and

detection of radio signals in large building structures. This series has been developed to support improved radio communications for the public-safety community in difficult radio

environments. The first, second, and third NIST Technical Notes (NIST TN 1540, 1541,

and 1542) described experiments that measured received signal strength in structures

before, during, and after implosion. The fourth, NIST Technical Note 1545, describes a

series of signal-strength measurements carried out in 14 large public buildings. The first four Technical Notes have created a large, public-domain data set describing the

attenuation of radio signals in various building types for the public safety and cellular

telephone bands. The present document augments this work by providing additional

data that are relevant to modulated-signal communication measurement and simulation

for the public-safety sector. We describe measurements of three large public buildings

and one subterranean tunnel.

Wireless communication using wideband digitally modulated signals propagating

into and out of large buildings and other structures is complicated by several factors,

including the strong attenuation of radio signals caused by losses in the building

materials, scattering from structural features (multipath), and waveguiding effects of

corridors and tunnels. Understanding the losses and their variability, decay times for

reflected signals, the frequency-selective behavior of the channel, and the combined

effect these have on broadband digitally modulated signals can help system engineers

assess various technologies. This work can also help in designing and verifying network

simulations and ultimately will help with standards development.

Our in-depth study of four structures presented here includes several types of

data. As in TNs 1540 through 1542 and TN 1545, we collected single-frequency,

received-power data measured over a continuous path in the various structures. These

data were collected at frequencies near public safety and cell phone bands as well as

industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) and wireless local-area network (LAN) bands

(approximately 50 MHz, 150 MHz, 225 MHz, 450 MHz, 900 MHz, and 1.8 GHz). We

carried radio transmitters similar to those used by first responders throughout the

structures while recording the received signal at a fixed receive site. From this we

determined the field strength variability throughout the structures.

We also measured excess path loss at selected locations within each structure.

From the excess path loss we calculated the RMS time-delay spread. The excess path

loss provides the relative received signal strength over the frequency bands of 300 MHz

to 1 GHz and 1 GHz to 18 GHz. The time-delay spread gives an indication of the level

of multipath interference encountered during the signal transmission.

Our third set of tests involved measuring the distortion across the passband of a

digitally modulated signal. We measured the spectra associated with broadband digitally

modulated OFDM signals at frequencies of 2.4 GHz and 4.95 GHz, and from this we

evaluated the common wireless-system figure of merit error vector magnitude (EVM),

which indicates the level of distortion in the received symbols. This set of tests was

designed to investigate the differences between wireless reception in the unlicensed
frequency bands near 2.4 GHz and those proposed for use in the new public-safety

frequency band covering 4.91 GHz to 4.96 GHz.

The collection of data presented here shows a number of propagation effects

relevant to transmission of broadband modulated signals in public-safety and

emergency-responder environments. Some effects were common to all environments,

such as the attenuation of higher frequencies when they impinge upon structural

materials. Some of them were unique to a specific environment; for example, the

intense frequency-selective distortion and multipath across the signal's modulation

bandwidth in an oil refinery. From the data, we were able to classify distinct types of

propagation channels depending on the distance and type of obstructions between the

transmitter and receiver. These include the unobstructed, direct-path channel; the

Rayleigh, flat-fading channel; the wideband fading channel; simple building penetration,

where material attenuation is observed; and waveguide-below-cutoff propagation. Each

effect is illustrated by measurements.

We provide some interpretation of the large body of measurement data

presented here. However, we anticipate that engineers, systems designers, academics,

and standards organizations will find more information in these data than can be

described in one document. Hopefully this work will contribute to our goal of improved

wireless communications for emergency responders.

VI
Measurements to Support Broadband Radio Communications for the

Public-Safety Sector

Kate A. Remley, Galen Koepke, Christopher L. Holloway, Chriss Grosvenor, Dennis

Camell, John Ladbury, Robert T. JohnkJ David Novotny, William F. Young, George

Hough,^ Michael D. McKinley,^ Yann Becquet,"^ John Korsnes"^

Electromagnetics Division

National Institute of Standards and Technology

325 Broadway, Boulder, CO 80305

1. Institute for Telecommunication Sciences, Boulder, CO

2. Fire Department of New York City, NY

3. Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA

4. Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden

Abstract We report on measurements of parameters used to characterize broadband

wireless technologies proposed for use by emergency responders (firefighters, police,

and emergency medical personnel) and other public-safety personnel. We designed a

collection of experiments in various large structures in an effort to quantify radio-signal

attenuation, the level of multipath, and the amount of frequency-selective distortion. We

also monitored the distortion introduced into digitally modulated signals under the

orthogonal frequency division multiplexing access protocol. This report summarizes the

experiments, performed in four large building structures. We describe the experiments

and the measurement systems, and then show primary results of the data we collected

in each of the four structures. Finally, we discuss some of the interesting propagation

effects we observed and discuss how they may be classified into different propagation

channel types. The complete sets of measured data are presented in the appendices.

Key words: attenuation; broadband radio communications; building penetration; digital

modulation; emergency responders; error vector magnitude; excess path loss; received

power; time-delay spread; wireless signals; wireless system measurements; wireless

telecommunications; vector network analyzer; vector signal analyzer; ultrawldeband

signals.

1. Introduction

To aid in the development of standards that support reliable wireless

communications for first responders, the Department of Justice, through the

Community-Oriented Policing Services (COPS) program, and the Department of

Homeland Security Office of Standards are supporting the National Institute of

Standards and Technology (NIST) in acquiring data on radiowave propagation in key

emergency responder and public-safety environments. In past work by NIST [1-3],
measurements were gathered in buildings scheduled for implosion to simulate

collapsed-building environments. The focus of current work is to study penetration radio

waves into large buildings where difficult radio reception is often encountered.

A companion NIST Technical Note, TN 1545 [4], reports on measurements of

received-signal strength for single-frequency excitation in several large public buildings.

A spectrum analyzer was used to measure the relative signal strength as a portable

transmitter was carried throughout the buildings. All measurements were reported

relative to a line-of-sight reference signal level measured outside the building of interest.

Frequencies included bands near licensed public-safety bands and cell phone bands

including 49 MHz, 160 MHz, 225 MHz, 450 MHz, 900 MHz, 1.8 GHz, and a limited set

of data at 2.4 GHz and 4.95 GHz. Statistical descriptions of single-frequency signal

attenuation data are reported in TN 1545.

In this report, we focus on additional parameters relevant to propagation of

modulated signals. We conducted a number of tests in environments that are

notoriously difficult in terms of radio reception for emergency responders. Where

possible, we tried to find locations similar to those described in the SAFECOM

Statement of Requirements (SoR), second revision [5]. Specifically, we conducted tests

at an apartment building to simulate the residential apartment fire scenario (Section

3.3), and at an oil refinery to simulate the chemical plant explosion communications

scenario (Section 3.5). We also carried out tests down a long corridor of an office

building typical of many commercial facilities such as industrial plants, universities,

offices, and schools. Finally, we carried out a limited set of tests in a subterranean

tunnel to simulate subways, utility tunnels, and parking garages, among others.

In each location, several types of tests were carried out that are relevant to

wireless communication systems that utilize digital modulation. We measured received

power over a continuous path in each structure at single frequencies near public safety

frequency bands. We conducted this testing with a high-dynamic-range communications

receiver that enabled measurement of even very weak signals at various frequencies.

We also carried out ultrawideband (UWB) measurements using synthetic-pulse

techniques to assess the time-delay spread of the multipath in the propagation

environments and the excess path loss over a wide frequency band at selected

locations in each structure.

Finally, we measured broadband digitally modulated signals at both 2.4 GHz and

4.95 GHz using the 802.1 1g orthogonal-frequency-division-multiplexing (OFDM)

protocol. In these tests, we recorded the bandpass spectra of each signal and

measured the error vector magnitude (EVM), which describes the level of distortion to

the demodulated information-carrying symbols. Currently, the 2.4 GHz unlicensed

frequency band is sometimes used by responders to transmit broadband data such as images and video. The 4.95 GHz band is licensed to the public safety community and

may also be used for broadband data transfer.

Much work has been published describing measurement characterization of the

propagation environment with respect to loss, delay spread, and/or EVM. Most of these

publications (e.g., reference [6] and references cited therein) describe measurements

intended to simulate communications via cellular telephone or other wireless systems

that rely on a fixed base station whose antenna is positioned high above the ground and

a mobile user located at ground level. Few publications describe measurements that
simulate point-to-point radio-communication scenarios (e.g., reference [7] and

references cited therein), such as those required in many emergency-responder

scenarios.

In addition to supplying standards-development organizations with real-world

data, one of the goals of this program is to provide measurement data that may be

useful for verification of network simulations of emergency responder radio links. These

types of simulations are being developed by NIST, among others. We anticipate these

data may also be used directly by system designers, researchers, and by end users,

including public-safety practitioners.

This document is organized as follows. In Section 2, we discuss the

instrumentation, calibrations, and post-processing methods we used to collect the

various data. In Sections 3 through 6, we provide the measured data collected at each

of the four large structures: an apartment building, the long corridor of an office building,

an oil refinery, and a subterranean tunnel. Section 7 summarizes the propagation

effects noted and draws some conclusions on the types of propagation channels seen

in the four structures. The Appendices at the end of the document contain all of the

measured data.

Occasionally product names are specified solely for completeness of description,

but such identification constitutes no endorsement by the National Institute of Standards

and Technology. Other products may work as well or better.
2. Measurements for Modulated-Signal Path Characterization

2.1 Overview

Our in-depth study of the four structures included collecting several types of data

relevant to wireless system designers and engineers. These include a large body of

single-frequency received-power data collected at frequencies of interest to the public

safety community, as well as received-power data collected over a very broad

frequency band at selected points in the propagation environment. From the broadspectrum measurements, we determined the excess path loss, and from this we

calculated time-delay spread, a figure of merit that describes the time it takes for

reflections in a received signal to die out. Finally, we collected bandpass spectra

measurements and error vector magnitude (EVM) data associated with OFDM

802.11a/g signals at 2.4 GHz and 4.95 GHz. EVM is a figure of ment that describes the

level of distortion in received, demodulated symbols in a digitally modulated signal.

The instrumentation, measurement methods, and calibrations for these

measurements are described below. In most cases, these techniques were extensions

of laboratory-based methods developed in prior years in the NIST Electromagnetics

Division.

2.2 Narrowband Received-Power Measurements Using a Calibrated

Narrowband Communications Receiver

As in Technical Notes 1540 through 1542 and 1545, we collected singlefrequency received-power data measured over a continuous path in the various

structures. These data were collected at frequencies near public safety and cell phone

bands as well as unlicensed industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) bands

(approximately 50 MHz, 150 MHz, 225 MHz, 450 MHz, 900 MHz, and 1.8 GHz).

For this study, we carried radio transmitters throughout the structures while

recording the received signal at a fixed receive site, as illustrated in Fig. 2.2-1 (a). The

radios we used were similar to those used by first responders (Fig. 2.2-1 (b)), except that

they were placed in ruggedized cases and were modified to transmit continuously.

For the receiver (Fig. 2.2-1 (c)), we used a narrowband communications receiver.

This instrument, when combined with NIST-developed post-processing techniques,

provides a high-dynamic-range measurement system that is affordable for most public

safety organizations. Part of our intent was to demonstrate a user-friendly system that

could be utilized by public-safety organizations to assess their own unique propagation

environments.
receiver

X X

1 " x-_-_- -x-'L--x

^

1—^^ ' —

---'--*

x/.>,

V V • , ''' ^ X __v.-

1 , / s ,

1

1 ^x---_x-----x

transmitter path

(a)

(b) (c)

Figure 2.2-1: Illustration of the narrowband received-power measurements, (a) A radio

transmitter was carried throughout the building on a continuous path, and the signal strength

was recorded by the receiver, (b) The radio transceivers used in the tests were placed in protective cases with additional batteries and modified for continuous transmission, (c) The

receiver consisted of a commercially available communications receiver, followed by postprocessing steps to determine the received-signal level.

The use and calibration of the communications receiver is described in more

detail in other publications [8] but is briefly summarized here for convenience. The

system, shown in block diagram form in Fig. 2.2-2(a), is based on a common

communications receiver and a personal computer (PC) sound card. The receiver is set

to its "upper sideband" mode and is tuned to a frequency slightly below the carrier, in

this way, the receiver acts as a frequency downconverter (Fig. 2.2-2(b)), transforming

the RF signal to baseband (audio) frequencies. The baseband signal is digitized using

the sound card and is then post-processed and graphically displayed, letting the

operator know whether a radio signal is present and what the level of that signal is. We may observe the upper and lower sidebands of the down-converted signal by

setting the receiver's center frequency to approximately the middle of its intermediatefrequency (IF) passband. For example, a signal with a 100 MHz carrier frequency may

be measured by a receiver with a 3 kHz passband by tuning the receiver to 99.9985

MHz. In this case, the receiver will display the 100 MHz signal at 1.5 kHz (see Fig. 2.2-

2(c)).
The communications receiver has an automatic-gain-control (AGC) circuit whose

function is to control the receiver gain to produce a constant-output-level signal

regardless of the input power. The AGC circuit ensures the receiver circuitry operates in

its optimal range. For the receiver we used, the AGC is active only for signals above a

certain power threshold, and does not modify weak signals (on the order of Prec less

than -90 dBm).

The purpose of the AGC circuit is to ensure the receiver will demodulate as highlevel of a signal as possible without overdriving the front end. It does this by altering the

received-signal level to fit the best range for the demodulator. However, for receivedpower measurements the signal-level information is exactly what we are trying to

determine. Hence, we need to undo the effects of the AGC modification of the signal

level. To extract the signal-level information from the AGC-modified received signal, we

monitor the DC voltage level that corresponds to the feedback of the AGC circuit. This

voltage is directly related to the received-signal power and may be used to compensate

for the AGC. We measure the DC voltage at the AGC jack on the back panel of the

receiver with a digital multimeter having a recording feature. By synchronizing the

recorded signal with the recorded AGC levels, we may determine the received signal's

level during post-processing.
UNEIN

(a)

(b)

PPBif

Carrier >

1 "

W| ^^ " ^^ ^^r ff 'W^ ^^P ^^1 iE.j-MSPSJBP'^

MFBW

(c)

Figure 2.2-2: (a) Set-up used to calibrate a communication receiver to display received

signal strength. The receiver down-converts the signal to baseband frequencies, as shown in (b), and the sound card digitizes the baseband signal. A DC voltmeter monitors the

automatic-gain-control setting on the receiver. The AGC data are used in post-processing to determine the signal's actual level. Graphic (c) shows a recorded, down-converted signal

with time on the x-axis and frequency on the y-axis. The stripe at the center corresponds to the carrier frequency, and the bands on either side correspond to the FM sidebands. In this case the received signal is in Morse code.

Once the post-processing steps are carried out, the average received signal

power for each location in a building may be measured. Note that the received power

depends on the antenna and cabling used with the receiver. However, these effects

may be calibrated out to display system-independent electric field level. In the

measurements described here, we typically used a biconical, omnidirectional antenna

for frequencies below 1 GHz. A typical received-power plot is shown in Fig. 2.2-3, where

we see the received electric field (proportional to the power) versus time, averaged over one-second increments for a received-power measurement in a hotel structure.

Structural features are noted on the graph as the transmitter is carried throughout the

building.
800 1000 1200

absolute time [sec]

2000

Figure 2.2-3: Electric field strengths measured during an 867 MHz building walk-through of a

hotel. The vertical marker lines represent boundaries in time between different sections of

the walk. The curve represents a five-point moving average of the measured calibrated data

(from [6]).

The communications receiver allows us to determine the range of received power

values that can be expected for a given structure. If antenna characteristics are known,

these levels can be calibrated to absolute electric field strength, enabling easy

comparison of measurements from different measurement systems. In the following

sections, we instead report on the received-signal level relative to a reference line-ofsight measurement. Similar to the spectrum analyzer data collected in TNs 1540

through 1543 and 1545, these data can then be processed in terms of mean and

standard deviation to provide channel models for network simulations. Because data

are collected continuously, signal levels can easily be associated with features in the

propagation environment. Some advantages of the communications receiver over the

spectrum analyzer are its increased dynamic range; that is, we can detect weaker

signals with this system. Also, our receiver system has a lower cost compared to that of a spectrum analyzer.

8
2.3 Wideband Excess-Path-Loss Measurements and Time-Delay

Spread

2.3.1 VNA-based measurement system

We studied excess path loss over a wide frequency band at selected locations

within each structure. The wideband excess-path-loss measurements provide

measurements of received signal strength relative to a direct-path signal for a wide

frequency band of 25 MHz to 18 GHz. These measurements complement the

narrowband, continuously recorded received power measured with the communications

receiver by providing the received power over a wide range of frequencies but at only a few locations. Note that we use the phrase "excess path loss" in the context of the

vector-network-analyzer (VNA)-based measurements. Technically we are measuring

received signal power, not path loss. Graphs of path loss would have positive ordinates

and increase with distance. However, the phrase "excess path loss" has a specific

meaning in the measurement community and will be used throughout this report. Timedelay spread was calculated from the excess path loss data in post processing. Rootmean-square (RMS) delay spread is a figure of merit that gives an indication of the level

of multipath interference encountered during the signal transmission.

For the wideband measurements, we used a synthetic-pulse, ultrawideband

system based on a VNA developed at NIST [9]. Figure 2.2-4 is a representative diagram

of the measurement system. Here the system is shown collecting a line-of-sight

reference measurement. In practice, the transmitting and receiving antennas may be

separated by significant distances, although they must remain tethered together by the

fiber-optic link. While directional horn antennas are shown in Fig. 2.2-4, omnidirectional

antennas were also used in our measurements, offering insight into antenna systems

most often used in public-safety applications.

In the synthetic-pulse system, the VNA acts as both transmitter and receiver. The

transmitting section of the VNA sweeps over a wide range of frequencies, but at a single

frequency at a time. The transmitted signal is amplified and fed to a transmitting

antenna, as shown in the figure. The received signal is picked up over the air by the

receiving antenna and sent back to the transmitter via a fiber-optic cable. The fiber-optic

cable phase locks the received signal to the transmitted signal, enabling reconstruction

of the time-domain waveform associated with the received signal in post-processing.

Because the wideband transmitted signal corresponds to a short-duration pulse in the

time domain, this system lets us measure transmitted signal, modified by the

propagation path, including losses and multipath reflections that the narrow pulse

experiences as it travels from the transmitter to the receiver.
Receiving

antenna

Transmitting

antenna

62 incli(

tripods

<~

VNA

Port 1 Q Q O

=ort^'

Ground Plane

Fiber Optic

Transmitter

RF Optical

'200 m'

Optical

Fiber

tFlber Optic

[Receiver

^RF^Opticaj

Figure 2.2-4: Ultrawideband synthetic-pulse measurement system based on a vector

network analyzer. Frequency-domain measurements, synchronized by the optical fiber link, are transformed to the time domain in post-processing. This enables determination of excess

path loss, time-delay spread, and other figures of merit important in characterizing

broadband modulated-signal transmissions.

The vector network analyzer is first calibrated by use of standard techniques,

where known impedance standards are measured. Then a reference measurement is conducted where the transmitting and receiving antennas are placed close enough

together that environmental effects are negligible. This reference measurement enables

us to correct for the response of the fiber-optic system, amplifiers, or any other

electronics used in the measurement. The frequency response of the antennas is measured separately in the laboratory environment at NIST and is deconvolved in a

post-processing step.

Once the measurements have been made, one additional post-processing step is carried out on the raw VNA measurements to provide clean frequency-domain and timedomain representations. Our optical links add a large amplitude oscillation to the

measured signal. Because this oscillation occurs at a low frequency, we are able to

suppress it by applying a high-pass filter, as shown in Fig. 2.2-5.

10
X 10 Signal distored by optical link / \

/ , /

\

V /

^\_.-—-\ "

^vy

' 1

10

1 2 3

time [ns] Distortion removed by lowpass filter

4 5

X lo"

2 3

time [ns] X 10

Figure 2.2-5: Low-frequency oscillations introduced by the optical link (top) are removed by use of a high-pass filter in post-processing (bottom). This enables us to clearly discern the

measured data; here an initial pulse is received at approximately 5 ns, followed by a reflected

pulse at approximately 30 ns.

2.3.2 Excess path loss

Excess path loss is typically understood to be the loss seen to exceed that

measured in a free-space environment [10]. In order to obtain the measured free-space

loss with our system, we begin by taking a reference measurement at a specified

distance. The measurement includes environmental effects, so we use time-domain

gating to obtain the free-space path loss. We use the total energy of the pulse response

as our reference. Figures 2.2-6(a) and (b) show the time- and frequency-domain

responses for a 3 m reference measurement using a pair of dual-ridged-guide (DRG)

antennas. In Fig. 2.2-6(a), the time-domain reference is shown with all environmental

effects. The time-domain reference is gated from 2 ns to 32 ns to isolate the antenna

response. The frequency-domain responses for the 3 m reference are shown in Fig.

2.2-6(b). The noisier black trace shows the reference including environmental effects

and the smoother red trace shows the frequency-domain response of the isolated

antennas. The environmental effects cause the hashy noise seen in the black trace. The

gated response is what we would see if the antenna were measured in a free-space

environment.

The measured signal (not the reference) is also gated, but not for the same

reasons. We want to see the measured signal's interaction with the environment, so we

gate the signal at a place where the signal is no longer visible above the system noise.

We choose a gate length that includes all of the important signal data. For example, for

11
the signal in Fig. 2.2-6(a), we would gate the signal from approximately 10 ns to 40 ns. By gating out the remaining noise we obtain a better signal-to-noise ratio. This is not

critical in propagation measurements such as those presented here, but is important in measurements where the signal levels are fairly low.

For the VNA measurements, the excess path loss (EPL) is therefore defined as

the ratio of the measured signal to the free-space reference:

c

T7r>T 21 (gated signal) ^^^ = T^ . (2.3-1)

21 (gated reference)

12
Antenna response

(a)

DRG (3 m reference) ^^^^^~ Ungated response Gated Response

8000 12000

Frequency (MHz)

(b)

Figure 2.2-6: (a) Time-domain waveform for a DRG 3 m reference measurement. The

waveform shows the antenna response, the ground-bounce response and the spurious

environmental effects, (b) The frequency-domain response for both the ungated response

(noisy black trace), which includes all environmental effects, and the gated response

(smoother red trace), which includes only the antenna response.

2.3.3 RMS delay spread

Root-mean-square (RMS) delay spread is calculated from the power-delay profile

of a measured signal [11-13]. Figure 2.2-7 shows the power-delay profile for a typical

building propagation measurement. The peak level usually occurs when the signal

arrives at the receiving antenna, although sometimes we see the signal build up

13
gradually to the peak value and then fall off. A common rule of thumb is to calculate the

RMS delay spread by use of signals at least 10 dB above the noise floor of the

measurement. For typical measurements, we define the maximum dynamic range to be

about 40 dB below the peak value. However, for the measurement shown in Figure 2.2-

7, we extended the window down to 70 dB below the peak value, because the RMS

delay spread does not change appreciably due to the almost constant slope of the

power decay curve. Note that the dynamic range value may change for low signal

levels.

The following equation is used to define the RMS delay spread, <j^:

Or = (-)•

(2.3-2)

In (2.3-2), r is defined as the average of the power-delay profile in the defined dynamic

range, and r' is the variance of the power-delay profile.

Peak level

400 800 1200 Time (ns)

Figure 2.2-7: Power-delay profile for a building propagation measurement. The important

parameters for a measured propagation signal are the peak level, the maximum dynamic

range, the mean delay spread, and the RMS delay spread.

2.3.4 Measurement set-up

For the measurements reported in this document, the instrument was set up with

the following parameters. The initial output power was set to -15 dBm to -13 dBm. The

gain of the amplifier and the optical link and the system losses ensured that the power

level at the receiving port was not more than dBm. An intermediate-frequency (IF)

averaging bandwidth of around 1 kHz was used to average the received signal. We

14
typically used 6401 points per frequency band and chose the number of bands recorded

in each measurement to avoid aliasing of the signal. For these measurements, the highband measurements (750 MHz to 18 GHz, using directional DRG antennas) were taken

by measuring 48003 points for a total of three bands. Only one band was required for

the low-frequency measurements (25 MHz to 1.4 GHz with omnidirectional antennas).

The dwell time was approximately 25 |js per point.

2.4 Error Vector Magnitude Measurements

2.4.1 Error vector magnitude for OFDM channels

Our third set of tests involved measuring the waveforms of bandpass modulated

signals and, from these, calculating EVM, which is a commonly used wireless-system

figure of merit. EVM gives an indication of the distortion introduced into a digitally

modulated signal as it passes through a propagation channel. To find EVM, the signal is first demodulated to find the in-phase and quadrature-phase voltage levels that

correspond to the received symbols. We then normalize and compare the measured

voltages to their ideal values. The algorithm we used to find EVM was built into the

receiver.

The modulated signal we used as excitation was based on the OFDM

transmission scheme, as specified by the IEEE 802.1 1aTM-1999 standard [14-16].

OFDM is used in wireless local-area networks (WLANs), in dedicated short-range

communication (DSRC) systems for tracking and observing loads in commercial

vehicles [17], and in the public-safety band at 4.95 GHz. In the latter, OFDM signals are

often transmitted in a 10 MHz wide channel using the 802.11] standard, instead of the

20 MHz wide channel utilized in 802.11a. The demodulator that we had was able to

measure only the 802.11a standard, and this is what we report on in the following

sections.

In the OFDM scheme, data are encoded onto 52 frequency-multiplexed

subcarriers. For strong received signals, data are transmitted at a high data rate,

maximally 54 megabits per second (Mbps). As the received signal strength decreases,

the data rate decreases to compensate for the increase in noise. Note that both

attenuation in the propagation environment and an increase in undesired interference

will cause a reduction in data rate. In the tests reported on here, we force the signal

generator to transmit either a slow-data-rate quadrature-phase-shift-keyed (QPSK) or a

high-data-rate 64-quadrature-amplitude-modulated (64QAM) signal. This lets us assess

the impact on EVM of a given channel when different modulation schemes are used. In some environments reported here, we were limited by the dynamic range of the

receiver.

As mentioned above, EVM describes the difference between the ideal value of a demodulated symbol and the measured value. To aid in visualizing the demodulated

signals, constellation diagrams are often used to represent digital symbols. In a

constellation diagram, each symbol is represented by a unique magnitude and phase.

15
The magnitude and phase corresponding to each symbol are plotted in terms of real

and imaginary components.

Figure 2.4-1 shows three constellation diagrams for a 16QAM signal, which has

16 symbols that modulate the radio-frequency (RF) carrier in both magnitude and

phase. In each case, / and Q represent the in-phase (0 degree relative phase) and

quadrature (90 degree relative phase) voltage values of each symbol. This gives each

symbol a resulting magnitude and phase.

Figure 2.4-1 (a) represents a measured set of symbols. Scattered dots on this

diagram represent the effect of small errors in the measured symbols. Figure 2.4-1 (b)

represents the ideal constellation. The units of the in-phase and quadrature axes are dimensionless integers. A normalization (Fig. 2.4-1 (c)) may be carried out to compare

the differences between the measured and ideal symbols, as in reference [18]. The

magnitude of the vector difference between the ideal and measured symbol is how EVM

gets its name. Mathematically, this can be expressed as

^^^RMS -

1 N

—Vis* TLT / J I ideal,/- -smeas.r

1 ^

AT Z-( I ideal,/- I

-^ ' /=!

(2.4-1)

where Smeas,ris the normalized ^^ symbol in a stream of measured symbols, Sjdeai.ris the

ideal normalized constellation point for the /^^ symbol, and N is the number of unique

symbols in the constellation. The fractional form of EVM given in eq. (2.4-1) is often

represented as a percentage.

2.4.2 Measurement set-up

For the EVM measurements described in the following sections, a vector signal

generator was used to create the digitally modulated signals. The signal generator was

mounted on a rolling cart and moved through the various propagation environments.

We used a vector signal analyzer (VSA) to receive the signals. The VSA

maintains the relative phase of the measured frequency components and enables

laboratory-grade measurements of distortion in digitally modulated signals. For the

measurements presented here, the effects of the instrument itself were calibrated out by

use of an internal calibration routine in the instrument. The VSA was adjusted for

minimum received-signal distortion before each set of measurements. This entailed

performing an internal calibration followed by a range adjustment under line-of-sight

conditions.

Due to the limited dynamic range of the vector signal analyzer, it was necessary

in some cases to use a directional horn antenna to optimize the received signal even

though this set-up would probably not be utilized in a response scenario. Thus, some of

the measurements that follow may be regarded as an optimized experiment.

16
We carried out these measurements in frequency bands around 2.4 GHz and

4.95 GHz to investigate the differences in transmission between existing wireless

systems in the unlicensed 2.4 GHz industrial/scientific/medical (ISM) frequency band

(which is sometimes used by public-safety organizations) and systems proposed for use

in the new licensed public-safety frequency band covering 4.94 GHz to 4.99 GHz.

Measured case: voltage space

.N6(V)

Ideal Constellation ^*-q Diagram

4- +H- +

Ideal case: integer space

Normalized case: dimensionless space

(c)

Figure 2.4-1: Calculation of EVM for a 16QAM signal, (a) Demodulated symbols containing

distortion and (b) ideal symbol values at discrete constellation-diagram locations. These

two are normalized in (c) so that they can be compared prior to calculating the EVM. This

enables finding a consistent value of EVM across multiple modulation schemes. From

reference [18].

17
3. Apartment Building IVIeasurements

3.1 Overview

We carried out the various propagation measurements described in Section 2 at

an 11 -story apartment building located in Boulder, Colorado in October of 2007. As can

be seen in Figure 3.1-1, the building is constructed of reinforced concrete, steel, and

brick with standard interior finish materials. The building was fully furnished and

occupied during the experiments. Measurements were performed during daytime hours,

so people were moving throughout the building during the experiments.

Figure 3.1-1: Views of the 11 -story, concrete and steel apartment building where the NIST

measurements were made, (a) Near receiver site 1 (east side of building), (b) Near receiver

site 2 (north side of building). The NIST directional antenna is seen in the foreground.

The layout of the apartment building is shown in Figure 3.1-2, with a simplified

schematic in Figure 3.1-3. The building floor plan is T-shaped, with two elevators near

the junction of the T. This apartment building has several features in common with the

building described in the Apartment Fire Scenario of the SAFECOM SoR [5], including

concrete construction, stairwells at the ends of the hallways, apartments off a main

corridor with outside-facing windows, and the need for single- or two-wall radiowave

penetration. The Apartment Fire Scenario deals with a fire response on the second floor

of such an apartment building.

18
To simulate the fire response scenario, we carried out narrowband receivedpower measurements tiiroughout tine building, entering an apartment on the second and

seventh floors. Excess path loss, time-delay spread, and EVM were measured at selected points on the second and seventh floors only.

Isi

:^i-A ^ PAHKIWG PLAW [REWSroj

AXt

Figure 3.1-2: Layout of the apartment building lot, including parking areas. The building itself

is the shaded, T-shaped structure in the center, and the hatched structures are metallic

carports. The two sites where the NIST measurements were made are shown by the circled

numbers.

One of the receiver sites (depending on the experiment, the single-frequency

receiver, vector network analyzer, or vector signal analyzer) was located outside the

building on the ground level approximately 60 m away, as shown in Figures 3.1-2 and

3.1-3. For the single-frequency received-power measurements, a second receiver site

was set up north of the building approximately 80 m away. These locations were chosen

to mimic those of a command vehicle responding to a fire at that location.

In the following sections, we describe the various experiments we conducted to

study narrowband received power (using the single-frequency receiver), excess path

loss and RMS delay spread (using the vector network analyzer), and modulated-signal

response and EVM (using the vector signal analyzer). Selected data sets are presented

to highlight significant aspects of signal propagation in this environment. The complete

sets of data are included in the appendices at the end of the report.

19
N

Windows

A

Receive

Site 1

,

VNA, VSA

Figure 3.1-3: Layout of a single floor of the 11-story apartment building studied by NIST. A

T-shaped corridor is lined with apartments that face the outside of the building. Each

apartment has at least two large windows to the exterior. NIST equipment was positioned on

the ground floor approximately 60 m from the building. An additional receiver site was

located approximately 80 m north of the building. The drawing is not to scale, but critical dimensions are noted. Even though marked "receive site," for the VNA measurements, the

transmitting antenna was placed there.

3.2 Narrowband Received-Power Measurements

For the narrowband received-power experiments, two fixed receiver sites (as

described above) were assembled. Photos from receiver site 2 are shown in Figure 3.2-

1. Measurements were performed with omnidirectional receiving antennas polarized in the vertical direction, as shown in Figure 3.2-2.

Figure 3.2-3 shows the path taken by the handheld transmitters as they were

carried through the top 10 floors of the apartment building. We entered each floor from

the stairwell, proceeded along the path noted in Figure 3.2-3, and exited through the

opposite stairwell. Additionally, on the second and seventh floors, we entered

apartments, walked through, and exited again. The apartment on the second floor faced

the receiver sites, while the apartment on the seventh floor was on the opposite side of

the building. As the received signals were recorded, the location of the transmitter in the

building was also recorded and is marked on the graphs of the measured data. Figure

20
3.2-4(a) shows a photograph of the hallway, and Figure 3.2-4(b) shows the types of

transmitters that were used in the test.

(a) (b)

Figure 3.2-1: Receiver site 2, showing equipment used for narrowband received-power

measurements, (a) The spectrum analyzer on the left side of the table was used for receivedpower measurements described in NIST Technical Note 1545, receiver on left, (b) Receiver

set-up showing communications receiver in center, voltmeter on right. The voltmeter

measures the AGC voltage that is subsequently used to calibrate the measurement.

(a)

Figure 3.2-2: Vertically polarized omnidirectional

antennas were used for the receiver

measurements, (a) Receiver site 1 (omnidirectional

antenna is on the right), (b) Receiver site 2. (b)

21
N

Apartment

/ on floor 7

H-M—

h

*-M h H-H J 4-M J ^-M i 1-1—1 h +-M \

H-H I'M I |i| II. I

i | I I 1

i |—I I i Elevators

\

North

Stairwell

Apartment

on floor 2

South

Stairwell

Path-Loss

Measurement Route

Receive

Site 1

Figure 3.2-3: The dashed line shows the route taken on each of the top 10 floors of the

apartment building during the single-frequency received-power measurements.

Measurements continued up the stairwells. Dotted lines show the approximate path taken

into apartments on the second and seventh floors. A second receiver site was located

approximately 80 m to the north of the building.

(b)

Figure 3.2-4: (a) Carrying a transmitter down a hallway

in the apartment building, (b) Set of transmitters used in the narrowband received-power measurements.

22
Figures 3.2-5(a) and (b) show a representative set of receiver data covering tine top 10 floors of the apartment building for a carrier frequency of 908 MHz recorded at the two receiver sites shown in Figures 3.1-2 and 3.1-3. The complete set of data

recorded at receiver sites 1 and 2 appears in Appendix A. In each plot, vertical lines

marked with an "L" and a number represent the transmitter entering the various floors of

the building from the stairwells on either end. The path zigzags up through the building;

that is, if the third floor was entered from the south stairwell, then the fourth floor was

entered through the north stairwell. The locations of the apartments on the second and

seventh floors are also noted on the graphs.

Figure 3.2-5 shows that in general, the signal levels were strongest in the

stairwells, which are relatively weakly shielded. The levels dropped significantly when

the transmitters moved behind the elevators. When the transmitters were carried

through the apartments on the second and seventh floors, the signal levels changed

significantly as well. At receiver site 1, directly across from the window of the secondfloor apartment, the signal level increased, while it decreased when the transmitter

entered the seventh-floor apartment on the opposite side of the building. At receiver site

2, the signal levels dropped when the transmitter entered either apartment.

This example set of data illustrates the wide range of signal levels that may be

encountered by radio systems when building penetration is involved. Many of the level

changes can be explained by simple deduction based on the physical environment.

While narrowband received power data such as this are vital for an adequate

understanding of the attenuation due to building penetration, when wideband

modulation is used, multipath and frequency selectivity in the channel can affect

building penetration as well. These aspects of signal propagation are discussed in the

following sections.

23
Horizon West - Site 1

-70

li

Wi,i

Freq. = 908 MHz

Ref. = -34.6 dBm

Approx. noise fl. = -126 dBm

400 600 800 1000

time, [s]

(a)

Horizon West -Site 2

Freq. = 908 MHz

Ref. = -48.9 dBm

Approx. noise fl. = -127 dBm

200 400 600 800

lime, [s]

(b)

Figure 3.2-5: Received-power data for the top 10 floors of an apartment building as measured by a narrowband communications receiver at (a) receiver site 1 and (b) receiver

site 2. The carrier frequency was 908 MHz. The received signal levels are referred to a line- of-sight reference signal, whose level is noted on each graph. The locations of the stairwells

at the north and south ends of the buildings are noted by the vertical dashed lines on each

graph, as are the locations of the apartments on the second and seventh floors.

24
3.3 Excess Path Loss and RMS Delay Spread

We next carried out measurements at the apartment building using tiie VNAbased synthetic-pulse measurement system described in Section 2.3. Figure 3.3-1

shows photographs of the transmitter site set-up. Only site 1 was used. Because of the

time required for each measurement (up to two or three minutes, depending on the

number of frequency points acquired), and because of the necessity of linking the

transmitting and receiving sections with a fiber-optic link, we restncted our data

collection to selected points on the second and seventh floors. Again, we chose the

second floor because this is studied in the SAFECOM SoR Apartment Fire Scenario.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 3.3-1: Set-up of the synthetic-pulse, ultrawideband measurement system at receiver

site1. (a) Equipment included the optical-fiber link (far right on table), the vector network

analyzer (to the left of the link), and a computer for data acquisition, (b) Vector network

analyzer and laptop, (c) Optical fiber cable was tethered to the receiving antenna as it was

carried through the building, as shown in a stairwell in (d).

Measurements were made at points approximately every five meters along both

corridors of the apartment building, as shown in Fig. 3.3-2. We collected data covering

25
two frequency bands. For the lower frequency band (25 MHz to 1 .4 GHz), we used

omnidirectional antennas, as would be used by most emergency response companies.

For the higher frequency band (750 MHz to 18 GHz) it was necessary to use directional

horn antennas in order to have sufficient signal strength at the higher frequencies. The

omnidirectional antennas we used are shown in Figure 3.2-2(a) and (b).

N

w +-i-l h- HH-H 1 i l I I li I I I \ i-H-H Il I I I Il I I I i

(0) —(5> -(D- - (7> -(?)-- (9> -(10)- - (T> - <12V -K13

I III

>-i-H—i-h-t

Elevators

h-\-

~5 m

4-1—1—

h

h-h-i—\- North

Stairwell

South

Stairwell

Wideband Path Loss

Oand RMS Delay Spread

Measurement Locations

VNA

Figure 3.3-2: Positions along the apartment building corridor where synthetic pulse

measurements were made. Measurements were carried out on the second and seventh

floors. The transmitting antenna was located outside and the receiving antenna was moved

along the floors.

Figure 3.3-3 shows a summary of the wideband excess path loss data covering a frequency range of 1 GHz to 18 GHz. These curves, too small to be easily interpreted, are shown simply to give a feeling for how the signal levels change with floor and with

frequency. The complete sets of measured data are provided in Appendix E. The top

black cun/e represents the data collected on the second floor, the middle red curve

represents the data from the seventh floor, and the bottom blue cun/e is the noise floor

of the measurement system.

26
:\

Jt

^ :] ^:] ^:] ^:i m:\ m:\ ^T ^

,,, . ., ii^V . ,

, , ,1 f^i J /iW... . ,. J,.,.. ^ , , .,. ,1 f^W. ,,. -

. .

, -^ ,

I

, . . ^^ ,

. . . i. , ryj

, ry<^.^fM

(D CD CD CD CD CD ® ~'Qi) ® O

I 8

,/W

, Aa/ Nwyu '®

^j<wrA^

^

'A-ycy

"All numbered points are 5m apart

Comparison of penetration (in dB) from 1-18 GHz:

•Floor 2 (black, top curve)

•Floor 7 (red, bottom curve)

Figure 3.3-3: Summary of VNA-based synthetic-pulse data collected on the second and

seventh floors of an 11 -story apartment building. The top line is data from the second floor,

the middle line is from the seventh floor, and the bottom line represents the noise floor of the

measurement system. The point labeled "TX Antenna" represents the location of the VNA at receiver site 1 . Note that the placement of the south stairwell and elevators is incorrect on

this figure. The complete set of data, enlarged, is in given Appendix E.

Figure 3.3-3 clearly shows that along the main hallway, the signals received from

the seventh floor are noticeably weaker than those from the second floor, in particular at

the higher frequencies. The locations where the receiver is positioned behind the

elevators have universally weak signals relative to those with a less-obstructed path.

The data also indicate that lower frequencies penetrate the building better than higher

frequencies. This may have some bearing on the use of the 4.9 GHz frequency band for

public-safety use at an emergency site.

The RMS delay spread values calculated from the VNA measurements are presented below in Tables 3.3-1 through 3.3-4. On the second floor, the delay spread

ranges from 28.2 ns at position 3 to 71.2 ns at position 6 for the lower frequency band

using omnidirectional antennas, and from 15.3 ns (position 3) to 48.2 ns (position 5) in the higher frequency band using horn antennas. Position 3 is nearest to the receiver

site, and so very little multipath is seen. Positions 5 and 6 are behind the elevator and

so an increased level of multipath is seen for these locations.

These same trends are seen on the seventh floor. For the lower frequency band,

the RMS delay spread ranged from 33.2 ns at position 3 to 82.4 ns at position 13. For

the higher frequency band, the RMS delay spread ranged from 14.5 ns at position 3 to

27
44.2 ns at position 5. This indicates that the signals are experiencing a similar level of

multipath on both floors.

Table 3.3-1. RMS delay spread calculated from excess path loss measurements on the

second floor for the lower frequency band.

Floor 2, 300 MHz to 1 GHz, Omnidirectional Antennas

Position RMS Delay Spread

(ns)

Initial Tau'

(ns)

Stop Time"

(ns)

49.2 248.6 900

1 38.7 2167 1000

2 35.8 151,1 800

3 28.2 121.4 800

4 48.8 278.2 1000

5 59.1 254.7 1000

6 71.2 225.4 1000

7 62.9 215.2 1000

8 61.6 211.4 1000

9 56.7 200.7 1000

10 58.6 190,8 1000

11 54,3 1890 1000

12 609 1854 1000

13 629 182,8 1000

* Initial tau is when the signal appears in the measurement window

** The calculation was stopped when the signal level dropped 40 dB below highest level

Table 3.3-2. RMS delay spread calculated from excess path loss measurements on the

second floor for the higher frequency band.

Floor 2, 1 GHz to 18 GHz, Directional Antennas

Position RMS Delay Spread

(ns)

Initial Tau*

(ns)

stop Time"

(ns)

24.1 219.2 600

1 21.4 207.9 600

2 16.7 188.6 600

3 15.3 184.4 700

4 24.9 227.1 700

5 48.2 200.9 800

6 30.7 191.0 800

7 36.3 182,6 800

8 31.2 174,1 800

9 30.4 167.7 800

10 31.7 161.7 800

11 39.4 155.9 800

12 38.0 153.9 800

13 20.8 154.3 800

Initial tau is when the signal appears in the measurement window

' The calculation was stopped when the signal level dropped 40 dB below highest level

28
Table 3.3-3. RMS delay spread calculated from excess path loss measurements on the

seventh floor for the lower frequency band.

Floor 7, 300 MHz to 1 GHz, Omnidirectional Antennas

Position RMS Delay Spread

(ns)

Initial Tau*

(ns)

Stop Time**

(ns)

47,2 2687 1000

1 364 250.5 1000

2 37 7 233.6 1000

3 332 2253 1000

4 49-9 285.7 1000

5 59.9 287.9 1000

6 70.9 250.3 1000

7 77.5 238.0 1000

8 70.1 221 2 1000

9 665 209.7 1000

10 691 204.2 1000

11 65,5 208.2 1000

12 67.5 228,7 1000

13 82.4 195.6 1000

* Initial tau is when the signal appears in the measurement window

** The calculation was stopped when the signal level dropped 40 dB below highest level

Table 3.3-4. RMS delay spread calculated from excess path loss measurements on the

seventh floor for the higher frequency band.

Floor 7, 1 GHz to 18 GHz, Directional Antennas

Position RMS Delay Spread

(ns)

Initial Tau*

(ns)

Stop Time**

(ns)

32.4 226,3 800

1 237 214,8 800

2 24.3 198,4 800

3 14.5 189,5 800

4 359 245 2 800

5 44.2 211,4 800

6 37.4 201 4 800

7 40.8 193,2 800

8 38,8 184.7 800

9 30.5 178.4 800

10 31.0 172.2 800

11 34.8 169.3 800

12 36.8 166.1 800

13

Initial tau is when the signal appears in the measurement window

' The calculation was stopped when the signal level dropped 40 dB below highest level

29
3.4 Error Vector Magnitude and Modulated-Signal Spectra

Finally, we investigated the transmission of wideband digitally modulated signals

into tine apartment building using the error vector magnitude metric, described in Section 2.4. We also measured the spectra of the digitally modulated signals and the

multisine signals designed to simulate them. The excitation was a QPSK-modulated

OFDM signal having a bandwidth of 20 MHz.

For these measurements, we used the vector-signal-analyzer-based

measurement set-up described in Section 2.4. Because of the length of time required to

perform these measurements (on the order of minutes), data were again collected at

only selected locations. We used the same locations on the second and seventh floors

where the UWB measurements of Section 3.3 were made. Photographs of the

measurement set-up at receiver site 1 and the cart containing the transmitting

equipment are shown in Figures 3.4-1 (a) and (b).

(a) (b)

Figure 3.4-1: Measurement set-up for the vector-signal analyzer measurements of wideband

digitally modulated signals, (a) At receiver site 1 , the VSA can be seen at the back of the van on the right side. A computer was used for data acquisition, (b) The transmitter was moved

through the hallways on a rolling cart. A vector signal generator is on top of the cart, power

amplifiers are on the bottom of the cart, and an omnidirectional antenna can be seen at the corner of the cart.

Figure 3.4-2(a) shows the measured EVM data for the second floor and Figure

3.4-2(b) for the seventh floor. The top set of numbers on each plot corresponds to carrier frequencies of 2.4 GHz and the bottom numbers are for 4.95 GHz. In all cases

the EVM is quite high. However it is clear that the higher carrier frequency results in a

higher EVM for both floors.

30
©

12.0

56.0

12.6

43.0

9.6 56.0

14.0

10.0

9.6

8.5 w

"All numbered points are 5m apart EVM data (in percent):

•2.4 GHz: black, top data

•4.95 GHz: red, bottom data

Tx

Antenna

11.0

18.0

=.'1

(a)

23.9

29.2

X

noise

noise

10.1 15.0

9.9 8.47

8.7

11.4

®

29.0

noise

13.5

noise

O

28.1

noise

30.3

52.3

15.9

25.9

19.7

34.4

18.6

noise

11.9

noise

9.2

57.7

'kU

Jo a

( 2

"All numbered points are 5m apart EVM data (in percent):

•2.4 GHz: black, top data

•4.95 GHz: red, bottom data

Tx

Antenna

(b)

Figure 3.4-2: EVM data for OFDM signals using QPSK modulation at selected points on

(a) the second floor and (b) the seventh floor of an 11 -story apartment building. Carrier

frequencies of 2.4 GHz and 4.95 GHz were used. Percentage values of EVM are defined

in (2.4-1).

31
Figures 3.4-3 and 3.4-4 show the magnitude spectrum of the received signals at

positions 2 and 8, respectively. Figures 3.4-3(a) and 3.4-4(a) show measurements

made on the second floor for the two different carrier frequencies (2.412 GHz and 4.95

GHz). Figures 3.4-3(b) and 3.4-4(b) show measurements on the seventh floor.

Position 2 has a relatively direct path to the receiver. These signals show less

frequency-selective distortion, but the 4.95 GHz earner is clearly received at a lower

level, even though the transmitters had the same nominal output power and we used

the same transmitting and receiving antennas.

Position 8 shows the effects of signal attenuation and reflection from the

elevators and other building materials, so the received signal is relatively weak. We see

frequency-selective distortion to the signal; that is, some frequency components of the

received signals are subject to higher interference levels than others. This is commonly

seen in broadband-modulated-signal transmissions where building penetration and

propagation are involved, and is an additional factor that must be considered for robust

deployment of broadband systems. The complete set of VSA data in the apartment

building is given in Appendix I.

32
S' -80

-100

2.4 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 2

'2".39 2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 2

4.94 4.95 4.96 Frequency (GHz)

2.43

4.97

-100

2.4 GHz, Floor 7, Mark 2

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 7, Mark 2

4.94 4.95 4.96 Frequency (GHz)

2.43

4.97

(a) (b)

Figure 3.4-3: Amplitude spectrum of VSA-measured wideband modulated signals for

carrier frequencies of 2.41 GHz (top) and 4.95 GHz (bottom) at position 2 (see Figure 3-

4.2). (a) Second floor, (b) Seventh floor. The solid blue lines are the QPSK-modulated

signals, and the dashed red lines are the multisine signals designed to simulate them. Most

of the received signals exhibit a small amount of frequency-selective distortion, with the

4.95 GHz signals having lower overall received signal strength.

-100

i -60

-10|) 93

2.4 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 8

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 2, Marks

fiWPWPPWil^^

2.43

4.94 4.95 4.96 Frequency (GHz)

4.97

E -4°r S -60

2.4 GHz, Floor 7, Mark 8

-100-^*^'^

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 7, Mark 8

^

;:; i_....rt^wwwtWf

"f.93 4.94 4.95 4.96 Frequency (GHz)

2.43

4.97

(a) (b)

Figure 3.4.4: Amplitude spectrum of VSA-measured wideband modulated signals for

carrier frequencies of 2.41 GHz (top) and 4.95 GHz (bottom) at position 8 (see Figure 3-

4.2). (a) Second floor, (b) Seventh floor. The solid blue lines are the QPSK-modulated

signals, and the dashed red lines are the multisine signals designed to simulate them.

Again we see a high level of frequency-selective distortion. As well, the 4.95 GHz signals

again have lower overall received signal strength.

33
4. Office Corridor IVIeasurements

4.1 Overview

We again carried out the three types of propagation measurements described in Section 2 (narrowband received power, excess path loss/RMS delay spread, and

modulated signal/EVM measurements). This time the location was a corridor on level

three, Building 1 of the Department of Commerce Laboratory complex that houses NIST

in Boulder, Colorado. The building is constructed of reinforced concrete and consists of

four stories. However, the building is built into the side of a hill, and as a result, not all four floors exist throughout the structure. As well, some locations in the building are below ground level. Measurements were performed during daytime hours with people

moving throughout the building during the experiments.

The layout of the corridor is shown in Figure 4.1-1 and a photograph of the

corridor is shown in Figure 4.1-2. There is no building structure above or below the part

of corridor denoted by points A and B. For locations beyond the hallway junction

(marked C and D), there are floors above and below the corridor.

We used two receiver sites for the narrowband received-power measurements,

the wideband excess-path-loss measurements, and the RMS delay spread, as shown in Figure 4.1-3. One of the receiver sites was located at the end of the corridor, around a corner on a loading dock (marked "Wing 4" in Figure 4.1-1). This receiver site, shown in Figure 4.1 -3(a), enabled a study of propagation in the corridor under non-line-of-sight

conditions. The second receiver site was located outside the building approximately 60

m from the end of the corridor (marked "Wing 6" in Figure 4.1-1). This receiver site is shown in Figures 4.1 -3(b) through (d). At this site we studied both non-line-of-sight

propagation and building penetration in a position where emergency-response

equipment may be located. The EVM measurements were carried out only under nonline-of-sight conditions, that is, at the first receiver site described above.

In the following sections, we describe the various measurements we conducted

of narrowband received power (using the single-frequency receiver), excess path loss

and RMS delay spread (using the vector network analyzer), and modulated-signal

response and EVM (using the vector signal analyzer). Selected data sets are presented

to highlight significant aspects of signal propagation in this environment. The complete

sets of data are included at the end of the report in Appendices B, E, and I.

34
(wings) ®

Figure 4.1-1: Layout of office corridor. One receiver site was located at the point marked

"Wing 4." This was inside the building but in a non-line-of-sight location from the transmitter,

except at point A. The other receiver site was located outside the building at the end of

Wing 6, and is marked "Wing 6." Distances are approximate.

(a) (b)

Figure 4.1-2: Photographs of the office corridor where NIST measurements were made, (a)

Looking from the indoor receiver site toward the junction. The corridor consists of cinderblock

walls with wooden doors to offices. Each office has a window to the outside, (b) The junction,

where the transmitter either went straight or turned left.

35
(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 4.1-3: Photographs of the two receiver sites, (a) Indoor, non-line-of-sight location at the end of Wing 4. (b) Outdoor location at the end of Wing 6. (c) and (d) show the

omnidirectional (left in (c)) and directional (right in (c)) antennas used in the measurements.

36
4.2 Narrowband Received-Power Measurements

For the narrowband received-power experiments, tine two fixed receiver sites (as

described above) were assembled. During this experiment, transmitters were carried

through the laboratory corridors along two different paths, illustrated in the top and

bottom plots of Fig. 4.2-1. Measurements were performed with the receiving antennas

polarized in the vertical direction. As the received signals were recorded, the location of

the transmitter in the corridor was also recorded and is marked on the graphs of the

measured data.

®. •^

^

Path A

(a)

Wing 3^ -®-

[Wing 4) \^^

®

I

I

I

I PathB

I

(b)

Figure 4.2-1: Two paths taken by the handheld transmitters in the office corridor. The path in (a) jogged over to a second, different corridor between points C and D. The path in (b) was

straight.

37
Figure 4.2-2 shows a representative data set for a carrier frequency of 439.25

iVIHz collected at (a) receiver site one (located inside the building but non-line-of-sight,

marked "Wing 4" in Figure 4.2-1) and (b) receiver site two (outside the building, marked

"Wing 6" in Figure 4.2-1). The transmitter was carried along Path A and returned along

the same path, so the first and second half results in each graph should theoretically be

mirror images of each other. The fact that they are not may be due to a number of

factors, including the different levels of shielding of the body on the outbound and return

trips and the radiation pattern of the antennas that may be affected by the transmitter cases.

Received Power vs. Time (f =439.25 MHz, Wing 4)

300 Time [Sec]

(a)

Received Power vs. Time (f =439.25 IVIHz, Wing 6) T

*^t^|if^t4v

100 200 300 Time [Sec]

500 600

(b)

Figure 4.2-2: Received-power data for a carrier frequency of 439.25 MHz along Path A. (a)

Receiver site one at the end of Wing 4. (b) Receiver site two at the end of Wing 6. The

corridors denoted by the vertical lines have different propagation characteristics, indicated by

the different slopes in the received-power curves.

38
Figure 4.2-3 shows received power data at the same carrier frequency for Path

B. The top graph (a) corresponds to receiver site one and the bottom graph (b) to receiver site two. Once the transmitter passes the corridor junction, the received signal

is quite weak, clearly showing the attenuation introduced by the junction.

Received Power vs. Time (f =439.25MH2, Wing 4 to Wing 3)

Em

150 Time [Sec]

(a)

Received Power vs. Time (f =439.25MHz, Wing 6 to Wing 3)

150 Time [Sec]

(b)

Figure 4.2-3: Received-power data for a carrier frequency of 439.25 MHz along Path B. (a)

Receiver site one at the end of Wing 4. (b) Receiver site two at the end of Wing 6. Abrupt

signal attenuation is introduced at the junction of the corridors, even though the path was

straight.

39
Figures 4.2-2 and 4.2-3 show similar received-power profiles for both receiver

sites, with receiver site two having an overall greater received power, since this path

includes building penetration. Figures 4.2-2 and 4.2-3 also show a rapid decrease in signal strength between points A and B, probably due to the corridor acting as a waveguide below its cut-off frequency. Signals whose wavelengths are longer than the

physical dimension of a waveguide rapidly attenuate when they are launched into the

waveguide. We see this to an even greater extent for a carrier frequency of 162 MHz,

shown in Figure 4.2-4. This effect is more pronounced at receiver site one since most of

the signal's energy propagates only along the corridor. At receiver site two, the signal

may also propagate to the receiver though windows. We will discuss the waveguidebelow-cutoff effect in more detail in Section 6.

Figure 4.3-3 also shows that once the transmitter passes the corridor junction at point B, the signal level is quite low and decreases at a slower rate than before. The fact

that the slope of the received power graph does not change more dramatically once the corner is turned (as it theoretically should) may be due to penetration through walls of

the lower-frequency signals. The full set of received power data can be found in Appendix B.

40
ref A B C

Received Power vs. Time (f =162 MHz, Wing 4)

(y^Jt. />

300 Time [Sec]

(a)

Received Power vs. Time (f =162 IVlHz, Wing 6)

(b)

Figure 4.2-4: Illustration of the waveguiding effect experienced by lower carrier frequencies

in the office corridor. The rapid attenuation between points A and B as the transmitter and

receiver separate in (a) is minimized in (b) since the signals may take additional paths in the case of building penetration.

41
4.3 Excess Path Loss and RMS Delay Spread

We next carried out measurements in the office corridor using the VNA-based

synthetic-pulse measurement system described in Section 2.3. IVIeasurements were

made at points approximately every 15.25 meters (50 feet) along the corridor of the

office building, as shown in Figure 4.3-1. The transmitting antenna was located either at

site one at the end of Wing 4 or at site two, outside the building by the end of Wing 6, as

shown earlier in Figure 4.1-3. The receiving antenna was moved along the corridor to

the locations marked in Figure 4.3-1

VNA1

(M)®®®®®®®®®©

@

5.8m

„(19ft)

VNA Transmitting Antenna

15.25m

(50ft) 2.4m

(8ft)

(V) Receiving Antenna

43m

(190ft)

VNA2

Figure 4.3-1: Layout of the synthetic-pulse ultra-wideband (UWB) VNA measurements in an

office corridor. VNA1 is the location of the transmitting antenna placed inside the building, but

non-line-of-sight with the receiving antenna. VNA2 is the location of the transmitting antenna

outside the building for a second set of measurements.

We collected data covering two frequency bands. For the lower frequency band

(25 MHz to 1.4 GHz), we used omnidirectional antennas, as would be used by most

emergency response companies. For the higher frequency band (750 MHz to 18 GHz)

we used both omnidirectional antennas and a set of directional horn antennas. The horn

antennas minimized the reception of multipath by focusing the main lobe of the antenna

toward the maximum received signal. This effect is illustrated in the RMS delay spread

figures below. Both sets of antennas are shown in Figure 4.1-3.

Figure 4.3-2 shows representative lower-frequency measurement data when the

VNA is located at site 1. In (a), the transmitting and receiving antennas are near each

other, while in (b) the receiving antenna has moved down the corridor approximately 75

meters. At 1 GHz, the signal is roughly 25 dB lower down the corridor than it was in a

line-of-sight condition, similar to what we saw with the receiver. Note the significant

attenuation in the lower frequencies down the corridor, again illustrating the lowfrequency waveguide-attenuation effect described in the previous section.

42
TX.%ig 4 Hallway >

Posiricn 1

Wing 4 KaHnray Maaaremecr.

600 800

Freqaenqr (MHz)

600 SM

Frequeno,- {^IHz)

(a) (b)

Figure 4.3-2: Representative low-frequency (25 MHz to 1.4 GHz) data at position 1 (a) and

position 6 (b) in the corridor when the receiving antenna was at site one. The top curve is the

received signal and the bottom curve is the measurement system noise. In addition to overall

decrease in signal level in (b), the frequencies below approximately 400 MHz are additionally

reduced due to the corridor's waveguide-attenuation effect.

Figure 4.3-3 shows a significant reduction in signal strength at the junction of the

corridors for the frequency band 750 MHz to 18 GHz. This is seen in the lower

frequency band as well. The graph in (a) shows a relatively strong signal at position 8.

In (b), the receiving antenna has turned the corner to position 9, and the signal level has

dropped significantly. This is for the case where the transmitting antenna is located at

the end of Wing 4 in a non-line-of-sight condition.

43
10 —

-10

JO

-30 —

I

-40-

J -50

I

--0-

-80 •

-90

-100-

-110 •

-120

Wiss 4Hailwzy McasnreDEna PoimoaS

SOOO 12000

Frequency C^<Hz)

5 -solo—1

-10

-20

-30

-10

-50

-60

-70 -

-80

-90 -

-100-

-no-

-120-

Poaoon 3

liii, nm

f

"fPPHI

SOCO 12000

Frequenc}' (MHz)

(a) (b)

Figure 4.3-3: A significant reduction in signal strength was seen across all frequencies from

750 MHz to 18 GHz when the receiving antenna turned the corner (positions 8 and 9) and

the transmitting antenna was located inside the building. The transmitting antenna was at site

1 . Similar results were seen for the lower frequency band.

Very different effects are seen for the case involving building penetration; that is, when the transmitting antenna is located outside the building at the end of Wing 6 at site

2. Figures 4.3-4(a) and (b) show a much lower received signal strength for both

positions 8 (end of first corridor) and 9 (around the corner). The signals at higher

frequencies are lower than the system noise at both locations 8 and 9. However, for the

lower frequencies, turning the corner inside the building has little effect on the received

signal level. While the overall signal levels are lower, corridor effects play a lesssignificant role in the propagation environment when building penetration can be

achieved through multiple paths. The complete data sets for excess path loss appear in Appendix E.

44
10 —

» —

-IB —

-20 —

-30 —

f -"1- i -50 —

2 -60 —

8

-so —

-90 —

-100 —

-no-

-i:o • —{—'—r~

sccc :^Doo

Froqufinnr (MHz)

10—1—

-10

-20 —

-30 —

° -?0 —

j -50-1 i

£ -iO —

3

-!0

-90 —

-100

-no

-i:o —\—'—r~

80CC 12000 FraqoascT (MHz)

(a) (b)

Figure 4.3-4: When the transmitting antenna was located outside the building, there was

little change in the excess path loss as the receiving antenna moved from position 8 in the

junction (a) to position 9 around the corner (b). The overall signal level was lower than for

the case where the transmitting antenna was inside the building. Most of the highfrequency signals were below the noise floor of the measurement system.

45
The RMS delay spread calculated from the VNA measurements is summarized in Figures 4.3-5 and 4.3-6. Three different measurement configurations are shown

covering different frequency ranges and antenna types. Figure 4.3-5 is the case where

the transmitting antenna was inside the building at site 1 and Figure 4.3-6 is when it was

outside at site 2. We were unable to calculate reliable RMS delay spread numbers past

point 8 at the junction of the corridors, due to low received-signal levels.

These data reflect the qualitative discussion above on corridor propagation

effects. For example, the RMS delay spread is more significant at lower frequencies for

indoor propagation (transmitter site 1), where the waveguide-attenuation effect is strong. Also, for the lower frequencies, the RMS delay spread increases significantly as

the receiving antenna is moved down the corridor.

For the higher-frequency bands, the variation in RMS delay spread as the

receiving antenna moves down the corridor is not as significant as for the lowerfrequency bands. When the transmitting antenna is inside, the use of a directional

antenna decreases the RMS delay spread as well as its variation as the antennas are separated from each other. When the transmitting antenna is outside, the directional

antenna provides an RMS delay spread shorter than that of the omnidirectional

antenna.

Note that in some cases the signals at the higher frequencies were close to the

noise floor. For this reason, we did not calculate RMS delay spread at points above 8. However, in the building penetration case, noise may still have had an impact on the

RMS delay spread calculations, for example, see Figure 4.3-4(a). However, the RMS

calculations below do show the trends clearly.

It is interesting to note that the lower-frequency band has a shorter RMS delay

spread than the higher-frequency band when the transmitting antenna is outside and

the receiving antenna is nearest to the transmitting antenna. This implies that when the

penetration path dominates (as opposed to the corridor waveguide), the reflections at

lower frequencies die out relatively quickly. It is only as we proceed down the corridor

that the lower-frequency RMS delay spread becomes significant.

46
RMS Delay Spread (ns) for Indoor Transmit Antenna:

•Omnidirectional Antenna 25 MHz to 1.4 GHz: green, top data

•Omnidirectional Antenna 750 MHz to 18 GHz: red, middle data

•Directional Antenna 750 MHz to 18 GHz: blue, bottom data

1

1 VNA1

©1 © © © © © ©

P8 P7 P6 P5 P4 P3 P2 PI

134.7 89.3 84.4 98.0 93.1 76.4 55.9 27.9 21.3 30.9 25.6 26.9 22.9 22.2 23.6 14,4 19.6 20.4 18.6 18.0 17.5 16.6 16.7 8.8

Figure 4.3-5: RMS delay spread for measurements made with the transmitting antenna

inside the building at site 1.

RMS Delay Spread (ns) for Outdoor Transmit Antenna:

•Omnidirectional Antenna 25 MHz to 1.4 GHz: green, top data

•Omnidirectional Antenna 750 MHz to 18 GHz: red, middle data

•Directional Antenna 750 MHz to 18 GHz: blue, bottom data

©©©©©©©

P8 P7 P6 P5 P4 P3 P2 PI

84.8 71.4 75.3 73.6 51.0 53.7 44.2 44.2

63.6 64.7 78.7 76.9 76.2 64.2 32.7 47.9

61.0 62.1 64.3 62.0 68.2 63.7 47.0 43.9

VNA2

Figure 4.3-6: RMS delay spread for measurements made with the transmitting antenna

outside the building at site 2.

47
4.4 Error Vector Magnitude and Modulated-Signal Spectra

Finally, we investigate the transmission of digitally modulated signals in the

corridor. We carried out measurements of the error vector magnitude associated with

the received digitally modulated signal. We also measured the spectra of the digitally

modulated signals and multisine signals that were designed to simulate them. The

excitation was a QPSK-modulated OFDM signal having a bandwidth of 20 MHz, and the

carrier frequencies were 2.412 GHz and 4.95 GHz.

For these measurements, we used the vector-signal-analyzer-based

measurement set-up described in Section 2.4. We used both omnidirectional whip

antennas and directional dual-ridge-guide antennas. We made measurements at the

same locations where the UWB measurements of Section 4.3 were made, as shown in Figure 4.3-1.

Figure 4.4-1 shows the measured EVM results in the corridor for the directional

antenna when the receiver was located inside the building but in a non-line-of-sight

condition. We had to use the directional antenna in order to have sufficient gain for a VSA measurement, even though we connected a power amplifier to the vector signal

generator. Real-time sampling used in the VSA measurement limits its dynamic range.

The top set of numbers in the plot corresponds to a carrier frequency of 2.412 GHz, and

the bottom numbers are for 4.95 GHz.

The EVM values are lower for the 2.412 GHz carrier frequency, but significantly so only at points beyond about halfway down the corridor (P4 = 50 m). Note also that

reception for both signals is all but lost before we reach the junction at P8 (1 10 m) even

though they were quite strong at PI

48
EVM (in percent):

•2.412 GHz: green, top data

•4.95 GHz: red, bottom data

1

1

1 VSA

©

1 © © © © © ©

P7 P6 P5 P4 P3 P2 P1

noise 7.3 4.6 7.2 5.5 4.2 1.7 17.6 13.5 7.2 9.5 5.2 3.7 1.5

Figure 4.4-1 : Error vector magnitude in percent for locations in the corridor as the transmitter

moves away from the receiver (the vector signal analyzer).

Figure 4.4-2 shows the magnitude spectrum of the received signal at position 6 in the corridor for the two different carrier frequencies. Both the digitally modulated signals

(solid line) and multisines designed to simulate them (dashed line) are shown.

Measurements were made with directional antennas. We see mild frequency-selective

distortion to the 2.4 GHz signal, while the 4.95 GHz signal remains fairly constant. As

mentioned previously, frequency selectivity is a common effect in broadbandmodulated-signal transmissions. As we saw in the apartment building study, the

received levels of the 4.95 GHz signals are somewhat lower than those of the 2.4 GHz

signals. This effect is quantified in NIST TN 1545 [4].

49
-100

E

GO

o) -80

2.4 GHz, Wing 4, Mark 6

'2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Wing 4, Marks

2.43

4.94 4.95 4.96 4.97

Frequency (GHz)

Figure 4.4-2: Digitally modulated OFDM QPSK-modulated signal (blue, solid line) and

multisine signal (red, dashed line) at point 6 in the corridor. The 2.4 GHz plot (top) shows a

mildly frequency-selective channel, while the 4.95 GHz signal remains fairly constant.

Figure 4.4-3 compares measurements at 4.95 GHz made with the

omnidirectional whip antenna to those made with the directional horn antenna. These

measurements were made with the transmitting antenna at position 4 and the receiving

antenna at site 1. As mentioned above, we had to use the horn antenna in our EVM

measurements in order to achieve adequate signal levels. In practice, emergency

responders do not typically use these types of antennas. We compare the two types of

antennas at 4.95 GHz and see that the signal level is approximately 5 dB higher with

the directional antennas, and that the received signal shows slightly less frequencyselective distortion. The complete set of VSA spectral data taken in the corridor are given in Appendix I.

50
-100

4.93

§> -80

-100

4.95 GHz, Wing 4, Mark 4, Horn iiilil

4.94 4.95 4.96

4.95 GHz, Wing 4, Mark 4, Whip

'4'.93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

4.97

Figure 4.4-3: Digitally modulated OFDM signal (solid, blue line) and multisine (red, dashed

line) for a carrier frequency of 4.95 GHz. The measurements in the top graph were made

with horn antennas and those in the lower graph were made with omnidirectional antennas.

51
5. Oil Refinery IVIeasurements

5.1 Overview

NIST carried out measurements at a large oil refinery in Commerce City,

Colorado in IVIarcli of 2007. As witln the measurements at the apartment building, we

chose this facility to simulate the chemical plant explosion scenario in the SAFECOM

statement of requirements.

The refinery is an outdoor facility covering many hectares with intricate piping

systems. Figure 5.1-1 shows photos of the refinery complex, including an aerial view of

the entire facility in 5.1-1 (a). We carried out tests primarily in the dense piping complex

located under the lower roadway in the photo, also shown in 5.1 -1(b). The complex is several hundred meters long, as can be seen in the photos. In certain areas, the dense

piping overhead forms a tunnel-like structure, 5.1-1(c)-(d), which can be a barrier to

radio communications.

(c) (d)

Figure 5.1-1: Oil refinery in Commerce City, Colorado, (a) Aerial view showing the piping

complex (left center, see Figure 5.2-1 for an enlarged view) and storage tanks (circular

structures). Received-power measurements were made while walking through the former and

driving around the latter, (b) View from tower of the piping complex, (c) Dense piping

essentially forms an outdoor tunnel in some areas, (d) Looking upward into the piping complex

from the ground.

52
We again conducted three types of tests: (a) narrowband received power

measurements using a calibrated communications receiver, (b) wideband excess path

loss measurements using a synthetic pulse system based on a vector network analyzer,

and (c) modulated-signal measurements using a vector signal analyzer.

5.2 Narrowband Received-Power Measurements

Measurements were made with the receiver system described in Section 2.1.

One fixed receiver site was utilized on the south side of the refinery complex (see

Figures 5.2-1 and 5.2-2(a)), approximately 30 m from the piping structures. The

receiving equipment was placed in a van made available for NIST use by the Institute

for Telecommunication Sciences (ITS), a sister Department of Commerce organization

at the Boulder Labs Site. The antennas were mounted on a mast on top of the van, as shown in Figure 5.2-2(a).

The green dashed line in Figure 5.2-1 represents the path where the transmitters

were carried by foot through the refinery. The path wound through the center of the

processing section. Dense piping exists in this area, both to the side and overhead.

Tunnel-like corridors through the piping are approximately five meters in width. In some

cases, the corridors were tall enough for vehicles to pass underneath. In other cases,

only pedestrians were allowed. In most cases, the piping extended several stories into

the air. Figure 5.2-2(b) shows NIST personnel carrying a portable transmitter through

the dense piping.

RX1

(south)

Figure 5.2-1: Path taken through the complex in measurements of narrowband received

power. Portable transmitters were carried along the path shown by the green dashed line,

and the received signals were measured at the location marked "RX1." At point 9, NIST staff climbed approximately 30 m up a tower.

53
(a) (b)

Figure 5.2-2: Narrowband received-power measurements at the oil refinery, (a) The receiver

was located inside a van with antennas top-mounted on a mast approximately 7.5 m above

the ground, (b) NIST personnel carried portable transmitters throughout the complex along

the path shown in Figure 5.2-1.

A second set of tests was carried out around a cluster of large metal storage

tanks on the perimeter of the facility. This area was much more open, consisting of oneto two-story storage tanks spaced several hundred meters apart. This set of tests was

conducted from a vehicle, with the transmitting antennas placed on the roof of the

vehicle. Figure 5.2-3 shows NIST staff conducting measurements while driving through

the refinery.

Figure 5.2-3: NIST staff collecting measurement data while driving around the perimeter of

the facility among the large storage tanks.

Measurements were performed with the receiving antennas polarized in the

vertical direction. As the received signals were recorded, the location of the transmitters

in the refinery complex was also recorded, and these locations are marked on the

graphs.

54
Figures 5.2-4(a)-(c) show a few sets of representative receiver data gatliered

while the receivers were carried by foot through the facility. We see a limited amount of

the waveguide effect described in previous sections for a carrier frequency of 50 MHz,

Figure 5.2-4(a). That is, received signal levels decrease rapidly as the observer moves

from a nearby line-of-sight location at position 4 to a line-of-sight position deep inside

the piping structure at position 5. Little difference is seen between the data collected at

the higher frequencies inside the facility ((b) and (c) in Figure 5.2-4).

Little difference between frequencies is seen in the graphs where the transmitters

were driven around the storage tanks (Figure 5.2-5), although the carrier frequency of

1830 MHz does show an overall lower received signal level. The complete set of data is given in Appendix C.

55
SUNCOR South Site, 50 MHz

-20

-40 H I -60

g -80

-100

-120

-140

°(1) @ (j)(i)@(sfeX!) (9)-(i^i^(i^ '^

200 400 600 800 1000 1200

time fsecl

(a)

SUNCOR South Site, 448 MHz

(i) (2)'(3)(4fe)(!K(!) (?) (^lii^m !^

-140

200 400 600

time [seel 800 1000

(b)

SUNCOR South Site, 1830 MHz

200 400 600

time fsecl 800 1000

(C)

Figure 5.2-4: Received-power measurements collected as transmitters were carried by

foot throughout an oil refinery complex for carrier frequencies of (a) 50 IVIHz, (b) 448 MHz,

and (c) 1830 MHz. Point 4 is nearest to the receiver. Point 9 is located at the top of a tall tower.

56
SUNCOR Drive, 162 MHz

-20

-40

Em

2, -60

Q. -80

-100

-120

-140

-20

-40

-60

-80

-100

-120

-140

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

time [sec]

(a)

SUNCOR Drive, 439 MHz

-* ro I S J £ j S I S

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

time [sec]

(b)

SUNCOR Drive, 1830 MHz

i3 ' iS ',S ' Is S

100 200 300 400

time [sec]

(c)

Figure 5.2-5: Received power as transmitters were driven around tine perimeter of the

facility at carrier frequencies of (a) 162 MHz, (b) 439 MHz, and (c) 1830 MHz. Little difference is seen between the different frequencies, except for an overall lower level at the 1830 MHz carrier.

57
5.3 Excess Path Loss and RMS Delay Spread

We next carried out measurements at specific locations in the oil refinery using

the UWB synthetic-pulse, VNA-based measurement system described in Section 2.3.

These points were located in an area of very dense piping in the facility. We rolled the

receiving antenna along the path on a mobile cart. The VNA was again located in the

mobile ITS test van. The vertically polarized transmitting antenna was located on top of

this van. The layout of the test points is shown in Fig. 5.3-1, and the receiver location is denoted by "ITS van."

33.5m

3.1m

30.3m

IJ

-<^t~^^r^^^r^w

Q^=Qt=Sh=^^H^

7.7m 8.1m 5.9m 8.6m

Figure 5.3-1: Layout of the test points for the synthetic-pulse measurements in the oil refinery complex. The test points were located under dense overhead piping and metallic

structures, in most cases several stories high.

We collected data covering two frequency bands. For the lower frequency band

(25 MHz to 1.2 GHz), we used omnidirectional antennas that would be used by most

emergency response companies. For the higher frequency band (1 GHz to 18 GHz) we

used both omnidirectional antennas and a set of directional dual-ridge-guide (DRG)

antennas. The DRG antennas minimized the reception of multipath by focusing the

main lobe of the antenna toward the maximum received signal. The photo in Figure 5.2-

2(a) shows the omnidirectional antenna mounted on the mast.

We discuss a few representative data sets of the UWB measurements. Figure

5.3-2 shows excess path loss for frequencies between 25 MHz and 1.2 GHz at position

2 (near the opening of the piping), position 6 (several meters within the piping), and

position 13 (deep within the piping). Because measurements were made outdoors in an

operational facility, we see increased signal levels at commonly used frequency bands

such as the 400 MHz two-way radio band, the 800 MHz cell phone band, and the 900

MHz ISM band. There is also a strong signal component at frequencies around

58
200 MHz, which may correspond to machine noise arising from the pumps and other

heavy machinery at the facility.

We see the effects of strong reflections even at the opening of the piping

structure (Figure 5.3-2(a)), shown by the deep nulls and peaks in the spectrum. Figure

5.3-2(b) shows the same wideband fading, but also shows increased attenuation at the

lower frequencies, again due to the waveguiding of the structure. The attenuation at most frequencies between position 2 and position 13 (Figure 5.3-2(c)) is approximately

30 dB.

Figure 5.3-3 shows excess path loss for frequencies between 1 GHz and 18 GHz

at positions 2, 6, and 13 along the same path. At position 2, shown in Figure 5.3-3(a),

the spectrum corresponding to the lower frequencies is quite flat. Once the transmitting

antenna is within the piping corridor, the spectrum starts to show some frequency

dependence in the form of nulls and peaks caused by strong reflections, as shown in Figure 5.3-3(b). Then, as the transmitting antenna turns the corner and proceeds even

further down the piping corridor, the signal drops off rapidly and is almost in the noise at position 13, Figure 5.3-3(c). The higher frequency bands show greater attenuation with

distance than do the lower frequency bands. The complete set of UWB excess-pathloss data is given in Appendix F.

59
SUNCOR-low rrecpiencies

Freousficv jWt-si

(a)

SUNCOR-low frequencies

iiJi</'WIH"i'iiliiiiti>Uii A

(b)

SUNCOR-low frequencies

3.$

S -eo llr

TOliW'

i

,irli.,i:m ii|;-'J'rT,i,

irWUI'-iaUliilJUiLUjjl

(c)

Figure 5.3-2: Excess-path-loss measurements at an oil refinery at (a) position 2, (b)

position 6, and (c) position 13 for frequencies from 25 MHz to 1.2 GHz. The path was

located outdoors but under dense piping several stories high.

60
SUNCOR, Mach 2007

- p094ion2

noise-poa?

(a)

Frequency (GHz)

(b)

SUNCOR. Marcn 20Q7

(c)

Figure 5.3.3: Excess-path-loss measurements at an oil refinery at (a) position 2, (b)

position 6, and (c) position 13 for frequencies from 1 GHz to 18 GHz. The path was located

outdoors but under dense piping several stories high. Attenuation is approximately 40 dB

between 1 and 5 GHz when the receiver moved from position 2 to position 13, and is even

greater at the higher frequencies.

61
The RMS delay spread calculated from the VNA measurements is summarized in Fig. 5.3-4. The delay spread remains relatively constant for positions 1 through 7 and 8

through 12. Beyond position 12, the signal is so weak that meaningful RMS delay

spread values cannot be obtained.

The delay spread averages around 40 ns for both frequency bands for positions

1 through 7. When the transmitting antenna moves around the corner to position 8, we

see a significant increase in RMS delay spread, to approximately 140 ns for the lower

frequencies and to approximately 80 ns for the higher frequencies. At position 8, the

path is completely non-line-of-sight. The lower RMS delay spread at the higher

frequencies may be due to the use of directional antennas in that frequency band. Or,

the pipes that cause the multiple reflections may be better reflectors at lower

frequencies.

Note that the signals at the higher frequencies were close to the noise floor when

the transmitter and receiver were separated by a great distance. This may have an

effect on the accuracy of the RMS delay spread calculation at these points. However,

the curves presented in Figure 5.3-4 show the trends clearly.

SUNCOR facility (3/9/07)

position Figure 5.3-4: Summary of RMS delay spread calculated from the excess path loss

measurements made with the VNA. The dark blue curve with diamonds corresponds to the

lower-frequency band (25 MHz to 1.2 GHz). The orange curve with squares corresponds to the higher-frequency band (1 GHz to 18 GHz).

62
5.4 Error Vector Magnitude and Modulated-Signal Spectra

We carried out measurements of digitally modulated signals and multisine

signals that were designed to simulate the modulated signals in the oil refinery as well.

For these measurements, we used excitations that included both QPSK-modulated and

64-QAM-modulated OFDM signals. In each case, these signals had a bandwidth of

20 MHz, and we conducted measurements using carrier frequencies of both 2.41 GHz

and 4.95 GHz.

For these measurements, we used the vector-signal-analyzer-based

measurement set-up described in Section 2.4. We made measurements at positions 1 through 12 where the UWB measurements of Section 5.3 were made, as shown in Figure 5.3-1. This path is along an alley in the oil refinery complex where large numbers

of metal pipes run alongside and overhead, often two or more stones high. Figures 5.4-

1(a) and (b) show photographs of the transmitter, consisting of a vector signal

generator, power amplifier, and omnidirectional antenna mounted on a cart. The VSA

receiver was located in the ITS van discussed in prior sections.

(a)

Figure 5.4-1: Modulated-signal transmitting unit on mobile cart (a) inside and (b) outside the

dense piping in the facility.

Figure 5.4-2 shows EVM measurements made along the piping corridor when the

receiver was at the location marked "ITS van." In each case, we took the average of

three EVM measurements. The top two rows correspond to a carrier frequency of

2.41 GHz and the bottom two rows are for 4.95 GHz. We studied two different digital

modulations for the OFDM signal: QPSK and 64 QAM, as noted on the figure.

The EVM values are comparable for both carrier frequencies, but the 2.41 GHz

signal could be received when the transmitter was located deeper in the piping complex.

The type of modulation used had little effect on the overall EVM value.

63
EVM for QPSK and 64QAM modulation at 2.41 GHz and 4.95 GHz

<ey; 2.44 GHz QPSK 1 1 2.44 GHz 64QAM

4.95 GHz QPSK

4.95 GHz 64QAM 7 8 9 10 11 12

2.6 17.3 18.2 - ~ ~

1.8 14.3 13.4 ~ - ~

1 2 3 4 5 6

3.9 „ „ __ 3.6 7.9 4.1 1.7 5.3 3.2 3.0 ~ — — - ~

4.3 5.5 4.7 1.7 5.5 2.3 Ov ^^^ /^^ '^^ ^^^

4.2 5.6 3.2 3.6 6.6 3.0 S (^

^ ^^ ^^^;

3.5 5.4 3.2 3.1 5.7 2.5 b

aJ) @-<3)_<4)

^ ~60m 4.95 GHz signal v ITS van V'

1 1 2.41 GHz signal

__ * ~ /iyvn ^

Figure 5.4-2: Measured EVM values (in percent) at locations surrounded by metallic piping

in the oil refinery. The lower carrier frequency could be received from deeper within the

complex, and the modulation format made little difference in the EVM numbers.

The EVM values are lower for the 2.41 GHz carrier frequency, but not

significantly lower, except when the signal level approaches the receiver noise floor

near the corridor junction.

Figure 5.4-3 shows measured bandpass spectra for the digitally modulated

signals and for multisine signals designed to simulate them at position 2 shown above.

The measurements were made by saving the VSA traces to data files. These

measurements were collected at the same time that the EVM data were collected.

Omnidirectional antennas were used, as shown in Figure 5.4-1.

At position 2, the transmitter has just entered into the metallic piping structure

and there is still a good line of sight between the transmitter and receiver. Still, the

figure shows a good deal of frequency-selective distortion, indicated by the deep nulls across the pass band. The signal with the 2.41 GHz carrier is more strongly affected

than the one with the 4.95 GHz carrier. This may be due to the physical dimensions of

objects within the piping structure.

At position 2, the levels of signals at both carrier frequencies are similar. There

appears not to be much difference between the QPSK and 64-QAM modulation

schemes with respect to spectral distortion, even though the latter is strongly amplitude

modulated. At 4.95 GHz, however, both the QPSK and the 64-QAM signal diverge more

from their respective multisines compared to the 2.41 GHz signals.

64
2.4 GHzQPSK, Oil Refinery, Marl<2

^ -80

-100

^ -80

-100

4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

(a)

2.4 GHz QAIVI, Oil Refinery, Mark 2

S' -80

-100-

2.39

-40

^ -80

-100

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42 2.43

4.95 GHzQPSK, Oil Refinery, Mark

2

4.97

2.4 2.41 2.42 2.43

4.95 GHz QAM, Oil Refinery, Mark 2

4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96 4.97

Frequency (GHz)

(b)

Figure 5.4-3: Bandpass spectra of a digitally modulated OFDM signal (solid, blue trace)

and a multisine signal (dashed, red trace) at position 2 in the oil refinery, (a) QPSK

modulation, (b) 64-QAM digital modulation. The broad nulls indicate a frequency-selective

channel that similarly affects the spectra for both modulations. At position 2, the 2.41 GHz

and 4.95 GHz signals had similar amplitude levels.

65
Figure 5.4-4 shows the bandpass spectra at position 8. Here we again see the

frequency-selective distortion, but also a greater attenuation of the 4.95 GHz with

respect to the 2.41 GHz signal. The received signals at the two carrier frequencies were

approximately equal until position 8, when the 4.95 GHz signal is greatly reduced. We

saw similar behavior for the measurements made using the UWB system. In this case,

the digitally modulated signals and the multisines track well.

2.4 GHz QAM, Oil Refinery, IVlarl< 8

E

CD

03

-100

2.39

CO

CD

-100

4.93

4.95 GHz QAIVl, Oil Refinery, Mark 8

4.94 4.95

Frequency (GHz)

4.96 4.97

Figure 5.4-4: Bandpass spectra measured with the vector signal analyzer and showing the

received 64-QAM digitally modulated OFDM signal at carrier frequencies of 2.41 GHz (top)

and 4.95 GHz (bottom). The dashed red lines correspond to multisine signals designed to simulate the modulated signal. The deep nulls in the spectra correspond to a severely

frequency-selective channel. The 4.95 GHz signal suffered more attenuation as the

transmitter and receiver were separated.

The VSA measurements show significant distortion to the received broadband

modulated signals as soon as the transmitter enters the piping complex. While the

overall signal levels are sufficient for most radio receivers, the in-band distortion would

make reception difficult except in the main piping corridor (positions 1 through 7).

Deeper into the structure, both signals are still strongly distorted, but the 4.95 GHz

signals are more strongly attenuated as well. The complete set of data appears in Appendix K.

66
6. Subterranean Tunnel Measurements

6.1 Overview

As part of a large, multi-agency field test of ad-hoc radio networks for publicsafety applications, we conducted radio-propagation tests in tunnels at Black Diamond

Mines Regional Park near Antioch, California. While the focus of this work was to study

the reliability of wireless telemetry and control of Urban Search and Rescue robots in tunnels and other weak-signal environments, we also conducted propagation

measurements relevant to designers of emergency responder communication systems.

The tests were conducted March 19-21, 2007. We measured only narrowband

and excess path loss. From the latter, we calculated the RMS delay spread in two

different tunnel environments. The Black Diamond Mines are part of an old silica mine

complex that was used early in the 1900s to extract pure sand for glass production. As

such, the walls of the mine shafts are rough and consist of sandy material.

Two tunnels were studied, the Hazel-Atlas North (called "Hazel-Atlas" below) and

Hazel-Atlas South (called "Greathouse" below). The tunnels are located beneath a mountain and are joined together deep inside, as shown in Figure 6.1-1. The

dimensions of the Hazel-Atlas tunnel varied from approximately 1.9 m (6', 3") x 1.9 m to as much as 2.6 m (8', 5") x 2.4 m (8', 0"). The dimensions of the Greathouse tunnel

were somewhat bigger, up to approximately 3 m square in places. The Hazel-Atlas

tunnel contained railroad tracks spaced 61 cm (24") apart. Both tunnels consisted of a

straight section followed by a right-angle turn around a corner, as shown in Figure 6.1-1.

67
Hazel-Atlas

Portal

Figure 6.1-1: Overview of the Hazel-Atlas mine tunnel complex. The network of mines is located deep within a mountain. The dark-shaded areas are accessible. We studied the mine

tunnels starting from the Hazel-Atlas Portal and the Greathouse Portal.

Figure 6.1-2 shows photographs of the Hazel-Atlas mine tunnel, including (a) the

portal (opening) of the Hazel-Atlas mine; (b) just inside the portal, where our antennas

were placed; (c) approaching the right-angle turn shown in Figure 6.1-1; and (d) past

the turn. The photos show the rough, rocky walls in the tunnels, some with wooden

shoring, and the railroad tracks.

68
HH^"?-

v~"-»^

^

^^^Kp" ,^t^k^^^^^^ ^' s^^w^

^^^B >-'iimiB FV"' ,^'Z^^^ i£-^HI 1

" w

QvinH1

ri1

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 6.1-2: Views from outside (a) and inside (b) through (d) the Hazel-Atlas mine tunnel.

Figure 6.1-3 shows photos inside the Greathouse tunnel. Our antennas were

placed several meters inside the tunnel near a room called the "Greathouse," shown to

the left of the main shaft in a shaded area of Figure 6.1-1. Equipment was set up in the

Greathouse, as shown in Figure 6.1-3(a), while the antennas were set up in the tunnel.

Figure 6.1 -3(b) shows measurement staff aligning directional antennas for the UWB

measurements.

69
(a) (b)

Figure 6.1-3: Measurement set-up in the Greathouse mine tunnel. The instrumentation was

located in the Greathouse room, while the antennas were placed in the mine tunnel proper.

6.2 Narrowband Received-Power Measurements

We carried out single-frequency measurements in both the Hazel-Atlas and

Greathouse tunnels using the receiver system described in Section 2.2. The receiving

antenna was located just outside the portal for the former, and inside but near the portal

entrance for the latter. We used omnidirectional discone antennas for the receiving

antenna. The paths we took are illustrated by dashed lines in Figures 6.2-1 (a) and (b).

70
Hazel-Atlas

Portal

(a)

(b)

Figure 6.2-1: Layout of the (a) Hazel-Atlas and (b) Greathouse mine tunnels at Black

Diamond Mines Regional Park. The triangles indicate approximate distance in meters from

the tunnel entrance. The receivers were positioned at the points marked "RX." The dashed

lines denote the walk-through paths we took for narrowband received-power measurements.

Figures 6.2-2 (a) through (c) show representative measured received-power data

from the Hazel-Atlas mine tunnel at frequencies of 50 MHz, 162 MHz, and 448 MHz.

Figures 6.2-3 (a) through (c) show similar results for the Greathouse tunnel. The full set

of data can be found in Appendix D. The transmitters were carried into each tunnel

71
approximately 100 m, around a corner, and then deeper into the mine. For the HazelAtlas mine, we went another 100 m. For the Greathouse tunnel, the distance was much

farther, but the final distance was not measured. The transmitters were then carried

back out along the same path. This is the reason why the left and right halves of the

graphs look similar. The reason why the first and second half results in each graph are

not mirror images of each other may be due to a number of factors, including the

different levels of shielding of the body on the outbound and return trips and the

radiation pattern of the antennas when mounted in their cases. We see that in all cases the signals propagate deeper into the tunnel at the

higher frequencies. This is because the mine exhibits significant waveguiding effects.

As discussed in Sections 4 and 5, waveguides readily propagate signals for frequencies

above their "cut-off frequency," the frequency below which electromagnetic modes

cannot be supported. At frequencies below cut-off, waveguides strongly attenuate

signals.

The cut-off frequency for each tunnel waveguide depends on its physical

dimensions and the wavelength of the excitation signals, as well as the tunnel surface

material, surface roughness, and flatness of the floor. In Figures 6.2-2 and 6.2-3, the

most significant waveguiding effects occur before the turn at the end of the main tunnel

(refer to Fig. 6.2-1). In the Hazel-Atlas tunnel, once the corner has been turned, the

signal level drops significantly. Just past the corner, an increase in the signal level occurs where propagation through an airshaft provided an alternate route to the

receiver. In the Greathouse tunnel, we again see classic waveguiding effects up to the

corner. Beyond this there are routes for the signal to take to the receiver other than

through the main tunnel, for example, a stairwell marked by an S on Fig. 6.2-1 (b).

72
-20

-40

-60

-80

-100

-120

-140

\

i J

:

1

.]

\

1

If

1

1

1

1!

1 _

1 1 [1 1

1 1 50 100 150 200

time [sec] 250 300 350

(a)

150 200

time [sec]

(b)

100 150

time [sec]

(C)

Figure 6.2-2: Received-power data in the Hazel-Atlas mine for three carrier frequencies:

(a) 50 MHz, (b) 162 MHz, (c) 448 MHz. The transmitters were carried into the tunnel and

then back out, so the left and right halves of the graphs should be mirror images. In each

case, the first and third vertical dashed lines correspond to the turn at 100 m, and the

second dashed line represents the end point at 200 m, shown in Fig. 6.2-1 (a). The higher

frequencies show less attenuation deeper into the tunnel, in agreement with waveguidebelow-cutoff models for tunnels of these dimensions.

73
-20

-40

-60

' -80

-100

-120

-140

'Vv^^.J^w '*>~i^..^^

/i^vtv V^'/^

S iS

l{l\}

100 200 300

time [sec] 400 500

(a)

100 200 300

time [sec] 400

(b)

500

E

CD

hf^

100 200 300

time [sec]

(C)

I

400

Figure 6.2-3: Received-power data in the Greathouse mine for three carrier frequencies:

(a) 50 MHz, (b) 162 MHz, (c) 448 MHz. In each case, the first and third vertical dashed

lines correspond to a turn at approximately 100 m, and the second dashed line represents

the end point as shown in Fig. 6.2-1 (b). The higher signals between the turn and the end

point correspond to a stain^/ell that provided an almost line-of-sight path between the

transmitter and receiver.

74
To study the extent of waveguiding in these tunnels, we implemented an

analytical model that simulates signal propagation in tunnel environments having

various physical parameters [19, 20]. Briefly, the model assumes a dominant

EHUmode in a lossy rectangular waveguide with the specific attenuation a in decibels/meter expressed for vertical polarization as

^ '^TUNNEL "^ ^ROUGHNESS "*" ^TILT ' (6.1)

where

a =4 343A "tunnel 't.J'+J/l- H " (6.2a)

f

'^ROUGHNESS ~ ^-J^J^ ^ ^

1 1 A

4 7 4 a b J

(6.2b)

(JC'riT 'Y T". -JT"

3

X

(6.2c)

with A the wavelength, a the width of the tunnel, b the height of the tunnel, and h is the

roughness, all in meters. Other parameters include sr, the dielectnc constant of the rock

walls, and 6, the angle of the tunnel tilt in degrees.

We set the parameters of the model to approximate the Hazel-Atlas tunnel, given

below in Table 6.2-1. This model works well only for frequencies where the signal

wavelength is not much longer than the dimensions of the tunnel. Hence, we show

results for 448 MHz only. Figures 6.2-4(a) and 6.2-4(b) show representative results of

these models for the Hazel-Atlas and Greathouse tunnels, respectively. The good

agreement between the measured and modeled data led us to conclude that

waveguiding plays a significant role in radio propagation in these tunnels, as it did to a

lesser extent in the hallway corridor discussed in Section 4 and the oil refinery in Section 5.

Table 6.2-1. Parameters

used in tunnel model.

Parameter Value

Width

Height

Wall roughness

Sr

tilt

2m

2m

0.3

6

1 degree

75
-20

^0

ra -60 O

-80

-100

-120

V 448 MHz model j 448 MHz measured j

i^\"'' ]

\ i

'

-20

m ^0

S

-60

Q- -80

-100

-120

^'^X^. L 1_ _

448 MHz model 448 MHz measured _

i Hk i

: i : ^

20 40 60

Distance (m) 80 100 20 40 60

Distance (m) 80 100

(a) (b)

Figure 6.2-4: Comparison of measured and modeled data for (a) the Hazel-Atlas tunnel and

(b) the Greathouse tunnel. The carrier frequency is 448 MHz. The modeled data simulates

waveguide propagation for a waveguide whose physical parameters approximate those of

the tunnels. The good agreement between the slopes of the two curves indicates that

significant waveguide propagation was occurring in these tunnels.

As discussed in references [19, 20], the frequency-dependent behavior of the

tunnel leads to a "sweet spot" in frequency. Below the sweet spot, signals do not

propagate well, due to the effect of waveguide-below-cutoff attenuation. Above the

sweet spot, loss mechanisms again dominate and signals do not propagate well. We

simulated this combined effect using the method described in reference [19]. The

results are shown in Figure 6.2-5.

500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Frequency (MHz) 3000 3500 4000

Figure 6.2-5: Path gain versus frequency for various distances in a tunnel having similar

physical characteristics as the Hazel-Atlas tunnel. Frequencies around approximately

400 MHz to 1 GHz propagate better than either lower or higher carrier frequencies.

Figure 6.2-5 shows that, theoretically, frequencies above around 400 MHz but

below 1 GHz propagate with the least attenuation in the tunnel. We will see in the UWB

76
measurements given below that the measured lower-frequency limit is closer to approximately 500 MHz (see Figure 6.3-2(b)).

6.3 Excess Path Loss and RMS Delay Spread

We next carried out measurements in the two tunnels using the ultrawideband

VNA-based measurement system described in Section 2.3. We positioned the

transmitting antenna in the same locations as the receivers used in the narrowband

received-power measurements above. The transmitting antenna positions and receiver

test points are shown in Figs. 6.3-1 (a) and (b). For frequencies from 25 MHz to 1.6 GHz, we used omnidirectional discone antennas, and for frequencies from 1 GHz to 18 GHz, we used directional, dual-ridge guide antennas. We increased the separation

between them by 10 m for each measurement.

Figures 6.3-2 (a)-(c) show representative excess path loss curves from 25 MHz

to 1.6 GHz in the Hazel-Atlas tunnel. The full set of data from the mines can be found in Appendix H. In Figure 6.3-2, the transmitting antenna was located at the portal to the

tunnel, while the receiving antenna was located 10 m, 70 m, and 110 m into the tunnel.

The 110 m position was around the corner and as a result, no line-of-sight condition

existed.

A comparison of Figures 6.3-2(a) and (b) clearly shows that the low frequencies

are attenuated more significantly than the higher frequencies as the receiving antenna

moves deeper into the tunnel. This indicates the waveguide-below-cutoff attenuation

described in Section 6.2. Also, the attenuation is much less frequency dependent once

the waveguide cut-off frequency has been exceeded. Once no line-of-sight condition

exists (Figure 6.3-2(c)), the received signal falls into the noise.

Figures 6.3-2(a)-(c) show an interesting effect: Railroad tracks spaced

approximately 24 inches apart run the length of this tunnel. The wavelength of the

frequency corresponding to this separation is 492 MHz, close to the spike in frequency

at about 475 MHz seen in each of the graphs. The effect may be related to the tracks, or it may be a spurious signal from some other source. Figures 6.3-3(a)-(b) show excess path loss in the Greathouse tunnel for

frequencies from 1 GHz to 18 GHz. At 27 m, the higher frequencies in Fig. 6.3-3(a)

show deep nulls, indicating frequency-dependent interference. Deep nulls occur at other

frequencies as the transmitter moves deeper into the mine. Local features in the tunnels

such as rock outcroppings and doorways may be the cause of the signal-level variations

in certain areas. Fig. 6.3-3(b) shows the signal once the receiving antenna moves

around the corner. Here we see that the signal is still above the noise floor, but is greatly attenuated.

77
(a)

(b)

Figure 6.3-1: Layout of mine tunnels. Insets indicate where UWB measurements were

performed. Distances marked on the insets are in meters, (a) Hazel-Atlas tunnel, (b)

Greathouse tunnel.

i

78

i
BO mm»-Hazel Alias

Frequency (MHz] (a)

BDmin«-Ha2elMas

Frequency(MHz)

(b)

BD m'ne-Hazel Adas

-tf=70 -no£& 10

^#iiy"n|Yl^

3C0 FrequencyfMHz)

(C)

Figure 6.3-2: UWB excess-path-loss measurements in the Hazel-Atlas tunnel from 25 MHz

to 1.6 GHz at distances of (a) 10 m, (b) 70 m, and (c) 110 m into the tunnel. Significant lowfrequency attenuation occurs between (a) near the entrance of the tunnel and (b), deep

inside. In (c), the receiving antenna is around a corner, and no line-of-sight path exists.

79
6000 9000

Freauencv fMHzl (a)

G^eat^lOuse mff>e D=102m

noise

-I I

\ I \ [—

6000 9000 12000 1SO0O

Frequancy (MHz)

(b)

Figure 6.3-3: Excess-path-loss measurements in the Greathouse tunnel for frequencies from

1 GHz to 18 GHz. Separation between transmitter and receiver is (a) 37 m and (b) 102 m. Deep nulls in frequency are seen in (a). In (b), the receiving antenna is around a corner and

no line-of-sight path exists. The received signal is above the noise floor, but is greatly

attenuated.

Finally, we present the RMS delay spread for the mine tunnels in Tables 6.3-1

and 6.3-2. We see that the delay spreads are longest for low frequencies before the turn

in the tunnel. This coincides with the waveguide-below-cutoff region. The delay spread

decreases after the corner is turned. The shortest delay spreads are found by use of the

directional antennas.

80
Table 6.3-1. RMS delay Spread, mean delay, and stop time for the RMS delay spread

calculation for the Hazel-Atlas mine tunnel. Left Table: Frequencies from 25 MHz to 1.6 GHz measured with omnidirectional discone antennas. Right Table: Frequencies from

1 GHz to 18 GHz measured with directional dual-ridge-guide horn antennas. The grayshaded areas represent a NLOS propagation condition.

Distance

(m)

RMS

Delay

Spread

(ns)

Mean

Delay

(ns)

Stop Time

For RMS

(ns)

31.0 15.5 2000

10 25.3 13.1 1000

20 18.5 18.4 1000

30 15.9 11.2 600

40 17.0 12.7 600

50 15.5 8.6 500

60 19.7 11.7 500

70 17.2 11.1 500

80 15.2 8.2 500

90 15.2 10.5 500

100 15.7 21.8 450

110 X X X

Distance

(m)

RMS

Delay

Spread

(ns)

Mean

Delay

(ns)

Stop Time

For RMS

(ns)

14.4 5.4 700

10 17.6 5.8 700

20 7.6 2.1 700

30 15.0 5.0 700

40 11.5 3.6 700

50 13.1 4.4 700

60 20.6 17.1 700

70 11.1 3.0 700

80 10.0 2.3 700

90 8.4 2.2 700

100 9.6 17.8 500

110 7.5 29.1 500

Table 6.3-2. RMS delay spread, mean delay, and stop time for the RMS delay spread

calculation for the Greathouse mine tunnel. Left Table: Frequencies from 25 MHz to 1.6 GHz. Right Table: Frequencies from 1 GHz to 18 GHz. The gray-shaded areas

represent a NLOS condition.

Distance

(m)

RMS

Delay

Spread

(ns)

Mean

Delay

(ns)

Stop Time

For RMS

(ns)

7 22.7 11.4 1000

17 14.3 8.4 1000

27 15.2 6.3 700

37 17.6 7.2 650

47 21 7.1 650

57 18.1 6.1 800

67 23.1 5.7 800

72 29.5 6.0 800

11 4.6 3.6 350

82 14.2 44.5 350

102 10.0 13.3 350

107 19.8 31.6 350

Distance

(m)

RMS

Delay

Spread

(ns)

Mean

Delay

(ns)

Stop Time

For RMS

(ns)

7 3.2 1.3 400

17 5.0 1.3 700

27 3.8 1.3 700

37 4.0 1.2 700

47 19.3 3.5 800

57 7.3 1.3 900

67 11.6 2.2 1000

72 6.4 1.4 1000

77 7.3 1.7 800

82 3.8 2.3 600

102 3.7 3.7 500

107 4.1 3.8 500

81
7. Discussion

7.1 Classification of Channel Types

The measurements described in Sections 3 through 6 illustrate a number of

propagation effects. Some are common to all environments; some of them are unique to a specific environment. By observing a selected number of key features from the

graphs, we are able to classify distinct propagation environments ("channels")

depending on the distance and type of obstruction between the transmitter and receiver

[21]. The primary features we observe to make our classifications include (1) the RMS

delay spread; (2) the frequency response over the entire frequency range (e.g., excess

path loss over 1 to 18 GHz); (3) the amount and structure of frequency-selective

distortion over the modulation bandwidth (e.g., the spectrum over 4.95 GHz ± 10 MHz);

(4) the low-frequency response (e.g., below 1 GHz). We illustrate several types of

channel classifications and the key features of each.

7.1.1 AWGN channel

When the path between transmitter and receiver contains few obstructions and

the distance between them is not too great, the frequency response over the channel is typically flat. Technically, this means that transmission channel impairments occur

primarily due to noise in the instrumentation (often called average white Gaussian noise

(AWGN) [21]). As signals get weaker, the channel degrades because the amplitude

level of the noise floor of the measurement instrument approaches that of the signal.

We saw very few examples of this since our intent was to study propagation that

included building penetration and multipath environments.

7.1.2 Rayleigh flat-fading channel

A second type of propagation channel can exist when there is no line of sight

between the transmitter and receiver but there are multiple paths to the receiver that still provide approximately equal received signal levels at the receiver. These are called

Rayleigh "flat-fading" channels because the statistical distribution of the received signal

components follows a Rayleigh distribution [21].

In this type of channel, the level of multipath distortion is approximately equal across the modulation bandwidth of the signal even though the level of distortion may

change significantly across a wider frequency range. Generally, this means that the

difference between the times when the multipath signal components are received is smaller than the data symbol period. As a result, deep fading will not occur within the

modulation bandwidth of the excitation. Because all of the received signal components

arrive on non-line-of-sight paths, the phase relationship between them is random, and

the received signal takes on a noise-like structure.

82
This is a common propagation ciiannel in environments where emergency

responders are deployed in, for example, most building penetration situations. Multiple

paths from transmitter to receiver exist through windows, doors, and walls, but there is no direct path or single strong multipath component. Examples of this type of

propagation can be seen in our UWB measurements, where no line-of-sight path

existed, for example, in the office corridor after the receiver turned the corner (Figs. 4.3-

3(a) and (b)), and when signals penetrated from outside to inside the office building

(Figs. 4.3-4(a) and (b)). The frequency dependence of the noise-like signal in Fig. 4.3-4

is discussed below in Section 7.1 .4.

7.1.3 Rician fading channel

In some cases, there is a line-of-sight signal component or one very strong

multipath component accompanied by weaker multipath signal components. In this

case, the frequency response of the channel has characteristics of both the AWGN

channel and the Rayleigh channel. This hybrid case is called "Rician fading," because of

the distribution of received signal components [21]. The standard deviation of a Riciandistributed received signal depends on the ratio of the direct (or strong, reflected) signal

component level to the level of the weaker multipath components.

We saw this type of propagation primarily in corridors when a line-of-sight path

existed. Reflections off the walls cause a limited amount of multipath, but the main

received signal component is direct line-of-sight or one single reflection. An example is shown in the tunnels (Figure 6.3-2), where the received signal in the main corridor

(before the receiving antenna turned the corner) did have nulls due to multipath fading,

but it did not look noisy.

7.1.4 Simple building attenuation

A variation on the Rayleigh propagation channel occurs when signals

propagating in a non-line-of-sight, flat-fading channel penetrate through some type of

building material that has a frequency dependence of its own. For example, the radio

signal may be incident on the wall of a windowed building and may penetrate one or two

walls before encountering the receiver. Building materials typically exhibit a slowly

varying frequency dependent attenuation, changing on the order of decibels over

several decades of frequency, rather than the deep nulls associated with multipath

propagation. In simple building attenuation, the RMS delay spread will not be much

different from that of the Rayleigh channel, but the overall frequency response will be

affected.

Because the non-flat frequency response is mainly due to attenuation through

the building materials (as opposed to multipath), the roll-off is generally gradual and

monotonic with frequency. Examples of this can be seen in the UWB measurements of

the apartment building (Fig. 3-3.3) and when the transmitted signal penetrated the office

corridor from outside (Fig. 4.3.4). The VSA measurements show these effects as well.

For example, in the apartment building, we saw greater attenuation of the 4.95 GHz

83
signal but only a small amount of frequency-selective distortion across the channel (see

Fig. 3.4-3).

7.1.5 Waveguide below cut-off propagation

A fifth type of propagation channel may exist when signals are constrained to

travel through a corridor or tunnel and the dimensions of the tunnel are on the order of

the wavelength of the signal. If no other propagation path exists, waveguide-belowcutoff attenuation can reduce signal levels dramatically even when a line-of-sight

condition exists between transmitter and receiver. The channel may be either fastfading (Rayleigh) or wideband-fading (described below) when waveguide-below-cutoff

propagation effects occur; the key is that the lower frequencies are attenuated.

We noted this type of propagation several times during our measurements, most

notably in the subterranean tunnels (Figs. 6.2-2 and 6.2-3 show the receiver

measurements and 6.3-2 shows the UWB measurements). We implemented a model to

demonstrate that the measured attenuation with distance follows a waveguide-belowcutoff roll-off and found good agreement (Figs. 6.2-4 and 6.2-5). Using this model, we

were also able to predict the optimal frequencies for transmission in tunnel

environments (Fig. 6.2-5). This was verified through UWB measurement (Fig. 6.3-2).

Interestingly, we also noticed the waveguide-below-cutoff effect in a number of

other propagation environments, such as the office corridor (Fig. 4.2-2 for the receiver

and Fig. 4.3-2(b) for the UWB system) and the oil refinery (Fig. 5.2-4(a) for the receiver

and, to a lesser extent. Fig. 5.3-2(b) for the UWB system).

7.1.6 Wideband-fading channel

In multipath channels—either with a line-of-sight component (Rician) or without

(Rayleigh)—when the RMS delay spread approaches the time-scale of the transmitted

signal's data rate, frequency-selective distortion across the modulation bandwidth may

occur. Distinguishing this type of "wideband-fading" propagation channel [21] from the

flat-fading channel is easiest when we look at either (a) the RMS delay spread relative

to the data rate or (b) the VSA spectra. When we see frequency-selective distortion

(nulls and peaks) within the modulation bandwidth of the excitation, we are dealing with a wideband fading channel.

Examples of wideband fading include the first several points measured in the oil refinery (Fig. 5.3-3(b) and Fig. 5.4-3), and the subterranean tunnel (Fig. 6.3-2(a)). The

VSA clearly shows frequency-selective distortion across the modulation bandwidth

when this type of multipath occurs. Examples include Fig. 4.4-2 (top) in the office

corridor and Figs. 5.4-3 and 5.4-4 of the oil refinery. Other indicators of this type of

strong multipath propagation included an increase in RMS delay spread and EVM.

84
7.1.7 Site-specific pliysical effects

We also noted a number of site-specific physical effects that had a predictable

yet significant effect on received signals. A number of these were apparent in the

apartment building. For example, looking at the receiver measurements in Figs. 3.2-5

and 3.2-6, the elevators, stairwells, and even the apartments that we entered could all be identified by their relative received signal levels. From these graphs, and from the

increase in RMS delay spread (Tables 3.3-1 and 3.3-2) and EVM (Fig. 3.4-2), we were

also able to determine that the floor number had a pronounced effect on the overall

received signal level, with higher floors related to weaker received signal strength.

In the tunnels, one of the more interesting physical-environment effects was that

of the railroad track embedded in the ground of the Hazel-Atlas tunnel. The spacing of

the tracks corresponded to an electrical wavelength whose corresponding frequency

had an increased received-signal level. It is possible that the track was acting as a

transmission line (see Figs. 6.3-2(a)-(c)).

The VSA study comparing the EVM and received-signal spectra for the carrier

frequencies of 2.4 GHz and 4.95 GHz showed that the 4.95 GHz signal was more prone

to high EVM, lower received signal strength, and a greater level of frequency-selective

distortion. Examples include Figs. 3.4-2, 3.4-3, and 3.4-4 for the apartment building,

Figs. 4.4-1 and 4.4-2 for the office corridor, and Figs. 5.4-2 and 5.4-4 for the oil refinery.

We saw no strong dependence on modulation type when we studied QPSK versus 64-

QAM modulation in the oil refinery (Fig. 5.4-3).

Finally, we conducted several sets of measurements comparing both

omnidirectional antennas and directional antennas. As expected, when the directional

antennas were used, received signal strength was generally higher (Fig. 4.4-3 shows an

example from the office corridor) and RMS delay spread lower (Figs. 4.3-5 and 4.3-6

illustrate this effect in the corridor).

85
7.2 Classifying Propagation in the Different Structures

Finally, we draw some conclusions about the different types of propagation

channel with respect to the individual structures based on analysis of selected features

of the measured data. Using tables and graphs, we summarize some of the key

features of measured data from previous sections of the report to clearly illustrate our

conclusions.

7.2.1 Apartment building

In the apartment building, we measured short RMS delays (on the order of tens

of nanoseconds, as shown below in Table 7.2-1). The environment consisted entirely of

NLOS propagation paths as the signals penetrated through the outside walls of the

structure and at least one interior wall. The excess path delay measurements presented

nearly monotonic roll-off in frequency (summarized in Figure 7.2-1).

The VSA measurements (summarized below in Figures 7.2-2(a) and (b)) show

that the channel is generally flat. However, some frequency-selective distortion does

occur, primarily when the transmitter is behind the elevators or stairwell doors. Note that

because the modulated-signal measurements were made using OFDM excitation, the

multipath does not disrupt the ability of the receiver to demodulate the signal except

when the signal level becomes very weak. This was shown by the EVM graphs in Figure 3.4-2. We see weaker signals both for the 4.95 GHz carrier frequency and for

signals transmitted from the seventh floor.

These observations tell us we are dealing with simple building penetration, where

a multipath environment (flat- or wideband-fading) is combined with attenuation due to

building materials.

86
Table 7.2-1: RMS delay spread at the apartment building (ns). Lower-frequency

measurements using omnidirectional antennas, higher-frequency measurements using

directional antennas.

Position

Floor 2, 0.3-1.0 GHzFloor 7, 0.3-1.0 GHz

Floor 2, 1-18 GHzFloor 7, 1-18 GHz

49.2 47.2 24.1 32.4

1 38.7 36.4 21.4 23.7

2 35.8 37.7 16.7 24.3

3 28.2 33.2 15.3 14.5

4 48.8 49.9 24.9 35.9

5 59.1 59.9 48.2 44.2

6 71.2 70.9 30.7 37.4

7 62.9 77.5 36.3 40.8

8 61.6 70.1 31.2 38.8

9 56.7 66.5 30.4 30.5

10 58.6 69.1 31.7 31.0

11 54.3 65.5 39.4 34.8

12 60.9 67.5 38.0 36.8

13 62.9 82.4 20.8 154.3

UWB Measurements

Floor 2 (black) „ . ^ ' Receive

Floor 7 (red) sitei. VNA, VSA

Figure 7,2-1 : Excess path loss on floors two (top curves, black) and seven (bottom curves,

red) of the apartment building for frequencies from 1 to 18 GHz.

87
2d GHz, Floor 2, Mark 5

?)(5)(6)(r)(8)(?)(10)(U)(12)^

2 d GHZ. Floor 2, M»k 13

"i 39 2.4 241 242

4 95GHz.Floof2.Mari.13

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40

60

SO ^-.iilfailiP'ii'iWtiWji--,

Frequency (GHzl

4 97

\—hi l l—li I I I ^kj I I—IH-^'

¥->t-\ V t-M V +H-I V Elevators VSA Measurements

Floor 2

Receive

Site 1

VNA, VSA

(a)

2 4 GHz, Floor 7. Mai.

2.4GI-tz,Fk>or7.Ktark5 2.4GHz.Ftoor7,Maik1

4,95 GHz. Floor 7. Mart 13

-60^ \

-8oi yWjiw^^lL^i.

4 93 4 94 4.95 4.96 4.97 Frequency |GHz

\—li I I I—li I I l ^kJ I Il i I I I

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2,4 GHz, Floor 7, Mart 2

4 241 2,42 2,43 4,95GHz,Floof7,Mari(2

H-H h <-H \ 1-1-1—1-H—I- 1-M h Elevators VSA Measurements

Floor 7

Receive

Site 1

VNA, VSA

(b)

Figure 7.2-2: Measured spectra across the modulation bandwidth in the apartment building,

(a) Second floor, (b) Seventh floor. Top graphs are for a carrier frequency of 2.4 GHz and

bottom graphs are for a carrier frequency of 4.95 GHz.

88
7.2.2 Office corridor

The office corridor contained two different propagation scenarios: one winere the

transmitter and receiver were both located inside the building, and one where the

transmitter was outside, some distance from the building, and the receiver was inside.

These present different propagation scenarios and will be analyzed separately.

The RMS delay spread when the transmitter and receiver were both inside is repeated below in Figure 7.2-3. We see short delay times for measurements with carrier

frequencies between 1 and 18 GHz, and longer delay times below 1 GHz. The excess

path loss measurements (summarized in Figure 7.2-4) show relatively little frequency

dependency at the higher frequencies, but a significant roll-off as one moves down the

corridor for the lower frequencies. Thus, we deduce that the corridor served as a waveguide below cutoff at the lower frequencies and that we had a flat-fading channel

at the higher frequencies. Before the turn in the corridor, signal levels are much higher,

and multipath interference has distinct nodes. After the turn, the multipath more closely

resembles noise.

Position 1 is one of the only measurements we did that has a line-of-sight

component. This position behaves more or less like an AWGN channel.

RMS Delay Spread (ns) for Indoor Transmit Antenna:

•Omnidirectional Antenna 25 MHz - 1.4 GHz: green, top data

•Omnidirectional Antenna 750 MHz - 18 GHz: red, middle data

•Directional Antenna 750 MHz - 18 GHz: blue, bottom data

I 1

1 VNA1 ©

1 ® ® ® ® ® ®

P8 P7 P6 P5 P4 P3 P2 P1

134.7 89.3 84 4 98,0 93.1 76.4 55.9 27.9 21.3 30.9 25.6 26.9 22.9 22.2 23.6 14.4 19.6 20.4 18.6 18.0 17.5 16.6 16.7 8.8

Figure 7.2-3: Summary of the RMS delay spread measured in the office corridor for different

frequency bands and different antenna types. The transmitter and receiver were both inside

the building.

89
UWB Measurements

Office Corridor

TX and RX Inside

25 MHz to 1.4 GHz

UWB Measurements

Office Corridor

TX and RX Inside

1 GHz to 18 GHz

(b)

Figure 7.2-4: Summary of the wideband excess path loss measurements in the office

corridor, (a) Carrier frequencies from 25 MHz to 1.4 GHz and (b) 1 GHz to 18 GHz.

90
Figures 7.2-5(a) and (b) summarize the VSA measurements when the transmitter

and receiver are both located inside the building. We see a small amount of frequencydependent distortion across the modulation bandwidth at some positions. This indicates

that in general the corridor can be represented by a flat fading channel, but in some

positions it becomes a wideband fading channel.

When the transmitter was outside the corridor and the receiver was inside, the

RMS delay spread (repeated below in Figure 7.2-6 from Section 4.3) showed a much

smaller dependence on frequency or antenna type, as compared to the delay spreads

when the transmitter and receiver were both inside.

Also, the excess path loss (summarized below in Figures 7.2-7(a) and (b)) does

not exhibit the waveguide-below-cutoff frequency dependence at the lower frequencies, as in the case where both transmitter and receiver are inside. For most corridor

locations in the lower frequency band (7.2-7(a)), the received signal level follows the

measured noise floor, indicating a flat-fading channel. In the higher frequency band

(7.2-7(b)), the frequency response does start to roll off at around 4 GHz, indicating

attenuation due to material parameters. Thus, this channel may be classified as simple

building penetration. Note that no VSA measurements were made of the corridor with

this transmitter and receiver arrangement.

91
2 4GHz.Wing4.Marh6

2 4GHI. Wing4.Mafk4

2.4 GHi, Wing 4, Mark 1

® © @ ®

®

VSA Measurements

Office Corridor

Figure 7.2-5: Summary of the VSA measurements of the spectra of the modulated signal at different locations in the office corridor. The carrier frequency is 2.4 GHz in the top graphs

and 4.95 GHz in the bottom graphs.

RMS Delay Spread (ns) for Outdoor Transmit Antenna:

•Omnidirectional Antenna 25 MHz to 1 .4 GHz: green, top data

•Omnidirectional Antenna 750 MHz to 18 GHz: red, middle data

•Directional Antenna 750 MHz to 18 GHz: blue, bottom data

© © ® © ® ® ©

i r

P8 P7 P6 P5 P4 P3 P2 PI

84.8 71.4 75.3 73.6 51.0 53.7 44.2 44.2

63.6 64.7 78.7 76.9 76.2 64.2 32.7 47.9

61.0 62.1 64.3 62.0 68.2 63.7 47.0 43.9

VNA2

Figure 7.2-6: Summary of the RMS delay spread measured in the office corridor for different

frequency bands and different antenna types. The transmitting antenna is outside the

building and receiving antenna is inside of the building.

92
UWB Measurements

Office Corridor

TX Outside, RX Inside

25 MHz to 1.4 GHz

(a)

/na:

lUfC

@ © @ ® sr~® (D (D (2)

(D

UWB Measurements

Office Corridor

TX Outside, RX Inside

1 GHz to 18 GHz

(b)

Figure 7.2-7: Excess-path-loss measurements of the office corridor when the transmitter is outside the building and the receiver is inside. Carrier frequencies from (a) 25 MHz to 1.4

GHz and (b) 1 GHz to 18 GHz.

93
7.2.3 Oil refinery

We next consider the oil refinery. We were able to identify two distinct

propagation channels in this environment. The RMS delay spread, summarized below in Figure 7.2-8 clearly indicates the two types of channels. First, between points 2 and 6,

the overhead piping created a tunnel-like environment with significant multipath. In this

environment, we see distinct resonant structure in the excess path loss measurements

of Figure 7.2-9, as well as some low-frequency attenuation due to waveguiding effects

(we also saw this effect in the single-frequency measurements). The VSA

measurements in Figure 7.2-10 show frequency-selective distortion. Thus, for this

region we have a channel that can be described by both wideband fading with a direct

path and waveguide-below-cutoff effects.

SUNCOR facility (3/9/07)

Figure 7.2-8: Summary of the RMS delay spread in the oil refinery at test points 1 to 12. The

higher blue curve represents frequencies from 25 MHz to 1.2 GHz and the lower orange

curve represents frequencies from 1 GHz to 18 GHz.

94
ITS van UWB Measurements

Oil Refinery

25 MHz to 1.2 GHz

(a)

ITS van UWB Measurements

Oil Refinery

1 to 18 GHz

Figure 7.2-9: Summary of the excess-path-loss measurements in the oil refinery. Carrier

frequencies from (a) 25 MHz to 1 .2 GHz and (b) 1 GHz to 1 8 GHz.

95
2,4 GHz QPSK, Oil Refinefy. Matk 1

2.4 GHz QPSK, Oil Rermery, Maik 6

Frequerxry (GHz) VSA Measurements

Oil Refinery

Figure 7.2-9: Summary of the VSA measurements of the spectra of the modulated signal at different locations in the oil refinery. Top graphs represent measurements made at a carrier

frequency of 2.4 GHz and bottom graphs are for a carrier frequency of 4.95 GHz.

The second type of propagation channel was identified for points 7 and higher in the NLOS region. Here we see no material- or waveguide-related trends in the excess

path loss plots, nor do we see any resonant-like behavior there. However, we do see

significant frequency-selective distortion in the VSA measurements, significantly longer

RMS delay spreads, and much lower signal levels. This channel could be classified as a

simple, highly attenuated, NLOS wideband fading channel.

96
7.2.4 Subterranean tunnel

Finally, we examine the measured data from the subterranean tunnels in order to

classify the propagation channel. Table 7.2-2 shows that the RMS delay spread for

frequencies 25 MHz to 1.6 GHz is longer at the lower frequencies as the distance

increases. The excess path loss measurements shown Figures 7.2-10 (Hazel-Atlas)

and 7.2-11 (Greathouse), respectively, show a definite low-frequency roll-off as the

bend in either tunnel is approached. These features indicated waveguide-below-cutoff

behavior in the tunnel.

At frequencies higher than the waveguide-cutoff frequency, the low-frequency

response of the measured signal follows that of the noise floor with some multipathinduced nulls appearing deeper in the tunnel. Once the corner is turned, the signal

essentially drops into the noise of the receiver. Thus, we can classify the channel over

the lower frequency band as flat-fading with waveguide-below-cutoff behavior.

The RMS delay spread for frequencies from 1 GHz to 18 GHz are shorter than

for the low frequencies, increasing as we approach the bend, then dropping off again

once the turn is completed. The excess path loss graphs show definite multipath

structure in the tunnels before the corner is turned, but overall the response is flat. Once

the corner is turned, the signals have a more uniform, noisy appearance. We classify

the high-frequency channel as a wideband fading channel with a line-of-sight

component in the tunnel before the corner, and flat fading once the corner is turned.

97
Table 7.2-2: Summary of RMS delay spread calculated from excess-path-loss

measurements for the subterranean tunnels. The columns represent the two tunnels and

the different antennas/frequency bands measured in each tunnel. The gray shaded areas

represent NLOS propagation condition.

Distance

(m)

Hazel-Atlas

onnni

antenna

(ns)

HazelAtlas

directional

antenna

(ns)

Distance

(m)

Greathouse

omni

antenna

(ns)

Greathouse

directional

antenna

(ns) — 7 22.7 3.2

10 14.3 5.0 17 14.3 5.0

20 15.2 3.8 27 15.2 3.8

30 17.6 4.0 37 17.6 4.0

40 21 19.3 47 21 19.3

50 18.1 7.3 57 18.1 7.3

60 23.1 11.6 67 23.1 11.6

70 29.5 6.4 72 29.5 6.4

80 4.6 7.3 77 4.6 7.3

90 14.2 3.8 82 14.2 3.8

100 10.0 3.7 102 10.0 3.7

110 19.8 4.1 107 19.8 4.1

98
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UWB Measurements

Hazel Atlas Tunnel

25 MHz to 1.6 GHz

(a)

UWB Measurements

Hazel Atlas Tunnel

1 to 18 GHz

(b)

Figure 7.2-8: Summary of the excess-path-loss measurements in the Hazel-Atlas tunnel.

Carrier frequencies from (a) 25 MHz to 1 .2 GHz and (b) 1 GHz to 1 8 GHz.

99
I -' s -~V"' V . -

UWB Measurements

Greathouse Tunne

25 MHz to 1.6 GHz

(a)

—1 ^viuild>.llvj.^,i!: M

i:iv/%^.v/a

UWB Measurements

Greathouse Tunnel

1 GHz to 18 GHz

(b)

Figure 7.2-8: Summary of the wideband excess path loss measurements in the Greathouse

tunnel. Carrier frequencies from (a) 25 MHz to 1 .2 GHz and (b) 1 GHz to 1 8 GHz.

100
8. Conclusion

We studied radiowave propagation in four different environments of interest to

the public-safety community: an 11-story apartment building, a hallway corridor in an

office building, an oil refinery, and a subterranean tunnel. Our study focused on

measurements of quantities of interest in design, testing, and standards development

for broadband, modulated-signal transmissions. These measurements included

detailed, single-frequency received-power measurements throughout the structures;

ultrawideband excess path-loss measurements at specific locations in each structure;

and measurements of digitally modulated signals under the OFDM protocol at carrier

frequencies of 2.4 GHz and 4.95 GHz. From the wideband path-loss measurements, we

calculated RMS delay spread. From the collected data, we were able to classify the

various environments in terms of types of propagation channels.

These tests show that a number of factors can define the propagation

environment and that certain effects are common to environments that superficially

appear quite different from each other. For certain propagation channels such as simple

building penetration, signal strength measurements may be sufficient to characterize the

environment. In cases where multipath reflections, waveguiding effects, and other nonline-of-sight conditions exist, measurements that cover multiple frequencies and methcs

can offer additional insight. In any case, we hope that having a large body of wellcharacterized measurement data for a number of different propagation environments

can facilitate development of technically sound standards and radio systems for the first responder community.

The authors acknowledge the support of the Department of Justice CommunityOriented Policing Services (COPS) program, the NIST Office of Law Enforcement

Standards (OLES), in particular Dereck Orr, Project Manager for the Public Safety

Communication Systems project. Work on the subterranean tunnels was funded in part

by the Department of Homeland Security Office of Standards, Bert Coursey, Director.

We are grateful for the expert advice from our colleagues at the Institute for

Telecommunication Sciences (ITS), part of the National Telecommunications and

Information Administration, in particular Rob Stafford, John Ewan, Andy Thiessen, and

Jeff Bratcher.

We also acknowledge the assistance of the management and tenants of Horizon

West Apartments in Boulder, CO; Teresa Maraia of ITS for finding appropriate

frequencies for use in the government frequency bands; the NIST Interference

Committee for enabling our measurements in Wing 4 of the Boulder Labs Campus; and

Tricia Toussaint from Suncor Oil Refinery in Commerce City, CO for extensive help

during our measurements at the facility. Finally, we thank Frederick Remley for help

with photographs used in the report.

101
9. References

[1] C.L. Holloway, G. Koepke, D. Camell, K.A. Remley, D.F. Williams, S.A. Schima, S.

Canales, D.T. Tamura, "Propagation and Detection of Radio Signals Before, During,

and After the Implosion of a 13-Story Apartment Building," Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol.

Note 1540, May 2005.

[2] C.L. Holloway, G. Koepke, D. Camell, K.A. Remley, D.F. Williams, S.A. Schima, S.

Canales, D.T. Tamura, "Propagation and Detection of Radio Signals Before, During,

and After the Implosion of a Large Sports Stadium (Veterans' Stadium in Philadelphia),"

Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Note 1541, October 2005.

[3] C.L. Holloway, G. Koepke, D. Camell, K.A. Remley, S.A. Schima, M. McKinley, R.T.

Johnk, "Propagation and Detection of Radio Signals Before, During, and After the

Implosion of a Large Convention Center," Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Note 1542, June

2006.

[4] C.L. Holloway, W.F. Young, G. Koepke, K.A. Remley, D. Camell, Y. Becquet,

"Attenuation of Radio Wave Signals Coupled Into Twelve Large Building Structures,"

Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Note 1545, April 2008.

[5] SAFECOM Statement of Requirements, vol. 1, version 1.2,

http://www.safecomproqram.qov/NR/rdonlvres/8930E37C-C672-48BA-8C1B83784D855C1E/0/SoR1 v12 10182006.pdf . Section 3.3 discusses the residential fire,

and Section 3.5 the explosion at the chemical plant.

[6] P. Papazian, "Basic transmission loss and delay spread measurements for

frequencies between 430 and 5750 MHz," IEEE Trans. Antennas Prop., 53(2): 694-701,

Feb. 2005.

[7] J.R. Hampton, N.M. Merheb, W.L. Lain, D.E. Paunil, R.M. Shurfor, And W.T. Kasch,

"Urban propagation measurements for ground based communication in the military UHF

band," IEEE Trans. Antennas Prop., 54(2): 644-654, Feb. 2006.

[8] M. Rutschlin, K. A. Remley, R. T. Johnk, D. F. Williams, G. Koepke, C. Holloway, A.

MacFarlane, and M. Worrell, "Measurement of weak signals using a communications

receiver system," Proc. Intl. Symp. Advanced Radio Tech., Boulder, CO, March 2005,

pp. 199-204.

[9] B. Davis, C. Grosvenor, R.T. Johnk, D. Novotny, J. Baker-Jarvis, M. Janezic,

"Complex permittivity of planar building materials measured with an ultra-wideband freefield antenna measurement system," Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. J. Res., 112(1):67-73,

Jan.-Feb., 2007.

102
[10] M. Riback, J. Medbo, J. Berg, F. Harryson, H. Asplund, "Carrier frequency effects

on path loss," Proc. 63'" IEEE Vehic. Technol. Conf., Vol. 6, pp. 2717-2721, 2006.

[11] J.C.-I. Chuang, "The effects of time delay spread on portable radio communications

channels with digital modulation," IEEE J. Selected Areas in Comm., SAC-5(5): 879-

889, June 1987.

[12] Y. Oda, R. Tsuchihashi, K. Tsuenekawa, M. Hata, "Measured path loss and

multipath propagation characteristics in UHF and microwave frequency bands for urban

mobile communications," Proc. 53'" IEEE Vehic. Technol. Conf., Vol. 1, pp. 337-341,

May 2001.

[13] J.A. Wepman, J.R. Hoffman, L.H. Loew, "Impulse Response Measurements in the

1850-1990 MHz Band in Large Outdoor Cells", NTIA Report 94-309, June 1994.

[14] IEEE Standard for Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical

Layer (PHY) Specifications: High-Speed Physical Layer in the 5 GHz Band, IEEE

Standard 802. 1 1aTM-1999.

[15] IEEE Standard for Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical

Layer (PHY) Specifications: Higher-Speed Physical Layer Extension in the 2.4 GHz

Band, IEEE Standard 802. 1 1b-1999.

[16] These standards are identified solely for completeness of description, but such

identification does not constitute an endorsement by the National Institute of Standards

and Technology. Other products may work as well or better.

[1 7] www.leearmstrong.com/DSRCHome/DSRCHomeset.htm

[18] M.D. McKinley, K.A. Remley, M. Myslinski, J.S. Kenney, D. Schreurs, B.

Nauwelaers, "EVM calculation for broadband modulated signals," 64th ARFTG Conf.

Dig., Orlando, PL, Dec. 2004, pp. 45-52.

[19] A. G. Emslie, R. L. Lagace, and P. F. Strong, "Theory of the propagation of UHF

radio waves in coal mine tunnels," IEEE Trans. Antennas Prop., 23(2): 192-205, Mar.

1975.

[20] M. Rak and P. Pechac, "UHF propagation in caves and subterranean galleries,"

IEEE Trans. Antennas Prop., 55(4): 1134-1138, Apr. 2007.

[21] S.R. Saunders and A. Aragon-Zavala, Antennas and Propagation for Wireless

Communication Systems, 2"''. Ed., John Wiley and Sons, Ltd., 2007.

103
Appendix A: Single-Frequency Received-Power Data

Collected Using a Calibrated Communications Receiver:

Apartment Building

The following pages contain the complete set of measured data for the apartment

building (described in Section 3.2).

104
Single-Frequency Received-Power Data: 11 -Story Apartment Building

Horizon West - Site 1 20 z \z > z

3 ,

en z CO z i>

III ii

;1|

I n ii

Freq. = 162 MHz

Ref. = -22.4 dBm

Approx. noise fl. = -120 dBm

^ .!

600 800

time, [s]

(a)

Horizon West - Site 2

600 800

time, [s]

(b)

Figure A.I: Received-power data for the top 10 floors of an apartment building for a

transmitter carrier frequency of 162 MHz, measured by a narrowband

communications receiver, (a) Site 1. (b) Site 2. The received signal levels are referred

to a line-of-sight reference signal, whose level is noted on each graph.

105
Single-Frequency Received-Power Data: 11 -Story Apartment Building

Horizon West - Site 1

-60

Freq. = 230 MHz

Ref. = -23.0 dBm

Approx. noise fl. = -120 dBm

200 600 800

time, [s|

(a)

Honzon West - site 2

Freq. = 230 MHz

Ref. = -39.1 dBm

Approx. noise fl. = -125 dBm

400 600 800

time, [s]

(b)

Figure A.2: Received-power data for the top 10 floors of an apartment building for a

transmitter carrier frequency of 230 MHz, measured by a narrowband

communications receiver, (a) Site 1. (b) Site 2. The received signal levels are

referred to a line-of-sight reference signal, whose level is noted on each graph.

106
Single-Frequency Received-Power Data: 11 -Story Apartment Building

Horizon West - Site 1

Freq, = 439 MHz

Ref. = -22.2 dBm

Approx. noise fl. = -126 dBm

600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

time, [s]

(a)

Horizon West - Site 2

-60

Freq. = 439 MHz

Ref. = -33.9 dBm

Approx. noise fl. = -121 dBm

200 400 600 800

time, fsl

1000 1200

(b)

Figure A.3: Received-power data for the top 10 floors of an apartment building for a

transmitter carrier frequency of 439 MHz, measured by a narrowband

communications receiver, (a) Site 1. (b) Site 2. The received signal levels are

referred to a line-of-sight reference signal, whose level Is noted on each graph.

107
Single-Frequency Received-Power Data: 11 -Story Apartment Building

Horizon West - Site 1

Freq, = 908 MHz

Ref. = -34 6 dBm

Approx. noise fl = -126 dBm

400 600 800 1000

lime, [s]

(a)

Horizon West - Site 2 r r 'i- 1- r- IKj K> w -^^ oi

I oi > Z cn I Z en z

M

%f

'

»»

' i« m

Freq. = 908 MHz

Ref. = -48 9 dBm

Approx. noise fl. = -127 dBm

\i

I --4I 00 CD ICO ]2 |C/)

u

i

200 400 600 800

time, [s]

(b)

Figure A.4: Received-power data for the top 10 floors of an apartment building for a

transmitter carrier frequency of 908 MHz, measured by a narrowband

communications receiver, (a) Site 1. (b) Site 2. The received signal levels are

referred to a line-of-sight reference signal, whose level is noted on each graph.

108
Single-Frequency Received-Power Data: 11 -Story Apartment Building

Horizon West - Site 1

Freq. = 1830 MHz

Ref. = -42.6 dBm

Approx. noise fl. = -110 dBm

200 400 600 800 1000

time, [si (a)

30

Horizon West - Site 2

ji3 \Z

\> 'z

l3 I

, If

Freq. = 1830 MHz

Ref. = -56.2 dBm

Approx. noise fl. = -106 dBm

m\

/'

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

time, [s]

(b)

Figure A.5: Received-power data for the top 10 floors of an apartment building for a

transmitter carrier frequency of 1830 MHz, measured by a narrowband

communications receiver, (a) Site 1 . (b) Site 2. The received signal levels are referred

to a line-of-sight reference signal, whose level is noted on each graph.

109
Appendix B: Single-Frequency Received-Power Data

Collected Using a Calibrated Communications Receiver:

Office Corridor

The following pages contain the complete set of measured data for the office

corridor (described in Section 4.2).

110
Single-Frequency Received-Power Data: Office Hallway Corridor

Received Power vs. Time (f =49.8 MHz, Wing 4)

300 Time [Sec]

Received Power vs. Time (f =49.8 MHz, Wing 6)

E

CO

>

<0

300 Time [Sec]

600

Figure B.1: Received-power data at a carrier frequency of 49.8 MHz. The transmitter

was carried from A down a corridor to B, around a corner to C, continued along a

third corridor to D and then was returned along the same path. Top: Indoor

measurement, non-line-of-sight. Bottom: IVIeasurement that includes building

penetration.

111
Single-Frequency Received-Power Data: Office Hallway Corridor

Received Power vs. Time (f =162 MHz, Wing 4)

E

CD

CL.

300 Time [Sec]600

Received Power vs. Time (f =162 IVIHz, Wing 6)

300 Time [Sec]

A ref

Figure B.2: Received-power data at a carrier frequency of 162.075 MHz. The

transmitter was carried from A down a corridor to B, around a corner to C, continued

along a third corridor to D and then was returned along the same path. Top: Indoor

measurement, non-line-of-sight. Bottom: Measurement that includes building

penetration.

112
Single-Frequency Received-Power Data: Office Hallway Corridor

Received Power vs. Time (f =230 MHz, Wing 4)

200 Time [Sec]400

Received Power vs. Time (f =230 MHz, Wing 6)

250 300 Time [Sec]

Figure B.3: Received-power data at a carrier frequency of 230.0 IVlHz. Tlie

transmitter was carried from A down a corridor to B, around a corner to C, continued

along a third corridor to D and tiien was returned along the same path. Top: Indoor

measurement, non-line-of-sight. Bottom: Measurement that includes building

penetration.

113
Single-Frequency Received-Power Data: Office Hallway Corridor

Received Power vs. Time (f =439.25 MHz, Wing 4)

-20 -

-40

^ -60

81

re -80

-100

-120

-140

1\

I A ; BI c ; D

! c

I B ; A ref

I

Vn i

; J «[

\\

j /I"

""

1 F \l

I %*%W\\

\r^,.'Jf^'^f — fy\i'v|-_..'l

'" "1\

i i

T

1 i

-^1

100 200 300 400 Time [Sec]

500 600

Received Power vs. Time (f =439.25 IVlHz, Wing 6)

200 300 400 Time [Sec]

600

Figure B.4: Received-power data at a carrier frequency of 439.25 IVIHz. The

transmitter was carried from A down a corridor to B, around a corner to C, continued

along a third corridor to D and then was returned along the same path. Top: Indoor

measurement, non-line-of-sight. Bottom: Measurement that includes building

penetration.

114
Single-Frequency Received-Power Data: Office Hallway Corridor

QQo

-120

Received Power vs. Time (f =908 MHz, Wing 4)

300 Time [Sec]

E

OQ

re a.

-120 --

Received Power vs. Time (f =908 MHz, Wing 6)

300 Time [Sec]

A ; ref

Figure B.5: Received-power data at a carrier frequency of 908.0 MHz. The

transmitter was carried from A down a corridor to B, around a corner to C, continued

along a tiiird corridor to D and then was returned along the same path. Top: Indoor

measurement, non-line-of-sight. Bottom: Measurement that Includes building

penetration.

115
Single-Frequency Received-Power Data: Office Hallway Corridor

Received Power vs. Time (f =1830 MHz, Wing 4)

E

1X1

TO>

re

-140 100

'^H^^-vV^.^v.^^;''-

200 300 400 Time [Sec]500 600

Received Power vs. Time (f =1830 MHz, Wing 6)

300 400 Time [Sec]

Figure B.6: Received-power data at a carrier frequency of 1830 MHz. The

transmitter was carried from A down a corridor to B, around a corner to C, continued

along a third corridor to D and then was returned along the same path. Top: Indoor

measurement, non-line-of-sight. Bottom: Measurement that includes building

penetration.

116
Appendix C: Single-Frequency Received-Power Data

Collected Using a Calibrated Communications Receiver:

Oil Refinery

The following pages contain the complete set of measured data for the oil refinery (described in Section 5.2).

117
Single-Frequency Received-Power Data: Oil Refinery

SUNCOR South Site, 50 MHz

200 400 600

time [sec]

800 1000 1200

-20

-40

E

m

2,

-60

O)>

CO CL -80

-100

-120

-140

SUNCOR Soutin Site, 162 IVIHz

200 400 600

time [sec]

800 1000

Figure C.I: Received-power data for carrier frequencies of 49 IVIHz (top) and 162

MHz (bottom). The path, winding through the oil refinery complex, is shown In Figure

5.2-1.

118
Single-Frequency Received-Power Data: Oil Refinery

SUNCOR South Site, 226 MHz

200 400 600

time [sec]

800 1000

E

GQD

>

TO

SUNCOR South Site, 448 MHz

200 400 600

time [sec]

800 1000

Figure C.2: Received-power data for carrier frequencies of 226 MHz (top) and 448

MHz (bottom). The path, winding through the oil refinery complex, is shown in Figure

5.2-1.

119
Single-Frequency Received-Power Data: Oil Refinery

SUNCOR South Site, 908 MHz

200 400 600 800 1000

time [sec]

SUNCOR South Site, 1830 MHz

'^

n

200 400 600

time [sec]

800 1000

Figure C.3: Received-power data for carrier frequencies of 908 MHz (top) and 1830

MHz (bottom). The path, winding through the oil refinery complex, is shown in Figure

5.2-1.

120
Single-Frequency Received-Power Data: Oil Refinery

E

QQ

T3

-20

-40

-60

-80

100

120,

140

SUNCOR Drive, 50 MHz

, -* NJ 03 A OI 0>

I II I 1^1

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

time [sec]

SUNCOR Drive, 162 MHz

E

CO

T3>

50 100 150 200 250

time [sec]

300 350 400

Figure C.4: Received-power data for carrier frequencies of 49 MHz (top) and 162

MHz (bottom). The path covered a drive around the perimeter of the refinery. The top

figure was in one direction and the bottom figure was in the opposite direction.

121
Single-Frequency Received-Power Data: Oil Refinery

SUNCOR Drive, 230 MHz

E

CD

T3

-20

-40

-60

-80

100

120

140

-20

-40

E

m

2,

-60

O)>

to -80

-100

-120

-140

100 200 300

time [sec]

400 500

SUNCOR Drive, 439 MHz

I-*- |M ,co ,-& ,ai ,o> III II I

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

time [sec]

Figure C.5: Received-power data for carrier frequencies of 230 MHz (top) and 439

MHz (bottom). The path covered a drive around the perimeter of the refinery. The top

figure was in one direction and the bottom figure was in the opposite direction.

122
Single-Frequency Received-Power Data: Oil Refinery

-20

-40

1

-60

"> -80

a. -100

-120

-140

SUNCOR Drive, 1830 MHz

"Him

2

1

s '18 ' ;t

1 1

1 1

1 i

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 I

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 [

1 1

I 1

I 1 100 200 300 400

time [sec]

Figure C.6: Received-power data for a carrier frequency of 1830 IVIHz. Tine path

covered a drive around the perimeter of the refinery. The 900 IVlHz data was

corrupted and is not reported here.

123
Appendix D: Single-Frequency Received-Power Data

Collected Using a Calibrated Communications Receiver:

Subterranean Tunnels

The following pages contain the complete set of measured data for the

subterranean tunnels (described in Section 6.2).

124
Single-Frequency Received-Power Data: Subterranean Tunnels

-20

-40

-60

' -80

-100

-120

-140

-\'/^

''vA-vyw^ y

50 100 150 200

time [sec] 250 300 350

50 100 150 200

time [sec] 250 300

50 100 150 200 250

time [sec]

Figure D.1: Received-power data in the Hazel-Atlas mine for three carrier

frequencies: Top: 50 MHz. Middle: 162 MHz. Bottom: 448 MHz. The transmitters were carried into the tunnel and then back out, so the left and right halves of the

graphs are mirror images. In each case the first and third vertical dashed lines

correspond to the turn at 100 m, and the second dashed line represents the end point

at 200 m.

125
Single-Frequency Received-Power Data: Subterranean Tunnels

-20

-40

5 -60 i -80

L -100

-120

-140

H

'^wJ^^^^V.^-L,,,^^^ ' Wv^'

100 200 300

time [sec] 400 500

-140

100 200 300

time [sec] 400 500

-20

-40

-60

-80

-100

-120

-140

'% ;s s ;a

\ . /\- V : /' -\:

- /^ V

jM^/'f^]

L-

/I

If

^ ' 1"

100 200 300

time [sec] 400

Figure D.2: Received-power data in the Greathouse mine for three carrier

frequencies: Top: 50 MHz. Middle: 162 MHz. Bottom: 448 MHz. The transmitters were carried into the tunnel and then back out, so the left and right halves of the

graphs are mirror images. In each case the first and third vertical dashed lines

correspond to the turn at 100 m, and the second dashed line represents the end point

shown in Figure 6.2-1 (b).

126
Appendix E: Wideband Excess Path Loss Measured

With a Synthetic-Pulse Vector-Network-Analyzer-Based

System: Apartment Building

The following pages contain the complete set of measured data for the apartment

building (described in Section 3.3).

127
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Apartment Building

Layout of apartment building and positions where synthetic pulse

measurements were made.

N

T^ HH 1 i l I I 1 i l I I l i I I I h ill l i I I I l i I I I (

(0) --- (I> -®- - (7> -(¥)-- (9> -(10)- - (i]> - <12> -Kia

(T)

(2)

I

(21

-I—I—[ 4-f-t

Elevators

1—1-

-5 m

1—I—I—

4—1—1—

South

stairwell

Wideband Path Loss

Oand RiVIS Delay Spread

Measurement Locations

North

stairwell

VNA

128
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Apartment Building

0^.

-10

-20 D

c

o^ -30

<Dc

Q. -40

-50 -

-60

Position 3 (200 MHz BW)

second floor seventh floor noise floor

yy /\

A

V

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 Frequency (MHz)

-10 -

-20

c

o

TO "'^

Q. -40

-50

-60

Position 2 (200 MHz BW)

second floor seventh floor noise floor

A

I V

riMz

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000

Frequency (MHz)

Figure E.1: Excess path loss from 1 GHz to 18 GHz in an 11 -story apartment

building at locations 3 and 2 on the second (black) and seventh (red) floors. The blue

line at the lower part of the graph represents the noise floor.

129
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Apartment Building

-^

Position 1 (200 MHz BW)

second floor seventh floor noise floor

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000

Frequency (MHz)

Position (200 MHz BW)

second floor seventh floor noise floor

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000

Frequency (MHz)

Figure E.2: Excess path loss from 1 GHz to 18 GHz in an 11 -story apartment

building at locations 1 and on the second (black) and seventh (red) floors. The blue

line at the lower part of the graph represents the noise floor.

130
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Apartment Building

Position 4 (200 MHz BW)

second floor seventli floor

- " - noise floor

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 Frequency (MHz)

CO

g

<uc

0)

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 Frequency (MHz)

Figure E.3: Excess path loss from 1 GHz to 18 GHz in an 11 -story apartment

building at locations 4 and 5 on the second (black) and seventh (red) floors. The blue

line at the lower part of the graph represents the noise floor.

131
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Apartment Building

Position 6 (200 MHz BW)

second floor seventh floor noise floor

CQT3co

c

0) Q.

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 Frequency (MHz)

-10

-20 -

CQco^ -30

1—

0)c

Q) Ql -40

-50

-60

Position 7 (200 MHz BW)

second floor seventh floor noise floor

y V' v\r

r\

'yv

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 Frequency (MHz)

Figure E.4: Excess path loss from 1 GHz to 18 GHz in an 11 -story apartment

building at locations 6 and 7 on the second (black) and seventh (red) floors. The blue

line at the lower part of the graph represents the noise floor.

132
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Apartment Building

-10 -

-20

Position 8 (200 IVIHz BW)

second floor seventli floor noise floor

m

2,co^ -30 c

Oi Q. -40

-50

-60 yv

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 Frequency (MHz)

Position 9 (200 MHz BW)

second floor seventh floor noise floor

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 Frequency (MHz)

Figure E.5: Excess path loss from 1 GHz to 18 GHz in an 11 -story apartment

building at locations 8 and 9 on the second (black) and seventh (red) floors. The blue

line at the lower part of the graph represents the noise floor.

133
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Apartment Building

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 Frequency (MHz)

-10

^ -20

QQ2,c

o^ -30

c

-40

-50

-60

Position 1 1 (200 MHz BW)

second floor seventh floor noise floor

\

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 Frequency (MHz)

Figure E.6: Excess path loss from 1 GHz to 18 GHz in an 11 -story apartment

building at locations 10 and 11 on the second (black) and seventh (red) floors. The

blue line at the lower part of the graph represents the noise floor.

134

J
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Apartment Building

c

o

o

c

Q.

-10 -

-20 ~

-30 -

-40

-50

-60

Position 12 (200 MHz BW)

second floor seventh floor noise floor

'Via f A A

^ I '

i

'

I

' I 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 Frequency (MHz)

Position 12 {200 MHz BW)

second floor seventh floor noise floor

m

o

0)c

0) Q.

n \

i 1 \ I \

I I

'

. :

' I r

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 Frequency (MHz)

Figure E.7: Excess path loss from 1 GHz to 18 GHz in an 11 -story apartment

building at locations 12 and 13 on the second (black) and seventh (red) floors. The

blue line at the lower part of the graph represents the noise floor.

135
Appendix F: Wideband Excess Path Loss Measured With

a Synthetic-Pulse Vector-Network-Analyzer-Based

System: Office Corridor

The following pages contain the complete set of measured data for the office

corridor (Section 4.3).

I

136
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

Hallway Layout © Transmitting Antenna

*-19ft-+ /tn /tn Receiving Antenna

1 KL)-^ Positions

soft

feN^C^ xO

X©

xQ

1 xQ

soft

X©

X©

x0

X® X® xQ xQ

x©^

x@

x@' 50 ft between each measurement position

t DRG antennas only

Figure F.1: UWB synthetic pulse measurements were carried out at specific test locations indicated on the outline. The transmitter was located inside the building but in a non-iine-of-sight condition. We use the conversion 8 ft = 2.4 m and 50 ft. = 15.25 m.

137
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

40—1

20

a -20 •

= -40

-60 —

-80 —

-100 —

-120

Pos3t;cii i SyjtemXoue

rv

200 400 600 SOO 1000 1200 1400

Freqiieacy (MHz)

40 —I

20 —

—

00 -20 —

a.

-60 —

-SO —

-100

-120

Wins 4 Halln'a>- Measuiaiiianti ?osa:on 2 S'vJpm Nohe

rV

'A

1 ' r

200 400 600 800 lOOO 1200 1400

Figure F.2: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.3 GHz in the Wing 4 hallway.

Omnidirectional antennas were used. Distance down the corridor is D = 2.40 m (top)

and D = 17.65 m (bottom).

138
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office l-iallway Corridor

40—1

20 —

—

CQ -20 —

-40

£ -60-

-80 —

-100 —

-120

Poanoa3

Sv:^ein Noiie

-1

I

i

I

I \

^

I

I \ r- T

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Frequency- (MHz)

40 —1

20 —

—

00 -20 —

- -iOH

iS -60-

-80 —

-100 —

-120

Wms i Hallway Ivleaimemeotj

Po:i!ion4

T" 1 ' r

T"

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 Frwuencv (MHz>

Figure F.3: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.3 GHz in the Wing 4 hallway.

Omnidirectional antennas were used. Distance down the corridor is D = 32.90 m (top)

and D = 48.15 m (bottom).

139
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

40 —

1

20 —

as -20

-40 —

£ -60-

-100 —

-i:o

Sy:temNoiie

200 400 600 800

Frequency (MHz)

lOOO 1200 1400

40

20

—

OQ -20 —

£ -40

£ -60

-80 —

-100 —

-120

Wing 4 Eallw2>' ^wUa^ursmems

Positions

S\-stei3i No:^

~^ r

200 400 600 800

Freoucncv (MHzl

1 ^\

^

I '

I 1000 1200 1400

Figure F.4: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.3 GHz in the Wing 4 hallway.

Omnidirectional antennas were used. Distance down the corhdor is D = 63.40 m (top)

and D = 78.65 m (bottom).

140
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

40

20 —

—

a -20

-60 —

-SO —

-100 —

-120 ^ \

' r

200 400

Wins 4- Hallway M*arQranenls

Pontian 7

Hy

6M 800

Frequency (MHz)

lOOO 1200 14O0

40 —I

20

QQ .20 —

1 -^0

B.

-60 —

-SO —

-100 —

-120

Wing 4 Ea3hn^y \feasurem£Ets

PoiitionS

Sjrrtam Noise

200 400 600 800 lOOO 1200 1400 Frecmencv (Mlf)

Figure F.5: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.3 GHz in the Wing 4 hallway.

Omnidirectional antennas were used. Distance down the corridor is D = 93.90 m (top)

and D = 109.15 m (bottom).

141
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

40

20 —

—

m -20

-40

-60

-80 —

-100 —

-120

Position 9

System Nfflse

200 4O0 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Frequency (MHz)

40 —

1

20 —

—

S -20 —

:= -40

8£ -60 —

-80 —

-100 —

-120

Wm§ 4 Hal)wa>' Msasutemems

Poation 10 ——

S^'ste2i Noise

"^ r

200 400 600 800

Ffe<roaicv ^IHz^

lOOO 1200 1400

Figure F.6: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.3 GHz in the Wing 4 hallway.

Omnidirectional antennas were used. Distance down the corridor is D = 124.40 m

(top) and D = 139.65 m (bottom).

142
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

40 —I

Wins 4 Ka]}n"ff>' Mea^m%ui£iits

Posirion 11 Systan Noise —

-10 —

-40 —

£ -60

-SO

-100-

-120-

200 4C'0 6O0 800 1000 1200 1400 Frequency (MHz)

RMS Delay Spread -

Diamond Biconicals

Position Mean Delay (ns) RMS Delay Spread (ns)

1 20.6 27.9 2 58.6 55.9 3 70.8 76.4 4 84.7 93.1 5 79.9 98.0 6 77.8 84.4 7 103.3 89.3 8 96.4 134.7 9 ^# /S SS.9

10 Mm/fn ^ / ^ - ^"^f"^ ) 11 mw'^

iJ '^^ ^^

Figure F.7: Excess path loss data and RMS delay spread from 25 MHz to 1.3 GHz In the Wing 4 hallway. Omnidirectional antennas were used. Distance down the corridor

is D = 154.90 m (top). RMS delay spread (bottom).

143
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

10

-10

-20

-30

-to

-50

-60

-70

-SO

-90

-100

-110

-120

Posilion 1

4000 sooo nooo

Frequencs' i^IHz) 16000 20O0O

10

-10

-20

-30 —

-to —

-50 —

-60

-70

-SO —

I

-90

-100 —\

-110

-120

Wms 4 K2llT*"ay MeasuraDenIs

Podtiott2

S>'!:tas Noise

4000 8000 12000 Frequency (MKz)

~~l

^

1 160OO 20000

Figure F.8: Excess path loss data from 70 MHz to 18 GHz in the Wing 4 hallway.

Directional antennas were used. Distance down the corridor is D = 2.40 m (top) and

D = 17.65 m (bottom).

144
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

10 —

-10 —

-20 —

-30 —

I

^0-

J -50 —

I

<a fi -60 gi

-'0

-SO H

-90

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-110 —

-120

Vv ing 4 Hallway \Ieasuiei3GEii£s PositioEiB

S\'3teiii Noise

4000

~1 ^ T"

8000 12000

Frequency' (MHz)

16000 20O0O

10 —

I

—

-10

-20 —

-30 —

I

-»0-

I

-50-

£ -60 —

-70

-80 —I

-90

100

110 —I

120

u

Fo2:acii4

40O0 8000 12000

Fiequencj- P»IHz)

160OO 20O0O

Figure F.9: Excess path loss data from 70 MHz to 18 GHz in the Wing 4 hallway.

Directional antennas were used. Distance down the corridor is D = 32.90 m (top) and

D = 48.15 m (bottom).

145
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

10-1—

Wing 4 Hallway IvJeasoremsib PoarionS

-10 —

System Noi^e

L|,,||iil:.<kijJUi ,.h. id .lil .. ak 1 Li.. , -20 — iLiili ilillii MWfllmk

,k

-30 —

1 iinpipi 1

1 l|||( ['HI l|ly|m

1 -40- 1 1

' l"

r

'

i i 1 . t m f 1 -50- ^ - £ -60 —

1

-^0-

i liiiII n w

II

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11 1 lli '

1 1

1

'

1

-90 —

11 1 \

1

.

-100 — :

^ T 1

-110 —

1 ">n -1-0

1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4000 SOOO 120OO 16000 20000

Frequency' (MHz)

10 —1—

Wmg 4 Hallway Ifea^oraineziti Po:inon6

-10 -

, , ,,JtiL<J jjll.LilillJ>.(iliiiiiili,l<jl l.^.kU.

-20 — mtiliilf

-30 - fi 1 It 1 1

' p w HBIiW

1-40-^

J -50-

£ -60 —

81 -70-

I'

ad

m -SO — Ml 1 III ' M 11

'

-90 — lip

-100 —

'

1^

1

-110 -

1 TH -1-0 I

1

I 1

I 1 1 1 40CO SOOO 12000 160C Frequency (MHz)

'

1 20000

Figure F.10: Excess path loss data from 70 MHz to 18 G

Directional antennas were used. Distance down the corrido

Hz in the Wing 4 hallway,

r is D = 63.40 m (top) and

D = 78.65 m (bottom).

146
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

10-,

Wmg 4 Halh^-sy Mea:niremenl3 — Poiition? - SvitemNoise -10 —

1 Jli^/I^Hliii^

''' '-''' "^"^^ "* '^"''-' -20 —

lIVVllllllMm HM'' ' '' -30 —

If ' 11 Ml [' III III ill HV'I Mil

1 ^0-

!'

1

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kl uHllilU i[linHHHiUii''L \ ^ -

i 1 ikil

(£ -60 — [|yy| II

-80 — II nn^i UmII

1 1

' ' '

-90 —

f f

!

-100 —

il HI

-110 —

1 -^/^ -120 1

1

I

1 11 1 1 1 1

I 4000 SOOO 12000 160O0 20000

Frequencj' (MHz)

10—1—

Wke 4 Halltt-ay Measnreraente —^-^-^——^^— PoiitioQ. S

-10 - 1 S>'!:^em Noise

-20 —

ll iRMlni^^

-30- ill' W' liii liil H Pflff wl wB Hli

1 -^-

i

till 111' 1 I [iiii 1 1>^

1

1 -50- I

' iklli ll [jIiI L 'i iiii J \i 1 £ i iiji 1-60-

21

-70-

-80 - lliJlbi 1 Hi Iw Iffil f I 1 I -90 -

i

-100 —

: 1 1 f -no -

1 ~)f\

,

-120 —

c

1

1 1

' 1' 1'

1

) 40OO SOOO 1200O 160O0 2OC'0O Frequency (MHz)

Figure F.11: Excess path loss data from 70 MHz to 18 GHz in the Wing 4 hallway.

Directional antennas were used. Distance down the corridor is D = 93.90 m (top) and

D = 109.15 m (bottom).

147
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

10 —

-10 —

-20 —

-30 I

-40-

5 -50 £ -60 gI -OH

-SO

-90

-100 —

-110 —

-120

Sv^ten Noise

4000 SOOO 1200O

Frequenir.' (MHz)

16000 20O00

10

-10

-20

-30 f -40

2 -50

i£ -60

u

-70

-SO

-90

-100

-110

-120

Wm2 4 Kailway Measuresieiits

Podtioii 10 Sj'^em Noise

Ll.iiiijijL^L jJikiliili

-^ \

\

\

\

\

\

\

I 4000 SOOO 12000 160OO 20000

Frequency (MHz)

Figure F.12: Excess path loss data from 70 MHz to 18 GHz in the Wing 4 hallway.

Directional antennas were used. Distance down the corridor is D = 124.40 m (top)

and D = 139.65 m (bottom).

148
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

W:ns 4 Hallway Meamrements

Foiiticm 1

1

System Xoisa

4000 8000 120OO

FrequeiKr.' (MHz)

160O0 20000

RMS Delay Spread -

3115 DRG Antennas

Position Mean Delay (ns) RMS Delay

Spread (ns)

19.4

25.1 16.7 29,8 16.6 28.6 17.5 27.6 18.0 21.4 18.6

20.1 20.4

17.5 19.6

11

O Noise

12 20.9 18.5 13 18.0 17.8 14 16.2 20.2

Figure F.13: Excess path loss and time-delay spread covering 70 MHz to 18 GHz in the Wing 4 hallway. Directional antennas were used. Distance down the corridor is D = 154.90 m (top). RMS delay spread (bottom).

149
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

Hallway Layout 4^

W ng e

Wig 4 *sEF.

x0

S39

•an

*

*©

® ® ® .«L X X

(t) TrsismllCr>3 .'\r:efira

/T\ ^^ Recsivlrg Ajitsnna

X©

Staiiwefl

1

Figure F.14: Building penetration measurements were carried out at specific test locations indicated on the outline. The Wing 4 corridor is lined with offices having

windows to the outside, thus indoor-to-outdoor coupling can be expected.

150
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

10—]—

-10 —

-20 —

-50 —

SI i

1

-40 —

-50 —

-fiO —

-70 —

-SO —

-90 —

- LOO —

- [10 —

.- :q —

la —

—

-10 —

-20 —

-30 —

-40 —

J

-30-

£ -fifl-

-SO —

-90-

-100 —

-no —

-120

5CC 13DD 15CC

5CC mm 15M

Figure F.15: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.3 GHz for a path that includes

building penetration found using data into the Wing 4 hallway. Omnidirectional

antennas were used. Distance down the corridor is D = 2.40 m (top) and D = 17.65 m

(bottom).

151
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

la—

I

Q —

-ID

-:q —

-30 —

I

-^'^

B -5° —

I -60 —

8I

''-_

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-no — 3vil£i£ Ninie

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Tztqiutncy (MHz)

15CC

10 —

]

c —

-10

-20 —

-30

-40 —

-30

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-70 —

-SO —

-90 —

-IflQ

-110

5CC iSDJ 13G0

Figure F.16: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.3 GHz for a path that includes

building penetration found using data into the Wing 4 hallway. Omnidirectional

antennas were used. Distance down the corridor is D = 32.90 m (top) and D = 48.15 m (bottom).

152
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

lU —

—

-IC —

1 -20 — 1 . -30 — lift il

jjyi

il 1 j ^ LjUi ,iMi II f

-40-

J

-50-

1 -6C —

81

°- ilil i

-so — [f

lllnff '' ' ii

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'

-100 —

1

1

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-1 "Tl

'

1 ' 1

'

1 3Q0 i!>33 FraqiuiBcy (MHz)

15CC

10 —

I

C —

-10-

-:a —

-30 —

I

-40 —

I

-50-

2 -63-

8I -«-

-so —

-90 —

-100 —

-no-

-i:o —

Vfmf S 111 Wi<^ 4 Hii3#«y UsJaaiEciicsil

-T 1 1-

Tzasptiazy (MSz)

15CC

Figure F.17: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.3 GHz for a path that includes

building penetration found using data into the Wing 4 hallway. Omnidirectional

antennas were used. Distance down the corridor is D = 63.40 m (top) and D = 78.65 m (bottom).

153
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

10 —

D —

-ID —

-;c —

-30 —

t

-^'^

I -50 —

£ -60 —

8^ -70 —

-so —

-90 —

-100 —

-no

-120

SyxlctB !u:tK

500 imoo IJOO

10 —

—

-10 —

-2Q

-30

-40 —

50

ISO —

70 —

SO —

90 —

00 —

10 —

10

Viittg 6 111 Wm^ i HkSynay Mcauveaaila

"1 ' r

15CC

Figure F.18: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.3 GHz for a path that includes

building penetration found using data into the Wing 4 hallway. Omnidirectional

antennas were used. Distance down the corridor is D = 93.90 m (top) and D =

109.15 m (bottom).

154
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

IC —

1

Q

-10 —

-20 —

-30 I -40 —

J

-50 —

S -60 —

e

-so —

-90 —

-100 —

-110 —

-i:o

5CC IMO 15M

10—1—

-10 —

-:q —

-30 —

i^ -60—1

a -70

-BO —

-SO —

-100 —

-no —

-i:o

PuaUinJO

jCC ;DDS 13CC

FTs^uficn- l^iax)

Figure F.19: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.3 GHz for a path that includes

building penetration found using data into the Wing 4 hallway. Omnidirectional

antennas were used. Distance down the corridor is D = 124.4 m (top) and D = 139.65 m (bottom).

155
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

-IQ —

-20 —

-30

f. ^^ —

J

-50-

5 -60 —

8I

-'^-

-so —

-so —

-IBQ —

-110 —

-120

Paulian3l

Syjlnt Hiix

5G0 3000 1300

10 —

I

—

-10 —

-:o —

-30 —

I -50 I -soli

-so —

-PQ —

-100-

-110

-120

3CC :DDD 15CC

Frftquacri." i^WHi) Figure F.20: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.3 GHz for a path that includes

building penetration found using data into the Wing 4 hallway. Omnidirectional

antennas were used. Distance down the corridor is D = 154.9 m (top) and D =

170.15 m (bottom).

156
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

10—1—

-10

-20 —

-30 —

ec^ -50 —I

60

70SOSO —

00 —

10 —

20

r-uulitm S3

1 ' r

5CC 3JD3 1500

10 —

]

—

-10-

-:o —

-50

I -50-

I -fiO-

-80

-90 —

-100 —

-113 —

-120

Vfmg, S III Vfat^ A HaSantii tJletsmcatstii

FtAilfOti. 24

"1 ' r

13C0

Figure F.21: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.3 GHz for a path that includes

building penetration found using data into the Wing 4 hallway. Omnidirectional

antennas were used. Distance down the corridor is D = 185.40 m (top) and D = 200.65 m (bottom).

157
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

RMS Delay Spread -

Diamond Biconicals

POEliCP Mean Delay ins) RMS Delay Spread ins)

I; ia.9 16.4 2 2G.1 21.1 3 35.3 la.a 4 6c.1 36 .c 5 43.2 26.3

c< 35.7 37.4 7 6S.Q 54 .a e 56.7 44.9 9 53.4 23.4

ID -«W B ^1 =

11 ,mtM.S% MUf^J9|-

12 ijir flH^^^^i^^,^Vfij^^V^^^S£^3

13 __i __i

14 « -'

' mess €lgna}5 2: e ir tr £ iip«, out it lOots 1*= -.nay have niu&pie scaaering ponts-lcng Brissigraiura

Figure F.22: Time delay spread found from data covering 25 IVIHz to 1.3 GHz for a

path tiiat includes building penetration found using data into the Wing 4 hallway.

158
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

10—1—

-10 —

-20 —

-30

i -40 —

I

-50

I -60 —

aI 0-

-80 —

-90 —

-100 -no—

I

-i:o

-WtOO socc i;mo 16000 200CO

10 —I—

-10 —

-20 —

-30 —

-40 —

-30 —

-60 —

-70 —

-BO —

-SO —

-100 —

-110 —

-120 —

Wir^ 6 Ui Wu^ 4 FUt«^ iiaaitatesia

SyilcnKuuc

tcco S3CC ::d3c If'XO 200CO

Figure F.23: Excess path loss data from 750 MHz to 18 GHz for a path that includes

building penetration found using data into the Wing 4 hallway. Directional antennas were used. Distance down the corridor is D = 2.40 m (top) and D = 17.65 m (bottom).

159
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

13 —

S —

-10 —

-20 —

-30 —

t -40-

J -50 —

K -60 —

-so

-so —

-ICO —

-no —

-120

•MOB BOCO 32DD0 Fraqnanzy OIHi)

I i60oe 20CCC

10 —

—

-10 —

-20 —

-30

I -fifli^ -70

-E3

-90

-100

-no

-120

+:<>j SOCC ;23D0 i6:oo 200CO

Figure F.24: Excess path loss data from 750 MHz to 18 GHz for a path that includes

building penetration found using data into the Wing 4 hallway. Directional antennas were used. Distance down the corridor is D = 32.90 m (top) and D = 48.15 m

(bottom).

160
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

10—

I

—

-10 —

-:o —

-50 —

1 -40-

J -5" —

2 -60 —

B

-so

-so —\

-100

-110 —I

-2:q

40«0 BOOO 32M0

~\ ' 1

16060 200CO

10 —

I

C —

-10 —

-20 —

-30 —

-AQ —

-30 —

-60 —

-70 —

-80 —

-90

-100-

-110 —

-i:o

3>mnNi:tH

•4C :SCCC 1-D3C 1£'X0 :cocc

Figure F.25: Excess path loss data from 750 MHz to 18 GHz for a path that includes

building penetration found using data into the Wing 4 hallway. Directional antennas were used. Distance down the corridor is D = 63.40 m (top) and D = 78.65 m

(bottom).

161
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

10—

fl —

-10 —

-:c —

-30

-40 —

-50 —

-60

-70 —

-SO —

-90

-100 —I

-110

-i:o

SvalcnNViix

•WOO 8000 32000 F»quBin:y Q^SSz) i&m :ooco

10 —

—

-10 —

-:q —

-30 —

t -40-

5 -30 —

-fiO —

-70

-GO

-SO

-IDO —

-no —

-i:d

I

eI

Vftti^ 6 111 XVtr^ i BiHliiif MOMitttttaa

4CO0 BOOO 32000

FrKjiiBB:y (MHz)

leooo 200CC

Figure F.26: Excess path loss data from 750 MHz to 18 GHz for a path that includes

building penetration found using data into the Wing 4 hallway. Directional antennas were used. Distance down the corridor is D = 93.90 m (top) and D = 109.15 m

(bottom).

162
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

10—

1 —

-10 —

-20 —

-30 —

1DC

1

a1

-40 —

-50 —

-60 —

-70 —

-SO —

-90-

-100 —

-110 —

-i:o —

-WOfii B3CC i20DD 16000

I :floco

10 —

—

-la —

-20 —

-30 —

1

-40 —

J -50 2 -60 —

8§ -70 —

-SO —

-90 —

-100 —

-110 —

-120

4C':«j S3CC ::oDC i&yx :cccc

Figure F.27: Excess path loss data from 750 MHz to 18 GHz for a path that includes

building penetration found using data into the Wing 4 hallway. Directional antennas were used. Distance down the corridor is D = 124.40 m (top) and D = 139.65 m

(bottom).

163
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

IQ —

—

-Ifl —

-:g —

-3fl —

J -50 —

(5 -ea —

8I

--0-

-so —

50 —

-100 —

-110 —

-i:o —

Ptailitn 11 3)^Un >a.-iK

•tow BOOO IIDDfl "~l

'

1 i«sMo :ooco

10 —

—

-10 —

-2Q —

-50 —

40 —

50 —

«fl —

—

SO —

90

00 —I

10

-120

K'Xi SOCC 1:330

Frwjuftnry QSRz)

leoco :occo

Figure F.28: Excess path loss data from 750 MHz to 18 GHz for a path that includes

building penetration found using data into the Wing 4 hallway. Directional antennas were used. Distance down the corridor is D = 154.90 m (top) and D = 170.15 m

(bottom).

164
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office i-laliway Corridor

la

-10

-30

J -50 « -60 —

-so —

-90 —

-100 —

-110 —

-i:o

Vi'ihg, 6 111 Wb^^ EblWAy MciaiKtzlisila ^^———— F-jaiIi:n O

-ttice SCCC 32DD0

F»qiiKn:y (MH2)

iisoec 300CC'

10 —

I

—

-10

-20 —

-30 —

I

-40-

J -50 —

il -fiO8

.^ -70 —

-80

-90 —

-100 —

-110 —

-120

Willi's UiVftni. 4 Bi^wiif Mttatatttesti PiBilun 14 SyiUa^u:bi

-ttw n

'—r"

Bocc ::ddc T T

iC'.v.t 200CC

Figure F.29: Excess path loss data from 750 MHz to 18 GHz for a path that includes

building penetration found using data into the Wing 4 hallway. Directional antennas were used. Distance down the corridor is D = 185.40 m (top) and D = 200.65 m

(bottom).

165
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Office Hallway Corridor

RMS Delay Spread -

3115 DRG Antennas

Position Mean Delay Irs) RMS Delay

Spread (ns)

1, la.o i&.e 2 13.1 25.2 3 70.8 37.2 4 91.7 26.2

c, 9^.3 25.

c- 110.0 26.0

7 113.0 27.0

113.7 43.4

fii n r.\ A

ic ^Pf^J. 1^ 33.'5 ^^1IjJLUk-1 I "'•' 12 1

^"^-^ 13^^^^^Wfcm.o

^i ^11 T '- =

Figure F.30: Time delay spread found from data covering 750 IVlHz to 18 GHz for a path that includes building penetration found using data into the Wing 4 hallway.

Directional antennas were used.

166
Appendix G: Wideband Excess Path Loss Measured

With a Synthetic-Pulse Vector-Network-Analyzer-Based

System: Oil Refinery

The following pages contain tine complete set of measured data for the oil refinery (Section 5.3).

167
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Oil Refinery

SUNCOR-low frequencies

,! Ill

I TP^TIi

i''i'i'Mir'i'jiiiii,iiiiiiii,iii.j

ECO

SUNCOR-low frequencies

eoD

Frequency ()/H2)

Figure G.1: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.2 GHz at an oil refinery along a

path underneath extensive piping. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the

receiving antenna is D = 20.6 m (top) and D = 26.5 m (bottom).

168
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Oil Refinery

SUNCOR-low frequencies

posit on_3

roise 7 u

r'Wf \u /f^^j;-!^

ii ^ v"Mmwin

eoD

FrEqLsrcy{Mfe)

SUNCOR-low frequencies

80G 600

Frequency (MH^

Figure G.2: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.2 GHz at an oil refinery along a

path underneath extensive piping. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the

receiving antenna is D = 32.4 m (top) and D = 40.5 m (bottom).

169
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Oil Refinery

SUNCOR-low frequencies

-&D

-ICO 400 BOO aco

Frequency (MHzj

1200

SUNCOR-low frequencies

eoa SOD

Frequency (MHz)

Figure G.3: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.2 GHz at an oil refinery along a

path underneath extensive piping. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the

receiving antenna is D = 48.6 m (top) and D = 54.1 m (bottom).

170
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Oil Refinery

SUNCOR-low frequencies

SOD

Frequency (MHz)

SUNCOR-low frequencies

Figure G.4: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.2 GHz at an oil refinery along a

path underneath extensive piping. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the

receiving antenna is D = 62.8 m (top) and D = 65.9 m (bottom).

171
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Oil Refinery

SUNCOR-low frequencies

600

SUNCOR-low frequencies

aoD

FrEqifinGy(Mfe)

Figure G.5: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.2 GHz at an oil refinery along a

path underneath extensive piping. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the

receiving antenna is D = 73.6 m (top) and D = 81.7 m (bottom).

172
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Oil Refinery

SUNCOR-low frequencies

eoD

Frequency (M)-^

SUNCOR-low frequencies

60C

Frequency (MHz)

Figure G.6: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.2 GHz at an oil refinery along a

path underneath extensive piping. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the

receiving antenna is D = 87.6 m (top) and D = 96.2 m (bottom).

173
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Oil Refinery

SUNCOR-low frequencies

eoD

Frequency l^iHz)

SUNCOR-lov; frequencies

-10

- positior\_M -noise 7

,iii,Ji ... iillliL

40D 90D

Frequency ^Kz)

Figure G.7: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.2 GHz at an oil refinery along a

path underneath extensive piping. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the

receiving antenna is approx. D = 104 m (top) and D = 112 m (bottom). We assume

8 m separation between test points (this was not measured).

174
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Oil Refinery

-10

S -43 8i ^3

3

3

8 ^

»

-70 •

-ao

-93

-ICO

SUNCOR-low frequencies

-po5jt3or_15

- noise 7

nil

'firpv

iiii i

''f, if"""iili ''T"^¥l

mU illlU

ii.;:H]iiu'Mii Mill nil u .11

Frequency iMHz)

Figure G.8: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.2 GHz at an oil refinery along a path underneath extensive piping. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the

receiving antenna is D = 120 m. We assume 8 m separation between test points (this

was not measured).

175
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Oil Refinery

20

—

SUMCOR, March 20D7

positiofi 1 nojse-pos 7

8 10 12 Frequency (GHz)

SUNCCR, March 2007

20

—

-too

positjon 2

noise-pos 7

T" T" T

B 10 12 Frequency (GHz)

14 16

Figure G.9: Excess path loss data from 1 to 18 GHz at an oil refinery along a path

underneath extensive piping. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving

antenna is D = 20.6 m (top) and D = 26.5 m (bottom).

176
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Oil Refinery

20

—

-20 £

= -40

-60 —

-80 —

-100

SUNCOR, March 2007

position 3

noise-pos 7

8 10 12

Fre<?u&ficy (GH:)

SUMCCR, March 2007

20

—

-20

i -40

g.

-60 —

-80

-100

posScn 4

noise-pos 7

B 10 Frecuency jGH;')

Figure G.10: Excess path loss data from 1 to 18 GHz at an oil refinery along a path

underneath extensive piping. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving

antenna is D = 32.4 m (top) and D = 40.5 m (bottom).

177
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Oil Refinery

20

i -40 —

-60 —

-30 —

SUMCOR, March 2007

position 5 noise-?os 7

8 10 Frequency (GHz)12 18

SUNCOR, March 2DD7

Q —

-20 —

f ^0 —

-60 —

-80 —

-100

position 6

noise-pos 7

8 10 12

F^ecIu^ncy (GHz)

Figure G.11: Excess path loss data from 1 to 18 GHz at an oil refinery along a path

underneath extensive piping. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving

antenna is D = 48.6 m (top) and D = 54.1 m (bottom).

178
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Oil Refinery

SUtlCOR, March 2007

8 10 12 Frequency (GHz)

20

-100

SUNCOR, March 2007

position 8

noise-pos 7

8 10 Frequency (GHz)

12 14 16 18

Figure G.12: Excess path loss data from 1 to 18 GHz at an oil refinery along a path

underneath extensive piping. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving

antenna is D = 62.8 m (top) and D = 65.9 m (bottom).

179
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Oil Refinery

SUMCOR, March 2007

t

£ -40-

! poslicn 9 noise-pos7

8 10 Frequency (GHz) I

SUNCOR, March 20D7

—

-20 —

~ -40 —

-60 —I

-80 —

-100

posfticn 10 noise-cos 7

5 10 Frequency (GHz)

Figure G.13: Excess path loss data from 1 to 18 GHz at an oil refinery along a path

underneath extensive piping. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving

antenna is D = 73.6 m (top) and D = 81.7 m (bottom).

180
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Oil Refinery

20

—

-20 —

SUMCOR, March 2007

position 11 noise-{303 7

10 12

Fractusncy (GHz)

SUNCOR, March 2DD7

20

—

-20 —

position 12

noise-pos 7

8. 10 i; Frequency |GH:>

Figure G.14: Excess path loss data from 1 to 18 GHz at an oil refinery along a path

underneath extensive piping. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving

antenna is D = 87.6 m (top) and D = 96.2 m (bottom).

181
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Oil Refinery

Q —

-20 —

f

-100

SUMCOR, March 2007

position 13

noise-flos 7

8 10 12 Frequency (GHz)

SUNCOR, March 2D07

20

—

-20

~ -40

-100

position 14

noise-pos 7

6 10 12 Frequency (GHz)

Figure G.15: Excess path loss data from 1 to 18 GHz at an oil refinery along a path

underneath extensive piping. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving

antenna is approximately D = 107 m (top) and D = 17 m (bottom).

182
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Oil Refinery

20

—

-20 —

SUMCOR, March 2007

position 15

noise-pos 7

8 10 Fretju&ncy (GHz)

Figure G.16: Excess path loss data from 1 to 18 GHz at an oil refinery along a path

underneath extensive piping. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving

antenna is approximately D = 130 m.

183
Appendix H: Wideband Excess Path Loss Measured

With a Synthetic-Pulse Vector-Network-Analyzer-Based

System: Subterranean Tunnels

The following pages contain the complete set of measured data for the

subterranean tunnels (Section 6.3).

184
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

BDrndne-HazelAlas

Frequency (MHz)

BD mine-Hazel Mas

BOO Frequency(M Hz)

Figure H.1: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.6 GHz from the Hazel-Atlas

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = m

(top) and D = 10 m (bottom).

185
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

BD mine-Hazel Mas

eOO 6CD lODD Frequency (MHz)

BD mine-Hazel Mas

EDO Frequency (MHz)

Figure H.2: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.6 GHz from the Hazel-Atlas

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 20 m

(top) and D = 30 m (bottom).

186
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

BO mlne-HazeJ Adas

eCD 800 IDOO Frequency(MHz)

BD mine-Hazel Mas

SOD 1OO0 Frequency (MHz)

Figure H.3: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1 .6 GHz from the Hazel-Atlas

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 40 m

(top) and D = 50 m (bottom).

187
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

BD mine-Hazel Adas /\^r^^\/M-^\

eCC' BOO 1DD0 Frequency (MHz)

BD mine -Hazel Mas

6D0 Frequency (MHz)

Figure H.4: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.6 GHz from the Hazel-Atlas

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 60 m

(top) and D = 70 m (bottom).

188
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

BDmJne-Haz«IAl3s

ec: ace tcco Frequency(MHz)

BD mine-Haze! Pflas

aco eco Frequency (MHz|

Figure H.5: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.6 GHz from the Hazel-Atlas

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna Is D = 80 m

(top) and D = 90 m (bottom).

189
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

BD mine-Hazel Alias

80 mine-Hazel Adas

eoo Frequency (MH^

Figure H.6: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.6 GHz from the Hazel-Atlas

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 100 m

(top) and D = 1 10 m (bottom).

190
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

BD mine-Hazel Adas

eco eco igcc Frequency (MHz)

BD mine-Hazel Mas

2C€ Frequency (MHz)

Figure H.7: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1 .6 GHz from the Hazel-Atlas

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 120 m

(top) and D = 130 m (bottom).

191
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

-20 —

S -40 —

-60

-ao

f(\t>^^AW\ii\r\^

Hazel Atlas mine D=Om

noise

6000 &0QO 12000

Frequency (MHz)

-20 —

£ -40

S.

-ec —

-80

Hazel Atlas mine D=10m

6000 9000 12000

Frequency (MHz)

15000 13000

Figure H.8: Excess path loss data from 1 GHz to 18 GHz from the Hazel-Atlas

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = m

(top) and D = 10 m (bottom).

192
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

-20 —

S -40

CD

-60 —

-80

Hazel Atlas mine D=20 m

3000 6000 9000

Frequency (MHz)

12000 15000 18000

Figure H.9: Excess path loss data from 1 GHz to 18 GHz from the Hazel-Atlas

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 20 m

(top) and D = 30 m (bottom).

193
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

B -40

3000 60CC &0QO 12000

Frequency (MHz)

15000 1800O

-20 —

£ -40 —

-60

-30

3Q00

Haz^l Afas mine D=50 m

' noise

6000 9000 12000

Frequency <MHz)

15000 18000

Figure H,10: Excess path loss data from 1 GHz to 18 GHz from the Hazel-Atlas

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 40 m

(top) and D = 50 m (bottom).

194
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

6000 9000

Frequency (MHz)

15000 18000

3000 6000 9000 12000

Frequency <MHz)

15000 13000

Figure H.11: Excess path loss data from 1 GHz to 18 GHz from the Hazel-Atlas

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 60 m

(top) and D = 70 m (bottom).

195
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

600C 9000 12000

Frequency (MHz)

-20

£ -40 —

-60

-80

3000 6000 9000

Frequency (MHz)

~-| 1 1

1 r~

12000 15000 18000

Figure H.12: Excess path loss data from 1 GHz to 18 GHz from the Hazel-Atlas

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 80 m

(top) and D = 90 m (bottom).

196
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

3000 600C 9000

Frequency (MHz) 12000 15000 18000

-20

i -60 —

Hazel Atlas mine D=100nn

noise @100

-100

3000 6000 90C0

Frequency (MHz)

12000 15000 18000

Figure H.13: Excess path loss data from 1 GHz to 18 GHz from the Hazel-Atlas

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 100 m

(top) and (bottom), with a noise reference at 100 m for increased range.

197
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

€ -60

-100

3CC0 6000 90CO

Frequency (MHz) 12CCC 15000 18000

-20

^0

-60

-80

-100

Hazel Atlas mine D=120m

noise @10Q

3000 6000

I I

I r

9000' 12C0Q

1 1 1~

15000 18000 Figure H.14: Excess path loss data from 1 GHz to 18 GHz from the Hazel-Atlas

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 110 m

(top) and D = 120 m (bottom).

198
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

-20

-40 —

i

-60

Ql

-80 —

Hazel Atlas mine D=130m

noise® 100

-100

3CC0 6000 90CO 120CC

Frequency iMHz)

15000 18000

-20

-40

B -60 —

-100

Hazel Atlas mine D=140 m

noise ©100

3000 6000 9000

Frequency (MHz)

12000 15000 18000

Figure H.15: Excess path loss data from 1 GHz to 18 GHz from the Hazel-Atlas

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 130 m

(top) and D = 140 m (bottom).

199
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

-20

-40

~ -60 —

-80

Hazel Atlas mine D=l50m

noise (8)100

-100

3CC0 6000 90C0

Frequency (MHz) 12000

~i—

15000 18000

-20

-40

-60 —

-80

Hazel Atlas mine D=ieOnn

noise @100

-10Q

3000 6000 9000 12000

Frequency (MHz)

—

r~

1500O 18000

Figure H.16: Excess path loss data from 1 GHz to 18 GHz from the Hazel-Atlas

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 150 m

(top) and D = 160 m (bottom).

200
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

-20

-40

-60 —

-60

-100

Hazel Atlas mine D=170m

noise© 100

3CCa 6000 90C0 12CC0

Frequency (MHz)

~i r^

15000 18000

-20

-40

-60 —

-100

Hazel Atlas mine D=180m

noise @100

3000 6000 9000

Frequency (MHz)

12000 15Q0O 18000

Figure H.17: Excess path loss data from 1 GHz to 18 GHz from the Hazel-Atlas

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 170 m

(top) and D = 180 m (bottom).

201
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

-20

-40

-60 —

-80

-100

Hazel Atlas mine D=190m

noise© 100

3CC0 6000 9000

Frequency (MHz)

12QCC 15000 18000

-20

-40

-60 —

-80 —

-100

Ha;ei Atlas mine D=200 m

noise @100

30CQ 6000 9000

Frequency (MHz)

12000 15000 18000

Figure H.18: Excess path loss data from 1 GHz to 18 GHz from the Hazel-Atlas

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 190 m

(top) and D = 200 m (bottom).

202
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

Slack Diamond Mine. GreatHouse

Frequency (MKz)

Black Diamond Mine. OreatHouse

n»quency (MHZ)

Figure H.19: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.6 GHz from the Greathouse

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 7 m

(top) and D = 17 m (bottom).

203
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

Slack Diamond Mtne. GrealHouse

eoo Frequency |MH7)

Black Diamond Mine. GreatHouse

SCO Frequency (UKz)

Figure H.20: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.6 GHz from the Greathouse

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 27 m

(top) and D = 37 m (bottom).

204
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

Btadk Diamond Mine. GreatHouse

Frequency {KtHz)

Black Diamond Min-^. GreatHou^e

Frequency {MHEji

Figure H.21: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.6 GHz from the Greathouse

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 47 m

(top) and D = 57 m (bottom).

205
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

Black Dianwnd Mine. GreatHouse

SCO Ft«qu9ncy (MHz>

Black Diannnd Mine. GreatHouse

Frequency (MHz)

Figure H.22: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.6 GHz from the Greathouse

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 72 m

(top) and D = 77 m (bottom).

206
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

Bladt Diamond Mine. GreatHouse

Fre<iuency (MHz)

Black Diamond Mine. GreatHouse

S -iO

Figure H.23: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.6 GHz from the Greathouse

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 82 m

(top) and D = 92 m (bottom).

207
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

Black Dianiond Mtne. GreatHouse

Frequfrncy [MKz)

Black Diamond Mine, GreatHouse

Figure H.24: Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.6 GHz from the Greathouse

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 102 m

(top) and D = 107 m (bottom).

208
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

3000 6000 90C0 12CC0

Frequency (MHz)

15000 18000

B -40 —

-100

6000 9000

Frequency (MHz)

18000

Figure H.25: Excess path loss data from 1 GHz to 18 GHz from the Greathouse

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 7 m

(top) and D = 17 m (bottom).

209
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

-100

3000 6000 9000 12000

Frequency (MHz)

15000 18000

£ -40 —

-1D0

9000

Frequency (MHz)

1 1 1—^1 r

12000 15000 18000

Figure H.26: Excess path loss data from 1 GHz to 18 GHz from the Greathouse

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 27 m

(top) and D = 37 m (bottom).

210
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

3OC0 6000 9000

Frequency (MHz)

-100

3000 6000 QOOO 12000

Frequency (MHz)

15QQ0 18000

Figure H.27: Excess path loss data from 1 GHz to 18 GHz from the Greathouse

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 47 m

(top) and D = 57 m (bottom).

211
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

= -40 —

-100

3CC0 6000 9000 120CC 15000 1S0CC

Frequency (MHz)

20

—

-20

£ -40 —

-60

-80 —

-100

rv^-v-^

3000 6000 9000 12000

Frequency (MHz) 15000 18000

Figure H.28: Excess path loss data from 1 GHz to 18 GHz from the Greathouse

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna Is D = 67 m

(top) and D = 72 m (bottom).

212
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

90CC

Frequency (MHz)

20

-20 —

-40 —

-60

-80 —

-100

fffjMGreathouse mine 0=82 m

1 r

6000 9000 12000

Frequency (MHz)

3GC0 15000 18Q00

Figure H.29: Excess path loss data from 1 GHz to 18 GHz from the Greathouse

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 77 m

(top) and D = 82 m (bottom).

213
Wideband Excess Path Loss: Subterranean Tunnels

20

—

-20 —

CL

-60

-80

-100

GreaJtiouse mine D=102ni

noise

3000 6000 9000 1200C

Frequency (MHz) 15000 180G0

20

-20

-40 —

-60

-80

-100

Greathouse mine D=107m

noise

3000 6000 9000 12000

Frequency (MHz)

—i 1~

15000 18000

Figure H.30: Excess path loss data from 1 GHz to 18 GHz from the Greathouse

tunnel. Distance from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 102 m

(top) an(d D = 107 m (bottom).

214
Appendix I: Modulated-Signal Spectra Measured With a

Vector-Signal Analyzer: Apartment Building

The following pages contain the complete set of measured data for the apartment

building (Section 3.4).

215
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Apartment Building

2.4 GHz, Floor 2, Mark

?

-40

CD

:o -60

t -80

I I',". im

-100 ,„##%»

gimmiM

I'J'H

,11 i

-1—

mm

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 2, Mark

2.43

E

-40

CD

S. -60

S' -80

.-| QQ ,;bA''"^*'*"-'--tfiiii itiii

4.93 4.94 4.95

Frequency (GHz)

4.96 4.97

2.4 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 1 — -40

OQS -60

S' -80

100

! .; !

,^0m

h I

, ' 1

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 1

2.43

E

-40

1

1 1

CD

-60

, 1 I, /1 1,

' 11 if ih 6)

CD -80

.inn .,^.^-4«di#lllll

/ ji!,!,,Jl

;,r|N[J]ri '(1

1

' Hi Wl4|}jj4ittV*s!

4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

Figure 1.1: Bandpass measurements for carrier frequencies of 2.41 GHz and

4.95 GHz for a QPSK-modulated OFDIVI signal (solid) and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Floor 2, position (top) and position 1 (bottom).

216
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Apartment Building

2, -60 r ^ -80

-100^

2.39

E

-40

CD

2, -60 ^ -80

2.4 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 2

fliyiliji'n,

iij iijlii I i|j'iii„iii-'iii(i,'diifl i)h|||.

2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 2

I I liil

1QQ :.,^^4ifti|^^

lll),!|!j!!(il!Ll|]l;!JlHi|lj|l

l(|'pii]^ij:||t|iif{i!|i" r'^ I'p

l(ll

2.43

1 I \ y ilwmmk

4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

— -40

OQ

2, -60 ^ -80

-100

2.39

COo^ -80

2.4 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 3

JiiilillliiHiLliHiil;:;^^ !'

ri'i'^i I'll !''''!

";i ^'^•'''''r'''''^<^ri'&'''W^^^^^ ')i ; ,:rjiMii' ;vi'fj" i V) ' ii'i.ii: i,-i

' * I'li^ 'ill' i!'i!i';i'i!ii 1: 11(1 ;i|

I 1*

I

I j

I /

I r 1 \

\]U\ r\ I

2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 3

4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

2.43

4.97

Figure 1.2: Bandpass measurements for carrier frequencies of 2.41 GHz and

4.95 GHz for a QPSK-modulated OFDM signal (solid) and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Floor 2, position 2 (top) and position 3 (bottom). The data for the

digitally modulated signal were corrupted at position 3.

217
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Apartment Building

2.4 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 4

^ -80

-100

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 4

2.43

ff -80

-100

4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

2.4 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 5

E

OQ

CO

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 5

2.43

d)

CD

40

60 - 80

nn

Hi '

4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

Figure 1.3: Bandpass measurements for carrier frequencies of 2.41 GHz and

4.95 GHz for a QPSK-modulated OFDM signal (solid) and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Floor 2, position 4 (top) and position 5 (bottom).

218
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Apartment Building

2.4 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 6 — -40

en2, -60 ^ -80

2.39

Ml#fti

IB I

V II''

lilli>,

II i.,' I '"

I'm- ijni' ':i',i' ''|i V «pp

2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 6 — -40

CQ

2, -60 ^ -80

10f

jf/MIDi-H''^^»"*

,t:v:;:i:,f;L:'::;s:„fi:;;:'j!il

I' I'lifliliiij

Mi

2.43

fPylf^fi^^

93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

2.4 GHz, Floor 2, Mark?

E

-40

S -60 h ^ -80

-100

I

I h|l !' . I,

:!

i| ii |Ni "

if I' i' '"' "

I I

i .; .

,ri!l!t'li!|«illiltl|il',W-,hl , J,' kil,l|l;i|-|-':fl.;rH,(l

|!;q't':''T^7^

m 1,1

—U—!_i-J S—

t

r;;(ip|||/,>|ii||y

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 7

E

-4U

m

a -60

-80

-10f

tltijl

Mi)

il|jy:fil[li!i*il,!|i,#5!|^^

iyiil'iji'j"' I'l'ip' g^' 11" '''' •'"r|i'":i' "V*"

2.43

^||<|)yt#j»tiJr;*»i-''*t. 93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

Figure 1.4: Bandpass measurements for carrier frequencies of 2.41 GHz and

4.95 GHz for a QPSK-modulated OFDM signal (solid) and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Floor 2, position 6 (top) and position 7 (bottom).

219
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Apartment Building

^ -40

CD

S- -60 ^ -80

2.39

iflll

— -40

CD

2, -60 ^ -80

•10f

2.4 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 8

liilirt

.^ri

t't ?

' ^?IV r ..IT,. 2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 8

93

»jlit.

ijli ill , JliiL'Jjjlii.LifJt

tii Jl 'i: i;li;_ ,..Li_lJL 4.95

HUl

2.43

4.94 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

^ -40^

CD

B -60

t -80

-100

2.4 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 9

AA

^mi\^':\l^h

U.I I h

i;;.::t

III

!

'

:

I

;r':T;fi|i:||||i

i|^^i:'|iiiy>lMiyH:M)l'l^|V-->- I

I l''l||l i 'I I

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 9

2.43

— -40

CO:o -60 ^ -80

-100

4.93

u^^fjtftttf^

4.94

11m

4.95 4.96 4.97

Frequency (GHz)

Figure 1.5: Bandpass measurements for carrier frequencies of 2.41 GHz and

4.95 GHz for a QPSK-modulated OFDM signal (solid) and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Floor 2, position 8 (top) and position 9 (bottom).

220
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Apartment Building

?

-40

CQ

2, -60

ff -80

-100

2.39

E

-40

S -60 ^ -80

10

'i*.

2.4 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 10

I

I 111' J

,iiI :.i ' i! I. ' !, ii !

||],:f.l|ll|i|Hjipif|i

=i':i!..^ii|!;'::,ij!!:

ii it' L

2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 10

........N^^

,, 11 l|i ll,)/V II

iiw;;.- "?'' t

tri'ii:'f^i

1^, 'h n\ r

t|i

111"'

2.43

)fi'''2';' ^; ')i'j'i;^;

||||M»i«yt»^ 93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

— -40

i -60 ^ -80 h 100

2.39

— -40

CD

-D -60 ^ -80

100

2.4 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 11

!h<i I w^is I I'll I ii

i! 'I I' |iih!j[jfj['

'k i.'^'''':'';*'

;!.'

M'!r"*i', 111 I'l'i* '

, ''A r'l 'i>, ,1

'ii!

1. '. ii >ii',i

,l.i,li mmI

I L

I I 'g^3i:J^'"?^;':iJ!: 2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 11

) mjitfftill

! I

\'^"if\\'

'I [Tiff! i'lll ll!&:!!SS!!;!l'l;lilS?'

I ihl l'l|l ' I Til lii l| U r

2.43

tewtt^'tjv, 4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

Figure 1.6: Bandpass measurements for carrier frequencies of 2.41 GHz and

4.95 GHz for a QPSK-modulated OFDM signal (solid) and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Floor 2, position 10 (top) and position 11 (bottom).

221
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Apartment Building

^ -40

S, -60 ^ -80

100

2.39

^ -40

m

2, -60 ^ -80

100

2.4 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 12

i.""* .iMi'i; 'lill:i '.I '

liii^^*'

l,|f!|Plifll1&[|!::;.i:til':

li

2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 12

2.43

|i

,:i^'Ji; l.li mm

fmdik

fepttij

4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

^ -40

CDS -60 ^ -80

-100

2.39

E

-40

m

-a -60 ^—

CO -80

100

2.4 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 13

(,

I Mill

i|l|'(!li

flffliiP^r-^.'

I|

( ' I

I , I

' i

I ^ I I I ij,]:l!:!'l::;.r,' ,, Mm

' 1

1

' '^i' '111' ill

I I I

If ft

(* 1,1 i^ '^- !l!!||,lij|l!i

2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 2, Mark 13

,,.^^.iiii^^

lilillliii'lipu

iMLM

111* I

' ''T' \'''\P k

2.43

4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

Figure 1.7: Bandpass measurements for carrier frequencies of 2.41 GHz and

4.95 GHz for a QPSK-modulated OFDM signal (solid) and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Floor 2, position 12 (top) and position 13 (bottom).

222
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Apartment Building

2.4 GHz, Floor/, MarkO

,—

-40 . E

m J 2, -60 - um\:i

-

CD -80

.inn

j,,:!ij!iii

'i' 1', i ;f',,^4

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 7, MarkO

2.43

^ -80

100

4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

2.4 GHz, Floor 7, Mark 1

E

-40

t -60 ^ -80

'\ il^'Li

r.,1 h' ! i;|lid|l^,u!|ifliS

_^QQ tf*i| ivinMru(,'!i||if

I

I

;;iri|T;'v;rr"i,j

liiiyfcW*M

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 7, Mark 1

2.43

E

-40

CD

2, -60 ^ -80

100 ^,, ,tf)*»><H'flt

jki.,.i!

itffH»M*.tel;'**'«, 4.93

iiiftr

4.94 4.95 4.96 4.97

Frequency (GHz)

Figure 1.8: Bandpass measurements for carrier frequencies of 2.41 GHz and

4.95 GHz for a QPSK-modulated OFDM signal (solid) and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Floor 7, position (top) and position 1 (bottom).

223
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Apartment Building

^ -40

CD

2, -60 ^ -80

-100

2.39

E

-40^

CQ

2, -60 ^ -80

_1 00 Lrt^^^^u

2.4 GHz, Floor?, Mark

rtiiwl

M'ii''i'ijllll--''''';''Ni

iriir" il'r]ij |ii:r>^'

2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 7, Mark 2

Mi;i'iii'i,'ii'i':ll

i|:.'l,lLiJ|„!lj

i 'I!

Ji I \L± 93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

2.43

4.97

^ -40

CQ

S, -60 ^ -80

-100

2.39

2.4 GHz, Floor 7, Mark 3

MMmI

• !>

ll'l 't

I I ! /

i|, ' 1

yjlf t:|i,il 111'!, I I,

'' ill

2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 7, Mark 3

2.43

4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

Figure 1.9: Bandpass measurements for carrier frequencies of 2.41 GHz and

4.95 GHz for a QPSK-modulated OFDM signal (solid) and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Floor 7, position 2 (top) and position 3 (bottom).

224
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Apartment Building

2.4 GHz, Floor 7, Mark 4

^ -40

CD•u -60 ^ -80

-100

1 ill' 1,

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42 2.43

4.95 GHz, Floor?, Mark

4

— -40

CD-D -60 ^ -80

10

'^. mL it!

•y-YfTfttflt'***'*'^'*^ m

93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

2.4 GHz, Floor 7, Mark 5

^ -40

CD

:a -60 ^ -80

100

, I iiil.ii I i:

I

I I, I

!

!,.> M^PPftij

V

,,., ;;' Y''^jl^&0MiWf^^^*'^'^i

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 7, Mark 5

2.43

^ -40

2, -60

S^ -80

-100

III 'I ''

I «.jy^^^^

4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

Figure 1.10: Bandpass measurements for carrier frequencies of 2.41 GHz and

4.95 GHz for a QPSK-modulated OFDM signal (solid) and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Floor 7, position 4 (top) and position 5 (bottom).

225
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Apartment Building

2.4 GHz, Floor 7, Mark 6

^ -40

en2, -60 ^ -80

100 ,^iJw»>4l#|w

2.39 2.4 2.41

4.95 GHz, Floor/, Mark

2.42 2.43

?

-40

CQ

2, -60 h

g' -80

100 -ii« lie If wmiw'^^^mk iai

4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

2.4 GHz, Floor 7, Mark 7

^ -40

CQ

2, -60

S' -80 h 100

•-l^'''''!i':.'j':;'0'i;;:^:lil!'''i^

i::':::,!!'-'' ,^..jai^ ^!''"'^'ri'iaii^

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 7, Mark 7

2.43

4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

Figure L11: Bandpass measurements for carrier frequencies of 2.41 GHz and

4.95 GHz for a QPSK-modulated OFDM signal (solid) and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Floor 7, position 6 (top) and position 7 (bottom).

226
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Apartment Building

2.4 GHz, Floor 7, Mark 8

?

-40

CQB -60 ^ -80

100 *fflMJiVrM'MP

''^l|!'

'!l| ':('

I , I M ,1

,. fi IS !' ':..::'! ;,! ''lillpiAuJ

it;vt'lfturfl !|fll^lffa^^

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 7, Mark 8

2.43

-^ -40

CQB -60 h

S' -80

-10

IP.

.*BV!: 93

ij'i!L,L,ji:y'!yLuj4i,,ii„i:

4.95 4.96 4.97

Ifcftlj/ret"**'^ 4.94

Frequency (GHz)

2.4 GHz, Floor 7, Mark 9

E

-4U

m

D ' -HO

03 -80

100 AwTi T'' '

'''\ lite

;f '111 ' f!(. vV'.i

ft

I

'' 'piiif

Vi'GP'iVi iT'ii ji^ WfclW%

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 7, Mark 9

2.43

— -40

CQ

2, -60 ^ -80

-10 .Ul-tritSftf

^ pt^'lJ^"

|Jilfi1ll^^|ril!*!#l'l'JlJh

i;TnM;ii;'ii':iJif|iiii|r'jMiji(|'Yi-"''

j, rM iylyv^'jif^**^ 93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

Figure 1.12: Bandpass measurements for carrier frequencies of 2.41 GHz and

4.95 GHz for a QPSK-modulated OFDM signal (solid) and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Floor 7, position 8 (top) and position 9 (bottom).

227
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Apartment Building

2.4 GHz, Floor?, Mark 10

E

CO

-40

-60

-80

100

;! : I 111 HUM ,1' ,nl'i' :iii II

!

' 'I

'ili'l'M 11 !1 I.I'll,' (IIM ', I ,/ ,

'

i';ii'

li' li''> r„tfB St

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor/, Mark 10

2.43

CD

CO

4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

2.4 GHz, Floor/, Mark 11

^ -40^

CO

2, -60 ^ -80

•100 ^j ianwtwM^jirfiiW

M|||,' h i; i ^1

1:

I

; I'll.

If ! I' " ti li 'i

I 'I :"Mrfe;';i ! ^TffiWWlMJ?^^

M^

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor/, Mark 11

2.43

E

en2,

-40

-60

1 I

CO 2

-80

-inn Mmimk! l-l'l mM111iHfai,,

4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.9/

Figure 1.13: Bandpass measurements for carrier frequencies of 2.41 GHz and

4.95 GHz for a QPSK-modulated OFDM signal (solid) and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Floor 2, position 10 (top) and position 11 (bottom).

228
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Apartment Building

2.4 GHz, Floor 7, Mark 12

^ -40

CQS -60 ^ -80

-100

iiiiii

^'hl'l' :'i li' !' P ', 'II

i';',::;v L'l'i.'i. ,ii

.-'m %#ta

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 7, Mark 12

2.43

4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

2.4 GHz, Floor 7, Mark 13

^ -40

CQ

2, -60 ^ -80

100

,n :iiii

lill*l

l'|[jl'iiffi/Hiiiir'uiV'''' .('!'' ili ['>pi'"|i'r'wll J ;—

u

l||ik^

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Floor 7, Mark 13

2.43

— -40

CD

2, -60

S' -80

-100 ^,t4^,;>rHn4^j{[^|^|||jj|p>|^||

!1 1 ifl|J!';!|l:il,a(

j>»t4l.t'[ti'**ttl 4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

Figure 1.14: Bandpass measurements for carrier frequencies of 2.41 GHz and

4.95 GHz for a QPSK-modulated OFDM signal (solid) and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Floor 7, position 12 (top) and position 13 (bottom).

229
Appendix J: Modulated-Signal Spectra Measured With a

Vector-Signal Analyzer: Office Corridor

The following pages contain the complete set of measured data for the office

corridor (Section 4.4).

230
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Office Corridor

2.4 GHz, Wing 4, Mark 1

E

m

CO

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Wing 4, IVIark 1

2.43

E

m

d)

CD

-20

-40

-60

-80

-10

1?.

it; ":i'

i;JJ ,, I li/.M ' h

.: ,'11. 1*1

93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

-40

DO -60

o) -80

2.4 GHz, Wing 4, Mark 2

100

i

""'

4j,ii a- iif

if' it

WWn;i I '1 ill'—

L

mmm

iiiii

2.39

-40

CQ -60

2,

g> -80

2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Wing 4, Mark 2

2.43

10

'i-.

•''Pit' ill iImII' !

lill^^illi

I

i

(i^iiBi

93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

Figure J.I: Bandpass measurements for carrier frequencies of 2.41 GHz and

4.95 GHz for a QPSK-modulated OFDM signal (solid) and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Position 1 (top) and position 2 (bottom).

231
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Office Corridor

-40

CD -60 ^ -80

2.4 GHz, Wing 4, Mark 3

I

''''i;!li.' ii 4'i "1;' ,|i

< !i,iM.:l!Mi j, j ! ^,\:i<\i':'lC-,'-^}M'i^-j2.39

-40

.,.,,jii-iatt«ai|;....

wMam- 2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Wing 4, Mark 3

CQ -60

o) -80

100 Ifllli&iJ Af'"' 4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

2.43

4.97

-40

CQ -60

o. -80

2.4 GHz, Wing 4, Mark 4

1

'

. I

'

-,7!n iiHh,l|-'f rHrrln

•100

2.39

-40

Mn

;ilf'"'^

'J'iliilllL'^'"'

i^i

im I «#'""l'f"HB^t^r. IdMMlili

2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Wing 4, Mark 4

CD -60

o) -80

100

J J

4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

2.43

4.97

Figure J. 2: Bandpass measurements for carrier frequencies of 2.41 GHz and

4.95 GHz for a QPSK-modulated OFDM signal (solid) and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Position 3 (top) and position 4 (bottom).

232
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Office Corridor

-40

m -60

t

-80

2.4 GHz, Wing 4, Mark 5

i_.Lii;iti;yj!..!'J!:'.'!

M i' I,

I 1 ): I ' i'

;

100

2.39

-40

\PIVJ.

2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Wing 4, Marks

2.43

4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

-40

CD -60

g> -80

2.4 GHz, Wing 4, Mark 6

-100 mmmwm Its

;:i'Ji;ii'

m,

miAM\^'^'V'

'; ti iH

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz, Wing 4, Mark 6

2.43

m

4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

Figure IJ3: Bandpass measurements for carrier frequencies of 2.41 GHz and

4.95 GHz for a QPSK-modulated OFDM signal (solid) and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Floor 2, position 5 (top) and position 6 (bottom).

233
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Office Corridor

(0

-40

-60

-80

100

2.39

-40

CD -60

§> -80

-100

4.93

2.4 GHz, Wing 4, Mark 7

iiii Af^;;;Pi'^, %^W'

2.4 2.41 2.42 2.43

4.95 GHz, Wing 4, Mark 7

mm I'M

t1i.kV Ui.l, J

l'(

iii^ !i!.ii

^:iV\:iA

''Mi' WML

4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

Figure J. 4: Bandpass measurements for carrier frequencies of 2.41 GHz and

4.95 GHz for a QPSK-modulated OFDM signal (solid) and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Position 7.

234
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Office Corridor

4.95 GHz, Wing 4, Mark 1 , Horn

100

'4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96

4.95 GHz, Wing 4, Mark 1 , Wliip

4.97

^

-20

CD -40 D

5 -80

-100

^'11

: W/ift|TMW

J

IW ----»*

I

4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

4.95 GHz, Wing 4, Mark 2, Horn

-40

CD -60 ^ -80

4.94 4.95 4.96

4.95 GHz, Wing 4, Mark 2, Whip

4.97

-10

J ^i

m I'l m m

i^ii 93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

Figure J. 5: Bandpass measurements for a carrier frequency of 4.95 GHz for a QPSK-modulated OFDM signal (solid) and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Position 1 (top) and position 2 (bottom). In each graph: directional antenna

(top), omnidirectional antenna (bottom).

235
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Office Corridor

-40

DQ -60 ^ -80

4.95 GHz, Wing 4, Mark 3, Horn

•10 m

V

m \\m

mmIf:

4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96

4.95 GHz, Wing 4, IVlarl< 3, Whip

III

4.97

o) -80

-100

4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

-40

CD -60

o> -80

4.95 GHz, Wing 4, Mark 4, Horn

-100 _rfiii

III'

! 1 . -I;

}.i t iii,

4.93

-40

en -60

o) -80

4.94 4.95 4.96

4.95 GHz, Wing 4, Mark 4, Whip

4.97

-100

i, IhP W

ii:m[!;m^;, 11 1, 11

f 1': ill

4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

Figure J.6: Bandpass measurements for a carrier frequency of 4.95 GHz for a QPSK-modulated OFDM signal (solid) and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Position 3 (top) and position 4 (bottom). In each graph: directional antenna

(top), omnidirectional antenna (bottom).

236
Appendix K: Modulated-Signal Spectra Measured With a

Vector-Signal Analyzer: Oil Refinery

The following pages contain the complete set of measured data for the oil refinery (Section 5.4).

237
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Oil Refinery

?

-4°

CD2, -60 ^ -80

-100

?

-^0

en

:o -60 ^ -80

-100

4.93

2.4 GHz QPSK, Oil Refinery, Mark 1 — I

_ J- l_ L .

f^« nji'ii^a

I

illlit-

*i

fclJh

pEjl4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42 2.43

4.95 GHz QPSK, Oil Refinery, Mark 1

4.97

^ -80

-100

E

CO:o -60 ^ -80

-100

2.4 GHz QPSK, Oil Refinery, Mark 2

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42 2.43

4.95 GHz QPSK, Oil Refinery, Mark 2

-40

r^.i.tlL%.

'laUMJi

iiii,

! mBM

4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

Figure K.I: Bandpass measurements of a QPSK-modulated OFDM signal (solid)

and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Distance from the transmitting

antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 20.6 m (top) and D = 26.5 m (bottom).

238
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Oil Refinery

E

-40

m

D -60

CD -80

-100

E

CDS -60 ^ -80

-100

4.93

2.4 GHz QPSK, Oil Refinery, Mark 3

;".i,a^ii?iir:

f:^?iPR,

I 'jjiii'ii;./!'"' V ,i- , Mm

<Miii ijj [«m:jMr

.L| ^

ii |r|:Ai'Vi^*

[|T1I:

; '||;.'iJ: im IJl

4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42 2.43

4.95 GHz QPSK, Oil Refinery, Mark 3

-40

4.97

^ -40

CD:o -60 ^ -80

CQ

2, -60 ^ -80

100

4.93

2.4 GHz QPSK, Oil Refinery, Mark 4

._._LmLJ!^| i._,^_,^jlLH.

!'' ,;(,fi1^;i;llli.Jjl,ll]j,<..iilllil,|li!>lyULi|i;i,^jM '

4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

100

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42 2.43

4.95 GHz QPSK, Oil Refinery, Mark 4

-40

4.97

Figure K.2: Bandpass measurements of a QPSK-modulated OFDM signal (solid)

and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Distance from the transmitting

antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 32.4 m (top) and D = 40.5 m (bottom).

239
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Oil Refinery

100

^ -40

CQS -60 ^ -80

10

2.4 GHz QPSK, Oil Refinery, IVlark 5

I w :''^. J;h!,1

iiiliiilii'-

,Jti:f/!,H

93

I ILiJ

-,7 illil:jlti^&!tiia

I

I i'i-;-.

'M

^iiiifflffl JlMiil'' ^ 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42 2.43

4.95 GHz QPSK, Oil Refinery, IVIarl< 5

4.97

2.4 GHz QPSK, Oil Refinery, Mark 6

^ -40

CQS -60 ^ -80

I .^iJI .Ii(,Ni'.i,[illii'lii,ill,iiNJi/

1'" t^.', Ji ilifkiUi'ilI'

I

^-,,^^<^^^i3:iiii•1W

-100 iliiil

1^ [ 1 '

I

I' mil

^ -40

CQ^ -60

; li:!ilji,yJiiLfi,iy^,yiikf'!ilP!l^^^

S' -80 L

-100

-:L, Jli \mm fiiiitiiiiisiiii

4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42 2.43

4.95 GHz QPSK, Oil Refinery, Mark 6

4.97

Figure K.3: Bandpass measurements of a QPSK-modulated OFDM signal (solid)

and a muitisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Distance from the transmitting

antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 48.6 m (top) and D = 54.1 m (bottom).

240
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Oil Refinery

?

-40

CQS -60 ^ -80

-100

E

S -60 ^ -80

-100

4.93

2.4 GHz QPSK, Oil Refinery, Mark 7

li! !''

i>,j«<-'

' I'i'i' III. I , '(

iiiRiliis!,

)

,h,iiiiip if IP'''

rn [111 lit r

nii,U\< 1

'*>*/«}'.'jy%*»^i^^i

'nif !/! ,!'ll

i|'V

ilii,,_,L__

'.iri|,i:>iji«,*

4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42 2.43

4.95 GHz QPSK, Oil Refinery, Mark?

-40

4.97

^ -40

CDB -60 ^ -80

-100

E

-40

CQS -60

g' -80

100

4.93

2.4 GHz QPSK, Oil Refinery, Mark 8

^r':vir;;^iTirii:J;7

2.4

^r^rii' teitfiteilv < 2.39 2.4 2.41

4.95 GHz QPSK, Oil Refinery, Mark 8

10!?''

MMMH^llltlf-t

lull !

4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

ii.iliifc^

2.42 2.43

+

+

4.97

Figure K.4: Bandpass measurements of a QPSK-modulated OFDM signal (solid)

and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Distance from the transmitting

antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 62.8 m (top) and D = 65.9 m (bottom).

241
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Oil Refinery

1^ -40

CDS -60 ^ -80

100

^ -40

CDS -60 ^ -80

10

1?. 93

2.4 GHz QPSK, Oil Refinery, Mark 9

mtifMm^,

m

JM

:!iiii,i.i;:a,

f _, 4 Ul I- V -

:;:MI

fill!' "'ilMir tiSiiaiii

!iiiMMfiillil-iil u

M, rl

J11

!i S, J II

itktlAl. 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42 2.43

4.95 GHz QPSK, Oil Refinery, Mark 9

4.97

^ -40

CQ

2, -60 ^ -80

-100

^ -40

CQ

2, -60 ^ -80

-100

4.93

2.4 GHz QPSK, Oil Refinery, Mark 10

',,)«"

I ,'''!';', "('-'til !i't ip'ipj!l^''>ffw^^^^ ii

jilfiAiiiiiji, liiiilit

Hi

4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42 2.43

4.95 GHz QPSK, Oil Refinery, Mark 10

4.97

Figure K.5: Bandpass measurements of a QPSK-modulated OFDM signal (solid)

and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Distance from the transmitting

antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 73.6 m (top) and D = 81.7 m (bottom).

242
Moduiated-Signal Spectra: Oil Refinery

? -40

CQ

Tj -60 ^ -80 h

-100

E

CDS -60 ^ -80

100

4.93

2.4 GHz QPSK, Oil Refinery, Mark 1

1

SI,;,!'! h

ii

biiliiilffl^^

l-'ilwifeifcMh-

., I iitiiitif Mccii

Hiilll^ 'i;t'A ^-''', !^^l l»,l 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42 2.43

4.95 GHz QPSK, Oil Refinery, Mark 1

1

-40

1

'- ^

4.97

^ -40

CD^ -60 ^ -80

-100

^ -80

-100

4.93

2.4 GHz QPSK, Oil Refinery, Mark 12

'! .,.;,,.i!"

I

I \

2.4 2.41 2.42

4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42 2.43

4.95 GHz QPSK, Oil Refinery, Mark 12

-40

4.97

Figure K.6: Bandpass measurements of a QPSK-modulated OFDM signal (solid)

and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Distance from the transmitting

antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 87.6 m (top) and D = 96.2 m (bottom).

243
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Oil Refinery

2.4 GHz QAM, Oil Refinery, IVIark 1

2,

-40

-60

CD -80

100

r r H - r - - 7

-

r -- -^ - - r

!iii

i*n,j' mfd ;jh7]|

lltljli

(1,1., 'I

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42 2.43

4.95 GHz QAM, Oil Refinery, Mark 1

-100

4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

2.4 GHz QAM, Oil Refinery, Mark 2

^ -80

-100

1 ^ i

; r mm

V 'VWl mmSiiiMn

iiiii

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42 2.43

4.95 GHz QAM, Oil Refinery, Mark 2

-40

CQ -60

o) -80

100

i,lf!^'^ii'^lL^lii|ll:|^iliL.!

4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

Figure K.7: Bandpass measurements of a QAM-modulated OFDM signal (solid) and

a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Distance from the transmitting antenna

to the receiving antenna is D = 20.6 m (top) and D = 26.5 m (bottom).

244
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Oil Refinery

E

-40

CQ

2, -60 ^ -80

100

-40

CQ -60

o) -80

-100

4.93

2.4 GHz QAM, Oil Refinery, Mark 3

i/.ll.ilb liif \. lii ,lfi,i,,i,,l .1, .

J',i!'.i./l"\^!j!ll|||lfl

i.;,i-r'j^

1/

P^ JUirprll

m

hi

ifV^ i|^|fl-l|||f'^fl4||^

4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42 2.43

4.95 GHz QAM, Oil Refinery, Mark 3

4.97

E

-40

CD2, -60 ^ -80

100

-40

CD -60 ^ -80 CD

-100

4.93

2.4 GHz QAM, Oil Refinery, Mark 4

7i*P

|iir i|| III

jU

W^

' i,l i

ij||iilll!te:;4't!#!jliu

'Hllfflrj-y

HIiL 4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42 2.43

4.95 GHz QAM, Oil Refinery, Mark 4

4.97

Figure K.8: Bandpass measurements of a QAM-modulated OFDM signal (solid) and

a multlsine designed to simulate it (dashed). Distance from the transmitting antenna

to the receiving antenna is D = 32.4 m (top) and D = 40.5 m (bottom).

245
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Oil Refinery

?

-40

CDS, -60 ^ -80

-100

CD -60

o) -80

-100

4.93

2.4 GHz QAM, Oil Refinery, Mark 5

' i ' ' J 1

! -

Mw.

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42 2.43

4.95 GHz QAIVl, Oil Refinery, Mark 5

-40

jj,|!||,|,|[.,j,,,j|r!|^^^^^

^rfi m.

' 1 r-

>l ! "'I

' 1 H l|

' m'lP

ixr

%ik

4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

^ -40

CD

2, -60 ^ -80

-100

2.39

-40

2.4 GHz QAM, Oil Refinery, Mark 6

UllJilL 1:,',; /,illh',)l I

li|J'|'Hfl''-'tt'l'l^i#li''i

mik.

2.4 2.41 2.42

4.95 GHz QAM, Oil Refinery, Mark 6

4.94 4.95

Frequency (GHz)

2.43

4.97

Figure K.9: Bandpass measurements of a QAM-modulated OFDM signal (solid) and

a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Distance from the transmitting antenna

to the receiving antenna is D = 48.6 m (top) and D = 54.1 m (bottom).

246
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Oil Refinery

E

-40

mD -HO

(0 -80

100

-40

CQ -60 ^ -80

-100

4.93

2.4 GHz QAM, Oil Refinery, IVIark 7

ll^i^fffilfrffffPfll

:i'KW:l'M''|!''lik

'iMii.i

. 4-j}¥l'#'^fi'-A'^l'-!^

m

mj4 I 'fwm m

I? ill si/, I,, i

'! '' ; I

ii[|fr;niv4^. te

4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42 2.43

4.95 GHz QAIVl, Oil Refinery, Mark 7

4.97

^ -40

CD

.^. -60 ^ -80

-100

-40

OQ -60 ^ -80

(0

-100

4.93

2.4 GHz QAM, Oil Refinery, Mark 8

1 1 1

1 i

1 1

1 I .1

-]-\---t-l--t-'rj-r ^

ill 1 ' ' ' i|i| ' ' !' ' ',!

1 ,:t..,,/,,ii/,.,li',ll',.tj.; : [

1 .:'jMM i^ rm!-'"* "^:;i.

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42 2.43

4.95 GHz QAM, Oil Refinery, Mark 8

"!iiiill4*l!ii:Hitl

4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

4.97

Figure K.10: Bandpass measurements of a QAM-modulated OFDM signal (solid)

and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Distance from the transmitting

antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 62.8 m (top) and D = 65.9 m (bottom).

247
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Oil Refinery

E

OQ

CD

E

QQ

CD

CD

-40

-60

-80

100

4.93

2.4 GHz QAM, Oil Refinery, IVIark 9

.100' MLOliMi

t--i

I

I I

I t

I

I

I

!i I M '11 i I I

(, ii.'-..,„M;n,i!.' lifciW^^^^

/, ikii'ii'irtMl

[.,

iill iii ;!:

/ J !n(

liiili

4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42 2.43

4.95 GHz QAM, Oil Refinery, Mark 9

4.97

^ -80

100

2.39

-40

CQ -60 ^ -80

CD

-100

4.93

2.4 GHz QAM, Oil Refinery, Mark 10

!fl 4.94

liMiii ||,'iii!iil|

'iT:,:iiRiwi. m.

4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

lite

2.4 2.41 2.42 2.43

4.95 GHz QAM, Oil Refinery, Mark 10

4.97

Figure K.11: Bandpass measurements of a QAM-modulated OFDM signal (solid)

and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Distance from the transmitting

antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 73.6 m (top) and D = 81.7 m (bottom).

248
Modulated-Signal Spectra: Oil Refinery

£

3,

-40

-60

CD -80

-100

g) -80

-100

4.93

2.4 GHz QAM, Oil Refinery, IVIark 1

1

_i_^.

'S J illiiliTM

4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

2.39 2.4 2.41 2.42 2.43

4.95 GHz QAIVl, Oil Refinery, Mark 1

1

4.97

^ -40

CD

D)

CD

-60

-80

100

E

QQ

d)

CD

-40

-60

-80

100

4.93

2.4 GHz QAM, Oil Refinery, Mark 12

T - - 7

I I

I I

2.39 2.4

-i-.l

:H:f"-Ti;, ^^

. -Hn'---

4.94 4.95 4.96

Frequency (GHz)

2.41 2.42 2.43

4.95 GHz QAM, Oil Refinery, Mark 12

4.97

Figure K.12: Bandpass measurements of a QAM-modulated OFDM signal (solid)

and a multisine designed to simulate it (dashed). Distance from the transmitting

antenna to the receiving antenna is D = 87.6 m (top) and D = 96.2 m (bottom).

249

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