NBS BUILDING SCIENCE SERIES 112

I

Window Blinds as a Potential

Energy Saver—A Case Study

\

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

ff^Llb^ NBS BUILDING SCIENCE SERIES 112

)'> '/^

^ ^ Window Blinds as a Potential

Energy Saver—A Case Study

Arthur I. Rubin

Belinda L. Collins

Robert L. Tibbott

Center for Building Technology

National Engineering Laboratory

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C. 20234

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Juanita M. Kreps, Secretary

Dr. Sidney Harman, Under Secretary

Jordan J. Baruch, Assistant Secretary for Science and Technology

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Director

Issued May 1978
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 78-600038

National Bureau of Standards Building Science Series 112

Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Bldg. Sci. Ser. 112, «5 pages (May 1978) CODEN: BSSNBV

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON: 1978

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 SD Catalog Stock No. 003-003-01936-4 Price $2.50

(Add 25 percent additional for other than U.S. mailing)

.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

1. Introduction 1

2. Background 3

2.1 Heat Transfer and Windows 4

2.2 View, Lighting and Windows 4

2.3 Psychological Benefits of Windows 4

3. NBS Window Blind Study 9

4. Experimental Design 19

4.1 Research Approach 19

4.2 Research Design 23

4.3 Procedure 2 3

5. Results 29

5.1 Blind Changes Made by Occupants 29

5.1.1 Daily Change 29

5.1.2 Distribution of Blind Positions

Before Treatment 30

5.1.3 Effect of Experimental Factors 30

5.2 Response to Experimental Treatment 34

5.3 Comparisons of Blind Positions — Before and

After Changes 39

5.4 Direction of Change After Experimental Treatment 39

5.5 Influence of Experimental Factors Upon After

Treatment Data 49

6. Discussion 57

6.1 Setting of Blinds - "Up" and "Down" Treatments 58

6.2 Building Orientation 58

6.3 View Type 59

6.4 Seasonal Variation 59

6.5 Explanatory Hypothesis (Untested) 60

6.6 Methodological Issues 60

6.7 Ethical Concerns 63

iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

Page

7. Energy Conservation and Venetian Blind Usage 65

7.1 Improvements on the Use of Venetian Blinds 66

7.2 Innovative Improvements in Blind Design 66

8. Summary and Conclusions 69

Acknowledgements 71

Bibliography 72

Appendices 74

iv
Figures

No. Capt ion Page

1 East Facade of a Typical GPL Building at NBS Gaithersburg xu

2 West Facade of a Typical GPL Building at NBS Gaithersburp 1

3 Interior of a Single-Occupant NBS Office

4 Interior of a Double-Occupant NBS Office 1 L

5 Layout of Buildings at NBS Gaithersburg

6 Office with Access to Two View Types A. Ope n

7 Office with Access to Two View Types B. Restricted 17

8 Blind Positions on a Typical NBS Building Facade 18

9 View Types from Offices A. Open B. Restricted 22

10 Categories Used in Rating Blind Positions 21

11 Distribution of Blind Positions Before Treatment 31

12 Distribution of

Treatment

Blind Positions by Orientation Before 32

13 Distribution of Blind Positions by View Before Treatment 33

14 Distribution of Blind Positions by Season Before Treatment 35

15 Distribution of

Treatment

Blind Positions by Treatment Group Before 36

16 Blind Changes as a Function of Time After Treatment 38

17 Distribution of

Changers Added

Before Treatment Blind Positions with 41

18 Distribution of

Changers Added

After Treatment Blind Positions with 42

19 After Treatment Blind Positions as a Function of Before

Treatment Positions

44

20 Comparison of Before and After Treatment Blind Positions 46

by Orientation and Season A. North Orientation

V
Figures (continued)

No

.

Caption Page

21 Comparison of Before and After Treatment Blind Positions

by Orientation and Season B. South Orientation

22 Direction of Change in Blind Position from Before to After

Treatment

23 Distribution of Blind Positions After Treatment 3q

24 Distribution of Blind Positions by Treatment Group After

Treatment 5]^

25 , Distribution of Blind Positions by Orientation After

Treatment 52

26 Distribution of Blind Positions by View After Treatment 53

27 Distribution of Blind Positions by Season After Treatment 55

28 Blinds with Slats Tilting Downward 61

29 Blinds with Slats Tilting Upward 62

vi
Tables

No. Page

1 Calculated Heat Loads (Btu/h) for a Sunny Day Upon a Typical NBS Window 5

2 Number of Venetian Blinds Experimentally Treated 21

3 Weather Conditions for a Typical Day 23

4 Assignment of Facades to Treatment Groups 24

5 Detailed Rating Scheme 26

6 After Treatment Blind Changes and Times Changes were

Detected 37

7 Summary of After Treatment Blind Response 40

8 X"^ Analysis of Before Treatment Distribution with

Changers Versus Without Changers 43

9 Analysis of Before Treatment Frequency of Occurrence

of Blind Positions 74

10 X^ Analysis of Direction of Blind Change from Before

Treatment to After Treatment 77

11 Summary of Direction of Change in Blind Position from

Before Treatment to After Treatment 79

12 Weather Conditions During Blind Study 80

vii

[iimir'i

1. INTRODUCTION

The window has been a source of particular concern to energy researchers

because of its potential for large heat gains and losses. As a result,

many designers have explored ways of minimizing the detrimental energyrelated characteristics of windows, while preserving their thermal,

lighting and psychological benefits. Among the techniques suggested

for improving window performance are the use of: (1) smaller windows,

(2) window coatings to absorb or reflect energy, and (3) shading devices,

both internal and external.

Ji
In conjunction with a research project monitoring energy use at the

National Bureau of Standards (NBS) in Gaithersburg, Maryland, a study

of the use of internal shading devices was undertaken. Although many

suggestions for energy conservation in buildings require the occupant

to participate actively in the process, little information is available

on the degree or kind of participation currently practiced, even on

a matter as simple as the use of shading devices at the window.

This study was designed with four goals in mind:

1) To determine a) whether the office occupants of the general purpose

laboratories of NBS manipulate their window blinds; and b) if so, how frequently this occurs.

2) To test a number of external variables, identified by previous re- searchers as being important attributes of windows, to determine their

relationship to window usage as measured by Venetian blind position.

3) To determine the feasibility of energy saving operations dependent on

the manipulation of Venetian blinds by building occupants.

4) To develop and refine a methodology applicable to a variety of field

investigations of building use by occupants.

Venetian blinds are a particularly versatile shading device, allowing

selective control over window characteristics by means of adjusting

blind height and the angle of the slats. Information about actual use

is desirable because a number of proposed approaches for reducing energy

losses are directly related to the use of Venetian blinds. For example,

one proposal involves positioning the slats to project beams of sunlight

deep into the room (Rosenfeld and Selkowitz, 1976). Furthermore, Venetian

blinds are currently used to reduce direct solar heat gain through

a window.

A field investigation of window blind usage and its relationship to energy

conservation appears to have no precedent in the literature. Consequently,

a major part of the effort was the development and application of appropriate methodologies for such an investigation. An equally important

consideration was the desire to collect objective and quantifiable data

based upon the actual behavior of people rather than upon their response

to questions about their behavior.

2
2. BACKGROUND

Although only a limited number of systematic studies of window usage by

building occupants have been conducted, and still fewer investigations

are associated with the use of Venetian blinds, background data do exist

describing the physical performance of both windows and shading devices.

A number of studies have also been conducted to assess the advantages

and disadvantages, of windows, from a thermal as well as a psychological

standpoint

.
2.1 HEAT TRANSFER AND WINDOWS

One variable that has an important influence upon window performance is

the position of the sun within a day. Although the thermal performance

of a window with a Venetian blind is not equivalent to that of a wall,

the blind when used properly can reduce undesirable heat gains and losses.

For example, using a Venetian blind to cover a south-facing window on

a hot sunny day can cut the heat gain by at least one-half (Dix and

Lavan, 1974). Calculations given in Table I indicate the effectiveness

of Venetian blinds in reducing heat gain upon a typical north- and southfacing window at NBS. (Heat loads were calculated using the appropriate

formulas given in the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals (1972).)

The amount of heat gain into the room is partially dependent upon the

angle of the slats (Caemmerer, 1967). Slats set at a 45° angle can reduce

the gain to about one-half, while fully closed slats can reduce it to

almost one-quarter (Dix and Lavan, 1974). (Compare calculations for halfopen blinds with those for closed blinds in Table I.) The reduction in

heat loss is not as great during the winter months, although fully closed

Venetian blinds can reduce the heat transmission of a single-glazed window

by about 10-15% (Dix and Lavan, 1974). Of course, during sunny winter

days windows with good solar exposure should be opened to take advantage

of the heat gain.

2.2 VIEW, LIGHTING AND WINDOWS

In addition to controlling thermal flow through a window, Venetian blinds

provide the occupant with a variable means of altering visual access to

the outside. Blinds can be closed completely, eliminating view, daylight,

and sunshine. They can be slanted, eliminating glare, and controlling

daylight but allowing some view. They can be opened up completely, allowing

full access to sunshine, daylight and view. They can shade room occupants

from sky glare and aim direct solar radiation toward the ceiling, yet

allow diffuse radiation to enter the room (Nicol, 1966). Stephenson and

Mitalas (1967) comment that: "The particular feature of a horizontal slattype shade that makes it so useful is that it can be adjusted so that

its brightness in the direction of the ceiling is several times greater

than that to the occupants of the room." Furthermore, the occupant has

complete control over blinds so responses may be readily made to changes

in the external world.

2.3 PSYCHOLOGICAL BENEFITS OF WINDOWS

Several studies of the psychological reactions associated with windows

have dealt with buildings where occupants must spend extended periods of

time. These investigations, primarily of office buildings, schools and

hospitals, indicate that the major benefits attributed to windows are: light, sunshine, contact with the outside world, and a sense of spaciousness (Markus, 1967; Collins, 1975). These conclusions are drawn from

attitude surveys of people in buildings with and without windows and from

investigations employing simulation techniques such as photographs and

4
Table 1

Calculated Heat Loads (Btu/h)^ for a

2 Sunny Day upon a Typical NBS Window

No Blinds Blinds Half Closed"^ Blinds Closed

Direct Sun

North South North South North South

Oct 7^

9 AM 63 61 4962 65 -88 11 2606 36 -274 57 950 19

12 noon 1033 55 8735 49 594 83 4962 40 320 63 2305 89

4 PM 402 16 3253 84 221 19 1789 61 100 54 831 46

Feb 105

9 AM -1274 13 3880 84 -1142 50 1692 73 -1317 99 -29 25

12 noon -320 64 7612 89 -461 02 3902 42 -724 25 1259 13

4 PM -1039 04 2032 00 -905 23 783 84 -1014 91 -247 15

Jul

9 AM 1339 56 2070 76 761 91 1164 07 410 93 593 73

12 noon 1854 32 4450 08 1060 24 2487 91 702 68 351 62

4 PM 1682 49 1755 61 948 00 988 22 759 35 777 63

Calculations are derived from formulas given in the ASHRAE Handbook

of Fundamentals (1972) for windows facing due north and south for

40°N latitude.

Window dimensions are 7'8" (2.3 m) high and 4'6" (1.4 m) wide.

45° slat angle

Internal temperature assumed to be 72°F (22°C)

Internal temperature assumed to be 68°F (20°C)

Internal temperature assumed to be 74°F (23°C)

5
models. Consequently, the findings only report declared preferences, not

the actual use of windows or shading devices.

Although the view to the outside constitutes a highly prized benefit of

windows, it is sometimes desirable to limit visual communication with the

outside world. This often occurs if the window is near the ground so that

the occupants are frequently observed by people passing by. Markus (1967)

identified three elements which affect the perception of visual privacy:

1) the nature of the personal relationship between the observer and

observed; 2) the frequency or predictability of the interruption to privacy; 3) the nature of the observed activity.

Objectionable as intrusions upon privacy can be, the desire for a view to

the outside may outweigh such objections. One solution that allows a view

and a degree of visual privacy is to lower a Venetian blind and adjust

the slats to a semi-open position. Hill and Markus (1968) note that: "In

window design, outward vision and visual privacy are both related to the

minimum acceptable amount of visual information transmitted through the

window aperture." Yet, the use of fixed mesh or slat shading devices

can reduce view to a meaningless pattern (Hill and Markus, 1968). Unlike

stationary louvers, the slat angle of a Venetian blind can be varied to

alter the amount of view out and incoming light.

Brierly (1971) comments that "... an increase in window size may lead

to a potential loss of visual privacy, which will necessitate the use of

privacy barriers or curtains even at the expense of a good view." If

window size is reduced too far, then there may be too much visual privacy

which "may result in both the potential isolation of the user from life

passing by and a potential loss in the desirability of the view, and thus

of less satisfaction with the environment."

Markus (1967) indicates the need for research to understand more fully

the tradeoffs available to architects in window design:

If the high capital and running costs of windows with their

attendant control devices is to be economically justified then

evidence is urgently needed on the psychological implications of

windows for building occupants. These implications may be con- veniently studied under these headings: sunshine awareness or desire; view-out, privacy (view-in). These three are related by

protective blinds and screens — the need for which is often due

to sunshine penetration. It would seem therefore that a study

of the visual properties of such screens is a good starting point;

although without more fundamental studies based on occupants'

preferences, judgements, and behavior, the results of this study

cannot lead to design recommendations.

Markus' statements frame the experimental setting for the study to

be reported here. As Markus points out, there is a great need to

determine occupant preferences and behaviors with respect to windows

and shading devices. In the present study, only occupant behavior

6
was monitored to determine the effects of several external variables

upon the use of a specific type of shading device — Venetian blinds.

The study was undertaken to determine if the positioning of the Venetian

blinds could be explained in terms of such factors as orientation, view,

or seasonal variables. In this way, the behavioral response to the

environment created by the window and modulated by the Venetian blind

could be analyzed experimentally.

3. NBS WINDOW BLIND STUDY

The general purpose laboratory (GPL) buildings at the National Bureau of

Standards present an opportunity to explore the use of shading devices

and windows. There are 7 buildings, of which 6 were used for this study,

each about 100 m long, with 3 floors above ground in each building. The

buildings are oriented so that half the windows face due north and half

face due south. (The shorter east and west walls do not have windows.)

(Figures 1 and 2)

The investigation was focused on the windows of the office modules located

along the exterior walls of these buildings. A typical office module is

10'9" (3.3 m) wide, 11' (3.4 m) high and 16' (4.9 m) deep. Most modules

contain one window 7 ' 8" (2.3 m) high and 4'6" (1.4 m) wide. The window

9
10

area is therefore approximately 29% of the window wall area and 20% of

the floor area of each office module. The offices are typically occupied

by two people, although occupancy by one or three individuals occurs as well. Figures 3 and 4 illustrate typical NBS offices studied.

Figure 5 indicates the layout of the buildings on the site. Inspection

of this figure makes it evident that the windows in the six buildings

present a variety of views to occupants. In several instances the view

is relatively extensive -- providing a wide expanse of grass and trees

stretching into the distance. In other cases, the view is restricted to

that of another facade with only a grassy area or a driveway between the

two buildings. These differences provide an opportunity to assess the

varying contributions of facade orientation and view to Venetian blind

use. Many people have access to both open and restricted views, however,

depending upon their location with respect to the window. Thus, the classification of windows by view type is only approximate. (Figures 6 and 7)

Before the formal investigation began, a casual inspection of the building facades indicated that the blinds on the windows were set in a wide

variety of positions. (Figure 8 shows the many blind positions found on

a typical facade at NBS.) These observations led to several questions?

1) Are the blind positions the result of a conscious decision on the part

of office occupants to alter part of their visual environment -- i.e.,

the window? 2) Do the blind positions merely represent the effect of

extraneous variables, such as changes by maintenance personnel? 3) Can

something be learned about the relationship between window usage and energy

conservation by examining window blind positions in a systematic fashion?

4) Can we identify and quantify design-related variables which influence

the use of windows and blinds? Our next step was to design an experiment

that would provide answers to these basic questions.

12
13
14

FIGURE 6. OFFICE WITH ACCESS TO TWO VIEW TYPES. A. OPEN

16
FIGURE 7. OFFICE WITH ACCESS TO TWO VIEW TYPES. B. RESTRICTED

17
18
4. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

4.1 RESEARCH APPROACH

Six general purpose laboratory (GPL) buildings of NBS were studied during

the course of the investigation. As a means of maximizing the possibility

that changes in blind positions could be attributed to office occupants,

blinds were changed during the weekend by the researchers. Occupants

would then come to work on Monday morning with the blinds in positions

different from those on Friday. Two different "extreme" positions were employed as independent variables: (1) "up", raised to the top of the

window (open), and (2) "down", lowered to the bottom of the window and

closed (closed). The open and closed positions were used because they

19
represent the extreme conditions of window usage, i.e., maximizing or minimizing their use. Since few blinds were open or closed before the

study was initiated, these positions would be a sensitive indicator of

changes made by occupants. In addition, the extreme blind positions

served as a standard by which later changes could be compared.

Although each facade contains 90-99 windows (30-33 on each of three

floors), the final sample size was reduced from 1100 to approximately

700 (Oct. - 746; Feb. - 774; July - 652). The seasonal variation in sample

size was primarily a result of changes in foliage conditions. Windows

in stairwells, restrooms, laboratories and other non-office space were excluded from the study. Furthermore, not even all of the office blinds

could be positioned in accordance with the research plan. At times, books

or plants blocked the window sill area. In other instances the blinds

were immovable or malfunctioned. Table 2 presents a tabulation of the

blinds changed by the researchers on the weekend, determined by analyzing

photographs taken immediately after they were changed.

Among the major variables thought to affect window usage are compass

orientation, view, and seasonal conditions. Fortunately, the layout of

the laboratories permitted the study of compass orientation and view.

The six buildings chosen for study have windows located only on the long

north and south facades. As a result, the effects of two different orientations, north and south, could readily be studied for all six buildings.

See Figure 1 for the physical layout.

The decision as to the type of view available to occupants from their

windows was based upon the extent of openness in front of a facade. Two

categories of view type were created: "open" and "restricted". Open views

were considered to be those with an uninterrupted stretch of grass and

trees with no nearby buildings. Restricted views were considered to be

those in which only a small stretch of grass or asphalt (about 75-100 m)

separated one building from another. The upper half of Figure 9 depicts

an open view; the lower half shows a restricted view. The assignment to

view-type group was only approximate because there are varying degrees

of restriction upon the views from each facade depending, for example,

on foliage on trees and placement of desks within modules.

Venetian blind usage was monitored by taking photographs of building

facades before, during and after changes in blind positions. Each of the

twelve facades was photographed at least four times during the week prior

to the change in Venetian blind position to provide baseline data on blind

positioning." The "before" photographs were taken in the morning and the

afternoon (to account for sun position) on the Thursday and Friday preceding the weekend on which the change occurred. Then, over the weekend

when the offices were unoccupied, the blinds in each facade were positioned and photographed to record the standard conditions. During the

following week, all twelve facades were again photographed repeatedly

(three times each day on three separate days) to determine the effect

of the experimental treatment on changes in blind positions.

See Section 473 For description of changes in procedure over time.

20
Table 2

Number of Venetian Blinds Experimentally Treated

1/0 Group 5/C Group

B uilding Facade

220S

OPEN

Oct

Feb

Jul

65

61

63

Bu ilding Facade

221S

Open

Oct

Feb

Jul

56

61

58

222S

RESTRICTED

Oct

Feb

Jul

51

49

45

224S

RESTRICTED

Oct

Feb

Jul

60

68

70

225N

OPEN

Oct

Feb

Jul

67

69

69

224N

RESTRICTED

Oct

Feb

Jul

36

51

52

221N

RESTRICTED

Oct

Feb

Jul

64

66

58

223N

OPEN

Oct

Feb

Jul

42

57

46

21
22
To determine the effects of seasonal change in weather and sun angle, the

entire study was repeated twice after the initial October sequence. Thus,

the procedure of photographing the twelve facades during the week before

the experimental treatment, at the time of treatment, and during the week

after treatment was observed for the following time periods: October 2-11,

1974; February 5-14, 1975; and July 17-28, 1975. The noon set of photographs was omitted during February because of the cold, cloudy conditions

which made assessment of the effects of sun position a less important

consideration. Rain on the final Friday of the study (July) caused the

last 3 sets of photographs to be postponed to the next Monday. The table

below presents selected weather conditions for seasonally typical days.

Table 3. Weather Conditions for a Typical Day

Month Time Temperature Range Description

Oct. 9 AM 50 -60 F (10 to 15 C) clear and sunny

4 PM 60 -75 F (15 to 24 C) clear and sunny

Feb. 9 AM 20 -35 F (-7 to 2 C) cloudy and windy

4 PM 30 -45 F (-1 to 7 C) snow on ground

July 9 AM 70 -80 F (21 to 27 C) hazy and humid

4 PM 80 -90 F (27 to 32 C) hazy and humid

Table 12 (Appendix D) contains detailed climatic conditions recorded

during each phase of this study.

4.2 RESEARCH DESIGN

The experimental plan was a balanced factorial design, in which each of

the twelve facades was assigned to one of three experimental treatment

groups in which all possible combinations of orientation and view type were represented. Treatment group refers to the way in which the blinds

were changed. Three conditions were chosen — "up", "down" and

"unchanged" or control. Table 4 depicts the assignment of facades to

treatment groups. One of the three treatment groups was made a control

group to determine whether the experimental positioning of blinds produced any systematic effects on later blind usage.

4.3 PROCEDURE

After the baseline photographs had been taken, the Venetian blinds in

eight of the experimental facades were changed to the appropriate treatment position. Blind positions were altered between 8 AM and 12 noon over the weekend when few of the professional staff were in the offices. Each

of the altered facades was then photographed to provide a record of the

blinds that had, in fact, been changed before the occupants came into

their offices. This was necessary because blinds in the restrooms,

stairways, labs, and restricted areas were not changed and were excluded

from all data analyses.

23
Table 4

Assignment of Facades to Treatment Groups

EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS

I. "UP" - Treatment

Building "

220

222

225

221

I I . "DOWN" - Treatment

Bu ilding

221

224

223

224

I III. "CONTROL" - No Treatment

Building Orientation View Type

225 South Open

223 South Restricted

222 North Open

220 North Restricted

"Numbers refer to specific building designations. Six such buildin

are used, each having two facades, one north and one south.

Orientation

South

South

North

North

Orientation

South

South

North

North

View Type

Open

Restricted

Open

Restricted

View Type

Open

Restricted

Open

Restricted

24
During the week following the experimental treatment, photographs were taken of all twelve facades on each of three days following the same procedure that had been established for the baseline photographs. Three

sets of photographs were taken on each day, at 9 AM, noon, and 4 PM, to

determine whether weather or sun conditions had any effect on behavior.

This procedure was repeated one and four days later (Tuesday, Friday) to assess how often changes occurred and to account for offices which might

be unoccupied on Monday.

Venetian blind positions were photographed with a 35 mm camera with a 28 mm wide-angle lens. Black and white film with an A.S.A. rating of 400

was used.

The record, taken at the same time as the photographs, consists of the

following:

1) identification of the building being photographed

2) its orientation (N or S)

3) whether the Right (R), Middle (M) or Left (L) side of the building was being photographed.

4) date, time of photograph

5) roll number

6) approximate weather conditions

7) order in which photos were taken

Usually, three photographs were required to record an entire facade —

right, middle, and left. As a result of changing sun position, buildings

were also photographed from different angles throughout the day. Approximately 36 photographs were taken each time blind positions were recorded.

After all the photographs had been taken in each season, each roll of

black and white film was enlarged by a factor of two and printed on

11" X 14" (28 cm X 36 cm) contact sheets with six or seven facades on each sheet. This procedure made visual inspection easier, facilitated

comparisons of facades, and minimized processing costs. At least two,

and usually three, photographs of each facade were available. In order

to facilitate analysis, the facade windows were numbered from right to

left (as one faces the building or photo).

When the seasonal photographs had been developed, each window blind position was rated. A two-part alphanumeric code was used to rate blind

positions. The first part (number) refers to the extent of the window

covered by the Venetian blind. Window coverage was rated by means of a five-category scheme (1-5) corresponding to 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% or 100%

coverage. The second part of the score (letter designation) refers to the

angle, or tilt, of the slats. Only two categories of angles, "open" (O)

25
and "closed" (C) were employed. Initially, an attempt was made to identify

a third category, "partially open". This category was rapidly abandoned

because it was too difficult to make reliable identifications. The difficulty appeared to be due to the distance from the facade at which photographs were taken, combined with the limitations of resolution when

they were greatly enlarged. See Table 5 below for details of the rating

scheme

.

Table 5. Detailed Rating Scheme

Blind Position Ratings

Percent Coverage Number Slat Angle "Open" Slat Angle "Closed"

0% 1 1/0*

25% 2 2/0 2/C

50% 3 3/0 3/C

7 5% 4 4/0 4/C

100% ("down") 5 5/0 5/C*

The process of interpreting and scoring the photographic data thus

involved assigning an alphanumeric rating for the two categories (coverage and slat angle) to each window. Figure 10 illustrates the categories

employed. Ratings for all the data obtained during the week before treatment ["Before" data] were recorded separately from the data for the week

after treatment ["After" data]. Thus, six separate sets of rating sheets,

containing the before and after data for each of the three seasons, sum- marized the photographic data.

Two scorers with access to all photos independently rated all blind positions. After the ratings had been made for photographs in the "Before"

and "After" sets, differences in the category ratings between the two scorers for a given week were reconciled by comparing all photographs of

the window. Among the factors which contributed to difficulties in scoring

blind positions were variations in: external lighting conditions, angle

at which the photographs were taken, glare from the windows or the sun,

shadows from other buildings (primarily from the eleven-story administration building), and early morning condensation upon the windows.

Scoring errors and criteria differences were other contributing factors

leading to discrepant scores between the two raters (which were resolved

before a summary rating was made).

^Experimental treatment positions.

26
27

5 . 1 BLIND CHANGES MADE BY OCCUPANTS

5.1.1 Daily Change

Contrary to expectation, blind positions were not changed frequently

during the course of a day, or from day to day. Of the approximately

700 blinds studied in each season, the photographic records showed that no more than 50 were changed at all during the week before experimental

treatment or more than once during the following week. These 50 or fewer

29
windows v^ere blinds were frequently changed were excluded from subsequent

analyses. It was therefore possible to use one summary rating to represent each blind position for the week preceding the experimental change.

Similarly, a summary rating was given for each blind for the week after

the experimental treatment. A summary rating was not included for windows that could not be rated more than one time (e.g., due to the pres- ence of foliage obscuring the window)

.

5.1.2 Distribution of Blind Positions-- Before Treatment

What is the overall distribution of blind positions?

The overall distribution of blind positions can be assessed best by exam- ining the data obtained before treatment first. Subsequent comparisons

are made with the data obtained after treatment to observe the effects

of the treatment itself.

Figure 11 indicates the total number of blinds for each of the 9 positions

before experimental treatment. A brief inspection reveals that substantially more blinds were open than closed. A bimodal distribution is also

apparent - with the greatest number of blinds being down and open (5/0

position) or up (I/O). Few blinds were located at the bottom of the window with the slats closed (5/C position).

5.1.3 Effect of Experimental Factors

Did any of the external variables studied influence the placement of Venetian blinds at NBS, and, if so, how? A Chi-square analysis of the distribution of positions before treatment was performed to test for any significant effect of the four experimental factors. This analysis demonstrated

that orientation, view type, season, and assignment to experimental treatment group all significantly affected the distribution of blind positions.

(X^ figures for the Before data are presented in Table 9, Appendix A.)

5.1.3.1 Effect of window orientation : Figure 12 presents the effects

of window orientation . The upper portion of the figure depicts those

blinds facing north; the lower presents data for the south sides. Data

are summed over the three seasons. The analysis of response by orientation

unexpectedly revealed a highly significant effect of orientation (Table 9,

Appendix A). Many more blinds were completely open (1/0 position) on the

north side than on the south side. Conversely, the number of blinds com- pletely lowered with the slats open (5/0 position) was greater on the

south side than on the north side. These results are by far the most

statistically significant ones obtained during the course of the study —

indicating the importance of building orientation to window blind usage.

5.1.3.2 Effect of view type and season : The other two experimental variables (view and season) were not as important in determining window blind

usage as orientation or experimental treatment, although the effects of

each were statistically significant (Table 9, Appendix A). Figure 13

presents a summary of blind positions for the two view types, open and

30
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33
restricted . This shows more blinds at the top of the window (1/0 position) for open views than for restricted ones. For restricted views, more

blinds were completely lowered (5/0 and 5/C positions).

Figure 14 presents a distribution of blind positions in each of the three seasons. The most noticeable difference among the seasons is an increase

in the number of blinds at the bottom of the window with the slats open

(in the 5/0 position) in February as compared with October and July. The

distribution of responses is relatively stable for all other blind positions across seasons. The increase in blinds in the 5/0 position during

February is accompanied by an overall increase in the number of blinds

observed, because foliage no longer obscured many windows. Nevertheless,

the February data appear to represent a genuine seasonal response, rather

than a typical pattern among windows previously obscured by trees because

only about 25% of the increase in blinds in the 5/0 position is due to

windows covered by foliage in either October or July. In addition, because

most of the February increase in the 5/0 position occurs for south-facing

facades rather than for north-facing facades, it may be due to the lower

position of the sun.

5.1.3.3 Effect of experimental treatment group assignment : The final

analysis of the data before experimental treatment was concerned with the

assignment of building facades to treatment groups, "Control", "Up", and

"Down". This analysis demonstrated that a significant effect occurred

before treatment. Blind usage was different for the facades assigned to

different treatment conditions. Figure 15 presents the distribution of

blind positions for each of the three treatment groups. An inspection of

this figure reveals that many blinds which were to be placed in the "Up

position (1/0) were there before changes were made. The "Control" and the

"Down" groups were more closely matched in terms of blind usage.

The significant effect of treatment group assignment on blind positions

indicates that windows were inadvertently assigned to treatment groups in

a less than random fashion (see Table 9, Appendix A).

5.2 RESPONSE TO EXPERIMENTAL TREATMENT

Two aspects of the response to experimental treatment are considered: speed

of response to treatment, and blind position after treatment. Data on this

latter category will be examined in Section 5.3.

The response to experimental treatment was quite rapid. By 9 AM of the

first day (Monday) after treatment, more than half of the blinds had been

changed from the treatment position (56% in October, 61% in February, and

63% in July )

.

By 4 PM of the first day, a vast majority of the blinds had already been

altered (80% in Oct., 82% in Feb., and 86% in July). Table 6 provides

a breakdown of the blinds moved and the times that the changes were photographed. (Figure 16 illustrates the changes made over time.) The main body

34
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36
Table 6

After Treatment Blind Changes and Times Changes were Detected

MONDAY TUESDAY FRIDAY

9 AM Noon 4 PM 9 AM Noon 4 PM 9 AM Moon 4 PM ZN "C"

1/0 Group

220 S Oct 16 6 5 U

o 4 4 1 2 40 8 Open Feb 10 23 1 1 5 2 42 9 July 12 2 4 X J 1 2 0 0 25 8

222 S Oct 12 6 2

Q0

o

J, 0 5 0 0 35 5 Restricted Feb 22 10 2 1 3 0 38 0 July 12 3 3 AU

nU 2 1 1 0 22 4

225 N Oct 10 5 0 2 0 2 1 0 0 20 2 Open Feb 10 5 1 1 5 0 22 0 July 5 0 2 1 1 0 1 0 0 10 3

221 N Oct 11 5 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 20 0 Restricted Feb 16 5 4 0 0 1 26 2 July 6 2 3 0 0 1 2 2 0 16 2

1/0 Group

SN Oct 49 22 9 10 4 6 12 2 115 12 Feb 58 43 g 3 13 3 128 11 July 35 7 12 4 4 4 6 3 0 73 17

5/C Group

221 S Oct 25 8 0 0 1 1 0 2 0 37 7 Open Feb 32 6 3 1 3 0 45 9 July 27 8 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 39 8

224 S Oct 36 13 1 1 0 4 1 0 1 57 4 Restricted Feb 33 5 3 2 2 0 45 3 July 41 7 0 2 1 0 1 0 0 52 11

224 N Oct 22 4 3 1 1 1 3 0 0 35 0 Restricted Feb 32 3 1 0 4 0 40 3 July 19 3 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 24 8

223 N Oct 23 6 1 0 1 0 2 0 0 33 1 Open Feb 31 7 4 2 1 1 46 1 July 24 7 6 0 0 0 4 1 0 42 6

5.C Group

Oct 106 31 5 2 3 6 6 2 1 162 15 Feb 128 21 11 5 10 1 176 16 July 111 25 7 4 2 0 6 2 0 157 33

TOTAL N Oct 155 53 14 12 7 12 18 3 3 277 27 Feb 186 0 64 19 0 8 23 0 4 304 27 July 146 32 19 6 6 4 12 5 0 230 50

37
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38
of Table 6 describes the blinds that were moved only once after experimental treatment. The number of blinds moved more than once appears separately in the column labeled "c". Table 7 summarizes these findings, as well as those blinds not moved.

Of special interest is the fact that little change occurred from before

to after treatment among the blinds assigned to the control group. This

lack of change provides evidence that nothing occurred over the weekend

which would encourage people to change blind positions — other than the

experimental treatment. See Table 7.

After the experimental treatment, most blind positions were changed only once during the week that observations were made (Table 7). Since the

blinds which changed position more than once could not be readily assigned

a rating, and since they were a small minority of the total sample, it was decided to eliminate them from the analysis. However, first we wanted

to determine whether this approach would significantly bias our findings.

See Figures 17 and 18. A Chi-square test was therefore performed between

the total number of blind changes with and without blinds which were changed more than once. Table 8 indicates the results of this test. Since

the differences were not statistically significant (or important for this

study), later analyses were restricted to blinds changed only one time.

5.3 COMPARISONS OF BLIND POSITIONS — BEFORE AND AFTER CHANGES

The first question to be answered is whether or not the experimental

treatment altered the overall distribution of blind positions. In other

words, did the treatment change the position of the blinds, and if so, how?

Figure 19 suggests that a typical response was to return the blinds to

the before treatment position. In this graph, the percentage of blinds

at each position before experimental treatment is correlated with the

percentage of blinds at each position after treatment. The percentages

are derived from data summed over all three seasons. Vertical deviation

from the center diagonal indicates the degree of change in the percentage

of blinds at a given position from before to after treatment. Inspection

of Figure 19 reveals that most of the data points fall closely along the

diagonal -- an indication that the experimental treatment did not, for

the most part, change the distribution of blind positions. The major

exception to this finding is the increased number of blinds completely

opened (1/0 position) after treatment. There was no comparable increase

in the number of blinds in the down and closed position (5/C) which suggests that the experimental treatment "Down" influenced subsequent blind

positioning much less than the fully open "Up" treatment. In other words,

experimental treatment "Down" was not adopted by the people who were exposed

to it as much as the "Up" treatment.

5.4 DIRECTION OF CHANGE AFTER EXPERIMENTAL TREATMENT

This analysis was directed toward determining the effect of the experimental treatment upon the subsequent distribution of blind positions.

39
Table 7

Summary of After Treatment Blind Response

October February July

Total N 746 774 652

Control N 247 265 193

No Change 237 246 164

Control Changers 10 19 29

(once or more)

Experimental N 499 509 459

No Change 195 178 179

Change Once 277 304 230

Experimental Changers 27 27 50

(more than once)

40
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RESPONSE TO EXPERIMENTAL TREATMENT

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FIGURE 19. AFTER TREATMENT BLIND POSITIONS AS A FUNCTION OF

BEFORE TREATMENT POSITIONS.

44
Although the previous analysis (Section 5.3) demonstrated little change

after treatment, nevertheless the data in the 1/0, 3/0 and 5/0 position

categories were somewhat altered.

The change in blind position after treatment was examined using two different approaches. The first was to note the variations in blind position

for each of the twelve facades. (Summary data appear in Figures 20 and

21.) The bulk of the change occurred in the 1/0 and 5/C positions.

The second approach was to characterize the data by comparing statistical

distributions of blind positions, before and after the experimental treatment was made. The data were summarized over facades and seasons in order

to deal with general trends resulting from the experimental treatment.

In this approach, individual blind positions after treatment were assigned

to one of five categories as a function of position before treatment:

(1) Return - The blinds were returned after experimental treatment to

the before treatment position.

(2) Higher - The blind was moved up the window after treatment with no slat angle change.

(3) Lower - The blind was moved down the window after experimental treatment with no slat angle change.

(4) Open to Closed - (0 ^ C). The slat angle was changed from 0 (open)

before treatment to C (closed) after treatment.

(5) Closed to Open - (C ^ 0). The slat angle was changed from closed (C)

to open (O) after experimental treatment.

A detailed breakdown of the number of blinds in each category is given

in Appendix C

.

The data summarized over the three seasons appear in Figure 20. The

total number of blinds is plotted as a function of occurrence in each

of the five categories. Each of the three experimental treatment groups,

"Up," "Down," and "Control," is represented in the five categories.

Figure 22 demonstrates that the greatest number of blinds is concentrated

in the "Return" category, indicating that the majority of blinds were returned to their original position after treatment. Fifty-five percent

of the blinds in the "Up" group and 60% of the "Down" group, were returned

to their previous position. Eighty-eight percent of the blinds in the

control group were in the same position after blind positions were changed

for the experimental groups. The next category, "higher," represents those

blinds that were moved up the window after treatment. The largest number

of blinds in this category were those that were moved "Up" -- about 30%

of this treatment group. (Of this number, 84% were not changed from the

experimental treatment position.) In the third category, "lower," the

greatest number of blinds were those that were moved "Down" — 16% of

45
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48
this treatment group. (Of this latter number, 75% were not modified after

the experimental change.) Blinds that were moved "Down" were also the

most numerous in the fourth category "Open to closed," about 12% of this

treatment group, as compared with 3% of the "Up" treatment group. Representation in the fifth group, "Closed to open" was split evenly among

each of the three treatment groups, at about 5%.

To summarize, the major response to the experimental treatment was to

return the blind to its pre-treatment position. When the blind was not

returned, it tended to be put in a position that was similar to, or the

same as, the experimental treatment position.

2 A X analysis demonstrated that all four experimental factors, treatment,

orientation, view, and season, exerted a significant effect upon the

response. (Chi-square values for these factors are presented in Table 10,

Appendix B .

)

5.5 INFLUENCE OF EXPERIMENTAL FACTORS UPON AFTER TREATMENT DATA

As noted earlier, the distributions of responses obtained after treatment were significantly different from expected for all four experimental

factors - treatment, orientation, view and season. How different, however,

is the distribution of blind positions obtained after treatment from that

obtained before?

Figures 23-27 present summary data obtained after treatment for each of

the four factors, as well as for the overall distribution.

The first graph to be considered is that of the overall distribution of

the data after treatment, Figure 23. When Figure 23 is compared with

Figure 11 (Distribution of Blind Positions Before Treatment), it is apparent that the major difference is an increase in the number of blinds at

the top of the window (1/0 position). A slight increase is also apparent

in the number of blinds at the bottom of the window and open (5/0 position), while the number of blinds in other positions is correspondingly

decreased. The changes in frequency of occurrence appear to be due to

the experimental treatment, a premise borne out by the data depicted in

Figure 24, Distribution of Blind Positions by Treatment Group After Treatment. The increase in the 1/0 position for the "Up" treatment group is

particularly evident.

The increase in the number of blinds at the 1/0 position was apparent

for the other major variables studied also: Orientation (Figure 25), View

(Figure 26), and Season (Figure 27). In summary, although the dominant

response to the experimental treatment was to return the blind to the

pre-treatment position, the particular modifications made in blind position did influence later blind positions. This reaction is most noticeable for the "Up" treatment group as shown in Figure 24. Nevertheless,

the effects of the other three experimental factors persist in a form

similar to that obtained before treatment. Thus, Figure 25 demonstrates

the marked differences between north- and south-facing buildings in a fashion very similar to Figure 12. Both the before and after treatment

distributions of blind positions by orientation show much greater window

49
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50
51
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UJalAJ 200

150

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1/0 I 2/0 I 2/C I 3/0 I 3/C I 4/0 ' 4/C ' 5/0 ' 5/C

BLIND POSITION

FIGURE 25. DISTRIBUTION OF BLIND POSITIONS BY ORIENTATION AFTER TREATMENT.

52
53
exposure on the north side than on the south. Data presented in Figure

26 on the effects of view are quite similar to those for Figure 13 with

more blinds at or near the bottom of a window for a restricted view, and more at the top of a window for an open view. These differences, however,

are not particular marked either before or after treatment.

In Figure 27 (seasonal effects after treatment), rather interesting findings emerge. In February, the number of blinds in the 5/0 position

decreased markedly from before to after treatment. In general, seasonal

differences in the distribution of blind positions were less pronounced

after treatment than they were before. Evidently the effects of the

experimental treatment lessened the effects of seasonal change.

54


6. DISCUSSION

The present study was performed to determine whether the window blind

positions observed in the offices of the general purpose laboratories

are indicative of occupant usage or attributable to other factors (e.g

maintenance). If window blinds were found to be altered by occupants,

then we wanted to determine whether such changes were related in a systematic fashion to variables thought to affect window usage (e.g.,

view, geographic orientation, climate).

57
6.1 SETTING OF BLINDS — "UP" AND "DOWN" TREATMENTS

As a means of determining whether the window blind positions viewed prior

to the study represented preferred rather than randomly occurring acts,

the blinds on eight building facades were systematically altered (with

the other four building facades serving as controls). Our purpose in

moving the blinds to preselected "extreme" positions ("Up," and "Down and

Closed") was to test whether these seeming changes would be accepted by

occupants or whether blind positions would be altered in accordance with

individual preferences. The two experimental "treatments" of the blinds

(upward in some instances, and downward for the others) were chosen because it was felt that these extreme changes would be most likely to

affect later blind positions. Our findings indicated that this outcome

did occur to some extent.

There was a significant tendency for blinds in the "Up" (l/O) treatment

group to remain there, particularly on the north side of the buildings.

Even in cases where the blinds did not remain completely up, more of the

window was often left exposed. Blinds placed in the "down" (5/C) treatment group were not similarly affected -- they were not kept down. This

difference may be attributable to a greater preference for total window

exposure than for zero window exposure -- i.e., the positive functions

of the window outweigh the negative ones. In fact, Figure 11 shows that

1/0 positions were more than twice as common as 5/C positions before

experimental treatment.

6.2 BUILDING ORIENTATION

For both treatment groups, building orientation influenced the response

to treatment. Although all blinds in the "Up" group tended to be repositioned higher, the tendency was particularly pronounced on the north

facades (see Table 11, Appendix C). The opposite effect was apparent in

the "Down" treatment — where occupants of the south-facing facades

repositioned their blinds lower than did occupants occupying offices with

northern exposures. These findings suggest a dominant response to window

orientation when before-after comparisons are made of all windows whose

blinds were altered.

The pronounced differences in distribution of blind positions between

north and south facades indicate o'crongly that some external occurrence,

most likely direct sunlight, influenced blind position settings. Yet, even though more blinds are in the lower half of the window on the south side,

the majority have the slats open rather than closed. Thus, the blinds

appear to be used primarily to control direct sunshine and glare, but

not to eliminate the view or contact with the outside world.

58
6.3 VIEW TYPE

The differences in response to view, while statistically significant, are less easily explained than the response to orientation. Briefly, if a view is termed "open," the likelihood is greater that the blind will be

in the upper half of the window. Yet, the differences in response to view

type are not particularly large. Perhaps more important is the relatively

small number of blinds in the completely closed (5/C) position (in which

there is no view out) regardless of view type. This suggests that the

blinds are not generally used to obscure the view out completely.

It is possible that the differences in response to view type would be

greater if the views were more different — or if the data were analyzed

window by window after determining exactly what the view was for each

occupant. It is also possible that the response is not really to view

out , but to view rn. Thus, in the views termed "restricted," the blinds

may be positioned to minimize the "view-in" possibilities from nearby

buildings. The differences in responses between open and restricted

views may, in fact, not be attributable to differences in the quality of

the view out, but rather to the ease with which other people can view

into an office.

View type significantly affected the blind response to treatment, but

the exact nature of the effect was not obvious. For instance, the significant difference between the restricted and open view types is mainly

due to an increase in the number of I/O blinds in the open category, and

a decrease in the number of C T 0 blinds in the open group — two apparently contradictory findings.

A possible explanation for the findings obtained concerns the type of

views available in the offices studied. While some windows have only

expansive views and others face facades of other buildings, in many

instances the categorization of view type is not readily apparent. Moreover, the assumption was made that all windows on a given facade have

a common view. This certainly was not the case, as demonstrated by

Figures 1 and 2. Finally, the view from a window is importantly influenced by the viewing position within each office. The closer an office

occupant is to the window, the greater the possibility to obtain different views with changes in viewing angle. (See Figures 6 and 7).

6.4 SEASONAL VARIATION

Although blinds offer considerable control for modifying the environment

in response to seasonal variations, the data do not indicate that they

were effectively used to conserve energy in the present study (Figures

20 and 21). These findings are not surprising since little evidence

exists that office occupants are: (1) knowledgeable concerning effective

window blind use to conserve energy (2) motivated sufficiently to change

blind positions appropriately by season.

59
Appropriate window blind management in response to seasonal climatic differences therefore offers an opportunity for energy savings at NBS (and

other buildings).

6.5 EXPLANATORY HYPOTHESIS (UNTESTED)

1. Windows have both positive effects (e.g., light in, view out) and

negative effects (e.g., glare in, view in).

2. Each person arrives at a preferred blind position as a result of his

individual weighing of the positive factors (open blinds) against the

negative factors (closed blinds). For most people, the effects of the

positive and negative variables are integrated over periods of time as long as weeks or months. Readjustments of blind positions at intervals

of days or hours in response to short-term changes in the factors does

not appear to be worth the effort for most people.

3. A substantial amount of direct sunlight (as in south windows) moves

the positive-negative balance of factors toward the negative side (relative to north windows), presumably due to an increase of heat and glare.

4. Social factors may partially offset personal preference. Imposed

changes in blind position may be ascribed to other office occupants or

to organizational policy implemented by maintenance personnel.

5. Proximity of another building increases the negative factor of view

in (weighted by number of potential observers), and, as with southern

exposure, encourages blind settings more closed than open.

6.6 METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES

The present study demonstrated the general feasibility of photographing

building facades to determine usage patterns of windows. While this

investigation dealt with window blinds, the procedures employed should

be equally, if not more useful, for windows with other shading devices,

e.g., shades, draperies, curtains. Our intention of taking photographs

of window blinds to determine usage patterns relating to major variables

(orientation, season, etc.) met with partial success.

The major difficulty encountered was the limited resolution of the photographs that served as the basis for analysis. It was a rather easy task

to determine the height of a given blind, and whether it was open or closed. Much more difficult (and frequently impossible) was a determination of the angle of the slats — e.g., approximately 45° upward or downward. Obtaining information concerning slat angle -- if only two intermediate tilt positions — is highly desirable as a means of determining the

functions performed. For example, when the slats are tilted downward,

little daylight or sunlight can penetrate the room, but the view near

the building is relatively accessible (See Figure 28). On the other hand,

when the slats are tilted upward, considerable daylight penetrates the

room, but virtually no near view is available to occupants depending upon

their position in the room (See Figure 29).

60
61
FIGURE 29. BLINDS WITH SLATS TILTING UPWARD.

62
In order to obtain information on slat angles by photographic means —

careful attention must be given to all factors which might influence the

ultimate resolution of the photographs — high resolution film, tripod,

large format camera. Another necessary consideration is the determination of proper "line of sight," or angle, between camera and building

facade

.

Is experimental manipulation of blinds (or other shading devices)

necessary?

The present experiment has demonstrated the usefulness of an experimental

manipulation of an existing situation in forcing an occupant response.

Thus, in situations where it is not known whether existing patterns of

behavior reflect true occupant preferences, experimental changes of

blinds appear to be worthwhile. Yet, because the main findings in this

study indicate that people do position their blinds deliberately and do

respond to external factors such as sunshine and view, the need for

experimental intervention in future experiments may be somewhat lessened.

Experimental "treatment" does provide greater confidence that the existing

pattern of behavior is the one desired by the current occupants.

What form should the experimental treatment take?

In the present investigation, blinds were altered in one or two extreme

ways ("up," and "down and closed"). These changes were likely to maximize

the possibility of occupants noticing that modifications had occurred as well as the likelihood that they would not be kept at these "extreme"

positions. If, instead of the window blind being adjusted to the totally

open or totally obscured positions, intermediate settings were employed

(e.g., half way up and closed), then desired window sizes might become

more apparent. For example, the windows at NBS (2.3 m x 1.4 m) are quite

large relative to many offices. If experimental settings obscured one quarter of the window area, our research findings might have been quite

different, e.g., fewer people changing back to earlier settings, which

might indicate an acceptance of window areas somewhat smaller than those

in typical NBS offices

.

6.7 ETHICAL CONCERNS

Researchers concerned with man/environment problems have been seeking

approaches to collect objective behavioral information in a building's

context for some time. Increasingly, photographic procedures have been

employed to meet this need. The present study describes still another

application of photography to understand better how people and the environment are mutually influential.

Our advocacy of data collection by photographic means is balanced by a concern to ensure that researchers are continuously sensitive to the need

to maintain the privacy of any occupant whose "space" is photographed and

plan and conduct their studies accordingly.

63

7. ENERGY CONSERVATION AND VENETIAN BLIND USAGE

The present study indicates that occupants of NBS offices did adjust

their window blinds to control a major feature of their environment —

i.e., the functions of their windows. Study limitations did not permit

us to determine why blinds were positioned as they were, but nonetheless,

stable positions were apparent.

These findings suggest that under appropriate conditions, energy savings

dependent on the activities of building occupants might be achieved. For

example, instead of making major investments for automatic controls (e.g.,

65
light sensing devices), effective use of daylight is possible by manual

control of light switches, in conjunction with appropriate positioning

of Venetian blinds.

The control of blinds by office occupants might provide considerable

energy savings. However, we must first determine the feasibility of this

approach. Will people expend the necessary time and effort to perform

the proper functions?

This is a question that can be answered experimentally. One approach

could be to provide the necessary technical information to office occupants — together with reasons indicating the importance of behaving

appropriately — i.e., motivating factors. Then, we can monitor the behavior of occupants using an approach similar to that used in the

reported study, to determine the effectiveness of the motivation employed

(e.g., patriotic duty, tangible rewards, energy use, etc.)

An alternative way to achieve energy savings might be to have the maintenance staff close the blinds as part of their normal responsibilities

each evening to reduce nighttime heat losses.

7.1 IMPROVEMENTS ON THE USE OF VENETIAN BLINDS

Among the methods which may be used to conserve energy by using blinds

effectively are:

During the summer season, lower the blind and close it during the

hottest part of the day, especially on the south side of the buildings.

During other seasons, leave the blind open (or raise the blind) to

permit daylight to enter the office. Then, turn off overhead lights.

During the winter season, lower the blinds and close the slats at

night. Open them again during the daytime on all orientations.

7.2 INNOVATIVE IMPROVEMENTS IN BLIND DESIGN

A blind which permits two angles of slat angle (one from the top to

the center of the window and the other from the center to the bottom)

could be a very effective energy conserving design. Such a blind design

could offer an expanded range of choices to occupants to optimize view,

sunlight, daylight and other desirable attributes of windows and not

expose large window areas when this practice wastes energy.

Use vari-colored blinds. Blinds covered with a highly reflective coating on one side will maximize daylight penetration. A highly absorbent

coating on the other side will maximize heat absorption (Rosenfeld and

Selkowitz, 1976). Slats should then be oriented so that incoming light

strikes the reflective side during the summer months and the absorptive

side during the winter months. Alternatively, the reflective side could

66
be used to reflect solar radiation to the ceiling of the office. A careful examination should be made of the heat gains due to daylight and

electric lighting and the subsequent loads upon the HVAC system, to

determine the best energy-efficiency tradeoffs in any given room.

A padded insulating covering for each slat could be effective. If con- structed properly, padded blinds would lock together to form an insulated

panel to decrease the thermal transmission losses through the window on cold winter nights. Yet, the slats could be opened, and the blind raised

during the day, to take full advantage of winter solar heat gain.

67

8. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The investigation of window blind usage at the National Bureau of Standards led to a number of findings -- some anticipated, and others,

unexpected

.

Our hypothesis that observed blind positions are the result of actions

by office occupants was largely supported. When blind positions were systematically altered, they did not remain in these positions. Rather,

in the typical instance, the blind position was returned to the same placement where it had been prior to the experimental change.

69
with respect to how frequently blind positions were modified, we found

that for the most part, when a preferred placement was established, the

blind was not likely to be moved -- either from day to day, or within

the course of a single day.

Of the experimental variables studied, the most significant influence on window blind position was found to be the compass orientation. The blinds on the windows with northern exposure were kept open to a significantly

greater degree than those having southern exposure. On the other hand,

blind placements could not be readily explained in terms of view quality

or seasonal changes. The influence of these factors appears to be more

subtle and requires further investigation.

The findings of the study suggest the feasibility of exploring energy

savings procedures, based on the involvement of office users and the

maintenance staff. That is, since office occupants did respond to seemingly arbitrary changes in blind positions by making modifications to

suit their preferences, given appropriate motivation, they might be

expected to perform energy conserving actions. This hypothesis can be

tested by instituting a training (educational) program and determining

its effects on influencing actions such as manipulating blinds in accor- dance with energy conserving practices. A variety of training techniques

can be explored simultaneously to develop an optimum technique. Furthermore, it might be useful to explore the feasibility of a range of incentive schemes in conjunction with different training techniques as a means

of developing an optimum system, based on user participation in energy

conservation activities.

70
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank the administration of the National Bureau of

Standards for their close cooperation in all phases of this research, in

particular Captain Langston and members of the Physical Security Section

for their cheerful and willing assistance in the changing of the blinds over the weekend. Other people to whom we are greatly indebted include

Ms. Jacqueline Elder, who participated in the data collection.

Dr. Joan Rosenblatt and Ms. Delmas Maxwell, who provided the statistical

analysis of and detailed insight into our data, and Dr. Gerald Howett,

who furnished valuable criticism and advice.

71
BIBLIOGRAPHY

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers,

ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals , 1972 Edition, Chapter 20, New York.

Beckett, H. E. , and Godfrey, J. A., Windows: Performance, Design and

Installation , New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1974.

Brlerly, E. S., Sunshine, daylight, visual privacy and view in housing.

Building , 1971, 11, pp. 119-123.

Button, D. A., Research into performance requirements for windows and

window glass products, GIB - 6''0 Gongress, 1974, 240-245.

Gaemmerer, W. , Testing of sunbreaks in Germany, Sunlight in Buildings , Proceedings, GIE Conference, Bouwcentrum, Rotterdam, 1967, pp. 211-216.

Ghapman, W. P., Automatic controls can cut lighting costs. Architectural

Record . May 1963, 192-193.

Gollins, B. L. , Windows and People: A Literature Survey , Psychological

reactions to environments with and without windows, NBS BSS 70; 1975.

Dix, R. G. and Lavan, L. , Window Shades and Energy Conservation , Illinois

Institute of Technology, Dec. 1974.

Griffith, J. W. , Conover, C. W. , Arner, W. J., Daylighting design with

adjustable horizontal louvers. Illuminating Engineering , Feb. 1957,

p. 57-64.

Hill, A. R. and Markus, T. A., Some factors influencing vision through

meshes, Human Factors , 1968, 10(5), p. 531-552.

Hollister, F. D. , Greater London Council : A Report on the Problems of

Windowless Environments , London: Hobbs, 1968, p. 121.

Hopkinson, R. G. , The psychophysics of sunlighting. Sunlight in Buildings , Proceedings , GIE Conference, Bouwcentrum, Rotterdam, 1967, pp. 13-19.

Hopkinson, R. G. , Glare from daylighting in buildings. Applied Ergonomics , 1972, 34, pp. 206-215.

Keighley, E. C., Visual requirements and reduced fenestration in offices —

a study of multiple apertures and window area. Journal of Building

Science , 1973, 8, pp. 321-331.

Keighley, E. C. , Visual requirements and reduced fenestration in office

buildings — a study of window shape. Journal of Building Science , 1973,

S, pp. 311-320.

72
Langdon, F. J., and Loudon, A. G. , Discomfort in schools from overheating

in summer, The Journal of the Institution of Heating and Ventilating

Engineers , 1970, pp. 265-274.

Loudon, A. G. , Window design criteria to avoid overheating by excessive

solar heat gains. Sunlight in Buildings , Proceedings, CIE Conference,

Bouwcentrum, Rotterdam, 1967, pp. 95-102.

Markus , T. A., The function of windows — a reappraisal. Building

Science , 1967, 2^, pp. 97-121.

Markus, T. A., and Gray, A., Windows in low rise, high density housing —

the psychological significance of sunshine, daylight, view and visual

privacy, Windows and Their Function in Architectural Design , Proceedings,

CIE Conference, Istanbul, 1973, Section 4.3.

Ne'eman, E. , and Hopkinson, R. G. , Critical minimum acceptable window

size: a study of window design and provision of a view. Lighting

Research and Technology , 1970, 2^, 17-27.

Nicol, J. F. , Radiation transmission characteristics of louver systems.

Building Science , 1966, 1., pp. 167-182.

Petherbridge , P. , Transmission characteristics of window glasses and

sun controls. Sunlight in Buildings , Proceedings, CIE Conference,

Bouwcentrum, Rotterdam, 1967, pp. 183-198.

Rosenfeld, A. H. and Selkowitz, S. , Beam Daylighting, Chapter 5 of Report

of 1975 Berkeley Summer Study on Efficient Use of Energy in Buildings , LBL 4411, 1976.

Stephenson, D. G. , and Mitalas, G. P. , An analog evaluation of methods

for controlling solar heat gain through windows, ASHRAE Journal , Feb. 1962, 4(2). pp. 41-46.

Stephenson, D. G. , and Mitalas, G. P. , Solar transmission through windows

with Venetian blinds. Sunlight in Buildings , Proceedings, CIE Conference,

Bouwcentrum, Rotterdam, 1967, pp. 151-166.

73
Appendix A

Table 9

Analysis of Before Treatment

Frequency of Occurrence of Blind Positions

Treatment by Response

Response Observed Expected Treatment

1/0 96 .00 128 . 58 rnntrni

181.00 127.28 1/0

120.00 141.14 5/C

2/0 20 . 00 22 .02 Con 1" TO 1 19.00 21.80 1/0

29.00 24.17 5/C

2/C 21.00 18.14 Control

10.00 17.95 1/0

25.00 19.91 5/C

3/0 99 .00 96 .84 Control

101.00 95.86 1/0

99.00 106.30 5/C

3/C 42 .00 46 .96 Control

50.00 49.49 1/0

53.00 51.55 5/C

4/C 93 . 00 88 . 42 rinr) 1" TO 1 95.00 87.53 1/0

85.00 97.06 5/e

4/0 39.00 35.95 Control

42.00 35.59 1/0

30.00 39.46 5/C

5/0 207.00 198.86 Control

130.00 196.86 1/0

277.00 218.28 5/C

5/C 79.00 60.24 Control

61.00 59.63 1/0

46.00 66.12 5/C

x2 = 99.42 df = 16.00 significant @ .01 level

74
Table 9 (continued)

Orientation

Orientation

North

South

North

South

North

South

North

South

North

South

North

South

North

South

North

South

North

South

Observed

342.00

55.00

48.00

20.00

36.00

20.00

177.00

122.00

64.00

81.00

121.00

152.00

32.00

70.00

242.00

372.00

81.00

105.00

Expected

212.04

184.96

36.32

31.68

29.91

26.09

159.70

139.30

77.45

67.55

145.81

127.19

54.58

47.52

327.94

286.06

99.34

86.66

Response

1/0

2/0

2/C

3/0

3/C

4/0

4/C

5/0

5/C

275.308 df = significant beyond .01 level

75
Table 9 (continued)

View

Response Restricted Open

1/0 167.00 230.00

2/0 36.00 26.00

2/C 29.00 27.00

3/0 139.00 160.00 Observed

3/C 61.00 84.00

4/0 136.00 137.00

4/C 47.00 55.00

5/0 328.00 286.00

5/C 94.00 92.00

1/0 192.92 204.08

2/0 30.13 31.87

2/C 27.21 28.79

3/0 145.30 153.70 Expected

3/C 70.46 74.54

4/0 132.66 140.34

4/C 49.57 52.43

5/0 298.37 315.63

5/C 90.39 95.61

2 X =18.66 df = 80 significant at .05 level

Response x Season

Response October February July

1/0 103.00 153.00 141.00

2/0 25.00 17.00 26.00

2/C 20.00 14.00 22.00

3/0 91.00 94.00 114.00

3/C 49.00 49.00 47.00

4/C 95.00 106.00 72.00

4/C 41.00 36.00 25.00

5/0 172.00 264.00 178.00

5/C 83.00 53.00 50.00

1/0 125.96 145.81 125.22

2/0 21.58 24.98 21.45

2/C 17.77 20.57 17.66

3/0 94.87 109,82 94.31

3/C 46.01 53.26 45.74

4/0 86.22 100.27 86.11

4/C 32.36 37.46 32.17

5/0 194.82 225.52 193.67

5/C 59.02 68.32 58.67

x2 = 53.52 df = 16 significant at .01 level

Observed

Expected

76
APPENDIX B

Table 10

2 X Analysis of Direction of Blind Change

from Before Treatment to After Treatment

Treatment X Response

Response Observed

Return 673.00

341 00

430.00

Up 22.00

193J ^ • 00\J\J 53.00

Down 11.00

38 00

113.00

Open 24.00

to 31.00

Closed 36.00

Closed 29 .00

to 23.00

Open 80.00

= 407. 848 8 df

Response X Season

Response October

Expected

438.98

423.42

481.59

87.53

84.43

96.03

52.91

51.04

58.05

29.72

29.67

32.61

39.85

38.44

43.72

significant (3 .01 level

Treatment

Control

1/0

5/C

Control

1/0

5/C

Control

1/0

5/C

Control

1/0

5/C

Control

1/0

5/C

February July

Return

Up

Down

O^C

C^O

411.00

112.00

63.00

40.00

19.00

527.00

70.00

61.00

28.00

78.00

406.00

86.00

38.00

23.00

25.00

Observed

Return

Up

Down

O^C

C-K)

436.28

86.99

52.59

29.54

39.60

516.77

103.04

62.29

34.99

46.91

390.96

77.96

47.12

26.47

35.49

Expected

X = 64.696 8df significant @ .01 level

77
Table 10 (continued)

Response x View

Response Restricted Open

Return 670.00 674.00

Up 111.00 157.00

Down 71.00 91.00 Observed

0->C 47.00 44.00

72.00 50.00

Return 656.78 687.22

Up 130.96 137.03

Down 79.16 82.83 Expected

O^C - 44.47 46.53

C-^0 59.62 62.38

x^ = 13.430 4 df significant @ .01 level

Orientation x Response

Response North South

Return 740.00 604.00

Up 162.00 106.00

Down 75.00 87.00 Observed

O^C 32.00 59.00

C^O 58.00 64.00

Return 721.72 622.28

•Up 143.91 124.90

Down 86.99 75.01 Expected

(»C 48.87 42.13

C^O 65.51 56.49

x^ = 23.914 4 df significant 0 .01 level

78
APPENDIX C

Table 11

Summary of Direction of Change in Blind Position

from Before Treatment to After Treatment

Control Return Up''< Down- CH-C

225-S Oct. 38 1 1 0

Open Feb. 50 4 2 6 July 32 5 1 0

223-S Oct. 50 0 0 0

Restricted Feb. 53 0 1 7 July 25 1 0 0

222N Oct. 65 1 0 0

Open Feb. 60 0 2 3 July 51 4 0 0

220N Oct. 50 1 1 0

Restricted Feb. 61 2 3 3 July 38 3 0 0

1.0

220S Oct. 19 17 6 0

Open Feb. 27 13 6 5 July 22 22 5 0

222S Oct. 20 8 4 2 Restricted Feb. 32 11 2 2 July 20 5 2 0

225N Oct. 26 33 4 0

Open Feb. 54 9 2 2 July 43 19 1 0

221N Oct. 17 27 2 1

Restricted Feb. 44 12 3 7 July 30 18 1 2

5.C

221S Oct. 23 3 16 5 Open Feb. 34 5 10 8

July 32 5 7 11

224S Oct. 46 0 9 3

Restricted Feb. 34 5 11 19

July 47 1 4 3

"Excludes changes in slat angle.

79
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81
NBS-114A (REV. 7-73)

U.S. DEPT. OF COMM. BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET

1. PUBLICATION OR REPORT NO. NBS ESS 1122. Gov't Accession

No.

3. Recipient's Accession No.

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Window Blinds as a Potential Energy Saver--

A Case Study

5. Publication Date May 1978

6. Performing Organization Code

7. AUTHOR{S)

Arthur I. Rubin, Belinda L. Collins, Robert L. Tibbott

8. Performing Organ. Report No.

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20234

10'W. Prnierr I^I(JJtrt„L//Ta<;U IditK//WnrU worK Unit unit Nr. iNO.

11. Contract/Grant No.

12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Complete Address (Street, City, State, ZIP) 13. Type of Report & Period Covered Final

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 77-600038

16. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary of most significar\t information. If document includes a significant

bibliography or literature survey, mention it here.)

Window usage at the National Bureau of Standards was studied by photographing

Venetian blind positions in offices at different times of the day and year. While

blind positions were quite stable during the week of each study phase, they were

quickly altered by the room occupants when deliberately set at extreme positions

by the researchers. Significant differences were observed among blinds depending

on compass orientation of the window, view type, season, and nature of experimental

treatment. The greatest determinant of blind position was orientation, with blinds

on north-facing windows being more open than on the south. The results suggest that

energy conservation programs which rely on the activities of building occupants may

be feasible. Suggestions are made for improvements in blind use and design.

17. KEY WORDS (six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only the first letter of the first key word unless a proper name; separated by semicolons

)

Energy conservation; office buildings; orientation; photographic method; season;

Venetian blinds; view; window usage; windows.

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Physics (AIP). Subscriptions, reprints, and supplements

available from ACS, 1155 Sixteenth St. N.W., Wash., D.C.

20056.

Building Science Series—Disseminates technical information developed at the Bureau on building materials, components,

systems, and whole structures. The series presents research

results, test methods, and performance criteria related to the

structural and environmental functions and the durability and safety characteristics of building elements and systems. Technical Notes—Studies or reports which are complete in themselves but restrictive in their treatment of a subject.

Analogous to monographs but not so comprehensive in scope or definitive in treatment of the subject area. Often

serve as a vehicle for final reports of work performed at NBS under the sponsorship of other government agencies.

Voluntary Product Standards—Developed under procedures

published by the Department of Commerce in Part 10, Title 15, of the Code of Federal Regulations. The purpose

of the standards is to establish nationally recognized require- ments for products, and to provide all concerned interests with a basis for common understanding of the characteristics of the products. NBS administers this program as a supple- ment to the activities of the private sector standardizing

organizations.

Consumer Information Series—Practical information, based on NBS research and experience, covering areas of interest

to the consumer. Easily understandable language and

illustrations provide useful background knowledge for shopping in today's technological marketplace.

Order above NBS publications from: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

20402. Order following NBS publications—NBSIR's and FIPS from

the National Technical Information Services, Springfield, Va. 22161.

Federal Information Processing Standards Publications (FIPS PUB)—Publications in this series collectively consti- tute the Federal Information Processing Standards Register.

Register serves as the official source of information in the Federal Government regarding standards issued by NBS

pursuant to the Federal Property and Administrative Services Act of 1949 as amended. Public Law 89-306 (79 Stat. 1127), and as implemented by Executive Order 11717

(38 FR 12315, dated May 11, 1973) and Part 6 of Title 15 CFR (Code of Federal Regulations).

NBS Interagency Reports (NBSIR)—A special series of

interim or final reports on work performed by NBS for outside sponsors (both government and non-government).

In general, initial distribution is handled by the sponsor;

public distribution is by the National Technical Information

Services (Springfield, Va. 22161) in paper copy or microfiche form.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC SUBSCRIPTION SERVICES

The following current-awareness and literature-survey bibli- ographies are issued periodically by the Bureau:

Cryogenic Data Center Current Awareness Service. A litera- ture survey issued biweekly. Annual subscription: Domestic, $25.00; Foreign, $30.00.

Liquified Natural Gas. A literature survey issued quarterly.

Annual subscription: $20.00.

Superconducting Devices and Materials. A literature survey

issued quarterly. Annual subscription: $30.00. Send subscription orders and remittances for the preceding bibliographic

services to National Bureau of Standards, Cryogenic Data

Center (275.02) Boulder, Colorado 80302.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

National Bureau of Standards

Washington. D.C. 20234

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Penalty for Private Use. $300

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