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NBSIR 82-2516

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publications

NAT'L INST. OF STAND & TECH

A 11 10b MDfiQSB

Computer Fire Modeling for the

Prediction of Flashover

U S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

National Bureau of Standards

National Engineering Laboratory

Center for Fire Research

Washington, DC 20234

May 1982

Prepared for I.S. Department of Health and Human Services

L Washington, DC 20203

100

1156

62-2516

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JUL 2 1 1982 NBSIR 82-2516

COMPUTER FIRE MODELING FOR THE

PREDICTION OF FLASHOVER

Richard D. Peacock

J. Newton Breese

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

National Bureau of Standards

National Engineering Laboratory

Center for Fire Research

Washington, DC 20234

May 1982

Prepared for U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Washington, DC 20203

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Malcolm Baldrige, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Director
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF FIGURES v

LIST OF TABLES vi

Abstract 1

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORK 3

2.1 A Working Definition of Flashover 3

2.1.1 Temperature 3

2.1.2 Heat Flux 6

2.2 Mathematical Modeling of Fires 8

2.3 Estimating Room Flashover Potential 10

3. MODEL USED FOR THIS STUDY - ASSUMPTIONS AND

PARAMETERS INVESTIGATED 12

3.1 Parameters Investigated 12

3.1.1 Ventilation Factor Series 14

3.1.2 Aspect Ratio Series 14

3.1.3 Room Height Series 14

3.1.4 Wall Material Series 15

3.2 Fire Algorithm 15

3.3 Flashover 16

4. COMPUTER RUNS AND RESULTS 16

5. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 17

5.1 Effect of Room Ventilation 18

5.2 Effect of Room Geometry 19

5.3 Effect of Room Height 20

5.4 Effect of Wall Lining 20

5.5 Comparison with Test Data 21

5.6 Comparison with Other Predictions 22

6. USING THE MODEL PREDICTIONS TO DETERMINE

MINIMUM FLASHOVER ENERGY 23

iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

Page

7. CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND LIMITATIONS 25

7.1 Limitations of this Study 26

7.2 The Link with Room Furnishings 27

8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 28

9. REFERENCES 28

Appendix A 59

iv
LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1. Mathematical Modeling of Fires in an Enclosure ... 33

Figure 2. Basic Room Configuration for Computer Modeling

Predictions 34

Figure 3. Room Flashover Modeling Prediction for Various

Ventilation Factors (Gypsum Wall Lining / 2.4 m

Ceiling Height) 35

Figure 4. Room Flashover Modeling Prediction for Various

Room Heights (Gypsum Wall Lining / Ventilation

Factor, A(h)^'2 = 5.0) 36

Figure 5. height — Percentage of Minimum Flashover Energy

for Rooms With Ceiling Heights Greater Than 2.4 m . . 37

Figure 6. Room Flashover Modeling Prediction for Various Wall

Lining Materials (2.4 m Ceiling Height / Ventilation

Factor, A(h)l/2 = 5 . 0 ) 38

Figure 7. P

wa-Q — Percentage of Minimum Flashover Energy

for Wall Lining Materials Other Than Gypsum Board . . 39

v
LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 1. Parameters that Can Be Varied in the Harvard Model . . AO

Table 2. Room and Vent Sizes Investigated 42

Table 3. Thermal Properties of Room Lining Materials 43

Table 4. Key to Values Appearing in Tables 5, 6, 7 and 8 ... 44

Table 5. Effect of Vent Size on Time and Energy Needed to

Achieve Flashover 45

Table 6. Effect of Aspect Ratio on Time and Energy Needed

to Achieve Flashover 54

Table 7. Effect of Room Height on Time and Energy Needed

to Achieve Flashover 55

Table 8. Effect of Wall Lining Material on Time and Energy

Needed to Achieve Flashover .... 56

Table 9. Comparison of Predictions with Full-Scale Fire Tests . 58

vi
COMPUTER FIRE MODELING FOR THE PREDICTION OF FLASHOVER

Richard D. Peacock

J. Newton Breese

Abstract

This study presents an initial look at the potential for

the use of fire growth models. A technique is presented, based

upon numerous fire growth predictions to estimate the minimum

energy required to produce temperature levels capable of

promoting flashover in a variety of room configurations. The

parameters investigated included room size, room ventilation,

ceiling height and room lining material. A comparison is

presented of the predictions made with available full-scale

fire test data and with other predictions. The technique,

although needing refinement, shows promise to estimate flashover potential.

Key words: Compartment fires; computers; fire growth;

flashover; mathematical models.

1. INTRODUCTION

Recent advances in computing and mathematical modeling of physical

phenomena have led to the development of a number of computer programs

for the prediction of the growth of a fire within a room. Owing to the

complexity of the problem, many of the models require large computing

facilities not always available to the fire safety engineering designer.

Until recently, the application of these models has been limited to

experiments designed to verify the prediction capabilities of the

models. Nonetheless, the successful use of the computer for the prediction of fire phenomena shows great promise for the designer who will be

able to anticipate the fire performance of a new building design before

construction and without expensive full scale fire testing.

One area of considerable interest is the prediction of flashover,

the rapid transition from slow initial fire growth to full room involvement. Since it clearly signals a greatly increased risk to building

1
occupants as well as to other building areas not initially involved on

the fire, it is a logical criterion for fire safety design of building

construction and use.

As a part of the Fire/Life Safety Program at the Center for Fire

Research (CFR) at the National Bureau of Standards (NBS), the United

States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) has sponsored a project to investigate the potential of the prediction of the occurrence

of flashover as a design criterion for building construction. The

operation of any hospital, nursing home, or in some cases, board and care homes involves a degree of risk resulting from the need to maintain

storage, laboratories and other areas where the fire potential is significantly more than that of the typical bedroom or similar area. The segregation of these hazardous areas is a key element in facility protection.

However, the current treatment of hazardous areas in building codes

lumps a wide variety of possible hazards into a two level category of

hazardous areas, resulting in mandating requirements for safety that are directed at the worst problem in each level. While the protection of

hazardous areas is vital to fire safety, there is currently no rational

way to determine what is truly a life threatening hazard or to regulate

safeguards appropriate to the true threat.

This report presents the results of the application of one of the

computer fire models to the prediction of flashover to enable the

designer or regulator to classify the hazard of an area based upon the

potential of the space to flash over. By presenting a variety of room

configurations, the intent is to provide a design tool to determine the

critical energy release rate in a room necessary to produce flashover in

terms of room size, shape, ventilation and room lining material. While

further work will be needed to extend and refine the approach and relate

it to real-world burning rates, the approach presented here provides the

basis for the development of proposed adjustments to hazardous area criteria in the Life Safety Code and important professional insight to a critical problem in fire safety.

2
2. REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORK

The occurrence of flashover within a room is of considerable

interest to the fire protection specialist since it is perhaps the

ultimate signal of untenable conditions within the room of fire origin

as well as a sign of greatly increased risk to other rooms within the

building. A number of experimental studies of full scale fires have

been performed that provide an adequate definition of flashover in terms

of measurable physical properties. Computer simulations of the growth

of a fire within a room are available. A brief review of these efforts

is presented below to provide a background for the study presented here.

2.1 A Working Definition of Flashover

Visually, flashover has been observed in full-scale fire tests.

Quantification of the process in terms of measureable physical parameters, however, is not as easy to obtain. A considerable body of fullscale fire test data studying flashover exists from a variety of sources.

2.1.1 Temperature

Harmathy [1,2]^ presents a review of compartment fire tests and

develops some theoretical predictions for comparison. For a series of

full-scale compartment burnout tests, he presents average upper gas

temperature rises of from 198-959°C (356-1725°F) with an average of

584°C for fully developed fires in an enclosure with a surface area of

55 m

2

.

Heselden [3] and Thomas and Heselden [4] report the results of an experimental study of the behavior of fully-developed fires in single

compartments carried out by a number of laboratories. Gas temperatures

measured centrally in the compartment a quarter of the height below the

ceiling reached an average of 1070-1145°C during three different series

of tests.

^Numbers in brackets refer to the literature references listed in

section 9 at the end of this report.

3
Hagglund, et al. [5] report that flashover defined by them as flames exiting the doorway was experimentally observed when the gas

temperature about 10 mm below the ceiling reached 600°C. Babrauskas [6]

applied this criterion to a series of full-scale mattress fires. Of the

ten mattresses tested, only two exhibited potential to flashover the

test room. These two mattress fires led to maximum gas temperatures of

938°C and 1055°C (1720°F and 1931°F).

Fang [7] reported on experiments conducted in a full-scale enclosure

at NBS. An average upper room temperature ranging from 450°C to 650°C

(840°F to 1200°F) provided a level of radiation transfer sufficient to

result in the ignition of paper flashover indicators at floor level in

the compartment. The average upper room gas temperature necessary for

spontaneous ignition of newsprint was 540 + 40°C (1004 + 70°F) . It

should be noted that this average included low temperatures at the midheight of the room and that temperatures measured 25 mm (1 in) below the

ceiling in his test series almost always exceeded 600°C (1110°F)

.

Budnick and Klein [8-11] performed several series of tests to study

the fire safety of mobile homes. During tests in the living room of a mobile home, ignition of paper flashover indicators was observed with

upper room temperatures ranging from 673°C to 771°C (1240°F to 1420°F)

.

For tests where full room involvement was not noted, maximum upper room

temperatures ranged from 311°C to 520°C (592°F to 968°C) [8]. Results

of tests conducted in the master bedroom of a typically constructed

single-width mobile home indicated peak temperatures ranging from 300°C

to 375°C (572°F to 702°F) for tests where flashover was not observed and

temperatures ranging from 634°C to 734°C (1173°F to 1353°F) at flashover.

All temperatures reported were measured 25 mm (1 in) below the ceiling

in the center of the bedroom [9].

Lee and Breese [12] report ignition of newsprint on the floor as a flashover indicator in full scale and 1/4 scale tests of submarine hull

insulation at room air and doorway air temperatures of at least 650°C

4
(1200°F) and 550°C (1020°F) respectively. For tests where flashover was not obtained, these temperatures reached a maximum of 427°C (801°F) and

324°C (615°F). They note, however, that ignition of newsprint or some designated minimum doorway or interior air temperatures are only rough

indicators of flashover because of the variation in the thermal and

physical properties of crumpled newsprint, the non-uniform distribution

of temperatures throughout the compartment, and the differences between

tests of the combined thermal radiation from the smoke, the hot air and

the heated surfaces. The hot air inside the compartment usually became

well mixed by the time it exited through the doorway. Thus, they

concluded that doorway temperatures may be more reliable flashover

indicators than interior air temperatures.

Babrauskas [13] observed flashover during a test of a urethane foam

block chair resulting in maximum temperatures over 800°C (1470°F). For

other tests of upholstered chairs that did not achieve flashover,

temperatures were below 600°C (1110°F).

Fang and Breese [14] observed ignition of paper flashover indicators

at floor level with an average upper room gas temperature of 706 + 92°C

with a 90% confidence level for a series of sixteen full-scale fire

tests of residential basement rooms.

To assess the relative fire risk of cellular plastic materials as compared to wood for use in furniture Quintiere and McCaffrey [15,16]

studied the burning of wood and plastic cribs in a room. They found a gap between lower temperature fires (ceiling layer gas temperature less

than 450°C) and high temperature fires (ceiling layer gas temperature

greater than 600°C). They measured the potential for flashover from the

fact that cellulose filter paper tell-tabs did indeed ignite or were

destroyed in the five cases (out of sixteen) involving high gas temperatures .

5
Thomas [17] describes the calculation of the rate of heat release

required to cause flashover in a compartment. He presents a simple

model of flashover in a room and with it studies the influence of wall

lining materials and thermal feedback to the burning items. He predicts

a temperature rise of 520°C (936°F) and a black body radiation level of

-2

22 kW/m to an ambient surface away from the neighborhood of a burning

wood fuel at the predicted critical heat release rate necessary to cause

flashover.

2.1.2 Heat Flux

Heat flux to exposed items within the fire room has also been used

as a criterion for the definition of flashover. Parker and Lee [18]

2 have suggested using a criterion level of 20 kW/m as the heat flux at

floor level at which cellulosic fuels in the lower part of the room are likely to ignite.

A range of materials tested for ignition time and fluxes are reported

by Babrauskas [6]. For some common materials, the following ignition

fluxes are given for a 60-second exposure:

Flux (kW/m^)

Piloted Unpiloted

Newspaper Want Ads 46 48

Box Cardboard 33 43

Polyurethane Foam 19 —

The unpiloted values are considered more appropriate for determination

of full room involvement since ignition at considerable distance from

2 the flames is involved. A value of 20 kW/m represents, according to

Smith [6,19], an unpiloted ignition time of approximately 180 seconds

for box cardboard and is close to an ultimate asymptotic value.

6
T

Fang [7] found in a series of room burns that strips of newsprint

2 placed at floor level ignited at fluxes of 17 to 25 kW/m while 6.4 mm

2 (1/4 in) thick fir plywood ignited at 21 to 33 kW/m .

Budnick [8] found that, for tests in which flashover occurred, the

2 minimum total incident heat flux at the center of the floor was 15 kW/m .

Lee and Breese [12] report average heat fluxes at floor level of 17

2 to 30 kW/m at flashover for full-scale tests of submarine compartments.

Fang and Breese [14] found good agreement between the time to

ignition of newsprint flashover indicators and the time at which the

incident heat flux measured at the center of the floor in the burn room

2 reached a level of 20 kW/m during tests in a basement recreation room.

2 A nominal incident floor heat flux of 20 kW/m may be used as an indicator of the potential onset of flashover according to Quintiere and

McCaffrey [15]. Ignition of filter paper flashover indicators was

2 observed at a minimum of 17.7 kW/m applied for roughly 200 seconds or more. Under more controlled laboratory conditions, with radiant exposure

2

to the same target configuration, the paper charred black at 25 kW/m

and ripped at 120 seconds, but only decomposed to a brown color under

15 kW/m2

.

While the researchers used different definitions for the onset of

flashover, fairly good agreement was evident from a number of researchers

on two criteria for the onset of flashover. A working definition, for

the purpose of defining flashover in terms of measureable physical

parameters would be:

Upper Gas Temperature >_ 600°C, or

, 2 Heat Flux at Floor Level > 20 kW/m .

7
2.2 Mathematical Modeling of Fires

Considerable effort and resources have been directed at the

mathematical modeling of the growth of a fire within a room from ignition

to flashover. Friedman [20] and Levine [21] present overviews of the

accomplishments to date. In the mid 1960’s, Thomas [22] developed an approximate theory of the growth to flashover of fires in compartments.

Since the late 1960's, researchers have successfully utilized the digital

computer for the prediction of the various processes that take place

during the growth of a fire [23]. More recently, more sophisticated

models have evolved which have considered such effects as: ventilation,

growth of the fire, energy feedback to the fire, turbulence, heat loss

to the ceiling, and radiation induced ignitions of secondary objects

within the room [20], The Japanese Building Research Institute has used

computer modeling to study radiative ignition and the spread of fire on walls and other surfaces [24,25]. Emmons and Mitler [26-31] have

developed a room fire model to predict the response of a room to a fire

within the room. Pape, et al [32-39], have studied the burning of

furniture items within a room by computer modeling. They present

burning rate curves for typical furniture items [32]. Quintiere [40]

and McCaffrey [15,41] have developed a series of quasi-steady state

models. Cooper [42] has applied computer modeling to estimate the time

available for safe egress from a fire by coupling the detection of fire

with a fire growth model to estimate untenable conditions within the room.

Certainly, one of the most comprehensive models is the Harvard

University Computer Fire Code V developed by Emmons and Mitler [26-31].

This version of the mathematical model permits the computation of the

development of a fire in a vented enclosure. The fire can be one of

three kinds: a growing fire (ignited at a point), a pool fire, or a burner fire. The room may have up to five vents. Mass flows through

the vents are calculated; species concentrations (CO, CO^, ^0, 0^

,

8
soot) are found for the hot layer, as well as its depth, temperature,

and absorptivity. The surface temperatures of up to four objects

(besides the original one) can be found, and they may ignite either by

piloted ignition, by radiation, or by contact with a (growing) flame.

The calculation can be carried forward as far as desired. For a limited

fuel mass, this means through flashover, burnout, and cooldown. No

provision is yet made for the burning of walls or ceiling.

Figure 1 is an illustration of the processes occurring in a fire in

a compartment with an opening in it [21,26]. The fire over the burning

O object generates a plume of hot gas that entrains air, M , from the

lower layer, and adds a flux of hot, partly unburned gas, M , to the hot

ceiling layer. Early in the fire, before the ceiling layer has grown

below the doorway height, H^, air flows out the doorway to make room for

the hot, lower density gas in the ceiling layer. Later, for a short

time, both hot ceiling layer gas and air flow out the doorway; then as the ceiling layer approaches the thickness h , ceiling layer gas flows

L

out and outside air flows in. At the neutral plane, the pressure outside

and inside the room are equal. Buoyancy forces cause the pressure above

the neutral plane inside the room to be greater than the outside pressure,

and lower than the outside pressure below the neutral plane.

The outflow of the room ceiling layer gases is of key concern to

the safety of the rest of the structure, since this is the source of

smoke and toxic gases. The other rooms in the structure are generally

made untenable by smoke or toxicity before they are untenable due to

heat [43]

.

As figure 1 indicates, many processes occurring within the room

interact. Thermal radiation from the fire, the hot ceiling layer, and

the upper walls and ceiling affect the combustion rate (of the outside

surfaces) of the burning object, and also heat up other objects in the

room, shown here as a "target", until they may eventually ignite. If

9
the flame is spreading, the rate of flame spread, as well as the rate of

burning of already ignited surfaces, will be affected by the heating due

to this radiation.

The plume above the fire and its entrainment of lower layer air is,

of course, affected by the burning rate of the fire, which in turn is

affected by the thermal radiation, the reduction of the oxygen content

of the lower layer air caused by mixing between the two layers (not

O shown in figure 1), and drafts due to the incoming cooler air L'L. The

upper layer gases are cooled by convective and radiative heat transfer

to the ceiling and upper walls, and this cooling can have a significant

influence on the temperature of the upper layer, its radiation, and

hence the growth rate of the fire.

Since the mathematical model must reproduce the interactions

described above, where each process is affected by the other processes,

it consists of a set of mathematical equations that must be solved

simultaneously, usually interactively, and is only practically done on a computer

.

2.3 Estimating Room Flashover Potential

Two approaches have been taken to estimate the onset of flashover

within a room. Babrauskas [44] developed a simple combustion model with

a flashover criterion of AT = 575°C and compared the results of the

predictions using the model with experimental results. He provides a simple rule to estimate the minimum heat release rate to produce

flashover:

q = 0.6 A(h) 1/2

where q is the estimated rate of heat release in MW, A is the door area

2 1/2 in m and h is the door height in m. The A(h) factor is usually

10
called the "ventilation factor." He reports adequate agreement with

experimental data with 2/3 of the data studied falling between q = 0.45 A(h) 1/2 and q = 1.05 A(h) 1/2

.

McCaffrey, Ouintiere and Harkelroad [45] performed a regression

analysis to provide a correlation to predict gas temperature. Using

data from over 100 experiments, they found a correlation based on two

dimensionless quantities:

AT 480 . q

2/3 r h A

k w

/gC p T A/H poo

• Jgc p a/h

P °

-1/3

°C

where AT is the temperature rise relative to ambient in °C, h^ is the

effective heat transfer coefficient to ceilings/walls , A is the effective

w

surface area for heat transfer including door area g is the gravitational

constant, is the specific heat of gas, p qis the ambient gas density,

and T

q

is the initial ambient absolute temperature. A means to calculate

the effective heat transfer coefficient, h^ is given in reference [39],

They report a multiple correlation coefficient of 0.959 or 0.947 depending

upon whether the floor is included in the calculation of the wall area

and the effective heat transfer coefficient.

By substituting typical values for Cpoo , p , T and a flashover

criterion of AT = 500°C, the above equation can be reduced to

1/2

q = 0.61 h. A A(h)

k w

1/2

2 2 -1

where qn is in MW, A and A are in m , h is in m and h, is in kW/m K

w k

Thomas [17] obtained an equation to predict the minimum flashover

energy by adjusting a simple model of a room fire with an "effective

calorific value" for the heat of combustion of the burning material of

approximately 70% of the actual value. In our notation, he predicts

11
q = 0.0078 A + 0.378 A (h)

1/2 w

where q is in MW, A and A are on m and h is in m. w

3. MODEL USED FOR THIS STUDY - ASSUMPTIONS

AND PARAMETERS INVESTIGATED

Of all the computer fire models available, certainly one of the

most comprehensive is the Harvard Fire Code V [26-31]. The physical

basis of the model has been described in detail by Mitler [26].

Instructions are available for its use [27]. The Harvard model was chosen for use in this study for several reasons:

• as one of the most advanced models, variation of many parameters is

possible

;

© the prediction capabilities follow the course of the fire from

ignition through flashover and to extinguishment; and

• it was available and working on computers at the National Bureau of

Standards

.

The model allows variation of up to 50 parameters describing the

physical and thermal properties of the room, the venting from the room,

the objects within the room and the initial fire involving one or more

of the objects. Table 1 presents the various parameters that may be

changed through appropriate data input.

3.1 Parameters Investigated

Obviously, a systematic variation of all the parameters in table 1 would b

6 A a monumental undertaking, involving up to 3 x 10 computer runs. However, a smaller number of variables are most important to the engineer

designing for fire protection. For this initial study, the following

parameters were investigated:

12
room size (length, width and ceiling height);

• door/vent size (width, height and placement of doors and windows)

;

• room lining materials (physical and thermal properties) ; and

• fire size (rate of heat release, maximum fire size).

Since the object of this investigation was to determine the minimum

predicted fire size necessary to achieve flashover within a given room

configuration, this led to four series of computer runs:

• a ventilation factor series (variation of the size of vent

openings for different rooms)

;

• an aspect ratio series (variation of the length and width of a single room)

;

• a room height series (variation of the ceiling height of a single room) ; and

• a wall material series (variation of the thickness and thermal

properties of the wall lining)

.

Figure 2 illustrates the basic room configuration. Each one of these

series of computer runs is described in detail below.

13
3.1.1

Ventilation Factor Series

During this series of computer runs, the largest number of runs,

nine different rooms sizes and eleven different vent sizes were investigated. Table 2 describes the room and vent sizes. Rooms as small as 1.8 m x 1.8 m (6x6 ft) and as large as 8.5 m x 12.8 m (28 x 42 ft)

were included. Room vent size ranged from 10% to 100% of the length of

the short wall plus a ’’standard door", 0.76 m (30 in) in width. Ceiling

height and door height were held constant at 2.4 m (8 ft) and 2.03 m

(6.6 ft) respectively. The wall lining material was gypsum wallboard,

12.7 mm (1/2 in) in thickness.

3.1.2

Aspect Ratio Series

For this series, three room sizes studied in the ventilation factor

2 2 series were chosen - total room surface areas of 48 m , 131 m and

323 m^ (520 ft^, 1410 ft^, and 3480 ft^) - and the ratio of room length

to room width was varied from 1 to 16. This ratio is referred to as the

"aspect ratio" for the room. Besides maintaining a constant total room

surface area for a given series of runs, the ceiling height was held

constant at 2.4 m (8 ft); and the vent size was held constant at 1.73 m x 2.03 m

(5.7 ft x 6.6 ft). Gypsum wallboard, 12.7 mm (1/2 in) thick, lined the rooms

.

3.1.3

Room Height Series

The same three rooms used for the aspect ratio series (48 m , 2 2 131 m and 323 m ) were further studied by varying the ceiling height

within the room from 2.4 m (8 ft) to 12.2 m (40 ft). The aspect ratio

was 1.5 and the vent size was 1.73 m x 2.03 m (5.7 ft x 6.6 ft) as before. Similarly, gypsum wallboard was used as the wall lining.

14
3.1.4 Wall Material Series

The properties of several wall lining materials were input for the

three rooms as well. The materials investigated were:

• concrete, 150 mm (6 in) thick

• brick, 100 mm (4 in) thick

• chipboard, 1.3 mm (1/2 in) thick

• gypsum wallboard, 13 mm (1/2 in) thick

• fibre insulation, 13 mm (1/2 in) thick

• expanded polystyrene, 13 mm (1/2 in) thick.

Thermal properties of the lining materials are given in table 3. Room

size, vent size, aspect ratio, and ceiling height were held constant as before. The models do not however, have the capability to predict the

behavior of combustible wall linings. Thus, only comparisons of the

effect of different heat transfer properties are possible.

3.2 Fire Algorithm

For modeling purposes, a fire is described as a time varying source

of heat generation within the room. The physics which specify how the

rate of heat release of the fire changes is, unfortunately, very complex.

However, in the simplest case, a fire which is of a constant heat output

is the most severe, and thus appropriate for this study to predict the

minimum fire size necessary to produce flashover.

In the Harvard model, this is simulated by a gas burner algorithm

which builds to a maximum value in a short period of time after ignition.

The buildup to a maximum value is necessary for the numerical solution

techniques used in the model to converge to a solution.

15
3.3 Flashover

Each computer run must have an end point at which calculation

stops. For these series, the end point of the calculations was flashover

as evidenced by an upper gas layer temperature rise of 500°C above room

temperature. While this chosen value is lower than the typical value of

600°C (a rise of 573°C above room temperature), it was chosen for two

reasons: 1) a somewhat lower limit would incorporate a margin of safety

into the calculations, and 2) it would allow a more valid comparison to

the predictions of McCaffrey, et al [39] and Thomas [17], who used this

limit in their calculations. Additionally, a burning time limit of 15

minutes was placed on the calculations. The 15 minute limit was chosen

as a reasonable "worst case" time necessary for appropriate safety

actions such as evacuation or closing of protective doors.

4. Computer Runs and Results

A total of four hundred forty computer runs were made to gain data

for the four series of investigations. Since the computer program

contains initial values for all of the parameters used, the only data

cards read by the program are those which override the initial values in

order to tailor the model to a specific design. The initial values

built into the program were determined from a series of seven thoroughly

instrumented full scale fires [26]. Thus, they represent values which

provide "best agreement" between prediction and experiment. For the

tests that were run, the changes made were for room dimensions, objects

(e.g. gas burner, flashover indicator) in the room, vent dimensions and

position, and wall lining material. The program asks for the information

in "blocks". First a series of code numbers, representing which information is to be changed, are entered. These numbers are followed by a blank card and the values with which the initial conditions are to be

replaced.

16
As you can see in the listing of the typical set of data cards in

Appendix A, the physical room characteristics are described in the block

of cards from card 20 through 28, Object 1 (the gas burner) is described

in the block of cards from 29 through 37, the gas burner fire algorithm

in the block from 38 through 47, and so on.

Appendix A also has a listing of the output produced using the data

cards in the appendix. The output begins with a summary of all the

values of the parameters at the time of program execution. The summary

is followed by the output listing of the values of all the variables

examined by the program. Of particular interest are the variables ZKLZZ

from R00M=1 and TEOZZ from 0BJ=1. ZKLZZ is the average temperature (K)

of the upper gas layer. This temperature is used to decide if flashover

has been reached. TEOZZ is the energy output of the gas burner (W) . It

is a negative number because it represents the amount of heat being

given off by the burner.

The listing of the variables is produced at T = 2.000 seconds and

at multiples of the output interval (data card 85) until the maximum

time (data card 86) or flashover is reached. In the example, flashover

is reached at T = 558.00 seconds, the average upper gas temperature

(ZKLZZ) is 800. 13K and the energy output of the burner is 4.4276 MW.

Four hundred forty sets of data cards and corresponding computer

output were produced. The results of the tests are summarized in tables

4 through 8.

5. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

The data presented in tables 4-8 represent the minimum energy

levels that were predicted to produce flashover for the various room configurations studied. Table 5 shows the effect of room ventilation

17
(door and window openings) on the minimum energy necessary for flashover

for different size rooms with gypsum wallboard lining and a 2.4 m (8 ft)

ceiling height. Table 6 shows the effect of the room length to width

ratio on the minimum flashover energy. Room ceiling height and wall

lining material effects are presented in tables 7 and 8, respectively.

5.1 Effect of Room Ventilation

Figure 3 shows only the predicted minimum flashover energy extracted

from tables 5 and 6 for the six different size rooms with a length to

width ratio of 1.5. The curves drawn for each room size were placed so

as to represent a minimum energy level curve for the room size. The

room opening size is expressed in terms of the "ventilation factor":

A (h)

1/2

where A is the area of the opening and h is the height of the opening.

For room sizes ranging from 2.4 m x 3.7 m (8 x 12 ft) to 8.5 m x 12.8 m

(28 x 42 ft), a ten-fold change in the ventilation factor resulted in

only a 25 to 100 percent change in the minimum rate of heat release.

The following table shows the effect of the increased opening sizes:

Increase in Minimum Energy Required for Flashover

for a Ten-Fold Increase in A(h)l/2

Room Size

(m)

Wall Area

(m

2

)

Minimum Flashover Energy

Range Percent Increase

(MW)

2.4 X 3.7 48 0.74 -- 1.48 100

3.7 X 4.9 85 0.98 -- 1.97 101

4.9 X 7.3 131 1.72 -- 2.46 43

6.1 X 9.1 186 2.21 -- 3.20 45

7.3 X 11.0 250 2.95 -- 4.18 42

8.5 X 12.8 323 3.94 -- 4.92 25

18
For larger rooms with small openings, the fires are of sufficient

size that attainment of flashover is difficult due to insufficient

oxygen early in the fire buildup. Proportionally larger fires are thus

required to reach the 800 K criterion for flashover at the small opening

sizes

.

5.2 Effect of Room Geometry

Not surprisingly, changing the room length to width ratio (the

"Aspect Ratio") had little effect on the energy required for flashover

as predicted by the model. Table 6 shows the results of the runs. As a zone model, the prediction of the properties of the upper gas layer are based upon the assumption that the entire layer is well mixed and of

uniform properties throughout. Thus, the only effect accounted for in

the prediction are changes in view factors for radiative heat transfer.

Effects that may be more significant in long, narrow hallways such as

(1) the flow of gases from one end of the room to the other or (2)

buildup of heat at one end of the room, are not accounted for in the

model.

The lack of effect from changing the aspect ratio does simplify the

resulting predictions. The curves in figure 3 are presented based upon

total room surface area rather than room length and width. Total room

surface area is calculated as:

2 (1) (w) + 2 (1) (H) + 2 (w) (H)

where 1 is the length of the room, w is the width of the room and H is

the room height. The room height used in the series discussed so far is

2.4 m.

19
5.3 Effect of Room Height

Figure 4, which is extracted from table 7, shows the increase in

minimum flashover energy for ceiling heights 2.4 m (8 ft) and greater.

An increase in ceiling height from 2.4 m (8 ft) to 12.2 m (40 ft), a 400

percent increase, resulted in only a 49 to 56% increase in minimum

flashover energy. Figure 5 presents the effect of room height expressed

as a percentage of the minimum flashover energy necessary to produce

flashover in a room of the same size (length and width), the same door

size with a 2.4 m ceiling. A linear regression provides a satisfactory

fit to the equation

^HEIGHT 100 + 5.3 AH

where is the percentage increase in the minimum flashover energy

for room heights greater than 2.4 m (8 ft) and AH is the increase in

ceiling height in meters. The correlation coefficient for the above

equation is 0.91. For For example, for a 12.19 m ceiling height,

AH = 9.75 and P = 100 + 5.3 x (9.75) = 152; the minimum energy

nJcjlLrril

required to produce flashover within a room with a ceiling height of

12.19 m is 152% of that required to produce flashover within a room with

a 2.4m ceiling.

Much of the spread in the data can be accounted for by the limited

number of computer runs made to establish "minimum" flashover energies

for a given geometry. From table 5, the difference in fire size for any

two adjacent fire sizes is 0.24 MW. For the larger fires, this is less

than 4%. However, for the smaller fires, this is as much as 32%. The

difference between the curves in figure 4 is well below 32%.

5.4 Effect of Wall Lining

Figures 6 and 7 illustrate the effect of changing the heat response

(but not combustibility or ignition susceptibility) of the wall and

20
ceiling lining material. For materials ranging from 12.7 mm thick

expanded polystyrene insulation to 15 cm thick concrete, the minimum

flashover energy increased less than 70% for a given room geometry. In

figure 7, the minimum flashover energy for a given wall lining is

expressed as a percentage of the minimum energy required to produce

flashover in the equivalent room with a 12.7 mm thick gypsum wall lining.

In this figure, Py^^ t^e P ercenta8e of the minimum flashover energy

for gypsum wall lining (kpC = 0.18) that would be necessary to produce

flashover in rooms lined with other materials, k is the thermal conductivity in W/mK, p is the density in kg/m and C is the specific heat in

J/kgK. For concrete (kpC = 2.88), Py^L = ^0. Thus , the minimum

energy required to produce flashover within a room with a ceiling height

of 2.4m (8 ft) with a concrete lining is predicted to be 160% of that

required to produce flashover within the equivalent room with a gypsum

lining. For all of these predictions it is assumed in the model that

the wall lining does not ignite.

5.5 Comparison with Test Data

A number of full-scale fire tests have been performed in a wide

variety of configurations. Table 9 summarizes some of the data [44] for

tests where flashover was observed. In all cases, the predicted minimum

flashover energy is lower than the observed maximum rate of heat release

from the full-scale tests.

The predicted values average 70% of the observed with a range from

57% to 83%. It is not surprising that the predicted minimum energy

necessary to produce flashover is significantly less than the observed

maximum rate of heat release. Several reasons why this should be

expected are apparent:

21
• The predicted minimum flashover energy is just that — a minimum energy necessary to produce flashover for a given

configuration. The rate of heat release for full-scale room

fires was based upon maximum rates and thus may not be the

minimum energy level.

• The fire algorithm simulates a fire which grows immediately

upon ignition to a maximum size and remains constant at that

level. Real fires would exhibit changes in fire size as the

fire progressed. Thus, during most of the fire, the rate of

heat release would be below the maximum level.

• The temperature limit selected as a definition of flashover

was chosen purposely to be a conservative estimate. A higher

temperature criterion would, of course, raise the predicted

minimum flashover energy.

5.6 Comparison with Other Predictions

Three approaches were described in section 2 that have been applied

to predict flashover. From Babrauskas [44] the relationship:

q = 0.6 A(h) 1/2

from McCaffrey et al [45]:

q = 0.61 (h. A A(h)

k w

1/2

1/2

and from Thomas [17]

q

= 0.0078 A + 0.378 A (h) w

1/2

22
The table below presents a comparison of these two predictions with

those from figure 2. The value for h^ = ' XkpC/t where t is a "characteristic

fire exposure time"; taken here to be 537 s, which is the average of all

"times to reach flashover" in table 5. The room size was chosen for

this comparison rather arbitrarily simply as being in the middle of the

1/2

range of room sizes studied. At small values of A(h) , both McCaffrey

and Babrauskas present more conservative predictions. For values of

1/2 5/2 A(h) greater than 3-4 m , the predictions of figure 2 are more

1/2 conservative. Babrauskas assumes a ratio of A /A(h) of 50. In the

w

table below, this ratio ranges from 16 to 66 so the disagreement is not

surprising. In addition, the criterion for flashover differs in the

above formulations.

_ cl A Comparison of Techniques for the Prediction of Flashover

A(h) 1/2

(n5/2

)

from fig. 2 C

q

(MW)

from ref. [44]^

q

(MW)

from ref. [45]

a, ^ ,C

q

(MW)

from ref.

q

(MW)

2 1.8 1.2 1.4 1.8

4 2.2 2.4 1.9 2.5

6 2.3 3.6 2.4 3.3

8 2.4 4.8 2.7 4.0

[17]

a,C

a

c

room size 131 m

flashover at AT = 500°C

b - hk

= 0.019 kW/m2K

d - flashover at AT = 575°C

6. USING THE MODEL PREDICTIONS TO DETERMINE

MINIMUM FLASHOVER ENERGY

The use of figures 3, 5 and 7 to predict a minimum energy necessary

for flashover is straightforward. For any room with wall linings similar

to the types studied above, a calculation is made of the total surface

area of an equivalently sized room with a 2.4 m (8 ft) ceiling by

A = 2(2.4 x 1) + 2(2.4 x w) + 2(1 x w) w

23
Figure 2 is used to determine the minimum flashover energy for the room

1/2 area with the appropriate ventilation factor - A(h) . If the

ceiling height is greater than 2.4 m (8 ft), this minimum flashover

energy is modified by a percentage

PHEIGHT 100 + 5.3 AH

where AH is the increase in height over 2.4 m in meters. If the wall

material is other than the 13 mm (1/2 in) gypsum wallboard, the minimum

flashover energy is further modified by a percentage, from

figure 7 based upon kpC where k is the thermal conductivity in W/mK, p is the density in kg/m and C is the specific heat in J/kgK. By

definition, for 1/2" gypsum wallboard is 100. From the predictions

made, the limitations of these calculations are:

A — 48 to 323 (m^) w

AH — 0 to 9.75 (m)

A material similar to the ones studied in both thickness

and properties.

or

Aw

^HEIGHT

P

WALL

— 48 m^ to 323 m^ — 100% to 152% — 87% to 160%

As an example, consider a room 5 m long x 7 m wide x 4 m high with a doorway 2 m wide x 2 m high that is lined with 4 in. thick brick

£ (kpC = 1.66 x 10 ). From above,

24
A = 2 (2.4 x 5) + 2 (2.4 x 7) + 2 (5 x 7)

w

= 128 m

2

A(h) 1/2

= 2 (2 x (2)

1/2

= 5.7

From figure 2, the minimum flashover energy is predicted to be 2.25 MW.

Since the ceiling height is more than 2.4 m (8 ft), this is modified by

P

HEIGHT

- WO + 5.3 (1.6)

= 1087.

and modified for the brick wall surface by

P

WALL (kpC = i' 66 ) -

Therefore the minimum flashover energy would be 2.25 MW (1.08) (1.42) =

3.45 MW.

7. CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND LIMITATIONS

A technique has been presented to estimate the minimum energy

necessary to produce flashover in a variety of room configurations.

Using a series of curves developed from a computer fire growth model,

the minimum flashover energy is estimated. The effects of raising the

ceiling height and of variation in the room lining material were investigated. The limitations on the parameters studied were:

25
2 2 • room size — 48 m to 323 m

• ventilation factor — 0.5 nf^ t0 24.7 m^^

• ceiling height — 2.4 m to 12.2 m

• wall materials similar to those studied in both properties and

thickness

7.1 Limitations of this Study

This study presents an initial look at the potential for the use of

fire growth models to predict the occurrence of flashover. A number of

limitations of the study are apparent:

• the study centered on one fire model - a steady fire. Although

a "worst-case" simulation, it does not accurately model most

fires. A growing fire as proposed by Cooper [42] or a fire

which grows to a peak then dies down would represent a more

typical fire.

• An investigation of additional room sizes, ceiling heights and

wall lining materials would extend the study and increase the

usefulness of the predictions.

© The definition of flashover used for this study (AT = 500°C)

is certainly not the only one that could be chosen. A

temperature limit of 600-650°C should be investigated. A

definition in terms of the heat flux at floor level would

perhaps give more information on the ignition of other items

within the room.

• In all the predictions presented here, the wall lining material

was assumed not to ignite. Certainly many typical lining

materials do ignite. As the sophistication of the models

increase, this effect should be studied.

26
• The model predictions presented here are more conservative

than all other predictions at large ventilation factors. The

reasons for this should be investigated and should provide

insight into the effects of large openings during fires.

7.2 The Link With Room Furnishings

One important area of information which limits the usefulness of

this study is the relationship of the burning behavior of actual room

furnishing items to the minimum flashover energy. Two major stumbling

blocks are foreseen — 1) a catalog of the rates of heat release of

typical furnishing items and 2) how should this rate of heat release be

interpreted for the fire growth model.

In the first area, some information is available. Babrauskas

[6,13] has provided mass burning rates and heats of combustion for

mattresses and upholstered chairs. Lawson [49] has begun actual measurement of the rate of heat release of furnishings. The following table

provides an indication of the range of burning behavior of furnishings.

Maximum Rate of Heat Release of Selected Furnishings

RHR (MW)

Time Above

50% of Maximum Reference

Mattresses 0.08 to 1.7 150-800° Babrauskas [6]

Chairs 0.2 to 3.9 n. a. Babrauskas [13]

Chairs 1 to 3 n. a. Lawson [49]

Metal Wardrobe 0.2 60 Lawson [49]

sl b Wooden Wardrobe * 6.4 55 Lawson [ 49

]

Wardrobes with clothing, cardboard box, newspaper inside.

^1/8 thick plywood,

c

2 specimens resulted in flashover.

27
Considerably more information is necessary on furnishings to be able to

determine how these rate of heat release data compare to the minimum

flashover energy. One possible method would be to define (from the

furnishing RHR curves) a maximum rate of heat release and a duration of

the fire for various furnishing categories. These could be used to

define an appropriate fire model for predictions such as those made in

this study. The details of how this would be accomplished are, of

course, still to be determined.

8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was sponsored by the U.S. Department of Health and Human

Services. This support is gratefully acknowledged. Thanks are also

due to Mr. H. Nelson and Dr. L.Y. Cooper for their guidance in the

initial design of the study and for their insight in seeing the need and

potential for the use of computer modeling.

9 . REFERENCES

[1] Harmathy, T.Z., A New Look at Compartment Fires, Part I, Fire

Technology, Vol. 8, No. 3, 196-217 (August 1972).

[2] Harmathy, T.Z., A New Look at Compartment Fires, Part II, Fire

Technology, Vol. 8, No. 4, 326-351 (November 1972).

[3] Heselden, A.J.M., Results of an International Co-operative Programme

on Fully-Developed Fires in Single Compartments. Fire-Resistance

Requirements for Buildings—A New Approach. Symposium No. 5, 2-13,

Proceedings of the Joint Fire Research Organization, London,

September 28, 1971 (1973).

[4] Thomas, P.H., and Heselden, A.J.M., Fully-Developed Fires in Single

Compartments. A Co-operative Research Programme of the Conseil

International du Batiment, Fire Research Note No. 923, Fire Research

Station, Borehamwood (1972).

[5] Hagglund, B. , Janson, R. , and Onnermark, B., Fire Development in

Residential Rooms After Ignition from Nuclear Explosions, FOA

C20016-DG (A3), Forsvarets Forskningsanstalt , Stockholm (1974).

28
[6] Babrauskas, V. , Combustion of Mattresses Exposed to Flaming Ignition

Sources, Part I. Full-Scale Tests and Hazard Analysis, Nat. Bur.

Stand. (U.S.), NBSIR 77-1290 (1977).

[7] Fang, J.B., Fire Buildup in a Room and the Role of Interior Finish

Materials, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Tech. Note 879 (1975).

[8] Budnick, E.K., Mobile Home Living Room Fire Studies: The Role of

Interior Finish, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), NBSIR 78-1530 (1978).

[9] Budnick, E.K., Klein, D.P., and O'Laughlin, R.J., Mobile Home

Bedroom Fire Studies: The Role of Interior Finish, Nat. Bur.

Stand. (U.S.), NBSIR 78-1531 (1978).

[10] Klein, D.P. , Characteristics of Incidental Fires in the Living Room

of a Mobile Home, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), NBSIR 78-1522 (1978).

[11] Budnick, E.K., and Klein, D.P. , Mobile Home Fire Studies: Summary

and Recommendations, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), NBSIR 79-1720 (1979).

[12] Lee, B.T. and Breese, J.N. , Submarine Compartment Fire Study - Fire Performance Evaluation of Hull Insulation, Nat. Bur. Stand.

(U.S.), NBSIR 78-1584 (1979).

[13] Babrauskas, V., Full-Scale Burning Behavior of Upholstered Chairs,

Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Tech. Note 1103 (1979).

[14] Fang, J.B. and Breese, J.N. , Fire Development in Residential

Basement Rooms, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), NBSIR 80-2120 (1980).

[15] Quintiere, J.G. and McCaffrey, B.J., The Burning of Wood and Plastic

Cribs in an Enclosure: Volume I, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), NBSIR

80-2054 (1980).

[16] McCaffrey, B.J. and Rocket, J.A. , Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.)., J.

Res., Vol . 82, No. 2, 107-117 (1977).

[17] Thomas, P.H., Testing Products and Materials for Their Contribution

to Flashover in Rooms, Fire and Materials, Vol. 5, No. 3, 103-111

(September 1981)

.

[18] Parker, W.J. and Lee, B.T., Fire Build-Up in Reduced Size Enclosures.

In: Fire Safety Research, proceedings of a symposium held at the

National Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, MD on August 22, 1973.

M.J. Butler and J.A. Slater, eds. Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), NBS SP411, pp 139-53 (1974).

[19] Smith, W.K. , Naval Weapons Center, China Lake (unpublished reports).

29
[20] Friedman, R. , Status of Mathematical Modeling of Fires, Factory

Mutual Research Corporation, FMRC RC81-BT-5 (1981).

[21] Levine, R.S., Mathematical Modeling of Fires, Nat. Bur. Stand.

(U.S.), NBSIR 80-2107 (1980).

[22] Thomas, P.H., Theoretical Considerations of the Growth to Flashover

of Compartment Fires, Fire Research Note No. 663, Fire Research

Station, Borehamwood (1967).

[23] Torrance, K.E. and Rockett, J.A. , Experiments on Natural Convection

in Enclosures with Localized Heating from Below, J. Fluid Mech.

,

Vol . 36, No. 1, 33-54 (1969).

[24] Tanaka, T. , A Mathematical Model of a Compartment Fire, Building

Research Institute (Japan), BRI Research Paper #70 (1977).

[25] Hasemi, Y. , Numerical Simulation of Fire Phenomena and Its Application,

Building Research Institute (Japan), BRI Research Paper #66 (1976).

[26] Mitler, H.E., The Physical Basis for the Harvard Computer Fire

Code, Home Fire Project Technical Report #39, Harvard University,

Division of Engineering and Applied Science (1978).

[27] Mitler, H.E., User's Guide for the Harvard Computer Fire Code, Home

Fire Project Technical Report #37, Harvard University, Division of

Engineering and Applied Science (1979).

[28] Emmons, H.W. , Computer Fire Code (II), Home Fire Project Technical

Report #20, Harvard University, Division of Engineering and Applied

Science (1977)

.

[29] Emmons, H.W. , The Prediction of Fires in Buildings, Seventeenth

International Symposium on Combustion, 1101-1113, The Combustion

Institute, Pittsburgh, PA (1979).

[30] Emmons, H.W. , Scientific Progress on Fires, Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech.

1980, Vol. 12, 223-236 (1980).

[31] Emmons, H.W., The Calculation of Fire in a Large Building, ASME

20th Natl. Heat Transfer Conf . , Milwaukee, WI (1981).

[32] Pape, R., Waterman, T.E., and Eichler, T.V.

,

Development of a Fire

in a Room From Ignition to Full Room Involvement — RFIRES, contract

to Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), NBS GCR 81-301 (1981).

[33] Pape, R. , Preflashover Room Fire Model: Parametric Sensitivity

Analysis and Development of a Submodel for Burning Furniture Items,

contract to Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), NBS GCR 81-300 (1981).

30
[34] Pape, R. , Mavec, J. , Kalkbrenner, D. , Waterman, T., Program Documentation and User's Guide - Semistochastic Approach to Predicting

the Development of a Fire in a Room from Ignition to Flashover - RFIRES, contract to Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), NBSGCR 77-111 (June

1976) .

[35] Pape, R. and Waterman, T. , Program Documentation and User's Guide

(Addendum) - Semistochastic Approach to Predicting the Development

of a Fire in a Room from Ignition to Flashover - RFIRES, contract

to Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), NBSGCR 77-112 (1976).

[36] Waterman, T. and Pape, R. , A Study of the Development of Room Fires,

contract to Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), NBSGCR 77-110 (September 1976).

[37] Pape, R. and Waterman, T. , Modifications to the RFIRES Preflashover

Room Fire Computer Model, contract to Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.),

NBSGCR 77-113 (March 1977).

[38] Pape, R. , Computer Simulation of Full-Scale Room Fire Experiments,

Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute, Final Report

J6414 (March 1978)

.

[39] Pape, R. and Waterman, T. , "Understanding and Modeling Preflashover

Compartment Fires," Design of Buildings for Fire Safety , ASTM

STP685, E.E. Smith and T.Z. Harmathy, Eds., American Society for

Testing and Materials, pp 106-138 (1979).

[40] Quintiere, J.G., Growth of Fire in Building Compartments, ASTM

Special Publication 614, A.F. Robertson, ed., pp 131-167 (1977).

[41] Quintiere, J.G., Steckler, K. , and McCaffrey, B.J., A Model to

Predict the Conditions in a Room Subject to Crib Fires, Proceedings

of the Fire Specialists Meeting of the Combustion Institute,

Bordeaux, France (July 20-24, 1981).

[42] Cooper, L.Y., Estimating Safe Available Egress Time from Fires,

Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), NBSIR 80-2172 (1981).

[43] Friedman, R. , Quantification of Threat from a Rapidly Growing Fire

in Terms of Relative Material Properties, Fire and Materials, Vol.

2, No. 1, 27-33 (1978).

[44] Babrauskas, V. , Estimating Room Flashover Potential, Fire Technology,

Vol. 16, No. 2, 94-103 (1980).

[45] McCaffrey, B.J. , Quintiere, J.G. and Harkleroad, M.F., Estimating

Room Temperatures and the Likelihood of Flashover Using Fire Data

Correlations, Fire Technology, Vol. 17, No. 2, 98-119 (1981).

[46] Bohm, B. , "Fully Developed Polyethylene and Wood Compartment Fires

with Application to Structural Design," Ph.D. dissertation. Technical

University of Denmark, Lyngby (1977)

.

31
[47] Alpert, R.L. , et. al. , "Influence of Enclosures on Fire Growth,

vol. 1, Tests 1, 2, 6 and 7, Serial 0A0R2.BU-1, 2, 6, 7, Factory

Mutual Research Corporation, Norwood, Mass. (1977).

[48] Heselden, A.J.M., Smith, P.G., and Theobald, C.R., "Fires in a Large Compartment Containing Structural Steelwork, Detailed Measurements of Fire Behaviour," F.R. Note 646, Fire Research Station,

Borehamwood (1966)

.

[49] Lawson, R. , Center for Fire Research, personal communication.

32
w

X

ro 15

<u

33

Figure

1.

Mathematical

Modeling

of

Fires

in

an

Enclosure
VENT

OPENING

VARIED

FROM

10%

TO

100%

OF

WIDTH

OF

ROOIVI

c/>

CD

+»

<u

cso

E

=3

00

0 ©

© Q)

raw ^ © £ t

-Q_ ” &® w

£ © >> cL .S’ ^ .> ©

TM “ o UCQCSULlOL

34

Figure

2.

Basic

Room

Configuration

for

Computer

Modeling

Predictions
(MW) A9M3N3 U3A0HSV1J WRWINIW

35

Figure

3.

Room

Flashover

Modeling

Prediction

for

Various

Ventilation

Factors

(Gypsum

Wall

Lining

/

2.4

m

Ceiling

Height)
(MM) A9U3N3 93A0HSV1J MHMININ

36

Figure

4.

Room

Flashover

Modeling

Prediction

for

Various

Room

Heights

(Gypsum

Wall

Lining

/

Ventilation

Factor,

A(h)l

/2

=

5.0)
T T T T

CM

CM

JL

in

r^. J L

cd m

in cm in oin

(}Ud3J9d) 1H9I3HJ

37

Figure

5.

P

—

Percentage

of

Minimum

Flashover

Energy

for

Rooms

height

with

Ceiling

Heights

Greater

Than

2.4m
(MM) A9H3N3 H3A0HSV1J NONMIN

38

Figure

6

.

Room

Flashover

Modeling

Prediction

for

Various

Wall

Lining

Materials

(2.4

m

Ceiling

Height

/

Ventilation

Factor,

A(h)l/2

=

5.0)
i ri

CM

CM

m

in

in

CM

in

(luaojad) nvM

d

00C

•HC

•H

hJ

rH

cd S

Pjo

4-i

00

J-l CDGw

p-c 0) >0

.C

cn

cd rH

Pm16

•HC

•Hg

4-1O

(U00 cn

Cd i-H u cd G -h <u Pj a <u

Pj -u

0) cd a* g1i

r--

<D P43

00

•H

Pm

39

Other

Than

Gypsum

Board
Table 1. Parameters that Can Be Varied in the Harvard Model

Room Characteristics

Length of room Width of room

Height of room

Number of objects in room

Ambient air temperature

Vent width

Vent height

Vent transom depth

Wall thickness

Wall thermal conductivity

Wall specific heat

Wall density

Specific heat of air

Absorption coefficient of flame

Outside ambient temperature

Maximum heat transfer coefficient

Minimum heat transfer coefficient

Plume entrainment coefficient

Vent flow coefficient

Object Characteristics

Location of object (X, Y and Z)

Angle with horizontal

Angle with XZ-plane

Thickness

Initial burning radius

Object radius

Maximum burning radius

Length and width of object

Burning algorithm

Air/fuel ratio

Stochiometric A/F ratio

Gas flow rate

Fire spread parameter

Thermal conductivity

Specific heat

Emissivity

Combustion efficiency

Heat of combustion

Heat of vaporization

Initial fuel mass Ignition temperature

Pyrolization temperature

CO^/fuel ratio

CO/fuel ratio

Smoke/fuel ratio

Water/fuel ratio

Room number 1:

Default Conditions (all units S.I.)

Length along X = 2.4384

Length along y + 3.6576

Height = 2.4384

Ambient temperature = 300.0

Object number 1 (ID = 1)

:

X-coord = .8400; Y-coord = 2.8180;

Angle with horizontal = .00

Thickness = .1000

Initial mass = 6.8520

Maximum radius = .9677

Specific heat = 1900.

Emissivity = .98

Heat of combustion = .287 + 008

Pyrolization temp = 600.0

Air/fuel mass ratio = 14.45

FC02(C02 mass/fuel mass) = 1.504

FS (smoke mass/fuel mass) = .241

A(fire spread parameter) = .0109

height = .6100

Angle with XZ-plane = .00

Density = 48.00

Initial radius = .0370

Object radius = .8598

Thermal conductivity = .0540

Chi (fraction of heat released) = .65

Heat of vaporization = .205 + 007

Ignition temp = 727.0

Stochiometric mass ratio = 9.85

FC0(C0 mass/fuel mass) = .013

FH20(H20 mass/fuel mass) = .714

40
Table 1. Continued

Object number 2 (ID = 2)

:

X-coord = 2.0800; Y-coord = 2.8180;

Angle with horizontal = .00

Thickness = .1000

Initial mass = 1.0963

Maximum radius = .4657

Specific heat = 1900.

Emissivity = .98

Heat of combustion = .287 + 008

Pyrolization temp = 600.0

Air/fuel mass ration = 14.45

FC02(C02 mass/fuel mass) = 1.504

FS (smoke mass/fuel mass) = .241

A (fire spread parameter) = .0109

Vent number 1:

Width = .7620; height = 2.0320; transom

Wall number 1:

height = .8640

Angle with XZ-plane = .00

Density = 48.00

Initial radius = .0370

Object radius = 3.439

Thermal conductivity = .0540

Chi (fraction of heat released) = .65

Heat of vaporization = .205 + 007

Ignition temp = 740.0

Stochiometric mass ratio = 9.85

FC0(C0 mass/fuel mass) = .013

FH

2 O (^0 mass/fuel mass) = .714

depth = .4064

Density = 800.00

Thermal conductivity = .1340

Physical constants:

Thickness = .0254

Specific heat = 1062

Specific heat of air = 1004 Absorption coeff. of flame = 1.55

For air:

Heat transfer coeff. = 10.00 Plume entrainment coeff. = .10

For layer gases:

Max. heat transfer coeff. = 50.00 Min. heat transfer coeff. = 5.00

For vents:

Flow coefficient = .68

41
Table 2. Room and Vent Sizes Investigated

Ventilation Factor Series

Room Size Room Area Ventilation Factor

(m) (m

2

) A(h) 1/2

(m5/2

)

2.4 x 3.6 48 0.7 - 7.1

3.6 x 5.5 85 1.1 - 10.6

4.9 x 7.3 131 1.4 - 14.1

6.1 x 9.1 186 1.8 - 17.7

7.3 x 11 250 2.1 - 21.2

8.5 x 12.8 323 2.2 - 24.7

Room Height Series

Room surface areas: 48 m , 131 m , 323 m

Ceiling height: 2.4 m - 12.2 m

Wall Lining Series

o 2 2 2 Room surface areas: 48 m , 131 m , 323 m

Six materials, each with a typical characteristic

thickness

.

42
a Table 3. Thermal Properties of Room Lining Materials

Specific Thermal

Density Heat Conductivity

P c k x 10 3 kpc

kg kJ kW

3

m

kg.K m.K

Aluminum (pure) 2710 .895 206 500

Concrete 2400 .75 1.6 2.88

Asbestos-cement

board (heavy)

2100 1.0 1.1 2.31

Brick 2600 0.8 0.8 1.66

Brick/concrete block 1900 .84 .73 1.17

Gypsum board 960 1.1 .17 0.180

Plasterboard 950 .84 .16 0.127

Plywood 540 2.5 .12 0.162

Chipboard 800 1.25 .15 0.150

Aerated concrete 500 .96 .26 0.1248

Cement-asbestos board 658 1.06 .14 0.0976

Calcium silicate

board

700 1.12 .11-. 14 0.0862

Fibre insulation board 240 1.25 .053 0.0159

Alumina silicate block 260 <1> .14 0.0464

Glass fibre insulation 60 .8 .037 1.78 x 10" 3

Expanded polystyrene 20 1.5 .034 1.02 x 10“ 3

From reference [39].

43
Table 4. Key to Values Appearing in Tables 5, 6, 7 and 8

Unless otherwise specified:

Room height = 2.44 m

Vent (door) size: width = 1.73 m

height = 2.03 m

1/2

A(h) ' = 5.00

Flashover is defined as having occurred at an energy level if

the temperature reaches 800 K (AT = 500 degrees) within 900 seconds.

The numbers below the steady state energy are the times in seconds

required to reach flashover for that energy output level.

A boxed number is the time in seconds required to reach flashover

with the minimum energy output level (of those energy levels

investigated)

.

A number in parentheses is the temperature (K) at time t = 900s

when flashover has not occurred at that energy level.

+ room width and length were exchanged to accommodate door width.

* steady state fire energy output level not reached.

// fire is oxygen starved at some time.

s standard width door (0.76 m)

44
Table 5A. Effect of Vent Size on Time and Energy Needed to Achieve Flashover

Room size: length = 2.44 m, width = 3.66 m, height = 2.44 m

Vent Characteristics Steady State Energy Output (MW)

Vent (Door)

Width

of room length)

Vent

Width

(m) A(h) 1/2 0.49 0.74 0.98 1.23 1.48 1.72

10 0.24 0.7 (755) 252 113#*

20 0.49 1.4 (684) 774 56

30 0.73 2.1 (673) 244 76

31

s 0.76 2.2 (665) 268 78

40 0.98 2.8 (630) 558 96

50 1.22 3.5 (610) (673) 134

60 1.46 4.2 (585) (652) 200

70 1.71 4.9 (576) (634) 324

80 1.95 5.6 (676) 66 64*

90 2.19 6.3 (664) 84 32

100 2.44 7.1 (653) 112 68*

45
Table 5B . Effect of Vent Size on Time and Energy Needed to Achieve Flashover

Room size: length 3.66 m, width = 5.49 m, height = 2.44 m

Vent Characteristics

Vent (Door) Vent

Width Width

(% of room length) (m) A(h)

10 0.37 1.1

20 0.73 2.1

21

s 0.76 2.2

30 1.10 3.2

40 1.46 4.2

50 1.83 5.3

60 2.19 6.3

70 2.56 7.4

80 2.93 8.5

90 3.29 9.5

100 3.66 10.6

Steady State Energy Output (MW)

0.98 1.23 1.48 1.72 1.97

900 304

708

772

(774) 412 146

(751) 788 208

(736) (786) 302

(724) 430

(715) 628

(622) (720) 192

(702) (711) 230

(697) (786) 282

46
Table 5C. Effect of Vent Size on Time and Energy Needed to Achieve Flashover

Room size: length = 4.88 m, width = 7.32 m, height = 2.44 m

Vent Characteristics Steady State Energy Output (MW)

Vent (Door) Vent

Width

room length)

Width

(m) A(h)

1 ' 2 1.48 1.72 1.97 2.21 2.46 2.71

10 0.49 1.4 (793) 460

16

s 0.76 2.2 712

20 0.98 2.8 (794) 430 216

30 1.46 4.2 (768) 770 324

40 1.95 5.6 (752) (787) 470

50 2.44 7.1 (741) 670

60 2.93 8.5 (733) (798) 334 152

70 3.41 9.9 (726) (791) 410 172

80 3.90 11.3 (721) (785) 496 196

90 4.39 12.7 (717) (781) 594 224

100 4.88 14.1 (714) (777) 708 250

47
Table 5D. Effect of Vent Size on Time and Energy Needed to Achieve Flashover

Room size: length = 6.10 m, width = 9.14 m, height = 2.44 m

Vent Characteristics Steady State Energy Output (MW)

Vent (Door)

Width

of room length)

Vent

Width

(m) A(h) 1/2

10 0.61 1.8

12

s 0.76 2.2

20 1.22 3.5

30 1.83 5.3

40 2.44 7.1

50 3.05 8.8

60 3.66 10.6

70 4.27 12.4

80 4.88 14.1

90 5.49 15.9

100 6.10 17.7

2.21 2.46 2.71 2.95 3.20

764 446 282

(798) 518 316

838 452

702

(795) 508 282

(786) 658 342

(779) 850 406

(774) (796) 472

(770) 540

(766) 612

(764) 688

48
Table 5E. Effect of Vent Size on Time and Energy Needed to Achieve Flashover

Room size: length = 7.32 m, width = 10.97 m, height = 2. 44 m

Vent Characteristics Steady State Energy Output (MW)

Vent (Door)

Width

of room length)

Vent

Width

(m) A(h) 1/2

2.95 3.20 3.44 3.69 3.94 4.18

10 0.73 2.1 822 532 462*

10

s 0.76 2.2 850 546 392*

20 1.46 4.2 (798) 572 378

30 2.19 6.3 (782) 866 516

40 2.93 8.5 (773) (791) 670

50 3.66 10.6 858

60 4.39 12.7 (796) 572 352

70 5.12 14.8 (792) 654 390

80 5.85 16.9 (788) 740 426

90 6.58 19.1 (786) 834 462

100 7.32 21.2 (783) (799) 496

49
Table

5F.

Effect

of

Vent

Size

on

Time

and

Energy

Needed

to

Achieve

Flashover

Room

size:

length =

8.53

m,

width =

12.80

m,

height =

2.44 m

XX

“rri CN /—N

ON NO ON « ON

-i< •x /—S

~>T= NO o • cON

'w'

•x

=tt= -X co

<r o • oON

'w'

-X 00 /^N 1—1 00 o • 00

4-J 2au •X d •X o /N

On ON 6 • 00

00 CO 00

S-4 N—»" 0)ew

a) on /'-s u NO

cd • ON

4-1 CO r-* cn N_X

kO T3 -X

cd Z^~. 0) N

—\

4-1 ON

CO • co r-

'w' oCN] CO • NO CO

N-^

LOon• CN)

00 NO 00 oo o NO

<r

m LO

636 <r

vD 006

~N

CN o i—l r-* LO NO ON ON 00

LO

w '

s

COo

CO

CNi—1 CM LP) o <fr ON <3- oo CO co CN

/-

N • • 40 CM CN LO ON CN <r ON CM

r—1 «—i <—I 1—1 CN <

03u

°H

4-J 4-1 40 NO LO 1—1 NO i—1 CM CO 00

CO (0 4-1 />N CO

m CN i—1 ON CO NO

•H a) "d E

S-4 £> *H 'w' o o 1—1 CM CO <3- m in NO

a)

4-J o

cd

X4

cd 40

40 4-J a oo ~S c

4-J S-4 (1) c o 1—1 cu O 40

Cf) > Q 4-i 6 CT\ o o o o o o o o o o T 1 CM CO <r LO vO r-> CO ON

•H oM

04 4-4 > o

50

100

8.53

24.7

(777)

814
Table 5G. Effect of Vent Size on Time and Energy Needed to Achieve Flashover

Room size: length = 1.83 m, width = 1.83 m, height = 2.44 m

Vent Characteristics Steady State Energy Output (MW)

Vent (Door) Vent

Width

room length)

Width

(m) A(h) 1/2 0.25 0.49 0.74 0.98 1.23

10 0.18 0.5 (644) 134 66*

20 0.37 1.1 (728) 48

30 0.55 1.6 (649) 70

40 0.73 2.1 (601) 148

42

s 0.76 2.2 (595) 190

50 0.91 2.6 (670) 25.5 13.6

60 1.10 3.2 (639) 34.5 13.8

70 1.28 3.7 (618) 50 11.9

80 1.46 4.2 (601) 80 10.3

90 1.65 4.8 (588) (658) 9.5

100 1.83 5.3 (577) (644) 11.8

51
Table 5H. Effect of Vent Size on Time and Energy Needed to Achieve Flashover

Room size: length = 1.83 m, width = 9.14 m, height = 2.44 m

Vent Characteristics Steady State Energy Output (MW)

Vent (Door) Vent

Width

room length)

Width

(m) A(h) 1/2 0.98 1.23 1.48 1.72 1.97

10 0.18 0.5 702#* 736#* (746)#*

20 0.37 1.1 760 140 92.5#*

30 0.55 1.6 (776) 400 168 64

40 0.73 2.1 (751) 596 208 68

42

s 0.76 2.2 (747) 642 216 68

50 0.91 2.6 (732) (718) 266 72

60 1.10 3.2 (718) (711) 346 76

70 1.28 3.7 (732) 154 82

80 1.46 4.2 (718) 178 86

90 1.65 4.8 (706) 206 92

100 1.83 5.3 (696) 238 98

52
Table 51. Effect of Vent Size on Time and Energy Needed to Achieve Flashover

Room size: length = 1.83 m, width = 12.19 m, height = 2. 44 m

Vent Characteristics Steady State Energy Output (MW)

Vent (Door) Vent

Width

room length)

Width

(m) A(h) 1/2 0.98 1.23 1.48 1.72 1.97 2.21

10 0.18 0.5 (754)#* (753)#* (748)#*

20 0.37 1.1 672 185#*

30 0.55 1.6 (791) 418 210

40 0.73 2.1 (769) 562 252

42

s 0.76 2.2 (766) 592 260

50 0.91 2.6 (752) 782 308

60 1.10 3.2 (739) (719) 378

70 1.28 3.7 (756) 196 108

80 1.46 4.2 (744) 222 116

90 1.65 4.8 (733) 248 124

100 1.83 5.3 (725) 286 132

53
Table

6.

Effect

of

Aspect

Ratio

on

Time

and

Energy

Needed

to

Achieve

Flashover

<3- o 00

in m m

COC

•H

1—

I

•H

CD

CD +

l-i o

o

1—

I

M-t +

CO

00<r

cd

a)M

<3

CDo

Cd

4-1>4G

CO

cd •UoH

G

0-

4-J o

X

00

1-

1 CDe

Ed

COX

T3

cd

01

4-1 CO

u

0)

4-J CJ

cd

1-1 cd -Gu

0o

<§

00

<r

cn

CN

CO04

1-1 o

4-) —

V

cd 1-1 o o

•H c O

40 o o

C -H M 4-J 4-4 •H O

Pi Cd (DOW

> P-i CD O 4-J

X

JO

CO

cd r—

I

X

G

CD U

Go

•H

4-

J X

•H

COo

P-4

1-1 0)g x

5-

40

P3

CDN

•HCO0

o

o

Pi

00G

CD

t-l

4-1 O

CD *H

CD 4-1 CG Cd

co ci <3

co 04

co cd co cO vO G

r-HcM<romr'-

m n c n to to H H H OI CO CO

r-i uo <r in co co

r^- cn 00 o in r-4 N CO CO H O O

OOOOOO co co to co co to OOOOOO

h co m m co co o co 1—1 co co <r

CO CO st i—I o o

1—

1

-d- n- t-H in -d" O O >J lO s

CO C4 04 in cD N

o m o i i i

i—1 1—1 cn -<r 00 co

01 0

1—

I

<n

o <r a\ o o in o -d- o -d- o 00

CO N 04 H O M

o r-i m 00 04 o

n- o o co o 00

in r'- 00 o <r o

OOOOOO co co co co ro to OOOOOO

1—[ cn in 04 o m 0 rH <r co n 00 H 4f H

r-4 CO 00 o o o

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o in o o o i

i—

1

r-| cm <r 00 40

00

m

on

on

On!

CN 40

i 1 00 co

n- co

CO co

m

CN Osl in <r

04 o 1—1 m

O CNI

o o

on on o o

cn o

-d- co O CN

04 on

<r m

o co

o m

54

2.0

7.34

14.67

0.30

14.37

3.67

(790)

770

532

4.0

5.01

20.02

0.30

19.72

2.50

(799)

614

440

8.0

3.32

26.59

0.30

26.28

1.66

(798) I

628

332

16.0

2.13

34.14

0.30

33.83

1.07

I

886 |

596

430

240
Table

7.

Effect

of

Room

Height

on

Time

and

Energy

Needed

to

Achieve

Flashover 3a

•u30

60

$-i 013W

CO

to •33

0)

4-1 to

r-H

O <f o CM r". i—1

CM • cm m • CM cn

B CM

r~- to • NO rH • m

II x OO u -T• •H i—1 $

r> e

ro <r CM• • i—1 CM

II X4-1

B

00 o X 3 I» Ur\

cu 3 3u

a 1—1 3 CU ^ 3 Q

EH

"cu N

•H

0] 4-4 a x e o oo

a o O -H w 0 03 CU OS K

CM <r m CM <r 00

•K

•<r NO ro CO CM 1 1 ON

CM CO

Vw/

m oo

cm

m

0- r-~

on no

<r o

r-^ r-.

OH (N

O'N

O

no no h n <r vo

h vo

"Cf nO 00O i—1 i—I O rH CM o

<0* iO 00 o *o on

<r no oo <—i r—i i—i

cm ro nD ON CM

X4-» 003

0)

ro

CM

CM o

ro

on

NOO

ro

or

nno

rl ro <f

O

H ^

-T nO 00

O i—I t-H

O r-l CM <r

O o

<r co co o sf o>

nT NO 00 rH rH i—I

CM

n sf 3 ON CM

CM

00

nO

UO

nOmm

oo

COco

CMOn

CMro

ooO rH co <r

r-r

O

H CM

on

m

h

O

m \D fr- On N CO O'o

i—i ro <r no rH no <r no oo o i—i rH O H CM >J N O 4 NO OO O 4 ON

"T no CO

H

HH

CM CO -T v£> (JS CM

55
Table

8.

Effect

of

Wall

Lining

Material

on

Time

and

Energy

Needed

to

Achieve

Flashover s

<r

CM

II

X.

00

*H3

rCB

X>

vDCO

II

rC, U

•H

3*B

<T

CM

II -3

4J00a

a) i—i

a!N

•H

0)Boo 3

CL

4-J 3O

50H33W

CD

4-1 3

4-J CO

TJ3

0)a3H3

,3U

003

COoCM

CO

vO<r

-3

003

x:

ii rG

4J "3

•H

00

00

<3-

II -3

4-J 00a3

CM

•sT vD 3O3 T3 3 rH U 3 3 H3 3

<D CO

H

O

r

O 3 3 3 X) 3 3 >> •H O U

T3 4J rO 3 3 W 3 T3 3 M 3 >% M H CL co o a

CL rH rO 3 •H CL •H 3 X O •H O 3! M 0 W CL Cn CQ U a PQ CJ 56

152. A

1.6

750

2400

(722)

(739)

(790)

690
Wall

Lining

Material

Characteristics

Steady

State

Energy

Output

(MW)

vO

O

vD

co

o>

r**

CM

co

<r

vD

oo

00

<1) r-H

Cd H

QJN

•H

COS

o

o

CtS

CO

<T

oo

<r

<r

O'CO

CTv vDCO

<r

CO

^ /-s •UCO

•H &

CO —

e m

CD ^

o ^

•H Cd O CD

<Da

c/d

oo

cd >

£ *h H -u

a) u

rC =3 H

C

OU

00C i—

l

•H cd C -H

•H H

hJ CD

CO

CM O

00

CMO

o

CM O o

o

00 oo

VO

o

o

uo o

UO ouo

CO

uoo rH r-H 00 O O O

vO

i-H O

CDa

CD

0) ^

03 4J C CO

cd >>, CL rH X o W pu.

3

COc

•H

0) HO

x> cd •H O

tn pQ

H3

cdO

B

o

COCL o

00

ON

o

o

<fr CM

ouo

<r

CMm

a)

4-J <Uu

u

c

oo

57
Table

9.

Comparison

of

Predictions

with

Full-Scale

Fire

Tests

cn

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i—irH

r—1 ‘—* I—' '—' X 1 1 1 i—i o p—1 i—i i—i i—i o CO o *. 03 O r—1 i—i

rH rH 00 1—i

rH CN

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CJ <r 1—1 <d* <3 3 1—• 1—1 < ' 4-1 4J 4-3 4J HI

03 CO CO CO CO

X

Pi ON i—i

r—1CN v-O o.' (D 03 0) 03

03 4-1 4J 4-S 4-J 4-J

14-1 4-1

u •U 4J 4-J 4-J 03 CO (n CA CO CO CO - —

n #v (O' 03 <d <D CD <D CD -o 33 T3 T3 3

•U 4-J 4—»

4J 4-! 4-J id id (d 3 03 3 3 3 3 op

*i r*r * * rH i—i

I—l rH i—l £ £ CJ o o CJ 00 00 00 00 0/ rC p^ Pi 00 00 OO 00 CO o o a a 3 3 3 03 0) PQ E £ E Ed Pd Ed Ed Ed

0) 0- 03 0) 03

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CP 03 03 03 03 03 Eh i—1

Di Jd -3 -C 03 03 03 03

H En 4-1 4-3 4-1 4-i Pi 3 3 3

rC 03 0) 03 03 3 3 3 3 i—1

4-1 Pi Pi Pi Pi 4J 4-1 4-J 4-1 0) 03 3 3 3 3 •H •H •H •H 3 Eh T3 X X X Eh 3 3 3 3 Td

Ph rHO <—> i—l i—i

r—1 3 3 3 3 O

OO o C o O 3 D 3 3 O

CP P-I CP Ph CP pH pH pH Ph ts

03 /—i

CO

g 3 S vD <1* CN

m

QJ v—

x

00 CN CN vO

O MO ON o o cn cc

rH • o • 3

PC o) CN CN 1 1 1 1 1—1 * r-H

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rH rH CO

TP

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pH

a,1 , 3

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03

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CN ono £ •H

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NBS-114A (rev. 2-80

U.S. DEPT. OF COMM. 1. PUBLICATION OR

REPORT NO.

NBSIR 82-2516

2. Performing Organ. Report NoJ 3. Publication Date

May 1982

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

COMPUTER FIRE MODELING FOR THE PREDICTION OF FLASHOVER

5. AUTHOR(S)

R.D. Peacock and J.N. Breese

6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION (If joint or other than N BS, see instructions) 7. Contract/Grant No. NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20234

8.

Type of Report & Period Covered

9.

SPONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AND COMPLETE ADDRESS (Street, City. State. ZIP)

U. S. Department of Health and Human Services

Washington, DC 20203

10.

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

Document describes a computer program; SF-185, FIPS Software Summary, is attached.

11.

ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary of most significant information. If document includes a significant

bibliography or literature survey, mention it here)

This study presents an initial look at the potential for the use of fire

growth models. A technique is presented, based upon numerous fire growth

predictions, to estimate the minimum energy required to produce temperature

levels capable of promoting flashover in a variety of room configurations.

The parameters investigated included room size, room ventilation, ceiling

height and room lining material. A comparison is presented of the predictions made with available full-scale fire test data and with other

predictions. The technique, although needing refinement, shows promise

to estimate flashover potential.

12. KEY WORDS (Six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only proper names; and separate key words by semicolons)

Compartment fires; computers; fire growth; flashover; mathematical models.

13. AVAILABILITY 14. NO. OF

PRINTED PAGES

Unlimited

| | For Official Distribution. Do Not Release to NTIS

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20402. 15. Price

88

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USCOMM-DC 6043-P80