COLOMBIA

•Bogota

•Medellin

Barranquilla• Cartagena•

•Cali

ExpeditionaryCulture

FieldGuide

Ecuador

Panama

Peru

Brazil

Venezuela
This guide is designed to prepare you to deploy to culturally 

complex environments and successfully achieve mission 

objectives. The fundamental information it contains will help 

you understand the unique cultural features of your assigned 

location and gain skills 

necessary for achieving 

mission success (Photo: US 

Navy Secretary Mabus meets 

Colombian Minister of Defense 

Pinzon in Bogota).

The guide consists of 2 parts: 

Part 1 is the “Culture 

General” section, which provides the foundational knowledge 

you need to operate effectively in any global environment with 

a focus on the Andean Ridge region of South America.

Part 2 is the “Culture Specific” section, which describes 

unique cultural features of Colombian society. It applies 

culture-general concepts to help increase your knowledge of 

your assigned deployment location. This section is designed to 

complement other predeployment training (Photo: 

US Army soldier teaches 

machine gun repair to 

Colombian Army personnel).

For further information, visit

the Air Force Culture and 

Language Center (AFCLC)

website at https://wwwmil.maxwell.af.mil/afclc or contact the 

AFCLC Region Team at AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the express permission of 

the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the 

US government, Wikimedia, and other sources.

About this Guide

ECFG Colombia 
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture, 

and individuals within a culture 

share a general set of beliefs 

and values. 

Members of a culture also 

usually assign the same 

meanings to the symbols in 

that culture. A symbol is when 

one thing – an image, word, 

object, idea, or story – represents another thing. For example, 

the American flag is a physical and visual symbol of a core 

American value—freedom. At the same time, the story of 

George Washington admitting to having chopped down a 

cherry tree is also symbolic because it represents the premium

Americans place on personal honesty and leadership integrity.

Force Multiplier

The military services have learned through experience the 

importance of understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20thcentury bipolar world order that dominated US strategy for 

nearly half a century, today the US military is operating in what 

we classify as asymmetric or irregular conflict zones, where the 

notion of cross-cultural interactions is on the leading edge of 

our engagement strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive 

feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on 

influencing constructive change through peaceful means where 

possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local 

nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and 

economic institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and 

traditions.

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

GENERAL

CULTURE
Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively 

influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success. 

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by 

the beliefs we carry internally, but 

also by our behaviors and by the 

systems members of a culture 

create to organize their lives. 

These systems, such as political or 

educational institutions, help us to 

live in a manner that is appropriate to our culture and 

encourages us to perpetuate that culture into the future.

We can organize behaviors and belief systems into 

categories—what the Air Force refers to as “cultural domains”—

in order to better understand the primary values and 

characteristics of a society. A cross-culturally competent 

military member can use these domains–which include kinship, 

language and communication, social and political systems and 

others (see chart on next page)—as tools for understanding and 

adapting to any culture. For example, by understanding the 

way a culture defines family and kinship, a US military member 

operating overseas can more effectively interact with members 

of that culture.

Social Behaviors across Cultures

While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact 

or even categorize those behaviors differently across cultural 

boundaries. For example, all societies obtain food for survival, 

although agrarian societies generally produce their own food 

for limited consumption using very basic techniques.

Conversely, industrialized nations have more sophisticated 

market economies, producing foodstuffs for universal 

consumption. Likewise, all cultures value history and tradition, 

although they represent these concepts through a variety of 

unique forms of symbolism. While the dominant world religions 

share the belief in one God, their worship practices vary with

their traditional historical development. Similarly, in many kinGENERAL

CULTURE
based cultures where familial bonds are foundational to social 

identity, it is customary for family or friends to serve as 

godparents, while for other

societies this practice is nearly

non-existent.

Worldview

One of our most basic human 

behaviors is the tendency to 

classify others as similar or 

different based on our cultural standards. As depicted in the 

chart below, we can apply the 12 cultural domains to help us 

compare similarities and differences across cultures. We 

evaluate others’ behavior to determine if they are “people like 

me” or “people not like me.” Usually, we assume that those in 

the “like me” category share our perspectives and values. 

This collective perspective forms our worldview—how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider 

your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for actions and a logical explanation of 

why we individually or collectively act in a certain manner. 

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CULTURE
Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system assigns meaning, sets its universal 

standards of what is good and bad, defines right and wrong 

behavior, and assigns a value of meaningful or meaningless. 

Our beliefs form the fundamental values we hold to be true— regardless of whether there is evidence to support these ideas. 

Beliefs are a central aspect of human culture. They are shared 

views about world order and how the universe was physically 

and socially constructed. 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, right or wrong depends on our deeplyheld beliefs we started developing early in life that have helped

shape our characters. Likewise, these values are ingrained in 

our personalities and shape our behavior patterns and our selfidentities. Because cultural beliefs are intensely held, they are 

difficult, though not impossible, to change. 

Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence 

certain behaviors and also serve 

to rationalize those behaviors. 

Therefore, knowledge of individual 

or group beliefs can be useful in 

comprehending or making sense 

of their activities. We will use the 

iceberg model for classifying 

culture to illustrate two levels of 

meaning, as depicted. Beliefs and 

values, portrayed by the deeper 

and greater level of the 

submerged iceberg, are seldom 

visible, but are indicated / hinted at 

/ referenced by our behaviors and symbols (top level). It is 

important to recognize, though, that the parts of culture that are 

not visible (under the waterline) are informing and shaping 

what is being made visible (above the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews may present behaviors that 

are contrary to our own beliefs, particularly in many regions 

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CULTURE
where US forces deploy. Your ability to suspend judgment in 

order to understand another perspective is essential to 

establishing relationships with your host-nation counterparts. 

The ability to withhold your opinion and strive to understand a 

culture from a member of that culture’s perspective is known as 

cultural relativism. It often involves taking an alternate

perspective when interpreting others’ behaviors and is critical 

to your ability to achieve mission success. 

As you travel throughout South America, you will encounter 

cultural patterns of meaning that are common across the 

region. What follows is a general description of 12 cultural 

domains which are used to frame those commonalities. 

1. History and Myth

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of 

the past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can 

act as a type of historical record, although it is usually a story 

which members of a culture use to explain community origins 

or important events that are not 

verifiable or which occurred prior to 

written language.

The Andean Ridge includes 5 

countries on the South American 

continent: Venezuela, Colombia, 

Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia.

Scientists believe the first humans 

arrived in the region by 

approximately 11000 BC. Huntergatherers congregated in fishing 

villages along the Pacific coast and 

developed agriculture in the 

highlands between 5000 BC and 2500 BC. From 1800-500 BC, 

Andean peoples developed more complex societies that 

eventually shared a culture known as Chavin. They built simple 

monuments and developed copper and bronze metallurgy

(Photo: A Chavin-era carving).

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CULTURE

CULTURAL DOMAINS
From approximately 200 BC to 

600 AD, smaller regional 

civilizations rose and fell in the 

Andes. Among them, the Nazca 

of southern Peru are known for 

creating large images in the 

desert floor ranging in size from 

150 to 500 ft crossways. The 

Tiwanaku and Wari empires rose 

in the 7th century AD in the 

mountains and highlands of 

Peru and Bolivia. While the 

Tiwanaku developed unique agricultural techniques for 

extremely high elevations, the Wari built roads and developed 

terraced agriculture – a technique still common in the Andean 

Ridge today. Both empires declined due to prolonged drought 

in the 10th century, giving way to a period of smaller kingdoms 

that lasted until the 15th century (Photo: Aerial photo of a 

Nazca image of a monkey).

The Inca Empire, with its capital city at Cuzco in modern day 

Peru, expanded rapidly through marriage, military coercion, 

and conquest in the 15th century. The Incas built roads, 

irrigation networks, and thousands of warehouses for storing 

preserved meat and potatoes, as well as valuables. The empire 

fell into a civil war in 1525 when 2 brothers competed for the 

throne. The war ended in 1532, just prior to a Spanish

conquest. Of note, scholars refer to the millennia of history in 

the New World prior to the arrival of Christopher Columbus and 

other Europeans as the “Pre-Columbian” period.

Columbus touched on the Venezuelan coast in 1498, while 

other explorers landed on Colombia’s Caribbean coast in 1499. 

In the 16th century, Spanish explorers conquered much of the 

Americas, seeking wealth, enhanced social status, and the

spread Catholicism. They encountered the Incas in 1532 then 

conquered the territories of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and 

Bolivia by 1541. In 1543 the Spanish crown officially colonized 

all the Andean Ridge territories, uniting the entire region as the 

Viceroyalty of Peru. The Spanish dominated the region for 

approximately 300 years, importing African slaves to extract

resources such as silver and gold to enrich Spain. 

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CULTURE
Starting in the 18th century, local leaders sought autonomy 

from the Spanish Crown. While initial revolts were

unsuccessful, revolutionary fervor 

spread in the colonies. In the early 19th 

century, Venezuelan aristocrat Simón 

Bolívar (pictured) led revolutionary 

forces that won the independence of the 

entire Andean Ridge. The territories of 

modern Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, 

and Ecuador defeated the Spanish in 

1819, forming Gran Colombia. Peru 

defeated the Spanish army in 1824,

followed closely by Bolivia in 1825. The 

union of Gran Colombia was not long-lasting: Venezuela and 

Ecuador seceded in 1830, becoming independent countries. 

Although Panama and Colombia remained united for some 70 

years, Panama gained independence with the aid of the US in 

1903. 

Since independence, the Andean Ridge nations have suffered 

from territorial competition, political upheaval, and poor 

governance. A series of strongmen ruled Venezuela until a 

political coalition instituted 2-party rule in 1958. In Colombia a 

2-party system emerged after 1849 that has endured into the 

21st century despite violent civil wars and insurgencies. 

Ecuador experienced internal instability and military rule before 

returning to civilian rule in 1979. In the 19th century, Peru and 

Bolivia vacillated between different forms of government before 

establishing civilian rule in 1980 and 1982, respectively. Today, 

facing challenges from left and right extremists, the Andean 

Ridge nations still struggle to maintain stable governance.

2. Political and Social Relations

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to 

others in their community. The Andean Ridge was home to 

some of Latin America’s first organized societies, such as the 

coastal fishing villages that formed as early as 5000 BC. Later, 

with the advent of agriculture, communities developed along 

river valleys and in the mountains. Stable food sources led to 

trade and the formation of civilizations. 

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CULTURE
Spanish conquest and colonialism drastically changed society 

in the Andean Ridge. Local populations

were decimated by conflict, forced labor, 

and new diseases brought by the 

Spanish. These included smallpox, 

measles, typhoid, and influenza. 

Historians estimate that the indigenous

Andean population, roughly 10 million 

prior to the Spanish conquest, had 

decreased to just 600,000 by 1620. To 

replace the diminishing indigenous 

workforce, the Spanish imported tens of 

thousands of African slaves to the region 

(Photo: Saint James the Greater Killing Incas, anonymous 18th 

century painting in the Cathedral of Cuzco, Peru).

This colonial history laid the foundations of the region’s currentday ethnic and racial compositions. Today, people of mestizo

(mixed European and Pre-Columbian indigenous ancestry) and 

mulatto (mixed African and European ancestry) heritage are 

common in the region. Mestizos form majority populations in 

Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador. The legacy of Spanish 

colonialism continues to influence social relations in the region, 

as white and mestizo populations hold most of the wealth and 

political power. Indigenous, black, and mulatto residents tend 

to be poorer, although they have become more politically and 

socially active since the 1980s. 

The Andean nations are in various stages of development. 

Colombia continues its long history of 2-party rule and in 2012 

entered peace talks with domestic insurgents. In Ecuador,

protesters have ousted 3 of the last 4 elected Presidents, 

although current President Correa has survived into his 2nd 

term. Peru has enjoyed relative stability since the 1990s, while 

Bolivia elected populist Evo Morales President in 2005 and 

reelected him in 2009 and 2014. 

Venezuela is headed by Nicolas Maduro, successor of the 

controversial Hugo Chavez: a populist, anti-capitalist, and antiUS President who from 1999 to 2013 nationalized industries 

and implemented large scale social programs. Under Chavez, 

Venezuela sought closer relations with Caribbean nations, 

GENERAL

CULTURE
particularly Cuba, and supported expansion of a trade alliance 

among Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Caribbean nations as 

an alternative to a proposed US regional free trade agreement.

Although relations among the Andean nations are generally 

friendly, Peru and Ecuador have a longstanding rivalry, as do 

Venezuela and Colombia. Colombia’s conflict with domestic 

insurgents spread into Venezuela and Ecuador during the early

21st century, temporarily straining relations among those 

nations. Illicit cocaine production is a major transnational 

problem, especially for Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia (Photo: 

International observers patrol the 

Ecuador-Peru border in 1996).

Over the past 2 decades, the 

Andean nations have 

increasingly integrated with the

South American regional 

community. For example, the 

Andean nations are active 

members of the Union of South 

American Nations (Unión de Naciones Suramericanas, 

UNASUR), an organization founded to address common 

political, economic, social, and security issues. The US has 

strong economic and security interests in the Andean Ridge, 

where it provides aid, promotes democracy, and cooperates on 

counter-narcotics efforts. Likewise, China has developed 

economic and political links with the region.

3. Religion and Spirituality

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They 

also create social unity by defining shared identity, offer 

individuals peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in 

a society.

Regional Pre-Columbian populations practiced a variety of

ceremonies, beliefs, and practices related to spirits and deities 

who inhabited the natural environment. When the Spanish 

conquerors arrived, they encountered the Inca’s complex belief 

system that included worship of several important deities, such 

as Viracocha, the creator god, and Inti, the sun god.

GENERAL

CULTURE
Christianity arrived in the Andean Ridge with the Spanish, who 

introduced Catholicism beginning in the 16th century. As 

Catholicism spread, it eventually became nearly universal in 

the Spanish colonies. The Catholic Church became entrenched

in colonial life, influencing education, social services, and 

colonial policy. Today, the Catholic Church remains a powerful 

influence on politics and an 

important part of community life

(Photo: A Bolivian Aymara 

woman praying).

Catholicism remains the 

dominant religion in the region

with 90% or more of Bolivians, 

Ecuadorians, Colombians, and 

Venezuelans identifying as 

Catholic. While most of the 

remaining population identifies 

as Christian Protestant, some 

countries also have small 

Jewish, Baha’i, and Mormon 

communities. Of note, indigenous beliefs and practices are still 

important to many residents of the Andean Ridge today. While 

some people adhere solely to traditional beliefs and practices, 

others incorporate them with Christian practices.

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong 

emotional bonds that influence them to treat each other like 

family members (often called “fictive kin”).

Family life and relationships are highly valued throughout the 

Andean Ridge. While the traditional family unit consists of a 

husband, wife, and their children, extended kin on both sides of 

the family are highly influential in family matters. Accordingly, 

extended family groups often live close together. Children 

generally live with their parents until they marry and typically

have several godparents who provide support and career 

opportunities later in life. While inheritance traditionally passed

from father to son or son-in-law, under modern laws, women 

may own and inherit property.

GENERAL

CULTURE
While close family ties mean family members have some 

influence over their children’s choice of spouses, men and 

women generally choose their own partners. Both Spanish 

traditions and Roman Catholic teachings strongly value 

marriage as an institution and discourage divorce. 

Nevertheless, divorce rates are rising while marriage rates are 

dropping as women gain social 

and economic independence

(Photo: A family in Venezuela).

A growing rural-urban divide in 

economic and educational 

opportunities across the 

Andean Ridge results in 

notable differences in rural and 

urban family life. While the

traditional family structure remains common in rural areas, in 

urban centers family structures have become much more 

diverse.

5. Sex and Gender

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive differences between 

males and females, while gender is a more flexible concept 

that refers to a culture’s categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. 

The Andean Ridge’s traditional Spanish and indigenous 

cultures privilege the male’s role as provider and leader.

Machismo, or masculine behavior and pride, is an important 

element of male identity in the region. By contrast, these 

cultures traditionally cast women in subordinate domestic roles. 

Women have acquired equal rights under the law in such areas 

as property ownership and suffrage. Nevertheless, social, 

economic, and political inequalities between genders remain.

Despite most countries’ progressive gender equality laws and 

policies, women face continued challenges to their participation 

in the workforce. In much of the region, women still assume the 

traditional roles of wives and mothers, oftentimes facing the 

challenges of balancing domestic duties with employment in 

the workforce. Moreover, women often face gender 

discrimination in hiring and promotion processes. Women who 

do work typically are paid just 70%-80% as much as men.

GENERAL

CULTURE
Women also face challenges to their participation in the 

political sector. While Ecuador and Bolivia have established 

quotas (42% and 25% respectively) for female representation 

in their national parliaments, women’s participation in local 

politics across the region is much lower. In 2011, women 

accounted for just 4%, of elected mayors in Peru, 6% in 

Ecuador, and 9% in in

Colombia (Photo: A 

Quechua woman in 

Peru).

Homosexuality is legal 

throughout the region. 

Civil unions between 

homosexual couples are 

recognized in Ecuador 

and Colombia. Every

country except Peru has some type of anti-discrimination 

legislation. Nevertheless, homosexuals still suffer 

discrimination, stigmatization, and violence in some areas. 

6. Language and Communication

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural practice of sharing meaning in 

interaction, both verbally and non-verbally.

As a result of Spanish colonialism, Spanish is an official 

language throughout the Andean Ridge and is spoken by most 

of the population. Despite the dominance of Spanish, the 

Andean Ridge is linguistically diverse: 93 languages are 

spoken in Peru, 84 in Colombia, 44 in Venezuela, 43 in Bolivia, 

and 24 in Ecuador. While almost all of these languages are 

indigenous forms, a few are so-called creoles, languages that 

developed from a combination of English or Spanish with an 

indigenous variety. 

The 2 most widely spoken indigenous languages in the region 

are Quechua (the language of the Incas) and Aymara. Peru 

recognizes these 2 tongues as official languages, while Bolivia 

recognizes all indigenous languages as official, including 

extinct languages. English is taught in most schools and is also

popular in the business community.

GENERAL

CULTURE
Of note, while some Pre-Columbian civilizations in Mexico and 

Central America developed written language, those in the 

Andean Ridge did not. The

Incas did develop a complex 

system of record-keeping, 

called the quipu, which used

knots tied in ropes to record 

numerical quantities (Photo: 

Lake Titicaca from the 

Bolivian shore).

In their oral communication, Andean people, particularly 

members of indigenous communities, tend to be reserved and 

unemotional. They also value respect and modesty in 

interpersonal relations.

7. Learning and Knowledge

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and 

health requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, 

behaviors, and symbols that have meaning to the community). 

This knowledge transfer may occur through structured, 

formalized systems such as schools or through informal 

learning by watching adults or peers. 

Education in Pre-Columbian societies was primarily informal, 

as children learned skills and traditions from their parents and 

relatives. Scholars believe the Incas employed a more formal 

education system to instruct male nobles in martial skills, 

Quechua language, religion, history, and the use of the quipu. 

Women selected to marry nobility also attended formal schools 

and were taught religion, spinning, weaving, cooking, and 

brewing. 

During the first decades of the colonial period, the Spanish 

introduced formal education systems that taught indigenous 

elites Catholic beliefs, Spanish, and “a useful skill” to support

the colonists. The Catholic Church was the primary provider of 

education in the region throughout the colonial period, 

establishing many schools and universities. By the late 17th 

century, Spanish interest in educating indigenous students 

waned, and most schools accepted only Spanish elites. 

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In the late 19th century, educational opportunities for women 

and indigenous groups began to expand. Today, education is 

valued and increasingly accessible throughout the region. 

Primary education enrollment rates are high, ranging from 97% 

in Ecuador to 86% in Bolivia. Adult literacy rates are above 

90% in all Andean countries. Nevertheless, the Andean Ridge 

nations still struggle to extend secondary and tertiary education 

access to all their citizens (Photo: 

A Peruvian sailor prepares a 

Peruvian schoolboy for a ceremony 

celebrating the US Navy’s 

construction of a new school).

8. Time and Space

In every society, people occupy 

space and time in ways that are not 

directly linked to physical survival. 

In most western cultures, people 

tend to be preoccupied with strict 

time management, devoting less effort to relationship-building. 

By contrast, in most Andean Ridge cultures, establishing and 

maintaining relationships with others can take precedence over 

accomplishing a task in the most efficient manner.

Concepts of personal space differ from those in the US. During

conversations, regional residents often stand closer than most 

Americans do. They also may ask personal questions about 

family, relationships, and employment as a means of 

demonstrating polite interest. Men and women may interact 

differently than Americans are used to. For example, men 

shake hands both in greeting and parting, while a woman may 

greet a man with a kiss on one cheek.

Andean Ridge residents also manage time differently. While 

they may expect foreigners to arrive on time to business 

meetings, regional residents typically arrive 15-30 minutes late. 

Similarly, social gatherings generally start half an hour or more 

after the scheduled time; hosts may even consider on-time 

arrival rude. While the workday runs on a schedule similar to 

the US, lunchtime is generally a mid-day break of around 2 

hours, during which shops and businesses may close.

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CULTURE
The rhythm of daily life typically changes during national 

holidays and local celebrations. 

For example, Quito, Ecuador 

celebrates Founders Day in 

early December with a week of

festivals, parades, and sporting 

events. Towns and cities 

throughout the region celebrate 

Carnival, an annual celebration

prior to Christian Lent (Photo: A 

float in a parade for the Blacks 

and Whites Carnival in Puerto Asis, Colombia). 

9. Aesthetics and Recreation

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Most of the Andean Ridge’s forms of artistic expression –

including its art, architecture, dance, music, and theater –

reflect a combination of Spanish, indigenous, and African

influences. 

For example in Peru, a cathedral features Incan religious 

symbols; some indigenous dances satirize the Spanish 

invaders; and both European and indigenous influences inspire 

Peruvian sculpture and painting. In Colombia, a traditional 

dance style mimics the shuffling steps of African slaves in 

chains.

Dance and music infuse daily living in the Andean Ridge. Many 

regions lay claim to unique indigenous or mestizo musical 

styles, such as yaravi from Peru. Ecuadorians have adopted 

the pasillo, a style of ballad from the north Andes, as their 

national music. Afro-Caribbean culture has pervaded the 

Venezuelan and Colombian sea coasts, influencing music and 

dance in those areas. 

Traditional handicrafts such as weaving, sculpture, and 

ceramics have been revived in recent decades. The region has

produced many contemporary novelists and poets who explore

their unique cultural heritage. Many have achieved international 

fame, including Gabriel García Márquez, a Colombian author 

who won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1982. 

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CULTURE
Soccer is unquestionably the most popular sport in the Andean 

Ridge. Many regional residents avidly follow professional 

soccer and are amateur players themselves. Bullfighting, an 

inheritance of Spanish culture, is also popular in most of the 

region. 

10. Sustenance and Health

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures, and economics. Theories of disease 

and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness. 

Cuisine varies widely in the 

region depending on local 

products and tastes. In the 

highlands, potatoes and 

grains, along with meat 

from llamas, guinea pigs, 

chicken, and fish are 

common. Along the coast,

fresh seafood, tomatoes, 

onions, spicy peppers, and 

rice or cassava (a tuberous 

starchy root, high in carbohydrates and essential to Caribbean 

and other tropical diets) are popular. Ceviche (raw fish 

marinated in lemon juice and herbs) is popular in many areas, 

both along the coast and inland (Photo: Market offerings in 

Peru).

Communicable diseases remain a concern in the Andean 

Ridge. In 2010, the countries reported about 200,000 cases of 

malaria and 325,000 cases of dengue fever (a debilitating 

disease also spread by mosquitos). In addition, approximately 

25% of rural residents lack access to clean drinking water, a 

situation which facilitates widespread outbreaks of diarrhea, 

parasitic fever, and hepatitis. The prevalence of HIV/AIDS is 

low with the new infection rate relatively stable over the last 

decade.

Andean Ridge countries face many challenges in providing 

healthcare to their populations. Significant disparities in health 

and access to healthcare exist between urban and rural 

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communities. Some rural 

communities lack even basic 

healthcare infrastructure. 

Similarly, large urban slums, 

common in major cities,

often have no sanitation or 

health infrastructure (Photo: 

US Air Force staff sergeant 

checks on a Peruvian patient 

at a mobile field hospital).

11. Economics and Resources

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and 

services. A number of Pre-Columbian Andean populations lived 

in hunter/gatherer societies or practiced subsistence agriculture

and herding. Larger and wealthier civilizations, particularly the 

Inca, produced luxury items such as ceramics, art, jewelry, and 

fine woven goods for local consumption and regional trade.

Spanish colonists developed mineral extraction and refining

industries to increase Spain’s wealth, doing little to build local 

industry. For example, colonial governments emphasized 

exploitation of the region’s large silver and lesser gold deposits. 

They developed agriculture and other local industries primarily 

to support the mining industry. Spanish colonists also farmed 

large estates with forced 

indigenous or African slave 

labor, more as a sign of 

status and privilege as

economic pursuit (Photo: 

Andes mountain range).

After independence, political 

instability throughout the 

region hampered economic 

development. In addition, countries experienced several boombust cycles as they exported non-renewable resources and 

commodities that left them vulnerable to swings in the market. 

For example, Bolivia transitioned from focusing on silver 

extraction in the 19th century to tin mining in the 20th, and then

natural gas since the 1970s. By contrast, Ecuador experienced 

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CULTURE
its first boom late in the 19th century, exporting cacao, followed 

by bananas in the early 20th century, and then oil starting in 

the 1960s.

Although Venezuela is the largest economy in the region today, 

turbulent politics and vulnerability to oil market volatility have 

created economic instability. Colombia’s economy, the region’s 

2nd largest, is diversified across the agricultural, industrial, and 

mining sectors. Peru’s economy is also relatively diverse, with 

gold, zinc, copper, textiles, and fish meal as its major exports. 

Ecuador has a large agricultural sector and oil industry, while

Bolivia, the poorest nation in the region, remains largely 

dependent on mining and natural gas. A large illicit economy 

based on cocaine production also exists in the region, 

particularly in Colombia, 

Peru, and Bolivia (Photo: 

Ecuadorian woman with 

quinoa, courtesy USAID).

The region’s economies 

were affected by the 2008 

global financial crisis to 

different degrees. The crisis 

generally reduced demand 

for Andean Ridge exports and slowed investment in the region.

Bolivia experienced few adverse economic effects, while Peru 

and Colombia underwent relatively minor economic 

contractions. By contrast, Venezuela’s economy contracted for 

2 years and has been slower to recover.

12. Technology and Material

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. Since the end of the colonial period, as Andean 

Ridge economies have developed at different rates, modern 

technology has spread unevenly through the region. 

Roads form the primary transportation infrastructure throughout 

the region. While Venezuela has one of the best road systems 

in Latin America, in most of the region, paved roads are 

restricted to urban areas and select major highways. 

Mountainous terrain and poor quality roads make road travel 

slow and dangerous in some areas.

GENERAL

CULTURE
While Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela all have major 

Caribbean or Pacific sea ports, Bolivia is land-locked. Rail 

infrastructure is poor and 

neglected throughout the region

(Photo: A mountain road in 

Bolivia).

Information technology is 

spreading rapidly throughout the 

Andean Ridge. Between 2000 

and 2013, Internet usage grew 

from between 1 and 4 users per 100 people to 39 or more. 

Mobile phone use grew even more rapidly: while most

countries reported subscription rates of around 5 per 100

people in 2000, by 2013, subscriptions had increased to near 

or over 100 subscriptions per 100 people. 

The Andean Ridge countries have a wealth of energy 

resources. Hydropower is a major source of electricity due to 

the many mountain rivers in the region; both Colombia and 

Peru generate 3/4 of their electricity through hydropower. 

Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela also have oil and 

natural gas reserves, which serve as both a domestic energy 

source and a major export. The US is the main trading partner 

for most of the region and seeks to develop and expand free 

trade agreements. Chinese trade relations have grown to 

become 2nd only to the US in several countries, and China 

now surpasses the US as a destination for Peruvian exports. 

Regional trade is also strong and bolstered by Union of South 

American Nations’ (USAN) trade agreements. Domestic 

instability, disputes with heavy-handed foreign multinationals,

and a history of nationalization 

of private industry sometimes 

hinder the growth of trade

(Photo: USAF TSgt discusses 

clinic construction with 

Peruvian Defense officials).

Now that we have introduced 

general concepts that 

characterize Andean Ridge society at large, we will focus on 

specific features of Colombian society.

GENERAL

CULTURE
HISTORY &

MYTH

Overview

Colombia is South America’s oldest democracy, with a long 

tradition of civil governance and regular and fair elections. 

Despite relative stability, Colombia is emerging from nearly 50 

years of internal conflict marked by violent atrocities from all 

parties involved. These include left-wing guerrillas, right-wing 

paramilitary forces, and drug cartels battling each other and the 

Colombian military. Despite these hardships and the country’s 

entrenched social, political, and economic divisions, the 

Colombian people remain hopeful for peace and proud of their 

diverse indigenous, European, and 

African roots.

Early History

During the “Pre-Columbian” period

existing prior to the late 15th-century 

arrival of the Spanish (see p. 6 of 

Part 1 Culture General), Colombia

was home to several indigenous 

groups residing along the Pacific and 

Atlantic coasts and in the Andes Mountains. Most of these 

groups were fishers, hunters, and nomadic agriculturalists. The 

Chibcha had the most politically centralized society in the 

region, practicing sedentary farming and developing a highly 

structured economy in the high basins of Colombia’s 

easternmost Andes ridge (Illustration: Petroglyph from Alban). 

One Chibcha group, the Taironas, developed an urban 

civilization around 800 AD in the mountains near present-day 

Santa Marta on the Caribbean coast. Achievements included 

great stone engineering feats, notably irrigation and drainage 

works, temples, roads, and bridges. The largest Chibcha group 

was the Muisca, whose population likely reached 800,000 or 

more in the late 15th century. Talented weavers, the Muisca 

cultivated corn and potatoes near present-day Bogotá.

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

1. HISTORY AND MYTH
HISTORY &

MYTH

Arrival of the Spanish

Although Colombia was named for Christopher Columbus, the 

explorer never reached its shores. Instead, 

a member of Columbus’ crew brought the 

first European explorers in 1499. By 1525,

the Spanish had established their first 

permanent settlement at Santa Marta on 

Colombia’s Caribbean coast. 

The Spanish encountered several different 

indigenous groups in Colombia, such as 

the Carib and Arawak on the coast, and

the Chibcha groups Tairona and Muisca in 

the interior. The Muisca were excellent 

potters and goldsmiths, fashioning 

elaborate gold jewelry and ceremonial vessels. Of note, a 

Muisca ritual likely inspired the Spaniards’ search for the riches 

of legendary “El Dorado” (the “Gilded One” or “Golden King”), 

resulting in conquest of South America. In the legendary ritual, 

a Muisca tribal chief covered himself in gold dust and dove into 

a local lake (Photo: A Muisca gold work from 1000-1500). 

Spanish Colonization

Impressed by the indigenous groups’ wealth and seeking yet 

more gold, the Spanish conquerors expanded beyond Santa 

Marta. In 1533 they founded Cartagena on the Caribbean 

coast, which quickly became the region’s principal port. By 

1536, the Spanish were pushing into Colombia’s interior from 2

directions, plundering indigenous settlements as they 

advanced. 

Next, the Spanish conquered the Muisca’s homeland in the 

Andes highland, taking their gold and founding the city of Santa 

Fé de Bogotá (later known simply as Bogotá) in 1538. In 1542, 

the Spanish crown united all of its territories in northern and 

western South America as the Viceroyalty of Peru with its 

capital at Lima.

The Decimation of the Indigenous Population: Estimated at 

about 2 million at the time of the Spaniards’ arrival, Colombia’s

indigenous population decreased dramatically in subsequent 

decades due to conquest, disease, and their mistreatment in 

the encomienda system. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Within this system of bondage, indigenous people worked in 

exchange for food and housing and a small salary that was 

immediately paid back to the Spanish Crown as a tax.

The Importation of African Slaves: To offset the lack of a 

local labor force, the Spanish began to import slaves from 

Africa to work in mines and plantations along the Pacific and 

Caribbean coasts. Gradually, through the 16th and 17th 

centuries, the population of African slaves became a significant 

proportion of the labor force in those regions. 

New Granada

In 1564, Spain reorganized its northern South American 

holdings as the New Kingdom of Granada within the larger 

Viceroyalty. Comprising most of present-day Colombia and 

Panama, the Kingdom distributed land to individual Spanish 

conquerors and opened more salt, gold, and emerald mines. In 

1719, the Spanish Crown reorganized its South American 

holdings again, making Bogotá the capital of the Viceroyalty of 

New Granada, which included present-day Colombia, 

Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama.

The Spanish Class System: 

Over 250 years of Spanish 

colonization entrenched a strict 

class system that supported 

very little social mobility. At the 

top were the Spanish, followed 

by criollos (Spanish people

born in the New World), 

mestizos (people of mixed 

Spanish and indigenous descent), mulattos (people of mixed 

Spanish and African descent), indigenous people, African 

slaves, and zambos (people of mixed African and indigenous 

descent). In addition to holding all economic and political 

power, the Spanish also enjoyed the highest social prestige

(Photo: Colonial-era buildings in Cartagena).

Struggle for Independence

Beginning in the 18th century, criollo and mestizo residents 

began to protest Spanish domination of land, wealth, and 

commerce in the colony. Increased taxes prompted an uprising 

in 1781, during which local residents set up their own town 
HISTORY &

MYTH

councils. When French Emperor Napoleon I removed Spanish 

King Ferdinand VII and appointed his own brother King of 

Spain in 1808, New Granada refused to recognize the new 

monarch and unrest spread. 

In 1810, Bogota’s citizens created their own governing council 

in full defiance of Spanish authority and declared 

independence. Subsequent efforts to unify the struggle against 

Spanish authority were hampered by disagreements between 

provincial and the Bogotá councils over the new country’s 

proposed political structure. 

For example, while the Bogotá council advocated a centralist, 

authoritarian government, the provincial councils preferred a 

federalist model along the lines of the newly-independent US. 

Despite these and other disagreements (such as the role of the 

Catholic Church – see p. 2-3 of Religion and Spirituality), the 

territory drafted a constitution in 1811 and proclaimed the 

United Provinces of New Granada. Ongoing tensions between 

the centralist and federalist supporters left New Granada 

vulnerable to Spain’s efforts to reconquer it following Ferdinand 

VII’s restoration as the King of Spain.

Simón Bolívar: By 1816, Spanish forces had re-taken 

Cartagena and Bogotá and installed a military regime. The 

regime’s violent suppression efforts contributed to the rapid 

growth of the independence movement. Meanwhile, Simón 

Bolívar, a Spanish nobleman 

from Venezuela, arrived in 

New Granada to lead the 

independence movement. In 

1819, Bolívar assembled an 

army of horsemen from the 

Colombian and Venezuelan 

plains, marched over the 

Andes, and defeated the 

Spanish troops at the Battle of 

Boyacá, about 100 mi northeast of Bogotá (Photo: The battle 

site at Boyacá today includes several monuments).

With Francisco de Paula Santander as Vice President, Bolívar 

assumed the Presidency of the new republic of Colombia, 

comprising the former territories of the Viceroyalty of New 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Granada. The new republic lasted just 11 years: in 1830 

Ecuador and Venezuela seceded to become independent 

countries.

The Emergence of the Conservatives and Liberals

While Bolívar sought social equality following independence, 

society in the new country remained highly stratified. The

descendants of the Spanish continued to control almost all of 

the country’s wealth and resources. The societal tensions 

caused by this economic division were soon intensified by a 

growing political division that had begun to form before 

independence. 

On one side were Bolivar’s supporters, who sought a strong 

centralized government, alliance with the Catholic Church, and 

limited suffrage. These largely wealthy landowners formed 

what would become the Conservative Party. On the other side, 

Santander’s followers favored a 

decentralized government, with state 

instead of federal control over 

education and other civil matters, the 

separation of church and state, and 

broader voting rights. These activists 

eventually formed the Liberal Party, 

which was largely allied with the 

professional and merchant classes.

By 1849, the rivalry between these 

groups had evolved into outright 

conflict that in turn spawned a series of civil wars and antigovernment uprisings lasting decades (Photo: Statue of 

Santander in Medellín).

Civil Conflicts

Although each political party held the Presidency for roughly 

equal periods of time through the 19th and early 20th centuries, 

their power-sharing was not peaceful. Instead, Colombia 

suffered 8 major civil conflicts and more than 50 uprisings 

between independence and the mid-1950s, mostly between 

supporters of the Conservative and Liberal parties. A 

particularly traumatic period was the conflict known as The War 

of a Thousand Days from 1899-1903 resulting in about 100,000 

Colombian deaths.
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Loss of Panama: The US had been interested in the 

region since the 1850s, primarily because of Panama’s 

strategic location on a narrow 

piece of land between the 

Pacific and Atlantic oceans.

Taking advantage of Colombia’s 

instability during the war in 

1903, the US acquired the rights 

to finish a canal between the 2 

oceans through Panama begun 

by a French company decades earlier. The US then supported

Panama in its efforts to attain independence from Colombia. 

Furious, Colombia severed diplomatic ties with both countries, 

recognizing Panama’s independence only in 1921 after a treaty 

with the US was ratified. The agreement included a $25 million 

payment from the US to Colombia for its loss of territory 

(Photo: The Panama canal in 1915).

La Violencia: Colombians refer to a period of conflict between 

1948 and 1957 as La Violencia, or “The Violence.” It began 

when a popular Liberal Party leader was assassinated in 

Bogotá. Protests quickly turned into mass rioting and killing. 

Violence spread across the country as both Liberal and 

Conservative supporters committed atrocities that resulted in 

the deaths of about 300,000 people. 

The National Front

In an attempt to stop the carnage, the military staged a coup in 

1953, taking and retaining control of the government for almost 

5 years. This case of military intervention in the civilian 

government was the only one in Colombia’s history. In 1957, 

the Conservative and Liberal parties formed an alliance, the 

Frente Nacional or National Front, ending La Violencia. Under 

the terms of the agreement, the parties rotated power and 

control of the Presidency for the next 16 years. 

Extreme inequality between the social classes persisted even 

though the National Front realized economic and social 

progress in many areas such as infrastructure, education, and 

women’s rights. More significantly, the National Front 

effectively blocked all other parties from having any official 

power or governmental representation, forcing other political 
HISTORY &

MYTH

groups to operate outside the official arena. Soon, dissidents,

intellectuals, students, and peasants began to form protest 

groups. 

Left-wing Guerillas

Eventually, disillusioned activists began to take up arms, with 

Marxist-based guerrilla and militia groups flourishing in 

Colombia’s rural areas. Although each group had its own 

philosophies and political aims, all these activists initially 

planned to use violence to end the exploitation of Colombia’s 

poor by the wealthy. They also aimed to force government 

distribution of resources more equally among all citizens. Later, 

most of these groups largely abandoned their ideological 

causes and turned to extortion, robbery, kidnapping, and the 

illegal drug trade to finance 

their activities. 

The FARC: The most wellknown group to emerge was 

the Revolutionary Armed 

Forces of Colombia (Fuerzas 

Armadas Revolucionarias 

de Colombia or FARC). 

Founded in the mid-1960s, 

the FARC would eventually become the oldest, largest, and 

best-financed guerrilla organization in Latin America. In the 

1980s, the FARC attempted to refashion its organization as a 

political party, successfully putting candidates on the ballot in 

many local elections. In response, paramilitary squads (see 

“The AUC” below) murdered 3,000 of the FARC candidates 

between 1984 and 1987. This violence prompted the FARC to 

abandon its political goals, end a truce with the government, 

and return to its guerilla tactics by 1990. At its peak in 2001, 

the FARC counted an estimated 16,000 fighters (Photo: FARC 

guerillas during 2006 peace talks).

The ELN: Colombians inspired by Cuba’s revolution founded 

the National Liberation Army (Ejército de Liberación 

Nacional or ELN) in the mid-1960s. This group also aimed to 

remedy Colombia’s extreme social inequities. After reaching its 

peak power in the late 1990s, the ELN pledged a ceasefire in 

2007.
HISTORY &

MYTH

The M-19: The urban equivalent to the rural-based FARC, the 

19th of April Movement (Movimiento 19 de Abril or M-19) 

peaked in the 1980s when it became Colombia’s 2nd largest 

rebel group. In 1985, the M-19 allied with a drug cartel to 

coordinate an attack on the Palace of Justice in Bogotá in 

which 11 Supreme Court Justices and 100 other people were 

killed. A 1989 truce between the government and the M-19 

resulted in its demobilization and reintegration into political life 

as a political party called the M-19 Democratic Alliance 

(Alianza Democrática M-19).

The Guerrillas’ Impact: Colombia’s rural population suffered 

greatly as these guerilla groups carried out massacres and 

forced enlistment of children and young people. At their peak, 

the guerrilla groups controlled about 40% of Colombia’s 

territory. The Colombian government’s offensives against the 

guerrillas further disrupted life in rural areas, eventually 

displacing millions of people 

from their homes. (Photo: 

Internally displaced people in 

2007).

Right-wing Paramilitaries

Because they could not rely on 

government forces for protection, 

Colombia’s wealthy landowners 

organized paramilitaries beginning in the 1980s to protect their 

property from guerilla attacks. These paramilitaries banded 

together as the United Self-Defense Units of Colombia 

(Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia or AUC) in 1997. In 

addition to targeting guerillas with the tacit approval of the 

government, the AUC also targeted union leaders and 

academics. It then became involved in the drug trade, from 

which it eventually received more than 70% of its funding. 

Soon, the AUC also terrorized Colombia’s rural population with 

massacres and assassinations, while controlling most of 

northern Colombia. Beginning in 2004, the AUC began to 

demobilize but has remained active while demanding amnesty.

The Illegal Drug Industry

Meanwhile, during the 1970s and 1980s, Colombia’s illegal 

drug industry grew significantly, escalating the civil conflict. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Both the FARC and AUC became heavily involved in the drug 

trade by selling protection to the Medellin and Cali drug cartels 

in order to finance their military operations. Following 

Colombian security forces’ assassination of Medellin drug 

cartel leader Pablo Escobar in 1993, violence associated with 

the drug trade decreased as the cartels fragmented into 

smaller organizations.

A New Constitution and a New Hope

Colombia adopted a new constitution in 1991 that brought 

major reform, such as civil divorce, the office of Vice President, 

and departmental (state) governors. In addition, it bolstered the 

administration of justice, encouraging political pluralism and the 

rule of law, and provided congressional representation for 

Colombia’s indigenous and Afro-Colombian populations. 

Despite these encouraging developments, the violence 

continued in the 1990s and early 2000s as both guerillas and 

paramilitaries killed, kidnapped, and extorted money from both 

innocent civilians and the drug cartels.

Plan Colombia: When he took office in 1998, President 

Andrés Pastrana of the Conservative Party faced several 

security challenges. These included increased attacks by the 

FARC and the ELN across the country, widespread illicit drug 

production and associated criminal activities, and the spread of 

illegal paramilitary groups. In 1999, the government introduced 

the Plan Colombia, a 6-year strategy to combat the narcotics 

trade. The plan also focused on economic recovery, respect for 

human rights, and assistance to Colombians displaced by the 

ongoing violence. Under this plan, the US provided significant 

financing to eradicate coca crops 

and cocaine production facilities,

along with police and military 

training (Photo: A plane sprays 

herbicides over a coca field).

In 1999, Pastrana opened peace 

talks with the FARC, resulting in 

the demilitarization of the

FARC’s historic base of power in south-central Colombia. 

Although peace talks continued for 3 years, the relentless 

violence continued. In 2002 the FARC was still kidnapping 
HISTORY &

MYTH

civilians, carrying out military attacks, and trafficking narcotics, 

using the demilitarized zone as a base of operations. 

Consequently, Pastrana cancelled talks and revoked the zone. 

Modern Colombia

Álvaro Uribe

Liberal Party member Álvaro Uribe was elected President in 

2002. His first order of business was to defeat the guerillas, 

disband all illegal paramilitary organizations, and decrease 

illegal drug traffic. To achieve these goals, Uribe organized 

peasant brigades and escalated military actions against armed 

groups. Midway through his term, Uribe successfully lobbied for 

a constitutional change that would allow him to seek a 2nd 

term. He was re-elected with overwhelming support in 2006. 

During Uribe’s tenure, armed attacks decreased by 90% and 

many guerillas and paramilitaries demobilized.

Uribe continued efforts to reduce the violence. In 2008, 

Colombian security forces famously rescued Ingrid Betancourt, 

a former Colombian presidential candidate, and 14 other 

hostages (including 3 Americans), held captive by the FARC 

for several years. Uribe’s preoccupation with combating 

violence carried the consequence of neglecting to address 

Colombia’s ongoing and serious rural poverty. When his 

supporters called for a further constitutional amendment that 

would allow him a 3rd term, Uribe 

declined, promoting Juan Manuel 

Santos his successor.

Juan Manuel Santos

Santos (pictured) was elected 

President in 2010, representing the 

Social Party of National Unity (Partido 

Social de Unidad Nacional or Party of 

the U – see p. 5 of Political and Social 

Relations). Colombia’s largest political 

party today, the Party of the U was founded in 2005 by Santos, 

Uribe and other ex-members of the Liberal Party. Since his 

election, Santos has continued Uribe’s efforts to reduce guerilla

and paramilitary violence. In 2011 Santos supported legislation 

that returned land to millions of displaced people and 

compensated survivors of Colombia’s decades of violence. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Country-wide protests against the FARC resuted in its release 

of several hostages and peace talks between the government 

and the FARC in late 2012. In November 2013, the talks 

recorded a major breakthrough when the FARC agreed to give 

up violence in exchange for full political participation. Criticizing 

Santos’ conciliatory approach to the FARC, Uribe left the Party 

of the U and formed the Democratic Center party (Centro 

Democrático – see p. 5 of Political and Social Relations) in 

January 2013. Despite this opposition, Santos was reelected in 

May 2014, defeating the Democratic Center candidate in a runoff election.

In December 2014, the FARC announced an immediate 

ceasefire. Shortly thereafter, it declared an end to forcibly 

recruiting minors and negotiated joint plans with the

government to clear landmines planted by the FARC. Although 

the ELN is still laying mines in some areas, this agreement 

could be significant: over the last 25 years, some 11,000 

Colombians have been killed or wounded by mines.

As of spring 2015, the delegations were negotiating the terms 

of disarmament of the rebels and punishment for the atrocities 

committed by both rebels and government-backed forces. 

Once an agreement is reached, Colombians will have an 

opportunity to vote on it through a referendum. Discussions

continue around planned land 

reform, a new counternarcotic 

policy, and a political role for 

the FARC. 

The negotiations are not void of 

controversy: many Colombians 

fear that criminals and terrorists 

on both sides could escape punishment. Others believe that 

even if the FARC disbands, its factions will continue to traffic 

cocaine. Despite some misgivings, public opinion appears to 

be shifting: for the first time, a majority of Colombians surveyed 

in early 2015 expressed optimism that the current negotiations 

will lead to peace. This hope appears to be well-founded: while 

over 2,000 acts of violence associated with the conflict were 

reported in 2013, that number dropped to about 1,100 in 2014 

(Photo: Colombian army special forces).
HISTORY &

MYTH

Myth Overview

In contrast to history, which is supposed to be an objective 

record of the past based on verifiable facts, myths embody a 

culture’s values and often explain the origins of humans and 

the natural world. Myths are important because they provide a 

sense of unique heritage and identity. Colombian myths reflect 

the region’s ethnic and cultural diversity. For example, some 

myths bear similarities with African folklore, while others reflect 

Pre-Columbian themes. Still others incorporate the devastating 

consequences of the 16th-century Spanish conquest and more 

recent periods of violence, such as the 

20th century’s La Violencia.

Llanero Myths

While all regions have their own myths 

and legends, the llaneros, or inhabitants 

of Los Llanos, Colombia’s vast 

grassland plains of the East, are well 

known for their legends and folklore. 

Many tell of dangerous natural 

phenomena or powerful supernatural 

forces that threaten the innocent. Some 

stories provide an explanation of otherwise unspoken social 

rules. Others preserve memories of past periods of violence, 

such as La Violencia, but reframe them so that diabolical 

supernatural figures commit the atrocities instead of humans 

(Illustration: An 1843 painting of llaneros).

For example, many llaneros report having seen bolas de 

fuego, or fireballs that descend from the sun to chase people, 

even into their homes. If the balls catch the people, they and 

their homes may be engulfed in flames. Some llaneros say that 

these fireballs embody the soul of a woman who murdered her 

husband.

Another myth tells of a headless horseback rider (jinete sin 

cabeza) who appears to llaneros gathered at night. Dressed in 

black and carrying a machete, the horseman tries to attack the 

llaneros. The Leyenda del Diablo or Legend of the Devil tells 

that a llanero walking through trees at night is especially 

vulnerable to the devil, who peers down between the leaves in 

the form of a witch and tries to steal the llanero’s soul.
Official Name

Republic of Colombia

República de Colombia

Political Borders

Coastline 1,993 mi

Venezuela: 1,455 mi

Brazil: 1,112 mi

Peru: 928 mi

Ecuador: 440 mi

Panama: 211 mi

Capital

Bogotá

Demographics

Colombia’s population is

about 46 million, making it the 2nd most populous country in 

South America after Brazil. Colombia’s annual population 

growth rate, currently at 1.1%, has slowed significantly in 

recent years. This decline is due in part to emigration to evade

guerilla and drug-related violence (see p. 7-10 of History and 

Myth) and Colombians’ search for employment abroad. The 

drop is also due to a decreased birthrate (see p. 3 of Sex and 

Gender). Colombia is primarily 

urban: 75% of the population

lives in metropolitan areas. 

Flag

The Colombian flag consists of 3 

horizontal yellow, blue, and red 

stripes. There are 2 

interpretations of the flag’s significance. In the 1st, the yellow 

band at twice the width of the other bands symbolizes 

Colombia’s historically large gold reserves. While the blue 

represents Colombian seas, the red symbolizes blood spilled in 

attaining freedom. In the 2nd interpretation, the yellow band 

denotes sovereignty and justice. Blue indicates loyalty and 

vigilance while red represents the principles of equality, liberty, 

and fraternity.

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Geography

Situated in the northwestern part of the South American 

continent, Colombia shares a border with Panama to the 

Northwest, with Ecuador and Peru to the Southwest, with Brazil 

to the Southeast, and with Venezuela to the East and 

Northeast. The north coast of Colombia, located between 

Venezuela and Panama, faces the Caribbean Sea, while the 

west coast borders the North Pacific Ocean between Panama 

and Ecuador. Colombia’s total land area is about 708,000 sq 

mi – approximately twice the size of Texas and slightly smaller 

than South Africa. The equator passes through Colombia’s 

South.

The towering Andes Mountains (pictured) dominate Colombia’s 

landscape. The Colombian Andes comprise 3 separate 

mountain ranges that extend across the country from north to 

south. The highest volcanic peaks, some of which rise over 

18,000 ft, lie in the Andes’ Central Range (Cordillera Central). 

Generally, Colombia’s Andes

regions feature valleys, 

mountain plateaus, and active 

volcanoes. The country’s 

Caribbean Sea and Pacific 

Ocean coasts feature low 

plains. Tropical rainforests 

dominate the Southeast and 

South. Rolling, fertile plains characterize Colombia’s East, an 

area known as Los Llanos. Stretching approximately 950 mi, 

the Magdalena is Colombia’s longest river and connects the 

northern coast with mountainous interior regions.

Climate

Colombia does not experience distinct seasons. Instead, 

Colombians describe the climate as “vertical,” since air 

temperatures vary by elevation. Accordingly, coastal regions 

and eastern lowlands are hot and humid, while regions above 

3,000 ft experience more temperate climates. Further, alpine 

climates exist in mountainous regions above 10,000 ft, where 

snow and glaciers cover the highest peaks. Bogotá, at 8,629 

ft, elevation, averages 55°F year round, while Medellin, at 

almost 5,000 ft, averages 70°F year round. At sea level, the 

coastal city of Santa Marta averages 84°F. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Natural Hazards

Colombia is vulnerable to several types of natural hazards, 

including earthquakes and volcanic activity. Its location at the 

intersection of 2 major tectonic plates, the Nazca and South 

American plates, means that the country is especially 

susceptible to earthquakes. In 1999, Colombia suffered its 

most devastating earthquake which destroyed portions of the 

Central Cordillera cities of Armenia and Pereira, killing nearly 

1,200 people.

Colombia’s 7 active volcanos 

are located along the Andean 

Volcanic Belt, a sub-section 

of the 25,000 mi long Ring of 

Fire made up of volcanic 

mountain chains along the 

continental margins of the 

Pacific Ocean. One of the world’s deadliest eruptions occurred 

in 1985, when Nevado del Ruiz buried a downslope city under 

mud and debris, killing approximately 25,000 people. 

Colombia’s most active volcano, Galeras (pictured), erupted in 

1993, killing 9 people, and again in 2010 when it forced the 

evacuation of 8,000 people.

Environmental Issues

Although over 72% of Colombia’s land is protected in national 

parks, deforestation remains an ongoing concern. Illegal 

logging in the Amazonian jungles and Pacific coast forests is 

the major cause of deforestation. Closely following is the 

clearing of land for the illicit cultivation of drug crops in isolated 

regions of protected areas. In addition, overuse of pesticides 

and the process of refining coca plants into cocaine has 

introduced dangerous chemicals into soil and water supplies. 

Soil erosion resulting from deforestation reduces agricultural 

yields and impedes natural retention of water, which in turn 

causes shortages in potable water. Air pollution caused by 

automobile emissions is a persistent concern in Bogotá. 

Government

Colombia is a constitutional republic with a parliamentary 

government. The country divides into 32 states or departments 

(departamentos), administered by elected governors and 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
department assemblies. There is also a capital district in 

Bogotá. Departments further subdivide into municipalities, 

governed by mayors. Adopted in 1991 (see p. 9 of History and 

Myth), Colombia’s constitution separates power among the 

executive, legislative, and judicial branches, protects civil 

rights, and includes special provisions for indigenous and AfroColombian populations (see “Ethnic Groups” below).

Executive Branch

Executive power is vested in the President, who is both chiefof-state and head-of-government. A council of ministers 

supports the President. The President is elected by popular 

vote and can serve up to 2 consecutive 4-year terms. The 

current President, Juan Manuel Santos, took office in 2010 and 

was reelected in 2014, becoming Colombia’s 32nd President. 

Legislative Branch

Colombia’s legislature is a 2-chamber Congress (pictured), 

composed of a 102-seat Senate and 166-seat Chamber of 

Representatives. In the Senate, 100 seats are elected from a 

national candidate list, while 

the remaining 2 Senators are 

elected by indigenous and 

Afro-Colombian constituents. 

All 166 Representatives are 

directly elected through

proportional representation. 

While legislation originates in the Chamber of Representatives, 

the Senate ultimately controls most legislative powers, 

including amending the constitution, appointing positions in 

government, and approving declarations of war.

Judicial Branch

The judiciary includes a Supreme Court, a Constitutional Court, 

a Council of State, and Superior Judicial Council. A system of 

lower courts oversees minor cases. As the highest court, the 

Supreme Court is the final court of appeal for both civil and 

criminal cases. The President nominates 3 candidates for 

Prosecutor General, and the Supreme Court in turn selects 1 of 

the nominees. Historically, judicial power has been weak, and 

justices are often criticized for being both corrupt and 

vulnerable to intimidation by paramilitary and guerilla groups. 

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SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Political Climate

Over the past century, Colombia’s political landscape has been 

characterized by a 2-party system in which the traditionally 

dominant Liberal and Conservative parties competed for power 

(see p. 5-6 of History and Myth). While both parties are still 

active, recently formed splinter groups are becoming 

increasingly powerful. 

Formed by President Santos and 

former President Álvaro Uribe 

(pictured, with Former US 

President George W. Bush), the 

Social Party of National Unity 

(Partido Social de Unidad 

Nacional or Party of the U) is 

presently Colombia’s largest 

political party and holder of the 

majority of Senate seats. Described as a “conservative liberal 

movement,” Party of the U comprises a diverse collection of 

both ex-Conservative and ex-Liberal politicians. 

Formed in 2013 by Uribe, the Democratic Center party (Centro 

Democrático) is a center-right party opposed to negotiations 

with the FARC (see p. 11 of History and Myth). Liberal party 

splinter groups include the Green Party (Partido Verde), 

Radical Change (Cambio Radical), and the controversial PIN 

(Partido de Integracion Nacional) (see below). 

Corruption permeates all levels of government as well as the 

democratic process. Individuals and groups such as 

paramilitaries (see p. 8 of History and Myth) often use votebuying, illegal campaign financing, and intimidation to influence 

elections. Investigations into the 2006-10 Congress revealed 

several irregularities indicating that paramilitary groups had 

hand-selected, funded, and controlled many politicians. As a 

result, many Congressmen were convicted of corruption and 

one political party, ADN (Alianza Democrática Nacional), was 

forced to disband completely. Despite efforts to curb corruption, 

paramilitary influence resurfaced in the 2010 Congressional 

elections when remaining members of ADN joined PIN. Critics 

allege some PIN members today continue to have links to 

illegal paramilitaries and criminal gangs. 

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The government faces other challenges to maintaining the 

democratic process. As part of the current peace negotiations 

between the government and leftist guerilla groups (see p. 11

of History and Myth), the FARC, Colombia’s oldest and largest 

left-wing guerrilla organization, is attempting to become an 

officially recognized political party. Using the example of M-19, 

a former guerrilla group that is now a political party (see p. 8 of 

History and Myth), the FARC is offering to give up violence in 

exchange for full participation in Colombia’s political process. 

Defense

The Colombian Armed Forces are a unified military force 

consisting of ground, maritime, and air branches, with a joint 

strength of 296,750 active duty troops and 34,950 reserve 

personnel. It is charged with defending against foreign and 

domestic threats, supporting disaster relief efforts, and 

protecting economic infrastructure. Due to Colombia’s history 

of internal instability (see p. 7-10 of History and Myth), 

domestic counter-insurgency and counter-narcotics efforts

dominate operations. 

Army: The Colombian Army is a well-equipped, well-trained 

force of 237,000 active-duty troops, consisting of 1 Special 

Forces unit, 10 maneuver divisions and brigades (including 

mechanized, light, and aviation), several combat support 

brigades, and 2 combat service 

support divisions.

Navy: Consisting of 46,150 activeduty personnel, the Colombian 

Navy is a well-equipped force of 

naval aviation, marine, and coastal 

defense units headquartered in 

Puerto Carreño. The Navy has 4 tactical submarines, 4 

principal surface combatants, 51 patrol and coastal 

combatants, 19 amphibious vessels, 20 logistics and support 

vessels, and a variety of aviation weapons systems (Photo: 

Colombian naval ship ARC Buenaventura). 

Air Force: The smallest of the 3 military branches, the 

Colombian Air Force consists of 13,600 active-duty personnel 

and has 7 combat air commands with 86 fighter aircraft and 24 

squadrons.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
POLITICAL & 

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RELATIONS
Security Issues

Colombia’s security environment is dominated by internal 

threats related to anti-government guerilla groups, illegal

paramilitaries, and the activities of Colombia’s illicit drug 

trafficking industry. Porous borders with neighboring Ecuador 

and Venezuela also present security challenges.

Internal Violence: Violence stemming from guerilla groups 

such as the FARC and ELN has plagued Colombia for over 5 

decades – one of the longest running insurgencies in recent 

history (see p. 6-11 of History and Myth). Paramilitary militias

were established initially to augment the overstretched 

Colombian military in the fight against guerilla groups. More 

recently, they helped fuel the violence by terrorizing 

populations thought to be sympathetic to guerilla causes. 

Despite being officially disbanded in 2006, many paramilitary 

groups continue to operate illegally, inciting further conflict. 

In 2012, the government entered into peace talks with the 

FARC, making substantial inroads toward negotiating a 

ceasefire (see p. 11 of History and Myth). Progress toward this 

goal stalled in April 2015 when the FARC allegedly attacked 

government forces, killing 10. In response, the government 

resumed bombing raids on FARC encampments. Several

regions in Colombia remain destabilized due to high 

concentrations of organized 

crime, guerilla groups, and drug 

trafficking and smuggling. 

A fragmented illegal drug 

industry continued to thrive 

following the 1993 demise of 

the powerful Medellín drug 

cartel (see p. 8-9 of History and 

Myth). Smaller organizations, 

including guerilla groups and other criminal organizations, still

sustain the $10 billion industry (see p. 2 of Economics and 

Resources). Violence associated with the illegal drug trade is 

especially prevalent in rural areas and disproportionately 

affects civilians. Over 300 drug smuggling organizations are 

active today (Photo: Colombian authorities organize a search 

for coca plantations). 

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SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Colombia and Venezuela: Colombia’s long-running 

insurgency has contributed to tensions with Venezuela, since 

both FARC and ELN guerilla groups maintain a strong 

operational presence along their border. Recent political and 

economic volatility in Venezuela has increased border 

permeability, allowing guerilla groups to operate on both sides 

of the border. Further, Colombian paramilitary groups have 

occasionally crossed into Venezuela in search of FARC 

encampments, significantly increasing tensions. Finally, the 

Colombian government has at times accused the Venezuelan 

government of allowing insurgents passage across its border 

and providing materiel and financial assistance to drug-related 

operations. Despite these tensions, the 2 countries maintain a 

dialogue. Most recently, Venezuela participated in Colombia’s

peace talks with the guerilla groups as a guarantor nation. 

Strong economic ties between the 2 nations also help dissipate 

the occasionally heightened 

political tensions (Photo: 

Colombian marines). 

Colombia and Ecuador:

Insurgency-related violence 

along the Colombia-Ecuador 

border is another significant 

source of tension. While the 2

countries retain strong economic ties, diplomatic relations 

weakened after Colombian troops crossed the Ecuadorian 

border to attack a FARC camp in 2008. The countries presently 

cooperate in border control, although illegal drug smuggling 

activities along the border keep tensions high. 

Foreign Relations

With a few exceptions, Colombia’s involvement in foreign 

affairs was largely limited to interaction with its immediate 

neighbors for most of the 20th century. Over recent decades, 

Colombia has expanded its international sphere of influence, 

taking an active role in regional and global institutions like the 

Union of South American Nations (UNASUR) and the United 

Nations (UN) Security Council. Colombia has contributed to 

multiple UN peacekeeping missions and regularly provides 

military counter-narcotics training to Afghanistan and over 20 

nations in West Africa and Latin America.

POLITICAL & 

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RELATIONS
Relations with the US: The US and Colombia have strong 

political, economic, and military ties. Most notably, the US has 

partnered with Colombia in its battle against drug cartels and 

guerilla groups. Funneling over $6 billion in anti-narcotics aid 

under the 1999 “Plan Colombia” effort (see p. 9 in History and 

Myth), the US sought to curtail the spread of illicit drug 

production and diminish associated drug-related violence.

Today, the US continues to support Colombian civil society, 

human rights institutions, and other stabilizing agencies. This 

effort is intended to foster socio-economic development and 

reduce threats posed by the narcotics traffic and insurgent 

groups. In addition to financial assistance, the US provides 

military training and equipment to bolster Colombian military 

counter-narcotics operations

(Photo: US troops examine a 

FARC leadership chart with 

Colombian Army troops).

With the US as Colombia’s 

largest trading partner (see p. 4

of Economics and Resources), 

the 2 nations entered into a freetrade agreement in 2012. This 

pact allows goods, services, and 

capital to move liberally between the 2 nations. They also have

signed numerous bi-lateral agreements on economic and 

military cooperation. These include environmental protection, 

chemical control, development of renewable and clean energy, 

science and technology, and civil aviation programs. 

Relations with Nicaragua: In 2012, the International Court of 

Justice (ICJ) awarded a maritime territory to Nicaragua that 

both Nicaragua and Colombia had long claimed. This action 

caused considerable friction between the 2 countries. Colombia 

had received the territory during the US occupation of 

Nicaragua in 1928. According to the ICJ ruling, the San Andres 

archipelago would remain with Colombia while most of the sea 

around it would become Nicaragua’s economic zone. 

Nicaragua subsequently announced plans to auction off oil 

exploration blocks in the disputed waters, further straining 

relations.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Ethnic Groups

Colombia is ethnically diverse as a result of over 500 years of 

intermingling of its indigenous peoples, Africans, and 

Europeans (see p. 2-3 of History and Myth). Colombia’s 

majority population consists of “non-ethnic” whites (people of 

Spanish or other European background) and mestizos (people 

of mixed white and indigenous descent). The government also 

officially recognizes 3 “ethnic” minority groups: AfroColombians, Amerindians or indigenous peoples, and gypsies 

(or Roma). The 2005 census found that 86% of the population 

were white or mestizo and 10.5% were Afro-Colombian. While 

it also found 3.4% were members of indigenous groups, other 

studies suggest the indigenous population is only about 1% of 

the population. About 5000 people identified as Roma.

Whites and Mestizos: Colombia’s white and mestizo

population primarily resides in urban areas. Many inhabitants of 

the rural Andean highlands are also mestizo.

Afro-Colombians: This category includes Colombians with 

any African background and may include people who also have 

Spanish or indigenous roots. Afro-Colombians live primarily in 

the lowland areas of the Pacific and Caribbean coasts. While 

they comprise the majority in some cities, there are very few 

purely Afro-Colombian communities. 

Indigenous Groups: Colombia 

counts about 80 different indigenous 

groups whose members live primarily 

in small communities in remote areas 

throughout the country. Although 

some continue to speak indigenous 

languages (see p. 2 of Language and 

Communication), most use Spanish 

as their primary language. The Páez (or Nasa Yuwes) of 

Cauca Department in southwestern Colombia constitute the 

largest indigenous group, with about 123,000 people in 2005. 

The next largest group is the Wayúu (or Guajiros) who live in 

Colombia’s northern Guajira Peninsula bordering Venezuela. 

Other groups live in the jungle regions near Colombia’s border 

with Panama and the Amazonian jungles of Colombia’s South

(Photo: Guambiano people from Cauca Department).

POLITICAL & 

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RELATIONS
Social Relations

Most Colombians continue to label themselves according to 

their ancestry and/or physical appearance even though the 

colonial era’s strict class system (see p. 3 of History and Myth) 

no longer applies. In addition, many Colombians still attach 

certain characteristics to the old class system categories. 

Although these characteristics are no longer the only social 

differentiators, they still influence sociocultural status and social 

hierarchy to a certain extent. For example, “non-ethnic” or 

white and mestizo Colombians continue to hold most power, 

wealth, and social prestige in Colombian society today.

Since independence, both indigenous people and AfroColombians have largely existed on the periphery of national 

life. Over the last decades, AfroColombians have become more 

integrated than indigenous 

groups. Historically, Colombia’s 

Afro-Colombians and indigenous 

populations did not enjoy the 

same rights and privileges of 

Colombia’s white and mestizo

populations. The 1991 

constitution sought to rectify this 

situation, granting both groups 

special representation in the national legislature and 

indigenous groups certain territorial and cultural rights (Photo: 

Afro-Colombian children in the Pacific coast city of Tumaco). 

In recent years, both indigenous and Afro-Colombian 

communities have been displaced by Colombia’s political 

violence. For example, many indigenous people were forced to 

flee into neighboring Brazil to avoid the violence. In 2013-14, 

Afro-Colombian communities on Colombia’s Pacific coast 

suffered high crime rates. Offenses include homicides, 

abductions, conflict-related sexual violence and abuse, and 

forced displacement, all due to the FARC’s activities in the 

region. In addition to suffering violence, Afro-Colombian and 

indigenous communities experience poverty, illiteracy, and 

infant mortality rates above national averages. Finally, AfroColombians continue to face discrimination and socioeconomic exclusion.

POLITICAL & 

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RELATIONS
Overview

Colombia’s population is overwhelmingly Christian. According

to a 2014 study, the approximate affiliations include 79% 

Catholic, 13% Protestant, 6% none, and 2% other. Until 1991, 

the Roman Catholic Church was Colombia’s official state 

church. Recognized as one of the most conservative in Latin 

America, the Church has historically been highly influential in 

politics, education, and family life.

Colombia’s 1991 constitution guarantees freedom of religion 

and prohibits religious discrimination. Although the constitution 

mandates a separation of church and state and lists no official 

religion or church, the Catholic Church retains a privileged 

status in the country. For example, while Catholic clergy may 

automatically perform marriages and provide chaplaincy 

services to the military, non-Catholic clergy must fulfill certain 

requirements to attain 

those privileges (Photo: 

Cathedral in Bogotá).

Despite an increase in 

secularism in recent 

decades, 77% of 

respondents in a 2014

survey reported that 

religion is very 

important in their lives. 

In the same survey, 

45% of respondents agreed that government policies should 

promote religious values and beliefs, and 50% agreed that 

religious leaders should influence politics.

Of note, guerrillas, paramilitaries, and drug traffickers (see p. 7-

11 of History and Myth) historically have targeted religious 

leaders for extortion, often disrupting their work with displaced 

populations or other vulnerable groups. Other religious leaders 

who were outspoken critics of these organizations have been 

threatened or murdered. 

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Introduction of Christianity

When Spanish explorers entered Colombia in 1499 (see p. 2 of 

History and Myth), they encountered a people with a rich 

spiritual life. Scholars suggest that indigenous groups 

recognized several different spirits and gods who were 

believed to be the creators of the universe and influenced daily 

life. 

In addition to seeking wealth and new territories for the 

Spanish Crown, a high priority of the Spanish conquerors was 

the elimination of native religions and the conversion of the 

New World’s indigenous population to Catholicism. Reflecting 

the religious zeal in Spain at the time, the conquerors viewed 

traditional indigenous beliefs and practices as manifestations of

the devil. Consequently, the Spanish destroyed temples and 

other sacred sites while forbidding rituals and dances.

By the end of the 16th century, the Catholic Church and 

individual religious orders, such as the Franciscans and 

Jesuits, had begun widespread proselytization efforts among 

Colombia’s indigenous population. 

Religion during the Colonial Period

During the almost 3 centuries of Spanish colonial rule, the 

Catholic Church was central to most aspects of life, including 

education, politics, and economics. 

For example, Catholic orders founded 

most of Colombia’s schools and 

universities (see p. 1 of Learning and 

Knowledge). The recipient of large 

land grants from the colonial 

government, the Catholic Church 

eventually came to control almost 1/3 

of the country’s territory (Illustration: 

An 1844 painting of the cathedral in 

Santa Marta).

Religion and Politics in Independent Colombia

Disagreement over the role of the Catholic Church was a

significant aspect of the political division between the Liberal 

and Conservative parties that formed shortly after Colombia’s 

independence (see p. 5 of History and Myth).

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
In general, the Liberals favored limiting the wealth and political 

influence of the Catholic Church. By contrast, the 

Conservatives believed the Catholic Church must be a part of 

the government in order to ensure social order and cohesion. 

In the decades following, conflicts between members of the 2 

parties spawned a series of civil wars and uprisings (see p. 5-6

of History and Myth). When the Conservatives were in power, 

the Catholic Church enjoyed broad governmental support. 

When the Liberals took control, they undertook various 

initiatives to weaken the Church, such as expelling the Jesuit 

order and asserting civilian control of Church holdings.

The 1886 Constitution

In 1886, President Rafael Núñez rejected the Liberal antiChurch posture and ushered in a new constitution that would 

last until 1991. Although this document protected freedom of 

worship, it also named Roman Catholicism as the state 

religion. An agreement between the government and the 

Church in 1887 gave the Catholic Church control over public 

school textbooks and sole authority in birth, marriage, and 

death rituals. 

The Catholic Church and La Violencia

Intense debate concerning the relationship between church 

and state intensified in the mid-20th century when the Catholic 

Church became deeply enmeshed in partisan politics. The 

1948 assassination of a Liberal political leader led to a civil 

conflict known as La Violencia (see p. 6 of History and Myth). 

In their backlash, Liberal supporters 

adopted a distinctive anti-Catholic 

Church tone. In response, priests and 

Church leaders became political 

activists for the Conservative Party. 

When a Conservative politician won 

the next Presidential election, 

Conservative and Church supporters 

intensified the violence against the 

Liberals. Some Catholic priests even 

publicly condoned the killing of 

Liberals, condemned as atheists and communists (Photo: St. 

Peter’s Church in Cartagena).

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
The Catholic Church and the National Front

With a 1957 truce between the Conservatives and Liberals that 

ushered in the National Front (see p. 6 of History and Myth), 

Catholic leadership agreed that the Church should discontinue 

partisan political activity. Over the next decade, the Church 

turned its focus inward to strengthen its own institutions, 

founding various social programs. Some of these include trade 

union movements, education initiatives in rural areas, and 

agrarian reform. Of note, when popular revolutionary 

movements began to form in the 1960s (see p. 6-7 of History 

and Myth), at least one Catholic leader joined them.

Beginning in 1973, the Church’s role began to change when a 

new state-Church agreement confirmed Catholicism as the 

state religion but established the Church’s independence from 

civil powers. The agreement further removed tax-exempt status 

from church properties and transferred the Church’s network of 

schools and social services among the indigenous populations 

to the government. Finally, it abolished the requirement that 

Catholicism be taught in public schools and provided for civil 

marriages outside the Catholic Church.

The Catholic Church Today

Since the adoption of a new constitution in 1991, Roman 

Catholicism is no longer Colombia’s official religion nor do

disagreements regarding religion continue to fuel violent 

political disputes. Despite the general secularization of 

Colombian society, the Catholic Church’s influence remains 

strong. Unlike many 

countries, Colombia’s 

seminaries have no 

lack of students, and 

its ratio of priests to 

total population is 

among the highest in 

Latin America. The 

1991 constitution 

declared Catholic 

marriages could be ended in civil divorce (see p. 5 of Family 

and Kinship), although abortion remains illegal in all but 

extreme cases (see p. 4 of Sex and Gender) (Photo: Holy week 

procession in Alejandría in Antioquia Department).

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Many Colombian Catholics perceive Catholicism as simply a 

part of their cultural heritage having no regular role in their 

personal and professional lives. Despite this general trend, 

church attendance remains relatively strong, with about 49% of 

surveyed Catholics reporting at least weekly church attendance 

in 2014. The Church and religious orders operate schools and 

universities, orphanages, and 

hospitals across the country.

Catholics in rural areas tend to 

be more devout than those in 

urban areas. Many urban 

Catholics attend church 

services only during the most 

important holidays – Easter 

and Christmas – and for 

weddings, baptisms, and funerals (see p. 3-4 of Family and 

Kinship). By contrast, in rural areas, residents attend church 

regularly and celebrate Catholic holy days with elaborate 

religious processions and festivals (Photo: Colombian children 

participate in an Easter procession). 

Other Christian Churches

Although the first Protestant missionaries arrived in the mid19th century, Protestant churches experienced very little 

growth until the 1960s, when allegiance to the Catholic Church 

began to wane. While their number is less than many other 

Latin American countries, Protestants and other non-Catholic 

Christians now make up about 14% of Colombia’s population.

While denominations such as the Presbyterians and 

Methodists have the longest history in Colombia, there are 

other prominent non-Catholic Christian organizations. These 

include the Jehovah’s Witnesses, Seventh-day Adventists, and 

the Mormons. Generally, non-Catholic Christian churches exist

across the country, even in indigenous communities having 

historical strongholds of Catholicism. Like the Catholic Church, 

these organizations have built schools and typically offer a 

range of social services.

Of note, evangelical and Pentecostal churches have seen the 

most membership growth recently. A 2014 study found that 

about 47% of non-Catholic Christians are members of 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Pentecostal churches where they engage in associated 

charismatic beliefs and practices. Some of these include divine 

healing, receiving direct revelations from God, and speaking in 

tongues during worship services.

Religion and Afro-Colombians

Like the general population, most Afro-Colombians are Catholic

even though the Catholic Church historically did not focus its 

evangelization and education efforts on Afro-Colombian

communities. As a result of limited Catholic doctrinal influence, 

Afro-Colombians tend to practice a “folk” form of Catholicism 

that incorporates elements of African or Caribbean religious 

traditions. For example, practitioners might seek aid from 

Catholic saints to protect them from supernatural forces or hold 

wakes to offer food, drink, and tobacco to saints. In some 

communities, funeral rituals include drumming, singing, and 

dancing to help the deceased’s spirit on its journey. 

Religion and Indigenous Groups

Christian evangelization of Colombia’s indigenous groups did 

not halt with the end of colonialism. Instead, Catholic missions 

established agreements with government agencies to continue 

proselytizing the indigenous population well into the 20th 

century. Like Afro-Colombians, 

many members of indigenous 

groups as well as rural mestizos

may practice a “folk” Catholicism 

that incorporates indigenous 

beliefs and practices into Catholic 

worship. Some indigenous people 

in remote areas may follow only 

traditional beliefs and practices.

Other Religions

Colombia is home to a Jewish 

community of about 5000 people. 

Estimates of Colombia’s Muslim 

population range from 10,000 to 

80,000. While there are Islamic centers throughout the country, 

Bogotá recently opened its first mosque, and the city of Maicao 

is home to South America’s 2nd largest mosque (pictured).

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Overview

The family is the center of Colombian life, and historically, the 

Catholic Church has been a major influence on family size, 

structure, and values. More recently, the Catholic Church’s

impact on family life has decreased with Colombian society’s 

secularization, modernization, and urbanization. Despite these 

shifts, Colombians still revere their families, sharing good 

fortune with their relations and involving them in all important 

decisions. 

Residence

Housing structures in Colombia vary by climate, environment, 

and income level. Most Colombians live in urban areas, where 

modern conveniences like electricity and sanitation services

are readily available for the middle and upper classes. By 

contrast, poor Colombians and residents of rural areas often 

lack access to these and other basic services.

Rural: In humid areas near the beaches and jungles, 

Colombians traditionally constructed homes of thatched wood 

and steeply pitched roofs, sometimes on stilts to protect 

inhabitants from water or wildlife. Near the Caribbean, 

residents traditionally built small, round, windowless adobe 

huts with thatched roofs. In the Andean mountains, homes 

often featured thick wood or 

adobe walls to block out the 

cold.

Rural homes are often white 

with bright blue, green, red, or 

orange trim and feature a porch 

or interior patio where residents 

may relax in hammocks. Smallscale landowners may reside in 

2- or 3-bedroom homes, while wealthier residents often build 

Spanish colonial-style homes with pastel-colored exteriors. 

Besides lacking access to indoor plumbing and electricity, rural 

residents typically rely on wood-burning stoves for heat. 

(Photo: A home in Macanal).

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Urban: Housing in Colombia’s urban areas is varied. Due to 

lack of space, Colombians often build up instead of out, placing 

homes close together. Wealthy Colombians may live in 

Spanish colonial-style mansions or modern ranch-style houses 

with ceramic tile flooring, painted stucco walls, several 

bedrooms, a kitchen, and living and dining areas. Middle- and 

high-income Colombians may live in urbanizaciones, secure 

high-rise apartment buildings surrounded by walls and guards.

Lower income Colombians typically live in modest apartments 

in single or multi-story brick buildings. 

In 2014, 12% of Colombia’s population or about 5.7 million 

people living in rural areas were internally displaced after 

fleeing violence and crime (see p. 8 of History and Myth).

Drawn to Colombia’s urban areas, these families often live

together in tugurios, small lots where people construct 

makeshift dwellings of tin, cardboard, and other materials. Also 

called barrios de invasion or invasion neighborhoods, these 

slums are marked by poverty and high crime rates. While the 

government plans to bring affordable housing to all 

Colombians, only about 140,000 homes are constructed 

annually – too few to fulfill

demand.

Family Structure

In Colombian families, the 

father is generally the head of 

household with the mother 

usually subservient yet 

influential (see p. 1 of Sex and 

Gender). Most Colombians 

live as nuclear families (2 

parents and their children). 

Extended families play an 

important role in daily life, gathering frequently for meals, 

birthdays, religious ceremonies, and other special occasions. 

Colombians revere their elderly family members for their 

wisdom and experience, often visiting or opening their homes 

to them. Many Colombians enjoy special bonds with close 

friends or their padrinos (godparents), who provide them

emotional, spiritual, and financial support (Photo: A Colombian 

mother and her children).

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Children

While Colombian families traditionally had 7-10 children, most 

today have 2-3 (see p. 3-4 of Sex and Gender). Children 

usually live with their parents until they marry, although a 

growing number of young adults move away for education or 

employment opportunities. A child’s 

life experiences are largely shaped by

his family's socioeconomic status. 

Children in lower income families 

often work to supplement the family’s

income. Some children are “adopted”

by a wealthy family to provide

domestic labor in exchange for a 

small salary, schooling, and room and 

board. In recent decades, some poor 

or orphaned children in rural areas

have been forced into armed militia 

groups (see p. 8 of History and Myth). 

By contrast, children from upper class families have fewer 

responsibilities and greater access to education (Photo: 

Children in Colombia).

Birth: Colombians have a particular fondness for babies and 

strongly value motherhood. Before a child is born, the mother's 

friends plan a baby shower, bringing gifts for both mother and 

child and enjoying refreshments. After birth, the mother 

traditionally adheres to a 40-day maternity dieta (diet), during 

which she does not cook, clean, or perform other household 

chores. Colombians also emphasize "kangaroo care," frequent 

skin-to-skin contact between mother and infant, as an essential 

part of childbirth and mother-child bonding. 

Rites of Passage

Because most Colombians identify with Roman Catholicism

(see p. 1 of Religion and Spirituality), they mark life’s 

milestones with Catholic rites of passage, even if they do not 

regularly attend church services. For example, families usually 

baptize their children within a month of birth, then celebrate 

their first communion and confirmation when they are 

teenagers. A non-religious rite of passage and symbol of 

transition to adulthood for males is a 1-year period of military 

service at age 18.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Quinceaῆera: Colombians celebrate their daughters’ 15th

birthdays and entrance to womanhood with a formal party 

called a Fiesta de Quince (Party of 15) or quinceaῆera. A 

typical quinceaῆera celebration begins with a special Catholic 

mass where the honored girl receives blessings from a priest.

The girl typically leaves a toy at the altar as a symbolic farewell 

to her childhood. At the party that follows, the young woman,

dressed in a formal gown and tiara, ceremoniously replaces

her flat shoes with high heels to enjoy a first dance with her 

father. Guests enjoy music, dancing, and food. Families often 

spend months planning and years saving for the celebration.

Dating and Spouse Selection: Boys and girls typically interact 

from a young age, socializing at school and sports events.

Rural residents normally begin dating around age 14, urban 

residents even sooner. Popular activities include shopping, 

attending parties, and going to the movies. Colombians 

typically spend several years dating before deciding to marry. 

Men traditionally ask a woman's father for permission before 

proposing.

Marriage: In wealthier families, months of luncheons, parties, 

and weekends at the family’s finca (country home) generally

precede the wedding. Brides usually have a despedida de 

soltera (farewell to singlehood) party, and the groom a

bachelor party. Guests arrive about 2 days in advance of the 

wedding, traditionally called the entrada de los regalos

(arrival of the gifts). Monetary gifts

are considered bad taste, unless the 

wedding invitation specifically 

requests a lluvia de sobres (rain of 

envelopes). The groom often hires a 

band to serenade the bride the night

before the wedding. 

Colombian weddings usually follow 

the traditional Catholic church 

ceremony. During the service, the 

couple’s godparents escort them as children carry 13 arras or 

gold coins, symbolic of the traditional dowry (money paid by the 

bride’s family to the groom’s family) (Photo: Catholic church in 

Bogotá).

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
The bride and groom exchange rings and use separate candles 

to light a single candle, representing unity in their new life 

together. After the ceremony, guests enjoy a reception with 

music, food, and dancing. Because church weddings can be 

expensive, more Colombians are choosing civil marriage. 

Other couples enter into common-law marriages (union libre) 

which they can register with the government after 2 years. 

Death: After a death, a family member remains with the 

deceased until the body is transferred to a funeral home for 

preparation for burial. Following a wake, during which 

mourners view the body and offer prayers, family and friends 

attend a velorio, a special funeral mass. During the 

proceedings, mourners may wail and cry loudly. In some 

coastal areas, the family may hire women called plañideras to 

cry at the velorio. Some Colombians may carry the casket on 

their shoulders to the cemetery, while others use a car 

decorated with flowers to transport the remains. Urban

Colombians are increasingly choosing cremation over a 

casketed burial. 

Following the burial, family members gather to offer prayers 

over a period of 9 nights called the luto. To demonstrate their 

grief and mourning, female relatives tend not to use makeup,

and relatives usually wear black attire. On each anniversary of 

the death, family members attend a mass to pray for the 

deceased.

Divorce in Colombia

Although it carries little social stigma today, divorce in 

Colombia was once very uncommon. Due largely to the

Roman Catholic Church’s opposition to divorce, it 

became legal only recently: for civil marriages in 1973

and for Catholic marriages in 1991. No-fault divorce 

(does not require proof of wrongdoing by either party)

became legal in 2005. At 0.2 per 1,000 people,

Colombia’s divorce rate is one of the world’s lowest. By 

contrast, the rate in the US is 3.6 per 1,000 people. 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Overview

Traditionally, Colombia was a male-dominated society where 

machismo, strong masculine pride, was counterbalanced by 

female subservience. The country’s social system was 

patriarchal, whereby men held all social power and authority.

While women and men now have equal rights before the law,

traditional attitudes continue to hinder women’s full participation 

in educational, economic, and political spheres.

Gender Roles and Work

Domestic Work: Colombian women traditionally held 

responsibility for all household chores and childcare. While 

women in upper-class families rarely worked outside the home, 

lower income women often worked along with their husbands 

to support their families. In addition, many women became the 

de facto head of the household when men migrated to urban 

areas for work. Today, many more women work outside the 

home and still perform the majority of domestic tasks. Of note,

single mothers head about 50% of Colombia’s displaced 

families (see p. 2 of Family 

and Kinship).

Labor Force: In 2013, about 

56% of women worked 

outside the home, about the 

same rate as the US. 

Although some women hold 

high level positions in 

government, business, and 

politics, they generally experience discrimination in hiring and 

promotion. Women also receive lower wages than men with 

comparable education levels and work experience. In addition, 

some jobs require women to meet certain beauty or 

appearance standards not required for men. About 1/3 of 

female urban workers are employed as domestic workers or 

maids. Most work 10-18 hours daily, earning far below the 

minimum wage. Many other women work as street vendors

(Photo: Wayúu women sell their woven wares on the street). 

5. SEX AND GENDER

SEX &

GENDER
Gender and the Law

In 1954, Colombia became one of the last Latin American 

countries to grant women the right to vote. Until the mid-1970s, 

the law required women to obey their husbands. Today, 

women and men enjoy equal rights in marriage and in their 

authority over their children. In addition, the 1991 constitution

guarantees civil liberties for women and men and recognizes a 

female head of household. It also prohibits gender 

discrimination in the workplace and affords special protections 

to single mothers and pregnant women.

Despite these affirmative measures, laws are not always 

enforced. For example, although inheritance laws recognize 

gender equality, children typically receive benefits and 

inheritances following a divorce or death before the wife, 

thereby denying a woman her marital assets. 

Gender and Politics

Even though Colombia featured Latin America’s first female 

presidential candidate in 1974, rates of women’s participation 

in the political process have been historically lower in Colombia 

than elsewhere in Latin America. Beginning with the 1991 

constitution, Colombian law focused on improving gender 

equality within the government and political process. For 

example, the law requires that women hold at least 30% of 

government appointments and make 

up a minimum of 30% of political 

party lists, among other 

requirements.

While female politicians are generally 

well-respected, unlike men, women 

must demonstrate they are 

exceptional housewives and mothers 

before the public considers them

serious candidates. In 2014, 3 

women were major party presidential

candidates. In 2015, almost 20% of 

lower house and 23% of upper house parliament members

were women, compared with 19% and 20% in the US 

Congress, respectively (Photo: Former Colombia Senator 

Cecilia Matilde López Montaño.)

SEX &

GENDER
Gender Based Violence (GBV)

Women face a significant level of violence in Colombia, some 

of it related to Colombia’s internal conflicts (see p. 7-11 of 

History and Myth). Between 2001 and 2009, experts estimate

that around 500,000 women were subjected to conflict-related 

sexual violence.

Reports of GBV have increased significantly over the last 10 

years. Between 2003 and 2012, the number of sexual offenses 

against Colombian women nearly doubled, as cases of 

domestic physical violence rose 30%. Of note, these increases 

are due both to increased reporting of (previously unreported) 

offenses and to heightened levels of violence. Experts trace 

these high levels to several causes, such as the widespread 

notion that men exercise legitimate power over women. 

Likewise, women often are accused of “provoking” violence 

when they do not comply with male expectations regarding 

their dress or behavior.

Although Colombia’s GBV-related legislation aligns with

highest international standards, government support services,

such as battered women’s shelters, are lacking. In addition, 

authorities often explicitly discourage victims from seeking 

justice. Consequently, even if GBV cases are reported, 

indictment and prosecution of perpetrators is rare. If 

perpetrators receive convictions, their punishment is often light.

Sex and Procreation

In line with Roman Catholic teachings, Colombians traditionally 

view sexual intimacy as appropriate only within marriage. 

There is a double standard, 

however. While women are 

expected to adhere to strict 

rules of chastity, male 

promiscuity and infidelity are 

largely tolerated. Colombians 

typically do not discuss sex 

openly, although attitudes have liberalized in recent years

(Photo: Colombian women at a US trade show).

Colombia's birthrate has steadily declined since the 1960s,

from 6 to 2.3 children per woman, due primarily to urbanization 

and government family planning initiatives (see p. 3 of Family 

SEX &

GENDER
Beauty Pageants

Beauty pageants are very popular across Colombia, 

from regional events like “Miss Sugarcane” to the 

national “Miss Colombia.” Critics maintain these

pageants misrepresent women, buttress gender 

stereotypes, and reinforce society’s social and ethnic 

inequalities (see p. 12 of Political and Social Relations). 

In 2014, Antioquia Department cut funding to its

pageant to support an alternative "Talented Young 

Women" contest that promotes skills over appearance.

and Kinship). Despite this general decrease, the country’s rate 

of teenage pregnancy has risen and is today one of Latin 

America’s highest – about 20% of teenage girls either mothers 

or pregnant. In an effort to reverse this trend, Colombia’s 

Congress passed a law in 2010 guaranteeing all citizens 

access to free contraceptive drugs and surgical procedures.

Until 2006, abortion was completely banned in Colombia. It is 

now legal only in the case of rape, incest, risk of death to the 

mother, or malformation of the fetus. Several obstacles prevent 

women from obtaining legal abortions. These include 

bureaucracy, refusal by doctors to perform the procedure, lack 

of understanding of the law, and resistance by the Catholic 

Church. Observers estimate about 450,000 illegal abortions are 

performed every year, most in unsafe conditions. As a result, 

abortion remains a leading cause of maternal mortality in 

Colombia.

Homosexuality

Colombia decriminalized homosexual activity in 1980. In 2007-

08, the Constitutional Court granted same-sex couples 

pension, social security, and property rights, then in 2011 ruled 

that same-sex couples “constitute a family.” While lawmakers 

have not yet legalized same-sex marriage, judges often join 

same-sex couples in civil unions. Despite these legal changes, 

homosexuals experience stigmatization such as harassment 

for public displays of affection. 

SEX &

GENDER
Language Overview

Over 99% of Colombians speak Spanish, making Colombia the 

2nd largest Spanish-speaking country by population behind 

Mexico. A small subset of the population speaks other 

indigenous or creole languages, usually in addition to Spanish. 

Spanish

Spanish evolved from Latin dialects spoken in the area of 

present-day Spain after the Roman Empire fell about 1500 

years ago. Spanish explorers and conquerors brought their 

language to Colombia beginning in the early 16th century (see

p. 2 of History and Myth). Today, some Colombians refer to 

their language as castellano (Castilian) after a region of Spain 

rather than using the more typical español (Spanish).

Spanish uses the same alphabet as English with 3 additional 

consonants – ch, ll (pronounced like “y” as in yam, “j” as in jam, 

or “s” depending on dialect), and ñ (pronounced like the “ny” in 

the word canyon). The similar alphabet, consistent spelling

patterns, and Latin base make Spanish relatively easy for 

English speakers to learn. 

Colombian Spanish has about 11 dialects. Colombians 

generally identify their 

fellow citizens’ regional 

origins by variations in 

accents or pronoun use 

just as Americans might 

distinguish speakers from 

the South or Midwest.

Because it is clear and 

easy to understand, the 

standard dialect of Bogotá 

and environs is the

preferred dialect for broadcasts throughout Spanish-speaking 

Latin America. By contrast, Colombia’s Caribbean coast dialect

features differing pronunciations and faster rates of speech that 

can make it challenging to understand (Photo: Colombians of 

different ethnicities all speak Spanish).

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Colombian Spanish dialects are mutually intelligible with other 

Spanish dialects from around the world. Of note, Colombian 

Spanish does include some words and phrases having different 

meanings from those of other Spanish-speaking countries. 

Colombians refer to these terms as colombianismos. 

Indigenous Languages and Creoles

Besides Spanish, about 1.5% of Colombians speak 1 of the 

country’s more than 80 indigenous languages (see p. 11 of 

Political and Social Relations). Roughly 20% of Colombia’s 

indigenous people speak Wayúu, a language of the Arawak 

family found principally in northeastern Colombia’s La Guajira 

Department. While some of Colombia’s indigenous languages 

have become extinct, many others still have just a few hundred 

speakers.

To help protect its linguistic diversity, Colombia passed the Law 

of Native Languages in 2010 making the preservation of the 

customs and languages of Colombia’s indigenous people a 

national priority. To this end, the Ministry of Culture has 

catalogued all the country’s indigenous languages. In addition, 

the Ministry is promoting bilingual education in several 

indigenous communities. Nevertheless, the need to speak 

Spanish in most educational and employment settings inhibits 

younger Colombians

from maintaining 

proficiency in their 

native languages.

Some Afro-Colombians

speak so-called creole 

languages that 

developed as a result 

of the slave trade (see 

p. 3 of History and 

Myth). In general, Colombian creole languages combine 

vocabulary and simplified grammar structures from different 

African languages with Spanish or English. Palenquero is a 

Spanish-based creole traditionally spoken southeast of 

Cartagena. The inhabitants of the San Andrés y Providencia 

Islands speak an English-based creole (Photo: Children in the 

Pacific coast town of Tumaco). 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
English

An increasingly important language of global commerce, 

English is the most common 2nd language in Colombia.

Although public school students receive English instruction, 

most Colombians do not learn to speak English proficiently.

Most fluent English speakers live in large metropolitan areas. 

Communication Overview

Communicating effectively with Colombians requires not just 

the ability to speak Spanish but also the ability to interact in 

culturally competent ways. Communication competence 

includes paralanguage (speech, volume, rate, and intonation), 

nonverbal communication (personal space, touch, and 

gestures), and interaction management (conversation initiation, 

turn-taking, and termination). When used properly, these 

aspects of communication help to ensure that Colombians

interpret statements as the speaker intends.

Communication Style

Colombians exhibit a warm, friendly, and often animated

communication style. When conversing in groups, they may 

speak loudly and talk over one another. Colombians generally 

enjoy humor and often use it to build rapport and dispel 

tensions. While they commonly express their views about a 

situation forthrightly in a professional setting, Colombians

prefer to handle interpersonal conflicts indirectly to avoid 

causing offense or placing blame.

Greetings

Like Americans, Colombians 

typically shake hands when 

greeting, although some work 

colleagues prefer to firmly 

grip rather than shake hands. 

Colombians typically make 

direct eye contact during 

initial greetings (Photo: A US

official greets a Colombian soldier). In addition, women may

kiss both male and female colleagues as well as friends on the 

cheek in social and professional settings. Men may hug and 

slap close associates and friends on the back if they have not 

seen each other recently. 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Forms of Address

Colombians’ forms of address demonstrate courtesy and reflect 

regional and dialectal variations. They address most work 

associates by their professional title (Doctor/a, Profesor/a, 

etc.) and last name to convey appropriate respect. People 

without a professional degree should be addressed as Señor

(Mr.), Señora (Mrs.), or Señorita (for young/unmarried women) 

combined with their last names. 

In many areas, Colombians address only children, relatives, 

and close friends by their first names. Consequently, foreign 

nationals should avoid using a colleague’s first name unless 

invited to do so. When speaking in English, foreigner nationals 

should be formal and polite, addressing their partners using the 

English equivalent of professional titles when possible. 

Spanish has different “you” pronouns and verb conjugations 

depending on the level of formality and respect required.

Colombians tend to use the formal “you” or usted in all formal 

and business transactions. By contrast, they reserve the 

informal tú for family, friends, and younger people. Of note, in 

the Bogotano dialect (that spoken in Bogotá), close friends, 

siblings, and spouses may use usted instead of tú, as such 

usage connotes even a deeper 

familiarity. Foreign nationals should use

usted with all conversation partners 

unless advised otherwise (Photo: 

Colombians gather to receive medical 

services). 

Names: Most Colombians have 2 last 

names. While the 1st is the person’s 

father’s surname, the 2nd is the 

mother’s surname. For example, in the 

name of Ingrid Betancourt Pulecio, a presidential candidate 

who spent several years a captive of the FARC (see p. 10 of 

History and Myth), Betancourt is her father’s surname while 

Pulecio is her mother’s surname. 

Colombians commonly refer to others by their title and paternal 

surname. For example, a university graduate named Mario 

Rojas González would be addressed as Licenciado Rojas to 

reflect his degree and paternal last name. Of note, if a 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Colombian woman marries, she may choose to drop her 

maternal last name and substitute her husband’s paternal 

surname but is not required to do so.

Conversational Topics

Colombians typically begin conversations with inquiries about 

family, place of origin, health, hobbies, and sports before 

broaching more serious topics. They consider skipping such 

introductory subjects or rushing small talk impolite. Discussing 

positive observations about Colombia and its food, coffee, 

literature, or art can help establish rapport with Colombians. To 

avoid causing offense, foreign nationals should avoid 

discussing violence, politics, religion, and Colombia’s notoriety 

as a drug-producing country. Of note, Colombians expect to 

spend some time chatting following a meeting’s conclusion. To 

depart hastily without engaging socially is considered insulting

in Colombian society. 

Gestures

Colombians are not 

overly expressive with 

their hands or arms 

when speaking but do 

use certain gestures for 

emphasis or to replace 

spoken words. For example, Colombians may make a neck 

cutting gesture with a finger or open hand to indicate 

something is wrong or will not happen. Instead of pointing with 

an index finger, Colombians slightly raise their chin, widen their 

eyes, and pout their lips toward something (Photo: Colombian 

students).

Some common US gestures can cause offense in Colombia 

and should be avoided. Colombians consider using both index 

fingers to measure the length of an object and the “ok” gesture 

to be impolite. In addition, foreign nationals should avoid using 

an index finger to point at someone and instead use their whole 

hand to gesture. 

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil/resources/index.aspx for 

language training resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Words and Phrases

English Spanish

Hello Hola

How are you? ¿Cómo está usted?

Fine, thank you Bien, gracias

What is your name? ¿Cómo se llama?

My name is __ Me llamo __

Pleased to meet you Mucho gusto 

Please Por favor

Thank you Gracias

You are welcome De nada

Yes/No Sí/No

Good morning Buenos días

Good day Buenas tardes

Good night Buenas noches

Goodbye Adiós

Excuse me Con permiso

Do you speak English? ¿Habla usted inglés?

I don't understand No entiendo

Write it down please. Favor de escribirlo

Who? ¿Quién?

What? ¿Qué?

When? ¿Cuando?

Where? ¿Dónde?

Why? ¿Por qué

How? ¿Cómo?

Do you have___? ¿Tiene usted___?

I want___ Quiero___

How much does it cost? ¿Cuánto cuesta?

Can you help me? ¿Me puede ayudar?

Where is the bathroom? ¿Dónde esta el baño?

Straight ahead Derecho

Right Derecha

Left Izquierda

With Con

Without Sin

OK Bien

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy

• Total population over age 15 who can read and write: 94%

• Male: 94%

• Female: 94% (2011 estimate)

History of Education

Colombia’s history of formal education dates to the 16th 

century, when the Spanish conquered and then colonized the 

region (see p. 2-3 of History and Myth). Most early efforts to

formalize schooling were initiated by the Roman Catholic 

Church (see p. 2 of Religion and Spirituality), which established

schools and seminaries, mostly in Bogotá. In 1580, the Church 

founded the region’s first university, Universidad de Estudios 

Generales (now Universidad Santo Tomás). 

Colonial era schools generally restricted enrollment to Spanish 

elites (see p. 3 of History and Myth). Most other residents

(mestizos, African slaves, and the region’s indigenous peoples) 

remained uneducated and illiterate. Grade school curricula 

focused on humanities and classics, while universities offered 

courses in law, medicine, philosophy, and theology (Photo: The 

Universidad Santo 

Tomás in Bogotá). 

The Jesuits, a Catholic 

religious order, were the 

most active, welltrained, and well-funded 

educators, providing the 

majority of formal 

education throughout 

the Spanish colonies. 

Jesuit missionaries also 

traveled to the remote interior of Colombia, establishing

missions to instruct indigenous people in Spanish and the 

Catholic faith (see p. 2 of Religion and Spirituality). When the 

Jesuits fell out of favor in Europe around the mid-18th century, 

the Spanish king expelled them from the colony. As a result, 

Colombia’s quality and availability of education declined. 

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
19th- and Early 20th-Century Reforms

Early 19th-century independence fighters led by Simón Bolívar 

(see p. 4 of History and Myth) blamed the population’s 

widespread illiteracy on Spanish colonialists’ indifference. 

Bolívar’s alliance proceeded to reform the education system, 

and by 1819, was calling for universal education. 

Post-independence education reform proved controversial.

Members of the Liberal Party sought to eliminate Church 

influence and provide secular, free, and compulsory education.

Conversely, Conservative Party members fought to preserve 

the Church’s role in schools and prevent compulsory education 

(see p. 5 of History and Myth). Of note, in the mid-19th century 

the Conservatives invited the Jesuits to return to the region to 

resume their educational pursuits before the Liberals expelled 

them again (see p. 3 of Religion and Spirituality).

Despite political infighting, over time Colombia made progress 

toward Bolívar’s goals. First, the government passed legislation 

making education free and establishing teacher training 

institutions in 1870. The Catholic Church retained its influence 

in the educational system when an 1887 agreement with the 

government gave the Church control over public school 

textbooks. Then, in 1903, the government established a 

national system of education, and in 1927, made primary 

education compulsory. Most of 

the population could not 

comply with this requirement

due to a lack of schools, 

teachers, and resources

(Photo: An 1896 anatomy class 

at the University of Antioquia).

In the 1930s, the government 

outlawed enrollment discrimination based on race or religion. It 

also removed the Catholic Church as the authority on 

educational practices, paving the way for coed, secular 

education. Of note, the role of religion in education remained a 

controversial topic for many years, contributing to tensions that 

flamed La Violencia in the mid-20th century (see p. 6 of History 

and Myth). In 1973, the government abolished the requirement 

to teach Catholicism in public schools.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
To enhance the population’s access to education across the 

country, the government made significant increases in

education funding beginning in the 1960s. Between 1966 and 

1986, funding rose 5-fold, accounting for over 1/4 of the 

national budget by 1987. As reforms took hold and resources 

improved, enrollment levels increased. Primary school 

enrollment grew from 550,000 in 1935 to 4.2 million in 1980 as

secondary enrollment increased from about 46,000 students to 

over 1.8 million over the same period. 

The constitution of 1991 (see p. 9 of History and Myth) made 

school enrollment mandatory for children between the ages of 

5 and 15. Consequently, secondary school enrollment nearly 

doubled to over 3.5 million by 1999. In 2012, Colombia made 

secondary education free, further expanding enrollment. 

Modern Education System

Colombia’s modern education system has enjoyed much 

success. Literacy rates rose from between 20% and 35% 

before World War I to 92% by 2000. Despite this overall 

improvement, literacy rates continue to lag among AfroColombian and indigenous 

populations (see p. 12 of 

Political and Social 

Relations) (Photo: US sailor 

at a Colombian elementary 

school). 

Catholic religious instruction 

is no longer mandatory in 

public schools and the 

public school curriculum contains no religious elements. 

Nevertheless, many public schools still provide some optional 

Catholic religious education. Of note, the 1991 constitution 

states that no student shall be forced to receive religious 

education in public schools. 

In addition to providing education, schools play an important 

social role for students. Student-teacher relations are often 

close and informal. Students may address teachers by their 

first names, while teachers often play sports with students and 

act as their mentors. In addition, discussion-based teaching 

styles are also replacing authoritative teaching models. 

KNOW

LEARNING &

LEDGE
Despite these positive aspects, many Colombian students face 

challenges in completing their education. The quality of 

education is low in many areas, particularly in poor and rural 

regions. Many students must repeat grades in both primary and 

secondary schools due to poor performance. Some rural and 

poor urban students must drop out of school in order to work to 

help support their families. 

Pre-Primary: Colombian children aged 3-5 may attend 3 years 

of free public or tuition-based private preschool and 

kindergarten programs. While attendance during the first 2 

years is optional, the 3rd year is compulsory. Although 92% of 

preschools are private Catholic schools, over 70% of preschool 

students attend public preschools. 

Primary: Consisting of 5 grades starting at age 6, primary 

school is compulsory and free. Approximately 90% of all 

children enroll. Required subjects include science and 

environmental education, math, social sciences, history, 

geography, physical education, humanities, information 

technology, and languages. About 70% of students complete 

primary school and continue on to secondary education.

Secondary: Basic secondary school (grades 6-9) is 

compulsory and free. While required courses are the same as 

primary school, there is a greater focus on natural sciences, 

logic, and critical thinking. Students also attend classes that 

explore vocational and 

professional specialties. 

Upon completion of 

grade 9, students receive 

a diploma (Photo: School 

in Oicatá). 

Upper secondary school 

(grades 10-11) is free but 

not compulsory. Around 

42% of students of the 

appropriate age enroll in upper secondary school. Because 

secondary schools are concentrated in metropolitan areas, 

urban children are more likely to attend them. By contrast, 

students in rural areas may have to travel long distances to 

reach the nearest secondary school. 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Colombians may choose between 2 upper secondary 

education tracks, both of which confer a Bachillerato, roughly 

equivalent to a US high school diploma. Most students pursue 

the academic track, focusing on a specific field of science, arts, 

or humanities in preparation for university study. Students on 

the technical track pursue studies in fields such as agriculture, 

finance, management, ecology, and information technology to 

enter the workforce or study at a university following 

graduation. 

Post-Secondary: Colombia has 4 types of post-secondary 

educational institution. While universities offer traditional 

undergraduate and graduate programs, university institutions 

offer only undergraduate programs. Technological institutions 

offer technical and technological degrees, while professional 

technical institutions offer technical training for a particular job. 

The government National Training Service also runs tuition-free 

technology and technical 

workforce training institutions.

Colombian post-secondary 

enrollment has increased 

steadily since 2000. While just 

24% of secondary school 

graduates enrolled in university 

in 2000, that rate had doubled 

to 48% by 2013. To meet this demand, 4 new universities and 

20 new university institutions opened between 2007 and 2011. 

Critics assert that this rapid expansion came at the expense of 

quality, with institutions employing underqualified faculty. 

Dropout rates are also high, with around 45% of university 

students failing to complete their degree program (Photo: 

Students at La Universidad del Valle in Cali). 

Education and Colombia’s Internal Violence

Guerilla, paramilitary, and criminal organizations (see p. 7-11 of 

History and Myth) have killed, threatened, and displaced 

educators, often because they are the only government 

representatives in remote areas. In addition, guerilla 

organizations often maintain a presence in many universities to 

recruit students, generate political support for their causes, and 

undermine support for their adversaries. 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Overview

Colombians value a balance of work and personal life, tending

to measure quality of life by interpersonal relationships rather 

than professional success or material wealth. Consequently, 

they typically take the time required to build and sustain both 

business and personal connections. Colombians’ personal 

space preferences vary by level of familiarity and region.

Time and Work

Colombia’s work week runs from Monday-Friday. Many 

business offices open from 8:00am-12:00pm, close for a 2-hour 

lunch break from 12:00pm-2:00pm, then reopen from 2:00pm6:00pm. Some establishments may not adhere to this 

schedule. Colombians generally attend meetings, conduct

other business, run errands, and shop either before or after the 

2-hour lunch period. 

Shopping hours depend 

on store size and 

location. Many stores 

open weekdays from 

9:00am-5:00pm and a 

half day on Saturday. 

Larger stores and 

supermarkets typically 

have extended evening hours, while smaller shops in more 

remote areas have less consistent schedules. Most museums 

close on Mondays, while many restaurants and stores close on 

Sundays. Post office hours vary widely (Photo: A customer 

buys a plant from a small business owner).

Working Environment: Colombian workplaces are generally

hierarchical: upper level managers tend to make key decisions 

without significant input from their subordinates. Many

managers maintain a friendly but paternalistic attitude towards 

their employees. Work colleagues tend to view the individual 

worker as less important than the group. While this tendency

can foster a strong sense of group identity and belonging, it 

can also reduce initiative and innovation within a business. 

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
Colombian law officially limits work to 8-hour days, 6 days per

week with a break during shifts. Overtime up to 12 hours 

requires special authorization. Overtime and work conducted 

between 10:00pm-6:00am require higher pay. In reality, many 

Colombians, including the self-employed, often work longer 

hours to provide for their families.

Time Zone: Colombia’s time zone, Colombia Time (COT), is 5

hours behind Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). Colombia does 

not observe daylight savings time. Colombia’s time is identical 

to Eastern Standard Time (EST) in the US, which means it is 1 

hour behind the US Eastern Daylight Saving Time (EDT). 

Date Notation: While Colombia like the US uses the Western 

(Gregorian), Colombians tend to write the day first, followed by 

the month and year. 

Time and Business

While most Colombians value punctuality and generally adhere 

to deadlines, they may arrive a few minutes late to 

appointments. Similarly, conducting business meetings tends 

to move more slowly in 

Colombia than in the US, in 

part because Colombians 

prefer to establish both 

personal and professional

relationships first. They often 

rely on a personal introduction 

or recommendation from a 

mutual acquaintance to facilitate business contacts (Photo: US 

TSgt assists Colombian airman in preparing a checklist).

Initial business meetings usually involve a substantial amount 

of polite conversation to 

establish rapport (see p. 5 of 

Language and Communication).

After a meeting, Colombians 

often follow up with 

correspondence detailing key 

discussion points, next steps, 

and deadlines for both parties’ 

reference. Business discussions may also occur outside of 

working hours, during meals, or in more relaxed settings. 

SPACE

TIME &
In the workplace, Colombians prefer to avoid confrontational 

behavior, including critiquing their colleagues publicly. Instead, 

Colombians prefer to convey negative feedback privately and 

in a constructive manner to avoid causing embarrassment or 

creating conflict within the work team.

Personal Space

As is common in many societies, personal space in Colombia 

varies based on the nature of the relationship. The distance

Colombian speakers maintain also varies by region. For 

example, Colombians from urban and highland regions tend to 

maintain a greater distance than Colombians from the coasts. 

Throughout the country, distance between conversational 

partners diminishes with familiarity. Consequently, while 

Colombians tend to remain about an arm’s length apart when 

meeting strangers, family and close business associates may 

stand or sit close together.

Touch

Colombians customarily use 

conversational touching to convey 

sincerity, affection, concern, or 

friendliness. Close friends and 

family members tend to touch each 

other over the course of a 

conversation and during greetings (see p. 3 of Language and 

Communication). Conversational touching occurs less 

frequently in professional contexts. Foreign nationals should 

demonstrate reserve by waiting for the Colombian counterpart 

to initiate the touch (Photo: Colombian women and the former 

US ambassador touch while exchanging greetings). 

Eye Contact

Colombians tend to maintain direct eye contact when 

conversing with colleagues, friends, acquaintances, and even 

strangers. They consider avoiding direct eye contact during a 

conversation as suggestive of a lack of confidence or interest in 

the discussion. 

Photographs

Churches, museums, secured areas, and similar places may 

prohibit photography. Foreign nationals should always acquire 

a Colombian’s permission before taking his photo. 

SPACE

TIME &
Driving

In urban areas, drivers tend to disobey traffic laws and ignore 

lane markings while maneuvering congested streets. Honking 

is common and usually conveys position on the roadway rather 

than anger. In isolated rural areas, poor road conditions 

combined with a lack of lighting, signage, and security make 

driving hazardous. Like Americans, Colombians drive on the 

right side of the road. 

Colombia’s cities and towns are generally laid out in a 

predictable grid pattern, adhering to a naming convention that 

makes addresses easy to find. Streets that run north-south are 

carreras while east-west roads are calles.

National Holidays

• January 1: New Year’s Day

• January 6: Three Kings Day/Epiphany*

• March 19: San José Day*

• March/April: Holy Thursday, Good Friday, 

and Easter Monday (dates vary)

• May 1: Labor Day

• May: Ascension Day* (date varies)

• May/June: Corpus Christi Day* (date varies)

• June: Sacred Heart of Jesus Day* (date 

varies)

• June 29: San Pedro and San Pablo Day*

• July 20: Independence Day

• August 7: Battle of Boyacá Day

• August 15: Assumption of Mary Day*

• October 12: Day of the [Latino] Race*

• November 1: All Saints’ Day*

• November 11: Cartagena’s Independence*

• December 8: Immaculate Conception Day

• December 25: Christmas

* When these holidays do not fall on a Monday, Colombians 

observe them the following Monday.

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

Colombian aesthetics and recreational pursuits reflect the 

region’s rich cultural diversity. Indigenous, European, African, 

and Caribbean influences are evident in Colombian fashion, 

musical styles, arts and crafts, and sports forms.

Dress and Appearance

Traditional: Traditional clothing remains popular across the 

country and varies by region and climate. Traditional clothing in 

Colombia’s milder areas, such as the Pacific and Caribbean 

coasts, is lightweight. Women often wear loose, colorful 

blouses with skirts that fall below the knee. Men typically wear 

linen or twill pants with brightly colored shirts and a 

handkerchief around the neck. On Colombia’s Caribbean 

coast, many men prefer a guayabera, a dress shirt with rows 

of vertical pleats worn untucked. Also from the Caribbean coast 

region, the man’s sombrero 

vueltiao, a wide-brimmed hat 

woven from strips of dried cane, 

has become a widely-known 

symbol of Colombian culture.

In Colombia’s cool mountainous 

regions, indigenous people often 

wear a ruana, wool, poncho-like 

outer garment paired with a black 

bowler hat. Wayúu women of the 

Guajira Peninsula in northern 

Colombia prefer long, colorful, 

loose dresses paired with sandals.

The most well-known traditional dress for women is the pollera 

colora (pictured), a flowing, brightly colored skirt with a 

matching off-the shoulder blouse adorned with ruffles and lace. 

Often worn for traditional dances, the Colombian pollera is 

similar to styles found throughout Spanish-speaking Latin

America. Women’s traditional outfits also often include a 

pañolon, a fringed shawl.

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Modern: Most Colombians wear Western-style clothing daily. 

Men typically wear slacks and shirts, while women wear 

dresses, skirts and blouses, or pantsuits. By contrast, 

teenagers and young people dress much more casually, often 

favoring jeans and T-shirts. While all Colombians value a neat 

and well-dressed appearance, Bogotanos (residents of Bogotá)

are particularly attentive to their clothing. In an office 

environment, Colombians’ dress is conservative. While men 

favor dark suits and light dress shirts with ties, women often 

pair dresses or pantsuits with high heel shoes. Of note, 

Colombian women do not typically wear shorts except during 

sports activities. 

Sports and Games

Traditional: In tejo, a game attributed to Colombia’s 

indigenous people, players throw a metal disk at a target box 

containing small clay pockets filled with gunpowder, causing a

small explosion when hit. While friends often engage in casual 

games, professional teams also compete in a national 

tournament. Chaza or pelota nacional (national ball) is an 

indigenous racquet sport consisting of 2 teams of 4 players. 

Participants use their hands or a goatskin-lined, wooden 

racquet (bombo) to hit a rubber ball so that the opposing side 

fails to return it. Coleo is a rodeo-like competition popular in 

Los Llanos, Colombia’s eastern plains.

Football: Introduced by British 

sailors in the early 20th century, 

football (soccer) is Colombia’s

most popular sport. Colombians 

of all ages play the sport in 

addition to cheering on their 

favorite teams in various 

leagues. The men’s national 

team has had success, reaching the quarter-finals during the

2014 FIFA World Cup where Colombian player James 

Rodriguez was the tournament’s top scorer. As runner-up in 

the 2014 Copa América, South America’s soccer 

championship, the Colombian women’s national team qualified 

for the 2015 World Cup and the 2016 Olympic Games (Photo: 

US sailors and Marines play soccer with Colombia children).

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Other Sports: Cycling has grown in popularity largely due to 

stars like Luis “Lucho” Herrera, who won the 1987 Tour of 

Spain, while Nairo Quintana took 2nd in the 2013 Tour de 

France and won the 2014 Giro d’Italia. Colombia’s own annual 

Tour de Colombia covers one of the world’s steepest and most 

challenging courses. Every Sunday, Bogotá holds a ciclovia, 

closing several hundred miles of roadway for use by a 

multitude of cyclists, rollerbladers, and skaters. Of note, 

Colombian-born race car driver Juan Pablo Montoya won his 

2nd Indianapolis 500 in 2015.

Music and Dance

Traditional: Colombian traditional music includes a wide array 

of influences from indigenous to Spanish to Afro-Caribbean. 

The most popular of Colombia’s many styles, cumbia

combines drums, gaita (an indigenous flute), trombones, 

guitars, and maracas to produce complex African rhythms.

During the accompanying dance, participants combine 

flirtatious movements recalling courtship with shuffling footwork 

that mimics the movements of chained African slaves.

Vallenato originated on Colombia’s Caribbean coast and is 

played with an accordion, bongo drums, and a guacharaca (a 

ribbed, wooden stick strummed with a fork). Because it is the 

music of Los Llanos, joropo is often referred to as Colombia’s 

country music. It features a harp, a cuatro (4- stringed guitar), 

and maracas to create a waltz-like rhythm.

The bambuco demonstrates Spanish and 

European influence in its waltz-like beat. 

Modern: Although not native to Colombia, 

salsa, techno, and pop are widely played.

With 2 Grammys and 8 Latin Grammys,

singer/songwriter Shakira (pictured) was

the first Colombian to top US Billboard 

charts. Many Colombian artists combine 

modern and traditional styles. Examples include Pernett and 

hip hop band ChocQuib Town who favor cumbia rhythms, and 

Carlos Vives’ blend of upbeat tempos and vallenato styles. 

Other well-known artists include Juanes, an immensely popular 

singer/guitarist who combines rock and cumbia, and Fonseca, 

who blends traditional music with boy band-type vocals.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Theater

Most urban areas feature a wide range of theatrical offerings 

ranging from conventional to experimental. Bogotá’s biannual 

Festival Iberooamericano del Teatro draws thousands of 

international performers and theater enthusiasts.

Literature

Following independence in 1819, Colombia’s literary tradition 

began to bloom. Many 19th century authors were inspired by 

European Romanticism, including poet Rafael Pombo and 

poet/novelist Jorge Isaacs. José Asunción Silva’s early 20thNobel Laureate Gabriel García Márquez

Colombia’s most well-known author is Gabriel 

García Márquez, who was awarded the Nobel Prize 

for Literature in 1982. He was born in Aracataca 

near the Caribbean coast in 1928 but lived mostly in 

Mexico and Europe. Known as “Gabo” to his fans, 

García Márquez began his career as a journalist 

before writing the novel One Hundred Years of 

Solitude in 1967. An innovative mixture of myths, 

dreams, and reality, the novel won instant acclaim 

and gave rise to a new genre in Latin American 

literature: magical realism.

Other well-received novels include Love in the Time 

of Cholera, The Autumn of the Patriarch, and The 

General in his Labyrinth, a treatment of the final 

months of Simón Bolívar (see p. 4 of History and 

Myth). In the 1990s, García Márquez wrote a 

nonfiction account of kidnappings ordered by drug 

kingpin Pablo Escobar (see p. 9 of History and 

Myth). In addition to novels, García Márquez wrote

memoirs, short stories, screenplays, and nonfiction 

works that brought him widespread acclaim and 

commercial success. Upon Gabo’s death in 2014, 

President Santos proclaimed him “the greatest 

Colombian who ever lived.”

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
century poetry is considered a precursor to Latin American 

modernism. Also from that period, José Eustacio Rivera’s novel 

The Vortex explored the plight of rubber workers in the 

Colombian jungle. Contemporary writers who have received 

significant acclaim include poet John Jairo Junieles and 

novelists Mario Mendoza and Laura Restrepo.

Arts and Crafts

Painting and Sculpture: The earliest Colombian works of art

include petroglyphs (rock engravings) and cave drawings 

dating to 300 BC. During Colombia’s colonial era (see p. 2-3 of 

History and Myth), artists primarily produced religious works of 

art for the colony’s Roman Catholic churches and seminaries. 

Prolific colonial era painter Gregorio Vásquez de Arce y 

Ceballos produced more than 500 works in the 17th and early 

18th centuries. 

Important artists from recent decades include Pedro Nel 

Gómez, best known for his murals in public buildings, and 

Édgar Negret, a sculptor whose works attained international 

renown. With his paintings and sculptures of large, rounded

human figures, contemporary artist Fernando Botero is 

currently Colombia’s most widely-recognized artist.

Textiles: Colombia’s sombrero vueltiao (pictured) is as much 

art as attire. Constructed from dried cane fibers that have been 

dyed black, bleached, and 

braided, the hat was originally a 

product of the Zenú indigenous 

group. Declared a national 

symbol in 2004 when Colombia’s 

delegation wore the hat during 

the Olympics, the hat is also 

popular among cumbia dancers.

Other well-known textile products 

include the woven chinchorros (hammocks) and mochilas

(shoulder bags) made by Wayúu people.

Metalwork: Colombia’s Pre-Columbian indigenous populations

were skilled goldsmiths who made intricate ornaments, 

breastplates, statues, pendants, figurines, jewelry, and knives. 

Bogotá’s Colombian Gold Museum houses over 34,000 pieces.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Sustenance Overview

Colombian cuisine varies by region and reflects the nation’s 

unique geography and ethnic diversity. Unlike food from some

other Latin American countries, typical Colombian fare 

(comida criolla) is not spicy or hot. Instead, Colombians prefer 

mildly seasoned dishes prepared from fresh, local ingredients.

Dining Customs

Colombians typically eat 3 daily meals and a mid-morning

(mediasnueves) and md-afternoon (onces) snack. While the 

mid-day meal is typically 

the largest, dinner can also 

be substantial (Photo: Meal

of assorted barbecued 

meats, corn, and potatoes). 

When invited to a 

Colombian home for dinner, 

guests are expected to 

arrive a few minutes late. 

Hosts usually serve their guests first and encourage them to 

begin eating immediately. After guests finish their portions, they 

usually must decline several offers of additional servings if they 

do not want more food. Guests who would like additional 

servings are expected to decline initially out of politeness and 

then accept on the 2nd offer.

Diet

Along the coasts, Spanish and African culinary traditions 

influence the preparation of local ingredients, including fresh 

fish, shellfish, snails, coconut, yuca (cassava – a tuberous 

starchy root), and tropical fruits. In this comida costeña

(coastal cuisine), cooks often use coconut milk instead of oils

to sauté meats and fish, then wrap them in banana leaves to 

steam. By contrast, potatoes, beans, sausage, and hearty 

soups are important components of Andean diets. Of note,

guinea pig is an Andean delicacy. Dishes in the eastern plains

(Los Llanos) tend to be heavy in starchy plantains, potatoes, 

and yuca. Rice is popular throughout the country. 

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Colombians across the country enjoy assorted meats (beef, 

pork loin, pork ribs, chicken, and sausage) barbecued on an 

iron grill (parilla) over a wood-burning fire. These meats are 

typically served with staples 

like grilled corn, potatoes, and 

arepas, a flatbread made of 

ground corn. 

In addition to meat, 

Colombians consume a

variety of native fruits, 

including bananas, papayas, 

pineapples, mangos, maracuya (passion fruit), lulo (a small 

orange fruit with a bright green interior), and guanábana

(pictured - a large, spiky green fruit with sweet flesh of custard 

consistency). 

Popular Dishes and Meals

Popular dishes include arroz con pollo (chicken with rice); 

frijoles con chicharron (beans cooked with pork); sancocho

(a thick soup that varies across the country according to local 

ingredients such as chicken, oxtail, plantains, pumpkin, and 

corn) and ajiaco (a hearty stew of chicken, corn, and several 

varieties of potato); and lechona (spiced pig skin stuffed with 

shredded pork and peas, then slow-roasted overnight).

While breakfast foods vary by region, they often include fruit, 

bread, eggs, changua (potato and egg soup) and calentado

(fried rice with beans, meat, and sometimes plantains). In rural 

areas, caldo de papa (a potato broth seasoned with cilantro 

and chives) and tamales (corn dough filled with cheese or 

meats and steamed in a corn husk) are popular breakfast

items. 

Lunch typically begins with a soup followed by meat served 

with potatoes, rice, or arepas. Alternatively, lunch may consist 

of a large bowl of hearty soup. Dinner is usually a smaller meal 

that incorporates rice, pasta, or potatoes served alongside 

meat, chicken, or fish with salad. 

For dessert, Colombians may enjoy crisp waffle cookies filled 

with arequipe, a sweet, burnt milk sauce, or arroz con leche, 

rice pudding flavored with cinnamon.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Eating Out

Urban Colombians in particular eat out regularly. Families often 

celebrate special occasions, such as birthdays and holidays, at

restaurants – also popular socializing locations for groups of 

friends and couples. 

Offering a variety of cuisines, restaurants range from upscale 

establishments to small, casual eateries serving inexpensive 

and hearty meals such as comida corriente, a “meal of the 

day,” commonly consisting of chicken, rice, fried plantains, and 

red beans. Typically located in the countryside, traditional 

asaderos specializing in barbecue are popular weekend 

destinations. Of note, many establishments automatically add a 

10% surcharge to the bill.

Additional tipping is not 

required or expected.

Street stalls are not as popular 

in Colombia as in some other 

Latin American countries.

More commonly, Colombian 

food vendors concentrate in 

large open air markets where 

they sell light snacks and fresh fruits, including avocados, 

grapes, strawberries, and mangos. Some stalls specialize in 

arepas stuffed with cheese or other fillings. Others offer 

empanadas (pictured), fried turnovers filled with meat, 

potatoes, or vegetables, or envueltos, another version of 

tamales.

Beverages

Colombians enjoy their world-famous coffee (see p. 3 of 

Economics and Resources) throughout the day. Typical ways 

to order coffee include tinto (black) and café con leche (coffee 

with milk). Colombians also enjoy freshly squeezed juices from

papaya, pineapple, passion fruit, strawberry, and blackberry. 

Popular alcoholic beverages include aguardiente (an anise 

favored sugarcane brandy), rum, and beer, including local 

brews such as Bavaria, Aguila, Club Colombia, and Costeña. 

Popular in Bogotá, Chicha is an indigenous Andean beer 

made from fermented corn. Some Colombians also enjoy 

imported whiskey and wine.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Health Overview

Colombia’s healthcare system has improved dramatically over 

the past 3 decades, increasing the population’s overall 

wellbeing. Between 1985 and 2014, life expectancy at birth 

steadily increased from approximately 68 to 79 years. 

Meanwhile, infant mortality (the proportion of infants who die 

before age 1), decreased dramatically from 34 to 15 deaths per 

1,000 live births. While quality of care varies greatly among

private, public, urban, and rural facilities, Colombians in 

general have access to modern healthcare. Despite these 

positive trends, a high rate of illegal abortions has kept 

Colombia’s maternal mortality rate high – at 92 per 100,000 

live births, it is substantially above the Latin American average 

of 63 (see p. 4 of Sex and Gender). 

Traditional Medicine

Traditional medicine consists of the knowledge, practices, and 

skills derived from a native population’s beliefs, experiences, 

and theories. Traditional Colombian medicine centers on the 

use of herbal remedies, not 

surgical methods, to identify 

and treat the basic causes of 

illness. 

Traditional medicine is 

especially popular among 

Colombians who cannot 

afford or do not have access 

to modern medical 

procedures. Of note, many rural communities rely entirely on 

medicinal plants to treat diseases and other ailments. 

Merchants in both urban and rural markets commonly sell 

medicinal plants and herbal remedies (Photo: A saúco flower, 

used in Colombia to reduce swelling and heal wounds). 

In addition to using herbal remedies, some Colombians consult 

traditional healers to cleanse the body of illness, to ward off 

spirits who bring sickness, and to restore physical and spiritual 

wholeness. In some indigenous communities (see p. 11 of 

Political and Social Relations), traditional healers administer

medical remedies or consume hallucinogenic drinks in order to 

enter the spirit world and rid a patient of illness. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Modern Healthcare System

Prior to 1990, about 25% of the Colombian population was 

medically insured. In an effort to provide greater access, 

ambitious healthcare reform introduced mandatory universal 

health insurance in 1993. Today, about 98% of Colombians are 

insured. In addition, access to healthcare has increased 

dramatically for poor and indigenous populations. In 2010,

Colombia passed one of Latin America’s most progressive 

reproductive rights laws, 

guaranteeing both men and 

women universal access to free 

contraceptive drugs and surgical 

procedures (see p. 3-4 of Sex 

and Gender). Major illnesses, 

like HIV/AIDS, cancer, and 

cardiovascular diseases are also 

covered under the health 

insurance system (Photo: Health clinic in Maripí in Boyacá 

Department).

Healthcare System Challenges: Colombia’s national health 

insurance program faces several challenges. While employer 

and employee contributions fund the so-called “contributive” 

plan, government aid and taxes fund the “subsidized” plan for 

poor and unemployed Colombians. Historically, contributive 

plan members received services and procedures that were 

denied subsidized members. Although the government is 

attempting to narrow this eligibility gap, rising demand for 

healthcare plus increased costs, particularly for maternal and 

neonatal care, make progress slow.

Besides a shortfall in healthcare spending, Colombia lacks 

adequate medical professionals. In 2012 the country had about 

1.5 physicians per 1,000 people, lower than neighboring 

Brazil’s and Venezuela’s 1.9. Further, Colombia’s extensive

network of hospitals and medical facilities is concentrated in 

cities. Although private urban facilities are staffed with highlyqualified doctors offering first-rate care, public urban hospitals 

often remain understaffed and poorly maintained. The quality of 

care further diminishes in rural areas, where residents often

have access only to small, ill-equipped clinics. With the goal of 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
improving rural healthcare, the government requires all 

Colombian medical students to complete 1 year of service in a 

rural clinic as part of their residency. Of note, Afro-Colombians 

and indigenous groups disproportionately lack access to quality 

healthcare, suffering significantly higher infant mortality rates 

and lower life expectancies.

Health Challenges

Like many countries with 

an aging population, 

chronic and noncommunicable disease 

such as heart disease, 

cancer, and diabetes

accounted for more than 

2/3 of all deaths in 

Colombia in 2012. The 

top causes of death included cardiovascular and chronic 

respiratory diseases, diabetes, stomach cancer, and digestive 

disorders. Preventable “external causes,” such as car 

accidents caused about 4% of all deaths (Photo: A Colombian 

family). 

Further, communicable diseases, including tuberculosis, yellow 

fever, malaria, and dengue fever remain a risk, especially to 

inhabitants of rural and tropical regions. Although malaria is a 

risk in most areas below 5500 ft elevation, Colombia is on track 

in 2015 to register a 75% decrease in malaria incidence since 

2000. 

While tap water in most urban areas is clean, rural residents 

often lack access to clean water. Similarly, both rural and small 

town residents often lack access to sanitation facilities, putting 

them at risk of infection from parasites and bacteria. 

Interpersonal Violence: Interpersonal violence was the 2nd 

leading cause of death among Colombians in 2012, 

contributing to 9% of all deaths that year. This figure is 

significantly decreased from 2000’s 18% rate. Nevertheless,

violence stemming from Colombia’s ongoing internal conflicts

(see p. 7-11 of History and Myth) continues to persist, 

especially along Colombia’s border regions. Injuries from 

landmines in rural areas are especially pervasive.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Overview

The Colombian economy was historically based on the mining 

and export of gold. As gold reserves dwindled, Colombia began

to diversify its economy, forging an industrial sector and 

producing both goods and agricultural commodities for export

by the 1950s. 

In the 1990s, Colombia achieved steady economic growth by 

increasing spending on infrastructure and security, reducing 

tariffs, privatizing state-owned enterprises, and encouraging 

foreign investment. Since 2010, Colombia’s economy has seen 

an average growth rate of 4% per year and in 2013-14

attracted record levels of foreign investment. 

Today, Colombia has a thriving multi-sector economy that is 

South America’s 4th largest behind Brazil, Venezuela, and 

Argentina. Rich in oil and mineral reserves, Colombia is South 

America’s largest coal producer and 3rd largest producer of oil. 

Although the services and industry sectors are the primary 

economic drivers, agricultural activities remain important 

sources of economic growth. Further, over 700 large 

multinational corporations operate within Colombia, capitalizing 

on its educated labor force, 

high literacy rates, and stable 

currency (Photo: Medellín’s 

Plaza Botero).

Despite these successes, 

challenges such as inadequate 

infrastructure (see p. 1-2 of 

Technology and Material), 

corruption, illegal drug trade,

and an uncertain internal security situation (see p. 7-11 of 

History and Myth) threaten to disrupt economic progress. While 

unemployment averaged 9% in 2014, the lowest rate in the last

14 years, almost 1/3rd of the Colombian population lives below 

the poverty line. Wealth is distributed unequally, with urban 

upper and middle classes disproportionally holding the majority 

of economic resources.

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Illegal Drug Industry

While specific numbers are unknown, observers estimate that 

Colombia produces 80% of the world’s cocaine and 60% of all 

heroin sold in the US. Approximately 300 drug-trafficking 

organizations control the illegal drug trade, which permeates all

levels of society. Farmers, government officials, and law 

enforcement personnel alike are implicated in this criminal 

activity. Despite government efforts and substantial US support 

to combat illicit drug activities, the Colombian drug trade 

continues to be a multi-billion dollar industry. 

Services

Accounting for 57% of GDP and 62% of employment, the 

services sector is the largest and fastest-growing component of 

the Colombian economy. Important sub-components include 

transportation, telecommunications, tourism, financial services, 

and wholesale and retail 

sales.

Tourism: Colombia’s tourism 

industry was stagnant during 

the latter half of the 20th and 

early 21st centuries, as unrest

and armed conflict plagued 

the country (see p. 7-11 of 

History and Myth). More recently, stabilization in internal 

security has spurred a new growth in the industry. Tourist 

arrivals increased from about 540,000 in 2002 to 2 million in 

2013, with the tourism sector accounting for 5% of GDP and 

6% of employment (Photo: Cartagena, a tourist destination on 

the Caribbean coast).

Industry

As the 2nd largest component of the economy, the industrial 

sector accounts for 37% of GDP and 21% of employment. 

Manufacturing: Manufacturing is a key sub-component of the 

industrial sector. Colombian companies specialize in the 

production of textiles, oil, clothing and footwear, beverages, 

chemicals, and cement. While government incentives have 

promoted the establishment of manufacturing centers in other 

regions, most industry is located in Bogotá, Medellín, and Cali. 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Construction: Construction accounts for 7% of GDP and 6% 

of employment. Government-led investment in infrastructure 

projects (see p. 1-2 of Technology and Material) and expansion 

in residential construction have contributed to an average 

annual growth of 7% per year from 2000-2011. Today, the 

sector is sustained by both public and private investment.

Mining: Capitalizing on Colombia’s rich natural resources, 

mining is a prolific industry that extracts gold, coal, silver, 

nickel, platinum, lead, and emeralds. Of note, 60% of the 

world’s total emerald yield originates in Colombia. 

Agriculture

The agricultural sector consists of farming, fishing, and forestry

and is the Colombian’s smallest 

economic sector, accounting for 

6% of GDP and about 17% of 

employment. 

Farming: Only about 2% of 

Colombia’s territory is dedicated 

to cultivation. The most important 

crop, coffee, accounts for almost 

1/3rd of all exports and contributes about 12% of the world’s 

total coffee supply. Other important products include flowers, 

bananas, sugarcane, cotton, rice, tobacco, and corn. Large

commercial farms employ modern agricultural techniques to 

produce commodities for export and domestic consumption.

There are also small family-owned farms that engage in

subsistence agriculture (Photo: Small-scale coffee farmer).

Livestock and Fishing: Livestock production is an important 

agricultural activity, with cattle occupying 80% of agricultural 

lands. Colombia’s fishing industry is small, and domestic 

production does not meet local demand. Despite bordering 2 

oceans, freshwater inland catches exceed ocean harvests.

Forestry: While forests cover approximately half of Colombia, 

the timber industry remains relatively undeveloped. Decades of 

logging for domestic use and land clearing for farming resulted 

in deforestation in some regions. Efforts to replant deforested 

areas with fast-growing, commercially valuable species are 

currently underway. 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Currency

Colombia’s currency is the Colombian peso (COP$), issued in 

6 banknote values (1,000, 2,000, 5,000, 10,000, 20,000, 

50,000) and 5 coin values (50, 100, 200, 500, 1,000). 

Exchange rates vary, but on average, $1 has been worth about 

COP$1,900 over the past 25 years. Several businesses accept 

credit cards with the exception of street stalls, market vendors, 

and other small businesses which require payment in cash.

Foreign Trade

In 2013, Colombia’s exports totaled $58 billion and imports $55 

billion. Exports included petroleum, coal, emeralds, coffee, 

nickel, cut flowers, bananas, and apparel. Buyers included the 

US (31%), China (9%), India (9%), Panama (6%), and Spain 

(5%). Top imports included industrial and transportation 

equipment, consumer goods, chemicals, paper products, and 

refined petroleum. These items were purchased from the US 

(28%), China (18%), Mexico (9%), and Brazil (4%).

Free Trade Agreements

Colombia has signed or is negotiating Free Trade Agreements 

(FTAs) with several nations and the European Union (EU) as 

part of its strategy to promote multilateral cooperation and 

bolster economic growth. In 2012, Colombia entered into an

FTA with the US, facilitating the movement of goods, services, 

and capital between the 2 nations. Colombia is a founding 

member of the Pacific Alliance,

which promotes trade integration 

with Chile, Mexico, and Peru 

(Photo: Bank of the Republic in 

Barranquilla).

Foreign Aid

Since 2000, Colombia has been 

one of the largest recipients of US 

financial assistance, including $5 billion provided under “Plan 

Colombia” (see p. 9 of History and Myth). In 2014, the US 

provided over $300 million in financial assistance to support 

counter narcotics, law enforcement, human rights, 

environmental, and economic development projects. In addition 

to the US assistance, Colombia receives humanitarian aid and 

disaster relief support from the EU.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

Colombia has struggled to build and maintain its transportation 

infrastructure. In an effort to reduce both travel times and 

transport costs, the government recently began an ambitious 

program allowing private companies to build and operate 

transportation concessions. While journalism remains a 

dangerous occupation, Colombians enjoy a free press and 

unrestricted Internet access.

Transportation

Besides walking, common 

methods of everyday transport 

include buses, motorcycles, and 

bicycles; a minority of 

Colombians owns a car. 

Traveling by car can be risky in 

certain areas due to internal 

unrest (see p. 7-11 of History and Myth). Extreme urban 

congestion also makes driving challenging. In Bogotá 

congestion is managed by allowing cars in the city center only 

on certain days, based on their license plate number.

Bus routes serve most of the country. While buses called 

corrientes or sencillos (pictured) provide regional service, 

ejecutivos offer long-distance service in air-conditioned 

comfort. Within urban areas, residents may choose between a 

bus and a colectivo, a mini-bus or van that collects 

passengers from set stops but only departs when full. Several

cities operate integrated transport networks, such as Bogotá’s 

TransMilenio system. Medellín has Colombia’s only metro 

system which includes an aerial cable car that transports 

passengers to a hilltop city district. In urban areas, taxis are 

plentiful and economical. Motorcyclists also sell rides at modest 

prices on their mototaxis. Of note, Bogotá features Latin 

America’s largest network of bicycle routes as well as one of 

the world’s longest pedestrian-only streets. Many residents 

take advantage of the city’s weekly ciclovia or closure of roads 

to cars so that they may cycle, walk, or rollerblade through the 

city (see p. 3 of Aesthetics and Recreation).

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Roadways: Of Colombia’s about 88,000 mi of roadways, just

20% are paved. With only 750 mi of dual-lane, divided 

highways in 2012, Colombia 

announced plans in 2014 to 

build 4,400 mi of new roads, 

including 40 new toll roads 

(Photo: Highway near 

Barranquilla).

Railways: Colombia’s 

deteriorating railway system 

currently transports only freight. 

As part of its broader infrastructure improvement effort

launched in 2014, the country eventually plans to increase 

railway operations by 50%. Of note, in 2011 China revealed

plans to build a railroad across Colombia connecting its Pacific 

and Caribbean coasts as an alternative to the Panama Canal.

While progress has been slow, negotiations continued in 2014.

Ports and Waterways: Colombia has about 11,100 mi of 

navigable inland waterways. In 2014, the government 

announced it would improve navigability on the Magdalena 

River so that shippers can transport coal and oil. Important sea 

ports include Buenaventura and Tumaco on the Pacific coast

and Santa Marta, Barranquilla, Cartagena, Muelles El Bosque,

Puerto Bolívar, and Turbo on the Caribbean coast. 

Airways: While Colombia has 836 airports, only about 120

have paved runways. Domestic carriers include Aires, 

AeroRepublica, Satena, and Colombia’s national carrier, 

Avianca. The largest international airports include Medellín’s 

José María Córdova Airport, Cali’s Alfonso Bonilla Aragón 

Airport, and Bogotá’s El Dorado Airport. The latter accounts for 

almost 50% of Colombia’s air traffic.

Energy

With substantial proven reserves of fossil fuels (see p. 1 of 

Economics and Resources), Colombia is self-sufficient in 

energy and is even a net exporter of electricity, primarily to 

Venezuela and Ecuador. In 2013, Colombia generated about 

68% of its electricity from hydroelectric plants, roughly 18% 

from natural gas, around 8% from coal, less than 1% from oil, 

and the remaining percentage from other sources. 

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Violence against Journalists

During the decades of Colombia’s internal violence 

(see p. 7-11 of History and Myth), journalism has been

one of Colombia’s most dangerous professions. 

Between 1996 and 2006, 83 journalists were killed by 

guerrillas, paramilitaries, or criminals who objected to 

their reporting. After improving since 2010, Colombia’s 

ranking on the World Press Freedom Index dropped in 

2014. The decline resulted from the killing of 2 

journalists, 122 reported incidents of violence and 

harassment against journalists, with 11 detained. 

Media

With communication across Colombia’s mountainous 

geography historically difficult, Colombians traditionally have

valued accurate news and information, holding journalists in 

high regard. Leading newspapers include Colombia’s oldest, El 

Espectador and El Tiempo from Bogotá, El Mundo and El 

Colombiano in Medellín, and Diario de Occidente and El País

in Cali. English-language publications include the Bogotá Post 

and the City Paper of Bogotá.

Radio and TV: Colombia’s state-owned broadcaster Señal 

Colombia Sistema de Medios Públicos has 2 national radio 

stations and 3 national television stations, mostly devoted to 

educational and cultural content. Private media provide more 

than 500 radio and more than 60 television stations. 

Telecommunications

While Colombia had just 15 landline telephones per 100 people

in 2012, there were 100 mobile phone subscriptions per 100 

people that year. Of note, just 69% of Colombia’s population 

are regular mobile phone users, suggesting that some users 

have more than 1 cell phone subscription.

Internet: About half of the population were regular Internet 

consumers in 2012, the majority using their mobile phones to 

access the web. The government puts no restrictions on 

Internet access nor does it monitor email or chat rooms without

appropriate legal authority.
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