Prepared by Amy Ramirez . Jeanne Lambin . Robert L. Meinhardt . and Casey Woster 2016

Mid-Twentieth

Century

Architecture 

in Alaska

Historic Context

(1945-1968)
The Cultural Resource Programs of the National Park Service have 

responsibilities that include stewardship of historic buildings, museum 

collections, archeological sites, cultural landscapes, oral and written 

histories, and ethnographic resources.

The material is based upon work assisted by funding from the National 

Park Service. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations 

expressed in this material are those of the author and do not necessarily 

reflect the views of the Department of the Interior. 

Printed 2018

Cover: Atwood Center, Alaska Pacific University, Anchorage, 2017, 

NPS photograph
MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY ARCHITECTURE IN ALASKA 

HISTORIC CONTEXT (1945 – 1968)

Prepared for

National Park Service, Alaska Regional Office

Prepared by

Amy Ramirez, B.A.

Jeanne Lambin, M.S.

Robert L. Meinhardt, M.A.

and

Casey Woster, M.A.

July 2016
Table of Contents

LIST OF ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................... 5

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY........................................................................................................................... 8

1.0 PROJECT DESCRIPTION..................................................................................................................... 9

1.1 Historic Context as a Planning & Evaluation Tool............................................................................. 9

1.2 Objectives and Methodology .............................................................................................................. 9

1.2.1 How to Use This Context Statement.......................................................................................... 10

1.2.2 Project Methodology.................................................................................................................. 10

1.2.3 Limitations and Challenges of Research.................................................................................... 12

1.2.4 Historic Preservation and Preserving the Recent Past in Alaska ............................................... 12

1.2.5 Unique Challenges to Preserving the Recent Past ..................................................................... 15

1.3 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 18

2.0 HISTORIC CONTEXT STATEMENT-OVERVIEW OF THEMES.................................................. 18

2.1 Population ......................................................................................................................................... 19

2.1.2 Alaska Native Population........................................................................................................... 21

2.1.3 Asian Migration ......................................................................................................................... 24

2.1.4 Filipino Migration ...................................................................................................................... 25

2.1.5 African-Americans..................................................................................................................... 25

2.1.6 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 27

2.2 Military.............................................................................................................................................. 28

2.2.1 Cold War.................................................................................................................................... 28

2.2.2 Detect and Monitor .................................................................................................................... 29

2.2.3 Communicate ............................................................................................................................. 32

2.2.4 Intercept and Respond................................................................................................................ 33

2.2.5 Guard and Defend ...................................................................................................................... 39

2.2.6 Tomorrow’s War........................................................................................................................ 47

2.2.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 53

2.3 Statehood (1959)............................................................................................................................... 53

2.3.1 Alaska Statehood and Department Turnovers ........................................................................... 53

2.4 1964 Good Friday Earthquake .......................................................................................................... 55

2.4.1 Rebuilding and Recovery........................................................................................................... 58

2.5 Alaska Centennial ............................................................................................................................. 60

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2.5.1 Alaska Centennial Commission ................................................................................................. 62

2.5.2 Fairbanks and the Exposition Center ......................................................................................... 62

2.5.3 Other Notable Centennial Efforts .............................................................................................. 63

2.5.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 64

2.6 Resource Exploration and Extraction ............................................................................................... 64

2.6.1 Fisheries..................................................................................................................................... 64

2.6.2 Mining........................................................................................................................................ 65

2.6.3 Timber and Logging................................................................................................................... 66

2.6.4 Oil Boom.................................................................................................................................... 67

2.6.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 70

2.7 Transportation ................................................................................................................................... 71

2.7.1 Roads .......................................................................................................................................... 71

2.7.2 Aviation...................................................................................................................................... 78

2.7.3 Alaska Railroad Rehabilitation Project...................................................................................... 79

2.7.4 Alaska Marine Highway System................................................................................................ 80

2.8 Travel and Tourism........................................................................................................................... 81

2.8.1 Transportation Improvements Impact on Tourism .................................................................... 81

2.8.2 Parks and Recreation.................................................................................................................. 83

2.9 Education .......................................................................................................................................... 87

2.9.1 Primary and Secondary Education............................................................................................. 87

2.9.2 Post-secondary Education .......................................................................................................... 89

3.0 OVERVIEW OF POST-WWII ARCHITECTURE AND DEVELOPMENT IN ALASKA............... 90

3.1 Overview of Federal and State Funding Programs........................................................................... 91

3.2 Postwar Building Materials and Construction Techniques............................................................... 94

3.2.1 Construction Types.................................................................................................................... 95

3.2.2 Materials................................................................................................................................... 103

3.2.3 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 114

4.0 ARCHITECTURAL TYPES, STYLES AND DESIGN TRENDS.................................................... 114

4.1 What Style (or Type) Is It? Style vs. Type ..................................................................................... 115

4.2 Building Types and Design Trends in Alaska ................................................................................ 115

4.2.1 Overview.................................................................................................................................. 115

4.2.2 Climate Architecture & Seismic Architecture ......................................................................... 116

4.2.3 Building Types......................................................................................................................... 119

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4.2.4 Architectural Styles.................................................................................................................. 181

4.3 Architects, Builders, and Developers.............................................................................................. 183

4.3.1 Introduction/Overview............................................................................................................. 183

4.3.2 Lists of Architects, Architectural Firms and Developers......................................................... 183

4.3.3 Biographies of Prominent Architects in Alaska from 1945 to 1968........................................ 184

5.0 CONCLUSION................................................................................................................................... 224

5.1 Evaluation Challenges..................................................................................................................... 224

6.0 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH-LOOKING AHEAD .................................. 225

Earthquake ............................................................................................................................................ 225

Centennial ............................................................................................................................................. 225

Population ............................................................................................................................................. 225

Transportation ....................................................................................................................................... 226

Residential............................................................................................................................................. 226

Architects/Architecture ......................................................................................................................... 226

Themes for Additional Study................................................................................................................ 226

Evaluation Considerations/Guidelines.................................................................................................. 226

Local Designation and National Register Listing ................................................................................. 227

7.0 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................... 228

GENERAL............................................................................................................................................ 228

Resource Guides.............................................................................................................................. 228

NATIONAL REGISTER, CONTEXT STATEMENTS AND MPD................................................... 228

National Register............................................................................................................................. 228

Multiple Property Submission ....................................................................................................... 228

Determinations of Eligibility and Documentation ....................................................................... 229

Historic Context Statements .......................................................................................................... 229

Methodology, Reference, Preserving the Recent Past ................................................................. 231

POPULATION...................................................................................................................................... 232

MILITARY ........................................................................................................................................... 236

Cold War.......................................................................................................................................... 238

STATEHOOD/ALASKA HISTORY................................................................................................... 240

1964 GOOD FRIDAY EARTHQUAKE.............................................................................................. 241

CENTENNIAL ..................................................................................................................................... 242

RESOURCE EXPLORATION/EXTRACTION .................................................................................. 243

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TRANSPORTATION........................................................................................................................... 245

TRAVEL/TOURISM............................................................................................................................ 248

EDUCATION ....................................................................................................................................... 248

POST-WWII BUILDINGS................................................................................................................... 249

Construction Types........................................................................................................................... 249

Manufactured Housing...................................................................................................................... 249

Quonset ............................................................................................................................................. 250

A-Frame ............................................................................................................................................ 251

Material Types .................................................................................................................................. 251

BUILDING TYPES .............................................................................................................................. 252

Earthquake and Seismic Architecture ............................................................................................... 252

Residential Architecture.................................................................................................................... 252

Commercial Architecture.................................................................................................................. 253

Bank Architecture ............................................................................................................................. 254

Shopping Malls................................................................................................................................. 255

Supermarkets..................................................................................................................................... 255

Civic/Government Architecture........................................................................................................ 255

Educational Architecture................................................................................................................... 256

Industrial Architecture ...................................................................................................................... 256

Recreational Architecture ................................................................................................................. 256

ARCHITECTURE ................................................................................................................................ 257

Style Guides...................................................................................................................................... 257

Architects and Architects Directories............................................................................................... 259

 Appendix A: Alaska Historic Buildings Style Guide ....................................................................... 269

Appendix B: Architects Table........................................................................................................... 310

Appendix C: Developers/Construction Companies.......................................................................... 347

Appendix D: Architects, Post-Period of Significance ..................................................................... 360

LIST OF ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATIONS

AAC Alaska Air Command

AASHTO American Association of State Highway Transportation 

Officials 

ACS Alaska Communications System

5
AC&W Aircraft Control and Warning 

AEC Atomic Energy Commission

AFB Air Force Base

AFN Alaska Federation of Natives

ALCANGO Alaskan Canadian Gas Oil

ALCOM Alaska Command

ANCSA Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act

ANPP Army Nuclear Power Program 

ARC Alaska Road Commission

ARCO Atlantic Richfield Company

ARL Arctic Research Laboratory

ARRC Alaska Railroad Corporation

ASC Alaska Steamship Company

ASLP Alaska Spruce Log Program 

BAREX Point Barrow Resupply Expedition)

BMEWS Ballistic Missile Early Warning System 

BRC Board of Road Commissioners

CAA Civil Aeronautics Administration 

CAB Civil Aeronautics Board 

CMUs Concrete Masonry Units

CRTC Cold Regions Test Center

DEW Distant Early Warning

DOD Department of Defense

FAA Federal Aviation Agency 

FAAP Federal Aid to Airports Program 

FAHA Federal Aid Highways Act

FEPC Fair Employment Practices Committee

FHA Federal Housing Administration

FOBS Forward Operating Bases

GSA General Services Administration

GVEA Golden Valley Electric Association

HABS Historic American Building Survey

ICBM Intercontinental Ballistic Missile

LOP Line of Position

LORAN Long Range Aid to Navigation

MPD Multiple Property Documentation

NAACP National Association for the Advancement of Colored 

People

NARL Naval Arctic Research Laboratory 

NAS Naval Air Station 

NHL National Historic Landmark

NHPA National Historic Preservation Act

NOA Northwest Orient Airlines

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NR National Register of Historic Places

NWTC Northern Warfare Training Center 

OHA Office of History and Archaeology

ONR Office of Naval Research 

OPEC Oil Petroleum Exporting Countries 

PGES Platinum Group Elements 

PX Post Exchange

ROCC Regional Operations Control Center

ROTC Reserve Officers’ Training Corps

SAC Strategic Air Command

SHPO State Historic Preservation Office

SLUP Special Land Use Permit

SM-1 Stationary Medium 

TAPS Trans Alaska Pipeline System

TNSDS True North Sustainable Development Solutions

UAA University of Alaska Anchorage

UAF University of Alaska Fairbanks

USACE US Army Corps of Engineers

UCM Usibelli Coal Mine

USARAK US Army Alaska 

USARAL US Army Alaska (1947 – 1974)

USCG US Coast Guard

USGS US Geological Survey

VA Veterans Affairs

WACS White Alice Communications System

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Mid-Twentieth Century Architecture in Alaska Historic Context is a document highlighting historical 

events and architectural trends that shaped the built environment in Alaska from 1945 to 1968. The 

architecture that rose from this period is a reflection of technological advances in building science, social 

changes, and architectural innovation. The period from 1945 to 1968 was characterized by rapid growth, 

improved infrastructure, and building construction brought on by a post-WWII economic boom and an 

increasing population. 

Nationwide sprawl occurred as highway expansion paved the path for a new way of life outside of the 

urban city center including newly built residential neighborhoods, commercial malls, churches, schools 

and medical facilities. Alaska was not immune to this pattern of development, as the territory-turned-state 

became a strategic stronghold against the USSR throughout the Cold War era, bringing an influx of 

military personnel, a need for improved infrastructure, and an accommodating housing stock for its 

booming population. Discovery of large oil fields on the Kenai Peninsula and the North Slope also 

spurred economic growth and investment from outside interests. The Good Friday Earthquake of 1964 

was yet another catalyst of growth in Alaska as innovative design and construction became part of a 

massive rebuilding effort. The housing crisis after World War II, combined with a subsequent oil boom 

and a natural catastrophe attracted the interests of architects, builders, and developers from all over the 

US to help shape Alaska’s future. 

This historic context for Mid-Twentieth Century Architecture in Alaska was prepared for the National 

Park Service Alaska Region to serve as a useful tool to help a diverse audience identify and evaluate 

Alaskan architecture built between 1945 and 1968 for inclusion on the National Register of Historic 

Places. Due to the recent age of the architecture, for which this context was developed, it is anticipated 

research and survey of various architects, building types, and architectural styles will be ongoing; 

therefore, the historic context provided herein will continue to be refined and new statements added at a 

later date. Recommendations for future research are provided in this document to help advance the 

ongoing effort to study Alaska’s mid-twentieth century architecture so it can be better understood and 

preserved for future generations.

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1.0 PROJECT DESCRIPTION

The research and preparation of Mid-Twentieth Century Architecture in Alaska Historic Context (1945-

1968) was initiated by the National Park Service-Alaska Regional Office (NPS-AKRO) in fall of 2015. 

The document was completed in spring of 2016 by True North Sustainable Development Solutions, LLC 

(TNSDS). The purpose of this study is to prepare a preliminary context statement for Alaska’s postWorld War II architectural history and related historic properties. By providing a framework to better 

understand Alaska’s post-World War II architectural history, this document is intended to serve as a 

starting point for a broad array of users and to help them better understand historic development patterns 

that occurred during the period. It is anticipated that this document will help support the identification, 

evaluation, and management of resources from the period. To aid in those efforts, this report: 

● provides an overview of major developments or themes in the history of Alaska in the decades 

following World War II 

● identifies what aspects of environment, history, and culture significantly shaped that development 

● describes architectural styles and property types that were associated with those developments

● makes recommendations for future research

This report serves both as a reference and a resource intended to assist the NPS-AKRO and other federal 

agencies, state agencies, elected and appointed officials, community planners, local historical societies 

and commissions, community organizations, researchers, consultants, property owners, and other 

interested parties in making informed decisions about properties from this period. 

1.1 Historic Context as a Planning & Evaluation Tool 

The National Park Service (NPS) defines historic context as “a broad pattern of historical development in 

a community or its region that may be represented by historic resources.” In other words, what is the 

story, and how does a specific property or properties relate that story? When properties are listed on the 

National Register of Historic Places (National Register) or proposed for local designation, defining the 

historic context of a property is a key element of that process. Historic context statements are an essential 

part of the historic preservation planning process and are critical tools for understanding, identifying, 

evaluating, and protecting resources which contribute to a community's individual character and sense of 

place. Context statements assist in understanding the larger significance of a property or properties 

without necessarily having to do in-depth research on a specific property, event, or period of time.

1.2 Objectives and Methodology 

This historic context statement represents a statewide study that identifies key historical themes that 

shaped development throughout the state from 1945-1968; these dates bookended between the close of 

World War II and the discovery of oil in Prudhoe Bay. The beginning and end dates for the study were 

selected by the National Park Service. 

It is important to note that this study represents neither a comprehensive history of the state nor a 

comprehensive inventory of historic resources. Rather, this document examines some of the larger 

themes, events, and trends that shaped the built environment of the state during the period. It is assumed 

9
that this initial study will be augmented by future research. Specific recommendations for future research 

are included in section 6.0-Recommendations for Future Research. 

1.2.1 How to Use This Context Statement 

A historic context statement provides information about historic properties that share a common time, 

theme, or place. It is intended to provide an analytical framework for identifying, evaluating, and making 

planning decisions about resources from the period that contains the following elements: 

● The historic context outlines the major themes identified in this study. This section can help 

provide a better understanding of broad patterns of history and significant events that 

occurred during the period.

● A list of materials details common building materials used during the period. 

● A description of common property types during the period. This section can help users 

understand what property types existed during the period, what forces shaped their 

development, and how to identify those resources.

● An architectural style guide details common architectural styles from the period and their 

defining characteristics is included in Appendix A. 

● A list of architects, architectural firms, and builders practicing during the period with 

profiles of selected individuals and firms determined to have made a significant contribution 

during the period. This section can help provide a better understanding of what firms were 

practicing during the period, where they were doing work, examples of their work, and their 

contributions to the field. Additional information is included in Appendix B and Appendix C.

● Recommendations for future research are presented. In this section, the gaps in existing 

research as well as recommendations for future or more in-depth study will be discussed.

● An annotated bibliography containing information regarding sources referenced within this 

document and providing an avenue for readers to begin their own detailed research on 

specific themes is provided.

Each of these elements can help to identify what resources are likely to be found, why they are important, 

and assist in their evaluation in the larger historic context. 

1.2.2 Project Methodology 

The first stage of the project involved the review of previous historical surveys, context statements, and 

other documentation of mid-century properties across the United States (US). These documents included 

those provided by the NPS-AKRO and those available through the Alaska State Historic Preservation 

Office (SHPO) online Integrated Business Suite (IBS Portal) and website. Many of them can be accessed 

at http://dnr.alaska.gov/parks/oha/publications/publications.htm. They include:

Nationwide Contexts:

● Historical Residential Suburbs in the United States, 1830-1960 MPD

● Growth Efficiency and Modernism: GSA Buildings of the 1950s 60s and 70s

● Public Housing in the United States, 1933-1949 MPD

10
● A Model for Identifying and Evaluating the Historic Significance of Post-World War II 

Housing

Transportation Contexts:

● Alaska Roads Historic Overview: Applied Context of Alaska’s Roads

● Bridging Alaska: Historic Context for the Inventory of Alaska’s Highway Bridges DRAFT

Mining Contexts:

● Prospects and Producers: Historic Context for Mining Properties, Chugach and Tongass 

National Forests, Alaska, 1850s-1950s

● Historic Properties Associated with Mineral Development in Wrangell-St. Elias National Park 

and Preserve, Alaska, 1898-1942 MPD

Community Contexts:

● South Addition Historic Context Statement & Building Survey - Anchorage, Alaska

● Anchorage’s Four Original Neighborhoods Interpretive Plan

Military Contexts:

● The Architecture of the Department of Defense: A Military Style Guide

● Alaska Federal Scout Readiness Centers (FSRCs), 1959-1974

● Military Development and Infrastructure, Glacier Bay Vicinity: Second World War Facilities 

in the Glacier Bay Region, 1939-1946 MPD

● LORAN- A Historic Context

● History of the Aircraft Control and Warning Systems in Alaska: Air Defense of Arctic Skies

● The Coldest Front: Cold War Military Properties in Alaska

● Nike Hercules Operations in Alaska: 1959-1979

● Northern Defenders: Cold War Context of Ladd Air Force Base Fairbanks, Alaska 1947-1961

● Cold War Historical Context 1951-1991 Fort Richardson, Alaska

● Defending Attack from the North: Alaska’s Forward Operating Bases during the Cold War

Recreation Development and Management Contexts:

● Historic Context and Evaluation of Ranger Boats in Alaska Chugach and Tongass National 

Forests

● Everyone’s Cabin in the Woods: Historic Context for Public Recreation Cabins in the Alaska 

Region (USFS) 1960-1971

● Rediscovery, Scientific Study, and Tourism within Glacier Bay Region MPD

● Tourism and Early Park Development Resources of Katmai National Park and Preserve MPD

Exploration/Settlement/Homesteading Contexts: 

● Homesteading and Related Settlement, Glacier Bay Region: Homesteads and Homesites at 

Strawberry Point, Dundas Bay, and Lituya Bay 1914-1964 MPD

● The Settlement and Economic Development of Alaska's Matanuska-Susitna Valley MPD

In addition to the aforementioned studies specific to Alaska history, other context statements, surveys, 

and studies relevant to the time period, themes, or types of resources were examined including but not 

limited to:

● Montana Post-World War II Architectural Survey and Inventory Historic Context and Survey Report

● Thematic Survey of Modern Movement, Non-Residential Architecture, 1945-1975, in St. Louis City

● Mid-Century Modern Architecture in Washington State 

11
● The Ranch House in Georgia, Guidelines for Evaluation 

● City of Riverside Modernism Context Statement 

● Mid 20th Century Architecture in New Hampshire: 1945-1975

● Mid-Century Modernism Historic Context, City of Fresno 

● San Diego Modernism Context Statement 

Other resources consulted include those available at the SHPO/the Alaska Office of History and 

Archaeology (OHA), online digital databases, and digital repositories including but not limited to:

● Primary sources including period news articles and government reports

● Secondary sources including websites and journal articles 

● On-line and physical repositories including the Alaska Collection at the Z. J. Loussac Public Library, 

University of Alaska Anchorage Library, Alaska’s Digital Archives, the Alaska Humanities Forum, 

the Pacific Coast Architecture Database, Documentation and Conservation of the Modernist 

Movement in Western Washington database, and the Society of Architectural Historians digital 

resources

● Previous studies, surveys, inventories, and contexts

An annotated bibliography, detailing resources consulted in the preparation of this report is included after 

the final conclusion. A table of architects who practiced in Alaska during the period can be found in 

Appendix B as well as a table of developers and builders who were also working during the period is in 

Appendix C. Finally, names of architects who were practicing at the end of the period and beyond have 

been added to a table in Appendix D that is intended to be used for future research efforts. 

1.2.3 Limitations and Challenges of Research 

While the examination of our more recent heritage has made significant advances in the past decadedozens of surveys have been completed, websites created, organizations formed, books, journals, and 

articles written and conferences held - the scale of growth and the scope of change in the decades 

following World War II means that there is still significant research, identification, and documentation to 

be done. In Alaska, this is especially true. While mid-twentieth century resources and their historic 

context are increasingly well studied in the Lower 48, in Alaska the existing body of comparable 

information is relatively scarce. How popular trends either mimicked or differed from those “outside” is 

not always readily accessible; from understanding how the post-World War II architectural practice in the 

state evolved or how common mid-century building materials fared in an extreme climate are but two of 

dozens of examples. The relative remoteness of the state, the size, and its relatively recent development 

history mean that national trends did not always reach the far north, and those that did were sometimes 

altered for the unique circumstances of the state. Despite these challenges, this document represents an 

assemblage of research from a vast array of sources. This information is provided as a framework to help 

guide future research.

1.2.4 Historic Preservation and Preserving the Recent Past in Alaska 

In 1966, when the National Historic Preservation Act (the Act) was passed, Alaska had only been a state 

for seven years. The Act established a federal program for historic preservation and created the National 

Register of Historic Places (National Register), a federal program listing properties determined to merit 

12
preservation.1 With the establishment of the National Register, the criteria for what makes a property 

eligible for listing were formally established and so too was the so-called “fifty year rule.” Generally 

speaking, properties had to be at least fifty years old to be considered for listing on the National Register. 

However, there was a provision, or what is known as a criteria consideration. Criteria Consideration G, 

for properties younger than fifty years old, held that a property, achieving significance within the past 

fifty years could be listed if it was of “exceptional importance.”2 When the Act was passed this meant that 

properties built after 1916 were not yet eligible for listing on the National Register unless they could be 

considered exceptionally significant. The cut-off date changes with each passing year. Because the fiftyyear is a time span rather than a fixed date, the “recent past” is a term generally used to describe historic 

and architectural resources younger than fifty years old. Also known as “underage resources,” these 

properties are often “modern-looking” in appearance. Many resources that were initially not eligible for 

the National Register have since come of age and been listed. Thus, the term is also used to describe 

resources spanning the mid-portion (1920s-1960s) of this century that are now older than fifty years such 

as Art Deco and Moderne buildings. 

When the Act was passed, although Alaska had not yet even been a state for ten years, it did not mean 

that historic preservation efforts were non-existent prior to statehood and that some of those efforts did 

not focus on the state’s more recent heritage. Historic preservation efforts in the state were somewhat 

limited, but they were not entirely absent. 

In 1952, Arthur A. Woodward completed "A Preliminary Survey of Alaska's Archeology, Ethnology, and 

History.” This survey of historic sites in Alaska was part of a more general, nationwide survey that had 

been initiated in 1937 as part of the Historic Sites Act of 1935 and represented the NPS’s first “broadbased study of Alaska's cultural treasures.” Unfortunately, the study “was neither widely distributed nor 

widely publicized.”3 In 1960, just a year after statehood, upset that Alaska had been overlooked from the 

NPS’s historical theme studies, US Senator and former governor of Alaska Ernest Gruening convinced 

the agency to focus on the state, and the San Francisco Regional Office hastily compiled a list of Alaska's 

most significant historic and prehistoric sites. In 1961, a similar study was undertaken of aboriginal sites 

evaluating fourteen for National Historic Landmark (NHL) eligibility. As a result of these studies, fifteen 

of these sites were recommended to the Advisory Board of the NPS”4 and in 1962, they were listed as 

NHL’s. This list included the Fur Seal Rookeries, with a period of significance ranging from 1786-1959, 

recognizing the site’s more recent history. In 1966, the state legislature provided for designation of 

official historic sites and monuments; in 1967 the first State Historic Preservation Officer (then known as 

the state liaison officer) was appointed. 

As in many states, the interest in tourism shaped historic preservation efforts and historic preservation 

efforts shaped tourism. More locals became “aware of their history and public and private entities began 

 

1 Alaska Office of History and Archaeology, Saving Our Past: Alaska’s Historic Preservation Plan 2011-2017.

Report. (Anchorage, Alaska, 2007).

2 Patrick W. Andrus, National Register Bulletin 15: How to Apply the National Register Criteria for Evaluation. 

(Washington D.C.: National Park Service, 1991).

3 Frank B. Norris, "Managing Cultural Resources in Alaska's Parklands." CRM Journal, no. 2 (2005): 62-72. 

https://www.nps.gov/history/crmjournal/Summer2005/article2.pdf.

4 Norris, "Managing Cultural Resources in Alaska's Parklands," 62-72.

13
to take steps towards their preservation.”5 Alaska ’67, the centennial celebration marking the 100-year 

anniversary of the purchase of Alaska from Russia caused both an upsurge in interest in the state’s 

relatively more recent history and a mini-construction boom of cultural institutions, community centers, 

and other buildings. The centennial also inspired a flurry of preservation efforts across the state.6

Regardless of the relative age of the resources, communities throughout the state sought to “spruce up” 

existing historic resource or, as is the case with parts of Alaskaland, create new ones to remind people of 

old ones. 

While the majority of historic preservation efforts in the state focused on “appropriately” old historic and 

prehistoric resources, there were some significant examples of more recent heritage being recognized 

whether architecturally significant, historically significant, or both:

● The Old Federal Building in Anchorage (1934-41) was listed on the National Register in 1978 at 

the tender age of thirty-seven years. 

● Other younger resources were not completely overlooked in survey efforts either including 

properties from the 1920s, 30s and 40s: Patterns of the Past: An Inventory of Anchorage’s 

Historic Resources was completed in 1979 and documented many properties that had just passed 

or were approaching the fifty-year mark. 

● The military history of the state had been relatively well researched and documented, and many 

sites associated with World War II and the Cold War have been inventoried, evaluated, and in 

some instances, listed on the National Register or as National Historic Landmarks. 

● Some more recent reconstructions would also qualify as the recent past like Saint Michael the 

Archangel Russian Orthodox Church originally constructed in 1848. This historic church, the first 

in the territory to be documented using Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) techniques, 

was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1962. In 1966, the church burned down in a fire 

that destroyed most of downtown Sitka. In part guided by the HABS drawings, the church was 

reconstructed that same year.”7

 

● Perhaps the most notable example is the Campus Center, commonly known as the Student Center 

or Atwood Building of Alaska Pacific University (formerly Alaska Methodist University). 

Designed by Edward Durrell Stone and constructed in 1966, it was listed on the National Register 

in 1978. At the time of its listing the building was less than a decade old but because of its 

association with the Alaska Federation of Natives conference in 1971, it was listed. 

Historic preservation of the recent past poses significant challenges. Many argue that preservation of our 

older heritage is challenging enough and focusing on more recent heritage diverts needed resources, yet 

that same argument was made by previous generations arguing that more recent heritage was less 

important. Alaska, like many states in the post-WWII period, experienced significant growth in the 

decades following World War II. Due to changes in development patterns, economic growth, seismic 

 

5 Frank Norris. Legacy of the Gold Rush: An Administrative History of the Klondike Gold Rush National Historical 

Park. (Anchorage, Alaska: National Park Service Alaska System Support Office, 1996), 68.

6 Because of the history and development of the state, it is quite possible that some of those resources were from the 

recent past, even if their outward appearance reflected more traditional building construction materials and 

techniques.

7 Alison K. Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska. Society of Architectural Historians, Buildings of the United States. (New 

York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 185. 

14
activity and other factors, many of those resources have already been lost. Of those that remain, many are 

now or have the potential to be historic. Identification of these resources and evaluation is important for 

future generations. 

1.2.5 Unique Challenges to Preserving the Recent Past 

Properties listed on the National Register can be considered significant at the national, state, or local 

level. Thus, when applying Criteria Consideration G, a property can be a locally significant. For example, 

the McKinley Tower Apartments in Anchorage listed on the National Register in 2008 is a locally 

significant example of high-rise residential architecture that reflected federal housing funding and policy 

under the Federal Housing Administration (FHA).8 Unfortunately, when applying Criteria Consideration 

G, some equate exceptional significance with national significance, thus overlooking resources that are 

exceptionally important at the state or local level. In addition, many local landmark designations 

programs are modeled after the National Register and impose a fifty-year age limit. Unlike the National 

Register, many local landmark commissions do not have a provision for exceptional significance. As a 

result, properties can be eligible for the National Register but not local designation which can often 

provide more oversight and protection than National Register listing.

To further complicate matters, many of the resources from the post-World War II period, especially those 

in Alaska, were often made of fragile, short-lived, or experimental materials. If properties are abandoned 

or underutilized, the harsh climate can make their long-term survival perilous. Even if made of more 

durable materials, time, climate, and design trends can take their toll. The perceived obsolescence of a 

resource, a change in use, or ever-changing popular tastes can mean that some sites are irrevocably altered

or demolished before they can even be studied or evaluated. Integrity can also be a problem. For example, 

many “starter” homes were constructed with the notion that owners would add to or improve them over 

time, thus, altering the appearance of the original design, plan, and layout. Because many of these houses 

were built as infill development or entire subdivisions, as intended, entire neighborhoods were altered, 

improved, and added to over time, altering the “historic” appearance and challenging existing notions of 

integrity. This can be an even greater issue with sites associated with important historic events or social 

movements. If the resource still remains, its appearance can be greatly altered. For example, many sites 

associated with the Alaska Native rights movement, such as the Dream Theater in Nome, have already 

been lost. So, too, have many sites associated with World War II and the Cold War. Although the military 

history is well documented, factors like access, climate, resources, and changes to the patterns of military 

presence in the state mean that many have been lost, altered, or threatened. 

While some of these threats are not unique to Alaska, the size of the state, the dispersion of resources, and 

the severe climate create some unique challenges for the survey, documentation, and evaluation of the 

state’s more recent heritage. 

Yet, as stated in the state’s historic preservation plan, “Most buildings and structures in Alaska today 

were built within the past fifty years. Many of these buildings are marked by sleek lines, smooth facades, 

and extensive use of glass that reflect changes in style, design and technology that occurred through the 

last fifty years. Those of exceptional architectural significance or associated with major events and 

 

8 William MacRostie, “McKinley Tower Apartments, Anchorage, AK, Historic Preservation Certification 

Application Part 1,” (Anchorage, Alaska: MacRostie Historic Advisors, LLC, 2005), 5.

15
important individuals need to be recognized. Planning to preserve and protect their important and 

distinctive characteristics needs to start now.”9 This historic context statement provides an important 

initial step in that planning process. Survey, documentation, and evaluation of existing resources 

including integrity are also an important part of the process. 

While this report focuses primarily on resources older than fifty years old, the “end date” for the fifty-year

span changes with the passage of each year. Some resources might be older than fifty years but have a 

period of significance that extends beyond 1968 while some resources will be close to the cutoff date and; 

therefore, younger than fifty years old, a more detailed discussion of Criteria Consideration G is included 

below. 

1.2.6 Evaluating Resources from the Recent Past10

While most resources from the Cold War era are fifty years old or older, those that reflect the end of the 

era may be just under the age limit. In addition, if a resource was built before 1968, its period of 

significance might extend beyond that date. Alternately, if a resource is located within a district it is 

possible that there are resources within the area that have not yet reached the fifty-year mark; thus, it is 

important to understand Criteria Consideration G. 

The bulletin sets out seven guidelines to help evaluate resources:

● historic context

● scholarly evaluation

● fragile or short-lived resources

● time

● comparative evaluation

● associations with living persons

● properties in historic districts

● justification

Historic Context - The first step in evaluating underage properties is to establish and describe the historic 

context of the resource. A historic context describes the larger environment or circumstances in which a 

property or group of properties evolved and all the historic circumstances, factors, larger trends, or 

patterns that influenced its development. As stated in the bulletin, “knowledge of historic context permits 

us to understand the relative importance of the resource in question. Evaluating a property within its 

historic context ensures accuracy in understanding its role and in making comparisons among similar 

resources. An understanding of the context of a historic resource is based on knowledge of the time, 

historical theme, and geographical area with which the property is associated. This involves 

understanding, among other things, the social, political, economic, artistic, physical, architectural, or 

moral environment that accounted for the presence of, as well as the original and current nature of, the 

resource.”

Scholarly Evaluation - A key element to developing the context and establishing the significance of a 

building is to determine if the resource has been the subject of some type of scholarly research. This 

 

9 Alaska OHA, Saving Our Past.

10 Much of this section is excerpted from Preserving the Recent Past by Jeanne Lambin, M.S.

16
research is found in multiple resources including books and journals of architectural history, social 

history, landscape architecture, landscaping, industrial architecture, and urban development, as well as 

previous National Register nominations. 

Establishing the significance of well-researched and documented resources, such as some of the resources 

associated with the Cold War, can be comparatively straightforward because of the amount of 

documentation available. Less straightforward, however, is how to evaluate the context and significance 

of resources that are not well documented and have not been the subject of scholarly evaluation. This can 

be especially challenging in Alaska where the study of resources from the mid-century is still evolving. 

Fragile or Short Lived Resources - Sometimes a resource can be significant because it has survived 

when others of its kind have not. For example, commercial buildings and chain stores are often 

continually updated as design prototypes change. Early roadside resources have been lost because new 

roads have been built and consumer preferences have shifted. Some resources related to the military 

presence in the state were created to respond to a short-term issue or need, such as housing. Once the need 

no longer exists or has been met by a more permanent resource, the original structure can face an 

uncertain future. Resources in Alaska must also survive an extreme climate and seismic activity. Many 

resources associated with the first wave of post-World War II growth were lost in the 1964 Good Friday 

Earthquake. 

Time - The fifty-year period is an arbitrary span of time established to ensure that enough time had 

passed to be able to evaluate a property in its historic context. Generally, we tend to understand time not 

one year at a time but in segments or periods. Has sufficient time passed in order to enable evaluation of 

the period in which the resource is significant? When did the property achieve significance? Architectural 

significance is usually tied to construction dates but if the resource is historically significant, its date of 

construction doesn’t always correspond neatly with its period of significance. Sometimes the more 

recently a property has achieved significance, the more challenging it is to demonstrate exceptional 

importance. 

Comparative Evaluation - How does a resource compare to other, similar resources of the same style, 

type, or time period? In understanding comparative evaluation, it is important to remember that for 

National Register listing, significance can be established at the national, state, or local level. A building 

may not be considered exceptionally significant at the national level, yet it can be exceptionally 

significant at the local level. Exceptional significance is defined as the measure of a property’s 

importance within the appropriate historic context. Thus, the level of significance (local, state, national) is 

directly related to the geographic scale of the property’s historic context. 

Association with Living Persons - Nominating properties associated with a living person is generally 

discouraged to avoid using the National Register to “endorse the work or reputation” of a living person. In 

some instances, sufficient scholarship and historic perspective existed to assess the significance of a 

property. 

Properties in Historic Districts - Properties younger than 50-years old can be listed in the National 

Register if they are an integral part of a National Register district. If a property is an integral part of the 

17
district, it does not need to be individually eligible or exceptionally significant to be listed as a 

contributing resource. For example, if the majority of properties in the district are 50-years old or older, a 

younger property can be considered an integral part of the district if it falls within the period of 

significance for the district and is associated with one or more defined areas of significance. If the 

majority of buildings within the district are younger than 50-years old, exceptional importance must still 

be demonstrated. 

Justification - When nominating an underage property to the National Register, a clear, compelling, and 

documented case for establishing its exceptional importance must be established. The Statement of 

Significance must contain a straightforward explanation of the property’s significance relevant to the 

specific National Register criteria as well as the justification of the determination that the property is 

exceptionally significant. Referring to nomination forms for properties that were successfully listed in the 

National Register can provide examples of how to establish the exceptional significance of a property.

Pursuing National Register Listing 

Preparing a National Register nomination form can be a time consuming and labor intensive process. 

Nomination forms can be submitted by anyone. One need not own the building to submit a form, but 

owners must consent in order for a building to be officially listed in the National Register once it has been 

determined eligible for listing. Forms are prepared by a variety of people including local preservation

organizations, property owners, consultants, local government staff, and SHPO staff. Prior to beginning 

the National Register nomination process, it is important to contact the local historic preservation 

commission (if there is one) and the SHPO to discuss the project. Even with the provision for exceptional 

significance, listing an underage property can be a challenge. As of 2008, of the over 90,000 properties 

that are listed on the register, only about 2500 were listed under Criteria Consideration G. 

1.3 Conclusion

Whatever the age of the resource, the preparation of a historic context statement is a key component of an 

integrated preservation planning process. This document is intended to assist multiple users in the 

understanding, identification, and evaluation of resources built between the close of World War II and 

1968, the beginning of the oil boom following the discovery of oil in Prudhoe Bay.

Alaska experienced a surge of growth in the decades following World War II. The array of resources is as 

diverse as it is impressive. The subsequent sections of this report will detail some of the key themes that 

shaped the growth during the period, identify building types, materials and styles, and provide 

information on architects and builders practicing during the period. While not intended to be a 

comprehensive history of development in the state during the period, it is intended that this document will 

contribute to further the study, understanding, documentation, evaluation, and registration of resources in 

the state. 

2.0 HISTORIC CONTEXT STATEMENT-OVERVIEW OF THEMES

In the decades following World War II, Alaska, like many states in the Lower 48, experienced significant 

growth. Many forces shaped the character of that development; those forces have been divided into the 

following major themes: 

18
● Population

● Military including the Cold War

● 1964 Earthquake

● 1967 Alaska Centennial

● Resource Exploration and Extraction

● Transportation

● Travel and Tourism

● Education

While this list is intended to be comprehensive, it is by no means exhaustive. It is anticipated that it will 

be augmented by future research and study, specific recommendations for which are included in Section 

6.0- Recommendations for Future Research. 

2.1 Population

Alaska has the longest history of human habitation and settlement of any place in the Americas.11 The 

history of the state has been shaped by geography, climate, resource extraction, and military strategy.

While the state experienced continual population growth in the decades following World War II, Alaska 

retained the lowest population density of all the states. 

Prior to World War II, the Native and non-Native population were divided almost equally between 

Alaskan Natives (29,983) and Caucasians (29,295). As a result of the War, thousands of non-Native men 

and women moved to the sparsely populated territory, and many stayed. In 1940, just over 72,000 people 

called Alaska home. By 1950, the population nearly doubled to 129,00012. 

The military presence altered the demographics of Alaska in several important ways:13

● caused a surge in non-Native population 

● altered the settlement patterns of the state resulting in increased urbanization and contributed to 

the dramatic growth in Anchorage and Fairbanks

● caused non-Native population growth to outpace Native population growth14

By 1950, the Alaska Native population had declined to one in four (33,863 of 128,643) and by 1960 

Alaskan Natives represented only one-fifth of the total population (43,081 of 226,167). The leading factor 

 

11 Eric Sandberg, A History of Alaska Population Settlement, (Juneau, Alaska: Research and Analysis Section, 

Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development, Division of Administrative Services, 2013), 4, accessed 

March 02, 2016. http://labor.alaska.gov/research/pop/estimates/pub/pophistory.pdf.

12 National Park Service, World War II in Alaska: A Resource Guide for Teachers and Students, (Anchorage, 

Alaska: Alaska Support Office, National Historic Landmarks Program, Second Printing with revisions, 2013). 

Accessed November 24, 2015. http://www.nps.gov/akso/history/PDF/WWII-Resource-Guide.pdf. 

13 Laurel J. Hummel, “The US Military as Geographical Agent: The Case of Cold War Alaska,” Geographical 

Review 95, no. 1 (January 2005): 47-72, accessed March 22, 2016, http://www.jstor.org/stable/30034309.

14 Hummel, “The US Military as Geographical Agent,” 53. 

19
driving non-Native population growth from the close of World War II to the 1960s was military 

construction and operations.”15

2.1.1 Population Growth16

Year Population Total Native White Other Races % Military

1930 59,933 29,983 29,295 655 7.7

1939 72,524 32,458 39,170 896 22.3

1950 128,643 33,863 92,808 1,972 77.4

1960 230,027 43,081 183,086 3,860 75.8

1970 307,207 51,712 250,461 5,034 32.8

Whether drawn by the military, economic opportunities, the allure of the North or other reasons, the new 

arrivals and existing population faced many challenges from the extreme climate to urban overcrowding. 

Because of the military presence in Anchorage and Fairbanks, most population growth occurred in those 

areas. Fueled by the growth of Elmendorf Air Force Base, home of the Alaskan Air Command and the 

Alaskan (Joint Services) Command, and of Fort Richardson, headquarters of US Army Alaska, between 

1950 and 1960 the population of Anchorage grew from 34,662 to 85,767.17 In Fairbanks (and the North 

Star Borough), the presence of Ladd Air Field, which later became the Army's Fort Wainwright, and 26 

Mile Field, which developed into Eielson Air Force Base18 meant that the population more than doubled 

growing from 23,000 to more than 49,000. The military was the largest source of economic investment in 

the state. Between 1949 and 1953, the federal government spent an average of $250 million per year on 

defense interests, and in the territory of Alaska the population was increasing at a faster rate than the 

United States.19 

The “new” arrivals included Alaska-theater veterans and others seeking to get a “fresh economic start.”20

Unlike their pre-war counterparts, most of the new Alaskans were not seeking the homesteading 

experience; instead they sought the same amenities and standards of living present in the Lower 48.21 The 

reality that greeted them was much different. They faced profound housing shortages, soaring housing 

costs, competition for skilled jobs, overwhelmed school districts, and a high cost of living. A promotional 

 

15 Whitehead’s 1998 book, Alaska and Hawai'i: The Cold War States. In The Cold War American West, 1945-1989 

(cited in Hummel, 2005).

16 US Bureau of the Census, 1950 United States Census of Population: Alaska General Characteristics. Report no. 

P-B51. 51st ed. Vol. 2. Chapter 8. (Washington DC: USGS Printing Office, 1952.), accessed April 15, 2016. 

http://laborstats.alaska.gov/census/histpdfs/1950char.pdf. 

17 Hummel, “The US Military as Geographical Agent,” 53. 18 Browne 1953; Atwood 1957; ACPC1958; ACOC 1961; Cooley 1954, Rogers and Cooley 1963; US Census 

Bureau 1995, and Sullivan 1971 and FNSB 2005 (cited in Hummel, 53). 

19 US Bureau of the Census, US Census of Population: 1960. Vol. I, Characteristics of the Population. Part 3 

Alaska. (Washington DC: USGS Printing Office, 1963). 20 Hummel, “The US Military as Geographical Agent,” 53. 21 Hilscher and Hilscher 1959; Rogers 1962; Denfeld 2000 (cited in Hummel, 53).

20
brochure put out by the Anchorage Chamber of Commerce recommended not to relocate to the north 

without employment secured or at least $500 dollars (not including money for a trip home if things didn’t 

work out).22 Even better, they suggested to first visit the state before planning relocation. Those that 

settled in more remote areas often faced a lack of adequate infrastructure, limited resources, and 

challenging living conditions. The cyclical nature of the military population, the seasonal nature of some 

work related to the natural resources industry such as increased production of wood pulp products in 

Southeast Alaska, tourism, and the economic ebb and flow meant that some left when the economic tide 

that drew them to the state receded while others returned to the state seasonally in search of work creating 

a large seasonal/transitory population. With an abundance of federal jobs and a booming construction 

industry to accommodate the infrastructure, housing and services needed to accommodate that growth, 

Alaska’s natural resource based economy, badly damaged during the war, failed to rebound as workers 

opted instead for federal jobs.23

While the influx of residents provided a critical mass and impetus for increased infrastructure, housing 

and services,24 it would be some time before those needs could be met. The military fueled population 

growth which lasted until the 1960s, and 25 was then replaced by the surge in population due to the oil 

boom in the late 1960s. 

In addition to altering the balance between Native and Caucasian populations and intensifying the 

urbanization of Anchorage, Fairbanks, and other population centers, the economic growth also brought 

many non-Native and non-white residents to the state. While the influx of population in the decades 

preceding, during, and following the war was predominately Caucasian (including people from the United 

Kingdom, Germany, Norway, Sweden, Canada and the USSR),26 after World War II, other non-white 

groups, including African-Americans and Asians, relocated to Alaska in search of economic opportunity. 

2.1.2 Alaska Native Population 

More than 560 federally recognized Indian tribes exist in the United States and of those, 226 are located 

in Alaska.27 Alaska Natives were the racial majority until 1930 and although Alaska's Native population 

continued to grow in numbers, the growth rate was far surpassed by that of the non-Native population. 

The Native population often experienced significant, legal discrimination. However, in the decades 

following World War II, this pattern of legal discrimination began to change beginning with the passage 

of the Alaska Civil Rights Act of 1944 followed by the formation of the Alaska Federation of Natives in 

1966 and, finally, the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) in 1971 with the formation of 

Native Corporations.

 

22 Julia Gaines Mighty, "Prices Are High, Prejudice Is Low...So Far." Negro Digest, (November 1963): 35-44. 23 William Siedler, The Coldest Front: Coldwar Military Properties in Alaska Revised and Expanded, (Anchorage, 

Alaska: Office of History and Archaeology Alaska Department of Natural Resources, 2012), 8. 24 Hummel, “The US Military as Geographical Agent,” 53. 25 Daniel Alan Seiver and Susan R. Fison, Alaskan Population Growth and Movements, 1960-1973, (Fairbanks, 

Alaska: Institute of Social, Economic and Government Research, University of Alaska), 1975. 26 The 1960 Federal Census includes a breakdown of white residents born outside of the state or the US. 27 John Dossett, "Tribal Self-Government in the United States." Poverty and Race 16 (November/December 2008): 

8.

21
Despite being the racial majority up until World War II and moving to urban areas, Alaskan Natives 

experienced discrimination, segregation, and institutionalized racism. In 1943, a visiting war 

correspondent noted that the social position of the Native population was equivalent to that of African 

Americans in Georgia or Mississippi both of which allowed legalized segregation.28 “It affected all 

aspects of life including civic institutions, entertainment venues, religious institutions, and educational 

institutions. These separate spaces included restaurants, theatres, transportation, jobs, neighborhoods, 

churches, and schools. Churches and schools exhibited a combination of segregation and assimilation 

policies. Segregation was found in all large cities including Anchorage, Juneau, Fairbanks, Ketchikan, 

Nome, and Kodiak all of which contained predominantly white populations.”29 

A notable battle in the fight against segregation occurred in 1944, “eleven years before Rosa Parks 

refused to give up her seat on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama.” In Nome, a young woman, Alberta 

Schenck, was fired from her position at the Dream Theater for expressing her opposition to the theater’s 

Jim Crow policies which prohibited Natives and “half-breeds” from sitting in the whites-only section. 

Figure 1. The Dream Theater on Nome’s Front Street back in 1944. The building was severely damaged by a storm in 1946, 

(source: Carrie McLain Museum, Nome).

Schenck, whose mother was Inupiat and father white, returned to the theater to see a film. She and her 

date, a white soldier, sat in the whites-only section. They were told to leave and refused; she was arrested 

and spent the night in jail. She detailed the incident in a letter to the local paper as well as a letter to 

Alaska Governor, Ernest Gruening, who had unsuccessfully tried to pass an anti-discrimination bill the 

previous year. Greuning reintroduced the bill to the Territorial legislature during which her experience 

was cited on the floor. The Governor vowed that no one would again receive that kind of treatment in 

 

28 Joseph Driscoll’s War Discovers Alaska (1943), cited in Haycox and Mangusso, 1996.

29 Holly Miowak Stebing. Rewriting the History of Racial Segregation in Alaska, Master's thesis, (California: 

Stanford University, 2009), 20. 

22
Alaska. The re-introduced bill, Alaska's Anti-Discrimination Act passed, both houses of the legislature 

and was signed into law on February 16, 1945.30

Schenck was one of many campaigning for Native rights, and the passage of the Act was the culmination 

of years of work by activists including Elizabeth and Roy Peratrovich. On the day the bill was being 

considered, Peratrovich spoke to the members of the territorial senate committee, but the bill had already 

been brought before the committee and failed to pass. At the meeting, many senators spoke against equal 

rights and refused to acknowledge that there was a problem calling the bill “unnecessary.” Peratrovich 

spoke as a representative from the Alaska Native Sisterhood. She spoke of the discrimination she had 

faced and what life was like for her and other Native Alaskans. “At the end of her speech she condemned 

the men’s “superior race” attitude. Her speech was met with thunderous applause. Following much bitter 

debate, the Senate passed the Alaska Civil Rights Act by a vote of 11 to 5.”31

While the passage of the Act was a significant milestone, there were still significant battles to be fought. 

Not only did the Native population face discrimination, they also faced the taking of land without 

consultation or compensation often on a massive scale. The Native people continued to organize and 

protest projects like the Rampart Dam Project and Project Chariot. The first Native newspaper, the 

Tundra Times, was established in 1962 by Howard Rock “to keep Natives informed and connected about 

common issues.” Rock maintained a non-partisan editorial position but endorsed individual candidates 

based on Native issues. He also wrote about Native culture, and the newspaper carefully followed and 

reported on ANCSA developments until the final act passed in 1971.”32 The paper played a critical role in 

reporting news and advocating for Native issues.33

In October of 1966, the Alaska Federation of Natives (AFN) was formed. More than 400 Alaskan Natives 

representing 17 Native organizations gathered for a three-day conference to address Alaskan Native 

aboriginal land rights. After statehood, the state was poised to select over 100 million acres of land. 

Because Alaskan Natives had occupied 365 million acres of land for thousands of years, the AFN knew 

that if they did not organize and strive to retain aboriginal lands, they would be in danger of losing them.34

From 1996 to 1971, the AFN worked to achieve passage of a “just and fair land settlement.” The just and 

fair settlement was the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA). Signed into law on December 18, 

1971, 35 it established 13 Native regional corporations and 200 Native village corporations throughout the 

 

30 Summarized from Terrance Cole, Jim Crow in Alaska: The Passage of the Alaska Equal Rights Act of 1945. 31 "Elizabeth Wanamaker Peratrovich (1911-1958)." National Women's History Museum, accessed March 16, 2016. 

https://www.nwhm.org/education-resources/biography/biographies/elizabeth-wanamaker-peratrovich/. 32 Elizabeth James. "Howard Rock and the Tundra Times." LitSite Alaska, accessed April 16, 2016, 

http://www.litsite.org/index.cfm%3Fsection%3DDigital-Archives%26page%3DPeople-of-theNorth%26cat%3DNative-Lives-and-Traditions%26viewpost%3D2%26ContentId%3D3102. 33 Paul Ongtooguk. "Alaska's Cultures Alaska Natives Fight for Civil Rights." Alaska History and Cultural Studies, 

accessed April 16, 2016, http://www.akhistorycourse.org/articles/article.php?artID=472. 

34 "History." Alaska Federation of Natives, 2012, accessed April 16, 2016, http://www.nativefederation.org/aboutafn/history/. 

35 "History." Alaska Federation of Natives.

23
state, transferred $962.5 million to these new entities and transferred more than 40 million acres of land, 

including surface and subsurface rights, to the corporations.”36 

A three-day meeting at the Student Union Building, then Alaska Methodist University, followed the 

passage of the act. Designed by Edward Durrell Stone, and completed in 1966, the Campus Center was 

where more than 600 Alaskan Native delegates gathered to discuss the newly passed law and whether to 

accept the agreement. On December 18, 1971, President Richard M. Nixon was advised that the 

delegates, by a vote of 511 to 56, had accepted it. The delegates, clustered on the second floor of the 

Campus Center in the large dining area, heard the President say (by special telephone arrangements) "I 

want you to be among the first to know that I have just signed the Alaska Native Claims Settlement 

Act."37

Because of the significance of the events that unfolded in the building, the site was listed on the National 

Register in 1977. As stated in the National Register form, “the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 

1971 is without parallel in the history of the United States or the world, either in the record of land 

distribution or of government-aboriginal relations...the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act was the 

largest settlement ever made to quiet aboriginal claims. The approximately one billion dollars and forty 

million acres conveyed to Alaskan Natives were without equal in records of such settlements, either in the 

United States or in other countries.”38

While some continue to debate the merits of this Act, it is widely acknowledged that the Native leadership 

in negotiating under tough conditions with the federal government was remarkably tenacious and more 

successful than anyone might have predicted. The transformation of Alaskan Natives from being 

considered by America as marginalized societies to legally recognized equals occurred because of the 

sustained effort carried on by many people for over a hundred years. In each generation, Native leaders 

contributed their talents and were supported by Native people who had a long-term commitment to 

dismantle a system of inequity that had been set up by others. Several of the regional corporations formed 

under ANCSA have become so important that they are now major economic engines for the State.

2.1.3 Asian Migration 

The first Asian immigrants that came to Alaska did so to work in the canning industry in the early 1900s. 

Salmon fishing and packing were the first industries to use a large number of immigrant workers.39 The 

demand for labor often outstripped supply and the belief was that an imported workforce was easier to 

control because they could not easily leave and return home. In the late nineteenth century, canneries 

began importing labor from the West Coast of the US, with Chinese workers being the first large 

 

36 Alaska Forest Association, Alaska Timber Industry History Southeast Alaska, Report, (Ketchikan: Alaska Forest 

Service Association. n.d. 1-9, accessed March 02, 2016, http://www.akforest.org/Alaska Timber Industry 

History.pdf. 37 Lydia L. Hays and Michael S. Kennedy, National Register of Historic Places Inventory - Nomination Form, 

Campus Center (AHRS Site No. ANC-251) Student Center, AMU, National Register #79000409, March 21, 1979. 38 Hays and Kennedy, Nomination Form, Campus Center, 1979.

39 Kathleen R. Arnold, Contemporary Immigration in America: A State-by-State Encyclopedia, (Santa Barbara: 

Greenwood, 2015), 22.

24
immigrant group to be recruited.40 With the turn of the twentieth century and changes in immigration law, 

the Chinese were replaced by Japanese workers. With the forced removal and detention of the Japanese 

during World War II, Filipinos became the largest group. Following World War II, Filipino’s continued 

to immigrate to Alaska as did South Koreans who came first as war brides in the late 1950s and 1960s 

and then in the 1970s because of the oil industry.41 

2.1.4 Filipino Migration 

After the Chinese and Japanese, Filipinos represent “the most sustained immigrant group in Alaska’s 

history.” The first Filipinos arrived in the 1910’s to work in the canneries.42 The seasonal nature of 

cannery work meant that there was an influx of laborers brought in to assist with the harvest. Unlike some 

of the other seasonal workers, who would travel back and forth between Seattle and other locations, the 

Filipinos would often bring their families and establish a permanent presence43 with communities arising 

in Ketchikan, Juneau, Anchorage, and the Aleutian Islands.44 Filipinos also came to the state through 

military service. The Aleutian Homes neighborhood on Kodiak Island was built for the army base as part 

of the private, post-quake urban renewal project in 1965. As the fishing industry surpassed the military 

industry in the community, many Filipinos came to call the island home earning it the moniker, Little 

Manila.45 In the larger cities, community organizations like Filipino Community in Juneau (1956) and the 

Filipino Community of Anchorage (1965) promoted cultural connection, preservation, community 

outreach, and remain an active presence in the state. 

2.1.5 African-Americans 

It was the defense buildup that brought the first significant numbers of African-Americans to the state 

during World War II. First, in all-Black units during the World War II construction of the Alaska 

Highway and then in an increasingly multiracial military force.46 In 1948, President Harry S. Truman 

signed an executive order directing that all branches of the armed forces be integrated and, subsequently, 

many blacks were assigned to military stations in Alaska during the defense buildup of the 1950s. 

Many African-Americans stayed on after World War II and during the Cold War buildup deciding that the 

demand for their labor and skills, “and the comparative relief from racism were reasons enough to stay 

and build new lives.”47 Most chose to live in the larger, more populous cities. Although the US Civil 

Rights Act had been passed in 1964, its enforcement was often decidedly lacking and even if legal 

segregation was no longer allowed, social segregation was. Contemporary news and magazine articles 

about Alaska from the period note the “relative lack” of discrimination in Alaska. “According to stateside 

standards, Anchorage is remarkably free from racial discrimination both in the matter of employment and 

 

40 Arnold, Contemporary Immigration, 23. 41 Hyung-jae Kim, "Korea Times Project, Part 2: Growing Korean American Community in Alaska," The Korea 

Times, August 11, 2015.

42 Arnold, Contemporary Immigration, 26. 43 Arnold, Contemporary Immigration, 26. 44 US Bureau of the Census, US Census of Population: 1960. 45 "Post 7 – Culture," Required Blog: Art, Alaska and Flash Fiction for College and Competition, April 15, 2012, 

accessed April 15, 2016, https://seledoux.wordpress.com/2012/04/15/post-7-culture/. 46 Hummel, “The US Military as Geographical Agent,” 53. 47 "Alaska: Bonanza for Blacks." Ebony, November 1969, Vol. 25, Issue 1, 123-34.

25
public accommodation...laws governing public accommodation are pretty rigid and, for the most part, 

strictly enforced.”48 

Despite the comparative lack of discrimination, African-Americans in Alaska still faced discriminatory 

practices. A branch of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was 

established in Anchorage in 1951. The organization sponsored the FEPC (Fair Employment Practices 

Committee) bill in 1953 and an anti-discrimination bill in housing in 1961. Both efforts were successful. 

In 1962, they sponsored their first civil rights demonstration - a successful picketing of Carr’s 

supermarket (the first grocery store in Anchorage at 13th and Gambell) because of discriminatory hiring 

practices. Those efforts were also successful and, in 1963, Carrs changed their hiring practices.49 Alaska, 

once again, was a leader in the civil rights movement. At the national level, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 

was passed the following year. 

Figure 2: Carrs Supermarket, Gambell Street, Anchorage, date unknown (source: Carrs/Safeway)

Because of discriminatory practices, in many places, African-Americans were unable to buy property, a 

notable exception being the Fairview neighborhood in Anchorage. Initially located outside the city 

boundary (until 1959) the neighborhood, like many in Anchorage, was developed after World War II. It 

was initially built in response to military demands, and located adjacent to an airstrip.50 Despite these 

challenges, the November 1969 issue of Ebony magazine praised the opportunities for African-Americans 

in Alaska and made note of Fairview as a cultural center.51 The article, “Alaska: Bonanza for Blacks?” 

sent a writer and photographer “to survey the scene from Anchorage to the barren wastes of the now 

famed North Slope tells of the life of black people in an area comprising one seventh of the entire United 

States.”52 Another article in Color Magazine described Anchorage as the “Chicago of the North.”53 In the 

late 1960s, the city boasted a rich array of black owned businesses, and organizations. There were two 

African-American newspapers: the Alaska Spotlight (1956-68) and the Midnight Sun Reporter. Another 

 

48 Ebony, 123-34.

49 George Harper, "Black History in Alaska," Black History in Alaska, accessed June 10, 2016, 

http://ftpcontent.worldnow.com/ktuu/black_history/BlackHistory.html.

50 David Reamer and Clare Dennenberg, An Oral & Written History of Fairview: Past, Present, and Future, Report, 

(Anchorage: UAA Center for Community Engagement and Learning, 2014).

51 Ebony, 123-34. 52 Ebony, 123-34. The article establishes the African-American population as 12,000 people but the 1960 census, 

lists 2,178 African-American residents. 53 George C. Anderson, "Alaska Frontier Attracts Negro Pioneers: Alaska Is My Home,” Color, (April 1953), 23-29.

26
article lists four nightclubs, three real estate dealers, three barber shops, one tailor, one hotel (the Polar 

Hotel), and two churches: the Greater Friendship Baptist Church and the Shiloh Baptist Church, which at 

the time the article was written, was perhaps the “oldest” black church in Alaska.54 Established in 1951 by 

32 members, the Greater Friendship Baptist Church was the first African American congregation to be 

accepted into the Southern Baptist Convention since perhaps the 1860s. Greater Friendship Baptist 

Church was founded in 1951, thus becoming the first Black church in the state of Alaska. In addition, 

Greater Friendship Baptist Church was the first Black church in America to affiliate with the Southern 

Baptist Convention. The existing building at 903 East 13th Avenue, Anchorage was constructed in 1955.55

Figure 3: Greater Friendship Baptist Church, Anchorage (source: Baptist Press)

Although many of the organizations like the NAACP, churches, and other groups remain, but with a 

decrease in legal and selective segregation, changes in the economy, and the ever-present challenges of 

running a small business had caused many of these establishments to perish. 

2.1.6 Conclusion 

World War II and the decades following brought dramatic changes to the population of the state. Growth 

of the non-Native population continued to outpace the growth of the Native population. While settlement 

was dispersed throughout the state, Anchorage and Fairbanks remained the population centers of the state 

and those that relocated there often found challenging situations, a shortage of jobs, housing, and other 

expected urban amenities. 

 

54 The articles in Colors, Ebony, and Negro Digest list many of the business and provide profiles of some of the 

owners. 

55 "Greater Friendship Baptist Church," Greater Friendship Baptist Church, accessed June 8, 2016, 

http://www.greaterfriendshipbaptist.org/index.php?option=com_content.

27
While the majority of the new comers were Caucasians from the Lower 48, Canada, the United Kingdom, 

Europe, or Russia, African Americans and Asians also came to Alaska in search of jobs and, in some 

instances, a relative relief from the discrimination they faced in other places. 

While the information about demographic changes to the state is relatively accessible, information about 

settlement patterns is less so, for example, news articles from the period cite the abundance of black 

owned businesses and predominantly African-American residential districts, but little documentation of 

which of those resources remain is yet to be discovered. The Filipino migration, like the African 

American migration, led to a significant population segment in the state, but more research needs to be 

done to identify associated cultural resources. Similarly, while the history of the Native Rights movement 

is fairly well documented, identification of sites associated with that history and which of those sites 

remain in existence is in need of further study and documentation. 

2.2 Military

The military buildup in Alaska after 1946 was the largest economic activity in the territory until the oil 

boom of the late 1960s.56 In the early 1950s, the federal government spent an average of $350 million per 

year on defense interests across the globe. This had an enormous impact on a national, state, and local 

scale. Alaska’s importance to the US defense network since World War II has earned the title of 

“Guardian of the North,” “Gibraltar of the North,” “Top Cover for America,” “Keystone of the North,” 

and “Northern Defender.” The military invested in installations, operational readiness, nuclear testing, 

and applied research in innovative technology in Alaska.57 The high profile and long-term presence of the 

US military had such a dramatic effect on the course of Alaska that the result was tantamount to a 

"militarized landscape.”58 

Military defense was not only a driving force behind a growing population and a thriving economy, but it 

also played an important role in improving Alaska’s infrastructure during the post-WWII era – that is, 

until focus shifted to oil development in the late 1960s. Transportation routes and highways across much 

of Alaska are reminiscent of a military buildup during WWII and the post-war era. Radar and navigation 

aids greatly improved the infrastructure for civilian air transportation.59 Housing shortages on and off post 

became a priority as well with over $27 million of military funding spent on various types of living 

quarters and residential housing between 1949 and 1959.60 

2.2.1 Cold War 

Alaska served as America’s Cold War sentinel and important air defense shield against the threat of 

Soviet attack over the North Pole from the late 1940s through 1989. “A threat of global proportion, the 

Cold War consumed $12 trillion from the US Treasury and spanned nearly the lifetime of a generation of 

Americans. In the course of the Cold War, America amassed a vast standing army, a global intelligence 

 

56 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 8. 57 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 6. 58 Hummel, “The US Military as Geographical Agent,” 47-72.

59 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 7. 60 Waddell, Cold War Historical Context 1951-1991 Fort Richardson, Alaska United States Army Alaska, Accessed, 

November 26, 2015, http://dnr.alaska.gov/parks/oha/publications/ftrichcoldwar.pdf, 24.

28
network, and a military-industrial economic complex.”61 The Truman Doctrine for containment created a 

national defense system including Alaska, “the Guardian of the North.” The latter part of the 1950s 

witnessed the first successful Soviet testing of a Submarine Launched Ballistic Missile (SLBM) and the 

launch of the Sputnik satellite as the world faced the threat of nuclear weapons.62 In response to this 

perceived vulnerability and as part of a theme of expanding national air defense, five radar systems were 

constructed in Alaska during the Cold War: the Aircraft Control and Warning System (AC&W; 1951-

1968), the Distant Early Warning (DEW) Line (1953–1969), the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System 

(BMEWS; 1961-present), the Cobra Dane Radar Facility (1978-present), and the Relocatable Over the 

Horizon Radar System (1987–1993). The Cold War defense and research systems ensured four decades of 

prosperity for Alaska. Alaska’s permanent radar network cost hundreds of millions of dollars to build, 

operate, and supply.63

2.2.2 Detect and Monitor 

Numerous structures were built during the Cold War for the purpose of detecting attack and monitoring 

communications. As technology rapidly advanced, the systems were phased out and replaced. Few are 

still in use, but the Ballistic Missile Early Warning system at Clear Station remains operational. Distant 

Early Warning Line facilities, which were coastal and stretched out the Aleutian Island chain, have been 

mostly dismantled, and attempts to locate them have been unsuccessful. 

Aircraft Control and Warning Radar System (1951-1968)

In 1949, the US Congress approved funding for the construction of a new radar system in Alaska. The 

planned system proposed 12 radar stations located in both perimeter and interior sites across Alaska. The 

outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 accelerated the funding and construction efforts, and the system was 

expanded to include six more sites. The first ten sites were completed and brought on-line between 1951 

and 1954. Two intercepts were constructed in 1954 to cover gaps in radar projection in the interior, and 

six additional surveillance sites were completed by 1958.64 The sites followed a standardized plan based 

on location (interior, perimeter, control center) and the Air Force used prefabricated designs for individual 

buildings to minimize construction time.65 Communication between AC&W sites was initially through 

high-frequency radio which proved to be unreliable. In 1954, the Alaska Communications Study Group 

requested that Bell Electric Systems create a new communications network to link the AC&W sites. The 

newly devised technology would be named the White Alice Communications System (WACS)66. 

Distant Early Warning Line (1950-1957)

 

61 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 5. 62 Waddell, Cold War Historical Context 1951-1991 Fort Richardson, Alaska United States Army Alaska, Accessed, 

November 26, 2015, http://dnr.alaska.gov/parks/oha/publications/ftrichcoldwar.pdf, 23. 63 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 8. 64 Argonne National Laboratory, Defending Attack from the North: Alaska’ Aircraft Control and Warning Radar 

System During the Cold War. Prepared by Argonne National Laboratories in cooperation with the Alaska Office of 

History and Archaeology, Anchorage, Alaska. Prepared for the Environmental Planning (Cultural Resources) unit, 

611th Civil Engineer Squadron, Pacific Air Forces, US Air Force. Anchorage, Alaska, 2001, 4. 65 Argonne National Laboratory, Defending Attack from the North: Alaska’ Aircraft Control and Warning Radar 

System During the Cold War, 2001, 6. 66 Argonne National Laboratory, 10.

29
In 1950, the US Air Force (USAF) established a series of Bering Sea coastal surveillance stations which 

were then linked into a larger system that circumnavigated the Arctic coast referred to as the Distant Early 

Warning (DEW) Line.67 The line grew out of the same concerns that prompted the creation of the AC&W 

system and intensified by the Korean War.68 The DEW Line stretched through the Aleutian Island chain 

and connected Air Force bases and other military installations via a communication network called White 

Alice. Designed to detect incoming attacks via radar warning and communications systems, the Alaska 

DEW Line was completed in 1957. This system eventually became obsolete as technology advanced 

faster than military planning and construction.69 

Figure 4. Driftwood Bay DEW Line extension construction, Unalaska Island, 1958; no longer extant (source: University of 

Alaska Anchorage, Consortium Library, Archives & Special Collections, Howard and Mabel Jonish papers, 1910-1989, UAAHMC-0428).

Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (1961-present)

The purpose of the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS) was radically different from that of 

the DEW Line. BMEWS addressed a new strategic reality in which US defense forces simply could not 

intercept an intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM).70 The early warning nets were intended to provide 

 

67 Natalie K.Perrin, Heather Lee Miller, and Amanda Bennett, National Register of Historic Places Multiple 

Property Listing for the Alaska Federal Scout Readiness Centers (FSRCs) 1959-1974. Written by NHG Alaska, 

LLC., for the Alaska Department of Military and Veterans Affairs, Facilities Management Division, Anchorage, 

Alaska, 2013.

68 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 13. 69 Perrin et al., National Register of Historic Places Multiple Property Listing for the Alaska Federal Scout 

Readiness Centers (FSRCs) 1959-1974, 2013. 70 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 19.

30
sufficiently early warning that US and Canadian forces could defend against and retaliate to Soviet

bomber attacks. The system consisted of three sites across the northern reaches of the globe: Clear Station 

(BMEWS Site II) located 75 miles south of Fairbanks, and one each at Thule, Greenland (BMEWS Site I) 

and, Flyingdales Moor, England (BMEWS Site III). Clear Station was completed in 1961 and 

complemented with microwave and cable communications equipment. At a cost of $360 million, 

BMEWS could give at least 15 minutes’ warning to Strategic Air Command bombers located in the US 

heartland.71 

The complex at Clear had three main areas: Tech Site, Composite Site, and Camp Site. A large radome 

that housed the 25-meter parabolic tracking radar and three 400- x 165-foot static radar assemblies 

dominated the site. Each billboard reflector stood on 40 concrete piers. Each pier was 20 feet tall and 

contained 45 cubic yards of concrete and steel. Each pier rested on a foundation of 5,400 cubic yards of 

concrete and reinforced steel bars. The antennas were built to withstand earthquakes and winds of 180 

miles per hour.

72 The Clear BMEWS facility has undergone technological modifications since operations 

began in 1961. Upgrades included replacing the older rotating radar with new phased array technology.73

The site is still in use, and the Department of Defense has proposed to improve the systems.

Figure 5. Clear Station BMEWS, 1963; station has been modified yet it is still in use (source: University of Alaska Anchorage, 

Consortium Library, Archives & Special Collections, Christine M. McClain papers, 1907-1992, UAA-HMC-0370).

 

71 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 18. 72 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 19. 73 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 20.

31
2.2.3 Communicate 

As with the previously mentioned facilities used to detect and monitor during the Cold War, 

communications systems readily advanced with technological leaps that surpassed the ability to construct 

the facilities. Almost as soon as a communications line was built, it was already outdated and soon 

replaced. In many instances, the military dismantled them like the White Alice System at Amchitka, Cold 

Bay, Hoonah, Big Mountain, Boswell Bay, North River, Pillar Mountain on Kodiak, Adak, and 

Sparrevohn. However, some of the structures remain: the White Alice site at Nome, Annette Island, 

Elmendorf, Bethel, Granite Mountain, and Tok can still be seen today. 

White Alice Communications System (1954/55)

By 1954, tropospheric scatter communication systems (tropos for short) had been developed for use in 

Alaska. This new technology involved beaming radio signals off the troposphere back down to a 

receiving antenna. Tropos used an ultra-high- frequency (UHF) radio signal that can travel up to 200 

miles by bouncing part of the signal off the troposphere. Previously available technology required line-ofsight and was suitable for Alaska’s terrain and vast distances. Thirty-one WACS stations were 

constructed and nearly half of them were collocated with AC&W installations.74 Some sites were 

converted from DEW Line technology to White Alice tropospheric stations.75 Three sizes of Antennae 

were used at WACS sites and include 30-foot circular dishes and 60 and 120 foot billboard antennas. In 

1960, Project Bluegrass extended the network out to Adak and Shemya. The total network was completed 

in 1968 when the US sold the WACS facilities to Radio Corporation of America Alaska Communications 

which operated them until the late 1970s. In the 1980s, several White Alice sites were demolished.76

Tropo antennas can still be seen in Nome and on Annette Island.

 

74 Argonne National Laboratory, 11. 75 D. Colt Denfield, The White Alice Communications System, US Army Corps of Engineers, Alaska District, 

Anchorage, 2001

76 Argonne National Laboratory, 11.

32
Figure 6. White Alice Communications Site at Wasilla, 1955, with microwave tower and tropo antenna; no longer extant (source:

University of Alaska Anchorage, Consortium Library, Archives & Special Collections, Leland A. Olson papers, 1955-1961, UAAHMC-1064).

2.2.4 Intercept and Respond 

The Cold War marked the advent of the modern jet and rocket ages. Like radar, jets and rockets came 

from technology existing prior to and after WWII but whose true significance and potential were realized 

during the Cold War.77 In the early years, US strategic doctrine focused on defense and deterrence as a 

means of preventing open confrontation with the Soviet Union. In Alaska, the emphasis was on air 

defense responsibility with major developments in support of the Air Corps mission and programs.78 

Military presence in Alaska was well established by the end of the 1940s, and it was not going anywhere. 

Alaska’s close proximity to the Soviet Union and cold weather training capabilities paved the path for 

continued military buildup. In 1946, the military commenced construction and expansion of major 

defense facilities at Fort Richardson, Elmendorf Air Force Base (AFB), Eielson AFB, Fort Greely, 

Kodiak Naval Air Station, and Adak Naval Air Station. The US Air Force (USAF) was founded 

 

77 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 31. 78 Karen Waddell, Cold War Historical Context 1951-1991 Fort Richardson, Alaska United States Army Alaska, 

(Anchorage: Natural Resources Branch, US Army Alaska, Fort Richardson, 2003,), 21, accessed November 26, 

2015, http://dnr.alaska.gov/parks/oha/publications/ftrichcoldwar.pdf. 

33
September 18, 1947 in partial response to the increasing need for air defense. From the late 1940s to the 

1950s, propeller driven air craft were replaced with interceptor jets, and the USAF built an extensive 

aircraft control and warning radar system with sites located throughout the Alaskan interior and along 

coastal regions. WACS and the NORAD Regional Operations Control Center (ROCC) at Elmendorf

served as the nerve center for all air defense operations in Alaska during this time.79 Air defense forces 

reached their zenith in l957 with almost 200 fighter aircraft assigned to six fighter interceptor squadrons 

located at Elmendorf AFB and Ladd AFB. Eighteen aircraft control and warning radar sites controlled 

their operations. Elmendorf earned the motto "Top Cover for North America.”80 “The late 1960s and early 

l970s brought about a gradual decline in air defense forces in Alaska due to mission changes and the 

demands of the Vietnam War resulting in the inactivation of five fighter squadrons and the closure of five 

of its warning radar sites.”81 Although Alaska witnessed a gradual decline of air defense forces during this 

time, Air Force bases continued to play an important role in shaping Alaska’s future as a state.82

Elmendorf Air Force Base (1940 – Present)

Elmendorf AFB in Anchorage has served over the years as headquarters of the Alaskan Defense 

Command, Alaskan Command, Alaskan Air Command, and 11th Air Force. It has been the Alaska Air 

Command (AAC) headquarters since 1946 and the Alaska Command (ALCOM) headquarters since 1947. 

It was an important air-intercept base, NORAD Regional Combat Center, and administrative center for all 

military activities in Alaska throughout the Cold War.83 Due to increasing emphasis on air defense by the 

military command, the post in Anchorage was expanded in 1948 when the existing Elmendorf Air Field at 

US Army Fort Richardson, used by the AAC, was transferred into the ownership of the newly formed 

USAF. The AAC was a unified command under the Joint Chiefs of Staff based on lessons learned during 

WW II when a lack of unity of command hampered operations to drive the Japanese from the western 

Aleutian Islands of Attu and Kiska.84 In 2010, the base was merged with Fort Richardson to form the 

Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson. 

Buildings still standing from Elmendorf’s early construction period include several operations-type 

hangars, a birchwood hangar, and the Alaska Chateau that served as guest quarters built in 1942 that 

housed such luminaries as General of the Army Douglas MacArthur, Bob Hope, and then-Senator John F. 

Kennedy. The Elmendorf Air Force Base Flightline Historic District was determined to be eligible for 

listing on the National Register in 1999. Begun in 1942 with construction continuing through 1948, the 

district consists of thirteen contributing buildings arranged in an “L” shaped plan. The buildings include 

four hangars, runway aprons, and associated aircraft maintenance structures that were determined to be 

eligible under Criteria A for their association with the nation-wide Cold War build-up of aviation defense 

facilities after WWII.

 

79 US Air Force, Joint Base Elmendorf Richardson, “Fact Sheet: Elmendorf Air Force Base History,” accessed 

February 5, 2016, http://www.jber.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet_print.asp?fsID=5280&page=1.

80 USAF, JBER, “Fact Sheet.” 81 USAF, JBER, “Fact Sheet.” 82 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 8. 83 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 35. 84 USAF, JBER, “Fact Sheet.”

34
Figure 7. Housing constructed in 1954 on Elmendorf Air Force Base, extant (source: Stokes 2006).

Ladd Air Force Base (1939-1960)

Ladd AFB, now Fort Jonathan Wainwright, was established as a cold weather testing station in 1939 and 

was the first AAC base in Alaska. Authorized by the Wilcox Act of 1935, land near Fairbanks for the 

base was withdrawn in March 1937 by President Franklin Roosevelt under Executive Order 7596. 

Construction began in August 1939—weeks before Nazi troops invaded Poland and sparked World War 

II. Ladd evolved into the hub of military activity north of the Alaska Range and served as the official 

handoff point for US Lend-Lease planes headed to the Soviet Union during World War II. For the first 

years of the Cold War, Ladd held the northern air defense line against the USSR while fulfilling 

concurrent missions of cold weather testing and long-range reconnaissance.85 Consequently, Ladd was the 

hub of military activity north of the Alaska Range serving AAC, SAC, and USARAL. By 1945, the 

runway had been lengthened to 9,000 feet, and a tank farm had been constructed. Early operations at Ladd 

AFB, as it became known following the Air Force’s creation in 1947, focused on reconnaissance, polar 

navigation and exploration, cold weather testing, and the primary combat mission air defense. Its official 

titles were Northern Sector Headquarters and 11th Air Division Headquarters. 

Runways, hangars, ground-control facilities, and housing were deemed essential to the Cold War 

mission.86 Ladd survived primarily because of these developed facilities, cold weather testing station, its 

function as the terminus of the CANOL pipeline, and its location at Fairbanks. The Air Force’s Arctic 

Indoctrination School, or “Cool School,” was transferred from Marks AFB at Nome to Ladd in 1950, 

where it stayed until October 1960. In 1958, air defense control passed to Elmendorf when the Alaskan 

NORAD Region Command and Control Center became active87. Ladd’s 9,200-foot runway was soon 

found to be insufficient to the Air Force’s needs and could not be lengthened due to geography. The base 

was also too close to Fairbanks for easy expansion. The budgetary restrictions of the late 1950s sealed 

 

85 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 40. 86 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 41. 87 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 44.

35
Ladd’s fate. It was condemned in September 1959, and its closure kept secret until mid-1960. On January 

1, 1961, Ladd AFB was renamed Fort Jonathan Wainwright and turned over to the US Army.88 

The Ladd Air Force Base Cold War Historic District, located on present-day Fort Wainwright, was 

determined eligible for the National Register in 2001. The district contains 68 contributing buildings 

including the airfield itself and several large hangars that are nationally significant under Criteria A for 

their association with Cold War era events associated with U.S. Air Force remote sites (DEW Line, 

AC&W, Forward Operating Bases, WACs), air defense, and arctic research.

Eielson Air Force Base (1944-Present)

From its inception, Eielson AFB had a major polar geophysical mapping, intelligence, and reconnaissance 

role. The new airfield was constructed in 1943 to alleviate increasing air traffic at Ladd Field. It was 

commonly known as Mile 26 Strip due to the distance between Fairbanks and the main gate of the field.89

It was constructed southeast of present-day North Pole and necessitated road improvements along the 

Richardson Highway, and the Alaska Railroad built a spur line out to the new field for supply-use. Along 

the rail line, the tracks passed homestead claims in the area of North Pole. In 1948, the air field was 

formally designated Eielson Air Force Base.90 The runway was lengthened to its current span of 14,507 

feet—the longest runway in North America at the time. During the Cold War, Eielson AFB served as a 

base of operations for intelligence-gathering and electronic eavesdropping activities. Eielson, along with 

its neighbor Ladd, fielded numerous expeditions to collect air samples from Soviet airspace. An Eielson 

flight returning to Alaska from Japan had the dubious honor of detecting the first Soviet nuclear blast on 

September 1, 1949. Eielson took part in the Ferret flights over Russia from the 1950s into the 1970s and 

Rivet, Cobra Ball and U-2 flights beginning in the 1960s.91

Eielson’s other prominent mission was as a launch platform and arctic training station for the Strategic 

Air Command’s (SAC) nuclear bomber fleet. By the late 1950s, the Air Force had transferred many of 

Ladd’s functions to Eielson. Cold weather testing was named a joint duty for Ladd and Eielson in 1955 

with all operations to be moved to Eielson as soon as expeditious. After the transfer of Ladd to the Army, 

Eielson assumed command of cold weather testing of aircraft and equipment. The Air Force Arctic 

Survival School, Cool School, moved to Eielson from Ladd in October 1960. Eielson’s role in facilitating 

training would increase in importance as the Cold War progressed and even after its passing. Though 

Eielson was the sole remaining full-size USAFB base north of the Alaska Range, its time on the frontlines 

of the nuclear bomber “war” was drawing to a close. The last B-47s were reassigned by 1963. Refueling 

tankers replaced the bombers.92 By the end of the Cold War, Eielson’s missions included reconnaissance 

and cold weather testing, tactical air support and training, aerial refueling, and fighter interceptor duties. 

Today, the base remains open and active. 

 

88 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 45.

89 354th Fighter Wing History Office (FWHO), “History of the 354th Fighter Wing and Eielson Air Force Base,” 

2010, accessed April 7, 2011, http://www.eielson.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-090923-132.pdf 

90 354th FWHO, “History.” 2010 

91 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 46.

92 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 47.

36
The Eielson Air Force Base Flightline Historic District is located southeast of Moose Creek and contains 

buildings that provided an invaluable window on the enemy's progress and, most importantly, helped 

guard the delicate geographical interface between two competing ideologies. There are twenty buildings 

and one runway that contribute to the nationally significant historic district that make a tangible 

connection to the Cold War era.

Figure 8. Eielson Air Force Base, Building 1120, Aircraft Maintenance Dock (Nose Dock), as seen in 2004; contributing 

building within the Eielson Air Force Base Flightline Historic District (source: McCrosky 2004).

Shemya Air Force Base/Eareckson Air Force Station (1943-1995)

Shemya Air Force Base, now Eareckson Air Station, was founded in 1943. Located just east of Attu at the 

far end of the Aleutian chain, it was a minor intercept base, a stopover for international flights, and an 

important link in the Cold War intelligence net.93 Shemya was constructed in response to the Japanese 

landfall on Attu Island. Shemya served as a fighter base and a refueling point for planes flying the Great 

Circle route to Asia.

All Aleutian bases closed after World War II except for Adak Naval Station and Shemya Air Force 

Station. For the first few years of the Cold War, Shemya made do with World War II-era facilities. AAC 

ordered some rehabilitation in 1952. Shemya’s position on the Great Circle route ultimately saved it when 

AAC planned on abandoning it in favor of Thornbrough AFB at Cold Bay. The Air Force briefly left in 

1954. In a concession to Congress’ concerns, they leased the airfield to Northwest Orient Airlines (NOA). 

NOA remained until 1961, three years after the Air Force revived Shemya Air Force Station, as an 

intelligence and interceptor base. Shemya was considered important enough to receive a White Alice 

station through Project Bluegrass assuring reliable communications with AAC. The first of Shemya’s 

post-1958 missions was weather reconnaissance, but Shemya was soon pressed into service as a refueling 

point for the B-52s and KC-135s of Operation Chrome Dome. Chrome Dome was a 1960 SAC initiative 

wherein B-52s flew just outside Soviet airspace equipped with nuclear weapons. Tankers, fueled at 

Shemya, would meet the SAC bombers and refuel them in the air.94

 

93 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 51.

94 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 52.

37
Shemya has numerous historic properties, virtually covering the island. Four birchwood hangars were 

built in World War II. During the Cold War, their roofs were raised to house larger aircraft. Two hangars 

survived as of 1998. Permanent barracks replaced the World War II Quonset huts. There is an abandoned 

runway in addition to the active airstrip, warehouses, petroleum storage tanks, a pre-Cobra Dane 

BMEWS-associated radar building, an Army Security Agency radome, and the White Alice billboard 

reflectors.

Forward Operating Bases (1948-1989)

“Forward Operating Bases (FOBs) extended the reach of the US Air Defense Command’s ability to 

intercept airborne intruders. Acting as satellites to the main bases at Ladd (later replaced by Eielson) and 

Elmendorf, the FOBs provided on-the-spot fighter aircraft, whose mission was the protection and patrol 

of American airspace near the Soviet Union. Alaska’s two largest FOBs, Galena and King Salmon, served 

as key interceptor bases during the 1950s and 1960s at the height of the Cold War and the Soviet bomber 

threat. The Alaskan FOBs intercepted more Soviet aircraft than any other base. Like the DEW Line and 

the Nike sites, the FOBs’ importance decreased markedly as the development of ICBMs rendered massive 

bomber attack obsolete.”95

Nike Hercules Sites (1959-1979)

The US Army’s Nike Hercules program was one means of defense which the country deployed in large 

numbers and at great expense. This ground-based anti-aircraft missile system protected vital US cities, 

industrial centers, and military bases from aerial attack. Multiple Nike sites were built in rings around 

areas in need of defense and would have deployed missiles armed with high-yield explosives or nuclear 

weapons to destroy attacking aircraft formations. The Alaskan Nike Hercules story is exceptional in terms 

of time, design and, service. Here sites operated longer, under isolated conditions, and at a heightened 

state of alert. Alaska’s Nike batteries practiced live missile firings making this one of just two states in the 

country where active sites had such an opportunity. Also, several design alterations were used to adapt the 

standard Nike site to the Alaskan climate.

Named after the Greek goddess of victory, the 20-foot long guided missiles traveled faster than sound and 

their warheads were designed to explode only in flight.96 A series of radars and computers identified and 

tracked targets and guided the missiles to the point of detonation. Batteries were composed of two areas 

including a launch site where missiles were actually fired, and the Integrated Fire Control area, where 

radars and control operations were located. The Department of the Army announced in 1958 that Nike 

Hercules installations would be placed in Alaska. Alaska’s Nike sites were designed to protect the Air 

Force bases, and there were several reasons for having multiple batteries guarding a single location.97

Nine Nike batteries at eight sites formed the air defense artillery arm of ALCOM.98 The first Nike 

installation was Site Bay near Anchorage activated March 20, 1959. Sites Point and Summit, near 

Anchorage, and Sites Tare, Peter, Mike, and Jig, near Fairbanks, achieved initial operational status in 

 

95 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 49. 96 Waddell, Cold War Historical Context, 27. 97 Kristy Hollinger, Nike Hercules Operations in Alaska 1959-1979, (Anchorage: Conservation Branch Directorate 

of Public Works, US Army Garrison Alaska, 2004), 10.

98 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 33.

38
May. Fairbanks’ Site Love began operations in 1960. At peak deployment there were 145 Nike Hercules 

batteries in the US. Only thirty-five sites were designed specifically for the Hercules system; all others 

were modified from previous use of the Ajax batteries99. 

A study of the Nike battery locations shows them to be triangulated around Elmendorf AFB and Eielson 

AFB. The system would have offered some default protection of Anchorage and Fairbanks, but urban 

protection in Alaska was likely an ancillary, indirect function.100 While Nike sites in the Lower 48 were 

largely decommissioned by 1974, the three Anchorage Nike batteries continued operating until 1979.101

The only Nike battery that remains with sufficient integrity to be listed on the National Register is Site 

Summit in Anchorage.

Figure 9. Nike Site Summit, Arctic Valley, 1962; note clam shell over radiodome (source US Army in Hollinger 2004).

2.2.5 Guard and Defend 

The onset of the Cold War led to the restructuring of various branches of the US military including the 

National Guard. In 1947, the Department of Defense (DOD) was formed combining the former War and 

Navy Departments and incorporating the newly created Air Force. The Alaska Territorial Guard (ATG) 

was established in the early 1940s.102 The ATG Eskimo Scouts, which eventually transformed into the 

Alaska National Guard, were also formed shortly thereafter. In ca. 1948, the ATG was at peak strength 

enrolling more than 3,000 Alaskans ready and able to defend its homeland.103 The small groups were 

 

99 Hollinger, Nike Hercules, 9. 100 Hollinger, Nike Hercules, 10. 101 Hollinger, Nike Hercules, 1. 102 Natalie K. Perrin, Heather Lee Miller, and Amanda Bennett, National Register of Historic Places Multiple 

Property Listing for the Alaska Federal Scout Readiness Centers (FSRCs) 1959-1974, (Anchorage: Alaska 

Department of Military and Veterans Affairs, Facilities Management Division, 2013), 5. 103 Muktuk Marston, Men of the Tundra: Eskimos at War, (New York: October House, Inc, 1969), 176.

39
considered a first line of defense against the Soviets on the tundra during the Cold War and provided 

unique artic survival and military skills. In 1949, Scout Battalions were formed in Alaska under the 

auspices of the Alaska Army National Guard.104 In the 1960s, the Eskimo Scouts began participating in 

joint training exercises with the US Army and were given modern equipment. The tremendous skills the 

scouts possessed were shared with and harnessed by the larger US Army.105

In recognition of the importance of the service of both the Territorial Guard in Alaska and the National 

Guard units from Alaska, the War Department permanently established the Alaska National Guard 

(AKARNG) in 1949. The Army was relegated to land warfare, occupation duty, and ground-based air 

defense. Since the Army’s primary foe was the Soviet Union, Alaska assumed new importance as a center 

for northern warfare training. The Army has conducted Alaskan training exercises approximately every 

other year since 1947.106 Exercises during the Cold War were conducted using multiple combinations of 

forces including Alaskan troops, other US units, Canadians, and Norwegians. 

The AKARNG was officially headquartered at Fort Richardson in Anchorage with units in the major 

population centers as well as in villages along the coastal regions. The Air National Guard was formed in 

1952 and is headquartered at Elmendorf AFB in Anchorage, and the Naval Militia was formed during the 

1960s.107 In 1960, a campaign began to build Federal Scout Readiness Centers (FSRCs) in 48 villages and 

towns across Alaska. Additional armories and units were built in the early 1960s and early 1970s. In some 

cases AKARNG FSRCs were located in villages that had previously been home to ATG units though not 

all former ATG locations received FSRCs.108 No other National Guard in America was organized like it 

was in Alaska: a combination of regular guardsmen populated urban centers like Juneau and Fairbanks, 

and a small vigilant force of scout units scattered from Bristol Bay to Barrow.109 The FSRC buildings are 

still present and in use in many rural villages, and a multiple property documentation for National 

Register listing has been completed on behalf of the Alaska Department of Military and Veterans Affairs 

that includes a historic context for the development and use of the buildings.110 

Fort Greely 

A base was operated by the Army Air Corps at Big Delta, beginning in 1941 as Station 17 of the Air 

Transport Command’s Alaskan Wing that was used as a refueling point for American pilots delivering 

aircraft to Ladd Army Airfield for the Lend-Lease Program. Troops at Big Delta Post from 1949 until 

1953 made do with temporary World War II airfield buildings. Fort Greely proper was constructed 

between 1953 and 1954. The construction program included post headquarters, engineer facilities, an 

auditorium, fire station, warehouses, power plant, shops, barracks, a library, a dispensary, and the CWMS 

 

104 Perrin et al., FSRCs, 7. 105 Adam D. Russell, Richard Stern, and Jason Rogers, Alaska National Guard Environmental Gap Analysis of 

Armory Significance, Technical Paper No. 486, (Anchorage: State of Alaska Department of Military and Veterans 

Affairs, 2011), 11.

106 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 59. 107 Sgt. Marc McNab, Alaska Army National Guard and Other Stories. Ed. by Lt. James Richardson, historian, 

(Anchorage: 134th Public Information Detachment, Alaska Army National Guard, 1984).

108 Perrin et al., FSRCs, 1.

109 Perrin et al., FSRCs, 7. 110 Perrin et al., FSRCs, 2013.

40
facilities. An expansion in 1955 gave Fort Greely a PX and theater, a gymnasium, and a service club. 

More facilities arrived in the late 1950s and early 1960s.111

In 1955, it assumed its final name, Fort Greely, in honor of Major General Adolphus Washington Greely, 

arctic explorer and founder of the Alaska Communications System.112 Its mission remained essentially 

constant throughout the Cold War: to guard the military airfield, support the cold weather testing and 

training operations, support troops assigned to the post for other missions, and guard communications 

centers. Its vast maneuver areas were used in numerous exercises, an experimental nuclear reactor 

powered the base for ten years, and its cadre researched better methods of cold weather warfare and 

trained soldiers.113 It was chosen because it combined the extreme winter conditions of the Alaska interior 

with a great variety of terrain including rivers, lakes, swamps and open plains. Throughout the Cold War, 

between three and five thousand soldiers a year flew to Fort Greely for short tours. Instruction included 

weeks-long waterways navigation courses, winter operations, ski instructor training, and mountain 

warfare skill building.114

The post was designated the Arctic Training Center in 1949. Originally, the center consisted of three 

subdivisions in addition to the post headquarters personnel: the Army Arctic Indoctrination School, Army 

Training Company (School Troops), and the Test and Development Section. It was renamed again 1952 

as the Arctic Army Center. Construction began on the permanent buildings located a mile from the 

airfield in 1953. These buildings are referred to as “main post” today while the original temporary 

buildings near the airfield are called “old post”. During the same year, the US Army Chemical CorpsArctic Test Team was established at the post. The Arctic Indoctrination School became the Army Cold 

Weather and Mountain School in 1957. The Department of the Army redesignated the Cold Weather and 

Mountain School as the Northern Warfare Training Center (NWTC) in April of 1963. NWTC was then 

given the mission of training units in the conduct of warfare in northern areas of operation.115 In 1966, the 

Army began using the base and nearby Gerstle River Military Reservation as sites for testing biological, 

chemical, and other weapons.

A Fort Greely Cold War Historic District was proposed in 1999 but found to be too ambiguous for a 

determination of eligibility to be completed. The proposed boundaries included over one-hundred 

buildings, but many were recommended non-contributing or fell outside the period of significance. A 

revised district was proposed in 2000, yet again, details regarding period of significance arose. 

Approximately 168 buildings were slated for demolition by the US Army as part of a base realignment 

action. However, many of the buildings remain and some may retain enough integrity for National 

Register listing.116 

 

111 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 72. 112 Fort Greely, Office of Public Affairs, History of Fort Greely, 2014, accessed February 9, 2016, 

http://www.greely.army.mil/about/history.aspx

113 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 71. 114 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 71. 115 Fort Greely, History of Fort Greely 116 Alaska OHA, IBS Portal, 2016.

41
Figure 10. Fort Greely, near Delta Junction, 1957 (source: University of Alaska Anchorage, Consortium Library, Archives & 

Special Collections, Grace P. Hurst photograph album, 1957, UAA-HMC-0914-17d).

Fort Richardson (1940-Present)

Fort Richardson Army Base is located in Anchorage. It originally contained an airstrip known as 

Elmendorf Field. In 1949, Fort Rich, as it is commonly known, was home to training sites for AKARNG 

Eskimo Scout Battalions, on Camp Denali (later named Camp Carroll).117 During the 1950s Fort 

Richardson provided training and supervision for National Guard and US Army Reservists as well as 

Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (ROTC) activities.118 Coordination of emergency rescues was also 

provided for the Alaska community at large, playing a vital role following the Good Friday Earthquake in 

1964, by providing immediate relief for earthquake and tsunami victims and in the stabilization, security, 

and clearing of property within the affected areas.

The 1947 establishment of the US Air Force prompted defense officials to consider an air installation in 

the Anchorage area. Since Elmendorf Field had an existing air strip, it was more economical to hand the 

facility over to USAF rather than build a new airfield. In 1950, the property was handed over to USAF 

and became known as Elmendorf Air Force Base. Non-air defense facilities were reestablished as the Fort 

Richardson Military Reservation119 which included 33,000 acres of land. 

The new facilities were designed by the US Army Corps of Engineers, Alaska District between 1950 and 

1958, using generic building designs that were developed for nationwide use on military bases. 

Construction at Fort Richardson initially consisted of roadways, barracks, a rifle range, bachelor quarters, 

cantonments, and a hospital. The cantonment was laid out in a grid with the Old Glenn Highway 

(renamed Richardson Drive) as the central “spine” of the grid system reflecting the suburbia movement of 

 

117 Waddell, Cold War Historical Context, 22. 118 Waddell, Cold War Historical Context, 26.

119 Waddell, Cold War Historical Context, 23.

42
the period.120 The new fort was largely made of permanent concrete buildings. Between 1950 and 1953, 

barracks, warehouses, family housing, underground utilities, service clubs, streets, schools, a theater, field 

house, and more were constructed. Most family housing was in the south with industrial buildings in the 

north and administration in the center. Housing exploded in the 1950s. In one year, Fort Richardson 

jumped from 24 family housing units to nearly 1,200 by the end of 1951. Alaska was experiencing a Cold 

War construction boom, and the military struggled to keep up.121 Moose Run Golf Course opened in 1951 

to military personnel only.122 By 1954, Fort Richardson’s boundaries had expanded to encompass terrain 

north of Eagle River making the military reservation 67,296 acres.123

The 1960s saw a transition from defense to mission support in Alaska for Fort Richardson with major 

emphasis placed on aiding Elmendorf AFB operations. In 1960, the first missile was launched from Nike 

Site Summit, and the Port of Whittier was closed and placed in caretaker status.124 Joint training efforts 

involving both branches of the military were held almost annually in winter settings from Kodiak to 

Barrow. Live-fire training at the Chugach Missile Range was suspended in 1965 due to the increased 

population in the Eagle River Valley. As Fort Richardson transitioned to mission support, new 

developments began on the base to support the troops stationed there and their families. Childcare centers, 

housing units, and a golf clubhouse at the Moose Creek Golf Course were erected for comfort while the 

central heat and power plant was converted to natural gas. Mission support construction saw a new 

airfield flight control tower, a new hangar, Army Reserve Armory, and the M60 machine gun range.125 

Construction was interrupted by the Good Friday Earthquake of 1964 while Fort Richardson provided 

immediate emergency assistance and aided in the long-term reconstruction of communications and 

infrastructure. Water and food, medical aid, sleeping bags and cots, and fuel oil were all brought from the 

base into the communities in Anchorage, Seward, Valdez, Whittier, Kodiak, Homer, Seldovia, and 

Cordova. “Operation Helping Hand” provided communications, emergency power, search and rescue 

operations, and the use of the military hospital on base; the Providence Hospital in downtown Anchorage 

had been severely damaged during the earthquake. Construction contracts were soon issued locally to 

repair damages on base totaling over $3.5 million.126 Post-earthquake construction was minimal on base 

and consisted primarily of expanding family housing and support buildings. The installations 

infrastructure had been created during the initial period of construction (1951-1958) and the current 

mission did not require new development.127

Many of the buildings constructed during the Cold War period are still present at Joint Base ElmendorfRichardson. In 2003, a Fort Richardson Historic District was proposed located along the area referred to 

as Headquarters Loop. The area includes the central spine arrangement developed from 1950 through 

1958. The proposed district contained over 55 buildings many of which were recommended to be 

contributing to the district; they are still in use on the base.

 

120 Waddell, Cold War Historical Context, 23. 121 Seidler, The Coldest Front, 62. 122 Waddell, Cold War Historical Context, 102. 123 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 61. 124 Waddell, Cold War Historical Context, 105. 125 Waddell, Cold War Historical Context, 32. 126 Waddell, Cold War Historical Context, 33. 127 Waddell, Cold War Historical Context, 34.

43
Figure 11. US Army Corps of Engineers Building on Fort Richardson, ca. 1950 (source: University of Alaska Anchorage, 

Consortium Library, Archives & Special Collections, Christine M. McClain papers, 1907-1992, UAA-HMC-0370-series15a-2-

59.)

Fort Wainwright (1961-present)

From the 1940s on, Ladd/Fort Wainwright’s training areas hosted the bulk of ground exercises in Alaska. 

On January 1, 1961, after the hero of Corregidor, the US Army took over Ladd AFB and renamed it Fort 

Jonathan Wainwright. The Army had already been at Ladd guarding the airfield, training recruits and 

conducting a cold weather school. The new fort maintained the Army’s presence, in force, north of the 

Alaska Range. Its mission evolved from ground and air defense to training.128 Fort Wainwright’s early 

missions were ground and air defense of Alaska and its Air Force bases, northern warfare doctrine 

development, training and support, logistics, National Guard and Reserve support, and civil defense 

assistance. Units were understaffed through the late 1960s, and exercises were minimally attended or 

cancelled.129

A large number of existing buildings at Fort Wainwright were constructed after 1945 and have already 

been documented. While there is currently no collective Fort Wainwright Historic District, many of the 

buildings have been determined eligible under Criteria A for their association with Cold War efforts, 

including DEW Line communications and cold weather testing and training. 

 

128 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 64.

129 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 65.

44
Figure 12. The Bassett Army Hospital, Fort Wainwright, completed 1954; demolished (source: Douglas 2007).

Naval Bases 

Alaska’s naval infrastructure dates almost entirely from World War II and the Cold War. The Alaskan 

Naval Sector, established in 1941, was commanded from Kodiak and was subordinate to the 13th Naval 

District in Seattle. During that window, and again from 1971 until its closure, Adak served as 

headquarters for naval operations in Alaska. Sitka Naval Base on Japonski Island and Fort Mears at Dutch 

Harbor both closed in 1944 as WWII came to an end. The 17th Naval District was tasked with defending 

Alaska’s sea approaches and protecting its sea lines of communications. Its primary activities were aerial 

reconnaissance, training, and logistical support. It was also the service tasked with emergency defense of 

Alaska. In the event of a nuclear strike that took out ALCOM headquarters, the Commander of the 17th 

Naval District would assume command of ALCOM. Following the disestablishment of the Alaskan Sea 

Frontier, the Navy continued its intelligence and antisubmarine operations from Adak until the end of the 

Cold War.130

Naval Operating Base Kodiak (1948-1971)

Kodiak was the command post for defense and sea patrols in the early Cold War. It was one of eight 

Pacific bases retained by the US Navy. The base’s location fit well with ALCOM’s “heartland” defense 

concept. Naval Station Kodiak was established on September 23, 1947. Naval Operating Base Kodiak 

was the overall administrative command comprising the US Naval Air Station (NAS), the US Naval 

Station, and the Marine Barracks. Day-to-day missions for Naval Operating Base Kodiak components 

included exercise support and numerous search and rescue missions. An ice reconnaissance survey, 

Exercise BAREX (Point Barrow Resupply Expedition), occupied NAS Kodiak during the early 1950s

along with search and rescue operations. During the Korean War, Kodiak received sufficient extra 

personnel to warrant construction of 56 new housing units.131 Little other construction was undertaken 

throughout the postwar period until after the Coast Guard takeover. As the Soviet submarine threat grew, 

Kodiak received additional funding. Notably absent was any kind of traditional naval force based at 

Kodiak. The base served intelligence, logistics, command, and control missions until its closure. 

 

130 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 54. 131 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 55.

45
The Kodiak Naval Operating Base and Forts Greely and Abercrombie National Historic Landmark was 

listed on the National Register in 1984 under Criterion A and Consideration G for association with WWII 

events that predate this period of significance for post-WWII resources. However, during the Cold War 

era, new construction on the base was completed in the form of housing units, many of which have been 

documented; they were evaluated for their ability to contribute to the NHL- a resource with a WWII 

period of significance. They have not yet been evaluated for their eligibility as Cold War-era resources.132 

Figure 13. Naval Air Station, Kodiak, ca. 1945, portions extant (source: Anchorage Museum at Rasmuson Center, General 

Photograph File, AMRC-b80-75-3).

Naval Air Facility Adak/Naval Complex Adak (1942-2000)

Following completion of the Aleutian Campaign in 1944, Adak became headquarters for the Alaskan Sea 

Frontier. Like Shemya, Adak was considered as a potential jumping-off point to invade Japan via the 

Kurile Islands. By 1945, Adak had staging facilities and depots, could accommodate 50,000 troops, three 

months’ supplies, and had 4,500 men stationed at the post. Six ships could be berthed at a time, and a 

1,500-foot breakwater and 2,900-foot retaining wall were emplaced. In 1946, the Alaskan military 

commands moved back to Kodiak, Elmendorf AFB, and Fort Richardson. The Air Force took over Adak 

and renamed it Davis Air Force Base. Adak had minimal staffing and limited importance until the 1970s. 

In 1953, Adak housed only 200 personnel, a number that grew to just under 1,000 by 1966.133. Substantial 

classified activity took place at Adak. Major operations included radio direction finding, specialized 

signal monitoring, subsurface sound detection, and low frequency communications to US submarines in 

the Pacific and Arctic oceans. Adak would continue to grow into the 1990s. A White Alice 

Communications Station was built at Adak during the Project Bluegrass expansion, but it was dismantled 

by the Navy prior to the base’s closure. 

 

132 Alaska OHA, IBS Portal, 2016. 133 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 56.

46
2.2.6 Tomorrow’s War 

In nuclear experimentation, arctic research and cold weather training, Alaska was at the forefront of the 

Cold War technology race. Fort Greely’s inhospitable surroundings made it perfect for an experimental 

nuclear reactor designed to operate far from traditional infrastructure and also for an arctic and mountain 

warfare school. Likewise, Amchitka Island’s location minimized fallout concerns. Point Thompson, one 

of the more isolated corners of Alaska, would ostensibly be made less secluded by its deep-water port.134

Atomic Alaska (1958-1972)

In 1946, the Atomic Energy Act created the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC). AEC’s mandate was to 

pursue peaceful uses for atomic fission. Alaska was the site for a proposed attempt to use nuclear devices 

peacefully, three underground nuclear detonations, and an experimental nuclear reactor.135 Mission status, 

military facilities, and cold weather training were rethought and further developed as the US entered the 

Cold War. By the end of the 1940s, evidence was mounting that the Soviets were building their forces 

around the globe. An Air Force RB-20 on patrol off the coast of Siberia detected proof of a Soviet nuclear 

test in 1949. At the same time, Communist Party takeover in China had been successful, and the USSR 

refused to participate in United Nations efforts to establish separate Korean governments.136 The events 

led to an increased military presence in Alaska as the world entered the Atomic Age. 

The US Army maintained a Nuclear Power Program from 1954-1974 in response to Cold War threats. 

Small-scale reactors were constructed at military installations for heat and power. The goal was to reduce 

dependence on fossil fuels, create reliable operation, and improve cost-effectiveness. In Alaska, Fort 

Greely was the primary reactor facility. By the 1960s, there were three systems in place to deploy nuclear 

weapons to deter the Soviets: long-range manned aircraft carrying nuclear bombs, land-based 

intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) with nuclear warheads, and nuclear powered submarines 

armed with nuclear ballistic missiles.137

Project Chariot (1958-1963)

In 1957, the AEC began the Plowshare Program to “investigate and develop peaceful uses for nuclear 

explosives.” Plowshare would attempt to harness the nuclear beast and transform it into a peacetime 

workhorse. The first operation of Plowshare would be "Project Chariot," an experiment "to provide 

scientific and engineering data for excavation projects." The AEC hoped the experiment would be a 

prelude to the excavation of a new, sea level Panama Canal. The AEC initiated Project Chariot in 

northern Alaska with a plan to use nuclear explosives to excavate the harbor at Cape Thompson. In early 

1958, the AEC selected a site at the mouth of Ogotoruk Creek near Cape Thompson and began 

developing plans for an experimental harbor excavation.138

 

134 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 66. 135 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 67. 136 Waddell, Cold War Historical Context, 21. 137 Waddell, Cold War Historical Context, 31. 138 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 67.

47
By the conclusion of Project Chariot in August of 1962, more than 40 bioenvironmental studies had been 

carried out. The compilation of these studies, titled Environment of the Cape Thompson Region Alaska,

was the first genuine environmental impact statement. However, no one had consulted the residents of 

Point Hope which was just 30 miles north of ground zero. They were told that all the people living in 

Point Hope, Kivalina, and Noatak would be temporarily relocated to Kotzebue or Nome for a year or so 

after the blast. They would then be relocated again, not back to their original homes, but to modern 

dwellings near the brand new harbor in the Ogotoruk Valley. The first-ever meeting of the Alaskan 

Eskimos at the Point Barrow Conference on Native Rights convened in Barrow in 1961 as a direct result 

of Project Chariot. The flurry of activism marked the beginning of an era of political maturity for Alaska 

Natives which led to a successful resolution of their land claims in Congress in 1971.139

Late in 1962, after the extensive scientific studies, the AEC announced that it "would deter further 

consideration of the proposed Chariot experiment" due in part to public criticism. No nuclear detonations 

were ever conducted as part of Project Chariot. In 1963, the AEC transferred its land and facilities at 

Ogotoruk Creek to the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory (NARL). In December of 1966, the Department 

of the Navy assumed control of all the AEC improvements in the Ogotoruk Valley and obtained a BLM 

Special Land Use Permit (SLUP) effective for five years. 4,700 acres became identified as the Cape 

Thompson Naval Site. The site was used as a logistical support base for NARL. The Navy maintained the 

buildings at the old Project Chariot base camp and utilized them as living quarters, shops, garages, and 

generator facilities. The three airstrips were also re-worked and improved.140

Amchitka Nuclear Test Site (1965-1971)

Amchitka was selected by the AEC to be the site for underground detonations of nuclear weapons, due to 

its perceived remoteness. Three such tests were carried out: Long Shot, an 80-kiloton blast in 1965; 

Milrow, a 1-megaton blast in 1969; and Cannikin in 1971, a 5-megaton blast and the largest underground 

test ever conducted by the United States.141 Long Shot was a nuclear detection research experiment 

detonated in October 1965 at a depth of 2,300 feet below ground surface while Milrow was a high- yield 

(about 1,000 kilotons or 1-megaton) weapons calibration test detonated in October of 1969 at a depth of 

4,000 feet. Cannikin was detonated in November of 1971 at a depth of 5,875 feet below ground surface.142

Of the Amchitka tests, only Cannikin was large enough to produce surface disruptions obvious today. The 

explosion activated faults and violently expelled groundwater from them.143

 

139 Douglas L. Vandegraft, Project Chariot: Nuclear Legacy of Cape Thompson, 1993, (Anchorage: US Fish and 

Wildlife Service, Cartographic Unit Division of Reality, 1993), accessed February 2, 2016, 

http://arcticcircle.uconn.edu/VirtualClassroom/Chariot/vandegraft.html

140 Vandegraft, Project Chariot 141 John Eichleberger, Jeff Freymueller, Graham Hill and Matt Patrick, “Nuclear Stewardship: Lessons from a NotSo-Remote Island,” Consortium for Risk Assessment for Stakeholder Participation (CRESPII) for the US 

Department of Energy, 2002, accessed February 5, 2016, http://www.geotimes.org/mar02/feature_amchitka.html. 142 US Department of Energy, “Amchitka, Alaska, Site: Fact Sheet,” (Grand Junction, Colorado: Department of 

Legacy Management, 2006), 2, accessed February 5, 2016, 

https://web.archive.org/web/20070630165411/http://www.lm.doe.gov/documents/sites/ak/amchitka/factsheet/amchit

ka.pdf. 143 Eichleberger et al., “Nuclear Stewardship.”

48
Figure 14. Officer’s Mess Hall at Amchitka, ca. 1945 (source: University of Alaska Anchorage, Consortium Library, Archives & 

Special Collections, Albert S. and Patricia Aiken World War II papers, 1940-1945, 1991, HMC-0700).

Fort Greely SM-1A Nuclear Plant

The US Army desired an air-portable nuclear reactor that could be transported to remote locations and, in 

1954, entered into an agreement with the AEC to develop a prototype. A successful example, active in 

April 1957, was built at Fort Belvoir, Virginia. The Stationary Medium Power Reactor (SM-1) was state 

of the art, and used advanced safety precautions. The next step was to actually build and use the SM-1 in 

a remote location where power was expensive. In 1958, Secretary of the Army, William M. Brucker, 

announced that the next Army reactor would be built at Fort Greely, Alaska, the first field installation. 144

Fort Greely was home to the US Army Chemical Corps – Arctic Test Activity (previously the Chemical 

Corps Arctic Test Team). The name of the group again changed in 1957 as the Arctic Test Board, and the 

name lasted until 1963 at which time they became known as the Arctic Test Center.145 Numerous tests 

using radioactive materials were completed on military lands in the area. The fort was the primary nuclear 

reactor site in Alaska under the US Army’s Nuclear Power Program (ANPP). It was the largest nuclear 

power plant in Army hands in 1962 and was a pressurized water system. The fission process created heat 

which raised the temperature and pressure of water in a closed system. This, in turn, boiled more water 

which produced steam. The steam drove a turbine creating electricity. Through a system of pipes, the 

steam also heated buildings at Fort Greely. Total output was 500 times smaller than typical commercial 

reactors, and it also supplied steam for heating the post. The reactor was designed to be transported by air, 

quickly installed, and operated under extreme environmental conditions. It used highly enriched uranium, 

requiring refueling every two years.146 

The ANPP developed a static exciter-voltage regulator system and an electric-hydraulic steam turbine 

governor for the SM-1 that enabled the conventional turbine generator at the SM-1 to meet the load 

 

144 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 69. 145 Fort Greely, History of Fort Greely. 146 Fort Greely, History of Fort Greely.

49
transient criteria for powering a Nike Missile Site.147 The reactor was decommissioned in 1972, and its 

highly radioactive material removed to the Lower 48. The reactor housing, designed to last 150 years, was 

encased to prevent radiation seepage pending final disassembly in 2023. The SM-1A was the first US 

nuclear reactor to be decommissioned. It provided nuclear engineers a wealth of information on how to 

decommission other sites around the country.148

Figure 15. The SM-1 Reactor Facility at Fort Greely, ca. 1965 (source US Army 1965).

Cold Weather Testing and Arctic Research

All the Armed Services conducted cold weather testing and arctic research during the Cold War. The Air 

Force’s Cold Weather Test Detachment and Arctic Aeromedical Laboratory tested planes, equipment, and 

personnel striving constantly to perfect cold weather air operations and the people who performed them. 

The Navy’s Arctic Research Laboratory (NARL) performed a wide range of experiments. The Army used 

Fort Greely and its environs to not only conduct cold weather experiments but to train its personnel in 

arctic and mountain warfare techniques.149 

The Arctic Test Branch was established in 1949 at Fort Greely and was supplanted by the Arctic Test 

Center in 1964. The test center had six divisions headquartered at Fort Greely with the research and 

development office and special projects division detached to Fort Wainwright. One of several Army cold 

weather research programs in the Cold War, the test center frequently supported other civilian and 

 

147 Norman Chance, “Fort Greely, Alaska, Introduction”, accessed February 9, 2016, 

http://arcticcircle.uconn.edu/SEEJ/NMD/alaska/greely/introduction.htm

148 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 69.

149 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 70.

50
military agencies in their research and field testing. It was renamed the Cold Regions Testing Center 

(CRTC) in 1976.150 In 1957, the Arctic Indoctrination School at Fort Greely became the Army Cold 

Weather and Mountain School. The Department of the Army redesignated the Cold Weather and 

Mountain School as the Northern Warfare Training Center (NWTC) in April of 1963. NWTC was then 

given the mission of training units in the conduct of warfare in northern areas of operation.151

The most unusual of Fort Greely’s Cold War activities was the testing of chemical weapons. Between 

1962 and 1967, the US Army Chemical Corps Arctic Test Activity conducted emplacement and 

dispersion experiments. Researchers used field trials and laboratory analysis of agents and munitions to 

determine their feasibility for use in varied Arctic terrain. Unlike the Amchitka nuclear blasts and the 

proposed harbor at Cape Thompson, the Gerstle River operations were classified and occasioned almost 

no public comment. 

Naval Arctic Research Laboratory (NARL; 1947-1980)

The Office of Naval Research (ONR) established the Arctic Research Laboratory (ARL) at the US 

Navy’s PET4 support camp at Barrow in 1947. The Air Force took over NARL’s logistical support in 

1953. The ARL was renamed in 1967 as the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory (NARL). NARL’s stated 

mission was “research in all appropriate scientific fields related to the Arctic environment.” The facility 

was the support center for research in the physical, biological, and social sciences providing laboratory 

and other services on a year-round basis to the arctic region.152 Navy planners needed basic arctic 

environmental information to aid in engineering, maritime, submarine, air navigation, human and 

mechanical performance in severe arctic conditions. NARL was not limited to its home base at Barrow. 

Its researchers performed experiments all over northern Alaska including the Ogotoruk Creek site 

designated for Project Chariot and at Fort Greely. NARL scientists also worked at four drifting ice 

stations.153 

The facility began with two warehouses and one Quonset hut in 1947.154 By the end of 1970, there were 

190 buildings in the complex, primarily Quonset huts aligned in 3 rows parallel to the Chukchi Sea. A 

Naval Arctic Research Laboratory Historic District was proposed in 2010 for the existing 46 of 190 

buildings. In 2001, the Alaska SHPO concurred with the recommendation that ten buildings contributed 

to the historic district with their national significance under Criterion A, C, and G for the cutting edge 

arctic research it supported and the advancements in our understanding of the Arctic, for early Alaskan oil 

exploration, and for its role in the Cold War.155 

 

150 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 71. 151 Fort Greely, History of Fort Greely. 152 Valerie Gomez and Richard Stern, Historic Overview, Property Types, and Preliminary Cultural Resources 

Analysis of the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory (NARL) Barrow, Alaska, (Anchorage: LCMF Engineering 

Services, Inc. 2010), 9.

153 Siedler, The Coldest Front, 70. 154 Gomez and Stern, Naval Arctic Research Laboratory (NARL), 12. 155 Gomez and Stern, Naval Arctic Research Laboratory (NARL), 35-37.

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Figure 16. Naval Arctic Research Laboratory (NARL) Quonset huts, 1955 (source: University of Alaska Anchorage, Consortium 

Library, Archives & Special Collections, Ruth A.M. Schmidt papers, 1912-2014, UAA-HMC-0792).

LORAN System (Long-Range Aid to Navigation; 1942-1980)

The LORAN system is a Long-Range Aid to Navigation that, in the US, was created by John Alvin Peirce 

at MIT in ca. 1942. The basic system consists of a chain of three or more land-based transmitting stations 

each separated by several hundred miles. Within each chain, one station is designated as a master station 

and the others as secondary transmitters. LORAN monitoring sites are situated throughout the chain to 

receive signals from transmitter stations and provide feedback on system quality issues.156

It was developed to allow a boat captain, military or civilian, to determine his position by comparing the 

arrival times of pulses from two pairs of radio transmitters. Each pair provides information for drawing a 

line of position (LOP) on a map set, and the intersection of the two lines marks the captain’s location. 

LORAN navigation receivers placed in watercraft depict the LOP location. By 1943, the US Coast Guard 

(USCG) was operating the first chain of transmitters, LORAN-A, that consisted of eight chains spanning 

the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. In Alaska, LORAN-A sites were primarily located in the Aleutian 

Islands and on Bering Sea islands; they were not in operation around the clock until 1944.157

At the close of WWII, at least 75,000 receivers had been distributed offering nighttime coverage of 30% 

of the earth’s surface. Research completed after WWII developed a more accurate, longer range system in 

various versions with names such as LORAN-B, Cyclan, Cytac, and ultimately LORAN-C which was 

operational in 1957 and under USCG control in 1958. The USCG continued developing LORAN-A sites 

in Southeast Alaska through the 1950s as the LORAN-C system was being tested. Considered thirdgeneration, the sites in Southeast Alaska were characterized by the use of prefabricated Quonset huts

interconnected to create administration, electronics rooms, and quarters all under one roof. In some 

 

156 Alice Coneybeer, LORAN-A Historic Context, (Alameda, California: US Coast Guard – Maintenance and 

Logistics Command, Alaska (District 17), 1998), 2.

157 Coneybeer, LORAN-A Historic Context, 3.

52
instances flat-roofed concrete multi-use buildings were erected. Both LORAN-A and LORAN-C 

remained simultaneously operational in Alaska until 1980.

158 The Bering Sea and Western Aleutian Chain 

played a significant role in the north Pacific campaigns at the end of WWII. USCG has been unable to 

locate remains of the early chains, and it is believed that none of the Aleutians or Bering Sea sites remain 

today; the Southeast Alaska chain buildings are still partially present at Cape Sarichef, Spruce Cape, and 

Sitkinak. Cape Spruce is currently part of the Navy’s Cold Weather Testing Training program.159 

Figure 17. The LORAN Station at Murder Point, Attu, Aleutian Islands, 1950 (source: University of Alaska Anchorage, 

Consortium Library, Archives & Special Collections, Lawrence Eastman photographs, circa 1949-1951, UAA-HMC-1050).

2.2.7 Conclusion 

The impact of post - World War II and Cold War activities on the state of Alaska was profound. The 

increase in military defense and testing resulted in a dramatic increase in population across the state 

concentrated in the larger urban areas of Anchorage and Fairbanks. With the influx of military personal 

and families came civilian support activities and booming infrastructure in areas of military activity such 

as construction, retail, and even recreational areas and activities. Considered the first line of defense 

against Soviet aggression, Alaska played an important role in the defense of the United States, and the 

amount of money and growth invested by the US reflect this importance.

2.3 Statehood (1959) 

2.3.1 Alaska Statehood and Department Turnovers 

Statehood for Alaska was discussed with regularity as early as 1910. The population of Alaska had grown 

as a result of subsequent gold rushes and gradual homesteading, and many Alaskans were eager to take 

control of their own land and natural resources. These included a major interest in control of regulation of 

fish, game, and the fur industry. Judge James Wickersham introduced the first bill of statehood to 

Congress in 1916. The entrance of the US into World War I, however, stalled any debate on statehood for 

Alaska until the 1920s. President Harding declared his support for Alaska statehood in an address just 

 

158 Coneybeer, LORAN-A Historic Context, 3.

159 Coneybeer, LORAN-A Historic Context, 4.

53
prior to his death in 1923 following a successful trip to Alaska to open the Alaska Railroad.160 During the 

1920s, it was proposed that Alaska be split into two states with the Panhandle in Southeast Alaska broken 

off from the main body of the territory and made its own state. At this time, the population, economics, 

and expected industry increase in Southeast Alaska supported this initial split.161 Politics and the onset of 

the Great Depression, however, further stalled statehood.

Serious debate on the issue of statehood resumed in earnest following the end of World War II. While an 

Alaskan referendum in 1945 showed that the population of Alaska was in favor of statehood by a margin 

of 3-2, there were serious reservations expressed by both the Alaskan populace and the federal 

government.162 These concerns largely carried forward old arguments of land management and financial 

concerns. The costs of transitioning to statehood were staggeringly large and were documented in detail in 

1947.163 A territorial tax system implemented in 1949 helped to alleviate some of the financial concerns 

by demonstrating Alaskan willingness and ability to help fund and support their own government. The 

issue of statehood was pushed again, however, at the outset of the Korean War in 1950, but it was not 

addressed again until 1953.164

As a territory of the United States, federal agencies provided public services throughout Alaska.165 The 

US General Services Administration (GSA) was created in 1949 to consolidate the federal government’s 

immense building management and general procurement functions. GSA responded to a tremendous 

backlog of building needs coming out of unprecedented Depression-era and wartime expansion. The 

decades of the 1950s, 60s, and 70s stand out as a period of extensive Federal Government growth with the 

number of federal employees, federal budget, and GSA’s budget increasing dramatically. Between 1960 

and 1976, GSA undertook more than 700 building projects in the US.

166 

When the issue of statehood was addressed again following the end of the Korean War, President 

Eisenhower voiced his reluctance to support statehood for Alaska “because he believed it would limit the 

president’s ability to withdraw lands in Alaska for defense purposes.”167 Alaskans, however, pushed the 

legal channels for statehood drafting a constitution in 1956.168 Statehood was approved by Congress on 

 

160 Claus M. Naske and Herman E. Slotnick, Alaska: A History of the 49th State, (Norman: University of Oklahoma 

Press; Second Edition, 1994), 220.

161 Naske and Slotnick, Alaska, 227. 162 Naske and Slotnick, Alaska, 224. 163 George Sundborg, Statehood For Alaska: The Issues Involved, (Juneau, Alaska: Alaska Statehood Association, 

1946), 38-44, accessed March 2, 2016, http://www.alaska.edu/creatingalaska/downloads/Statehood-for-Alaska.pdf. 164 Naske and Slotnick, Alaska, 229. 165 "Federal Facilities in Alaska," Department of Environmental Conservation, accessed April 18, 2016, 

https://dec.alaska.gov/spar/csp/federal.htm#civilian. 166 Judith Helm Robinson and Stephanie S. Foell, Growth, Efficiency and Modernism: GSA Buildings of the 1950s, 

60s, and 70s, (Washington, D.C.:US General Services Administration, Office of the Chief Architect, Center for 

Historic Buildings, 2003), 6.

167 Naske and Slotnick, Alaska, 230. 168 Brian Rogers, “Honoring Alaska’s Constitutional History,” co-chair of Creating Alaska Advisory Board, 

University of Alaska, 2009, accessed March 3, 2016, http://www.alaska.edu/creatingalaska/newsclippings/commentary-brian-rogers/

54
July 7, 1958, and ratified by public vote in Alaska in November. Alaska officially entered the Union on 

January 3, 1959.169

Statehood in Alaska began the process of transferring control of federal departments and properties to the 

state governments. Among the systems gradually handed to the newly-formed state government were the 

justice and penitentiary systems, health and mental services, education services, road construction and 

maintenance, and natural resources including minerals, fish, game, and fur. An original amount of $28.5 

million was approved by Congress in the Omnibus Bill to help in the transition to state governance with 

the purpose of aiding the new state in building new necessary infrastructure. The amount was originally 

intended to be distributed over the course of five years with the assumption that with the burgeoning gas 

and oil industry, the state would be financially self-sufficient by the end of that period.170 Many existing 

material resources were given directly to the government including federally-constructed school buildings 

and road construction equipment.171 As a result, much of the architecture constructed during the period of 

1948 to 1968 resembles federally-mandated designs. Likewise, much of the new state governmental built 

environment was previously existing and transferred directly to the state for continued use.

Figure 18. The Anchorage Federal Building on 4th Avenue, with the 49th star pinned to the US Flag (source: University of 

Alaska Anchorage, Consortium Library, Archives & Special Collections, Donald Arthur Post slides, 1953-1959. UAA-HMC0917).

2.4 1964 Good Friday Earthquake 

“One of the greatest geotectonic events of our time occurred in southern Alaska late in 

the afternoon of March 27, 1964. Beneath a leaden sky, the chill of evening was just 

 

169 Naske and Slotnick, Alaska, 234. 170 Naske and Slotnick, Alaska, 255. 171 Naske and Slotnick, Alaska, 254.

55
settling over the Alaskan countryside. Light snow was falling on some communities. It 

was Good Friday, schools were closed, and the business day was ending. Suddenly 

without warning half of Alaska was rocked and jarred by the most violent earthquake to 

occur in North America this century.”172

- The Alaska Earthquake of March 27, 1964; field investigations and reconstruction 

effort

The damage was vast and catastrophic. Over 100 people lost their lives, with deaths occurring as far away 

as Oregon and California due to tsunamis.173 There were over 50,000 square miles of damage, resulting in 

over 300 million USD in property damage.174 Ports were destroyed; rail lines mangled, roads ruptured and 

in some instances entire cities, towns and settlements disappeared. Damage was caused by earthquake, 

landslides, land spreading, avalanches (rock and snow), ground fissures, floods, fires, and, in coastal 

areas, by the subsequent tsunamis. 

The earthquake and its after effects were a massive economic setback. The Alaska Railroad system 

suffered $27 million in damages, seventeen bridges were damaged or destroyed, most of it occurring 

along the 150-mile stretch between Seward and Anchorage.175 Highway damage was estimated at $21 

million dollars. Along the Seward Highway, 22 bridges were destroyed.176 In addition to the damages to 

infrastructure, hospitals, schools, homes, offices, and a host of other public and private buildings and 

structures were destroyed. 

 

172 W.R. Hasen, E.B. Eckel, W.E. Schaem, R.E. Lyle, W. George, and G. Chance, 1966, “The Alaska Earthquake of 

March 27, 1964; field investigations and reconstruction effort,” US Geological Survey Professional Paper 541, 

(1966), 1, accessed March 4, 2016, http://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0541/. 173 The total number of fatalities reported vary with most numbers being above 100 and below 139. The majority of 

the fatalities were the result of the subsequent tsunamis. The USGS Report, The Alaska Earthquake March 27, 1964, 

Field Investigations and Reconstruction Efforts, lists the total number of fatalities in Alaska as 114 (pp.1). 174 Hansen et al., "The Alaska Earthquake,” 3. 175 Hansen et al., "The Alaska Earthquake,” 25. 176 Hansen et al., "The Alaska Earthquake,” 27. 

56
Figure 19: Earthquake damages in Alaska. From estimates by the Office of Emergency Planning (source: Hansen and Eckel 

1964).

The earthquake devastated the most highly developed and populous area of the state.177 In Anchorage, 

thirty blocks of houses were destroyed or damaged in the downtown area. Landslides in Anchorage were 

one of the main problems. They occurred at the business section of downtown Anchorage, Government 

Hill, and Turnagain Heights, which experienced the largest and most devastating landslide, covering an 

area of about 130 acres and a loss of 75 residential homes.178 Other notable losses in Anchorage include 

the Government Hill School, the Hillside Apartment Building, JC Penney and dozens of other buildings. 

Although Anchorage sustained greater total losses, many smaller communities were more dramatically 

affected by the earthquake because it destroyed vital infrastructure, the main industry, or both. Seward, 

Whittier, and dozens of other communities suffered significant damage. In the case of some communities, 

like Valdez, a 4,000 x 600 foot section of land slid into the sea and necessitated the relocation of the 

entire town.179

 

177 Hansen et al., "The Alaska Earthquake,” 2. 178 Hansen et al., "The Alaska Earthquake,” 59.

179 Edwin B. Eckel, The Alaska Earthquake, March 27, 1964: Lessons and Conclusions, US Geological Survey

Professional Paper 546. Vol. 546, Geological Professional Paper, Washington, D.C.: United States Department of 

the Interior, USGS Printing Office, 1970.

57
Figure 20. The six-story Four Seasons Apartment building in downtown Anchorage; it completely collapsed with only the 

elevator shaft remaining intact, 1964 (source: University of Alaska Anchorage, Consortium Library, Archives & Special 

Collections, Edith and Edward Lindsay papers, 1964, UAA-HMC-1135-p7). 

2.4.1 Rebuilding and Recovery 

The prompt and direct application by the Federal Government of knowledge drawn from earth scientists 

and engineers to the problems of reconstruction that resulted from the Alaska earthquake was unique in 

the history of disasters.180 The United States Geological Survey (USGS) published the results of these 

investigations in six professional papers: 

● Professional Paper 541 is an introduction to the story of a great earthquake—its geologic 

setting and effects, the field investigations, and the public and private reconstruction efforts.

● Professional Paper 542 describes the effects of the earthquake on Alaskan communities.

● Professional Paper 543 describes the earthquake’s regional effects.

● Professional Paper 544 describes the effects of the earthquake on the hydrologic regimen.

● Professional Paper 545 describes the effects of the earthquake on transportation, 

communications, and utilities. 

 

180 Eckel, The Alaska Earthquake.

58
● Professional Paper 546 is a summary of what was learned from a great earthquake about the 

bearing of geologic and hydrologic conditions on its effects and about the scientific 

investigations needed to prepare for future earthquakes.181

Despite the scope and scale of the earthquake, because of governmental and military presence in Alaska, 

the speed and scale of recovery was unprecedented. The investigations into the cause of the earthquake 

helped promote “smart re!evaluations”182 about growth that had many long-term benefits and changed the 

pattern of post-quake development. Post-quake recovery efforts brought a surge of economic investment 

to the state where facilities were improved, upgraded, enlarged, damaged buildings rebuilt and new ones 

constructed. Because of this investment, the federal monies and other funds invested in the recovery effort 

exceeded the total damage of the cost of the earthquake.183

“It presented communities with an opportunity to revision their future.”184 Urban renewal project planning 

played an important role in the reconstruction efforts in Anchorage, Seldovia, Cordova, and Valdez. The 

ultimate objective of these projects was to provide earthquake damaged communities with better land 

utilization, rehabilitate blighted communities, and to provide more effective traffic patterns.”185

In addition to the economic investment by both the private and public sector, the improved understanding 

of seismology and seismic architecture altered post-quake development patterns. Some areas that had 

been built up before the earthquake were not redeveloped after the earthquake if the land proved to be 

unsuitable, and some towns were completely relocated. In some instances structures that withstood the 

earthquake were repaired and the new understanding of seismic architecture was applied to new 

construction efforts. Some of the efforts during the recovery included:

● Repairs to the Anchorage West High School (1953) were undertaken in three phases with a 

new one-story classroom wing being added to the existing auditorium and two storyclassroom wing which were heavily damaged during the earthquake. 

● Construction started on the $1.75 million dollar Captain Cook Hotel as well as nearly all of

the damaged businesses and establishments restored or modernized within the year following 

the earthquake.186 

● In Anchorage, Earthquake Park was created in 1967 to honor those who died in the 1964 

earthquake. The park includes a portion of the two-mile slide area produced by the 

earthquake. 

 

181 The papers are an excellent summary of quake damage and recovery efforts. The descriptions above are taken 

from-http://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0541/ 182 Michael E. West et al., “Why the 1964 Great Alaska Earthquake Matters 50 Years Later,” Seismological 

Research Letters 85, no. 2 (March/April 2014): 245–251. 183 Eckel, The Alaska Earthquake. 184 West, Michael E., Peter J. Haeussler, Natalia A. Ruppert, and Jeffrey T. Freymueller, "Why the 1964 Great 

Alaska Earthquake Matters 50 Years Later,” Seismological Research Letters 85, no. 2 (March 2015): 245-251, 

asccessed March 3, 2016, http://srl.geoscienceworld.org/content/85/2/245.full.pdf.

185 Eckel, The Alaska Earthquake. 186 Russell Rowe Dynes and E. L. Quarantelli, Reconstruction in the Context of Recovery: Thoughts on the Alaskan 

Earthquake, (Newark, Delaware: University of Delaware, Disaster Research Center, 1989).

59
● The Anchorage “L” Street Apartments (Inlet Tower), built in 1951 and the McKinley Towers, 

built 1952, sustained severe damage during the earthquake but were repaired. 

● The city of Valdez was completely relocated to an area of approximately 200 acres. 

● The Alutiiq village at Afognak, which had consisted of 38 homes, one store, a school, a 

community hall, and a saw mill was largely destroyed by a post-quake tsunami. The town 

was relocated and rebuilt with help from “Lions International, 49th District,” and the 

settlement was renamed Port Lyons (Masiqsirraq in Alutiiq) in 1967.

● The tsunami inundation zone in Seward was repurposed as camping and public beach. 187

● The pattern of rail-sea transport was drastically changed. It was discovered that that the port 

of Anchorage, usually closed in winter, could actually be used year round despite the ice in 

Knik Arm.188 

Land use patterns also occurred, changes in zoning, the prohibition of building in earthquake zone areas 

forever altered communities across the state. Construction patterns also changed. The massive need for 

reconstruction efforts, required builders to come up with new ways to extend the construction season. For 

example, plastic tents over their buildings permitted construction work to continue during the sub-Arctic 

winter.189 Buildings that collapsed or were damaged, as well as those that survived unscathed, were 

intensively studied. Studying the various regions of Alaska helped to advance the emerging understanding 

of plate tectonic theory which suggested differing magnitudes, differing soils and geology, as well as a 

host of other factors impacted the damage incurred by the built environment. The combined advances in 

both areas led to new construction techniques for seismically active regions. 

The significance of the earthquake extended well beyond the borders of the state; the massive investment 

in recovery and redevelopment efforts paved the way for the centennial celebrations which would occur 

three years later. 

2.5 Alaska Centennial 

The centennial celebration in 1967 was an important marker for Alaska in which it honored the official 

purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867. Discussion of purchase had taken place as early as the 1850s, 

although plans weren’t put into motion until the close of the American Civil War. 190 Russia, at this point, 

was desperate for funds, and the US viewed the purchase of Alaska as natural expansion under the 

Manifest Destiny mind set. The treaty authorizing the sale of Russia was signed on March 30th, 1867, and 

control was formally handed over at Sitka on October 18th, 1867.191

Across the state, plans were being discussed for centennial celebrations as early as 1960. The centennial 

celebrations were marketed as a means to promote the tourism industry in Alaska and as a method of 

gaining federal investment in the burgeoning state. The military investment in the state had done much to 

bolster the infrastructure of the state, but the centennial was a reason for national celebration and “also a 

splendid opportunity to give America’s frontier state a little boost by appropriating funds to build needed 

 

187 West, et. al., “the 1964 Great Alaska Earthquake.” 188 Eckel, The Alaska Earthquake, 31.

189 Eckel, The Alaska Earthquake, 31.

190 Naske and Slotnick, Alaska, 88.

191 Naske and Slotnick, Alaska, 94-95.

60
civic amenities.” That fall, Congress appropriated $4.6 million in federal matching grants for centennialrelated projects in Alaska,

192 and the centennial projects enacted had far-reaching impacts across the state 

during the centennial year and into the future. While centennial projects did include projects related to 

Native history such as totem pole restoration efforts in Klawock and Hydaburg, as a whole, “the 

Centennial projects were celebratory in conception, but predominantly reflected only one point of 

view.”193

The purchase of Alaska from Russia passed Alaskan indigenous peoples and their lands from one 

imperialist nation to another. The result: a systematic subjugation of Native cultures characterized by the 

forcible removal of children from their families to far-away boarding schools, outlawing of traditional 

ceremonies and practices, pandemic Western diseases, lack of civil rights, segregation, exclusion, and 

more. Generations of Alaska Natives have suffered the negative impacts of these practices. However, 

their communities were not excluded from the Centennial construction efforts. Small projects were 

funded in select Native communities such as the relocation and refurbishment of Tigara Hall in Point 

Hope. Originally constructed by the Bureau of Indian Affairs as a school, Tigara Hall was moved to 

higher ground with the help of Centennial funding in order to protect the building from the eroding coast 

line and ensure its continued use as a community center building. In Kotzebue, a museum celebrating 

Inupiaq heritage was planned and executed, appropriately named, Utukkaktakagvik, or “place having old 

things.”194

Figure 21. Map Showing Alaska ‘67 Projects, from View from the Future (source: Brown 2015).

 

192 George Bryson, "Introduction: The Year We Turned One Hundred,” ccessed April 14, 2016, 

http://museumas.alaska.gov/LAM/view2017/vff_cover.html. 

193 Brown, Tricia, George Bryson, Mark Kelley, Dermot Cole, Charles Mason, Nick Jans, Clark Mishler, Nancy 

Lord, Jim Lavrakas, Kathleen McCoy, Jeff Schultz, Debra McKinney, and Matt Hage, The View from the Future, 

2017: Fifty Years after the Alaska Purchase Centennial, (Juneau, Alaska: State of Alaska, Department of Education 

and Early Development, Division of Libraries, Archives, and Museums, 2015), 10.

194 Brown et al., View from the Future, 77.

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2.5.1 Alaska Centennial Commission 

The Alaska Centennial Commission was established in 1962 by Governor William Egan. The goal was 

that centennial celebrations would advertise Alaska to the rest of the world and garner cultural 

endowments for the state. US Senators Ernest Gruening and E.L. Bartlett lobbied Congress for federal 

investment in the celebrations. The funding was far less than the original $7.2 million the senators asked 

for, but it was enough to accomplish projects across the state.

For projects to be selected for a matching grant, supporters needed to demonstrate how the project might 

benefit a community economically and how half the costs of the project would be covered. Over a twoyear period, hundreds of proposals from throughout the state were submitted. Many communities that 

applied did not receive funding and many that did received substantially less than requested. In the end, 

the statewide commission selected forty-two projects, “ranging from the construction of new museums, 

theaters, and community centers, to the restoration of historical buildings and monuments, to the opening 

of campgrounds, theme parks and medical clinics including community centers.”195 In Anchorage, the 

Igloo-Puk was constructed at the airport and was intended to highlight Alaska Native cultural history and 

arts for tourists. The building was short-lived, however, and was taken down in 1970 to make more room 

for the expanding airport infrastructure.196 While other small projects in predominantly Native 

communities were enacted through Centennial funding, the large bulk of Centennial spending took place 

in the larger urban and tourist centers throughout Alaska.

2.5.2 Fairbanks and the Exposition Center 

The center for the centennial celebrations had long been assumed to be Sitka, the former capital of 

Russian America and the first capital of the Alaska Territory. However, Fairbanks was selected as the 

location for the construction of the main Alaska ’67 Exposition by Governor Egan in 1964. The idea of a 

Centennial Park on the Chena River had been in the works since 1957 with the Pioneers of Alaska Igloo 

No. 4 campaigning for a historic park highlighting Alaska history.197 The State of Alaska, the (Fairbanks) 

North Star Borough, the City of Fairbanks, and the Alaska Centennial Commission joined forces, and 40 

acres of state-owned land on the Chena River was donated for the purpose. 

The Alaska ‘67 Exposition was designed to be “part Disneyland and part history” and included the 

relocation of historic buildings into the Gold Rush Town and the installation of the riverboat Nenana. 

Additionally, the main exposition building, the Civic Center, was constructed to house the art, culture, 

and history exhibits along with dance, music, and theater performances.198 The circular building is iconic 

to the Exposition. The construction of the Alaska ‘67 Exposition cost in total $6.7 million (an equivalent 

today of $48.2 million).199 Projections for the park prior to its opening predicted 300,000 visitors during 

its run from May to September 1967 and was expected to triple the annual spending of tourists to 

Fairbanks to approximately $6 million. The exposition was also supposed to encourage visitors to 

eventually desire to move to Fairbanks, thereby, promoting population and industry in the region. The 

 

195 Bryson, “Introduction.” 

196 Brown et al., View from the Future, 109.

197 Brown et al., View from the Future, 9.

198 “What 67 Means to Alaska,” Alaska ‘67, accessed, November 15, 2015, 

http://www.co.fairbanks.ak.us/pioneerpark/about/images/a_67_brochure.pdf

199 Brown et al., View from the Future, 9.

62
exposition, according to promotional material, would transform Fairbanks into one of the cultural centers 

of America.200

The resulting portion of the park that reflected the history of Alaska was named Pioneer Park (aka 

Alaskaland). The reality of the park fell far from projections; it operated at a financial loss during the 

summer of 1967 and was forced to close a month early due to the historic flood of August 1967 which 

caused the Chena River to effectively flood out the entirety of downtown Fairbanks and threatened to 

float the Nenana back into the river. The park was purchased by the City of Fairbanks in 1970 and 

renamed Alaskaland. The park did continue to serve as a tourist center, historic park, and even civic 

gathering place long after 1967. The historic buildings of Gold Rush Town and the Civic Center, a two 

story round building that serves the community as venue for celebrations and conferences, are still in the 

park. The steamship Nenana is a National Historic Landmark. 

Figure 22. Alaska ‘67 Exposition Center, Fairbanks, 1967 (Dennis Cook Collection from Brown et al. 2014).

2.5.3 Other Notable Centennial Efforts 

Many projects tried to honor the cultural history of the state, and there was an abundance of museum 

projects. With large museum projects in Juneau and Anchorage and smaller projects in repurposed 

buildings in Wrangell (Wrangell Museum and Library), Bethel (Yugtarvik Regional Museum), Barrow 

(Barrow Community Center), and Nome (Carrie M. McClain Memorial Museum). 201 Notable projects 

include the Alaska State Museum in Juneau202 and the preservation of a short section of the Iditarod Trail 

and establishment of the Iditarod Sled Dog Race. These projects ranged widely in both scale and purpose; 

matching funds were found in a variety of ways: tax levies, federal matching funds, grants, donation and 

sponsorship. The Centennial Building in Sitka was constructed at no cost to the residents as the building 

 

200 “What 67 Means to Alaska,” Alaska ‘67. 201 Brown et al., View from the Future, 39. 202 The museum, designed by John Forrest under Linn A. Forrest Architects, AIA, was demolished in 2014. 

63
was constructed on land created by the dredging of a new harbor and donated as the location. Many small 

communities were able to come up with matching funds by donating services and materials for 

construction process as happened with the conversion of the cannery in Haines into a Performing Arts 

Center.203 

2.5.4 Conclusion 

The Alaska Centennial was an important event across the state marking a century of ownership of Alaska 

by the United States. The impact on the built environment was immediate and lasting with the creation of 

museums and infrastructure across the state to showcase Alaska history and resources, and to attract 

tourism. Many of these projects continue to be utilized by the local communities, such as Alaskaland, 

which was renamed Pioneer Park in October 2001. The park remains a gathering and event location for 

community events year round and is an excellent example of the continued impact of Centennial activities 

on the communities of Alaska.

2.6 Resource Exploration and Extraction 

With the advent of World War II, labor across the US was diverted to help with the war effort. In Alaska, 

this meant that various trade and manufacturing that fueled the economy were interrupted as forestry, 

fishing, and mining industries slowed down and the civilian public was directed to help carry out the 

military’s mission. This posed a challenge for post-WWII regeneration of resource exploration as those 

involved in the natural resource industries were lured away and Alaska "strained to accommodate the 

realities of militarization and crashed areas of development."204 Some industries did not rebound to their 

pre-war status. Mining was not nearly as profitable as it had once been with the cost of gold down and the 

cost of labor rising. Many of the large gold mines in Southeast Alaska closed and never reopened. Other 

industries grew beyond what their pre-war status had been. Logging became highly profitable as did areas 

of fishing, like purveying king crab. The most notable expansion was that of the oil and gas industry, 

which boomed after the discovery of oil and gas deposits on the Kenai Peninsula, and the discovery of 

one of the largest oil deposits in the world on the North Slope. 

2.6.1 Fisheries 

Salmon had always been Alaska’s largest fishery, but new markets for Alaska's seafood opened in the 

years following World War II. Demand for shark liver and oils prompted a new market.205 Perhaps the 

most profound market to come out of the post-WWII era was the crabbing industry. This new fishery was 

concentrated in the Bering Sea region, with smaller operations carried out in Southeast Alaska. Red kings,

golden kings, and Tanner crab were harvested in both the Bering Sea and Southeast Alaska regions while 

blue kings and Dungeness crabs were a focal point of the Southeast Alaska fishery. Dungeness and king 

crab fisheries had steady growth from statehood and throughout the 1960s.206 

 

203 Brown et al., View from the Future, 39. 204 (Rogers 1962; Nielson 1988; Haycox 1989; Spence 1995; Seidler 1996) in Hummel, “The US Military as

Geographical Agent,” 55.

205 Jim Mackovjak, Navigating Troubled Waters: History of Commercial Fishing in Glacier Bay, Alaska, (Gustavus, 

Alaska: National Park Service, Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, 2010), 23.

206 Mackovjak, Navigating Troubled Waters, 42.

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During the 1960s, advancing technology prompted another change in Alaska’s fishing industry as fish 

could now be frozen and flown to markets throughout the US. Thousands of pounds of fish and crab were 

frozen daily and shipped out to market.207 As a result, cold storage facilities were built all over the state in

the 1960s. This included the transformation of existing canneries into cold storage facilities and the 

development of small processing plants.208 Cold storage facilities created yet another influx of people to 

Alaska as processing locations in places such as Petersburg, Cordova, Kodiak, and Dillingham grew into 

larger communities.209 

2.6.2 Mining 

Prior to World War II, much of Alaska's mineral wealth came from gold, but an increase in operating and 

labor costs210 in the 1950s impacted large-scale gold mining across Alaska. One such mine to shut down 

due to this was B 91 in Prince William Sound. An increase in small placer mines, however, like those at 

Donlin Creek and Resurrection Creek near Hope, continued well into the 1970s.211 As gold mining 

waned, extraction of rock, sand, and gravel increased to accommodate the demand of development and 

infrastructure improvements. 

The Federal Government also spearheaded mining ventures to extract “defense” minerals such as mercury 

and uranium. In 1952, the DeCoursey Mountain Mining Company began to develop the Red Devil 

deposits downstream from Sleetmute. Extraction at this mind included nearly two miles of shafts, 

crosscuts, and tunnels on five underground levels. The mine produced more than 20,000 flasks of 

mercury (a flask equaled 76 pounds) before the cinnabar veins were exhausted after four years of 

extraction.212 

Government supported exploration and extraction continued throughout the 1950s as part of the Cold 

War. The Atomic Energy Commission was desperately seeking new sources of uranium in 1951 for use in 

nuclear applications. A financial incentive was presented to the first mine in the US that could produce 20 

tons of 20-percent uranium oxide from a single location. By 1955, many prospectors in Southeast Alaska 

were aware that radioactive deposits were present in the Ketchikan Mining District. An aerial survey was 

conducted to locate ideal mining areas. In 1957, production began at the Ross-Adams Mine on Prince of 

Wales Island which was Alaska’s first and only mine to extract uranium. By fall of 1957, the mine had 

extracted 15,000 tons of 0.80-percent uranium oxide. The mine eventually shifted to an underground 

operation with only sporadic extraction. The mine closed in 1971 after the deposits were exhausted.213

 

207 Mackovjak, Navigating Troubled Waters, 39. 208 Mackovjak, Navigating Troubled Waters, 51.

209 Mackovjak, Navigating Troubled Waters, 8. 210 "Alaska History and Cultural Studies - Alaska's Heritage – Chapter 4-15: Mining,” Alaska Humanities Forum, 

accessed February 13, 2016, http://www.akhistorycourse.org/americas-territory/alaskas-heritage/chapter-4-15-

mining.

211 J. Simon Bruder, Prospects and Producers: Historic Context for Mining Properties, Chugach and Tongass 

National Forests, Alaska, 1850s-1950s. (Anchorage: USDA Forest Service, Alaska Region, 2002), 109. 212 "Alaska History and Cultural Studies - Alaska's Heritage – Chapter 4-15: Mining,” Alaska Humanities Forum. 213 Bruder, Prospects and Producers, 85.

65
Coal mining in Alaska began at a time when the US Navy started converting its ships from coal to oil in 

the early 1920s.214 Some of the earliest mines were those in Healy and the Matanuska-Susitna Valley. In 

1948, Usibelli Coal Mine was incorporated under the laws of the Territory of Alaska and was responsible 

for accommodating the military's increasing demand for coal throughout the 1950s. In 1954, Usibelli 

began its first commercial sales to utilities in the Fairbanks area. In 1961, it purchased the neighboring 

Suntrana Mining Company (the successor to the Healy River Coal Company) and, subsequently, became 

the largest supplier of coal to the military. Usibelli operated both surface and underground mines 

throughout the 1950s and into the 1960s. As underground coal became more difficult to produce, the 

company decided it was safer and more economical to mine from the surface. Usibelli began surface 

mining as an exclusive practice in 1962, forever changing coal extraction in Alaska, as underground mine 

shafts were abandoned in favor of open-pit strip mines that were easier to maintain and far safer for 

miners than the previously used shafts.215

2.6.3 Timber and Logging 

The Alaska Spruce Log Program (ASLP) began in 1942 and ended in 1944 when metal replaced wood in 

aircraft construction. The program, which was administered by the US Forest Service and financed by the 

Commodity Credit Corporation, was developed to produce 100 million board feet of spruce airplane 

lumber per year. Nine logging camps were established in Southeast Alaska (four of which were floating 

wanigans) to accommodate up to 12 foresters hired to cruise timber stands. A post-WWII shortage of 

newsprint and an increasing demand for rayon, however, was responsible for creating a boom in Alaska’s 

forestry. The Tongass Timber Sales Act of 1947 opened the Tongass National Forest to harvesting by 

private companies with interest in filling this void.216 A group of willing investors formed the Ketchikan 

Pulp Company shortly after the Act was passed and built a $55 million mill at Ward Cove. It was the 

largest single industrial investment made in the territory at the time. The Ketchikan Pulp Company then 

signed a contract agreeing to purchase 1.5 billion cubic feet of timber over a 50 year span.217 The first 

load of pulp was shipped from Ward Cove to Argentina under the brand name Tongacell in 1954.218 The 

population of Ketchikan grew quickly as workers at the mill relocated from other parts of the state and the 

Lower 48 to the small coastal town. Housing developments such as subdivisions and high-rise apartment 

towers were built during this period to provide housing for the workers. 

The US Forest Service (USFS) signing of several long-term timber contracts throughout the 1950s was 

the onset of large-scale logging in Alaska.219 Annual timber harvest increased from 50 million board feet 

 

214 Roy D. Merritt, Chronicle of Alaska Coal Mining History, (Fairbanks, Alaska: Alaska Division of Geological and 

Geophysical Surveys, 1986), 9.

215 Merritt, Chronicle of Alaska Coal Mining History, 10. 216 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads Historic Overview Applied Historic Context of Alaska’s Roads, (Juneau: Alaska 

Department of Transportation and Public Facilities, 2014), 93. 217 Aaron, Jayne and Steven Chris Baker, Historic Context and Evaluation of Ranger Boats in Alaska, Chugach and 

Tongass National Forests, (Alaska Region: US Forest Service, 2011), 4-17. 218 "Alaska History and Cultural Studies - Alaska's Heritage -Chapter 4-17: Farming, Herding, and Lumbering,” 

Alaska Humanities Forum, accessed February 24, 2016, 

http://www.akhistorycourse.org/articles/article.php?artID=182

219 Aaron and Baker, Ranger Boats, 4-18.

66
in 1949 to 350 million board feet in 1960220. With limited access to much of the forested land in Southeast 

Alaska, floating logging camps, consisting of wanigans, were towed to timber harvest units. However, the 

boom years of logging were short lived as legal challenges, the exhaustion of timber reserves, and shifts 

in USFS policy resulted in a reduction of contracts.221 New laws were passed that not only protected 

forest lands from clear-cutting, but also changed the goal of the US Forest Service from development of a 

timber industry to managing forest lands and achieving long-term sustain yields from logging.222

Development of recreation grew during the period resulting in the construction of several public use 

cabins and information centers. 

2.6.4 Oil Boom 

Southcentral Exploration and Extraction

Advances in technology and innovation spurred a resurgence of interest in Alaska's oil fields after World 

War II. Several major oil production companies built their headquarters in Anchorage when oil was 

discovered on the Kenai Peninsula in 1957.

223 The discovery of the Swanson River oil field by Marathon 

Oil and Unocal (now Chevron) triggered increasing interest from potential oil investors like the Richfield 

Oil Company of California (later known as ARCO), Phillips Petroleum, Shell, Sunray, Mobil, and 

Texaco. Richfield was the first to drill and struck oil with their first well on July 15, 1957. It tested at 900 

barrels a day making it the first major commercial discovery in Alaska. Two refineries were built on the 

Kenai Peninsula following the 1957 discovery. Other companies quickly began drilling programs in the 

area, and in 1959, Unocal discovered a major natural gas field near the Swanson River oil field.224 “In 

1960, following the statehood of Alaska and the creation of the state natural resources agencies, oil 

companies bought exploration leases for work in Cook Inlet. Two years later the Middle Ground Shoal oil 

field was discovered off Port Nikiski, at the same latitude as the onshore Swanson River field. Production 

began from Middle Shoal in 1967.”225 

Subsequently, seven oil fields and 13 gas fields were discovered offshore in Cook Inlet. Cook Inlet Oil 

and Gas provided Alaskans with gasoline, diesel fuel, heating oil, jet fuel, and asphalt. Natural gas began 

to be supplied to the Anchorage market in 1961, and new fields in Trading Bay and McArthur River in 

the offshore areas of Cook Inlet were discovered in 1965.226 A pipeline was built to carry natural gas from 

the Kenai Peninsula, beneath Turnagain Arm, to heat homes and businesses in Anchorage.

227 Beluga, on 

the north shore of Cook Inlet, became a center for gas production and power generation in the 1960s and 

 

220 "Alaska History and Cultural Studies - Alaska's Heritage -Chapter 4-17: Farming, Herding, and Lumbering,” 

Alaska Humanities Forum.

221 Aaron and Baker, Ranger Boats, 4-24. 222 "Alaska History and Cultural Studies - Alaska's Heritage -Chapter 4-17: Farming, Herding, and Lumbering,” 

Alaska Humanities Forum. 

223 Steven R. Braund and Associates, Alaska Stand Alone Pipeline Final Environmental Impact Statement, Cultural 

Resources Results, (Anchorage: Alaska Gasline Development Corporation, 2012), vol. 5, 13-25. 224 "Alaska History and Cultural Studies - Modern Alaska - Oil Discovery and Development in Alaska," Alaska 

Humanities Forum, accessed February 09, 2016, http://www.akhistorycourse.org/articles/article.php?artID=140. 225 "Alaska History and Cultural Studies - Modern Alaska - Oil Discovery and Development in Alaska," Alaska 

Humanities Forum.

226 Alan Baily, “Marathon to Exit Alaska,” Petroleum News, Vol 17, No 16, accessed February 09, 2016, 

http://www.petroleumnews.com/pntruncate/943451226.shtml.

227 Alaska Humanities Forum, Chapter 4-15: Mining.

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1970s.228 Phillips Petroleum (now Conoco Phillips) and Marathon teamed to construct a liquefied natural 

gas (LNG) plant in Nikiski that went online in 1969 to export gas to Japan.229

North Slope Exploration and Extraction

As the US Naval fleet converted from coal to oil, President Harding issued an Executive Order in 1923 

establishing the Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4 (PET4). It covers nearly 23 million acres in northwestern 

Alaska north of the Brooks Range. The region was set aside as a future source of oil for the Navy during 

wartime shortages. In 1946, federal exploration under the US Geological Survey and the Navy began as 

an eight-year program along the North Slope of Alaska, near Barrow, at PET4. Teams drilled 36 test wells 

but found only two minor oil deposits. Gas from the Barrow field would be pumped to the village of 

Barrow for limited distribution, but otherwise none of the oil was used. The PET4 explorations resulted in 

the identification of three oil fields and seven natural gas fields.230 PET4 was renamed the National 

Petroleum Reserve-Alaska, or NPRA, in 1976. Concurrently, the Office of Naval Research (ONR) 

established the Arctic Research Laboratory (ARL) at the PET4 support camp at Barrow in 1947. The 

ARL was renamed in the 1960s as the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory (NARL).231 Much information 

about northern conditions and transportation needs resulted from this program.232 Many of the test wells 

have been relocated and some have been remediated by the BLM. 

In 1959, the federal government granted the new State of Alaska 103.5 million acres of what was 

considered public domain. Among the early land selections was acreage east of the Naval Petroleum 

Reserve that encompassed the western half of the North Slope. Indications of hydrocarbon presence 

spurred interest in the area and the federal government approved the land selections and transferred 

ownership to the state.233 

Atlantic Richfield Company (ARCO) chose an area to explore for oil within the Prudhoe Bay State #1 

lease area, based on the data provided by geologists and geophysicists. ARCO teamed with Humble Oil 

Company (later known as Exxon) to procure funding for the exploration.234 By 1967, a number of wildcat 

exploration wells that were dry had been drilled on its North Slope leases and began to leave the Slope. 

Their final effort began with freeze-up in 1967235 when a convoy of exploration vehicles, pulled by 

Caterpillar tracked vehicles, was transported 65 miles from the last dry hole to a new well location. 

Workers spudded the well on April 22, 1967. On December 27, 1967, the first significant gas deposits 

was encountered at 8,500 feet. On February 1, 1968, they hit a layer of oil and sand about 40 feet thick at 

roughly 8,600 feet, which was the first solid indication of a major oil discovery. The total depth of the 

 

228 Braund, Alaska Stand Alone, 13-25.

229 Baily, “Marathon to Exit Alaska.” 230 Gomez and Stern, Naval Arctic Research Laboratory (NARL), 9. 231 Gomez and Stern, Naval Arctic Research Laboratory (NARL), 9. 232 "Alaska History and Cultural Studies - Modern Alaska - Oil Discovery and Development in Alaska," Alaska 

Humanities Forum.

233 Christopher B. Wooley, National Register of Historic Places Registration Form for the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field 

Discovery Well Site, (Anchorage: ARCO Alaska, Inc., 1999). 234 Wooley, Prudhoe Bay Oil Field Discovery Well Site, 4. 235 "Alaska History and Cultural Studies - Modern Alaska - Oil Discovery and Development in Alaska," Alaska 

Humanities Forum.

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well was 12,005 feet236 and when the rig was opened and tested, it flared successfully. The partnership 

issued a press release announcing the discovery on March 12, 1968. ARCO drilled a second well, Sag 

River #1, on May 3, 1968 at a site eight miles southeast of the discovery well. Sag River #1 confirmed the 

presence of a very large oil deposit,

237 and the oil field was estimated to contain 10 billion barrels of oil. It 

was the largest oil field discovered in the United States and the fourth largest oil field in the world.238

Geologist Gill Mull wrote that the massive oil deposit “resulted from a one-in-a-million chance of a 

fortuitous combination of geological attributes that took at least 360 million years to form.”239 The total 

cost for the discovery well was $4.1 million,

240 and from 1968 until 1985 ARCO had a well at the 

discovery site.241

At the time of the 1968 Sag River drilling, there were four drilling rigs on the North Slope. By the end of 

the year there were more than a dozen drilling rigs and at least a dozen oil companies actively exploring 

the area. A September 1969 lease sale brought the State of Alaska over $900 million. The initial 

discovery led to a series of adjacent field discoveries from the Colville to the Canning Rivers on the 

North Slope.242 The discovery of massive oil deposits led to rapid changes on the North Slope and 

throughout Alaska as extensive development occurred. It brought great prosperity to a financially 

strapped young state.243 There were job opportunities in construction of oil field facilities and support 

services; tradesmen could earn two to three thousand dollars a week laboring seven days a week at ten to 

twelve hour shifts. Engineers developed solutions to overcome geographic and climactic challenges. 

Materials and equipment funneled through West Coast ports heading for Alaska. Revenue generated from 

North Slope oil production resulted in economic change, shifts in demographics, and the establishment of 

new institutional structures on the North Slope and throughout Alaska.244

The discoveries also altered the Inupiat people’s use of land in the Prudhoe Bay area and their way of life. 

After the establishment of the North Slope Borough, a tax base for funding basic village infrastructure 

and job opportunities were presented. For Alaskan Natives it contributed to the landmark land claims 

settlement act (ANCSA) in 1971.245

Shortly after the Prudhoe Bay discovery, the Oil Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) significantly 

reduced their supply of oil to the world market and the domestic prices of gasoline and home heating oil 

skyrocketed. The US turned its focus to the newly discovered field and passed a law that required all 

North Slope oil to be shipped to US refineries. Getting the oil to market would be a challenge that 

eventually led to the construction of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS). Oil from the North Slope 

 

236 Wooley, Prudhoe Bay Oil Field Discovery Well Site, 5. 237 Wooley, Prudhoe Bay Oil Field Discovery Well Site, 8. 238 "Alaska History and Cultural Studies - Alaska's Heritage – Chapter 4-15: Mining,” Alaska Humanities Forum.

239 Wooley, Prudhoe Bay Oil Field Discovery Well Site, 8. 240 Wooley, Prudhoe Bay Oil Field Discovery Well Site, 25. 241 Wooley, Prudhoe Bay Oil Field Discovery Well Site, 5. 242 Wooley, Prudhoe Bay Oil Field Discovery Well Site, 8. 243 Wooley, Prudhoe Bay Oil Field Discovery Well Site, 7. 244 Wooley, Prudhoe Bay Oil Field Discovery Well Site, 8. 245 Wooley, Prudhoe Bay Oil Field Discovery Well Site, 8.

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would not reach the contiguous US until 1977.246 At its height, the Prudhoe Bay field produced 1.5 

million barrels of oil per day accounting for 25% of the US daily oil production.247

Haines-Fairbanks Pipeline / ALCANGO (1955)

The main military pipeline system known as CANOL (Canadian Oil Pipeline) was shut down at the close 

of WWII. By 1952, a decision was made to construct a new, larger system capable of carrying a larger 

capacity of various petroleum products.248 Known as the ALCANGO pipeline (Alaskan-Canadian-GasOil), it transported fuels from the Haines fuel terminal through the Yukon, along the Alaska-Canada 

Highway (ALCAN), and on to Fairbanks. Spur-lines were constructed in Canada to reach various 

Canadian facilities. The Haines-Fairbanks Pipeline (HFP) was the Alaskan spur of the line. The HFP had 

an eight inch diameter and was 626 miles in length. From sea level at Haines the line rose to cross the 

3,700 foot high Chilkoot Pass and then descended to the 450 foot level at Fairbanks in the interior. Much 

of the pipeline was laid on the ground surface, but approximately 96 miles of pipe near Delta Junction and 

most of the 42 miles of pipe between the Haines Fuel Terminal and the Canadian border were buried. In 

addition to the line, terminal docks for tanker ships, pumping stations, and a huge tank farm were built in 

Haines.249 Storage facilities and stations were built along the line and linked together by the telephone and 

teletype networks of the Alaska Communications System (ACS). The military pipeline system was 

completed in 1955 to provide fuel to interior Alaska military bases. When finished, ALCANGO was the 

northernmost major pipeline in the world and the first multi-purpose military line ever built. As designed, 

it could deliver 10,000 barrels of petroleum products daily. In 1962, an additional six pump stations were 

added to the line. Each station had support facilities, family housing, and storage buildings creating new 

small towns along the ALCANGO route. The new stations doubled the system’s capacity.250 

2.6.5 Conclusion 

Resource exploration during the period declined immediately following WWII. Mineral exploration and 

extraction never did return to pre-WWII numbers due to labor costs and a drop in the market prices of 

most minerals and metals. Energy-related resources such as coal, declined in production largely due to a 

decrease in demand after the war. Later in the period, oil and gas exploration increased resulting in the 

discovery of two large oils fields on the Kenai Peninsula and north of the Brooks Range as well as natural 

gas deposits in Cook Inlet. The discovery marked a turn in oil and gas extraction, which dramatically 

increased in the early 1970s due to the finds. Timber resources fluctuated during the period from robust 

lumbering to meet high demand during the immediate post-WWII years to a decline in harvest and sale as 

environmental consciousness evolved in the US during the latter portion of the period. The fishing 

industry turned from canning seafood to increased commercial crabbing largely due in part to advances in

food storage and transportation. All of these industries are reflected in the built environment today either 

as abandoned/condemned buildings or are still in active use. Lumber mills and various outbuildings in oil 

fields are still present as are remnants of mining operations from the period. Docks, warehouses, and cold 

storage facilities built during the period are, largely, still in use in coastal communities. 

 

246 Wooley, Prudhoe Bay Oil Field Discovery Well Site, 13. 247 Wooley, Prudhoe Bay Oil Field Discovery Well Site, 26. 248 “History of the Alaska District, 1946-1974, 1989,” US Army, Corps of Engineers (USACE), 43, accessed 

February 28, 2016, http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Portals/34/docs/AKdistrict/jacobs_history_2.pdf.

249 “History of the Alaska District, 1946-1974, 1989,” USACE, 43. 250 “History of the Alaska District, 1946-1974, 1989,” USACE, 44.

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2.7 Transportation

Many forces shaped the development of the post-World War II transportation infrastructure including 

new legislative incentives and both public and private investment. A complex interlinked system of land, 

air, and water routes evolved during the Cold War era for use in supporting the military effort, enabling 

an enhanced scope of resource exploration, and opening new regions of Alaska to tourism. New 

infrastructure meant more development and more development meant new infrastructure. Along with the 

new network, an array of associated resources emerged from motels and gas stations to border crossings 

and ferry terminals. 

Projects often required the cooperation of multiple agencies at the federal, state, and local level. The 

Alaska Road Commission was established in 1905 by the War Department. In 1932, the ARC was 

transferred to the Department of the Interior. When Alaska achieved statehood in 1959, the state became 

responsible for most of the road construction. 

Given the importance of the evolution of the transportation network, specifically the road network that 

was built during and after WWII, it is not surprising that this category of resources was already studied in 

2014 when the Alaska Department of Transportation & Public Facilities released Alaska Roads Historic 

Overview Applied Historic Context of Alaska’s Roads.

251 The document provides a comprehensive 

overview of the development of, and a context for, Alaska’s historic roads. A brief summary of the 

relevant sections of that document is excerpted in a short timeline below.

2.7.1 Roads 

Alaska Highway/ ALCAN 1941-1944 (1948 Public Access)

At the onset of World War II, the Territory of Alaska emerged as a region of strategic importance in the 

Pacific Theater. Military airfields were constructed at Northway and Tanacross, and the Northwest 

Staging Route geared up for the Lend-Lease Program of military airplanes to allied forces. Transportation 

of fuel and goods was needed between the airfields and the Lower 48 spurring the construction of a 

roadway leading from interior Canada to interior Alaska. On February 11, 1942, President Roosevelt 

authorized the highway’s construction. An agreement with Canada specified that the US would maintain 

the highway until the end of the war and six months after the war’s conclusion would turn over the 

Canadian section for integration into that country’s national highway system with the condition that US 

citizens be permitted to use it freely.252 The selected route extended roughly 1,500 miles with all but 150 

miles as an entirely new route. It began at an established rail head at Dawson Creek, British Columbia 

west towards Watson Lake in Canada’s Yukon Territory and continued northwesterly until entering 

Alaska at Boundary. The portion within Alaska continued for approximately 200 miles before reaching a 

junction with the Richardson Highway just south of Big Delta. The ground-link was called the AlaskaCanada Highway (ALCAN).253 

 

251 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads. 252 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 82. 253 Burr Neely, Cultural Resources Survey for Alaska Highway MP 1222-1235 Rehabilitation Project Near the 

Yukon-Alaska Border, (Fairbanks: PDC Engineering, 2007), 8.

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Coinciding with the construction of the transportation route was a telecommunications line that was 

installed for quick, reliable communication between airfields and central command in the Lower 48 

known as the Alaska Military Highway Telephone and Telegraph Line. From 1953 to 1954 a military 

fuel, line known as the Haines-Fairbanks Pipeline, was installed in the right-of-way partially buried in 

some areas with associated bulk fuel storage facilities at Haines and Tok. The line carried diesel, 

automotive gas, and jet fuel until 1971 when the line was shut down.254

Survey crews were the first on the ground flagging possible routes ahead of the caterpillars that cleared 

large swaths of land. The road matrix consisted of corduroy-lain wood slash, topped with soil, to counter 

areas of permafrost. Bridges at water crossings were initially held afloat by pontoons, and then replaced 

with log structures. The entire route was completed in eight months and twelve days with one 

construction crew beginning near Delta Junction and a second construction crew beginning in Dawson 

Creek. The entire route was completed October 28, 1942 and dedicated on November 20, 1942 at 

Soldier's Summit.255 

The road was initially referred to as the ALCAN Highway but, in 1943, Canada and the US exchanged 

diplomatic notes formally naming it the Alaska Highway. The Alaska Highway is primarily recognized 

for being a remarkable feat of construction; it was constructed as a pioneer road in just under nine 

months.256 The route was used solely for military purposes until the rerouting and straightening of the 

route was completed in 1948 when the highway was opened to the general public. Wood bridges were 

replaced with steel structures, guardrails were set, and signage began to appear along the roadway. 

The first edition of a new guidebook, The Milepost, was published in 1949 to assist travelers in planning 

their trip on the Alaska Highway. With the opening of the Alaska Highway and spur highways within 

Alaska, highway vehicles emerged as the primary mode of travel between road-accessible Upper Tanana 

villages and to the Copper River Basin beginning in the early 1950s when the ARC made steady progress 

on paving the Alaska portion of the highway.257 Today, the ALCAN has been reengineered and most of it 

is paved over or sealed dropping its total length to 1,387 miles in 2012 (even through the sign in Delta 

Junction still reads “Historic Milepost 1422”). 

 

254 United States Army, Corps of Engineers (USACE), Haines-Fairbanks Pipeline Final Brochure; Gate Valves: 

History, Construction, and Function, (Anchorage: USACE, Alaska District, Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson, 

2015).

255 “British Columbia Geographical Names, GeoBC: Contact Creek,” Province of British Columbia, accessed 

December 15, 2015, http://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/13395.html.

256 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 86. 257 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 86.

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Figure 23. Bridge construction along the Alaska Highway, 1943 (source: Alaska State Library, Historical Collections, Alaska 

Highway Construction Photograph Collection, ca. 1942-1943, ASL-PCA-193-047).

Taylor Highway 1946 - 1953

The 161-mile road from the Alaska Highway northeast to Eagle opened in 1953 when the road linked up 

with existing local roads south of Eagle. The road was named the Taylor Highway to honor Ike P. Taylor, 

and it served the Fortymile Mining District.258

Sterling Highway (1946-1950)

The road linking the towns on the western side of the Kenai Peninsula with Seward was named for, 

Hawley W. Sterling,259 a lifetime ARC employee. It opened for use in the winter of 1950. Additional 

surface improvements were required for summer traffic the following season. The Sterling Highway 

opened up the isolated Kenai Peninsula to trade, tourism, and sportsman offerings by linking Anchorage 

to the peninsula via Turnagain Arm Road and the Seward Highway.

Plan for Alaska Roads (1949)

The ongoing military presence in the state meant that as the number of military personnel stationed in 

Alaska grew so, too, did the need for transportation infrastructure in Southcentral Alaska. However, it 

was not until after 1948 that public road building agencies changed their focus to linking up the territory’s 

main roads. Commissioner of the ARC, Colonel John R. Noyes, outlined the ARC’s priorities in the 1949 

“Plan for Alaska Roads.” The plan included the “improvement and extension of the interior road system 

of Alaska, as necessary and improvement of the road from Haines to central Alaska and the seaport of 

 

258 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 91.

259 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 90.

73
Haines.” Other transportation priorities included improvement of roads in Canada connecting to Alaska, 

including the Alaska Highway, and the establishment of a car ferry service and related ferry infrastructure 

for the Southeastern Alaska region.260 

Denali Highway (1950-1957)

Construction on the 160-mile Denali Highway began in 1950 and was completed in 1957. Created to 

support tourism by providing road access to Denali (formerly Mt. McKinley) National Park, the highway 

linked the Richardson Highway starting at Paxson (south of Fairbanks) to the park via Cantwell just south 

of the park.261 

Haines Highway (1950 Reconstruction)

Reconstruction of a 40-mile section of the Haines Highway in Southeastern Alaska started in 1950 with 

the addition of a bituminous surface.262 The highway connected roads and ocean terminals, but winter 

closures and a lack of ferry terminal services in Haines were limiting factors in achieving increased 

commercial activity.

Seward Highway (completed 1951, paved 1956)

The Seward Highway linked Anchorage with the Kenai Peninsula by road for the first time.263 The 127 

mile route follows old established trails that were once used by Native hunters in the region. Later the 

route was adopted by traders, explorers, and gold miners. It features rivers, lakes, and glaciers in mostly 

mountainous terrain that is partially paralleled by the Alaska Railroad. 

The Highway Revenue Act (1956)

The modern era of the Interstate began in the early 1950s as lobby groups pushed for a nationwide road 

network.264 In 1956, Alaska was included in the Federal Aid Highway Act (FAHA)265 legislation for the 

first time.266 The Revenue Act provided the funding for programs outlined in the FAHA.267 The Omnibus 

Act of 1959 also provided funding during the transition from federal territory to statehood status for 

transportation under a newly formed Division of Highways (Department).268 The start of the Pioneer 

Access Road Program in 1962-1963 showed the state’s effort to access resources. The purpose of the 

program was to “provide access to isolated areas of the State that are rich in natural resources.”269 Federal 

appropriations to Alaska for roads between 1949 and 1955 totaled an unprecedented $135 million 

 

260 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 88. 261 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 91. 262 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 89. 263 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 81. 264 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 16. 265 The Federal-Aid Highway Act-FAHA (1944) expanded the federal-aid primary road system, encompassing roads 

that states had designated as main transportation routes of the national highway system. The act also provided new 

funding for construction of secondary roads (also known as feeder roads, which included farm-to-market roads, rural 

free delivery routes, and public school bus routes) and urban highways in areas with a population over 5,000 (Mead 

and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 15). 266 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 90. 267 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 17. 268 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 99.

269 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 104.

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enabling the transformation of the road network to more than 5,100 total miles many of which served as 

an interconnected roadway system by 1957.270 

Elliot Highway (completed 1959)

Linking Livengood to Manley and named for Major Malcolm Elliott, president of the ARC from 1927 to 

1932, the road was completed in 1959.271 From 1959 through 1977, the roadway was expanded although 

it remained gravel-surfaced.272

Good Friday Earthquake (1964) Effect on Roads

The Good Friday Earthquake in 1964 damaged a portion of the state’s road network and altered the state’s 

road-building efforts. The earthquake and following tsunami caused significant damage to Alaska’s roads 

especially in Southcentral Alaska and on Kodiak Island. The Richardson and Seward Highways, as well 

as portions of the newly-constructed Copper River Highway, were located near the epicenter and 

experienced the most damage. The Department immediately began emergency repair work on roads and 

bridges to enable supplies to reach hard-hit areas and restore traffic in urban areas.273 By the end of 1964, 

over $10 million had been spent on emergency construction work on roads with 197.6 miles of road 

repaired.274

The decade following the earthquake can be categorized as a multi-faceted approach to road development 

as road repair, reconstruction, and upgrade were occurring at the same time as highway expansion, 

development, and construction. State initiatives included connecting major communities, expanding urban 

transportation systems, fostering rural road development, and accessing natural resources.275 From the 

mid-1960s through the 1970s was one of expanding and upgrading the state-wide road system in both 

urban and rural areas. Achievements included completion of the Parks Highway and construction of new 

access roads to natural resources in remote areas of the state. It is also during this period that several miles 

of forest roads were being developed in the Tongass National Forest by the US Forest Service to support 

the growing timber industry.276

 

270 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 87. 271 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, B-2. 272 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 187. 273 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 106. 274 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 107. 275 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 109. 276 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 109.

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Figure 24. Large fissure on a roadway in Anchorage after the earthquake, 1964 (source: University of Alaska Anchorage, 

Consortium Library, Archives & Special Collections, Alice and Bob Arwezon photographs, 1949-1973, UAA-HMC-1140).

Copper River Highway (1964) 

Constructed along the abandoned right-of-way of the Copper River and Northwestern Railway, parallel to 

the Copper River, the route was intended to create a fourth road to an ice-free port by providing overland 

access to Cordova from the Richardson Highway west of Chitina.277 Construction was halted by the 1964 

earthquake and never resumed. The 1964 completion date represents the point at which the highway 

reached its current northern terminus at the Million Dollar Bridge.278 The bridge, damaged during the 

quake, is listed on the National Register. 

Palmer-Wasilla Highway (1960s)

The Palmer-Wasilla Highway was a wagon road that directly connected the towns of Palmer and Wasilla. 

The road was improved and widened in the 1960s and has since become a major east-west thoroughfare 

connecting the two communities.

Alaska Highway Study (1965)

Despite federal funding restrictions in the late 1960s, the state forged ahead with accomplishing its goals 

of roadway expansion.279 The Alaska Highway Study, released in 1965, was one of the most influential 

reports on the direction of road development in the state. Congress required the study under the 1962 

FAHA to better understand the existing road system. The consultants concluded that Alaska’s highways 

comprised an important transportation system in the state even if modest when compared to the state’s 

size. The study provided five principal recommendations280 including road classifications, designation of 

priority and non-priority areas for improvements within the state, focus on international access with 

 

277 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 91. 278 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 187.

279 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 109. 280 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 109.

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Canada, and road maintenance efficiency increases.281 According to the Study, “Much of the existing 

designated primary and secondary highway systems have suffered considerable deformation due to frost 

action and drainage maintenance difficulties. It will be necessary to reconstruct nearly all of the primary 

system and most of the secondary system to meet projected usage.”282 As it had since statehood, the 

federal government primarily funded these road building efforts. In 1966, alone the federal government 

funded 79 percent of the department’s $91 million budget. The 1965 National Highway Beautification 

Act provided needed funds to complete beautification efforts which included landscaping, installation of 

new lighting and medians, construction of scenic overlooks, rest areas, tourist spots, campgrounds, 

screening of junkyards, and removal of signs along highways; this was partially tied to the state’s 

upcoming centennial celebration of Alaska’s purchase in 1967.283 During that year, the Division of 

Highways allocated an additional $219 million over five years for continued rehabilitation and 

construction efforts on Alaska’s primary and secondary highways including the Kodiak, Sterling, Seward, 

Parks, Glenn, Tudor, Fairbanks-Fox (a portion of the Steese Highway), and Richardson Highways as well 

as additions to the coastal network of highways in Southeast Alaska. All road improvements and 

construction were completed using the department’s first standard design plans, prepared in 1966, 

patterned after guidelines prepared by the American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO). 

Bridges

“The year 1948 was the water-shed mark for the evolution of bridge types and materials in Alaska. 

Pressure from the military and Congress during the Cold War resulted in new design standards calling for 

wider bridges with greater load-carrying capabilities. The new standards prompted the ARC to switch 

from timber stringer and steel truss designs to steel stringer/girder and continuous bridges. The huge 

windfall of funding and the new priorities outstripped the ability of the ARC and the Bureau of Public 

Roads (BPR) to design and build bridges themselves forcing them to change the way they built bridges by 

contracting the work out to private businesses. The steel stringer/girder bridges were built in significant 

numbers throughout the 1950s and early 1960s. The BPR built a small number of concrete bridges in the 

late 1940s and early 1950s as did the State of Alaska in the early 1960s. Glu-laminated timber girder 

bridges were introduced in the 1950s, but the number built was small. By the mid-1960s, steel 

stringer/girder bridges had become the preferred bridge types for new construction in Alaska.”284

At the request of the military, the federal government placed a new requirement on the ARC that existing 

roads be widened during the on-going bridge construction efforts to accommodate military supply 

vehicles. Congress eventually appropriated $28 million to connect Anchorage and adjacent military 

installations with, Alaska’s principal port in Seward. In addition, Congress authorized a 6-year road 

program (in excess of $170 million) to convert, improve, and pave the primary road system in Alaska.285

The ARC began upgrading its highways and replacing hundreds of first and second generation timber and 

 

281 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 110. 282 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 110. 283 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 111. 284 Rolfe Buzzell and Christopher Chambers, Bridging Alaska: Historic Context for the Inventory of Alaska’s 

Highway Bridges (draft), (Anchorage: Office of History & Archaeology, Division of Parks and Outdoor Recreation 

Alaska Department of Natural Resources, 2002), ii.

285 Board of Road Commissioners for Alaska (ARC), Alaska Road Commission Annual Report, For the Fiscal Year 

Ended June 30, 1955, US Department of the Interior, Office of Territories, (Juneau, 1955), 3.

77
steel truss bridges which were too narrow and not designed for the weight of a new generation of heavy 

trucks and military vehicles.286

2.7.2 Aviation 

The Federal Airport Act of 1946 (1946 Airport Act) made it the responsibility of the Civil Aeronautics 

Administration (CAA) to administer the Federal Aid to Airports Program (FAAP) which was the first 

program of financial assistance aimed exclusively at promoting development of the nation's civil airports 

after World War II. It was in the same year this legislation was passed that Azimuthal World Air Charts 

became cartographic standard for air navigation. The challenge of reproducing the earth’s spherical 

surface on a flat piece of paper was met by projecting the globe onto a plane surface that touches the 

globe at one point. This allows for routes to appear as straight lines on the charts so pilots can fly with 

more precision and accuracy.287 Later the same year, the CAB announced its study for future aviation 

patterns in Alaska and the feasibility of a North Pacific air route, from North America to Asia, across the 

North Pacific Ocean. 

The Anchorage Chamber of Commerce started a campaign to promote Anchorage as part of this proposed 

North Pacific route. The shortcut between Europe and Asia via the Arctic route made the journey from 

New York to Tokyo two thousand miles shorter than the Central Pacific route through San Francisco. 

Twenty Anchorage businessmen chartered an Alaska Airlines DC-3 and flew the proposed route to 

Chicago which was so well received they continued on to Washington and told their story to President 

Truman. In August of 1946, the CAB announced that three new air routes would converge in Anchorage. 

It wasn't long before airlines were requesting routes through Anchorage. Northwest Airlines received the 

direct flights between Seattle and Anchorage, Anchorage and Minneapolis-St. Paul, and Chicago and 

New York via Canada. Anchorage also became the North American terminal for the Great Circle Route to 

Asia. CAB Chairman, James M. Landis, estimated that 75 percent of the Asia travel would pass through 

Anchorage.288

In May of 1948, Congress authorized CAA to procure lands, issue contracts for design, construction,

improvement, maintenance, protection, and the operation of an international airport in the vicinity of 

Anchorage. Adjacent to Lake Hood, a site was selected outside the city center. Spenard Road would 

connect Anchorage to Lake Hood. Funding for the new airport was appropriated in 1948 and construction 

on the $12 million project began in the spring of 1949. Construction was completed and flights began 

flying out of the airport in January of 1952. A wooden-frame control tower from Yakutat was used until 

the terminal building was completed at which time it was moved to Lake Hood. The CAA was going to 

 

286 Buzzell and Chambers, Bridging Alaska, 124. 287 M. Diamand, “1000 Events that Shaped The World,” National Geographic Society, accessed February 25, 2016, 

https://books.google.com/books?id=8AceAd41awC&pg=PA344&lpg=PA344&dq=Great+Circle+Route+1946&source=bl&ots=uh245UGvv&sig=_4kUTTAOk8T1dTRmbQlLGzNvBe4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiS_ZDOn5TLAhVB6GMK

HeHVCZIQ6AEINDAG#v=onepage&q=Great%20Circle%20Route%201946&f=false.

288 Municipality of Anchorage, “Merrill Field: Anchorage Aviation History & Development,” accessed February 26, 

2016, http://www.muni.org/Departments/merrill_field/Pages/History.aspx.

78
close Merrill Field, but it remained in use by Reeve Aleutian Airways and other small, private operators. 

By 1954, the CAA ranked Anchorage as the nation's fourth busiest aviation center.289

Figure 25. Fairbanks Airport Terminal, built 1951 and designed by Thomas Bourne architect; seen here in 1953 (source: 

University of Alaska Anchorage, Consortium Library, Archives & Special Collections, Donald Arthur Post slides, 1953-1959, 

UAA-HMC-0917).

2.7.3 Alaska Railroad Rehabilitation Project 

The Alaska Railroad Rehabilitation Project began in 1947, after approval from Congress, for use of $75 

million to improve ailing Alaska Railroad facilities, replace aging rail ties, and pull the rail system out of 

deficit.290 According to a 1947 report issued by the US Department of the Interior, the rail line had an 

obsolete power plant, subsidized competition, inadequate labor supply, and pilferage as well as $2.5 

million deficit with projected future losses.291 The rehab program was justified with a principal basis that 

adequate rail facilities should be available for military personnel, their day-to-day operations, and in case 

of a national emergency.292 The project improved and replaced rail and ties on nearly 418 miles between 

Fairbanks and Whittier and vastly improved the Anchorage rail yard. A projected increase in power 

consumption and inability to rely on local energy producers to provide for the increasing demand led to 

the construction of a steam power generation plant at the rail yard.293 Diesel locomotives, modern 

coaches, and dining cars were introduced to the line in an effort to boost public transportation and tourism 

as other avenues of rail use. Passenger terminals were built at key rail stops and in some instances, such 

as Denali National Park, the Alaska Railroad built lodging accommodations for visiting tourists. 

 

289 Municipality of Anchorage, “Merrill Field.” 

290 MacRostie Historic Advisors, LLC, “Knik Arm Power Plant, Anchorage Alaska, Historic Preservation 

Certification Application Part 1 for Dgheyaytnu Energy, LLC.,” (Anchorage: MacRostie Historic Advisors, 2006), 

6.

291 MacRostie, “Knik Arm Power Plant,” 7.

292 MacRostie, “Knik Arm Power Plant,” 7.

293 MacRostie, “Knik Arm Power Plant,” 8.

79
2.7.4 Alaska Marine Highway System 

The Alaska Marine Highway System, established under the name Chilkoot Motorship Lines in 1948 by 

private individuals Steve Homer and Ray and Gustav Gelotte of Haines and operated by the state in the 

1960s, connected the highway systems of Juneau and Skagway to the Haines Highway.294 It provided a 

much needed mode of transportation to help alleviate the loss of the steamship passenger services. The 

Board of Road Commissioners (BRC) supported Chilkoot Motorship Lines and provided funding for 

three wood ramps to be built at Tee Harbor, Haines, and Skagway in 1949.295 The company faced 

bankruptcy after just a few years in business and, in 1951, was purchased by the Alaska Territorial 

Legislature. 

By 1957, the single ferry vessel in the fleet, MV Chilkoot, was deemed too small and the MV Chilkat 

began daily service between Tee Harbor (Auk Bay, Juneau), Haines, and Skagway. The first Alaska 

Legislature meeting in 1959 approved the Alaska Ferry Transportation Act. That same year, voters 

approved bond issues totaling $18 million to expand the ferry fleet. These bonds enabled the state to 

commission four new vessels and build docks throughout Southeast Alaska and the Kenai Peninsula.296 In 

1963, the Division of Marine Transportation was formally established founding the Alaska Marine 

Highway System (AMHS). Three ships were added to the fleet, and five communities gained service. The 

MV Chilkat was joined by the MV Malaspina, MV Taku, and MV Matanuska; ferry service was 

expanded to Ketchikan, Petersburg, Sitka, Wrangell, and Prince Rupert, British Columbia.297 In 1964, 

Kodiak, Cordova, Homer, Seldovia, Valdez, and Seward were added to the system and serviced by the 

MV Tustumena. At the time the AMHS had 5 ferries and 16 ports of call.298 Problems with the Canadian 

ferry system and rockslides on the highway out of Prince Rupert finally convinced Alaska to create an 

alternate route and move the terminus south to Washington. Alaska built the “marine highway” to make 

the state more accessible for tourists. By 1967, communities in Southeast Alaska along the marine 

highway were connected to the southern terminus in Bellingham, Washington. Those arriving by ferry 

and wishing to travel inland drove the Haines Highway to the Alaska Highway through the Yukon 

Territory and a portion of British Columbia. Members of the US Congress felt it was vital to pave that 

portion of highway due to its increased use after the implementation of the ferry system in 1963.299 In 

1968, the communities of Port Lions, Tatitlek, Whittier, and Valdez were added to the system. The 

Whittier stop linked with the Alaska Railroad to provide sea-to-land transportation route to both 

Southcentral and Interior Alaska. 

 

294 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 104.

295 “History of AMS,” Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities (DOT&PF), Alaska Marine 

Highway System, 2016, accessed January 2, 2016, http://www.dot.state.ak.us/amhs/history.shtml.

296 “History of AMS,” Alaska DOT&PF. 

297 “History of AMS,” Alaska DOT&PF.

298 “History of AMS,” Alaska DOT&PF.

299 Mead and Hunt, Alaska Roads, 102.

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Figure 26. Auk Bay Ferry Terminal, Tee Harbor, 1963; demolished (source: Alaska State Library, Historical Collections, Alaska

State Library Place File, ASL-Juneau-Vicinity-AukeBay-TeeHarbor-11).

2.8 Travel and Tourism

During World War II, more than 100,000 US and Canadian service members were stationed in Alaska. In 

the decades following the close of the war, large numbers of veterans would return on their own or with 

their families to “experience Alaska in a more peaceful way.300” Prosperity after the war, a surge in 

automobile ownership, and the ongoing development of the transportation and tourism infrastructure 

meant that Alaska’s tourism industry continued to expand after the war. Alaska captured the imagination 

of Americans. It represented the last vestige of wild North America. Early travel and tourism was made 

possible by ship, rail after WWII rehabilitation of the Alaska Railroad, by air via bush pilots in the west 

and northern extremes, and automobiles once the Alaska and Parks Highways opened. 

2.8.1 Transportation Improvements Impact on Tourism 

Tourism in Alaska came to a halt during World War II as nearly all travel ceased from 1940 to 1946. The 

War did, however, open Alaska to opportunities for tourism in the post-WWII era. Thousands of service 

members stationed in Alaska returned as tourists and the infrastructure constructed during the War was 

opened to the public. 

The ALCAN was opened for civilian use in 1948. In the years following the War, both the United States 

and Canadian governments poured money into improving the highway so that it could be used for travel 

 

300 David Kiffer, “A Steady ‘Boom’ in Tourism Post World War II, accessed November 26, 2016, 

http://www.sitnews.us/Kiffer/Tourism3/122910_tourism_pt3.html.

81
and tourism. 301 Communities and travel accommodations such as service stations, motels, recreational 

areas, post offices, and campgrounds were established along the roadside from the Alaskan-Canadian 

border to Fairbanks and Anchorage as public use increased throughout the 1950s and into the 1960s. 

Airfields and airports constructed during WWII in support of the military effort opened to commercial 

airlines in the years following the War. Pan American and Pacific Northern airlines both began routine 

services to Alaska and brought visitors and tourists from around the world. As these large, commercial 

airliners continued to open Alaska to tourism in the 1950s, some of the smaller operators consolidated 

into larger companies such as Reeve’s Aleutian Airways, Northern Consolidated Airlines, and Alaska 

Airlines. Travel and tourism continued to grow as air travel improved throughout the 1950s and into the 

1960s. New airfields and airports were built, and substantial improvements were made to existing 

facilities. 

Tourism in Southeast Alaska got a slow start after the close of World War II when compared to other

regions such as Southcentral and the Interior. Communities in Southeast Alaska relied heavily on 

commercial fishing and other marine-based economies. During this time, harbors and docks were mostly 

built to accommodate shipping and freight rather than travelers. The demand was realized, however, as 

small vessels specializing in tourism excursions began to operate throughout Southeast Alaska. Steam 

ships were converted to passenger vessels to accommodate a gradually growing tourist industry. These 

vessels functioned as small cruise ships with services offered in the peak travel season from May until 

September.302 As this was happening, the Territorial Government took interest in the development of a 

marine highway ferry system to provide an alternative to air travel to coastal communities in Southeast 

and Prince Rupert, BC. 

Travel and tourism in Southeast increased as marine infrastructure improved.303 Larger tour companies, 

such as Westours, began offering cruises into Southeast Alaska waters. Westours was a travel company 

based in the Interior that offered riverboat tours on the Chena River beginning in 1949304 and later 

purchased by Holland America.305 A growing cruise ship industry in Southeast Alaska demanded 

improved harbors and docks as well as more excursions and entertainment to accommodate the influx of 

tourists into the region. Cruising Alaska’s southeast waters was relatively small when compared to other 

travel industries at that time. In 1964, only 11,000 visitors traveled into Southeast Alaska by cruise ship 

and 13,250 came to Alaska by air travel. By 1970, however, cruise line numbers had tripled to more than 

30,000. The 1970s experienced even more growth as large liner vessels, such as Princess (created by 

Canadian Railways and previously navigating South American waters), entered into Alaska water.306307

 

301 Kiffer, “A Steady ‘Boom’.” 302 Kiffer, “A Steady ‘Boom’.” 303 Lee Cerveny, “Tourism and its effects on southeast Alaska communities and resources: case studies from Haines, 

Craig, and Hoonah, Alaska,” Research Paper PNW-RP-566, (Portland: US Forest Service, Pacific Northwest 

Research Station, 2005), 35.

304 Alaska State Museum, The Lure of Alaska: A History of Tourism in the Great Land: Exhibition Catalog, (Juneau: 

Friends of the Alaska State Museum, 2007), 36.

305 Kiffer, “A Steady ‘Boom’.” 306 Kiffer, “A Steady ‘Boom’.” 307 Alaska State Museum, The Lure of Alaska, 10.

82
2.8.2 Parks and Recreation 

The establishment of the national parks in Alaska contributed greatly to the growing tourism industry 

after World War II. An Executive Order in 1933 transferred 56 national monuments and military sites 

from the Forest Service and the War Department to the National Park Service. This action was a major 

step in the development of national park system —a system that includes areas of historical, scenic, and 

scientific importance.

308 In Alaska, Mount McKinley National Park, Glacier Bay National Monument, 

and Katmai National Monument were slowly developing their tourism plans by 1949. Both Glacier Bay 

and Katmai were later declared National Parks and the development of tourism and public access to all 

three parks was a joint venture between federal and territorial agencies and private interests. 

Parks in Alaska were referred to as “last frontier parks” because they captured the allure of the last wild 

place in North America. Mount McKinley National Park was the focal point of the park experience due to 

its relative ease of access when compared to Glacier Bay and Katmai. Established in 1917, Mount 

McKinley National Park contained North America’s highest mountain, 20,320-foot Mount McKinley 

(recalibrated in 2013 to be 20,237 feet and renamed as Denali in 2015). Large glaciers of the Alaska 

Range, caribou, Dall sheep, moose, grizzly bears, and timber wolves are highlights of this national park 

and preserve.309 The Denali Highway was constructed in 1957 to enhance tourism into the park. Mount 

McKinley National Park was renamed Denali National Monument in 1978 and Denali National Park and 

Preserve in 1980.310

To further attract tourists into the National Parks, the National Park Service initiated a directive referred 

to as Mission 66. This ten-year park development program, from 1956 to 1966, funded the modernization 

of parks and improved visitor accessibility and services. Several projects resulted from this program 

including a new visitor’s center at Glacier Bay National Monument which was received with much hype 

and successfully increased visitation to the park.311 A lodge at Bartlett Cove was also completed under 

Mission 66 and, by 1969, more than 3,000 people visited Glacier Bay. Increased park attendance was 

made possible by improvements in marine travel throughout the 1950s and 1960s. Approximately 1,600 

of the 3,000 visitors arrived on cruise ships.312

Katmai was proclaimed a National Monument in 1918 for its vast landscape of lakes, forests, mountains, 

marshlands, and abundant wildlife. In 1912, Novarupta Volcano erupted violently and formed the ashfilled “Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes” where steam rose from countless fumaroles.313 The monument 

was expanded to include the Brooks River area in 1931 including the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes. 

 

308 National Park Service, The National Parks: Index 2009-2011 (revised to include the actions of the 110th

Congress ending January 3, 2009), (Washington, D.C.: Office of Public Affairs and Harpers Ferry Center, 2011), 7.

309 National Park Service, The National Parks, 17. 310 “National Park System Areas Listed in Chronological Order of Date Authorized Under DOI”, the National Park 

Service, accessed March 4, 2016, 

https://web.archive.org/web/20120311003821/http://home.nps.gov/applications/budget2/documents/chronop.pdf.

311 “Spaces & Places: America's Cultural Landscapes, Glacier Bay Lodge Complex,” National Park Service, 

accessed, December 10, 2015, http://www.nps.gov/cultural_landscapes/snp/100035.html. 312 John Sisk, “The Southeastern Alaska Tourism Industry: Historical Overview and Current Status, Chapter 9.8” In 

The Coastal Forests and Mountains Ecoregion of Southeastern Alaska and the Tongass National Forest, A

Conservation and Resource Assessment Synthesis in Southeast Alaska, ed. John W. Schoen and Erin Dovichin, 

(Juneau: the Nature Conservancy and Audubon Alaska, 2007), 2.

313 National Park Service, The National Parks, 18.

83
The monument was closed to the public from 1919 to 1949 which was a period known within the park as 

the “Era of Neglect.” In 1950, Katmai National Monument was re-opened to the public. Alaskan bush 

pilot, Ray Peterson, established five fishing camps in and around the park including Brooks Camp and, 

known as “angler’s paradise, Colville Camp. Northern Consolidated Airlines (NCA) provided tourists 

with fly-in fishing along with other small outfitters. Increased operations in the park from private interests 

prompted the park service to build a ranger station at Brooks Camp in 1955 and a road to the Valley of 

Ten Thousand Smokes in 1963. 314 

The Sitka National Historical Park Visitor Center was built in 1965 as part of the Mission 66 initiative. It 

was designed by John Morse who also designed the lodge at Glacier Bay. 315 Under Mission 66, the 

National Park Service expanded visitor services, and construction efforts were undertaken across the 

country. 

State parks within Alaska have their beginnings just prior to statehood. The “Division of Parks” was not 

established until 1970, but the transfer of 32 Bureau of Land Management campgrounds and associated 

recreational areas to the care of the newly formed Department of Natural Resources in 1959 was the basis 

for the later state park system. Several of these areas are still in use today including the recreation areas at 

Johnson Lake on the Kenai, Big Lake in the Matanuska Valley, and the Clearwater outside of Delta 

Junction. The first legislatively designated recreation areas came in 1966 and 1967 with the establishment 

of the Nancy Lake State Recreation Area outside of Houston and the Chena River State Recreation area 

outside of Fairbanks.316 With the establishment of the Division of Parks in 1970, the state park areas of 

Kachemak Bay, Denali, and the Chugach State Parks were formally established and designated.

 

314 Katherine Johnson Ringsmuth, “Tourism and Early Park Development Resources of Katmai National Park and 

Preserve Multiple Property Documentation Form,” accessed, November 26, 2015, 

http://dnr.alaska.gov/parks/oha/publications/tourismearlykatmai.pdf, 3.

315 “Sitka National Historical Park Visitor Center,” National Park Service, US Department of the Interior, accessed 

March 8, 2016, http://www.nps.gov/media/photo/view.htm?id=C0CBC3D3-1DD8-B71C-07F83B51810EDDCB. 316 Melissa DeVaughn, Alaska State Parks: Recollections from the People who Shaped Alaska’s State Park System, 

(Anchorage, Alaska: Alaska Humanities Forum, 2010), 3.

84
Figure 27. Dining Hall at Camp Denali in Mount McKinley National Park, 1961 (source: University of Alaska Anchorage, 

Consortium Library, Archives & Special Collections, Charlotte E. Mauk slides, 1944-1963, UAA-HMC-0752).

Resorts and Lodges

The mid-century period saw a general increase in recreational opportunities for Alaskans as well as for 

tourists. Military activity in Alaska during World War II had also done a fair bit to increase the 

infrastructure of resorts and lodges for sport hunting, fishing, and snow sports. During the war, many 

military posts saw the construction of ski areas, in particular, both for cross country skiing and downhill 

sports. The wintertime activity helped to boost morale and keep the troops active and occupied during 

cold, dark months. Following the war, many of these ski areas were taken over by local Alaskans and 

continued to operate for many years. Several, such as Birch Hill on Fort Wainwright and Ravenwood Ski 

Area on Eielson AFB, remain operational.

The increase in tourism that followed the war period and the increasing popularity of snow sports spurred 

a boost in construction of ski areas throughout the state. Long-term ski areas were established in 

Fairbanks, Anchorage, Sitka, and many other smaller communities. Generally, these areas were equipped 

with rope tow lifts to transport skiers to the top of the hill and had rudimentary lodges and first aid 

stations. Some, such as Ski Boot Hill in Fairbanks and Romig Hill in Anchorage, repurposed military 

surplus Quonset huts into basic lodges that functioned primarily as warm-up huts and rental stations for 

area skiers.317 Others were not equipped with rope tows at all, but instead opted to bus skiers from the 

base to the top such as at the ski area established at the Murphy Dome Air Force Station outside 

Fairbanks.318

 

317 "Ski Boot Hill," Alaska Lost Ski Areas Project, accessed June 14, 2016, 

http://www.alsap.org/SkiBootHill/SkiBootHill.htm. 318 "Murphy Dome AFS Rope Tow," Alaska Lost Ski Areas Project, accessed June 14, 2016, 

http://www.alsap.org/MurphyDomeAFS/MurphyDomeAFS.htm.

85
It was also during this period that one large resort was established in Girdwood, Alaska. In 1956, eleven 

families in Girdwood formed the Alyeska Ski Corporation and purchased the land that would become 

Alyeska Ski Resort. By the 1960s, Alyeska was developing into a first-class resort with the financial 

backing and management provided by Alaska Airlines. The development resulted in the growth of 

Girdwood and the transformation from an Alaskan town of log and simple frame structures to a 

community consisting primarily of chalet-style architecture.319

Sport hunting and fishing at this time also saw an increase in activity. The nature of backcountry sport 

necessitated the construction of lodges in remote areas. Many lodges repurposed preexisting structures 

such as old roadhouses providing profitability and stability to aging structures in remote areas across 

Alaska. These included the Tonsina Roadhouse and Rapids Roadhouse on the Richardson Highway. 

Rapids Roadhouse had even constructed a 400-ft runway in the 1940s to better accommodate hunters.320

Overall, the mid-century period saw an increase in available infrastructure for recreational activities such 

as skiing, hunting, and fishing. An increase in population within Alaska, an uptick in tourism, and the 

growing popularity of these outdoor pursuits led to the establishment and construction of facilities in 

locations across Alaska. Many remain operational; some, such as the ski area at Curry, followed the 

lifecycle of the population center they were constructed to serve and are no longer extant.321

 

319 Robert L. Meinhardt, Historic Structures Survey Report (HSSR) for the Olympic Mountain Loop Project Located 

in Girdwood, Alaska, (Anchorage, Alaska: Cultural Resources Consultants and DOWL HKM), 2011), 5. 320 "Airplane Lands at Roadhouse." The Alaska Miner (Fairbanks), August 6, 1940, accessed June 14, 2016, 

https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/10781309/.

321 "Curry Ski Hill," Alaska Lost Ski Areas Project, accessed June 14, 2016, http://www.alsap.org/Curry/Curry.htm.

86
Figure 28. Sheep Mountain Lodge, ca, 1948, extant (source: Anchorage Museum at Rasmuson Center, Sidney Hamilton 

Photograph Collection, AMRC-B1976-82-271).

2.9 Education

“The decade between 1950 and 1960 was one of tremendous growth in Alaska's public 

school enrollments. The average daily attendance of local school districts increased from 

8,671 in 1949-1950 to 25,283 in 1959-1960. During that same period, enrollment at 

rural schools run by the Department of Education increased from 2,073 to 11,772. The 

overall enrollment increase was 352 percent. The federal Johnson-O'Malley Act provided 

some funding for the territory to deal with the dramatic increase in numbers of students. 

The federal government gave the territory funds to operate Bureau of Indian Affairs

schools until the facilities were improved to meet territorial standards. At that time, the 

schools would be transferred to the territory to operate.”

- Alaska Humanities Forum

2.9.1 Primary and Secondary Education 

Systematic Western education in Alaska was first introduced in the second half of the nineteenth century 

in the decades following the Alaska purchase from Russia. The Alaska Organic Act of 1884 was the first 

attempt to provide education for Alaskans. Five religious denominations entered into contracts with the 

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Bureau of Education to provide missionary education in communities throughout the Territory.322 This 

system persisted until 1905 when the Nelson Act transferred supervision of education in Alaska from the 

Bureau of Education to the Territorial Board of Education. The Bureau of Education continued providing 

education to Alaskan Natives323 until being transferred to the Bureau of Indian Affairs in the 1930s.324

The Bureau of Indian Affairs began transferring schools in Alaskan Native villages to the Territory of 

Alaska to be operated as contract schools beginning in 1951. With the advent of statehood in 1959, the 

Alaska Department of Education was established to oversee the administration of educational systems 

within boroughs and other incorporated areas and “provide centralized management of schools in rural 

Alaska.”325 Enrollment in schools increased by 352 percent between 1950 and 1960. The JohnsonO’Malley Act provided federal funds to accommodate the increased enrollment.326

A large number of schools were constructed during this period many of which are still in use. These 

schools reflected the architecture at the time and are even considered excellent stylistic examples, 

including the Joy and Nordale Elementary Schools in Fairbanks, constructed in the early 1960s. Many 

schools were also worked on by noted architects who have since been recognized for their importance to 

the state and even regionally such as the Kake Elementary School, which was designed by Linn Forest 

and constructed in 1962. The influx of funding following statehood and the increase in enrollment also 

led to the construction of schools in previously small rural communities such as Dillingham, Kenai, and 

Sand Point. The increase in student enrollment also required the construction of separate elementary and 

junior and senior high schools. These included North Pole Junior/Senior High School in North Pole (now 

North Pole Middle School), Lathrop High School and Ryan Middle School in Fairbanks, and Bartlett and 

Central High Schools in Anchorage. 

 

322 Donald Craig Mitchell, Sold in America: The Story of Alaska Natives and their Land, 1867-1959, (Hanover, New 

Hampshire: University Press of New England), 1970.

323 "Alaska History and Cultural Studies - Alaska's Heritage - Chapter 4-20: Education," Alaska Humanities Forum, 

accessed, Nov. 24, 2015, http://www.akhistorycourse.org/articles/article.php?artID=185 324 Ray Barnhardt and Angayuqaq Oscar Kawagley, ed., Alaska Native Education: Views from Within, (Fairbanks: 

University of Alaska, Alaska Native Knowledge Network Center for Cross-Cultural Studies, 2010 0, 11. 325 Barnhardt and Kawagley, Alaska Native Education, 12 326 "Alaska History and Cultural Studies - Alaska's Heritage - Chapter 4-20: Education," Alaska Humanities Forum.

88
Figure 29. Anchorage High School (west), 1955, Manley and Mayer architects, extant (source: Anchorage Museum at Rasmuson 

Center, Ward Wells Collection, AMRC-wws-1654-2).

2.9.2 Post-secondary Education 

Post-secondary education had been available in Alaska as early as 1917. Prior to that, Agricultural 

Experiment Stations across the state offered tutelage. It has also long been funded both federally and 

territorially. In 1935, the Alaska Agricultural College and School of Mines in Fairbanks became the 

University of Alaska and offered classes in Anchorage in 1950 at Fort Richardson. The campus was 

expanded throughout the 1950s and 1960s. Under the Community College Enabling Act, Chapter 57 of 

the Session Laws of Alaska, 1953, six community colleges were established across Alaska after WWII: 

● Anchorage Community College (ACC), a joint venture of the Anchorage Independent School 

District and the University of Alaska, opened in 1954 in the second floor of what is now West 

High School. It became part of the University of Alaska in 1962 and construction on a new ACC 

campus at Goose Lake began in 1968.327 

● Ketchikan Community College opened in 1954. It became part of the University of Alaska 

Southeast in 1972.

● Palmer Community College opened in 1958 and offered vocational training, two-year associates 

degrees, and community enrichment programs. It changed its name to Matanuska-Susitna College 

in 1963.

● Alaska Methodist University opened in Anchorage in 1960 as a private school. Its affiliation 

changed to non-denominational, and the name was changed to Alaska Pacific University in 

1978.328

 

327 "History," University of Alaska Anchorage, accessed April 08, 2016, 

https://www.uaa.alaska.edu/ctc/about/history.cfm. 328 "History," University of Alaska Anchorage.

89
● Sitka Community College opened in 1962. It became part of the University of Alaska Southeast 

in 1972. 

● Kenai Peninsula College opened in 1963, and its student body consisted of primarily service 

members from Wildwood Air Force Base enrolled in Adult Basic Education classes. It received 

community college status in 1964.

● Kodiak College opened its doors in 1968 using local high school facilities until college buildings 

were completed beginning in 1972. It became an extension of UAA in 1987.329 

Figure 30. Alaska Methodist University, Campus Center Building, Edward Durrell Stone architect, ca. 1965, extant (source: 

University of Alaska Anchorage, Consortium Library, Archives & Special Collections, Stewart’s Photo Shop slides, 1964-1992. 

UAA-HMC-1181).

3.0 OVERVIEW OF POST-WWII ARCHITECTURE AND 

DEVELOPMENT IN ALASKA 

Alaska, because of its strategic location and abundance of natural resources, experienced a surge of 

growth during World War II that continued into the Cold War. The 1968 discovery of oil in Prudhoe Bay 

brought another intensification of development. The massive military build-up to support both World War 

II and the Cold War brought much-needed infrastructure, like the ALCAN Highway, to the state. The 

concomitant population growth, driven by the influx of military personnel and of those providing support 

services, meant that homes, schools, civic buildings, factories, commercial buildings and the like were 

needed to accommodate them. Meeting those needs was not simple. Materials could be difficult to obtain 

and when obtained were expensive. The crushing demand for new construction, and the challenges of 

building in such an environment meant that construction costs were also high. A short construction 

season, a lack of easy access to some areas, and a severe climate meant that building types and styles, 

 

329 "Kodiak College," Wikipedia, accessed April 08, 2016, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodiak_College.

90
readily replicable in the Lower 48, were seldom well-suited to the often unforgiving environment. 

Although the military operations brought architects, engineers, contractors, and other building 

professionals to the territory, and the construction industry was one of the widest sources of employment, 

the state still lacked a formal architectural program at any of its institutions of higher education. After 

World War II, many of the architects either came from the outside, or if residents of the state, got their 

education in the Lower 48 and returned to Alaska to practice. 

Although the more remote areas had been inhabited by the indigenous population for centuries, the harsh 

climate, combined with a lack of adequate infrastructure and utilities, meant that many newcomers 

settling in these areas faced significant challenges simply to establish a dwelling. Within the Native 

population, traditional forms of construction were becoming increasingly scarce.330 Despite the image of 

the state as the last frontier, most new arrivals settled in urban areas, and those settling in cities faced their 

own set of challenges. The pace of population growth outstripped that of development. Anchorage, 

Fairbanks, and other communities faced severe housing shortages. Most of the newcomers came from the 

Lower 48, including African-Americans, who had first come to the state in significant numbers during 

WWII. Asian immigrants continued to move to the territory in search of economic opportunities. 

Although in sheer numbers, the Native population was eclipsed by that of outsiders, the indigenous 

population continued to grow and the civil rights movement gained considerable momentum. 

It was during this period of dramatic change that Alaska experienced one of its most significant periods of 

growth. While the climate, politics, remoteness, and seismic vulnerability of the state posed challenges, 

development in the state still reflected national trends including increased automobile ownership, 

economic growth, and new land use patterns. Existing property types were altered and new ones emerged. 

Historicist architectural styles gave way to a new modernist aesthetic made possible in part by 

innovations in building construction techniques and the proliferation of new, mass manufactured building 

materials. Whether an A-Frame cabin in a remote area or a new high-rise in downtown Fairbanks, from 

massive military installations to minimal traditional houses, the range of development and cultural change 

during the period was impressive.

3.1 Overview of Federal and State Funding Programs

Federal and State funding incentives were instrumental in the development of many of the post-WWII 

construction efforts in Alaska. Affordable housing in urban areas had been an issue for the United States 

since the turn of the twentieth century when populations began shifting into urban areas in search of 

industrial work. Cramped, unsanitary tenement buildings for low-income workers had sprung up in inner 

cities during the latter half of the nineteenth century, and after the start of the Great Depression in the 

early 1930s, the conditions in these tenements had become a source of great alarm. Low-cost sanitary 

housing became part of the New Deal legacies of the 1930s.

In 1932, the National Industrial Recovery Act established the Public Works Administration (PWA). 

Within the PWA, was the Housing Division; its primary objective was to build low-cost housing within 

urban areas. Focus was chiefly on large block apartment-style housing as was in use in European centers, 

and was adapted for use by the Housing Department. These apartment complexes created neighborhoods 

 

330 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 51.

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complete with schools, laundry facilities, recreational facilities, and commercial buildings as well as 

residential structures.331

The success of the Housing Division led to the passage of the U.S. Housing Act of 1937. The act was 

intended to make the Housing Division a permanent feature, thus continuing the effort to provide 

affordable housing. The reality, however, was that the act was stripped to bare basics, and confined 

construction efforts to the cheapest construction possible for the lowest income citizens. The result was 

the construction of slum areas within cities with cheaply constructed residential superblocks that 

deteriorated quickly in value.332 These devalued urban areas in turn led to massive urban renewal 

programs from 1949 to 1972 which cleared vast tracts of inner city property and further displaced the 

low-income residents.333

In a second effort to solve the country’s housing situation, the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) 

was established in 1934 with the passage of the National Housing Act.334 The goal of the FHA was to 

provide mortgage insurance for homebuyers with federally backed loans should the homebuyer default. 

FHA funding lowered the down payment necessary to obtain a home loan, bringing the payment to just 

ten percent of the value of the loan, and allowed the banks to create loans with repayment plans of up to 

thirty years. Previously, home loans were often restricted to a fifty percent down payment with a five-year 

repayment plan restricting home ownership to the upper crust. FHA financing; therefore, created home 

ownership options for many lower-middle class citizens who previously had been unable to purchase 

property.335

Housing pressures in Alaska became a problem during the late 1940s with the buildup of defenses 

throughout the territory in response to aggression from the Soviet Union at the start of the Cold War. In 

addition to a massive influx of military activities and personnel, there was also an increase in civilian 

workers and economic growth across Alaska. Military housing was overcrowded, and housing for 

civilians was overpriced and hard to find. 

The population of Alaska had grown from 73,000 residents in 1940 to over 129,000 in 1950 including 

26,000 military personnel. Not included in these figures were the numbers of transient workers who 

moved from place to place as work was available. Most of the growth was in urban areas surrounding 

military installation such as Anchorage, Fairbanks, and Seward336, but across the entire state, quality, 

affordable housing was hard to come by. 

 

331 Gail Radford, "Modern Housing for America: Policy Struggles in The New Deal Era,” ed. Robert Leighninger, 

Louisiana State University, The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare, Vol. 25: Iss. 1, Article 13 (2015,) 

http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2477&context=jssw, 3. 332 Radford, "Modern Housing,” 4. 333 Tom Hanchett, “The Other ‘Subsidized Housing’ Federal Aid to Suburbanization, 1940s-1960s,” In Tenements to 

Taylor Homes: In Search of Urban Housing Policy in Twentieth Century America, (University Park, Pennsylvania: 

The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2006), 5, http://www.historysouth.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/TheOther-22Subsidized-Housing22-Federal-Aid-To-Suburbanization-.pdf. 334 "US Department of Housing and Urban Development - 1930-2010." HUD Interactive Timeline, accessed March 

25, 2016, https://www.huduser.gov/hud_timeline/.

335 Hanchett, “Subsidized Housing,” 2. 336 Naske and Slotnick, Alaska, 205.

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The lack of housing in Alaska was the result of several factors with the large increase in population being 

just one. One factor was the high cost of building materials due to shipping costs. A small number of 

lending institutions in Alaska, with their limited amount of capital available to private developers, also 

contributed to the lack of housing. Building housing, either single-family homes or apartments, was 

simply not cost-effective to the developer in Alaska. Government action was required to assist the 

Territory of Alaska in meeting the housing demands of its people. As President Harry Truman 

acknowledged in 1948, “It is in the Nation’s interest, therefore, for the Government to assist the balanced 

development of Alaskan resources and to help open economic opportunities on a sound long-term 

basis”.337

The United States government enacted legislation to ease the post-World War II housing crisis that 

gripped the nation. To do so, U.S. Congress “liberalized” Section 608 of Title VI of the National Housing 

Act of 1934. Originally, the intention of Title VI of the National Housing Act was to increase the number 

of rental units for defense workers only. Its liberalization, however, encouraged the construction of 

private (low to moderate) rental housing. Additional post-WWII amendments to Section 608 included 

many which translated into profits for the developers. Amortization of Section 608 mortgages were 

reduced lengthening the maturity by five years or more. Working capital requirements were reduced. Of 

the 532,000 project units (units in structures containing five or more units) in the US started under FHA 

insurance between 1946 and 1952 with over 80 percent were insured under Section 608.338

The Alaska Housing Act acknowledged the housing shortage in Alaska and worked to alleviate it. Due to 

the high cost of construction in territory, the Federal Housing Commissioner was granted the ability to set 

higher mortgage amounts (principal obligations) for mortgages insured under the Act covering property 

located in Alaska in an effort to compensate for higher costs. Under the FHA’s Section 608 and the 

Alaska Housing Act, several large apartment complexes were built in the 1950s to accommodate the 

growing population. Towers in Fairbanks, Anchorage, Sitka, Juneau, Ketchikan, and Whittier were all 

completed. Neighborhoods were developed in areas of larger populations including Weeks Field in 

Fairbanks, South Addition in Anchorage, and Carlanna in Ketchikan.

Due to the lucrative terms of the loans, the banking industry actively sought projects to invest in which 

led to the rise of suburban developments across the country. Developers would purchase huge tracts of 

undeveloped land and create affordable single-family homes for lower-middle class and middle class 

citizens, and then sell the houses at a profit under FHA loans. Others planned large high-rise towers that 

included all necessary amenities for daily life. Still others constructed multi-family dwellings such as 

duplexes and fourplexes. 

 

337 Michael R. Yarborough, and Amanda Welsh, Determination of Eligibility for the Marine View Condominiums 

(KET-1363) in Ketchikan, Alaska. (Anchorage: DOWL Engineers, 2014), 4. 338 Kenny Gunn, Alaska SHPO Section 106 Review for the JN3053 Ketchikan Cell Tower Relocation 2016, 

(Portland: Summit Solutions Group, LLC., 2016,) 3-2.

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There were restrictions on the types of housing constructed with FHA financing. Wanting to avoid 

standardization, the FHA did not provide “stock or prepared plans for general use”339 for the construction 

of housing. Instead, the FHA hoped to stimulate economic growth by providing funding for local 

architects and builders by maintaining local traditions and “producing housing suitable to local 

topography and climate.”340 The FHA did lay out some guidelines including regulations on neighborhood 

design. In a similar effort to promote local growth, the FHA recommended that local planners and 

architects layout neighborhood designs in such a way as to promote a residential, communal, and friendly 

feel with cul-de-sacs and slow moving residential streets being ideal. The dwellings themselves were to 

be functional. The principles of plan efficiency, economic use of materials, and proper equipment, which 

are important in any class of dwellings, become paramount. Every square foot of space, every odd corner, 

every length of pipe, every pipe connection, and every foot of lumber that could be eliminated had to be 

removed. At the same time, these economies and efficiencies could not be obtained at the sacrifice of 

substantial construction or of minimum standards for convenience and comfort. The planning of FHA 

housing, thus, became a special art, rigidly limited by the necessity for low cost yet, nonetheless, exacting 

in its requirement for functional arrangement and aesthetic satisfaction.341 Ideally, the houses and 

individual units were to be of minimum cost but well-constructed with good quality materials that would 

withstand the environment within which they were used. While it may be necessary to reduce the basic 

structure to a box, it must, nevertheless, be a well-proportioned box with its materials and openings 

treated with imagination and skill; and, even at some moderate increase in cost, elements whose sole 

justification is their decorative quality are to be regarded as essential to the pleasure which the owner will 

take in his home or the renter in his unit.342

The period of 1949 to 1954 saw the most significant building boom of the period within Alaska including 

the creation of entire neighborhoods of Alaskan cities still in use today. The Spenard suburb of 

Anchorage exploded during this period to boast over 3,000 residents; many financed their homes through 

FHA and similarly backed Veterans Affairs (VA) home loans. Investment from outside parties during this 

period also saw the construction of apartment block complexes such as Fairview Manor in Fairbanks and 

the Government Hill Apartments in Anchorage.343 These federally backed construction projects helped to 

ensure housing for a population that was becoming increasingly permanent residents of the territory. The 

passage of the Department of Housing and Urban Development Act of 1965 created HUD as a Cabinetlevel agency. The Fair Housing Act of 1968 ensured adequate housing for all individuals free of 

discrimination due to race, gender, or religion.344 

3.2 Postwar Building Materials and Construction Techniques 

From glass and steel curtain walls to concrete parabolic roofs, advances in materials and building 

technology made a host of new construction techniques possible. Because an understanding of building 

materials and construction techniques can be an important part of the evaluation process and 

 

339 Federal Housing Administration, Technical Bulletin No. 4. Principals of Planning Small Houses, (Washington, 

D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1936), 2.

340 FHA, Technical Bulletin No. 4, 2. 341 FHA, Technical Bulletin No. 4, 3. 342 FHA, Technical Bulletin No. 4, 5. 343 Naske and Slotnick, Alaska, 205. 344 "US Department of Housing and Urban Development - 1930-2010." HUD.

94
understanding how the use of materials and construction techniques evolved during the period, this 

section will provide an overview of some common building materials and construction types. 

In discussing construction types, it is helpful to clarify what is meant by construction type. Indeed, the 

line between building type and construction type is sometimes blurred. For the purposes of this report: 

● construction type refers to how the structure is made, assembled, or constructed (i.e. prefabricated)

● building type can refer to the building’s or structure’s function (i.e. airplane hangar) or how the 

building is used (commercial, industrial, residential). 

Thus, this section will discuss construction types; whereas, building types and architectural styles will be 

discussed in Section 4.0.

Although these distinctions are important, they are not always clear-cut. Because construction type or 

method can influence the outward appearance or aesthetics of a structure, construction type and style are 

often linked. For example, curtain wall is often described both as a type of construction and a style of 

building. 

The following section details some of the construction types and building materials typically employed 

during the period. It should be noted that this compilation of construction types and building materials, 

while comprehensive, is by no means exhaustive nor representative of all building materials and 

construction types extant during the period. While the overall history of mid-twentieth century building 

materials and construction techniques in the United States is increasingly well-documented, there is still 

more research that needs to be done in order to better understand how popular trends, in both the 

production of materials and in construction techniques, was regionalized in Alaska. In addition, for each 

of the individual building types, the available documentation occurs when available and relevant 

additional information on the specific examples of building types is included. 

3.2.1 Construction Types 

Prefabricated

“Mass production methods have proved themselves superior to hand methods in the 

production of automobiles, clothes, and breakfast food. The construction of houses is 

proving to be no exception to the rule. Prefabrication, when employed on a substantial 

scale, affords a number of important advantages to the home builder over traditional 

methods of building.”

- A Practical Guide to Prefabricated Houses, 1947345

Prefab, short for prefabrication, is both a building type and a construction technique. Prefabrication is 

used for a range of building types including residential, commercial, institutional, and industrial. The 

components of a prefabricated building are generally manufactured off-site, and the structure can both be 

assembled at the factory and shipped, or the components of the structure can be shipped and assembled on 

site. The Practical Guide to Prefabricated Houses divides prefabricated structures into five categories: 

precut, panel, sectional, complete assembly, and cast concrete.346 

 

345 A. L. Carr, A Practical Guide to Prefabricated Houses, (New York: Harper, 1947). 346 Carr, Prefabricated Houses, 1947.

95
In a vast area, with a short construction season, and in some areas with a lack of available buildings 

supplies, prefab buildings could be quite practical especially in remote areas. Even so, erection and 

habitation, or use of those structures that were not designed for such a harsh climate, could be 

problematic. Although prefab structures were in use before the war, World War II sparked the 

development and use of several types of prefabricated structures.347 Dozens of types of structures, like the 

Loxtave Houses, were designed, deployed and, discarded. Assembled in Anchorage and designed by the 

US Navy, they were declared surplus by the US Government and of the dozen or so constructed in the 

Government Hill neighborhood, only two of those houses survived.348 Other types of prefabricated 

structures were more enduring, and prefabricated structures became increasingly popular with 

Alaskans.349

Quonset Hut

While the Quonset is perhaps the best known of the military structures, the military used a number of huts 

including Pacific Huts (Navy), Jamesway Huts, Stransteel Huts, Yakutat huts, and others. The huts varied 

in size, exterior form, material and use; and they could be transported by aircraft and rapidly assembled in 

the field. Huts no longer in use by the military were declared surplus and put to a wide variety of uses 

from residences to restaurants. In Anchorage, an ordinance was passed in 1969 which limited the repair 

and construction of such housing; thus, bringing about the end of their widespread use.350

● Example: The Garden of Eatin’ 2502 McRae Road Anchorage, Alaska 1949 

Erected in 1948 or 1949 for Hans and Jerry Kirchner who had a farm on the site. In 1951 

they converted the hut to a restaurant. Despite the wooden additions on either end, the 

character defining arched form is still visible.351 The establishment is currently a part of 

the Fiori D’Italia Restaurant in Spenard

 

347 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 50. 348 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 103.

349 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 75. 350 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 75. 351 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 102. 

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Figure 31. The Garden of Eatin’ Restaurant in Spenard, ca. 1950 (source: Steve McCutcheon Collection, No. MCC 175, 

Anchorage Museum of History and Art).

Knock-Downs

Prefabricated units were used for military housing in the western regions of the state including the popular 

800 series. Known simply as “KDs,” the units were sold as surplus items when military installations were 

disbanded as was the case of Marks Airfield in Nome. The units provided basic shelter beneath a gabled 

roof covering a 25 foot rectangular shape. The simple unornamented design was wood framed and easily 

moved from location to location.352 

Figure 32. KD 800 Series military housing still in use in Nome (source: Kulash and Price 2009).

 

352 William Kulash and Kathy Price, Nome Roads Improvement Project. Determination of Eligibility and Finding of 

Effect, (Fairbanks: Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities, 2009), 28.

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Wanigans

One-story buildings built on skids, wheels, or pontoons for easy transportation all earned the name 

Wanigan. Manufactured homes or trailers are the modern version of the wanigan.353 The US Forest 

Service uses floating wanigans on the Tongass National Forest as mobile camps.

Figure 33. Amphibious food wanigan, located near Barrow, 1950 (Source: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 301, 

Figure 74, 1958).

Harman Houses354

A prefabricated steel design manufactured by a company in Philadelphia. Four of these houses were 

erected in the Government Hill neighborhood in Anchorage (SAH).”355

 

353 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 50. 354 Otto Suchsland and George E. Woodson, Fiberboard Manufacturing Practices in the United States, 

(Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, 1987), 1, accessed April 1, 2016, 

http://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/CAT87881030/PDF.

355 "Harman Houses," eds. Gabrielle Esperdy and Karen Kingsley, SAH Archipedia, (Charlottesville: UVaP, 2012),

acessed April 1, 2016, http://sah-archipedia.org/buildings/AK-01-SC035.4.

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Figure 34. Example of a Harman House, a pre-fabricated metal residence, located on Government Hill, Anchorage (source: 

Hoagland 1993, 104).

Pre-cut or Kit Homes

Pre-cut and kit homes were a type of prefabricated housing where each component of the structure was 

cut at the factory and designed to be assembled on site by local workmen or the homeowner. Factory 

made, pre-cut, kit, or catalog houses first gained popularity in the early nineteenth century with soldiers 

returning from World War I seeking affordable housing to start a family.356 At the end of World War II, 

pre-cut or kit homes were looked on as another way to address the profound housing shortage. 

Refinement of the manufacturing process, the development of new building materials, and improved 

distribution systems made these dwellings a popular and economical choice for homeowners and spurred 

the second wave of factory-made buildings to new heights of affordability and sophistication.357 Many of 

these houses, like the Pan Abode cabins, shipped from the Lower 48. 

Pan Abode

The Pan Abode was a type of kit home. The company was founded in 1948 in Canada by a 

Danish master carpenter, Aage Jensen, who had a dream to make it possible for anyone to build a 

retreat in the midst of the peace and restfulness of nature. He partnered with the engineer and 

businessman, Albert “Doc” Steiner, to ensure the Pan-Abode dream was affordable and buildable 

for all families. The combined energies of these two visionaries made Pan-Abode homes a feature 

on nearly every lakefront throughout North America; thus, playing a vital role in the evolution of 

Cottage Culture on this continent. Additionally, Pan-Abodes were built as summer camps, mining 

 

356 Cynthia E. Johnson, House in a Box: Prefabricated Housing in the Jackson Purchase Cultural Landscape 

Region, 1900 to 1960, (Frankfort, KY: Kentucky Heritage Council, 2006), 23. 357 Ima Ebong, Kit Homes Modern, (New York: Collins Design, 2005).

99
camps, churches, fishing lodges, hotels, motels, restaurants, gas stations, and banks.358 The small 

cedar kit cabins were used by the US Forest Service Alaska Region beginning in 1960.359

Figure 35. A group of guests in front of the Pan Abode cabin at Grosvenor Camp (source: Norris 1992).

Mobile Homes/Trailer Homes

Initially developed in the early 1930s as a house trailer, intended for short-term occupancy and high 

mobility, in the post-World-War II era the use evolved from a house trailer to a mobile home.360 While a 

vehicle, mobile homes were not designed for high mobility. Also called trailer homes, the FHA 

differentiated between the two types defining a mobile home as, “a moveable unit designed for year round 

occupancy and sometimes termed a trailer home.”361 A mobile home is a vehicle, movable but intended 

for permanent settlement, which is heavier than 4,500 pounds and longer than 25 feet. While a trailer is 

also considered a vehicle, it generally weighs less than 4,500 pounds and is less than 25 in length. A 

trailer sits on wheels and comes with a prominent tow hitch at its front.362

With a massive population surge, an overburdened construction industry and demand for housing that 

outstripped the supply, mobile homes and trailer homes were well suited to the environment (if not the 

climate). They proved especially popular in rapidly developing urban areas like Anchorage where, by 

 

358 Pan Abode, Pan Abode the Original Heritage Series, (Richmond, B.C.: Pan Abode, 2015).

359 K. Nicole Lantz, Everyone’s Cabin in the Woods: Historic Context for Public Recreation Cabins in the Alaska 

Region 1960-1971, (Juneau, Alaska. U.S. Forest Service, Alaska Region, Publication R10-FR-009, 2012), 55. 360ICF International, Village Trailer Park 2930 Colorado Avenue Santa Monica, California City Landmark 

Assessment Report, (Santa Monica: City of Santa Monica Planning Division, 2001), 7. 361 Ernest R. Bartley and Fredrick H. Bair, Jr. Mobile Home Parks and Comprehensive Community Planning, 

(Gainesville, Florida: Public Administration Clearing Service of the University of Florida, 1960), 17.

362 ICF International, Village Trailer Park, 7.

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1955, there were twenty-five trailer courts across the city, and between 1960 and 1965 over 2,000 trailer 

homes were sold.363 As of 2000 there were over 67 trailer/mobile home parks in Anchorage. 364

Figure 36. Man in front of a mobile home in Anchorage, 1966 (source: University of Alaska Anchorage. Consortium Library, 

Archives & Special Collections, William L. McNutt photographic slides, 1934-1973, UAA-hmc-0456-518).

Curtain Wall Construction (1945-present)

Viewed as both a type and style of architecture, curtain wall construction was perhaps the most iconic of 

the twentieth century building innovations. So called because the exterior “curtain” wall was a non-load 

bearing wall which “hung” from the concrete or steel frame. The development of the curtain wall was 

made possible by improvements in steel and concrete framing, glass manufacturing, gasket systems, and 

the development of advanced HVAC systems. Because the exterior walls of the building were not load 

bearing walls, vast expanses of glass (or other cladding materials) were possible. Improved framing 

techniques meant that fewer load bearing walls were needed on the interior, thus interiors could often 

feature open plans lit by natural light. Although glass was a popular sheathing material, porcelain enamel, 

aggregate panels, and decorative metals were also used. These new materials, and the manner in which 

they were arranged, created a new construction technique not previously seen in the built environment. 

Curtain walls were a dominant building style in Alaska and widespread during the 1950s and 1960s used 

for commercial, institutional, educational, and government buildings of a variety of sizes.”365 

 

363 Steven M. Dunn, “Prebuilts and Conventional Construction: A Comparative Analysis of Single Family 

Residential Development in Alaskan Metropolitan Areas,” Typescript, 1972.

364 Larry Campbell, Disappearing Neighborhoods, October 2, 2002. 365 "Architectural Style Guide - Curtain Wall," Alaska Office of History and Archaeology, Architectural Style 

Guide, accessed March 31, 2016, http://dnr.alaska.gov/parks/oha/styleguide/curtainwall.htm.

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Figure 37. First National Bank, Northern Lights Branch, Anchorage, present-day (source: TNSDS 2016).

A-Frame (1936-1980s)

Like the curtain wall, the A-Frame could be considered both a construction type and style. As the name 

implies, the structural frame of the building was created by using steeply angled members that rested 

directly on the foundation. The distinctive A-frame was by no means a new type of construction. Used for 

centuries across the globe, “roof huts” were used for cooking houses, farm storage sheets, animal shelters, 

and peasant cottages. In the US, A-frames were initially used for utilitarian purposes. Austrian-born 

architect Rudolph Schindler who, in 1934, designed a vacation cottage for a client, the Bennati House, 

popularized the design for use as a residential structure.366 The design was standardized and adopted as a 

vacation-type home. Soon after, A-Frame kits were widely distributed throughout the country. After 

World War II, the post-war vacation home boom began. A-Frames became extremely popular throughout 

the United States, especially in areas like Alaska, where recreation was developing. The Alaska Region of 

the National Forest Service began using A-Frames in a rustic style in 1962.367 Constructed by volunteers 

or Forest Service Employees, they were made from off the shelf lumber, plywood, and Plexiglas. 

Although residential use was more common than commercial or governmental, A-frame designs were 

also seen in churches, restaurants, motels, gas stations and national chain stores. The steep sloped roofs 

were well suited to the climate preventing snow accumulation in the winter. The underlying building 

structure was generally made of wood, but a range of roofing materials, exterior cladding materials, and 

stylistic elements were often employed. 

 

366 Chad Randl, "The Mania for A-Frames." Old House Journal, accessed July 2004, 

http://www.oldhouseonline.com/the-mania-for-a-frames/. 367 Lantz, Everyone’s Cabin, 47.

102
Figure 38. Our Savior’s Lutheran Church, Nome (source: OHA Alaska Historic Buildings Survey Manual and Style Guide 2016).

3.2.2 Materials 

Before the War, buildings were often made with whatever materials were available locally; improvements 

in infrastructure, manufacturing techniques, and distribution meant that an ever-wider array of building 

materials were available. In general, in the industrial age, war on a massive scale often resulted in 

innovations material science. Metals, glass, plastics, and wood were all important strategic materials. 

Innovations abounded and when the war ended, this had a trickle-down effect to the building industry. 

The massive industrial complex that emerged in service to the war effort was now in service to the postWorld War II building boom providing everything from homestead panels to colorful Formica 

countertops. The bounty of new building materials, while often readily accessible in the Lower 48, were 

often not so readily accessible in Alaska. Cost, availability, transportability, and ability to withstand the 

rigors of a severe climate were factors to consider. Thus, popular building materials during the war, 

concrete, wood products, and metal, remained so afterwards.

While there is increasingly abundant documentation on the manufacture and use of mid-twentieth 

building materials in the United States, what materials were used in Alaska and how they were used is 

less well studied and documented. Thus, this section focuses primarily on the most common or “popular” 

building construction materials such as concrete, wood, metal, and glass. Representative examples of 

specific buildings employing those materials, discovered during the literature review, are included.368

 

368 Twentieth-Century Building Materials: History and Conservation by Thomas Jester is an excellent source of 

additional information on the range of building materials used during the period. 

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Concrete 

Concrete, made by combining a cementious material (such as Portland cement), aggregates (fine and 

coarse), and water, was a highly versatile building material. Changes to the mix could radically alter the 

aesthetic and structural properties of the concrete; thus, making it suitable as a decorative and functional 

material.369 Although concrete had been in existence since Roman times, in the US, it first came in to use 

in the 1920s. In Alaska, its potential as a building material was not fully realized until after World War II. 

Advancements in the composition of the concrete structural and mechanical systems accompanying it 

meant that concrete could be used economically and expressively. The material could be mixed in Alaska, 

poured in place, and was fireproof made it an ideal construction material.370 The Anchorage Sand and 

Gravel Company (AS&G) was the first ready-made concrete manufacturer in the territory.371

Figure 39. Concrete demonstration home built at 1435 L Street in Anchorage, 1948 (source: Alaska Sand & Gravel 2016).

Concrete Masonry Units and Decorative Concrete Block

CMU’s or concrete masonry units came into widespread use in the 1940s and 1950s as a means to quickly 

construct low-cost housing. First developed as a structural element, the decorative possibilities of the 

material were later realized.

The technology was first developed in the early twentieth century but was not widely utilized until after 

the War. As Portland cement became more available, block manufacturers organized to create standard 

 

369 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 50. 370 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 50. 371 "Anchorage Sand & Gravel History - Part I," Anchorage Sand & Gravel, accessed April 16, 2016, 

http://www.anchsand.com/default.aspx?tabid=125.

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block sizes, and the industry began to use testing to improve the material’s reliability and durability. 

Trade organizations also began to promote concrete block usage in magazines, catalogues, and books. It’s 

widespread use as a decorative element (decorative concrete blocks) gained popularity in the late 1950s 

and early 1960s with such uses as decorative screen blocks.372 

Figure 40. The IRS building in Anchorage, 1964, built using concrete masonry units (source: University of Alaska Anchorage, 

Consortium Library, Archives & Special Collections, Edith and Edward Lindsay papers, 1964, uaa-hmc-1135-s13).

Reinforced Concrete

Reinforced concrete, concrete supplemented with rebar or other reinforcing elements, was durable and 

readily available. Made by surrounding reinforcing elements with forms, pouring the concrete in and 

removing the forms when the concrete had set, this process often left visible marks of the formwork such 

as wood grain. While this was often covered over with paint, a sheathing material, or other decorative 

elements, in some structures, this was incorporated as a design element. For example, in Brutalism 

structures, also called heroic concrete, these designs used reinforced concrete as both a design and 

structural element.373 Reinforced concrete initially used for commercial and public buildings made its first 

appearance in the state in the 1930s.374

 

372 Lisa Mauslof, Twentieth Century Architecture in New Hampshire, (Concord, New Hampshire: New Hampshire 

Employment Security, 2012), 54.

373 Mauslof, Twentieth Century Architecture, 53. 374 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 82.

105
Figure 41. The facade of the Fourth Avenue Theater in Anchorage is made of reinforced concrete, 1949 (source: Anchorage 

Museum at Rasmuson Center, Sidney Hamilton Photograph Collection, Gift of Emily Turner, B1976.82.31).

Architectural Pre!cast Concrete

Unlike reinforced concrete, which was often cast or poured on site, architectural pre!cast concrete could 

be manufactured off-site. Originally developed during the World War II era, the precast concrete allowed 

for standardization, quality control, and ease of assembly. It was suitable for transport and offered an 

array of finish options and could be used for both structural and decorative elements.375

Thin Shell Concrete 

Thin shell concrete was used to create three-dimensional structures using thin curved slabs or plates. Thin 

shells were characterized by their load-carrying ability which was determined by the geometry of their 

shape, the manner in which they were supported, and the nature of the applied load.376 Because of its 

thinness, a shell had little bending resistance and was unsuitable for concentrated loads. 

 

375 Mauslof, Twentieth Century Architecture, 55. 376 "ACI 318.1-14 Thin Shells, Approved Version, 2013-10-08," American Concrete Institute, (Farmington Hills, 

MI, 2008), accessed March 31, 2016, 

https://www.concrete.org/portals/0/files/pdf/318reorg/thinshells_code_and_commentary_approvedversion_revised_

13-10-08.pdf.

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Concrete Folded Plate

Concrete folded plate construction was used for the same purpose as thin-shell concrete construction

which was to span large spaces without intermediate supports. Formed by joining flat, thin slabs along 

their edges to create a three-dimensional spatial structure, often cast in “V” or “W” shapes,377 the concrete 

often had the appearance of being folded.

Figure 42. Joy Elementary, Fairbanks, 1962; displays folded concrete plate technology along the edges of the domed roof. Post 

Card caption reads” L. F. Joy Elementary School. One of the buildings in the Fairbanks, Alaska modern School system. 

Recipient of national and international recognition for architectural design.” (source: Mike Roberts, nd).

Lift Slab Construction

Similar to precast concrete, lift slab construction was developed in the early 1950s as an economical 

concrete construction method. It involved casting the concrete floor and roof slabs of a multi-story 

building on the ground and lifting or jacking them into place and fixing them to supports and columns.378

Construction began on the first lift slab building constructed in the state, the Four Seasons Apartments in 

Anchorage, in 1963. The project, nearing completion, was destroyed during the 1964 Earthquake.379

Analysis of the Four Seasons and other pre-stressed concrete structures led to recommendations for 

improvements so that buildings could better withstand seismic activity.

 

377 Diana Painter, Montana Post-World War II Architectural Survey and INvensotry HIstroic Context and Survey 

Report, (Helena, Montana: State Historic Preservation Office, Montana Historical Society, 2010), 38, accessed 

March 03, 2016, https://mhs.mt.gov/Portals/11/shpo/docs/Montana Mid-Century Survey Report.pdf. 378 Erik Johan Von Heidenstam, “Lift-slab Construction of Buildings, US Patent US3017723 A,” filed March 17, 

1958, and issued January 23, 1962.

379 Walter E. Kunze, John A. Sbarounis, and James E. Amrhein, “Behavior of Prestressed Concrete Structures 

During the Alaskan Earthquake,” Technical paper, (Washington DC: Precast Concrete Institute, 1965).

107
Figure 43. Schematic diagram of lift-slab construction; the resulting structure has been determined to be unstable in seismic 

zones (source: Frank A. Randall, Jr. 1986).

Exposed Aggregate Finish 

Aggregate was a substance added to concrete that gave it strength and durability. It could also radically 

alter weight and appearance of the concrete. By removing the cement and brushing, pressure washing, or 

using a light acid wash, the aggregate could be exposed, or in some instances, applied as an overlay.380

Panels, with exposed aggregate finishes, could also be used as a decorative element. 

Figure 44. Exposed aggregate wall with pebble dash (source: TNSDS 2014).

 

380 Mauslof, Twentieth Century Architecture, 57.

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Wood

Because of its availability, wood was always a poplar building material in Alaska. In the post-WWII era 

the timber and logging industries surrounding the production of plywood, pulpwood, and fabricated 

woods expanded and assisted a growing freedom in architectural design with cheap and innovative 

materials. Prefabricated housing, recreational vehicles, and other outdoor equipment were among the 

many uses for new fabricated woods. 

Whether fabricated wood or not, wood was still used as a framing material and was still the primary one 

for residential construction, “whether log cabins or wood-framed houses, the architecture used wood 

freely and without artifice. This reliance on wood had continued to the present.”381 

Fiberboard

The term fiberboard applied to a category of sheet products that was part of the larger family of wood 

composition boards. These wood composition boards were distinct from solid wood in that they were 

composed of wooden elements of varying sizes held together by an adhesive bond. It could be 

manufactured at numerous densities and thicknesses. It had been used for insulation, sheathing, and 

finishing of both interior and exterior. It was also known by trade names including Masonite, Homasote, 

American Wallboard, Beaver Board, Cornell Board, Feltex, Fir-tex, Insulite, Nu-Wood, Upson Board, 

and others. It came into widespread use during World War II. In the post-war era, the industry created 

hundreds of products. Homasote, because of its isolative properties and its ability to withstand extreme 

temperatures, was used on a range of military projects from the barracks, mess halls, and other facilities at 

Woody Island near Kodiak, Alaska beginning in 1939 to the construction of the Distant Early Warning 

(DEW) Line radar sites.382 

 

381 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 157. 382 "About Homasote® and Homasote Company," Homasote Company, accessed April 01, 2016, 

http://www.homasote.com/about.

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Figure 45. End wall of a quonset hut made of fiber board at Fort Richardson, used for barracks (University of Alaska 

Anchorage. Consortium Library. Archives & Special Collections, Keith W. Egan photograph album, 1941-1962, uaa-hmc-0605-

44c).

Plywood

Made by assembling hardwood or softwood veneers and bonding the layers with an adhesive, plywood is 

known for its strength, stability and ability to be molded into curves and other shapes, thus making it well 

suited for architectural uses. Plywood was widely used during World War II and was declared an essential 

war material. Production and distribution came under strict controls. Despite its vital importance to the 

war effort, it was not until 1954 that the first pulp mill in Ketchikan shipped the first Alaska plywood to 

market.”383

In the post-World War II period there were several innovations in wood. There was a surplus of plywood 

manufacturing equipment after the war and it naturally evolved into being one of the most predominant 

building materials used. Plywood, as a structural sheathing member began to be employed in the 1950s 

and soon replaced board sheathing on walls, floors, and roofs.384 It was well suited to Alaska because it 

allowed an even tighter building by eliminating the many cracks and joints common with earlier plank 

and shiplap construction. This meant less natural air leakage and less fuel use. 

Figure 46. A public use cabin at Shelter Island, built by USFS in 1955, using plywood (source: Lantz 2010).

 

383 Alaska Forest Association, Alaska Timber Industry History Southeast Alaska, accessed April 1, 2016, 

http://www.akforest.org/Alaska Timber Industry History.pdf.

384 Nick Gromicko and Ben Gromicko, "Structural Design Basics of Residential Construction for the Home 

Inspector," International Association of Certified Home Inspectors, accessed June 06, 2016, 

http://www.nachi.org/structural-design-basics-residential-construction.htm.

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Logs

From the south slope of the Brooks Range, which more or less defined the northern limit of the Boreal 

Forest, to the rain forests of the southern panhandle, the state was blessed with an abundance of trees 

suitable for building log structures.385 An iconic symbol of the frontier state, log structures, whether precut or handmade, remained a popular building type and material for construction in the post-war period. 

Companies like Pan Abode of British Columbia and Washington made log homes readily available. 

During the ’67 Centennial, dozens of log cabins were moved from downtown Fairbanks to the exposition 

site at Alaskaland affording visitors ample opportunity to enjoy food and drink in an original log cabin.386

● Example: Anchorage Visitor Center, Anchorage Fourth and F Streets, 1954, Edward B. 

Crittenden. Built in Homer in 1954, the Visitor Center harkens back to a past Anchorage never 

really had; it was never strictly a log cabin town.387

● Example: Richard L. Proenneke National Historic Site, Lake Clark National Park and Preserve.

Recognized for its stature as an excellent example of an Alaskan bush log cabin and its 

association with Dick Proenneke, an important voice in the preservation of wilderness in 

Alaska, who built the cabin in 1968; it was listed on the National Register in 2007.

Figure 47. Anchorage Visitors Information Center Cabin, 1963, designed by Edwin Crittenden in 1954 and still present on 4th

Avenue (source: Anchorage Museum at Rasmuson Center, Ward Wells Collection, AMRC-wws-4059-1).

 

385 Alaska Forest Association, Alaska Timber. 386 Tity De Vries, "Ambiguity in an Alaskan History Theme Park: Presenting ‘History as Commodity’ and ‘History 

as Heritage,’ The Public Historian 29, no. 2 (2007): 55-79, accessed February 23, 2016, 

http://tph.ucpress.edu/content/29/2/55.

387 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 83.

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Metals

Popular because of its durability, malleability, fireproof qualities, and cost, metal came into widespread 

use as a building material in the US during the Industrial Revolution. Different metals had different 

properties, and a range of metals were used as framing elements, ornamentation, hardware, roofing 

material, cladding material, accessories building, and a host of other uses. It was also a popular building 

material for pre-fabricated buildings. 

With the advent of World War II, metal became a strategic material, and its use was largely limited to 

construction related to the War effort. Used in the production of everything from airplanes to mess kits, a 

massive metal production industry emerged. At the close of the war, whether used as a structural element, 

a decorative one, or both, improvements in technology, a surplus of material, and an industrial complex 

dedicated to its manufacture meant that metal became an increasingly common building material in the 

mid-twentieth century. 

Aluminum

Aluminum was characterized as being lightweight, malleable, resistant to corrosion, and one of the most 

widely abundant metallic elements.

388 Prior to the war steel siding was used as a building material, but 

war time shortages brought a halt to the use of steel, aluminum, and other metals. Use of aluminum, used 

in aircraft construction, increased greatly during the war and resulted in a postwar surplus. The nation’s 

housing crisis helped revive the industry and address the surplus. Aluminum manufacturers found new 

markets in the construction industry where the material was used for doors, windows, ornament,389

roofing, exterior cladding, curtain wall systems,

390 and carports. 

 

388 Thomas Jester, ed., Twentieth-Century Building Materials: History and Conservation, (Los Angeles: Getty 

Conservation Institute, 2014), 13.

389 Mauslof, Twentieth Century Architecture, 48. 

390 Jester, Twentieth-Century Building Materials, 17.

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Figure 48. Cleary Summit Ski Lodge on the Steese Highway, 1966; built in 1960 with an aluminum roof but longer extant 

(source: University of Alaska Anchorage, Consortium Library, Archives & Special Collections, Alfred and Mae Bakken slides 

and memorabilia, UAA-hmc-0589-4-107).

Enameled Metal Panels

Metal panels coated with an enamel finish or coating were colorful, durable, and well suited to the 

climate.391 The smooth, hard, and often glossy panels were similar to glass panels but nontransparent. 

Fired at a high temperature, the panels are rigid and had a very low porosity, repelling moisture. The 

process of enameling metal sheets was not a new one. It had been developed in Germany and Austria in 

the mid-1800s. Because porcelain enamel was tough, did not fade, and was easy to clean, it was quickly 

adopted by manufacturers of signs, appliances, bathrooms, and kitchen fixtures. By the end of the 

nineteenth century, metal enameling was being done on an industrial scale in the United States. Iron was 

initially used for the base metal; sheets of low-carbon steel became available in the early twentieth 

century. A technological breakthrough during World War II used lower heat for the enameling process 

which allowed manufacturers to use lighter-gage metal, and in turn lowered the price of the panels.

392

Providing colorful options for patterns and breaking up the glass-faced walls, the lighter panels were ideal 

for early curtain wall systems. The panels were also used for gas stations, restaurants, utilitarian 

buildings, and even houses such as the Lustron Home, a pioneering porcelain enamel coated steel paneled 

house, intended to help solve the post-War housing crisis. Only about 2,680 of the houses were produced, 

 

391 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 50.

392 "Lustron Preservation," National Trust for Historic Preservation, accessed June 16, 2016, 

http://apps.ohiohistory.org/lustronpreservation.org/htdocs/meet-the-lustrons/lustron-history/.

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and a small shipment of them was sent to Alaska in 1948. The location of the houses and if they are 

extant is unknown. 

Figure 49. An enameled metal panel with "crackling" finish (source: TNSDS 2016).

3.2.3 Conclusion 

While this section provides an overview of materials used during the period, it is by no means a 

comprehensive inventory. In Alaska, as in the rest of the United States, in the decades following World 

War II, new construction materials and advances in building technology dramatically changed the look of 

new construction. However, the wide array of “new” materials, more readily available in the Lower 48 

were not always available, nor were they always suited to the climate. The on-going military presence and 

innovations in the use of materials like concrete and plywood meant that those materials remained in 

widespread use. Although improved infrastructure made a wider array of materials available, the short 

construction season, cost, and ability of the materials to withstand the climate remained considerations. 

While the study and understanding of the evolution, application, and conservation of twentieth century 

building materials is rapidly evolving, especially in Alaska, there is still much study to be done. From 

understanding the evolution of local industries producing everything from concrete, prefabricated 

structures, mobile housing, and assessing how mid-twentieth century materials were adapted to extreme 

conditions, the study of the use of twentieth century building materials in the state is in need of further 

investigation. 

4.0 ARCHITECTURAL TYPES, STYLES AND DESIGN TRENDS 

Just as building construction methods often are also types of buildings, the lines between type and style 

are equally blurred. While the previous section focused specifically on building materials, construction 

114
techniques, or types, this section will explore different building types and architectural styles present 

between 1945 and 1968. Defining modern architecture and the styles that emerged still provokes much 

debate. Yet, the identification of building types, styles, developing an understanding of the history, 

evolution, and defining features of those various types and styles is an integral component of the survey, 

identification, and evaluation process. This section will provide an introduction to building types, 

architectural styles, and design trends present during the period. 

4.1 What Style (or Type) Is It? Style vs. Type

There is also much debate between architectural style vs. architectural type and where an architectural 

type ends and style begins and vice versa. Generally speaking, architectural styles classify architecture in 

terms of form, materials, time period, region, etc. Not always easily identifiable, the style is visible. It is a 

way of classifying architecture that gives emphasis to its design characteristics. Building type often refers 

to a building’s use or function. For example, a gas station is a type of commercial building, but it can be 

executed in an array of styles. However, not all distinctions between style and type are so easy. For 

example, A-Frame buildings could be considered both a type and style of architecture, and A-Frame 

buildings might have additional stylistic characteristics like Swiss Chalet. Thus, some resources can be 

considered both a type and a style of architecture. 

4.2 Building Types and Design Trends in Alaska

4.2.1 Overview 

The severe climate in Alaska often meant that the first and second buildings constructed on a site were 

done out of an immediate need for shelter.393 The surge in population growth after the war also meant that 

speed, economy, and utility were important forces in shaping the built environment. Popular architectural 

styles and trends did make their way north even if in a more subdued form. Urban planning was often 

given little consideration with the rapid development, and in cities like Anchorage chaotic traffic patterns 

emerged.394

While development occurred throughout the state, most of the population was clustered in urban areas in 

Anchorage, Juneau, and Fairbanks. Some high-rises and higher density clusters did emerge, but outside of 

the population centers, the majority of the growth during the period was characterized by a “loose 

collection of isolated small cities, towns, and villages scattered in coastal areas and developed as military 

bases, mining interests, scientific observatories, and administrative, or shipping hubs. Irrespective of 

population and size, the typology of development was one of suburbanized north with low density, single 

family detached homes with yards and driveways, a scattering of administrative, commercial, cultural 

buildings, schools, above-ground infrastructure, utilidors, an adjacent airport, and small dock for 

connecting the city to the outside world.”395

 

393 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 49. 

394 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 49. 

395 Jull, Matthew G., and Leena S. Cho, "Architecture and Urbanism of Arctic Cities: Case Study of Resolute Bay 

and Norilsk," School of Architecture, University of Virginia, accessed April 2, 2016,

http://www2.gwu.edu/~ieresgwu/assets/docs/JULL_CHO_%20Architecture%20_Urbanism_of%20Arctic%20Cities

_FINAL_X.pdf. 

115
Just as the military buildup for World War II and the Cold War brought a surge of economic investment 

and development to the state, so too did the Good Friday Earthquake of 1964. Post-quake recovery efforts 

brought significant investment in infrastructure and new development. 

In the decades following the war, “Americans influenced Native architecture to the point of extinction of 

traditional form.”396 Building programs, intended to help improve living conditions, replaced Native 

construction with western buildings. In its wake, hybrid forms reflecting the influences of Native 

architecture on western building forms continued to evolve. 

4.2.2 Climate Architecture & Seismic Architecture 

Commercial, residential, civic, institutional, or industrial structures alike needed to be built to withstand 

the severe climate and seismic sensitivity. The strong regional differences in climate meant that in some 

areas, little adaptation of popular design trends and styles was needed or even considered while in others, 

like the west and north, severe temperatures and strong winds prompted architects, builders, and designers 

to utilize prefabricated structures and to invent a number of high-tech solutions to cope with the severe 

cold such as roofs designed for a minimum of wind resistance, setting structures on raised piers so that the 

snow blows under them, and installing water and sewer pipes in insulated conduits called utildiors.397

Climate Architecture

Permafrost or perennially frozen ground which underlies approximately 85% of the state posed significant 

engineering problems for the design, construction, and maintenance of all structures and resulted in 

tremendous maintenance costs or even the relocation or abandonment of highways, railroads, and other 

structures.398 Frost heaving, or the earth (and the structures on it) moving, was a significant problem. The 

thaw could be caused by natural cycles or from the heat from the structure causing the land beneath to 

thaw. The subsidence could cause significant damage. A 1969 report by the United States Geological 

Survey stated, “Permafrost and Related Engineering Problems in Alaska” suggested adaptations like 

careful site selection, minimization of the destruction of existing vegetation, using enough gravel to 

provide insulation and prevent thaw, and climate sensitive modifications like utilidors, air vents, and jacks 

could help minimize the adverse effects.399 Because of the unique geologic-environmental conditions that 

existed in permafrost areas, special engineering procedures should be used, not only to minimize 

disruption of the natural environment, to provide the most economical and sound methods for developing 

the natural resources of the permafrost region of Alaska.400 Other common modifications included 

building orientation, insulation, and arctic entries (small rooms, vestibules or entryways, sealed from the 

outside and inside by separate doors).

 

396 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 51.

397 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 51.

398 Oscar J. Ferrians, Jr., Ruben Kachadoorian, and Gordon W. Greene, “Permafrost and Related Engineering 

Problems in Alaska,” USGS Professional Paper, Report no. 678, (Washington DC: United States Government 

Printing Office, 1969), 36.

399 Ferrians, Kachadoorian, and Greene, “Permafrost.” 400 Ferrians, Kachadoorian, and Greene, “Permafrost.”

116
Figure 50. Arctic entry on a residence located at 142 East 10th Avenue, Block 13 Lot 15 in Anchorage’s Pilot Row 

Neighborhood (source: True North SDS 2014).

117
Figure 51. Schoolhouse at Glennallen with foundation air vents that allow warm air to escape in the winter and jacks positioned 

to counter any differential settlement (source: Ferrians, Kachadoorian and Greene 1969).

With the establishment of what would become the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory (NARL) in 1947 

and other such institutions, much scientific research on the arctic region was undertaken. However, most 

of it was in support of military operations and resource exploration and extraction; it wasn’t until 2006 

that the Cold Climate Housing Research Center opened. 

Even with the unique climate of the state, with some notable exceptions, much of its architecture 

resembles that of the Lower 48. While some attempts were made to “create a truly polar architectural 

vernacular building...both building and community planning follow mid-latitude design principles.”401

Seismic Architecture 

The vertical displacement caused by the Good Friday Earthquake of 1964 spanned over 520,000 square 

kilometers.402 Because of the military presence in the state, the recovery efforts were swift, and the quake 

was one of the most studied in history. Dozens of studies and papers were produced including six by the 

United States Geological Survey. The Alaska Earthquake March 27,1964: Field Investigations and 

Reconstruction Effort gives a detailed inventory of the clean-up and reconstruction efforts in Anchorage, 

Seward, Valdez, Cordova, Homer, Seldovia, Whittier, and other communities. 

The flow of economic investment to aid in the recovery efforts outstripped the amount caused by damages 

and resulted in a significant improvement in infrastructure, housing, and other services. The iconic images 

of “houses broken apart by land sliding at Anchorage’s Turnagain Heights” demonstrated the importance 

of considering earthquake effects in urban planning and development.”403 Studies recommended 

improvements to mapping and documentation and, after the quake, base maps, topographic maps, 

hydrographic charts, pertinent reports, and maps on local geology and soils were created or improved.404

While consideration of site selection and construction modifications were not always consistently applied, 

existing buildings were retrofitted while new buildings were designed to withstand the shaking, and new 

developments in known hazardous areas were discouraged.405 

 

401 Harold Strub, Bare Poles: Building Design for High Latitudes, (Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1996). 402 "Historic Earthquakes: 1964 Great Alaska Earthquake." USGS Earthquake Hazards Program, accessed April 02, 

2016, http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/states/events/1964_03_28.php.

403 William Leith, “Hearing: Oversight hearing entitled ‘Advances in Earthquake Science: 50th Anniversary of the 

Great Alaskan Quake,’ Subcommittee on Energy and Mineral Resources (Committee on Natural Resources),” 

accessed April 17, 2016, http://docs.house.gov/Committee/Calendar/ByEvent.aspx?EventID=101949. 404 Eckel, The Alaska Earthquake, Cited in Zheng, X. Y. (2012). 405 P. Haeussler, R. Hansen, R. Combellick, P. Whitmore and T. Smayda, T., “Are you prepared for the next big 

Earthquake in Alaska?” Alaska Earthquake Information Center, (cited in Zheng, 2012). 

118
Figure 52. Moore Hall (built 1966) and Skarland Hall (built 1964) at the University of Alaska Fairbanks, as seen in 1966. The 

two dormitories were built after the 1964 earthquake and use seismically resistant design, including wide/low form and equal 

placement of window openings across all load-bearing walls. Moore was designed by Crittenden, Cassetta, Wirum and Cannon, 

while Skarland Hall was designed by Alaska Architecture and Engineering Company. Both dormitories are still in use (source: 

Alaska and Polar Regions Collections, Elmer E. Rasmuson Library, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Mark C. Glunz Slide 

Collection, 1966-1967, UAF-1996-167-82).

4.2.3 Building Types 

This section includes a summary of building types typical of the period. Although comprehensive, it is 

certainly not exhaustive. In addition, while some building types such as libraries vary greatly in terms of 

their design characteristics and architectural styles, other building types are more easily distinguished by 

their design characteristics. Where appropriate, those characteristics are summarized. 

Residential 

At the end of the war, the housing backlog that began in the Great Depression and accelerated during the 

war years had left approximately 3,600,000 families across the United States without homes. In relative 

numbers, Alaska did not experience as great a surge in residential construction as in other states such as 

Arizona, California, and Florida; however, particularly in urban areas, there was still a significant amount 

of growth during the period.

406

Housing across the state ran the gamut from single-family to multi-family and ranged from hastily 

assembled utilitarian homes to high-style, architect-designed extravaganzas. While some came to the state 

seeking the homesteading, off-the grid experience, most newcomers wanted the same standard of living to 

which they were accustomed. Military bases could not build family housing fast enough to accommodate 

 

406 Arthur C. Nelson, “Toward a New Metropolis: The Opportunity To Rebuild America,” Brookings Institute, 

(December 01, 2004), accessed March 17, 2016, 

http://www.brookings.edu/research/reports/2004/12/metropolitanpolicy-nelson.

119
the families pouring in, so they turned to the local economy in search of housing. The result in the early 

1950s was a severe housing shortage in Anchorage and Fairbanks that resulted in astronomical housing 

costs. Military families lived in shoddy conditions. As a result, shanty towns of "wanigans" – military 

Quonset huts with Arctic entryways – and makeshift shacks sprang up overnight. This phenomena, in 

return, created an excess of housing available for military families as well as any newcomer who could 

not afford the exorbitant rent elsewhere.

407 

Federal agencies and business corporations that moved their headquarters to Anchorage during and after 

World War II did their part to address the inadequate supply of housing for their employees. Some 

residential tracts and complexes were constructed by the Army Corps of Engineers and the Civil 

Aeronautics Administration (CAA) for use by their employees in Anchorage’s four original 

neighborhoods. The Army Housing Association, a cooperative created by service members and their 

families, built 32 Minimal Traditional style homes on Block 13 of the Third Addition in the summer of 

1940; this portion of 11th Avenue also earned the nickname “Pilots’ Row” because many bush pilots and 

aviators lived on that block in the 1940s and 1950s. Northwest Airlines built clusters of identical small 

ranch-style houses for their employees in the South Addition after World War II.408

By 1960, the influx of military and associated personnel had begun to diminish, and the 1964 Good 

Friday earthquake and post-earthquake urban renewal projects helped to improve the quality of housing in 

the state. While prefab houses, mobile homes, multi-family units, and high-rises were found throughout 

the state, the predominant residential building type was single-family residential. 

Single-family

More than 13 million homes were built in the United Sates between 1945 and 1954. The largest increase 

in housing was in metropolitan areas with the majority of houses being built in suburban areas. In Alaska 

the most significant growth occurred in urban areas. Single-family homes varied greatly in architectural, 

style, size, and quality of construction and included prefabricated homes and mobile homes. From small 

starter homes, to architect-designed residences, the houses were built as infill construction in existing 

neighborhoods, tracts, subdivisions and stand-alone construction. Lot sizes, number of stories, and 

orientation to the street were equally varied. 

While most homes were designed by builders, developers, contractors, or home owners there were several 

notable houses designed by in-state architects or architects from the outside including the Willis Harpel 

House No. 2 designed by John Lautner and completed in 1966. 

Characteristics:

• 1 or more stories

• Entrance doors all lead to one unified internal space

• 1 or more rooms

• Yard space

 

407 Hummel, “The US Military as Geographical Agent.” 408 BGES. Anchorage Original Neighborhoods Historic Preservation Plan, (Anchorage: Historic Preservation 

Commission, 2012), 186.

120
Figure 53. A single family residence along the Glacier Highway in Juneau (source: Schlenker 2011).

Figure 54. A single family residence located in the eastern half of Nome (source: TNSDS 2012).

121
Figure 55. Life Magazine feature on the Willis Harpel House, Stanford Drive, Anchorage (source: Life Magazine October 1967).

Multi-family

The most prevalent home type was single-family dwellings, however, there were several types of multiunit dwellings constructed during the period as well. These included: 

Duplexes – A two-unit dwelling with each unit having its own exterior entrance. The units can be sideby-side with a shared wall between or a complete unit on each floor of the building. Generally, the size of 

a single residential house, but the term cannot be extended to a dwelling with more than two units.

Characteristics:

• Side by side units with shared or separate entrances

• Common wall

• 1-2 stories

122
Figure 56. A duplex in Auk Bay, Juneau (source: Schlenker 2011).

Apartment buildings - Multi-unit dwelling structures that came in a variety of forms from small units of 

2-3 apartments to large buildings with dozens of dwelling units.409 

Characteristics:

• Three or more dwelling units

• One or multiple entrances

• Examples: Panoramic View Apartments, Anchorage, 1951; Richardson Vista, Anchorage, 1951

Types of Apartment Buildings

Mid-rise– A multiple unit dwelling that was generally between six and ten stories with internal access to 

individual units. They could be a single building or grouped with numerous buildings of mirrored design. 

Characteristics:

• Vertically stacked dwelling units 

• Between six and ten stories 

 

409 BGES, South Addition Historic Context Statement & Building Survey - Anchorage, Alaska, (Anchorage: 

Municipality of Anchorage, 2011), 10.

123
Figure 57. Knik Arms, a mid-rise apartment building in Anchorage, as seen in 1953; the building is still in use (source: Sidney 

Hamilton Photograph Collection, Anchorage Museum, Gift of Emily Turner, B1976.82.116).

High-rise/apartment tower - while there is some debate as to where a mid-rise building ends and a highrise begins, a high-rise building can be defined by an apartment tower of at least ten stories. Despite the 

increase of population during the post-war period in residential high-rises, they remained the exception 

rather than the norm, with low-rise horizontal outward growth being the dominant form of residential 

expansion. 

Characteristics:

• Vertically stacked units

• 10 or more stories

• Elevator 

• Example: Inlet Towers, Anchorage, 1952 (Earl W. Morrison in association with Donald Mac 

Donald, Architects); McKinley Tower Apartments, 1952 (Francis B. Mayer, using a Morrison 

design). Both 14-story, International Style buildings were constructed to help alleviate the 

housing shortage in Anchorage. Both buildings featured similar design details, corner windows, a 

strong vertical emphasis, minimal ornamental details, and a two-tone paint scheme. Both 

buildings were heavily damaged in the 1964 Earthquake. The McKinley Tower Apartments was 

listed on the National Register in 2006.”410

 

410 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 94. 

124
Figure 58. McKinley Tower Apartments, Anchorage, a high-rise apartment building, as seen in 1952. (source: Anchorage 

Museum at Rasmuson Center, Ward Wells Collection, AMRC-wws-1323-1 ).

• Example: Hodge Building, Whittier, 1957; Built by the Army Corps of Engineers for family 

housing and bachelor officer quarters the building. The building withstood the Good Friday 

Earthquake without suffering significant damage. In 1969, the building was transferred from the 

Army to the State of Alaska and deeded to the city of Whittier in 1973 and in 1974 was officially 

renamed Begich Towers in remembrance of Congressman Begich and formed into a 

condominium association. The Association has been operating continuously since that time. 

Today, the 14-story building is home to many of the town’s residents. 

125
Figure 59. The Hodge Building, Whittier, a high-rise apartment building, as seen in 1964 (AMRC-b79-38-23).

• Example: Marine View Tower, formerly known as Wingren Court, is one of three high-rises in 

Ketchikan, designed by Earl W. Morrison of Seattle; it was completed in 1953. Similar to Inlet 

Tower in Anchorage, the high-rise apartment building was constructed in response to the growing 

demand for rental housing in Alaska. The 11-story apartment is relatively void of ornamentation 

with a vertical emphasis and two-tone paint application that was common in Morrison designs at 

that time.411

 

411 Yarborough and Welsh, Marine View Condominiums, 11.

126
Figure 60. The Marine View Tower (formerly Wingren Court) as seen today (source: Yarborough and Welsh, 2014).

Commercial 

In the Lower 48, by 1969, 79 percent of families owned an automobile.412 In Alaska, 48.9 percent of the 

population owned automobiles.413 Post-war prosperity and automobile ownership meant massive changes 

to how people lived, worked, and consumed. Existing building types and styles evolved and new ones 

emerged in response to these changes. The list of types of commercial buildings below includes 

information on new building types that emerged during the period and descriptions of how existing 

building types evolved.

Bank

Changes to banking law to permit statewide branching was seen as a way to lessen the problems arising 

from the inability to diversify in local areas and to serve a population scattered over a vast area.414 Prior to 

the changes in the law, banks generally had a central location in the main business district. With the new 

laws enabling branch banks, a new building type emerged during the period that was a specific response 

to these changes in banking law. Alaska had dozens of regional branch banks. While some branches were 

placed in existing storefronts or constructed in revival styles, the design of the new branch buildings 

sometimes featured more modern designs with interiors that reflected changes to the banking industry, 

often favoring the modern design or revival styles over the classical and on the interior, an open plan and 

tellers visible behind partitions or glass walls rather than the grills and cages of older banks. Drive-up 

banking, modern interiors, and futuristic design were just some of the features these branch banks 

sometimes displayed.415

 

412 US Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, Bicentennial Edition, 

Part 1, (Washington, D.C.: US Government Print Office, 1975), 717. 413 US Bureau of the Census, US Census of Population: 1960. 414 Richard H. Keehn, "Banking on Alaska: The Story of the National Bank of Alaska," EH.Net - Economic History 

Services, (July 2004), accessed March 01, 2016, http://eh.net/book_reviews/banking-on-alaska-the-story-of-thenational-bank-of-alaska/. 415 Carol J Dyson and Anthony Rubano, Banking on the Future: Modernism and the Local Bank. Preserving the 

127
Characteristics:

• Stand-alone structure

• Transparent interiors, large expanses of glazing made the interior visible from the street and 

sidewalk, night lighting designs that highlighted this transparency

• Drive-through access or amble parking were common features

• Example: The Key Bank on Gaffney Road in Fairbanks (now closed) was a rather unique 

example of the incorporation of Googie design elements into a regional branch bank building. 

Figure 61. Key Bank, 612 Gaffney Road, Fairbanks, n.d.; status unknown (source: Jessie Diamond 2013).

Professional building

Prior to the War, in urban areas, many “professionals” such as doctors, lawyers, dentists, accountants, etc 

were located in storefronts and upper stories of low-rise commercial buildings in downtown districts. 

With increased automobile ownership and residential development outside of the urban core, many 

professionals chose to locate away from the central business district in single-story, professional buildings 

that housed one office or a cluster of them. If associated with a medical practice, it was not uncommon to 

find these buildings located near hospitals and care centers, whereas, professional buildings for lawyers 

might be located near a courthouse or governmental building. 

Characteristics:

• 1-3 stories

• Often stand-alone buildings or built in clusters 

• Ample off-street parking spaces and landscaping elements

• Numbers and building names as design elements

 

Recent Past, ed. Deborah Slayton and William G. Foulks, (2000), 2!43.

128
Commercial High-rise 

Prior to the war in the larger cities, like Anchorage and Fairbanks, few tall buildings of ten or more stories 

punctuated the skyline. However, in the decades following the War, tall buildings graced the skyline of 

Anchorage, Juneau, and Ketchikan. Prior to the oil boom, most commercial high-rise buildings were built 

for hotels like the Hotel Captain Cook in Anchorage and the Polaris in Fairbanks. The post-war oil boom 

brought an array of new non-residential high-rises.

Characteristics:

• More than ten stories in height

• Primarily steel and concrete

• Numerous internal units

• Highly Visible Corporation Signage 

Figure 62. Anchorage Hilton Hotel, ca. 1960, is still operational (source: University of Alaska Anchorage, Consortium Library, 

Archives & Special Collections, Stewart’s Photo Shop slides, 1964-1992, uaa-hmc-1181-764).

Strip Mall 

With increased automobile ownership and the development of suburban residential areas, clusters of 

commercial buildings emerged along commercial roadways. The first strip mall was built in Anchorage in 

1951; the now demolished Hollywood Shopping Center was at the heart of the Government Hill 

neighborhood. In Spenard, the Northern Lights Center was developed by Wally Hickle in 1960. 

Beginning in 1968, Pete Zamarello began to construct his strip mall empire starting in the Muldoon area. 

Characteristics:

• Linear development oriented towards street

• Parking in front

• Clusters of buildings often connected or clustered in strips

129
Figure 63. Olympic Center, formerly Olympic Plaza, at the corner of Artic Boulevard and 36th Street in Anchorage. It is one of 

many strip malls built by Pete Zamarello in the late 1960s; it has since been remodeled (source: TNSDS 2016).

Shopping Mall

The first shopping malls emerged in the United States in the 1930s. Initially outdoor spaces of shops 

linked by pedestrian plazas with improvements in HVAC systems, changes in retail patterns, and 

consumer preferences, the existing outdoor malls were enclosed, and new enclosed malls were built. 

While mall development was prevalent in the Lower 48 in suburban areas, it wasn’t until the 1960s that 

the first mall came to Alaska. In 1966 the Aurora Village Shopping Center, at the corner of Northern 

Lights Boulevard and Minnesota Drive, opened with a new Carr’s Grocery Store as the anchoring 

storefront. The Mall in Anchorage opened in 1968 at the corner of Northern Lights Boulevard and the 

Seward Highway and contained a Sears store. 

Characteristics:

• Linear development of enclosed stores

• Store access using an internal corridor

• Climate controlled

130
Figure 64. Aerial image, dated 1966, of the Aurora Village Shopping Center on Northern Lights Boulevard (source: Anchorage 

Museum at Rasmuson Center Ward Wells Collection, AMRC-wws-4411-10).

Storefronts

Businesses that remained in the established business districts often remodeled. New construction reflected 

the transition from pedestrian to auto-bound consumers, and design elements were intended to catch the 

eye of passing motorists and highlight the abundance of consumer goods available. 

Open Front/Visual Front

Open front/visual front was a style of commercial architecture that offered shoppers a dramatic view of 

the interior sales space while the exterior of the building could be used for attractive signage. This effect 

was often accentuated at night by dramatic lighting schemes such as neon. The visual front began 

appearing in downtowns in the mid-1930s, but it did not gain widespread popularity until after WWII. 

Characteristics:

• Exterior of the building “framed” display windows

• Large display windows or expanses of glass at ground level with minimal framing. Occasional 

upper story framed display windows. 

• Flush mounted or projecting signs scaled to address automobile traffic on exterior walls

• Dramatic lighting schemes

• Interior spaces designed to highlight merchandise

131
Figure 65. Example of open front commercial building, 600 E. Northern Lights Blvd., Anchorage; Built 1968 (source, 

Washington Post, 2016). 

Closed Front

Closed front businesses were often used for shops where privacy or exclusiveness were needed or 

desirable such as high-end boutiques or jewelry stores. Perhaps one of the most iconic examples of the 

closed front was Frank Lloyd Wright’s V.C. Morris Store in San Francisco, of the design, Wright wrote, 

"we are not going to dump your beautiful merchandise on the street, but create an arch-tunnel of glass, 

into which the passers-by may look and be enticed...they will suddenly push open the door, and you've 

got them!”416

Characteristics:

• Flat billboard-like front which obscures view of interior spaces

• Partitions, curtains, and windowless doors limit view of interior space

Closed front can be at building line or recessed from the building line

• Closed front can be punctuated with small display windows or cases

 

416 "V.C. Morris Gift Shop," MIT Libraries Dome, accessed June 17, 2016, 

https://dome.mit.edu/handle/1721.3/179719.

132
Figure 66. Example of semi-closed front, David Green Master Furrier, Anchorage, date unknown (source: Lambin 2015)

Recessed Open Front

Like the open front, the street front wall features large display windows or large expanses of glass. 

Recessed storefronts provided an opportunity to attract pedestrians and shelter window shoppers from the 

elements. 

Characteristics:

• All or part of the building front was recessed several feet back from the building line

• Sometimes featured corner windows or display cases within the recessed space

133
Figure 67. Example of a recessed open front commercial building, Stewart’s Photo Shop, Anchorage (source: Roy Neese 2011). 

Slipcover

Just as a piece of furniture could be given a new look with a bit of fabric, for buildings in existing 

districts, the “slipcover” was a popular way to update buildings. In some instances the updates were 

purely ornamental with the new façade applied over the old (and sometimes historic), in other instances, 

the existing façade was largely demolished and replaced with a new one. 

Characteristics:

• Cladding element covered original exterior of building

• Openings in upper-stories often covered or obscured by cladding material

• Signage or building name used as decorative element on upper stories of façade

134
Figure 68: Morris Ketchum, Design for Modernization, example of a slipcover design, 1948 (Source: Lambin Collection)

Roadside Commercial

The rise in automobile ownership meant a more mobile population in need of services like gas, food, and 

lodging but with the proliferation of businesses, it also meant that the architecture or design of a building 

could be a means to entice would be customers to patronize your business. 

Gas/Service Station 

A station is referred to by various popular names including filling station (approximately 1910–1920), 

gasoline or gas station (1920–1940), or service station (meaning a place where a variety of automobile 

services are provided, 1920 to post World War II). The evolution of the term reflected the gradual 

expansion of a commercial enterprise in a small town to a sophisticated corporate distribution program 

that offered a branded product along an interstate highway system. The development of the gas station 

also evolved from a simple and common building form to a complex building form during the twentieth

century attracting the attention of major industrial designers and architects. Despite the commonality of 

the property type, specific forms and styles arose during progressive time periods, in different areas of the 

country, and evolved through the corporate design influence of a number of oil and gas companies. Gas 

135
stations, like many building types of commercial and roadside industries, often underwent alterations or 

changes over time.417

Characteristics:

• 1 or more gas pump islands possibly beneath car port

• Open front building with bright signage

• Painted colors that reflected the brand of gasoline sold at the location

• 1 or more overhead door bays for service area

Figure 69. Beacon Service Station on 5th Avenue, Anchorage, as seen in 1957 (source: Anchorage Museum at Rasmuson Center, 

Ward Wells Collection, AMRC-wwc-2616). 

Billboard

Billboards, also called “ducks,” were self-identifying buildings where the building itself acted as a sign or 

billboard for the business inside. For example, a hotdog stand would be designed to look like a giant 

hotdog. Corporations, like McDonald’s, expanded on this idea and created signature structures that were 

easily recognizable which could be adapted for different climates but contained the same signature 

elements such as a mansard roof or golden arches. Pizza Hut also adapted a signature style using a South 

Pacific island design. In Alaska, Carr’s grocery stores embraced such a signature design. Although the 

type is relatively rare in Alaska, business like Carr’s grocery stores (see previous Figure 65) embraced 

such a signature design. Perhaps the most iconic example of the type is the Leon Smith Igloo, “the igloo--

-the residential form most associated with Alaska, correctly or not, makes a vivid advertisement to 

passing motorists.”418

Characteristics:

 

417 W. Dwayne Jones, A Field Guide to Gas Stations in Texas, Historical Studies Report No. 2003-03, (Austin, 

Texas: Texas Department of Transportation, Environmental Affairs Division, Historical Studies Branch, 2003), 1. 

418 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 139.

136
• Highly visible signage or commercial logo

• Reflected what the commercial entity was offering to consumers

• Standard design replicated all locations operated by the business

Figure 70: Leon Smith Igloo, Cantwell, 1970s-1992 (Source: Alaska.org 2016)

Motel

The motel was a building type that emerged in the 1920s to cater to auto-bound travelers. Development of 

this type slowed first because of the Great Depression then because of World War II. At the close of the 

war, as more people took to the roads, the motel or motor-hotel became more commonplace. 

Characteristics:

• Usually 1-2 story buildings

• Structure set back behind parking area

• Often found on outskirts of developed areas, along highways, or arterial road

137
Figure 71. The Fairbanks Inn on Cushman Street, Fairbanks, 1964; it was later the Best Western Fairbanks Inn and then Quality

Inn but by 2011 it was no longer operational; the building is still standing (source: Alaska Research Company 1962).

Cultural Institutions

Investment from federal funding from the Alaska ’67 Centennial Celebration was intended to make 

permanent investment in Alaska, “advertise Alaska,” and build up the cultural endowment of the state. 

The program required matching funds from local communities which responded with “imaginative and 

enterprising projects including museums, community centers, performing arts facilities, libraries, 

campgrounds, historical parks, and a variety of restoration projects.”419 With over eighty projects funded 

by the federal matching funds and spin off projects, almost every community in the state benefitted in 

some way. Whether new facilities, like the Anchorage Museum of History & Art were built, or existing 

structures were repurposed, like the converted cannery model, or replicas were constructed like the 

Chilkat Center for the Performing Arts in Haines, the cumulative efforts significantly increased the 

number of cultural institutions across the state. At statehood there were only six museums in the territory; 

the Centennial construction projects alone doubled that number,420 with new museums constructed in 

Anchorage, Juneau, Ketchikan, Petersburg, Wrangell, Kodiak, Kotzebue, Nome, Bethel and Homer, and 

historical building restoration efforts at Fairbanks, Gambell, Ninilchik, Kenai, Knik, Anchorage, 

Klawock, and Hydaburg.

Museums

Museums, being a collection and repository space in function, could have a wide variety of 

characteristics. They ranged in size from small, single-rooms in civic buildings to massive buildings that 

filled entire city blocks. The size was generally related to available funding and many expanded and 

received new additions over time. 

• Example: The Anchorage Museum of History and Art, 1968; Designed by Kirk, Wallace, and 

McKinley of Seattle in association with Schultz/Maynard of Anchorage, the initial stage of the 

building was completed in 1968. The Sixth avenue façade featured a broad frieze designed by 

sculptor Alex Duff Combs. The use of brick as a building material softened the formal lines of the 

 

419 Brown et al., View from the Future, 8. 420 Brown et al., View from the Future, 17.

138
exterior. The building was expanded in 1974, 1986, and 2009 and is currently undergoing 

renovations though portions of the first iteration of the building can still been seen complete with 

the sculpted frieze. 

Figure 72. Anchorage Museum of History and Art, extant (source: Alaska-in-pictures.com 2010).

• Example: Alaska State (Centennial) Museum, 1967; in 1967, the citizens of Juneau implemented 

a one percent sales tax to help fund the building of a Centennial Museum. Designed by Steven 

Forrest, of Linn A. Forrest Architects, AIA, the building housed cultural materials from the 

northwest coast, Russian colonial era, early pioneer materials, natural history, and fine art. 

Featuring stylized stamped concrete panels of Alaskan Native motifs, the building was 

demolished in 2015. 

139
Figure 73. Alaska State (Centennial) Museum, Juneau, demolished (source: Alaska State Library - Historical Collections, Don 

Steffa Photograph Collection, ca. 1958-1977, ASL-P283-2-451 ).

• Example: Kenay Museum, 1967, Kenai; the Kenay Museum in Kenai was created in 1967 by 

reconstructing a Russian Orthodox Church school; the museum was housed on the second level of 

the building. The land was once part of Fort Kenay, which contained the still extant Holy 

Assumption Russian Orthodox Church, the Saint Nicholas Russian Orthodox Chapel, and a 

Russian Orthodox rectory. Four historical buildings and a log cache were moved from various 

locations around Kenai to the area for viewing as well.421 

 

421 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 117.

140
Figure 74. Fort Kenay in Old Town Kenai, extant (source: Brown 2015).

Recreations 

Recreations of historic buildings that have been lost due to fire, weather, or other unavoidable 

circumstances can be completed using previously compiled documentation such as photographs, 

drawings, and the collective memory of a community. Use of Historic American Building Survey 

documentation had been a very successful tool when used in conjunction with obtaining building 

materials that reflect the period of the building’s construction. As part of centennial efforts or in a bid to 

attract tourists, many communities refurbished existing buildings or built new ones recreated in historic 

styles with the log cabin being an ever-popular motif.

• Example: Haines, Tlingit Plank House, 1964; constructed as part of an effort to turn Fort Seward 

in Haines into a tourist attraction a Tlingit plank house was constructed in the Fort parade ground 

in 1957–1964. The design of the 40-foot square house was based on a combination of original 

plans, slightly adapted to meet contemporary needs, and the drawings of George T. Emmons. The 

exterior featured carvings on the corner posts, as well as the front, with a totem pole incorporated 

into the rear facade. Built adjacent to the house was a one-story trapper's cabin “intended to 

illustrate the architecture of the first whites in the area.”422

 

422 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 167.

141
Figure 75. Tlingit Plank House on the grounds of Fort Seward, Haines, 1970, extant (source: National Register Nomination 

Form 1972).

Libraries 

Libraries were constructed or expanded to accommodate the growing population across the state. 

Expansion of the university system also included new library buildings in Fairbanks and Anchorage. New 

library facilities, or combination of library/museum complexes were also constructed under the 

Alaska ’67 Centennial efforts including those in Wrangell, Cordova, and Ketchikan. Many have since 

been demolished or modified.

142
Figure 76. The Z.J. Loussac Library, Anchorage, William Manley architect, 1955; demolished (source: Anchorage Museum at 

Rasmuson Center, Ward Wells Collection, AMRC-wws-1640-2).

Figure 77. The Seward Library after its 1967 remodeling effort, as seen in 2015 (source: Brown 2015).

Civic/Government 

After World War II, the surge in population meant that an increasing array of public facilities to 

accommodate the needs of the growing population needed to be built. These structures were built by the 

143
federal, state, and local governments including office buildings like the Hurff A. Saunders Federal 

Building in Juneau (Olsen and Sands, architects, 1966), courthouses, post offices, museums, and border 

stations.423 The building type, style, and quality of construction varied from high-style federal buildings 

and courthouses to simple utilitarian structures. 

Figure 78. The Snowden Administrative Office Building in Anchorage houses the Alaska Judiciary and associated staff (source 

Dinker022089 2015).

Courthouses

Courthouses built during the post-WWII era were either a new building constructed solely for that 

purpose or a repurposed building. In Sitka, the existing courthouse originally built in 1936 was renovated 

in 1963. Some of Alaska’s most prominent architects were involved with the design and construction of 

Alaska’s courthouses. In Anchorage, a courtroom and offices were added to the Federal Building in 1958 

which were designed by architect Edwin Crittenden. Completed in 1966, the firm Olson and Sands 

designed the US Post Office and Courthouse for the US District Court in Juneau. 

 

423 Robinson and Foell, GSA Buildings, 6.

144
Figure 79. US Post Office and Courthouse, Juneau, Alaska, 1966, extant (source: History of the Federal Judiciary 2016).

Figure 80. The 1958 Crittenden Addition to the Anchorage Federal Building, extant and modified (source: Schlenker, Allen and 

Steely 2010).

145
Post Offices

There were 199 post offices in Alaska prior to World War II.424 Similar to the pre-war era, those 

constructed after WWII consisted of simple utilitarian structures or high-style buildings reflecting popular 

national design trends of the period. Invoking many of the popular characteristics of storefront buildings 

with the use of supergraphics, large-scale painted, applied geometric, or typographic designs on the sign

frieze level so that the building itself served as advertisement or billboard for what was inside. Some 

designs employed for post offices, such as the geodesic dome used for the North Pole post office, were 

replaced with larger buildings of a more contemporary design. 

Figure 81. Post Office, Fairbanks, n.d. (source: Joe Schumacher 2005).

 

424 Federal Writers' Project, The WPA Guide to Alaska: The Last Frontier State, (San Antonio, Texas: Trinity 

University Press, 2013).

146
Figure 82. Post Office, North Pole, n.d., removed (source: Mel Anderson, nd).

Transportation Facilities

Travel and tourism in Alaska increased throughout the post-war era. New airport terminals were 

constructed across the state while new rail stations and hotels were built along the route of the Alaska 

Railroad. Roadside administrative buildings serving as border crossing and weigh stations were built. 

Improvements to marine services, such as the construction of new docks, wharfs, and ferry terminals, 

were also undertaken to meet the demand of an increasing population and growing tourism industry. 

Automotive Transport

Spurred by military need to efficiently transport personnel and supplies, the Alaska road system grew 

substantially during the post-war years. At the Alaska and Yukon border, border stations were constructed 

to support US and Canadian customs agents. The Alaska Road Commission (ARC) and Bureau of Public 

Roads (BPR) built steel stringer/girder bridges in significant numbers throughout the 1950s and early 

1960s. The ability to administer and manage on-going operations, construction, and rehabilitation efforts 

was key to the successful increase in all areas of transportation during the period. Maintenance of the 

growing road system required labor camps and support facilities to successfully meet the demand for 

construction supplies and road improvements. In some instances, temporary camps for road expansion 

efforts became semi-permanent and, ultimately, led to the establishment of small towns as was the case 

for Glennallen.425

 

425 Robert L. Meinhardt, Section 106 Review for BIA Funding Allocated for Housing Improvements on the William 

Buck House (Alaska Road Commission Cook House) Located at Mile 185.5 of the Glenn Highway (Gulkana 

Quadrangle), (Anchorage: BIA Office of Regional Archeology, 2005), 5.

147
Figure 83. The Alaska Road Commission depot at Glennallen, ca. 1950, some buildings still extant (source: Alaska and Polar 

Regions Collections, Elmer E. Rasmuson Library, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fred Machetanz Collection in the National 

Archives). 

148
Figure 84. Tok Customs Station, ca. 1960, built in 1948 (source: Anchorage Museum at Rasmuson Center, Wien Collection, 

AMRC-b85-27-780).

149
Figure 85. The Brotherhood Bridge, Juneau, 1965; the bridge has since been demolished (source: Sharley and Krier 2013).

Air Transport

During the post-WWII period, many existing airfields were expanded. Fairbanks received a new terminal 

in 1951, and Juneau received two expansions of its terminal facilities in 1949 and 1957 (both by Foss 

Olsen Sands). Several villages also constructed airports including Nondalton, Shaktoolik, Nenana, and 

Harding Lake. The Kenai Municipal Airport was constructed in 1965-1966 and was designed by Arthur 

Bunnell.426 The Anchorage International Airport was a new construction effort completed in 1952 with 

the main terminal designed by Manley and Mayer. The Anchorage airport sustained major damage in the 

Good Friday Earthquake of 1964 with the complete collapse of the air traffic control tower that was later 

replaced with a design by Edwin Crittenden. Hangars were built at airports and airstrips to house aircraft 

and for service of the vehicles. In coastal areas, the hangars were set on piers over the water as was the 

case in Juneau, Ketchikan, and other Southeast Alaska communities. They varied in size based on the 

type of aircraft they could accommodate. Small, single craft hangars were built along airstrips in villages 

like Platinum, and airfields had groups of small hangars. The small hangars were often constructed of 

wood or metal with flat or salt-box roofs (some had a domed roof). Military-surplus Quonset huts were 

also used as hangers during this time due to their availability after World War II.

Terminals

As air transport grew across the US, its popularity and availability in Alaska also grew. It opened up vast 

areas of the territory that had previously been inaccessible to most individuals. Population growth and 

movement of goods spurred increasing interest in aviation, and the appointment of Alaska as a key 

element of the Great Circle Route prompted all sizes of commercial aviation ventures to establish 

 

426 “Notice: City of Kenai Airport Construction Public Input Advertisement,” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, 

(February 22, 1965), 4. 

150
themselves in Alaska. New air terminals were built in Anchorage, Fairbanks, and Juneau. The Anchorage 

International Airport was a new construction effort, completed in 1952, with the main terminal designed 

by Manley and Mayer. The Anchorage airport sustained major damage in the 1964 Good Friday 

earthquake due to the complete collapse of the air traffic control tower. Designed by the international 

architecture firm of Thomas Bourne, Fairbanks received a new terminal in 1954. The Juneau Municipal 

Airport was dedicated in 1949 and received a massive addition in 1958 that included an air traffic control 

tower, designed by the architecture firm of Olsen Sands, and was rededicated as an International Airport. 

Airfields with smaller terminals were built in villages and small communities including Nondalton, 

Shaktoolik, Nenana, and Harding Lake. The Kenai Municipal Airport was constructed in 1965-1966 using 

a design by Arthur Bunnell.

Characteristics:

• Located directly next to runways/airstrip

• Rows of windows for viewing flight arrivals and departures

• Parking area directly in front of building

• Contained internal functional areas for ticketing, baggage handling, seating

• May have an air traffic control tower

Figure 86. Fairbanks International Airport Terminal and Control Tower, 1961 (University of Alaska Anchorage. Consortium 

Library. Archives & Special Collections, Donald Arthur Post slides, 1953-1959, UAA-hmc-0917-619).

151
Figure 87. Juneau International Airport with control tower, ca. 1960 (source: Anchorage Museum at Rasmuson Center, MRC. 

Wien Collection, AMRC-b85-27-1304).

Administrative Buildings

Offices and administrative buildings that supported air operations were located both on and off the 

airfields. On-site facilities, like the CAA buildings located in several small villages and prominently seen 

at Merrill Field in Anchorage, were used in instances of small aircraft use and also for support services 

such as flight and cargo booking, fee payment, fueling and repair services, and accounting. Many on-site 

buildings included some form of communications towers. Off-site buildings housed employees 

responsible for marketing, accounting, and daily business operations such as the Pan Am Building in 

Anchorage. Military administrative buildings were used for flight dispatch, equipment issuance, 

command offices, and flight oversight.

Characteristics:

• Located either next to or within a few miles of runway/air strip 

• Numerous internal room

• May have associated radio tower or communications towers 

152
Figure 88. Alaska Coastal Airlines Building, Juneau, 194 (source: Alaska State Library - Historical Collections, Shell Simmons 

Photograph Collection, 1929-1996. ASL-PCA-356).

Figure 89. Civil Support Team building, (Bryant Army Air Field, built 1960) Elmendorf Air Force Base, present day (source: 

Sneddon and Miller 2012).

Hangars 

Hangars were built at airports and airstrips to house aircraft and for service of the vehicles. In coastal 

areas the hangars were set on piers over the water, as was the case in Juneau, Ketchikan, and other 

Southeast Alaska communities. They varied in size based on the type of aircraft they could accommodate. 

153
Small, single craft hangars were built along airstrips in villages like Platinum; air airfields had groups of 

small hangars. The small hangars were often constructed of wood or metal, with flat or salt-box roofs; 

some had a domed roof. Military-surplus Quonset huts were also used. Larger aircraft required very large 

hangar buildings with tall siding doors for entry. These were typically constructed at international and 

military facilities of wood, concrete, and metal. Commercial air carriers typical constructed their own 

hangars. 

Characteristics:

• 1 to 2 stories

• Flat or domed roof of metal or wood

• Man door

• Large doors on rail or overhead doors

• Located on edge of runway/airstrip or in coastal waters

Figure 90. Ellis Air float plane inside a hangar, ca. 1945, Juneau (source: Alaska and Polar Regions Collections, Elmer E. 

Rasmuson Library, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Kay J. Kennedy Aviation Photograph Collection, UAF-1991-98-68).

154
Figure 91. New hangar at Anchorage International Airport, 1953 (University of Alaska Anchorage. Consortium Library. 

Archives & Special Collections, Donald Arthur Post slides, 1953-1959, UAA-hmc-0917-1036).

Air Traffic Control Towers

Air traffic control towers were used at larger airports to effectively communicate and facilitate numerous 

incoming and outgoing aircraft. Towers were either standalone structures or portions of the main terminal 

during the period. 

Characteristics: 

• 2 or more stories

• Typically, square with rows of windows for easy visibility of aircraft

• Top story contained large windows often canted outward

• Located on edge of runway or adjacent to runway

• Radio communications and weather stations attached to the rooftop 

155
Figure 92. The standalone air traffic control tower at Anchorage International Airport, ca. 1955; it was destroyed in the 1964 

Good Friday Earthquake (source: University of Alaska Anchorage, Consortium Library, Archives and Special Collections, 

Donald Arthur Post slides, 1953-1959, UAA-hmc-0917-1033).

Marine Transport

Nearly every coastal community in Alaska had a harbor; some were small with a single dock while others 

offered port and marina facilities. The size of the facilities within a harbor was related to population and 

distance to inland transportation such as rail or road. 

Ports

The ports in Alaska varied in size. Ports offered the ability to load and unload cargo from ships and onto 

further destinations. Ports could be configured for the types of cargo they handled. For instance, Valdez 

specialized in oil transport; Seward had coal transport facilities, and Dutch Harbor had seafood processing 

facilities. Major shipping ports included Dutch Harbor/Unalaska, Anchorage, Seward, Juneau, and 

Valdez. While each port catered to a specific type of commodity, all were capable of loading and 

unloading large cargo vessels and container ships. 

Characteristics:

• Located in a harbor/sheltered area either next to an arterial roadway, airport, or railroad 

• Off shore moorings and onshore docks

• Large cranes to load/unload ships

• Open storage areas for cargo

• Warehouses for cargo storage

• Administrative buildings 

• Fuel Pumps/Tanks

156
Figure 93. Port of Anchorage, with Alaska Railroad yards in background, 1965 (source: Anchorage Museum at Rasmuson 

Center, AMRC. Ward Wells Collection, AMRC-wws-4317-1).

Marinas

Marinas offered shelter for small to medium sized vessels. They could be located in a natural harbor or in 

a manmade harbor. Marinas could consist of a few moorings such as those in Angoon or they could be 

large planned marinas with several docks, moorings, fuel docks, and fish processing stations like those in 

Seward and Petersburg.

Characteristics:

• Floating docks and shoreline boardwalks

• Gas Pump Islands

• Shore side administrative buildings with large viewing windows

• Breakers along outskirts of marina to provide shelter

157
Figure 94. The Homer Spit, ca. 1969, with newly constructed marina; accessed through a breakwater-sheltered canal to the left 

of the image (source: Anchorage Museum at Rasmuson Center, Steve McCutcheon Collection, B1190.14.5.T.74.10).

Ferry Stations

In Alaska, ferry docking locations and sizes varied by community. Some were small, single ramp loading 

docks with no associated buildings, set outside of a community marina, as was the case of Angoon. 

Others, like Cordova, had passenger service buildings and were set inside a marina.

Characteristics: 

• Wood or metal gangway for pedestrians

• Cribbed landing with decking/ramp for vehicles access to vessels

• Dock pilings/ferry slip

• Wooden docking platforms/wharfs

• Headframe with pulley system for movement of deck ramp

158
Figure 95. Vehicles Boarding Taku Ferry, Auk Bay, Juneau, ca. 1960 (ASL-P22-07-017).

Rail Transport

The primary purpose of the rail system prior to World War II was transport of military personnel and 

equipment, shipment of natural resources to market, and back-haul goods for local communities when 

available. Under the Alaska Railroad Rehabilitation Project, rail systems in Alaska were revitalized. The 

rehabilitation project provided maintenance for the aging rail lines, facilities, and expanded the operations 

of the Alaska Railroad Corporation. Power generation facilities in Anchorage, administrative offices, and 

expanded rail yards were constructed during the post-war years. The addition of civilian passenger service 

aided to the increase in tourism in the region and created a need for rail-side station buildings such as the 

Mount McKinley National Park Railroad Station and Hotel. In 1948, the Alaska Railroad completed an 

expansion of the Anchorage depot. 

159
Figure 96. The Alaska Railroad Anchorage Depot, as seen in 1999 (source: National Register Nomination, Blasingame 1999). 

Figure 97. The Mount McKinley National Park Railroad Station and Hotel, 1950; it was built by the Alaska Railroad but is no 

longer extant (source: uaa-hmc-0756-243).

160
Figure 98. Railroad yard at Ship Creek, 1951, with warehouses, power facilities, and administration buildings (source: 

University of Alaska Anchorage. Consortium Library. Archives & Special Collections, William O. Chinn photographs, 1951-

1973, UAA-hmc-0620-series1-f1-50).

Educational Facilities

Construction of educational facilities in Alaska increased both during and after World War II. An 

increasing population created a demand for primary and secondary education. Similarly, higher education, 

largely centered near military installations, was also in demand as service members sought educational 

opportunities.

Primary and Secondary Education

Construction of elementary, junior, and senior high schools increased throughout Alaska after World War 

II to meet the demands of a growing population. From Nome to Ketchikan, and in villages large and 

small, elementary schools were raised as quickly as funds could be secured. Several schools were built 

throughout Alaska in the years following World War II creating work for local and out-of-state architects. 

The largest number of newly constructed elementary schools in the territory during this time was in 

Anchorage. Primary schools were also built in rural communities in Alaska such as Dillingham, Sitka, 

Kenai, Valdez, Sand Point, and Seward. 

Southeast

● Kake Elementary, Linn Forrest architect, 1952, demolished

● Auk Bay Elementary, Juneau, John Forrest architect, 1967, substantially altered

● Petersburg Elementary, 1968, extant

● Sitka Elementary, William Johnson architect, demolished

● Mendenhall School, William Johnson architect, extant

Interior

● LF Joy Elementary, Fairbanks, Doug Ackley and Lee S. Linck architect and engineer, 1960, 

extant

161
● Nordale Elementary, Fairbanks, Lee S. Linck designer, 1953, extant

● Chena Elementary School, Fort Wainwright, Fairbanks, Lee S. Linck designer, 1961, 

substantially altered

● Moose Creek School, Roger Cotting architect, status unknown

● Fairbanks Elementary School, Jennings Graham architect, 1960, possibly now Hunter Elementary

Southcentral

● Ursa Major, Elmendorf Air Force Base, Anchorage, William Manley architect, extant

● Ursa Minor, Elmendorf Air Force Base, Anchorage, William Manley architect, extant

● Wonder Park Elementary School, Ralph Alley and Donald Coolidge architects, extant

● Bartlett Elementary School, Edward Osborne architect 

● Government Hill Elementary School, 1956, demolished

● Inlet View Elementary School, 1960/61, extant

● North Star Elementary School in Spenard, 1951, extant

● Wasilla Elementary School, Jennings Graham architect, 1961, possibly now Tanaina Elementary 

or Cottonwood Creek

● Kenai Elementary School, Merle McEntire and Mike Pendergast architects, possibly now Kenai 

Middle School

Secondary schools (junior and high) were also built to accommodate population growth and the migration 

of peoples after the War. Projects were completed in major population centers, as well as Kodiak, 

Cordova, Palmer, Fort Yukon, and Wrangell. 

Southeast 

● Juneau-Douglas High School, Linn Forrest architect, 1960, extant

● Batchy Junior High School, Juneau, John Forrest architect, 1967, now Floyd Dryden Middle 

School, extant

Interior

● Ryan Junior High School, Fairbanks, Doug Ackley architect, extant

● Lathrop High School, Fairbanks, extant

● North Pole High School, extant

● Delta Junction School, 1968-1970, Sands Olsen architects, now Delta Junior High, extant

South Central

● Bartlett High School, Edwin Crittenden with Manley and Mayer architects, extant

● Orah D Clark Junior High School, Anchorage, Crittenden, Cassetta, Wirum and Jacobs architects, 

1958, demolished

● Central Middle School of Science, Anchorage, Edwin Crittenden architect, extant

● Anchorage West High School, Manley and Mayer architects, extant

● Kodiak High School, William Johnson architect, 1958

Southwest/Aleutians

● Dillingham High School, Sands Olsen architects, 1955, status unknown

● Bristol Bay High School, Lucien Cassetta architect, 1968-1969, status unknown

● Sand Point School, Sand Point, William Manley architect, 1958, extant

Characteristics: 

● One to two stories (secondary schools tended to have multiple levels)

162
● Curtain walls, window ribbons

● Sprawling design, intended for later additions

● Arched gymnasiums

● Single front portico/avenue to access

● Parking areas

Figure 99. Kake Elementary School, Kake, Alaska, Linn Forrest architect, 1952, demolished (source: Alaska State Library 

Historical Collection).

163
Figure 100. Inlet View Elementary School, Anchorage, 1961, with Inlet Towers in background; the school is extant (source: 

Anchorage Museum at Rasmuson Center, Ward Wells Collection, AMRC-wws-3313-1).

Figure 101. Dillingham School, Foss, Olsen and Sands architects, 1955; status unknown (source: Anchorage Museum at 

Rasmuson Center, Steve McCutcheon Collection, B1990-014-5-TV-046-24).

164
Figure 102. Kodiak High School, William Johnson architect, 1958; it has received numerous additions (source: University of 

Alaska Anchorage. Consortium Library. Archives & Special Collections, Hans and Margaret Hafemeister papers, 1943-1995. 

UAA-HMC-0126).

Figure 103. Lathrop High School, Fairbanks, Alaska, 1958 (source: Alaska and Polar Regions Collections, Elmer E. Rasmuson 

Library, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Ernie Carter Photographs, UAF-2004-68-96).

Higher Education

In 1935, the Alaska Agricultural College and School of Mines in Fairbanks became the University of 

Alaska. Many new buildings were added during the period, and a master plan for the campus was 

165
completed in 1965 by Knorr-Elliot and Associates along with architect Lawrence Lackey.

427 Some of the 

buildings on campus included Constitution Hall (1953), the Brooks Building (1954), the President’s 

House (1958), a men’s dormitory (1961), the Patty Center (1963), the Bunnell Building (1959), 

Duckering Hall (1964), Moore Hall (1966), Skarland Hall (1966), a dining hall (1953), and faculty 

housing. 

The University of Alaska campus in Anchorage was expanded during the 1950s and 1960s to include 

several new buildings. Anchorage Community College (ACC), a joint venture of the Anchorage 

Independent School District and the University of Alaska, opened in 1954 in the second floor of what is 

now West High School. After statehood, the ACC became a unit of the University of Alaska. 

Construction began on the new Anchorage Community College (ACC) campus in 1968 at Goose Lake.428

Edwin Crittenden developed the first campus master plan which included a “spine” concept.429 The 

master plan for the University of Alaska Southeast in Juneau, which opened its doors in 1972, was 

designed by Jinks Graham.430 

The campus at Sheldon Jackson College underwent an expansion in 1956 and included the designs by 

Edwin Crittenden for the Condit House, Austin House (Presidents House 1957), and the Hames Physical 

Education Center. Alaska Methodist University in Anchorage opened in 1960, and the original campus 

included Grant Hall (1959), the Atwood Center (1963-1966), Gould Hall (1960), the North Atwood, and 

South Atwood dormitories (1966). The campus was expanded after evolving to the non-denominational 

Alaska Pacific University in 1978.431 

Characteristics: 

● Campus plan/design, sometimes covering dozens of acres

● Annual addition of function-specific buildings that reflected current architectural trends (dining 

halls, science facilities, gymnasiums, dormitories)

● Pedestrian and vehicle traffic layouts

● Student housing 

● Multiple parking areas

● Green spaces

 

427 “University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Master Plan, Fairbanks, AK (1965),” Pacific Coast Architecture Database 

(PCAD), accessed March 30, 2016, http://pcad.lib.washington.edu/building/4178/.

428 "History," University of Alaska Anchorage.

429 “Edwin Butler Crittenden, Obituary,” Sitka Sentinel, accessed March 10, 2016, 

http://www.sitkasentinel.com/7/2012-05-10-22-08-43/obituaries/8177-edwin-butler-crittenden. 430 "Jennings Heber “Jinks” Graham," Find A Grave, accessed March 19, 2016, http://www.findagrave.com/cgibin/fg.cgi?page=gr. 431 "Alaska Pacific University - History," Alaska Pacific University, accessed April 11, 2016, 

https://www.alaskapacific.edu/history/. 

166
Figure 104. University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Food Service Building, Foss, Malcolm, and Olsen architects, 1953 (source: Alaska 

and Polar Regions Collections, Elmer E. Rasmuson Library, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Bunnell Collection, UAF-1958-

1026-1115).

Figure 105. University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Patty Center with Gymnasium, 1966, Linn Forrest architect (source: Alaska and 

Polar Regions Collections, Elmer E. Rasmuson Library, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Mark C. Glunz Slide Collection, 1966-

1967, UAF-1996-167-101).

167
Figure 106. Grant Hall, Alaska Pacific University (Alaska Methodist University), 1966, Manley and Mayer architects (source: 

University of Alaska Anchorage, Consortium Library, Archives & Special Collections, William L. McNutt photographic slides, 

1934-1973, UAA-hmc-0456-458).

Health Care

An increase in population after World War II meant a need for readily available medical care. Hospitals 

and medical buildings of various functions, including surgical centers, sanatoriums, and laboratories, were 

built to accommodate population growth. In larger communities, medical districts or groupings of medical 

buildings were developed near hospital facilities. During this period, tuberculosis was a growing concern 

in the villages prompting the need for increased access to medical care. Medical clinics provided 

preventative and emergency services.

Hospitals

Hospitals generally treated emergencies and severe cases of illness requiring specialized care. Located in 

areas of sizable populations, the facilities were designed to grow over time to meet increasing demand 

and specialties. Generally multiple stories or high-rise, they usually reflected the architectural style of the 

period in which they were designed and constructed. The military maintained hospitals at installations in 

Fairbanks, Anchorage, and Delta Junction. A hospital in Anchorage specifically for Alaskan Natives was 

opened in 1953. 

Characteristics:

● Designed for easy additions

● Tended to be concrete

● Single to multiple stories

● Main entrance generally single story

● Vehicle port for emergency vehicles

● Numerous window openings for natural light

● Power generator facilities in back

168
● Set on large land parcels for future growth

Figure 107. Elmendorf Hospital, Elmendorf Air Force Base, Anchorage, 1963 (sources: University of Alaska Anchorage, 

Consortium Library, Archives & Special Collections, Christine M. McClain papers, 1907-1992, UAA-hmc-0370-series15b-30-

17-1).

Figure 108. New Providence Hospital, Anchorage, 1959, Edwin Crittenden architect (source: University of Alaska Anchorage, 

Consortium Library, Archives & Special Collections, Stewart’s Photo Shop slides, 1964-1992, uaa-hmc-1181-634).

169
Figure 109. Alaska Native Medical Hospital, Anchorage, 1959 (source: University of Alaska Anchorage, Consortium Library, 

Archives & Special Collections, Robert Fortuine papers, 1957-1999, UAA-hmc-0455-6603aM19).

Medical Buildings

Medical buildings were used by medical specialists and provided support functions such as primary care, 

imaging, and therapy. The buildings could be designed for certain uses such as radiology or laboratory 

needs. Often, several professionals specializing in different medical disciplines worked in the same 

building providing the benefit of easy access to their patients. These types of buildings tended to be built 

near each other and were referred to as districts, plazas, or malls. They were typically close to hospitals 

for easier access in the event of a medical emergency. In Fairbanks, Roger Cotting designed the Medical 

Dental Arts Building, and the Alaska Architectural and Engineering Company designed and constructed 

the Medical and Surgical Clinic. E.L. Mills and Associates of Seattle designed the 4th Avenue Medical 

Complex in Fairbanks, with Burgess Construction. 

Characteristics:

● Interior compartmentalized for numerous practices

● Located near hospitals/other medical buildings

170
Figure 110. Fairbanks Medical Dental Arts Building, Lathrop Street, as seen today, Roger Cotting architect.

Medical Clinics

In small communities and villages, medical care was generally available at the clinic with limited staff 

and hours. Services ranged from emergency care, vaccinations, and setting broken bones. The clinics 

could be housed in buildings that generally adhere to standard characteristics ranging from defunct post 

offices to modular and prefab buildings. In northern regions and areas of harsh climate, the clinics tended

to be located in prefabricated and, later in the period, ATCO buildings. 

Figure 111. Hooper Bay Medical Clinic, ca. 1960 (source: Archives and Special Collections, Consortium Library, University of 

Alaska Anchorage, Robert Fortuine papers, UAA-hmc-0455-6606dK03)

Industrial Facilities

Facilities built for various types of industries that flourished in the post-war era did not follow a cohesive 

method or type of construction, rather, they were built for function specific to business operations. For 

example, oil refineries contained pipelines and fuel storage tanks while pulp mills contained conveyors, 

mill and pulping machinery, and docking. Power plants contained a variety of equipment, based on the 

energy source (coal, gas, water) needed to turn the power generators, which also lead to various other 

171
structural needs such as rail lines (for coal) and tail-races (for water). Industrial facilities in Alaska postWWII reflected resource exploration and extraction. They are abundant and their history is quite detailed, 

warranting that their own historic contexts be developed outside of this document. They were briefly 

touched upon herein as a reminder to readers that buildings reflecting the history of industry are still 

present in Alaska; that they need to be considered, yet more research needs to be completed for each 

specific industry type. 

Figure 112. The Standard Oil Nikiski Refinery, Kenai, 1959 (source: Alaska State Library - Historical Collections, Alaska 

Division of Tourism Photograph Collection, ca. 1950-[ongoing]).

172
Figure 113. Ketchikan Pulp Mill Administration Building, present day, Wilbert Yahn architect (source: Keeny 2007).

Figure 114. Hoonah crab processing plant, 1949 (source: Anchorage Museum at Rasmuson Center, Steve McCutcheon 

Collection, B1990-014-5-TV-075-2).

173
Figure 115. Prudhoe Bay State No. 1 Discovery Wells, 1969 (source: Alaska and Polar Regions Collections, Elmer E. Rasmuson 

Library, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Atlantic Richfield Company Collection, UAF-1982-146-3).

Recreation

Improved transportation combined with increased interest in tourism to Alaska meant a need for 

recreational accommodations such as cabins, lodges, and information centers. Roadside businesses 

provided food, service, gas stations, recreational guide services, and equipment rentals. Recreational 

building types varied from rustic, log cabins to elaborate visitor centers and lodges. Under the Mission 66 

Program, the National Park Service constructed and consolidated visitor centers/facilities and improved 

access to many of the national parks. The Alaska Railroad constructed a station and hotel in Denali 

National Park (formerly Mount McKinley National Park) to boost visitor numbers and, similarly, a new 

lodge was built in Glacier Bay. 

Lodges

Communal places of gathering were built during the period to meet the demands of a growing tourism 

and recreation industry. The purpose was to provide temporary accommodations in a generally rustic 

setting. A lodge could be the sole building providing sleeping quarters or a meeting place among a cluster 

of cabins. Lodges, during the period, were built in parks along rivers and lakes for hunting and fishing 

ventures and at ski hills for winter sports enthusiasts. 

Characteristics: 

● Typically embodied a rustic feel or reflected the surrounding landscape 

● Internal fireplace with chimney

● Large interior gathering space

● Windows and porches for viewing the outdoors

● May have a dining hall and individual sleeping quarters

174
Figure 116. The Mount Alyeska Round House, ca. 1960, extant and restored (source: National Register Nomination 2002).

Figure 117. Glacier Bay Lodge, John Morse architect, 1966, extant (source: NPS 2015).

Cabins

Cabins were built not only in parks but also in state and federal forests. While some cabins provided basic 

shelter from the elements, others had additional comforts including running water and electricity. 

175
Regardless of the level of amenities, the buildings generally retained a rustic feel. In Katmai, a ranger 

station and guest cabins were constructed. Pan Abodes were also used by the parks. The Forest Service 

erected many small log cabins and A-frame cabins on the Tongass and Chugach National Forests for 

public use.

Characteristics: 

● Small to medium size

● Gabled, flat, or A-frame roof

● Wood construction (log or plywood) 

● Some as prefabricated kits 

Figure 118. Brooks River Ranger Station, Katmai, 2000 (source: Ringsmuth 2015).

176
Figure 119. Devil’s Pass Cabin, Chugach National Forest, Seward Ranger District. The typical design used by USFS Alaska 

Region beginning in 1962 (source: Lantz 2012).

Campgrounds

Coupled with the rise in American motoring was the increased ownership of tow-behind campers. 

Motorists could travel without limitations to lodging by bringing their own accommodations with them. 

Tent camping was also increasing in popularity as more Americans could afford leisure time and desired 

to be out in nature. Campgrounds were established in state and federal forest and parks as well as in city 

parks, to meet the needs of large volumes of camper vehicle owners. Some campgrounds even offered 

small rental cabins. After the 1964 Good Friday earthquake, the City of Seward converted the old rail 

yard that had sustained massive damages into Waterfront Park; this was a city park with both motorhome 

and tent sites in a large, waterfront campground. Whittier has a similar, smaller city campground for 

recreational visitors. 

Characteristics:

● Planned camper/tent sites, some with water and electricity

● Outhouse(s)

● Pavilions and other communal buildings

● Fire rings and picnic tables

● Roadways and walkways

Religious

Population growth brought increased religious interests to Alaska in the post-war era. Prolific growth of 

religious facilities occurred during the period, however, they were heavily weighted towards Christian 

interests. New houses of worship were constructed when funds allowed, but often buildings would be 

modified or renovated for the needs of each congregation. Chapels, generally smaller than a church, 

constructed during the period had characteristic steeple/cross configurations on the roofline. New Baptist 

churches sprang up across the larger population centers generally following the design of long-hall with 

177
steeple/cross configurations on the roofline similar to Catholic buildings. As the period progressed, 

groups with more lenient guidelines for construction of worship facilities would adopt current 

architectural trends. Some houses of worship, ultimately, reflected reuse of older buildings or an 

industrial rather than spiritual look and feel. Many of the religious organizations developed small 

campuses containing a church/rectory, education facilities, and dormitories for visiting missionaries. 

Jewish interests had been present in Alaska since the days of early exploration when the region was a 

Russian Territory. During the post-WWII period, the order did not see the abundant growth and 

construction of new facilities. One example, the Temple Sukkat Shalom, on Douglas Island was known to 

have been constructed during the period and displayed an interesting take on a bridge-like suspended span 

that passed over a natural spring. 

Examples of Christian religious facilities built during the period included St. Mary’s Episcopal Church 

(Edwin Crittenden architect, 1958), First Presbyterian, First Methodist (Edwin Crittenden architect, 

1955), First Baptist (1965-1966), Hillcrest Presbyterian, Shiloh Baptist, Holy Family Church alterations 

(Merle McEntire and Mike Pendergrast architects, 1966) and additions to various existing facilities in 

Anchorage. In Fairbanks, Zion Lutheran, Sacred Heart Cathedral (Doug Ackley architect, 1966), the 7th

Day Adventist Church, and a school addition for First Methodist (Lee S. Linck designer, 1965-1966) 

were completed. The Sacred Heart Catholic Church in Emmonak was completed in 1953, and Saint 

Michaels in McGrath was dedicated in 1960. Juneau’s Chapel by the Lake in Auk Bay was completed in 

1958 (Linn Forrest and Harold Foss architects). The A-frame style Our Savior’s Lutheran Church was 

built in 1957 in Nome, and Haines Presbyterian Church was completed in 1969 (Melverne Ensign 

architect). Somewhat remote yet unique in design, Christ the King Church in Umkumiut, on Nelson 

Island, was built in 1969 as well (Father John Hinsvark designer). St. Mathew’s Episcopal Church was 

reconstructed in Fairbanks after the first iteration of a similar design burned (firm of Bell and Upjohn 

architects, 1948). The Sitka Lutheran Church, reconstructed on the site of the first Lutheran Church in 

Sitka, was completed in 1966 after a devastating fire hit the downtown area in 1965. A few blocks down 

the street from the Lutheran Church, the Cathedral of Saint Michael the Archangel (also known as St. 

Michaels Orthodox Cathedral) was also destroyed and reconstruction began in 1967. 

Characteristics of religious buildings during the period varied widely from old commercial buildings and 

Quonset huts to custom-built facilities that reflect old architectural styles from Europe. 

178
Figure 120. Temple Sukkat Shalom, Douglas Island, Juneau, 2009 (source: bridginc 2009).

Figure 121. Christ the King Church, Umkumiut, 1969; status unknown (source: Newsletter of the Diocese of Fairbanks JulyAugust 2013)

179
Figure 122. Sacred Heart Cathedral, Fairbanks, present day (Catholic Bishop of Northern Alaska 2016).

Figure 123. First Baptist Church, Anchorage, present day (source: A Week in Anchorage 2013).

180
Figure 124. Sitka Lutheran Church, present day (source: NPS 2015).

4.2.4 Architectural Styles 

Overview 

In the past, architectural historians often looked to architectural details to define the style of a building. 

Although much of the post-WWII “traditional” architecture followed this pattern of detail as definition, 

many architects working in a modern idiom had certain distaste for ornamental details. Thus, many 

“modern” buildings were not executed in an easily recognizable revival style, lacked distinguishing clues, 

and a neatly categorical style. Architectural historians continued to debate how to define modernism both 

stylistically and temporally built during the period. One reason why few agreed-upon style names existed

for this period of architecture was because architects were trying to create a style of architecture without 

historical precedent that reflected technological advances and new materials. Just as the pattern and 

stylebooks of previous generations encouraged architects to design in a particular fashion, “modern” 

architects were encouraged not to design buildings in an “old” established style. Decades of survey, 

evaluation, and documentation helped establish an agreed upon nomenclature to describe the resources of 

the more remote past. 

181
Because the nomenclature for modern architecture is still evolving, “modern” is a term given to a number 

of building “styles” with similar characteristics such as simplified forms and lack of excessive or applied 

ornament. However, the term does not begin to describe the broad range of styles that emerged during the 

mid-twentieth century. Moreover, people often use the terms modern, mid-century, post-war, and the 

recent past. For the purposes of this document, they are defined as follows: 

Modern

There is much debate among scholars and professionals regarding the definition of Modern Architecture 

and when the Modern Movement began in the United States. Some feel that Modern architecture (with a 

capital M) is different than modern architecture (with a small m). In addition, many people use “modern” 

and “contemporary” interchangeably to describe a more recently constructed building or structure. Some 

feel that the term Modern casts too broad a brush and needs to be broken down into more specific style 

types. Others advocate for eschewing those stylistic classifications. Scholars and professionals will no 

doubt continue to debate the use of the term Modern for decades to come. For the purposes of this 

document Modern (as opposed to modern) will be used as a general term to describe buildings built 

between the late 1940s and the mid-1960s. Characteristics include: 

● Absence of historical references

● Use of new and experimental materials and construction techniques

Mid-Century (1940s-1960s)

Mid-century is a useful term to describe the range of architecture from the 1940s to the 1960s. Because it 

is more of a temporal distinction rather than aesthetic, it encompasses the wide variety of types and styles 

built in the decades following WWII. It often refers to resources constructed during or immediately after 

WWII. 

Post-war

This is another useful term to describe the range of architecture built after World War II. However, in 

Alaska, because WWII was followed by the Cold War, the term “post-war” can lack clarity. This 

documented uses “post-war” to describe events occurring after the end of WW II.

The Style Guide

The Alaska Office of History and Archaeology has recently published a new architectural survey manual 

within which is located the Alaska Historic Buildings Survey Manual and Style Guide.432 For the sake of 

clarity and consistency in the evaluation process, a copy of this guide is provided in Appendix A for users 

to refer to when defining architectural styles in Alaska. 

Because the resources from this period are still being studied and because the language of architecture is 

ever evolving, this guide is not intended to be a definitive style guide for resources in Alaska. It is worth 

noting that the history of architecture is rife with examples of buildings that don’t fit neatly into any 

category. While many resources from this period will fit easily into some of the categories described in 

the guide, others will not. In addition, because the architecture from this period in Alaska has been studied 

 

432 Alaska Office of History and Archaeology (OHA), Alaska Historic Buildings Survey Manual and Style Guide, by 

Summer Rickman, OHA Report Number 162 (Anchorage, 2016), 57-90.

182
little, the regional variations of the style, or the relative prevalence of a style (or lack thereof), might not 

be reflected in the guide. As we gain more experience surveying, evaluating, and documenting the 

resources of the recent past, there is little doubt that the style names, building types, and the variations 

specific to architecture in the state will continue to grow and evolve.

4.3 Architects, Builders, and Developers 

4.3.1 Introduction/Overview 

Architecture, as a professional practice, first began to take shape in Alaska in the 1930s, after World War 

I. N. Lester Troast is considered to be the first licensed architect to open a firm in the state in 1930. He, 

like many architects after him, was not from Alaska. Having no architectural design school in the 

territory-turned-state, a formal education in architectural design had to be obtained outside of Alaska. 

Licensing in many states, including Alaska, did not require a degree in architecture at that time. 

Apprenticeships as draftsmen for licensed architects was an acceptable form of education as well as 

completing studies at universities. This was the route taken by architects Linn Forrest and Francis Mayer. 

Mayer’s partner, William Manley, studied architectural design but did not receive a degree which was 

common practice among other notable Alaskan architects who ultimately went on to establish successful 

careers. The architects practicing in Alaska during the period were a mixture of individuals born or raised 

in Alaska, persons who moved to the state for military service, or those employed with firms in the 

contiguous states that had obtained contracts in Alaska and moved here during the post-WWII 

construction boom. 

A pattern can be seen in the educational geography of the architects who practiced in Alaska during the 

time. Many were educated in the Pacific Northwest (Washington and Oregon), the upper Midwest 

(Michigan), and the New England states. Commonly attended schools included the University of 

Washington in Seattle, Oregon State University, Montana State University in Bozeman, Cranbrook 

School of Art, and various polytechnic institutes. Many architects of the period served in the military as 

designers and engineers, under the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and on large-scale projects still seen 

around the country such as the Bonneville Dam and the Grand Coolie Dam. Many were stationed as 

service members in Alaska and, after their service was complete, entered into private practice or remained 

in the public service sector with federal and state agencies. 

4.3.2 Lists of Architects, Architectural Firms and Developers 

Appendix B contains a table of architects who have practiced in Alaska during the period. Appendix C 

contains the initial efforts of research into prominent builders and developers in Alaska during the period. 

Since the period witnessed some the largest bursts of population, infrastructure, and housing construction 

in Alaska’s history, additional research will clearly be needed. Both tables are merely a starting point for 

identifying architects, firms, and developers who were active from 1945 to 1968. While researching 

primary sources for architects practicing during this period, data regarding architects who were designing 

after the period were identified. Since the information was readily available, it has been added to 

Appendix D for future efforts as their buildings mature. 

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4.3.3 Biographies of Prominent Architects in Alaska from 1945 to 1968 

A number of architects practicing in Alaska during the period were very prolific and their works can still 

be seen today. Brief biographies of prominent architects, along with lists of their notable works, are 

presented below. The sources cited are intended to provide the user with additional information including 

detailed and personal accounts of their overall life and work as prominent architects in Alaska. 

184
Douglas W. Ackley (1923-2014)

Firm(s) / Location /Years Practicing

Douglas Ackley Architecture, Seattle, 1955-1956

Alaska Architectural and Engineering Co., Fairbanks, 1956-1968

Sands and Ackley, Juneau, 1968-1974

Ackley and Associates, Juneau, 1974-1979

Ackley Jensen, Juneau, 1979-1985

Biography 

Douglas Ackley was born in Vancouver, Washington in 1923. He received a degree in architecture from 

Washington State University in 1951. He opened his own small firm, Douglas Ackley Architect, in 1955 

in Seattle. In 1956, Ackley moved his family to Fairbanks and began working alongside with Lee S. 

Linck, founder of Alaska Architectural and Engineering Company. During his employment under Linck 

he assisted in the designs for LF Joy Elementary School in Fairbanks and Chena Elementary School at 

Fort Wainwright. Construction of both buildings were completed in 1960. He helped to survey the 

damage from the 1964 earthquake in Anchorage, and survived the 1967 flood in Fairbanks, which left 4 1⁄2

feet of water in his house.433 In 1968, he began working with the firm Olson and Sands, which was a later 

iteration of the Juneau firm established by Harold B. Foss in 1935, which evolved over the years to Sands 

and Ackley, Ackley and Associates, Ackley and Jensen, and is currently Jensen, Yorba, and Lott, Inc. 

Ackley’s firm designed schools, banks, libraries and civic buildings across the state, including Juneau's 

Centennial Hall, the Juneau International Airport, and the University of Alaska Southeast Library.434

Ackley thoroughly enjoyed Alaska, exploring the wilderness, camping and hunting in the Interior, and 

roaming the waters of Southeast Alaska. He wrote a book about his experiences flying in a B-17 bomber 

as a top turret gunner and engineer entitled Twenty-Seven and a Half Missions in the Fifteenth Air Force. 

His book recounted the year he spent behind enemy lines in rural Italy after being shot down. After his 

retirement in 1985, he and his wife moved to Scottsdale AZ, and after several years, moved back to the 

Pacific Northwest to Medford, Oregon.435 

Selected Portfolio436

LF Joy Elementary School 1960 (under Lee S. Linck); Alaska State Jail; Delta Junction High School; 

Ketchikan General Hospital; Sitka Court and Office Building (1976); Petersburg Post Office and Federal 

Building; Seaalaska Plaza and Juneau Airport (Juneau); Hydaberg School; Ketchikan Community 

College; Ryan Jr. High School and Zion Lutheran Church (Fairbanks); Regional High School Gym 

(Nome); William A Egan Library at UAS, Juneau; Sacred Heart Cathedral, Fairbanks 1966 (as member of 

design team).

 

433 "Douglas W Ackley, Obituary," Juneau Empire, January 9, 2014, accessed March 31, 2016, 

http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/juneauempire/obituary.aspx?n=Douglas-Ackley&pid=168980021. 434 "History," Jensen Yorba Lott, accessed March 15, 2016, http://www.jensenyorbalott.com/about/history.htm. 435 "Douglas W Ackley, Obituary," Juneau Empire. 436 Pacific Coast Architecture Database, accessed March 31, 2016, http://pcad.lib.washington.edu/firm/1425/.

185
Figure 125. Ketchikan General Hospital was designed by Douglas W. Ackley in 1968 (source: Jensen, Yorba, and Lott, Inc. 

2016).

Kenneth D. Cannon (1929-1988)

Firm(s) / Location /Years Practicing

Alaska Road Commission, Anchorage, Summers, 1946-1960

CCWJ (Crittenden, Cassetta, Wirum and Jacobs), Anchorage, 1962

CCWC (Crittenden, Cassetta, Wirum and Cannon), Anchorage, 1962-1969/70

CCC (Crittenden, Cassetta and Cannon), Anchorage, 1969/70-1989

CCC/HOK (Crittenden, Cassetta and Cannon/Hellmuth-Obata-Kassabaum), Anchorage, 1969/70-1982

Notes on practice, licensing, etc. not captured in employment details

AIA Alaska Chapter, past President; served on the Anchorage Planning and Zoning Commission, the 

Zoning Board of Examiners, and the Appeals and Platting Board

Biography

Kenneth D. Cannon was born in 1928 in Butte, Montana. He attended Montana State University in 

Bozeman, and received his architectural degree from the University of Washington in 1959 after serving 

in the U.S. Army. He first came to Alaska in 1946 to work for the Alaska Rail Road and Alaska Road 

Commission. Cannon moved to Anchorage in 1962 and began working for Crittenden, Cassetta, Wirum 

and Jacobs (CCWJ), a firm in which he would soon become a partner. The firm went through several 

name changes, nearly all including Cannon. They retained their reputation for quality work in the 

commercial and civic construction sector into the 1980s, at which time an economic recession crippled 

the construction industry in Alaska. He passed away in 1988 in Anchorage.437

Selected Portfolio

Sheraton Anchorage Hotel, Project Manager; William A. Egan Civic and Convention Center (1983); 

Atlantic Richfield Basecamp Expansion at Prudhoe Bay; Alyeska Pipeline Permanent Housing Project; 

 

437 OHA Files.

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McLaughlin Youth Center Cottages (1967)438; Moore and Bartlett Halls (dormitories)439, University of 

Alaska Fairbanks (1966 and 1970) 

Figure 126. Moore and Bartlett Halls, University of Alaska Fairbanks, designed by Kenneth D. Cannon in 1966 and 1970, 

(source: University of Alaska Fairbanks, Alaska and Polar Regions Collections, Elmer E. Rasmuson Library, Ernie Carter 

Photographs, UAF-2004-68-3).

Lucien Anthony Cassetta (1919-1994)

Firm(s) / Location /Years Practicing

Mithun and Nesland, Bellevue, WA, 1955

Mallis and Dehart Assoc, Seattle, WA, 1956

Johnston Campanella Architects, Anchorage, 1956

Edwin Crittenden, Architects & Associates (Partner), Anchorage, 1957

CCWJ (Crittenden, Cassetta, Wirum and Jacobs), Anchorage, 1958-1962

CCWC (Crittenden, Cassetta, Wirum and Cannon), Anchorage, 1962-1969/70

CCC (Crittenden, Cassetta and Cannon), Anchorage, 1969/70-1982

Cassetta Krochina, Anchorage, 1982-1988

Studio 21, Albuquerque, NM, 1988-1994

Notes on practice, licensing, etc. not captured in employment details

AIA Alaska Chapter President 1966, Vice President 1965

Biography 

Lucien Cassetta was born in 1919 in Oakland, California and grew up in California and Washington 

State. Cassetta was a weather forecaster for the US Army during WWII. He received a degree in 

 

438 OHA Files.

439 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 225.

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architecture from the University of Washington in 1951 and worked for the firm of Mithun and Nesland 

(now Mithun of Seattle) and Mallis and Dhart before moving to Alaska in 1956.440 In 1957, he began 

working for Edwin Crittenden and reached partner status. The firm was renamed Crittenden, Cassetta, 

Wirum and Jacobs (CCWJ) in early 1962, and would retain the Cassetta namesake until he left the 

practice in 1982. While working in partnership with Crittenden, Cassetta completed hundreds of 

educational and civic buildings across Alaska. Included in his portfolio in Alaska was the first hospital 

tower at the Providence campus in Anchorage and the Air Traffic Control Center in Anchorage. He 

continued practicing architecture in Anchorage with Pat Krochina from 1982 to 1988, at which time he 

moved to Albuquerque, New Mexico and opened small practice called Studio 21. Cassettta continued 

practicing until his death in 1994.

Selected Portfolio441

Anchorage Natural Gas Building (1969), Bristol Bay High School (1969)442, McLaughlin Youth Center 

(1967), Air Traffic Control Center, Anchorage (1969)443, Orah D Clark Junior High School, Anchorage 

(1958), 1st Federal Savings and Loan Association, Spenard (1960)444, Consortium Library at UAA 

(1973)445

Figure 127. Air Traffic Control Center, 700 North Boniface Parkway, Anchorage was designed by Lucien Cassetta, 1967 

(source: Anchorage Air Route Traffic Control Center 2016).

 

440 R. R. Bowker, "The AIA Historical Directory of American Architects – 1962,” accessed March 3, 2016, 

http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/Wiki Pages/ 1962 American Architects Directory.aspx. 441 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 99. 442 R. R. Bowker, "The AIA Historical Directory of American Architects – 1970” accessed March 3, 2016,

http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/Wiki Pages/ 1970 American Architects Directory.aspx. 443 Bowker, “Directory – 1970.” 444 Bowker, “Directory – 1962.” 445 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 99.

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Roger Bruce Cotting (1931-?)

Firm(s) / Location /Years Practicing446

Roger B Cotting, Fairbanks, 1959-1965

Gray, Rogers, Cotting, Fairbanks, 1965-1969

Roger B Cotting, Fairbanks, 1969-at least 1970

Biography 

Roger Cotting was born in 1931 in Cleveland, Ohio. He received a Bachelor’s Degree of Art from the 

Virginia Polytechnic Institute in 1952 and served as a 1st Lieutenant in the US Air Force. He started 

additional studies at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) from 1954 through 1955 after 

completing his service.447 Plans to build a Centennial park on the Chena River began in 1957, but it 

wasn’t until 1966 that matching grant funding was secured from the federal government. Cotting was 

deeply involved as a member of a team of architects, (Gray and Rogers) that proposed on a centennial 

exhibition facility in Fairbanks for the Alaska ’67 Exposition. He designed the entire site that was to be 

used as an exposition park, and was a chief investor, putting up $60,000 (equivalent of $400,000 today) 

for design and preliminary work in 1965.448 He laid out the traffic flow, main exhibits, look and feel, 

necessary material types, and identified key personnel, such as architects and artists, needed for the 

completion of the park. The resulting development, Pioneer Land, included a civic center for the 

community and captured the spirit of the Last Frontier, and is still in use today. Cotting also designed 

several schools, libraries, and medical offices in and around Fairbanks. In the late 1970s, Cotting was a 

partner in a development company that purchased Chena Hot Springs Resort and transformed it into a 

destination spot for locals and tourists alike. He designed small cabins, outbuildings, and a small ski hill. 

The group divested the property in the late 1980s, although it still retains the rustic charm that Cotting 

visualized for the resort.449 

Selected Portfolio

North Pole School (1966), First All Electric Home in Fairbanks "Purcell Home" (1965), Alaska ‘67 

Alaskaland/Pioneer Park Design (1965-1967), Aurora Building, Moose Creek School, Medical Dental 

Arts Building, North Pole Library, adaptive additions to numerous historic buildings, Burgess Office 

Building (1969), Nerland Office Building (1970), Adak Hospital (1970)

 

446 Bowker, “Directory – 1970.” 447 Bowker, “Directory – 1970.” 448 "ALASKA ‘67 | Part Disneyland, Part History Lesson," View-from-the-future-20, accessed March 6, 2016, 

http://museums.alaska.gov/lam/view2017/HTML/view-from-the-future-20.xhtml.

449 “Looking Back in Fairbanks Oct. 3,” Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, accessed March 8, 2016, 

http://www.newsminer.com/news/local_news/looking-back-in-fairbanks-oct/article_d8f5a964-cc98-565c-8929-

68ae8f8d099a.html.

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 Figure 128. Alaska ‘67 Exposition, Main Entry Gate, designed by Roger Cotting in 1966 (source: Brown 2015).

Figure 129. Fairbanks Medical Dental Arts Building, Lathrop Street, Fairbanks, and designed by Roger Cotting (source: Google 

Earth 2016).

Edwin Butler Crittenden (1916-2015)

Firm(s) / Location /Years Practicing450

Crittenden practiced in Anchorage from 1950 to 1986 as: 

Edwin B Crittenden, Architect

Edwin B Crittenden and Associates

CCWJ (Crittenden, Cassetta, Wirum and Jacobs)

CCWC (Crittenden, Cassetta, Wirum and Cannon)

CCC (Crittenden, Cassetta and Cannon)

 

450 Bowker, “Directory – 1970.”

190
CCC/HOK (Crittenden, Cassetta and Cannon/Hellmuth-Obata-Kassabaum of Seattle)

Crittenden Krochina 

Architects Alaska Incorporated (the current iteration of his firm)

Biography 

Often referred to as “the dean of Alaska architects,” Ed Crittenden was born and raised in New Haven, 

Connecticut. Following his graduation from the Yale University School of Architecture in 1942, 

Crittenden enlisted in the US Coast Guard and was stationed in Ketchikan. He met his wife of 65 years, 

Katherine, while stationed in Ketchikan and the two were married in 1944. Crittenden left Alaska to 

pursue advanced architectural studies at MIT in 1946 after completing his service. He returned in 1950 

and founded his architectural practice in Anchorage.451 Of particular interest to Crittenden was the harsh, 

cold climate of Alaska. In 1963, he opted to take a break from practicing architecture for a year and 

moved his family to Helsinki, Finland, where he studied northern design, particularly the work of Alvar 

Aalto and Ralph Erskine. Applying what he learned from his sabbatical, he successfully made a name for 

himself as a leader in cold climate architecture, both mentoring and partnering with architects who would 

go on to become well-known architects in Alaska. In 1961, Crittenden co-founded the Alaska Chapter of 

the American Institute of architects and became Alaska’s first AIA Fellow in 1979. Crittenden designed 

residences, schools, churches, health care facilities, and several other types of buildings throughout 

Alaska. Being a student of the 1940s, many of his completed works were of the International Style.452

After retiring from his Anchorage practice in 1986, he moved to Sitka with his wife where he served as 

campus architect for Sheldon Jackson College. In 1990, he and his wife returned to Anchorage, where Ed 

continued to pursue his love of natural beauty through painting and sail boat adventures through the 

inside passage and Puget Sound. The Anchorage Museum of Art and History presented an exhibition of 

his work in 2006 and the University of Alaska has a large collection of his drawings and records in their 

archives. Notable honors include the Medal of Honor from the AIA Northwest and Pacific Regions 

chapter in 2009, and a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Alaska Association for Historic 

Preservation in 2007. In 2012, Ed received the Kumin Award from the Alaska AIA fellows for his 

contributions to the theory and practice of northern architecture. Crittenden also assisted in several 

educational publications regarding northern climate building techniques. He passed away in 2015 at the 

age of 99.

Selected Portfolio

Hotel Captain Cook First Tower (1965), St Mary's Episcopal Church (1958, Anchorage), ARCO 

Operations Center Prudhoe Bay, Anchorage Old Federal Building Court House Addition (1958)453, 

Hillcrest Presbyterian, Shiloh Baptist, addition to Calvary Baptist, First Methodist (1955)454, Austin 

House design and upgrades to the Sage Building (Sheldon Jackson Campus, Sitka), Egan Convention 

Center and Conoco Phillips (Anchorage), Anchorage Visitor Information Center Cabin (1954)455, UAF 

President's House (1958), Bartlett High School additions and Central Middle School of Science 

 

451 “Edwin Butler Crittenden, Obituary,” Sitka Sentinel. 452 Amy Schlenker, Jason Allen, and Jim Steely, Recommendation of Eligibility for the 1958 Crittenden Addition of 

Anchorage Old Federal Building, Anchorage, Alaska, (Seattle: General Services Administration, Northwest/Arctic 

Region, 2010), 28.

453 Schlenker, Allen, and Steely, Crittenden Addition, 28. 454 "Crittenden Churches," E-mail to Robert L. Meinhardt, September 10, 2012, From John Crittenden, Architects 

Alaska.

455 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 83.

191
(Anchorage), The University District (UAA Master plan, Providence Hospital, McLaughlin Youth Center 

Campuses), Sitka U.S. Post Office modifications with Robert Fehlberg, Conoco Phillips Tower and Egan 

Convention Center (Anchorage), First Presbyterian Church (1968).456

 Figure 130. The Captain Cook Hotel, Tower 1, Anchorage, Alaska, built 1965 (source: Anchorage Museum at Rasmuson Center, 

Ward Wells Collection, AMRC-wwc-6318-1).

 

456 “Edwin Butler Crittenden, Obituary,” Sitka Sentinel. 

192
Figure 131. First Presbyterian Church, 10th Avenue, Anchorage, built 1968 (source: Presbytery of Yukon 2016).

John Stevens Forrest (1937-1991)

Firm(s) / Location /Years Practicing

Linn A Forest, Architects, Juneau, 1952- at least 1970?

Biography 

John Stevens Forrest, son of Linn Argile Forrest, was born in Portland, Oregon in 1937. He received his 

degree in architecture from Stanford University in 1960, as well as the Mortinmer C. Leventritt Award for 

all-around excellence of performance in the Department of Art and Architecture in 1959. After 

graduating, he moved to Juneau to work for his father at Linn A. Forrest Architects where he assisted with 

the design of the Mendenhall Glacier Visitor Center, Glacier Observatory. While working for his father 

he was involved with the design and redesigns of several schools in Southeast Alaska. However, his 

design of the Centennial Museum in Juneau for the Alaska ‘67 Centennial was perhaps his most wellknown. The large modern, box-like building was clad in white concrete panels pressed with Alaskan 

193
Native-inspired feather motif covering the entire building. John Forrest continued to practice at his 

father’s firm until the mid-1970s. He lived his life out in Juneau until he passed away in 1991457. 

Selected Portfolio458

Glacier Observatory/Mendenhall Glacier Visitor Center, Juneau (1962), Fairbanks Pioneers' Home, Auk 

Bay Elementary School and Centennial Museum, Juneau (1967), Blatchy Junior High School and 

Swimming Pool, Sitka (1967) Juneau Centennial Museum/Alaska State Museum, Juneau (1967)

Figure 132. The Centennial Museum (Alaska State Museum) in Juneau,as seen in 1967, designed by John Stevens Forrest in 

1965 for the 1967 Centennial Exposition, (source: Alaska State Library, Historical Collections, Alaska State Library Place file 

Photographs, ASL-Juneau-Buildings-23).

Linn Argile Forrest, Sr. (1905-1987)

Firm(s) / Location /Years Practicing

F. Mason White, Portland, OR, 1926-1927

Hugh Thompson, Bend, OR, 1927-1928

Roi L. Morn, Portland, OR, 1929

Whitehouse, Stanton & Church, Portland, OR, 1929-1931

U.S. War Department, Bonneville Power Administration, Portland, OR, 1932-1934

U.S. Forest Service, architect (Regions 6 and 10), Portland and Alaska, 1934-1952

Alaska Public Works Commission/Civilian Conservation Corps, Juneau, 1937-1939

Linn A Forrest Architects, Juneau, 1952-1987

 

457 Bowker, “Directory – 1970.”

458 Bowker, “Directory – 1970.”

194
Notes on practice, licensing, etc. not captured in employment details

Co-authored The Wolf and the Raven, Totem Poles of Southeastern Alaska with anthropologist Viola 

Garfield459; restored historic totem poles

Biography 

Linn Argile Forrest was born in 1905, in Bucyrus, Ohio. He attended Franklin High School in Portland, 

Oregon and the University of Oregon in Eugene. Although Forrest did not graduate with a degree, he 

received the prestigious Ion Lewis Traveling Fellowship (an annual award with the University of Oregon 

Dean of the School of Architecture and two members of the Oregon Chapter of the American Institute of 

Architects as trustees); After spending a year in Europe studying architecture, he returned to Portland in 

1932 where he received a license to practice architecture. In June 1934, Forrest was employed by the War 

Department’s Bonneville Dam Power Administration as a draftsman for the massive Columbia River 

Bonneville Dam. He accepted a position with the US Forest Service shortly thereafter, at which time he 

compiled a handbook of acceptable building designs for the region and designed recreation facilities such 

as ski resorts and bathing facilities.460 Perhaps his most notable work with the Forest Service was 

Timberline Lodge on Mount Hood, which he drafted the floor plans and elevations, including the 

building’s general layout.461 In the late 1930s, the Forest Service contracted Forrest and regional forester, 

B. Frank Heintzleman, to oversee various Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) operations in Southeast 

Alaska involving the restoration of totem poles and traditional Alaskan Native architecture, including the 

restoration of the Saxman Tribal House, Chief Son-I-Hat House, Chief Shakes Community House in 

Wrangell, and the creation of the Saxman Totem Park. His work with the Forest Service was decidedly 

rustic, continuing the style developed by Gilbert Stanley Underwood. In 1946, Forrest was permanently 

transferred to Alaska to become a USFS Regional Architect and to develop buildings similar to but 

smaller than those in the Pacific Northwest Region. The Forest Service work was not challenging 

architecturally, so Forrest left the agency in 1952 to form his own practice. Linn A. Forrest Architects 

completed notable buildings throughout Southeast Alaska, including the Mendenhall Glacier Visitor’s 

Center in 1962 and Chapel by the Lake in Auke Bay with Harold B. Foss in 1958.462 He also designed 

various educational buildings such as Juneau-Douglas High School (1960), Petersburg Elementary School 

(1968), University of Alaska Southeast Physical Education Building (1962), and Kake Elementary School 

(1952).463 His work was generally of a modern design, with large panels of glass, vertical metal and 

arching columns. This was a stark difference to his early work with the Forest Service. In 1979, Forrest 

was elected to the College of Fellows of the American Institute of Architects for his contributions to 

 

459 R. R. Bowker, "The AIA Historical Directory of American Architects – 1956,” accessed March 3, 2016, 

http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/Wiki Pages/ 1956 American Architects Directory.aspx.

460 John R. Grosvenor, A History of the Architecture of the USDA Forest Service: Chapter 3 People: Leaders and 

Implementers, Linn Argile Forrest, Regional Architect, Region 10 (1934 – 1952), (Washington, D.C.: Engineering 

Staff, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Forest Service, 1999), accessed April 3, 2016, 

http://www.foresthistory.org/ASPNET/Publications/architecture/chap3d.htm. 461 National Register of Historic Places, “Nomination: Timberline Lodge,” Washington, D.C.,: National Park 

Service, accessed April 3, 2016, http://focus.nps.gov/nrhp/AssetDetail?assetID=e2655c58-4a1d-4d57-b17aa7df77b03726.

462 Bowker, “Directory – 1970.” 463 Robert L. Mienhardt, Casey Woster and Amy Ramirez, Determination of Eligibility of the Old Kake Elementary 

School, Located in Kake, Alaska and Recommendations for Issuing a Section 106 Finding for Demolition and 

Redevelopment, (Anchorage, Alaska: Shannon and Wilson, Inc., 2014).

195
Timberline Lodge and his design of Mendenhall Glacier Visitor Center. Forrest died in June 1987 at the 

age of 81.464 

Selected Portfolio

Juneau-Douglas High School (1960); University of Alaska Physical Education Building (1962) and 

Geophysical Institute (1968)465; Petersburg Elementary School (1968); Sitka Branch of First National 

Bank (1970); Mendenhall Glacier Visitors’ Center (1962)466; Wrangell, Chief Shakes Community House 

(1939-1940)467; Chief Son-I-Hat House (1938-1939); Totem Bight Community House (1940)468; Saxman 

Tribal House469; UAF Patty Gymnasium (1963)470; Timberline Lodge, Mount Hood, Oregon (1938); 

Bonneville Dam, Oregon (1934), Kake Elementary School (1952); Chapel by the Lake, Auke Bay, Juneau 

1958 (with Harold Foss) 

Figure 133. Timberline Lodge, Mount Hood, Oregon (source: National Register Nomination 1973).

 

464 Grosvenor, A History of the Architecture, 1999. 465Bowker, “Directory – 1970.” 466 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 178. 467 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 199. 468 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 205.

469 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 206. 470 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 226.

196
Figure 134. Mendenhall Glacier Visitor Center, Juneau (source: Alaska State Library, Historical Collections, Western Airlines 

Photograph Collection, 1926-1969, ASL-PCA-51).

Harold Byron “H.B. or Hal” Foss (1910-1988)

Firm(s) / Location /Years Practicing

HB Foss Company, Juneau, 1935-1945

Foss Malcolm, Juneau, 1945-1949

Foss, Malcolm and Olsen, Juneau, 1949-1951

Foss Olsen, Juneau, 1951-1956

Foss Olsen Sands, Juneau, 1956-1958

Biography 

Harold B. Foss was born in 1910, in Montesano, Washington. He graduated from the University of 

Washington in 1935 and went to Juneau that same year where he founded H. B. Foss Company. Foss is 

credited with having established the oldest architecture firm in Alaska.471 The company underwent 

various name changes, beginning with HB Foss Company, Malcolm Foss, Foss, Malcom and Olsen, Foss 

Olsen, Foss, Olsen and Sands, until Harold’s retirement in 1959, when it became Sands and Ackley, 

Ackley and Associates, Ackley and Jensen, and is currently Jensen, Yorba, and Lott, Inc. of Juneau. Foss 

designed many buildings across Alaska, including several private residences in Juneau. Some 

communities in Alaska are mostly a reflection of the work of Foss, as he assisted in rebuilding Hoonah 

after much of community burned in 1944, and designed the Buckner and Hodge buildings in Whitter in 

 

471 "History," Jensen Yorba Lott. 

197
the mid-1950s.472 The Buckner Building was a naval facility that housed an entire military installation, 

complete with apartments and leisure facilities, as well as underground tunnels to access the naval port 

and submarine facilities in the harbor. The Hodge Building, now known as Begich Towers, had a similar 

function but was used for civilian purposes. Today, nearly every resident of Whittier lives in the Hodge 

Building. Foss also teamed with other prominent architects of the period. He designed Chapel by the Lake 

in Auke Bay with Linn Forrest and was the on-site architect for the Cathedral Arms Apartments in Sitka 

and the Mendenhall Towers Apartments, which were designed by Earl W. Morrison of Seattle. His firm 

completed several hospitals across the state, from Bethel to Petersburg. He also designed government 

buildings in Juneau. Foss signed the 1949 AIA Membership application for Manley and Mayer of 

Anchorage, as their witness of good character. Foss was most well-known for his involvement with civic 

buildings in Alaska, several of which are still standing today. He retired in 1958 and moved to Palo Alto, 

California until he passed in 1988.473 

Selected Portfolio

Juneau Memorial Library (1950, now Juneau Douglas City Museum)474, Juneau City Hall (1950-51)475, 

Terminal at Juneau International Airport (1948-1949 and 1956-1957)476, Bethel Hospital, Bethel Armory 

(1956-1957), Alaska State Office Building, Juneau (1952), UAF Eielson Memorial Building upper levels 

(1940), Petersburg Hospital (1954), Mt Edgecumbe Hospital, Sitka (1947-1948), UAF Constitution Hall 

(1956), UAF Brooks Building (1952)477, Chapel by the Lake, Auk Bay, Juneau (1958, with Linn Forrest), 

Buckner Building (1953) and Hodge Building (1954-1956, now Begich Towers) in Whittier478, Cathedral 

Arms Apartments in Sitka (1950) with Earl W Morrison.

 

472 "History," Jensen Yorba Lott. 473 R.R. Bowker, “Name Look Up,” American Institute of Architects, accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/Wiki%20Pages/Find%20Names.aspx

474 "History." Jensen Yorba Lott. Accessed March 15, 2016. 475 Bowker, 1956. 476 Bowker, 1970. 477 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 225. 478 "History." Jensen Yorba Lott.

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Figure 135. The Buckner Building, Whittier, 1955 (source: University of Alaska Anchorage, Consortium Library, Archives & 

Special Collections. Christine M. McClain papers, 1907-1992. UAA-HMC-0370-series15b-31-6).

Figure 136. Constitution Hall, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, 1956 (source: Carey Postcards 2016).

Jennings Heber “Jinks” Graham (1924-2001)

Firm(s) / Location /Years Practicing

GA Pehrson, Spokane, WA, 1947

199
George C Ritter, Spokane, WA, 1947-1950, 1953-1956

Stationed at Ladd Field (Korean War) 1951-1953

Alaska Architecture and Engineering Company, Fairbanks, 1956

Gray, Rogers, Graham and Associates/Gray, Rogers, Graham and Osbourne, Fairbanks, 1957-1960

Olsen and Sands (partner), Juneau, 1960-1964

Private Practice, Ketchikan, 1964-? 

Biography 

Jennings “Jinks” Graham was born in 1924 in Hunters, Washington and raised in Spokane. He served in 

the U.S. Navy during World War II. After his discharge, Graham attended the University of Washington, 

where he earned a degree in architecture. He was employed during the summer months by small firms in 

Spokane while he attended the university. In 1951, Graham re-entered into service with the U.S. Air 

Force and was stationed at Ladd Air Force Base near Fairbank during the Korean War. At the end of the 

war, he returned home to Seattle, where he received his architectural license in 1956. He then returned to 

Fairbanks to work for Lee S. Linck at Alaska Architectural and Engineering Company. Graham opened 

his own firm with partners Gray and Rogers. In 1960, he moved his family to Juneau, where he worked 

for the firm Olsen and Sands.479 In 1964, Graham moved to Ketchikan and opened another small practice 

where he is credited as being Ketchikan’s first resident architect. While in Ketchikan he designed the 

Ketchikan Centennial Building completed in 1967 and was responsible for several other designs 

throughout Alaska, including commercial, educational buildings, and dormitories. He retired in Ketchikan 

and died in 2001 at the age of 77.480 

Selected Portfolio

Fairbanks Super Market, Bowling Alley (1959), Fairbanks Elementary School (1960), Wasilla 

Elementary School (1961), Armory Building, Bethel (1961), Men’s Dormitory, UAF (1961), Ketchikan

Bank Building (1961)481, Ketchikan Centennial Building (1967)482, State Court and Office Building, 

Juneau, and the site plan for the University of Alaska Southeast in Juneau.

 

479 Bowker, “Directory – 1962.” 480 "Jennings Heber “Jinks” Graham," Find A Grave. 481 Bowker, “Directory – 1962.” 482 "Jennings Heber “Jinks” Graham," Find A Grave.

200
Figure 137. Ketchikan Centennial Building, ca. 1967 (source: Lloyds Studio 1967).

John Edward Lautner (1911-1994)

Firm(s) / Location /Years Practicing

Taliesin Fellows East (Wisconsin) and West (Arizona), 1933-1938

Lautner Associates, Los Angeles, California, 1938-1994

Notes on practice, licensing, etc. not captured in employment details

Lautner and Associates became Lautner Associates-Helena Arahuette Architect, under Arahuette who 

worked with Lautner beginning in 1971.

Biography 

John Edward Lautner was born in Marquette, Michigan in 1911. His father was employed at the Northern 

State Normal School (now Northern Michigan University) and his pursuit of a life that included a wellrounded education influenced young John from an early age. Perhaps it was his father’s pursuit of a life 

consisting of a well-rounded education combined with being present throughout the construction of a 

family home and summer cabin that helped to shape Lautner’s future as a prominent American architect 

of the period. In 1933, Lautner graduated from Northern with a degree in liberal arts. He was accepted 

into Frank Lloyd Wright’s Taliesin Fellowship program that same year. Accompanying Lautner on the 

move to Taliesin East in Spring Green, Wisconsin was his fiancée Mary Faustina Roberts.483 The 

Lautners worked under Wright for six years at both Taliesin East and West (in Arizona), following the 

architect’s integrative pedagogy to “learn by doing.” In 1938, Lautner left for Los Angeles to work on 

Wright’s Sturges House. He soon opened his own practice in the city and flourished in the artistic 

community.484 He was revered as the “Father of Googie,” which was a style embodied by Googie’s 

Coffee Shop and countless other donut stops and diners in Southern California that reflected a modern 

space-aged theme. A genius of concrete molding, more than 100 of his designs consisted of commercial 

buildings, offices, schools, apartments, places of worship, theaters, and motels. However, it is his 

 

483 “John Lautner, Architect,” John Lautner Foundation, accessed March 31, 2016, http://www.johnlautner.org/. 484 Melissa Matuscak, John Lautner: A Southern California Visionary with Northern Michigan Sensibilities, 

Michigan Magazine, (Marquette, Michigan: DeVos Art Museum, Northern Michigan University, July/August, 

2012,) 32-38.

201
residential designs that made him one of the most influential architects of the twentieth century.485 Each 

design is a distinctive solution for an individual client and, most importantly, for a particular location. “It 

is the ability to blur the line between home and habitat that make John Lautner’s designs so incredible.”486

The Willis Harpel House in Anchorage was built in 1966 and was the second house Lautner designed for 

Harpel, the other being in southern California. Characteristics of many of his residential designs, it has a 

semicircular main level living area with open floorplan and a massive wall of windows that look out to 

Lake Otis, where the house is located. The slender wooden piers that support the roof of the house are 

carved in Pacific Northwest Native totemic designs. He completed work in Mexico, Arizona, California, 

Alaska, Colorado, and Florida, and he continued his work on commissioned projects until his passing at 

the age of 83. 

Selected Portfolio

The Willis Harpel House No. 2 (Anchorage, 1966), Leonard Malin residence (the Chemosphere in L.A.), 

Sheats-Goldstein residence (L.A.), Garcia Residence (L.A.) Marbrisa (concrete moat, Acapulco, 

Mexico)487

 

485 “John Lautner, Architect,” John Lautner Foundation. 486 Matuscak, John Lautner, 32-38. 487 “John Lautner, Architect,” John Lautner Foundation.

202
Figure 138. Harpel House #2, 1900 Stanford Drive, Anchorage, Alaska, Featured in Life Magazine in October 1967 (source: 

North Carolina Modernist Houses 2016).

Lee Stanley Linck (1919-1978)

Firm(s) / Location /Years Practicing

U.S. Smelting, Refining and Mining Company, Fairbanks, 1940-1942

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Ladd Field, Fairbanks, 1942-1944

Alaska Architecture and Engineering Company, Fairbanks, 1945-1971

Biography 

Lee S. Linck was born in Arizona in 1919 and moved to Alaska during the 1920s with his family. He 

attended the University of Alaska, Fairbanks, where he received a degree in engineering in 1940. He 

worked as an engineer for the U.S. Smelting, Refining and Mining Company and for the U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers at Ladd Field. In 1944, he enlisted for active duty military service and, upon his return 

to Fairbanks in 1945, he founded the Alaska Architecture and Engineering Company with his partners 

J.F. Potter and F.H. Mapleton. By 1949, Linck became the sole owner of the company.488 He created 

innovative cold climate construction techniques using prefabricated materials and carried out site testing 

for weatherization. His firm was the launch point for many Alaskan architects who went on to establish 

their own firms. The firm consisted of upwards of 30 employees, educated in engineering, architecture, 

and drafting, and completed over 250 projects including over 50 educational facilities.489 Many works 

were located in Fairbanks, but also at Ladd Field, the University of Alaska campus (Fairbanks), Fort 

Wainwirght, Fort Greely, Tok, Delta Junction, Eielson AFB, Nenana, Shaktoolik, and Cordova. Airports, 

schools, churches, hospitals, residential housing, recreational structures, industrial areas, government and 

military facilities were all in the firm’s portfolio. 

Selected Portfolio

Fairbanks, LF Joy Elementary School, 1960, with Douglas Ackley490; Nordale Elementary (53) and 

Nerland Commercial Building (Fairbanks); Chena Elementary School at Ft. Wainwright; Juneau Jail and 

Juvenile Detention Center; Fort Yukon High School, Duckering Building (UAF), Creamer's Dairy 

Processing Plant/Louden Barn (late 1940s), Royal Crown Bottling Plant; Eielson AFB Locomotive 

Roundhouse; Fairbanks Medical and Surgical Clinic; Airports in Nondalton, Shaktoolik, Nenana, 

Fairbanks, and Harding Lake491

 

488 OHA File.

489 OHA File.

490 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 223.

491 OHA File.

203
Figure 139. L.F. Joy Elementary School, Fairbanks, 1960, with Doug Ackley (Source: C.P. Johnston Company 1962).

Figure 140. Nordale Elementary School, Fairbanks, (source: The Fairbanks Coal Bunkers 2016).

William Arnold Manley (1903-1990)

Firm(s) / Location /Years Practicing

David C. Lange, Moscow, ID, 1927-1928

L. Solberg, Wenatchee, WA, 1928-1931

N. Lester Troast, Juneau, AK, 1931-1933

Manley and Troast Architects, Juneau, AK, 1933-1937

William A. Manley (Manley and Troast), Anchorage, AK, 1937-1947

Manley and Mayer, Anchorage, AK 1947-1972

William A. Manley, Washington, 1972-1976

Biography 

William Arnold Manley was born in 1903 in Blackdiamond, Washington and moved to Douglas, Alaska 

with his family where he attended Douglas High School, graduating with the class of 1922. He completed 

204
four years of courses at the University of Idaho at Moscow but never earned his degree. During this time 

he was employed as a draftsman under various architects. Manley returned to Juneau in 1931 and worked 

with N. Lester Troast as an architect, eventually forming the partnership of Manley and Troast in 1933.492

Manley moved to Anchorage in 1937 and opened a second office, where his styles shifted from a 

Colonial influence to a Moderne style of architecture.493 At his Anchorage office he designed the Loussac 

Building as well as the Howard Romig House (now the Copper Whale Inn) at the northwest corner of 5th 

Avenue and L Street, in 1941. In 1947, he formed a new partnership with Francis Bernardo Mayer in 

Anchorage and one of their first designs was the Loussac-Sogn Building in downtown Anchorage.494

Manley and Mayer moved their offices to the newly constructed building at the corner of 5th Avenue and 

D Street after construction was completed in 1947. Manley’s application for membership in the AIA in 

1949 was granted and his record of registration was signed by architect Linn Forrest of the Alaska 

Territorial Board of Engineers.

495 Several civic, commercial, and educational buildings were completed 

throughout Alaska under the title of Manley and Mayer. The duo is credited with having completed the 

first architect-designed private residences in Anchorage. Manley’ partnership with Mayer dissolved in 

1972. He moved back to Washington and practiced under the firm name of Manley until retiring from the 

in 1976.

Selected Portfolio

Howard Romig House (Anchorage; by Manley and Troast, first architecturally designed house in town, 

now the Copper Whale Inn), Loussac-Sogn Building (Anchorage), Alaska Railroad Depot in Anchorage, 

Fairbanks Main School, Inlet Towers and the Mt McKinley Building (Anchorage), Anchorage High 

School, Grant Hall and Gould Hall at APU, Anchorage International Airport North Terminal, Bartlett 

High School (Anchorage), Sand Point School, Valdez School, Z. J Loussac Library (original), Denali 

School (Anchorage), Bunnell Building at UAF and the Elmer E. Rasmuson Library (Fairbanks), Seward 

City Hall

 

492 American Institute of Architects (AIA), Archived Membership Files, accessed March 6, 2016, 

http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/AIA%20scans/M-P/MayerFrancisB.pdf

493 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 77.

494 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 88.

495 AIA Archived Membership Files, Mayer.

205
 Figure 141. The original Z.J. Loussac Library, 1955, F Street, Anchorage, Alaska (source: Anchorage Museum at Rasmuson 

Center, Ward Wells Collection, AMRC-wws-1640-2).

Francis Bernardo Mayer (1914-1985)

Firm(s) / Location /Years Practicing496

Heath Gove and Bell Architects, Tacoma, WA, 1932-1936

Sutton Whitney and Dugan, Unknown, WA, 1937

Joseph Wohleb, Olympia, WA, 1938

Lytle and Shorett Architects, Seattle, WA, 1939

Seims Drake Puget Sound Company, Sitka, AK, 1940-1941

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Anchorage, AK, 1941-1944

Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA), Anchorage, AK, 1944-1946

William A. Manley (extension of Troast and Manley), Anchorage, AK, 1946-1947

Manley and Mayer, Anchorage, 1947-1972

Notes on practice, licensing, etc. not captured in employment details

No college or degree listed in AIA Membership File/Application; likely gained education from 

apprenticeship

Biography 

Francis Bernardo Mayer was born in Tacoma, Washington in 1914. He attended Lincoln High School in 

Tacoma and graduated in 1931. In 1932, he began as a draftsman’s apprentice for a Tacoma area 

architectural firm. Through several years of direct experience, Mayer gained the necessary skills to 

become a licensed architect. In 1940, he was employed with the Seims Drake Puget Sound Company and 

 

496 AIA Archived Membership Files, Mayer.

206
moved to Sitka. The company served as a military contractor, designing and building WWII Naval 

facilities in Kodiak and Sitka. After successfully working in a defense contractor capacity, Mayer applied 

to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and was employed in the Anchorage office. During the war he took 

a position with the Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA). After the war, Manley moved to private 

practice under William Manley.497 In 1947, Manley parted ways with Lester Troast and formed the 

partnership of Manley of Mayer. One of their first designs was the Loussac-Sogn Building in downtown 

Anchorage at the corner of 5th Avenue and D Street, where the offices of Manley and Mayer were located 

upon its completion. He applied for membership in the American Institute of Architects in 1949 and his 

Record of Registration was signed by architect Linn Forrest (AK Territorial Board of Engineers).498

Under the title of Manley and Mayer, many civic, commercial, and educational buildings were completed 

across Alaska throughout their 25 years of partnership.499 Manley moved back to Washington in the early 

1970s where he continued to practice. Francis Mayer retired in 1972, with the dissolution of his 

partnership, and moved to Perth, Australia. 

Selected Portfolio

Inlet Towers and the Mt McKinley Building (supervising architect, Anchorage)500, Anchorage High 

School, Grant Hall and Gould Hall at Alaska Methodist University Campus (now APU, Anchorage)501, 

Anchorage International Airport North Terminal, Bartlett High School (Anchorage), Sand Point School, 

Valdez School, Z. J Loussac Library (original)502, Denali School (Anchorage), Bunnell Building at UAF 

and the Elmer E. Rasmuson Library (Fairbanks)503, Seward City Hall, East Anchorage High School, 

Homer High School504

 

497 AIA Archived Membership Files, Mayer. 498 AIA Archived Membership Files, Mayer. 499 Bowker, “Directory – 1970.” 500 R. R. Bowker, "The AIA Historical Directory of American Architects – 1956,” accessed March 3, 2016, 

http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/Wiki Pages/ 1956 American Architects Directory.aspx. 501 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 100. 502 Bowker, “Directory – 1962.” 503 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 225. 504 Bowker, “Directory – 1962.”

207
Figure 142. Grant Hall, Alaska Methodist University Campus, Anchorage, Alaska, 1963 (source: Anchorage Museum at 

Rasmuson Center, Ward Wells Collection, AMRC-wws-4135-1).

Kenneth Douglas Maynard (1931-present)

Firm(s) / Location /Years Practicing

Morross & Graff, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa, 1950-1954

Morross & Graff, Empangeni, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, 1954-1957

Pearse Aneck-Hahn & Bristol, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa, 1957-1960

Pearse Aneck-Hahn & Bristol, Anchorage, Alaska, 1960-1962

Crittenden Cassetta Wirum & Jacobs, Anchorage, Alaska, 1962-1965

Schultz & Maynard, Anchorage, Alaska, 1965-1968, 

Kenneth Maynard Associates, Anchorage, Alaska 1968-1974

Maynard and Wirum, Anchorage, 1970s

Maynard NBBJ, Anchorage, 1975-1978

Maynard & Partch, Anchorage, Alaska, 1978-1996

Principal at USKH, Incorporated, Anchorage, since 1996

Notes on practice, licensing, etc. not captured in employment details

South African architect, South African National (but born in USA)

Biography 

Kenneth Douglas Maynard was born on August 16, 1931 in Hackensack, New Jersey. In 1958, Maynard 

received his certification in architecture from University Natal, Durban, Republic of South Africa. After 

seven years as a draftsman for Pearse Aneck-Hahn & Bristol in Johannesburg and Empangeni, he joined 

an international design and architecture firm. Maynard moved to Alaska in 1960 after the firm opened an 

office in Anchorage. Maynard worked with Edwin Crittenden from 1962 to 1965. He participated in a 

208
structural building survey with other architects following the Good Friday earthquake in 1964.505 Two 

years later, his firm Schultz & Maynard was involved with a non-structural damage survey alongside the 

firm of Ayres & Hayakawa.506 This partnership dissolved in 1968, when Maynard began his independent 

practice. He served as the AIA Alaska Chapter President in 1969 and later received a fellowship.507 

Selected Portfolio

Anchorage Museum of History and Art (Schultz/Maynard), Anchorage Museum of History and Art West 

Addition (Maynard and Associates, 1973-1974)508, Hotel Captain Cook Second Tower (early 1970s) and 

Helen S Whaley Center at APU (1972 as Maynard and Wirum), CIRI Building (1976-1977, Maynard 

NBBJ), Anchorage Museum of History and Art Seventh Ave Addition (1984, Maynard and Partch)509

Figure 143. Hotel Captain Cook Tower #2 left of owner/developer Wally Hickle, 1974 (source: Anchorage Museum at Rasmuson 

Center, Ward Wells Collection, AMRC-wws-5282-5).

Earl Wilson Morrison (1888-1955)

Firm(s) / Location /Years Practicing

Morrison and Stimson, Spokane and Seattle Washington, 1911-1954

Biography 

 

505 "Kenneth Douglas Maynard," Prabook, accessed February 27, 2016, http://prabook.org/web/personview.html?profileId=676146.

506 "Kenneth D. Maynard Collection Description," Consortium Library Archives, accessed February 27, 2016, 

https://consortiumlibrary.org/archives/FindingAids/hmc-0172.html. 507 Bowker, “Directory – 1970.” 508 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 92.

509 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 92.

209
Born in Sibley, Iowa in 1888, Earl Wilson Morrison's family resettled in Spokane, Washington when he 

was four. He attended the Armour Institute in Chicago sometime around 1909. Morrison was drafted for 

the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) and served in France, New York and New Mexico in World 

War I. He returned to Spokane in 1911 to practice architecture.510 Morrison designed several residences 

before the age of 25 and became highly regarded as an architect. Locales referred to him as “Spokane’s 

Boy Architect.” His work flourished and continued to grow in his profession, eventually starting a 

partnership with Vas Salisbury Stimson. From 1917 to 1920, Morrison and his wife Hazel lived in 

Spokane from 1917 to 1920. They resided in the Marlborough Apartments, which was designed by 

Morrison three years prior.511 As World War II intensified in 1942, he relocated to oversee the 

partnershop’s Seattle office where he became known for his Moderne and Art Deco style buildings. He 

excelled at high rise apartment buildings, many of which are still part of the Seattle skyline. He drafted 

the original blueprints for the Inlet View Towers, which were subsequently replicated to create the Mount 

McKinley Apartments as a cost-saving development by the Brady Swalling Construction Company. The 

design was reflective of Morrison’s Modern flare in designing high rise apartment complexes. Architect 

Francis Mayer oversaw the construction.512 In addition to these two towers in Anchorage, Morrison’s 

work in Alaska also included Cathedral Arms Apartments in Sitka, the Mendenhall Tower Apartments in 

Juneau, and Ferris Court (now the Mary Francis Condos) in Ketchikan513. Morrison died in San Diego, 

California in 1955.

Selected Portfolio

Anchorage, Inlet Towers and McKinley Apartment Building in association with Donald McDonald (51-

52)514, Cathedral Arms Apartments, Sitka (50) with HB Foss as local architect, Wingren Court (now 

Marine View, 53) and Austin Tower (now Tongass Tower, 54) in Ketchikan515, Edward and Ellen 

Cannon House (Spokane, National Register listed), the Gainsborough, the Nettleton, the Grosvenor 

House (now Wall Street Tower in Belltown neighborhood), the Baldwin (All Seattle)516

 

510 American Institute of Architects (AIA), Archived Membership Files, accessed March 14, 2016, 

http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/AIA%20scans/M-P/MorrisonEarlW.pdf. 511 "Admirer Unearths Memory of Young Architectural Genius," Spokesman.com (Spokane), accessed March 7, 

2016, http://www.spokesman.com/stories/2012/jul/06/admirer-unearths-memory-of-young-architectural/./ 512 Michael R. Yarborough, Shawna M. Rider, Catherine L. Pendleton, and Amanda Welsh, Determination of 

National Register of Historic Places Eligibility for the Inlet Towers (ANC-2900), Anchorage, Alaska, (Anchorage: 

DOWL Engineers, 2008).

513 Yarborough and Welsh, Marine View Condominiums. 514 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 94. 515 Yarborough and Welsh, Marine View Condominiums. 516 PCAD, accessed March 31, 2016, http://pcad.lib.washington.edu/person/1268/

210
 Figure 144. Inlet View Towers, L Street, Anchorage, 1968 (source: Anchorage Museum at Rasmuson Center, Ward Wells 

Collection, AMRC-wws-4696-2).

211
Figure 145. Ferris Court (now the Mary Francis), Ketchikan, Alaska, 1967 (source: Anchorage Museum at Rasmuson Center, 

Steve McCutcheon Collection, AMRC-B1990-014-5-TV-093-21).

John Moore Morse (1911-2000)

Firm(s) / Location /Years Practicing517

Markus and Nocka Architects, Boston, MA, 1939-1940

Passive Defense Project, Boston, MA, 1940-1941

Kastner and Hibben Architects, Washington, D.C., 1941

C.B. Ross Company, Washington, D.C., 1941-1942

George W Stoddard, Seattle, WA, 1942

Boeing Aircraft Company, Seattle, WA, 1943-1945

Chiarelli and Kirk Architects, Seattle, WA, 1945

Bassetti and Morse, Seattle, WA, 1947-1962

John M. Morse and Associates, Seattle, WA, 1962-2000

Kirk, Wallace, McKinley and Associates, Seattle, WA, 1969 

Biography 

John Moore “Jack” Morse was born in Brookline, Massachusetts in 1911. He attended Harvard 

University where he earned a degree in architecture from the Harvard Graduate School of Design in 1940. 

In 1942, Morse moved to Seattle and began working for architect George Stoddard. From 1943 to 1945, 

he was employed for the Boeing Company. In January of 1947, Morse began a successful partnership 

 

517 "John M Morse" Documentation and Conservation of the Modernist Movement, Western Washington 

(DoCoMoMoWeWa), accessed March 31, 2016, http://www.docomomo-wewa.org/architects_detail.php?id=46.

212
with fellow Harvard graduate, Fred Bassetti. He was a partner in the firm of Bassetti & Morse until 1962. 

During this time, the firm received several state and national awards for their achievements. The practice 

was devoted largely to residential designs from individual custom houses to large-scale developments and 

public housing.518 Among their more notable residential projects are the G. J. Armbruster House in Lake 

Stevens (Seattle Chapter AIA Honor Award), the Gamma Rho Apartments, Seattle (1952 National AIA 

Honor Award), the Gerald Martin House, Seattle (1954 National AIA Honor Award), Norwood Village in 

Bellevue, Washington (1951), the Marshall Forrest Residence in Bellingham, and the Walter F. Isaacs 

House in Bellevue’s Hilltop community (both residential plans being recipients of National Merit Awards 

in 1953).519 Morse designed several well-recognized public and educational buildings in the Seattle area 

throughout this career. In Alaska, Morse designed the Glacier Bay Lodge in 1966 as part of the National 

Park Service Mission 66 Program and the Sitka National Historical Park Visitor Center in 1968.520 Morse 

was an active AIA member from 1947 to 2000 and was president of the Washington State Chapter in 

1953. He was nominated as a fellow in 1968.521 Morse, who has been characterized by some academics as 

a structural rationalist, was devoted to clarity in architectural expression and was a strong advocate of 

urban design. He maintained a private practice in Seattle until the time of his death in 2000.522 

Selected Portfolio

Glacier Bay Lodge (1966)523, Sitka National Historical Park Visitor Center (1963-1964, 1968), With 

Frederick Bassetti: McChord AFB Housing (1957)524, Union Washington Elementary School, Lynwood 

Shopping Center, Lynnwood Post Office, PUD Admin Building (Kennewick), Mercer Island Elementary 

School, Washington Corrections Center, Garfield Swimming Pool525; Teamed with Kirk, Wallace, and 

McKinley on Pike Place Market526

 

518 "John M Morse," DoCoMoMoWeWa.

519 "John M Morse," DoCoMoMoWeWa. 520 "National Park Service: Mission 66 Visitor Centers (Appendix I)," National Parks Service, accessed March 7, 

2016, http://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/allaback/vci.htm. 521 "John M Morse," DoCoMoMoWeWa. 522 "National Park Service: Mission 66 Visitor Centers (Appendix I)," National Parks Service. 523 “Spaces & Places: America's Cultural Landscapes, Glacier Bay Lodge Complex,” National Park Service, 

accessed December 10, 2015, http://www.nps.gov/cultural_landscapes/snp/100035.html.

524 Bowker, “Directory – 1962.” 525 Bowker, “Directory – 1970.” 526 Bowker, “Directory – 1970.”

213
 Figure 146. Glacier Bay Lodge, Alaska, ca. 1966 (source: NPS 2015).

Figure 147. Sitka Historical Park Visitor Center (source: NPS 2015).

Bjarne Carl Olsen (1913-2012)

214
Firm(s) / Location /Years Practicing527528

B Dudley Stuart, Seattle, 1938-1939

HB Foss, Juneau, 1939-1941

Naramore, Bain, Brady and Johanson (NBBJ), Seattle, 1941-1945

Olsen and Olson, Seattle, 1945

Olsen Ridley and Olson, Seattle, 1946

Foss Malcolm and Olsen, Juneau, 1949-1951

Foss Olsen, Juneau, 1951-1956

Foss Olsen Sands, Juneau, 1956-1958

Olsen Sands, Juneau, 1958-1968

Biography

Bjarne Carl Olsen was born in Seattle, WA in 1913. He earned a degree in architecture from the 

University of Washington in 1938. He was employed with the HB Foss Company in Juneau after 

attending classes with Harold Foss at the University of Washington, returning to Seattle in 1941 where he 

worked for the noted architectural firm Naramore, Bain, Brady, and Johanson (NBBJ). In 1949, Olsen 

returned to Juneau and became a partner in the firm Foss Malcolm, where the three traveled extensively 

throughout Alaska, visiting communities with the intent to garner new projects. The partners were gone 

for months at a time and often completed projects before returning to their office in Juneau. Several 

hospitals and schools in rural and urban Alaska added to their portfolio, including Bartlett Hospital, 

University of Alaska labs for study of Musk Oxen, and the Alaska State Building.529 The firm changed 

names periodically as partners retired and new architects joined the team. Olsen also served as Vice 

President and Director of Alaska Ellis Airlines. He was an artistic individual, particularly interested in 

wood block carving; his work “White Dot” is still used today as the company’s logo.530 Olsen retired in 

1968 to Hawaii, but the firm continued and is still in practice today as Jensen, Yorba, and Lott, Inc. He 

passed away in 2012 in Honolulu.531 

Selected Portfolio

Alaska Office Building (Juneau), Bethel Hospital, Hodge Building (Begich Towers, Whittier)532, Bartlett 

Hospital, Alaska State Building in Juneau, Juneau Municipal Airport Terminal Building533, Dillingham 

High School, University of Alaska Bio-Sciences Building534

 

527 Bowker, “Directory – 1956.” 528 Bowker, “Directory – 1962.”

529 "History," Jensen Yorba Lott. 530 "History," Jensen Yorba Lott. 531 "Bjarne Carl Olsen," Juneau Empire, (August 14, 2012), accessed March 31, 2016, 

http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/juneauempire/obituary.aspx?n=Bjarne-Carl-Olsen&pid=159068496. 532 "History," Jensen Yorba Lott. 533 "History," Jensen Yorba Lott. 534 Bowker, “Directory – 1962.”

215
Figure 148. The Hodge Building (now Begich Towers), Whittier, 1964 after the earthquake (source: Anchorage Museum at 

Rasmuson Center, Corps of Engineers 1964 Earthquake Photographs Collection, AMRC-b79-38-23).

Myron "Mike" J. Pendergast (1920-2003)

Firm(s) / Location /Years Practicing535

Pendergrast Architecture, Kirkland, WA, 1954-1958

McEntire and Pendergast, Anchorage, 1958-1980

Biography 

Myron “Mike” Pendergrast was born in 1920 in Leavenworth, Washington and his family moved to 

Yakima in 1936 where he graduated high school. Pendergrast attended the University of Washington's 

School of Architecture from 1938 to 1942. He served in the Navy Seabees from 1943 to 1945. In 1954, he 

moved to Kirkland, Washington and opened his own firm. Mike moved to Anchorage, Alaska, where he 

co-owned McEntire & Pendergrast Architects from 1958 to 1980. His work in Alaska include designs for 

many civic and educational building on the Kenai Peninsula, including the Kenai Peninsula Borough 

Building in Soldota, Kenai Elementary School, and various multi-purpose facilities at schools in Anchor 

Point, Tustumena, and Sterling.536 Pendergrast oversaw the construction of the Cordova Building in 

Anchorage, which was designed by Oregon architect, Edith Yang. McEntire and Pendergrast maintained 

 

535 Bowker, “Directory – 1970.” 536 "Myron Pendergrast, New Rockford, N.D," INFORUM, accessed February 23, 2016, 

http://www.inforum.com/content/myron-pendergrast-new-rockford-nd.

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an office in downtown Anchorage on 8th Avenue. After retiring in 1980, Pendergrast moved to Arizona, 

and New Rockford, North Dakota. He passed away in 2003.537

Selected Portfolio

Holy Family Church alterations for cathedral status (1966, Anchorage)538, Kenai Peninsula Borough 

Building, Kenai Elementary School, Cordova Building (1959, Anchorage)

Figure 149. Kenai Peninsula Borough Building, Soldotna, Alaska, ca. 1970 (source: Redoubt Reporter 2012).

Augustine Antonio Porreca (1898-1992)

Firm(s) / Location /Years Practicing539

Pennsylvania Railroad Company, Philadelphia, 1918

Augustine A. Porreca, Seattle, ca. 1955

Augustine A. Porreca, Philadelphia, ca. 1960

Biography 

Attended University of Pennsylvania Graduate School of Fine Arts; today there is a Porreca Memorial 

Scholarship that is given annually in his and his wife’s name.540 His early career was as a draftsman for 

the Pennsylvania Railroad Company. Porreca briefly worked in Seattle in the 1950s before returning to 

the Philadelphia area. He designed three of the best surviving examples of Art Deco style buildings in 

 

537 OHA File. 538 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 85.

539 PCAD, accessed March 31, 2016, http://pcad.lib.washington.edu/person/5673/ 540 "Porreca Memorial Scholarship," Scholarships and Fellowships, accessed March 30, 2016, 

http://www.sp2.upenn.edu/make-a-gift/scholarships-and-fellowships/.

217
Alaska (all located in Anchorage) including his work with developer Cap Lathrop of Fairbanks on the 4th

Avenue Theater. 

Selected Portfolio

Fourth Avenue Theater,541 Anchorage 1947 (Lathrop Building), KENI Radio Building 1948, 

Anchorage,542 Holy Family Cathedral 1952 (Anchorage)543

Figure 150. KENI Radio Building, Anchorage, 1949, designed by Augustine Porreca in 1947 (source: University of Alaska 

Anchorage, Consortium Library, Archives and Special Collections, Donald Arthur Post slides, UAA-hmc-0917-715).

Edward Elmer Sands (1910-1996)

Firm(s) / Location /Years Practicing544

F.A. Naramore, Seattle, WA, 1934-1940

Naramore and Brady, Seattle, WA, 1940

Siems Drake, Puget Sound, WA, 1940-1943

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Seattle, WA, 1943-1945

Christenson and Decker and Christenson, Seattle, WA, 1945-1955

Alaska Architecture and Engineering Company, Fairbanks, 1955-1956

Foss Olsen Sands, Juneau, 1956-1958

Olsen Sands, Juneau, 1958-1968

 

541 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 84. 542 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 101. 543 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 85.

544 PCAD, accessed March 31, 2016, http://pcad.lib.washington.edu/person/3272/

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Sands Ackley, Juneau, 1968-1974

Biography 

Edward Elmer Sands was born in 1910 in Seligman, Arizona. He received a Certificate of Graduation 

from the San Bernardino Junior College in California in 1931. In 1936, he earned a degree in architecture 

from the University of Washington, Seattle. He worked for local architecture firms in Seattle, including 

Naramore and Brady, an iteration of Naramore, Bain, Brady, and Johanson (NBBJ). Sands worked for the 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Seattle District from 1943 to 1945 prior to becoming an associate at 

Christenson and Decker and Christenson.545 Sands moved to Fairbanks in 1955 where he worked for Lee 

S. Linck’s Alaska Architecture and Engineering Company for one year. He then moved to Juneau and

became a partner with fellow alumni Harold Foss and Bjarne Olsen. Sands remained in Juneau and 

carried out his employment at the firm originally started by HB Foss until his retirement in 1974.546 The 

firm is still in practice today as Jensen, Yorba, and Lott, Inc. He passed away in Washington in 1996.

Selected Portfolio

Juneau Municipal Airport Terminal (1959), Dillingham High School, University of Alaska, Fairbanks 

Bio-Sciences Building (1966)547, Delta Junction High School, Ketchikan General Hospital (1968), Kodiak 

Hospital (1969)548, Sitka Court and Office Building, Petersburg Post Office and Federal Building 

(1985)549

 Figure 151. The Irving Bio-Sciences Building, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, 1965 (source: Institute of Arctic Biology, 

University of Alaska Fairbanks 2015).

 

545 PCAD, accessed March 31, 2016, Sands. 546 "History," Jensen Yorba Lott. 547 "History," Jensen Yorba Lott. 548 Bowker, “Directory – 1970.”

549 "History," Jensen Yorba Lott. 

219
Figure 152. Juneau Municipal Airport, 1959 (source: Alaska and Polar Regions Collections, Elmer E. Rasmuson Library, 

University of Alaska Fairbanks, Ernest H. Gruening Papers, 1914-[1959-1969] 1974, UAF-1976-21-56564).

Edward Durell Stone (1902-1978)

Firm(s) / Location /Years Practicing550551

Strickland, Blodgett & Law, Boston, 1922-1928

Schultze & Weaver, New York, 1929

Hood, Godley & Fouilhoux and Reinhardt & Hoffmeister, 1929-1933

Edward Durell Stone and Associates, New York and others, 1933-1973

Worked with Manley and Mayer, Anchorage, ca. 1965

Notes on practice, licensing, etc. not captured in employment details

Many works in New York; professor at New York University

Biography 

Edward Durell Stone was born in Fayetteville, Arkansas in 1902. He attended the University of Arkansas 

in 1920, but his overall academic performance was poor and drafting was one of his few strengths. Stone 

moved to Boston in 1922 where he provided office assistance at the architectural firm of Strickland, 

Blodgett & Law. Stone attended night classes at the Boston Architectural Club (now Boston Architectural 

College). His academic achievements turned for the better in 1925 when he was granted a scholarship to 

Harvard University's School of Architecture and in 1926, and then transferred to Massachusetts Institute 

of Technology (MIT). He was member of a team of architects that assembled designs on Rockefeller 

 

550 "Edward Durell Stone, Life," Edward Durell Stone, accessed March 29, 2016, 

http://www.edwarddurellstone.org/.

551 Bowker, “Directory – 1970.”

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Center in July 1930.552 Stone became the principal designer for the center's two theaters: the 3, 700-seat 

Roxy Theater (later known as the Center Theater) and the 6,000-seat Radio City Music Hall. In Alaska, 

he designed the Campus Center Buildings (now Atwood Center) at the Alaska Pacific University campus 

in 1963.553 Stone retired in New York City in 1974, however, his firm, which began in 1933, continued as 

Edward Durell Stone, Inc. until 1984.554 

Selected Portfolio

Anchorage, Atwood Center (Campus Center) 1963-1966555; Waldorf-Astoria, New York; ABC 

Television Building, New York; Good Housekeeping Magazine House of the Fifties Model Home (1952); 

Philadelphia Museum (1954); Dallas Downtown Redevelopment (1958); JFK Center for the Performing 

Arts (DC 1959); National Geographic Building (Washington DC), Amarillo Fine Arts Museum; Buffalo 

Evening News Building (NY); Florida State Capitol complex design; University of Alabama Law School; 

Radio City Music Hall556

Figure 153. Campus Center (Atwood Center) at APU, Anchorage, 1967 (source: University of Alaska Anchorage. Consortium 

Library. Archives & Special Collections, William L. McNutt photographic slides, 1934-1973, UAA-hmc-0456-459)

Gilbert Stanley Underwood (1890-1960)

Firm(s) / Location /Years Practicing557

 

552 "Edward Durell Stone, Life.” 553 National Register of Historic Places, Nomination: Campus Center, (Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, 

accessed March 31, 2016, focus.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=5094a369-dc81-4a17-895f-909f440c4f44. 554 "Edward Durell Stone, Life.” 555 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 100. 556 "Edward Durell Stone, Life.” 557 "Biography (Gilbert Stanley Underwood)," National Parks Service, accessed March 10, 2016, 

http://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/sontag/underwood.htm.

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Gilbert Stanley Underwood, Architect, Los Angeles, California, 1923-1946

Gilbert Stanley Underwood, Architect, Washington, D.C. 1947-1949

Biography 

Gilbert Stanley Underwood was an architect best known for his National Park lodges. Born in 1890, 

Underwood his undergraduate degree from Yale in 1920 and a graduate degree from Harvard in 1923. He 

moved to Los Angles shortly thereafter and opened a private practice. Underwood became associated 

with the Park Service's Daniel Hull, the Chief Landscape Engineer for the agency.558 He was 

recommended to the Utah Parks Company of the Union Pacific Railroad to design lodge complexes at 

Cedar Breaks National Monument, Zion National Park, Bryce Canyon National Park, and North Rim of 

the Grand Canyon National Park. In addition, he was contracted to design Yosemite National Park's 

Ahwahnee Hotel (1925-1927), which was perhaps his greatest triumph in the rustic style. In 1932, he 

joined the Federal Architects Project, under which he designed the Anchorage Federal Building (1939-

1941). While working for the federal government in Washington, D.C., Underwood produced the 

preliminary designs for the Timberline Lodge at Mount Hood, Oregon, and went on to design more than 

20 post offices and the U.S. State Department Building from 1939 to 1940. Working within the national 

parks, Underwood's greatest triumph was in defining the rustic style as envisioned by Stephen Mather.559

His style helped set the tone for the massive building projects of the Mission 66 Program. Underwood 

represents the National Park Service's exceptional alliance with a private architect for developing park 

visitor facilities.

Selected Portfolio

Anchorage Federal Building (1939-1941)560, Timberline Lodge (Mt Hood), Ahwahnee Lodge in 

Yosemite; Bryce Canyon Lodge, the Grand Canyon Lodge, and Zion Lodge (Utah); San Francisco Mint, 

Los Angeles Federal Building, US State Department Complex Building #1 (D.C.), consolidation of the 

Old Faithful Lodge

 

558 "Biography (Gilbert Stanley Underwood),” NPS.

559 "Biography (Gilbert Stanley Underwood),” NPS. 560 "GSA Buildings – Alaska," General Services Administration, accessed March 25, 2016, 

http://www.gsa.gov/portal/ext/html/site/hb/category/25431/actionParameter/exploreByBuilding/buildingId/186.

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Figure 154. The Anchorage Federal Building, 4th Avenue, 1942 (source: Anchorage Museum at Rasmuson Center, Sidney 

Hamilton Photograph Collection, Anchorage Museum, Gift of Emily Turner, B1976.82.879, AMRC-B1976-82-048).

Wallace “Wally” John Wellenstein (1921-2012)

Firm(s) / Location /Years Practicing561

Unknown, Anchorage, 1949-1960

CCWJ (Crittenden, Cassetta, Wirum, Jacobs), Anchorage, 1960-1962

WJ Wellenstein Architectural Consultants, Anchorage and Minnesota, 1962-1983

Biography 

Wallace “Wally” Wellenstein was born in Albany, Minnesota in 1921. He briefly attended St. John's 

University in Minnesota (1940-1942) before enlisting with the U.S. Army. He was stationed with the U.S. 

Army Transportation Office in Juneau, Alaska from 1942 until 1945. He left Alaska after his service and 

earned a degree in architecture from the University of Minnesota in 1948 before permanently moving 

back to Alaska in 1949. Wellenstein was employed by Crittenden, Cassetta, Wirum, Jacobs (CCWJ) and 

opened his own practice in 1962. He designed several buildings, including various educational buildings 

for the University of Alaska, Anchorage and in Fort Yukon.562 He was the AIA Alaska Chapter President 

in 1965 and served on the Anchorage Urban Design Commission from 1992 to 1994. He was an avid 

outdoorsman, spending much of his free time on the Kenai River near his cabin and the salmon-fishing 

spot that was aptly named "Wally's Hole."563 He passed away in 2012 and his film collection is archived 

at UAF.

 

561 Bowker, “Directory – 1970.” 562 "Wallace J. Wellenstein's Obituary on St. Cloud Times," St. Cloud Times, accessed March 31, 2016, 

http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/sctimes/obituary.aspx?pid=157683897#sthash.OXfi9VrG.dpuf.

563 "Wallace J. Wellenstein's Obituary,” St. Cloud Times. 

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Selected Portfolio

Northern Lights Elementary School (Anchorage), Muldoon Elementary School (Anchorage)564, Glenallen 

High School, UAA Building F (1972), First Arctic Valley Ski Lodge, UAA Administration Building 

(1983)565, Fort Yukon Master Site Plan for a school 

5.0 CONCLUSION 

While the study of mid-twentieth century architecture has gained much momentum in the past two 

decades, there is still a considerable amount of research to be done. This is especially the case in Alaska. 

In general, the range of documentation for resources from the period varies considerably. While some 

aspects of the state’s history and development, such as the military presence, have been relatively well 

documented, in other areas, such as the evolution of single-family housing, the documentation is sparse. 

Even in those instances where there has been a considerable body of research on the subject, there can be 

gaps. Historic events and trends might be well documented, but the impact those events and trends had in 

shaping the built environment can be missing from the record. While the body of research regarding postWorld War II development in the Lower 48 is ever expanding, how those forces shaped the environment 

of Alaska, is less so. This document is an important step in contributing to the body of research, but there 

is still considerable research, survey, and documentation to be done. As many of these resources are now 

or will soon reach the age where they are vulnerable to insensitive alterations, updates or outright 

demolition the identification, documentation and evaluation of these resources is critical. 

5.1 Evaluation Challenges

In addition to these issues, evaluation of these resources can also present unique challenges especially 

when it comes to the evaluation of integrity. Integrity is the ability of a property to convey its 

significance. Traditionally, alterations, updates, and changes in material could be viewed as changes that 

might compromise the integrity of a property. The challenge is that many of these resources were built; it 

was often anticipated that property owners would add to, update, and modify the structure over time. For 

example, many of the residential resources or “starter” homes like Minimal Traditional homes or other 

such simple, small houses, were often built with the intention that the homeowner would add to, modify, 

alter or improve them over time. Thus, the modifications were part of the original intent. In assessing the 

integrity of these changes and alterations, it is important to examine period of change, the pattern of 

change and then current practices of property care, updates and maintenance. 

In other instances, modifications of older structures were made to keep current with new design trends. In 

commercial districts, business owners and property owners did not want their property to look dated thus 

façade updates or improvements; both at the storefront level and to the upper stories were common.

Storefront kits, modular designs elements and ready-made components, made storefront replacement 

relatively easily. In other instances, when a more dramatic change was desired, the entire façade could be 

removed and replaced with a “slipcover.” In assessing the integrity and significance of residential and 

commercial districts, it is important to assess the context of the alterations to the property, this is 

especially true with commercial districts, where more recent alterations are sometimes viewed as outside 

 

564 "Wallace J. Wellenstein's Obituary,” St. Cloud Times. 565 Hoagland, Buildings of Alaska, 99.

224
of the period of significance or not contributing to the district, yet many of these alterations reflect the 

then current design trends and are an important part of the story of the evolution of the individual resource 

or the district. 

Other resources were made with fragile or short-lived materials meaning in-kind replacement materials 

were or are no longer readily available or even manufactured. For example, for many curtain wall 

structures, the original framing, glass, and gasketing elements are no longer available or do not meet 

current building codes. Replacing original materials with contemporary ones can result in dramatic 

changes; for example, the reflective quality of the glass can vary greatly and if the building was 

significant for its technological innovation but all the original materials have been replaced, how might 

that impact the integrity? 

And finally, Alaska experienced a significant period of growth during the period. The sheer volume of 

resources present coupled with the abundance of new materials, changes to existing building types, and 

the emergence of new ones presents a wide array of resource types and styles. 

Other structures, like Quonset huts, were often built as short-term temporary shelter. Many of these 

changes can be overlooked, considered as changes that alter the integrity of the older property, however, 

many of these alterations, additions or changes could be considered significant in their own right. 

6.0 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH-LOOKING 

AHEAD

While this document is comprehensive, it is by no means exhaustive. In preparing the document, the 

following recommendations for future research were identified and are grouped according to categories. 

They include but are not limited to: 

Earthquake

● Identification and inventory of buildings and context statement for resources reconstructed after 

the 1964 earthquake as well as how quake impacted land-use planning.

Centennial

● Over eighty federally funded projects were undertaken in communities throughout the state. 

Many resources from the period are now reaching the age or will soon reach the age for National 

Register eligibility. They are currently vulnerable to updates and changes and insensitive 

alterations or demolition. Inventory of resources, survey, evaluation and recommendations for 

inclusion on the National Register or local designation. 

Population

● History of the African-American migration to and presence in the state. Identification of 

resources, especially in Anchorage and Fairbanks, where larger communities were located.

● History of post-World War II Asian migration to the state, specifically the Filipino and Korean 

communities and identification of resources associated with Japanese migration, internment and 

return. 

225
Transportation

● Further research on the history of airport construction in Alaska.

● Further research on the history of harbor construction and port construction in Alaska. 

Residential

● Further study on multi-family dwellings built under Section 608 and Alaska Housing legislation 

to determine whether NR eligible.

● Further research on HUD funded housing projects.

● Study on architect designed residences in Alaska.

Architects/Architecture

● Further research on individual architects. 

● Compiling additional historic images of work completed by prominent architects.

● Identification of additional work by prominent architects (some have few buildings to their 

names).

● Lists of educational materials and publications prepared over the years by those architects who 

helped to advance northern climate design or specific use design (such as educational institutes, 

etc.).

● Additional research on architects more prolific after 1968 (See Appendix D). 

● Provide information pertaining to architects who practiced in Alaska to repositories searching for 

information (i.e. Documentation and Conservation of the Modernist Movement, Western 

Washington chapter has been looking for information on several architects who worked in 

Alaska).

● Complete National Register nominations for buildings listed in the SHPO/OHA IBS Portal as 

eligible for inclusion (i.e. Mendenhall Glacier Visitor Center).

● Further research, evaluation and recommendation for towers in Alaska designed by Earl W. 

Morrison (Anchorage, Juneau, Sitka, Ketchikan).

● The Atwood Center Building (Edward Durrell Stone architect) is currently listed under Criteria A 

for association it’s with the ANCSA convention; it should be re-evaluated for its architectural 

significance.

● Research into developers and builders responsible for shaping Alaska’s built environment.

● Develop a historic context for designs inspired by indigenous cultures of Alaska that post-date 

1968 (i.e. Barrow Hospital and Barrow Police Station).

Themes for Additional Study

● Landscape architecture, http://www.akasla.org/chapter-info/history

● Trans Alaska Pipeline

● Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act

Evaluation Considerations/Guidelines

● Develop comprehensive guidelines and survey manuals to assist with the survey, evaluation and 

documentation of these resources.

226
Local Designation and National Register Listing

● Identify which communities allow for local designation of more recent resources. Establish 

priorities for NR Listing or local designation. 

227
7.0 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

GENERAL

Resource Guides 

Alaska Office of History and Archaeology. Saving Our Past: Alaska’s Historic Preservation Plan 2011-

2017. Report. Anchorage, Alaska, 2007.

Current state-wide preservation approach

NATIONAL REGISTER, CONTEXT STATEMENTS AND MPD

National Register 

National Register of Historic Places, Nomination: Campus Center. National Park Service. 

focus.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=5094a369-dc81-4a17-895f-909f440c4f44

Images and details of listing for Campus Center, Edward Durell Stone designs

National Register of Historic Places, Nomination: KENI Radio Building. National Park Service. 

http://focus.nps.gov/nrhp/AssetDetail?assetID=6d67a599-6a30-478c-8bf1-bbbf3b00b9e7

Construction and design details of the KENI Radio Building, Anchorage 

National Register of Historic Places, Nomination: Timberline Lodge. National Park Service: 

http://focus.nps.gov/nrhp/AssetDetail?assetID=e2655c58-4a1d-4d57-b17a-a7df77b03726

Images of Timberline Lodge, design work by Underwood and Forrest

Wooley, Christopher B. National Register of Historic Places Registration Form for the Prudhoe Bay Oil 

Field Discovery Well Site. Chumis Cultural Resources Service. 1999. 

Oil leases on North Slope, exploration and development in Prudhoe Bay area, economic impact 

in Alaska after oil discovery on North Slope

Multiple Property Submission 

Perrin, Natalie K., Heather Lee Miller, and Amanda Bennett. National Register of Historic Places 

Multiple Property Listing for the Alaska Federal Scout Readiness Centers (FSRCs) 1959-1974. Written 

by NHG Alaska, LLC., for the Alaska Department of Military and Veterans Affairs, Facilities 

Management Division, Anchorage, Alaska, 2013.

FSRC context and MPD documentation

Ringsmuth, Katherine Johnson. Tourism and Early Park Development Resources of Katmai National 

Park and Preserve Multiple Property Documentation Form. Accessed, November 26, 2015, 

http://dnr.alaska.gov/parks/oha/publications/tourismearlykatmai.pdf. 

History of first National Monuments and Parks in Alaska, Katmai development, Ray Peterson, 

Northern Consolidated Airlines, John Walaka, fly-in-fishing

228
Determinations of Eligibility and Documentation 

Keeney, Rosalind. Documentation for Determination of Eligibility, Ketchikan Pulp Company Ward Cove 

Pulp Mill Administration Building, 7559 N. Tongass Highway, Ketchikan, Alaska. Anchorage, Alaska: 

HDR Alaska, Inc. 2007.

History of southeast Alaska pulp milling, information regarding architect Wilbert Yahn.

MacRostie, William. McKinley Tower Apartments, Anchorage, AK, Historic Preservation Certification 

Application Part 1. MacRostie Historic Advisors, LLC. 2005.

National Register eligibility information and historic context for the McKinley Tower Apartments

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Letter Report Re Evaluation of Eligibility 

For The St. George School, St. George, AK. St. George School District. 2007.

Determination of Eligibility for the St. George School, built by Swalling Construction Co. 

Schlenker, Amy, Jason Allen, and Jim Steely. Recommendation of Eligibility for the 1958 Crittenden 

Addition of Anchorage Old Federal Building, Anchorage, Alaska. Seattle: General Services 

Administration, Northwest/Arctic Region, 2010.

Architectural portfolio of Edwin Crittenden

Sharley, Ann and Robert Krier. Historic American Engineering Record, Level II Documentation: 

Brotherhood Bridge (Mendenhall River Bridge; Bridge No. 737). Juneau, Alaska: Alaska Department of 

Transportation and Public Facilities Southeast Region. 2013, 53.

HAER documentation for the Brotherhood Bridge, Juneau, which typifies commonly constructed 

bridges during the period, with an element of high style. 

Yarborough, Michael R., Shawna M. Rider, Catherine L. Pendleton, and Amanda Welsh. Determination 

of National Register of Historic Places Eligibility for the Inlet Towers (ANC-2900), Anchorage, Alaska.

DOWL Engineers, Anchorage, Alaska, 2008.

Inlet and Mount McKinley Towers information, Earl Morrison and William Manley details

Yarborough, Michael R., and Amanda Welsh. Determination of Eligibility for the Marine View 

Condominiums (KET-1363) in Ketchikan, Alaska. DOWL Engineers, Anchorage, Alaska, 2014.

1940-1960 Ketchikan growth, population boom/housing shortage; FHA Section 608 and Alaska 

Housing legislation; Earl Morrison and Wingren Court (Marine View)

Historic Context Statements 

Anderson, William. San Diego Modernism Context Statement. San Diego, California: City 

Planning and Community Investment, 2007.

Historic context statement example for mid-century architecture

229
Argonne National Laboratory. Defending Attack From The North: Alaska's Forward Operating Bases 

During the Cold War. Booklet prepared for 611th Civil Engineers Squadron, Pacific Air Forces, U.S. Air 

Force, 2001. Produced in cooperation with the Alaska State Historic Preservation Office, Anchorage, 

Alaska.

Context for Forward Operating Bases (FOBs)

Argonne National Laboratory. History of the Aircraft Control and Warning System in Alaska, Air Defense 

of the Arctic Skies. Fort Collins, Colorado: Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands, 

2013. Accessed, November 21, 2015. http://dnr.alaska.gov/parks/oha/publications/ftrichcoldwar.pdf. 

History of air defense systems in Alaska.

BGES. South Addition Historic Context Statement; Building Survey - Anchorage, Alaska. Report. 

Anchorage: Municipality of Anchorage, 2001.

Definition of apartment buildings in Anchorage

Bruder, J. Simon. Prospects and Producers: Historic Context for Mining Properties, Chugach and 

Tongass National Forests, Alaska, 1850s-1950s. USDA Forest Service, Alaska Region, Anchorage, 2002.

Overview of minerals and mining operations in Alaska, establishment of precincts, mining 

terminology, closing non-essential mines during war time, southeast mines in operation pre and 

post war, Red Devil Mine, Hope area mining efforts, Ambler Mining District, Ross-Adams 

Uranium Mine established specifically for the war, Good News Bay

Buzzell, Rolfe and Christopher Chambers. Bridging Alaska: Historic Context for the Inventory of 

Alaska’s Highway Bridges (draft). Office of History & Archaeology Division of Parks and Outdoor 

Recreation Alaska Department of Natural Resources, Anchorage, 2002.

Created to “provide historic context from which to evaluate road and highway bridges built in 

Alaska from 1910 through 1964,” this report provides a comprehensive overview of bridge 

construction during World War II through the mid-1960s. 

Coneybeer, Alice. LORAN-A Historic Context, U.S. Coast Guard – Maintenance and Logistics Command, 

Alaska (District 17), Alameda, California, 1998.

History and evolution of the Long-Range Aid to Navigation (LORAN) system, Bering Sea and 

Western Aleutian Chain communications

Hollinger, Kristy. Nike Hercules Operations in Alaska 1959-1979, Directorate of Public Works 

Conservation Branch, U.S. Army Garrison Alaska, 2004.

Installation of Nike Hercules Sites

MacDonald, Lauren. Mid-Century Modernism Historic Context, City of Fresno. Fresno, California: 

Planning and Development Department, 2008. 

Character defining features of mid-century architecture

230
Mead and Hunt. Alaska Roads Historic Overview Applied Historic Context of Alaska’s Roads. Alaska 

Department of Transportation and Public Facilities, 2014.

Alaska transportation context from 1948 through 1970s

Meijer, Peter. Thematic Survey of Modern Movement Non-Residential Architecture, 1945 - 1975, in St. 

Louis City. Report. St. Louis: City of Saint Louis Cultural Resources Office, 2013.

Reviewed context statements from other states for ideas on data presentation

Painter, Diana. Montana Post-World War II Architectural Survey and Inventory, Historic Context and 

Survey Report. Helena: Montana. State Historic Preservation Office, Montana Historical Society, 2010. 

Accessed March 03, 2016. https://mhs.mt.gov/Portals/11/shpo/docs/Montana Mid-Century Survey 

Report.pdf. 

Context statements reviewed from other states for format, data presentation, description of 

concrete folded plate construction

Pettis, Emily. A Model for Identifying and Evaluating the Historic Significance of Post-World War II 

Housing. Washington, D.C.: Transportation Research Board, 2012.

Comprehensive overview of how to identify and evaluate post-war residential including 

information survey methodology, residential styles, types, context and materials

Robinson, Judith Helm and Stephanie S. Foell. Growth, Efficiency and Modernism: GSA Buildings of the 

1950s, 60s, and 70s. Washington, D.C.: U.S. General Services Administration, Office of the Chief 

Architect, Center for Historic Buildings, 2003.

Post-depression era, WWII, post war era efforts completed by the GSA

Siedler, William. The Coldest Front: Cold War Military Properties in Alaska Revised and Expanded, 

Office of History and Archaeology Alaska Department of Natural Resources, Anchorage, 2012. 

Cold War context document

Waddell, Karen. Cold War Historical Context 1951-1991 Fort Richardson, Alaska United States Army 

Alaska, Natural Resources Branch, US Army Alaska, Fort Richardson, Anchorage, 2003.

Fort Richardson historic context

Methodology, Reference, Preserving the Recent Past 

Alaska Office of History and Archaeology (OHA). IBS Portal, Nominations and Determinations of 

Eligibility. Limited access database. Accessed February 26, 2016, 

https://dnr.alaska.gov/ohasecurity/portal. 

Information on previously documented historic buildings and structures in Alaska and technical 

reports associated with them. 

231
BGES. Anchorage Original Four Neighborhoods Historic Preservation Plan. Report. Anchorage: Public 

Hearing Draft, 2012.

Building stock in Anchorage

Derry, Anne, and Patricia L. Parker. Guidelines for Local Surveys: A Basis for Preservation Planning. 

Washington, DC: National Register of Historic Places, Interagency Resources Division, National Park 

Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 1985.

Guidance document for conducting historic structures surveys

Lambin, Jeanne, “It’s Postwar Baby: A Primer for Preserving the Recent Past,” School of the Art Institute 

of Chicago, Master’s Thesis, 2015.

How to use the National Historic Preservation Act and National Register criteria in the 

evaluation of buildings constructed during the period of significance. 

Lambin, Jeanne. Preserving Resources from the Recent Past. Wisconsin Field Office of the National 

Trust for Historic Preservation. Madison, Wisconsin, 2007.

Guide to preserving resources from the recent past including a short style guide.

National Park Service. “How to Apply the National Register Criteria for Evaluation.” Washington, D.C.: 

National Parks Service, 1998. 

The basics of using criteria for evaluation of historic properties. 

POPULATION

"Alaska: Bonanza for Blacks." Ebony, November 1969, Vol. 25, Issue 1, 123-34.

Discussion regarding the community feelings towards African Americans in Anchorage.

Anderson, George C. "Alaska Frontier Attracts Negro Pioneers: Alaska Is My Home." Color, April 1953, 

23-29. 

Article on African-American life and business in Anchorage

Arnold, Kathleen R. Contemporary Immigration in America: A State-by-State Encyclopedia. Santa 

Barbara: Greenwood, 2015. Accessed March 03, 2016. 

https://books.google.com/books?id=5L8oBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA23&lpg=PA23&dq=Contemporary 

Immigration in America: Alaska canning&source=bl&ots=lHv3cnoeUI&sig=wj-lUXfnrQHeL1F7-

bO5Agnpny4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiS69Hn3ZHMAhWJyIMKHYShDbQQ6AEIHDAA#v=one

page&q=Contemporary Immigration in America: Alaska canning&f=false. 

Detailed look at immigration to Alaska including information on the immigration of Chinese and 

Filipinos to work in the canning industry 

Cole, Terrance. Jim Crow in Alaska: The Passage of the Alaska Equal Rights Act of 1945. The Western 

Historical Quarterly, Vol. 23, No. 4 (Nov., 1992), pp. 429-449. http://www.jstor.org/stable/970301.

232
How the passage of the Equal Rights Act affected residents of Alaska 

Hummel, Laurel J. “The U.S. Military as Geographical Agent: The Case of Cold War Alaska.” 

Geographical Review 95, no. 1 (January 2005): 47-72. Accessed March 22, 2016. doi:10.1111/j.1931-

0846.2005.tb00191.x.

Source of population growth during the period: military influx

Dossett, John. "Tribal Self-Government in the United States." Poverty and Race 16 (November/December 

2008): 8.

Federally recognized tribes in the US 

"Elizabeth Wanamaker Peratrovich (1911-1958)." National Women's History Museum. Accessed March 

16, 2016. https://www.nwhm.org/education-resources/biography/biographies/elizabeth-wanamakerperatrovich/. 

Biography of Peratrovich detailing her role in passage of 1945 Civil Rights Act

Ellison, Michah. "Local 7 Story." Seattle Civil Rights and Local History Project. Accessed April 15, 

2016. http://depts.washington.edu/civilr/local_7.htm.

Filipino American Cannery Unionism in Seattle 1940-1959, with information about Alaska 

cannery work.

Greater Friendship Baptist Church." Greater Friendship Baptist Church. Accessed June 8, 2016. 

http://www.greaterfriendshipbaptist.org/index.php?option=com_content.

History of Greater Friendship Baptist Church

Harper, George. "Black History in Alaska." Black History in Alaska. Accessed June 10, 2016. 

http://ftpcontent.worldnow.com/ktuu/black_history/BlackHistory.html. 

Timeline of significant events compiled by George Harper, a historian of African-American 

history in Alaska

"History." Alaska Federation of Natives. 2012. Accessed April 16, 2016. 

http://www.nativefederation.org/about-afn/history/.

Formation of the Alaska Federation of Natives (AFN)

Hunsinger, Eddie and Sara Whitney. “A History of Alaska Population Settlement.” Anchorage, Alaska: 

Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development, Division of Administrative Services, 2013. 

An overview of population fluctuation in Alaska from pre-Russian times to the mid-1990s and the

events that shaped the changes 

233
Kim, Hyung-jae. "Korea Times Project, Part 2: Growing Korean American Community in Alaska." – The 

Korea Times. August 11, 2015. Accessed April 15, 2016. http://www.koreatimesus.com/korea-timesproject-part-2-growing-korean-american-community-in-alaska/. 

Short article on Korean immigration to Alaska and the Korean-American community

Leask, Linda, Mary Killorin, and Stephanie Martin. Trends in Alaska’s People and Economy: Prepared 

for the Alaska 20/20 Partnership Bringing Alaskans Together to Chart Our Future. Anchorage, University 

of Alaska Anchorage, October, 2001. Accessed, March 6, 2016, 

http://www.iser.uaa.alaska.edu/Publications/Alaska2020.pdf

Population information for Alaska

Mighty, Julia Gaines. "Prices Are High, Prejudice Is Low...So Far." Negro Digest, November 1963, 35-

44. https://books.google.com/books?id=87IDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA42&lpg=PA42&dq=anchorage 

negro&source=bl&ots=ucXUN5aXg_&sig=wpdjUkwNdhPLDLnVyxYtUIkrMdc&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0

ahUKEwjxxfvG1JHMAhXo74MKHUMgA-cQ6AEIHzAA#v=onepage&q=anchorage negro&f=false. 

Detailed article about African-American experience in Anchorage, including names and 

descriptions of black owned businesses

Mitchell, Donald. Sold American: The Story of Alaska Natives and Their Land, 1867-1959. Fairbanks: 

University of Alaska Press, 2003.

Native Alaskan education pre-statehood

Morris, Steven. "Alaska: Bonanza for Blacks." Ebony, November 1969, 123-34. 

https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFDqAUi7hQC&pg=PA123&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=2#v=onepage&q&f=false. 

Article on African-Americans in Alaska including short profiles of business owners and 

community leaders

Ongtooguk, Paul. "Alaska's Cultures Alaska Natives Fight for Civil Rights." Alaska History and Cultural 

Studies. Accessed April 16, 2016. http://www.akhistorycourse.org/articles/article.php?artID=472.

Alaska Native civil rights movement and details 

"Post 7 – Culture." Required Blog: Art, Alaska and Flash Fiction for College and Competition. April 15, 

2012. Accessed April 15, 2016. https://seledoux.wordpress.com/2012/04/15/post-7-culture/. 

One of the few mentions of Little Manila

Reamer, David, and Clare Dennenberg. An Oral & Written History of Fairview: Past, Present, and 

Future. Report. Anchorage: UAA Center for Community Engagement and Learning, 2014.

History of the Fairview neighborhood in Anchorage

234
Rogers and Cooley, “Alaska’s population and economy: Regional growth, development, and future 

outlook, 1963.” Accessed, December 10, 2014, 

http://www.demog.berkeley.edu/~eddieh/documents/RogersAndCooleySlides.pdf. 

Regional population growth through time across Alaska

Sandberg, Eric. A History of Alaska Population Settlement. Publication. Juneau: Research and Analysis 

Section, Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development, Division of Administrative Services, 

2013. Accessed March 02, 2016. abor.alaska.gov/research/pop/estimates/pub/pophistory.pdf

History of Alaska population growth and settlement that includes section on World War II and 

Cold War Militarization

Seiver, Daniel Alan., and Susan R. Fison. Alaskan Population Growth and Movements, 1960-1973.

Fairbanks: Institute of Social, Economic and Government Research, University of Alaska, 1975. 

http://www.arlis.org/docs/vol2/hydropower/APA_DOC_no._775.pdf. 

Examination of population trends in Alaska. Useful tables showing percentages of population

Stebing, Holly Miowak. Rewriting the History of Racial Segregation in Alaska. Master's thesis, Stanford 

University, 2009. 

Includes history of the Native Rights movement in Alaska 

The Statistical History of the United States from Colonial times to the Present: 2 Volumes in One; a 

Unique, Up-dated Ed. Containing Two Renowned Reference Works Prepared by 125 Distinguished 

Scholars under the Directions of the US Bureau of the Census. Stamford: Fairfield Publ., 1965.

Census data from Alaska, spanning a wide time period for comparative analysis and changes 

over time in population and demographics

US Bureau of the Census. Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, Bicentennial 

Edition, Part 1. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1975, 717.

Census breakdown and population demographics from the 1975 Census; used in compilation of 

population growth table in Section 2.0

US Bureau of the Census. U.S. Census of Population: 1960. Vol. I, Characteristics of the Population. 

Part 3 Alaska. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 1963.

Census breakdown and population demographics from the 1963 Census; used in compilation of 

population growth table in Section 2.0

US Bureau of the Census. 1950 United States Census of Population: Alaska General Characteristics.

Report no. P-B51. 51st ed. Vol. 2. Chapter 8. Washington DC: USGS Printing Office, 1952. Accessed 

April 15, 2016. http://laborstats.alaska.gov/census/histpdfs/1950char.pdf.

Census breakdown and population demographics from the 1950 Census; used in compilation of 

population growth table in Section 2.0

235
Whitehead, J. S. 1998. Alaska and Hawai'i: The Cold War States. In The Cold War American West, 1945-

1989, edited by K. J. Fernlund, 189-210. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.

Statistical numbers for Native population growth v. non-native population growth at the end of 

WWII in Alaska

Williams, Greg, “Population Growth and Migration in Alaska,” Anchorage, Alaska Department of Labor, 

1987, Accessed, December 10, 2015, http://laborstats.alaska.gov/trends/feb87art1.pdf.

Population statistics for Alaska 

Zellen, Barry Scott. On Thin Ice: The Inuit, the State, and the Challenge of Arctic Sovereignty, Rowan 

and Littlefield, 2009.

Explores the relationship between the Inuit and the modern state in the vast but lightly populated 

North American Arctic and chronicles Inuit participation formation and implementation of 

diplomatic and national security policies

MILITARY 

354th Fighter Wing History Office (FWHO). History of the 354th Fighter Wing and Eielson Air Force 

Base, 2010, Accessed April 7, 2011, Available at: 

http://www.eielson.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-090923-132.pdf

Evolution of Ladd Field and Eielson Air Force Base

"About Us." Friends of Nike Site Summit. Accessed February 08, 2016. 

http://www.nikesitesummit.net/about-us.html. 

Web site detailing work of Friends of Nike Site Summit in Anchorage

Alaska Center for Energy and Power (ACEP). “Small Scale Nuclear Power: An Option for Alaska?” 

presentation, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, nd. Accessed February 9, 2016. 

http://www.uaf.edu/files/acep/Small%20Scale%20Nuclear%20Presentation.pdf

Construction and decommission of the Fort Greely SM-1A nuclear reactor

Chance, Norman. Fort Greely, Alaska: Introduction. University of Connecticut, Accessed February 9, 

2016, http://arcticcircle.uconn.edu/SEEJ/NMD/alaska/greely/introduction.htm

Power generation for Hercules missile use, Atomic Energy Commission, radioactive waste in 

Jarvis Creek and Gerstle River Test Area, chemical weapons testing at Fort Greely

Fort Greely, Office of Public Affairs. History of Fort Greely, 2014, accessed February 9, 2016, 

http://www.greely.army.mil/about/history.aspx

Establishment of the post at Fort Greely, Cold Weather and Mountain School, Fort Greely Arctic 

Test Center, radioactive materials testing, nuclear power generation

236
Gomez, Valerie and Richard Stern. Historic Overview, Property Types, and Preliminary Cultural 

Resources Analysis of the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory (NARL) Barrow, Alaska. LCMF 

Engineering Services, Inc., 2010

Naval Artic Research Laboratory (NARL) establishment and various uses through time, built 

environment of the facility; Naval/National Petroleum Reserve on the North Slope

Klein, Joel L., James L. Nolan, Jannette W. Findley, William A. Brenner, and Richard E. Gillespie. World 

War II in Alaska: A Historic and Resources Management Plan. Volume 1. A History of World War II in 

Alaska and Management Plan. Ft. Belvoir: Defense Technical Information Center, 1987. 

http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a196078.pdf. 

Comprehensive documentation of WWII resources in Alaska. Includes descriptions of various 

types of Quonset type prefabricated buildings

Marston, Muktuk. Men of the Tundra: Eskimos at War, New York: October House, Inc, 1969.

Alaska Territorial Guard Eskimo Scouts

McNab, Sgt. Marc. Alaska Army National Guard and Other Stories. Edited by by Lt. James Richardson, 

historian, Anchorage: 134th Public Information Detachment, Alaska Army National Guard, 1984.

Formation of the Air National Guard at Elmendorf Air Base 

National Park Service. World War II in Alaska a Resource Guide for Teachers and Students. Anchorage, 

AK: Alaska Support Office, National Historic Landmarks Program, Second Printing with revisions, 2013. 

Accessed November 24, 2015. http://www.nps.gov/akso/history/PDF/WWII-Resource-Guide.pdf.

The guide, intended “to assist teachers and students in finding information about the World War 

II in Alaska,” has a comprehensive list of resources related to the war. While more useful for the 

cultural and social history, it does have a section on wartime construction. Anchorage and 

Southcentral Alaska: A History Resource App

Russell, Adam D., Richard Stern, and Jason Rogers. Alaska National Guard Environmental Gap Analysis 

of Armory Significance. Technical Paper No. 486. State of Alaska, Department of Military and Veterans 

Affairs. Anchorage, Alaska: Northern Land Use Research, Inc., 2011.

Army use of Eskimo Scout skills

Siedler, William. The Coldest Front: Cold War Military Properties in Alaska Revised and Expanded, 

Office of History and Archaeology Alaska Department of Natural Resources, Anchorage, 2012. 

Economic growth in Alaska associated with the military, military facility expansion, Ballistic 

Missile Early Warning Sites (Clear Station), DEW Line, Air Force Bases (Elmendorf, Ladd Field, 

Eielson), Forward Operating Bases (Shemya), Fort Greely early days and expansion/Nuclear 

Plant, Cold Weather Training, Fort Richardson post-WWI expansion of facilities, Fort 

Wainwright early years, Naval Bases (Kodiak, Adak), the atomic age in Alaska, Cape Thompson, 

arctic research conducted by the military at Big Delta and Fort Greely, Naval Artic Research 

Laboratory

237
US Air Force, Joint Base Elmendorf Richardson, Fact Sheet: ELMENDORF AIR FORCE BASE 

HISTORY, Accessed February 5, 2016, 

http://www.jber.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet_print.asp?fsID=5280&page=1

History of Elmendorf Air Force Base

US Army, Corps of Engineers (USACE). History of the Alaska District, 1946-1974, 1989. Accessed 

February 28, 2016. http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Portals/34/docs/AKdistrict/jacobs_history_2.pdf. 

History of the Haines-Fairbanks Pipeline (ALCANGO) 

Williams, James W. History of the Military Airfield at Nome, Alaska. Carrie M. McLain Museum, 1999.

History of the Nome Airport and its transfer from military to civilian uses

Cold War 

Argonne National Laboratory. Defending Attack from the North: Alaska’ Aircraft Control and Warning 

Radar System During the Cold War. Alaska Office of History and Archaeology, Anchorage, Alaska. 

Prepared for the Environmental Planning (Cultural Resources) unit, 611th Civil Engineer Squadron, 

Pacific Air Forces, U.S. Air Force. Anchorage, Alaska, 2001. 

Ballistic Missile Early Warning Sites (Clear Station), White Alice Communications System, 

Aircraft Control and Warning (AC&W) Radar System 

Argonne National Laboratory. History of the Aircraft Control and Warning System in Alaska, Air Defense 

of the Arctic Skies. Fort Collins, Colorado: Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands, 

2013. Accessed, November 21, 2015. http://dnr.alaska.gov/parks/oha/publications/ftrichcoldwar.pdf. 

History of air defense systems in Alaska

Chandonnet, Fern. Alaska at War, 1941-1945: The Forgotten War Remembered. Fairbanks: University of 

Alaska Press, 2008.

Development of duplexes in Anchorage neighborhoods post-WWII

Coneybeer, Alice. LORAN-A Historic Context, U.S. Coast Guard – Maintenance and Logistics Command, 

Alaska (District 17), Alameda, California, 1998.

History and evolution of the Long-Range Aid to Navigation (LORAN) system, Bering Sea and 

Western Aleutian Chain communications

Denfeld, D. Colt 

The Cold War in Alaska: A Management Plan for Cultural Resources 1994-1999. Contributions from 

Jennifer Abel and Dale Slaughter. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Alaska District, 1994 

Management guidelines for Department of Defense personnel regarding Cold War era cultural 

resources in Alaska

Denfield, D. Colt. 

238
The White Alice Communications System, Informational Brochure, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 

Alaska District, Anchorage, 2001

White Alice Communications System (WACS) overview

EDAW, Adak Island: Remote Guardian. Legacy Resources Management Program. Alaska Office of 

History and Archaeology, Anchorage, Alaska. Prepared for the U.S. Navy, 1998.

Project Bluegrass, Adak and Shemya Communications Systems

Eichleberger, John, Jeff Freymueller, Graham Hill and Matt Patrick. Nuclear Stewardship: Lessons from 

a Not-So-Remote Island. Consortium for Risk Assessment for Stakeholder Participation (CRESPII) for 

the U.S. Department of Energy, Web Feature, 2002, Accessed February 5, 2016, 

http://www.geotimes.org/mar02/feature_amchitka.html.

Amchitka nuclear tests

Hollinger, Kristy. Nike Hercules Operations in Alaska 1959-1979, Directorate of Public Works 

Conservation Branch, U.S. Army Garrison Alaska, 2004.

Installation of Nike Hercules Sites

Project Juke Box, “Cold War from Project Jukebox and University of Alaska Fairbanks,” Accessed, 

December 11, 2015, https://jukebox.uaf.edu/site7/documents/2405

Links to online, digital and printed resources and documents related to the Cold War

US Department of Energy. Amchitka, Alaska, Site: Fact Sheet. Department of Legacy Management, 

Grand Junction, Colorado, 2006. Accessed February 5, 2016, 

https://web.archive.org/web/20070630165411/http://www.lm.doe.gov/documents/sites/ak/amchitka/factsh

eet/amchitka.pdf

Amchitka power yields of nuclear tests

Vandegraft, Douglas L. Project Chariot: Nuclear Legacy of Cape Thompson, 1993. U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service, Cartographic Unit Division of Reality, Anchorage, Alaska, Accessed February 2, 2016, 

http://arcticcircle.uconn.edu/VirtualClassroom/Chariot/vandegraft.html

Environmental impacts of nuclear testing in Ogotoruk Valley, Project Chariot

Waddell, Karen. Cold War Historical Context 1951-1991 Fort Richardson, Alaska United States Army 

Alaska, Natural Resources Branch, US Army Alaska, Fort Richardson, Anchorage, 2003.

Economic and population growth in Alaska associated with the military, military facility 

expansion, Nike Hercules Sites, Fort Richardson post-WWI expansion of facilities, postearthquake military response, US Army Nuclear Power Program

239
STATEHOOD/ALASKA HISTORY 

"Alaska Chronology." Chronology, Alaska Kids' Corner, State of Alaska. Accessed April 01, 2016. 

http://alaska.gov/kids/learn/chronology.htm. 

Chronology of state history

Alaska Humanities Forum. “Alaska -1950: A Snapshot by the United States Department of the Interior, 

Published 1951.” Accessed March 20, 2016. 

http://www.alaskool.org/projects/history/mid_century/mid_century_alaska.htm

An overview of Alaskan history in 1950

Alaska Humanities Forum, “Alaska History and Cultural Studies: Alaska History Course,” Accessed, 

Nov. 24, 2015, http://www.akhistorycourse.org/

Created to assist teachers in teaching Alaska History, this website provides a general overview of 

Alaska history during period of significance, subdivided by themes 

Alaska’s Digital Archives, http://vilda.alaska.edu/cdm/index

Historical images of Alaska, buildings, events

Cole, Dermot. Historic Fairbanks: An Illustrated History. San Antonio, Texas: Historical Publication 

Network, 2002.

Information and historic photographs of early Fairbanks construction projects, mention of 

Alaska Architectural and Engineering Company

Falk Marvin W. Alaska History: An Annotated Bibliography, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006

Annotated bibliography describing over 3000 publications published between the 1700's and 

2004 organized by theme and region

Keithahn, Edward L. Alaska for the Curious; Alaska Centennial Edition 1867 - 1967. Superior 

Publishing; First Edition, 1966. 

An overview of Alaska history from purchase to Centennial in 1967

Naske, Claus M. and Herman E. Slotnick. Alaska: A History of the 49th State, 1994, University of 

Oklahoma Press; Second Edition, 1994.

Good summary of post-war development: Education, Statehood

Rogers, Brian. Honoring Alaska’s Constitutional History, co-chair of Creating Alaska Advisory Board, 

University of Alaska, 2009, http://www.alaska.edu/creatingalaska/news-clippings/commentary-brianrogers/

1956 draft constitution for Alaska

240
Sundborg, George. Statehood For Alaska: The Issues Involved, Alaska Statehood Association, 1946, 

http://www.alaska.edu/creatingalaska/downloads/Statehood-for-Alaska.pdf

Alaska residents’ opinion of statehood options

University of Alaska, “Creating Alaska: The Origins of the 49th State. Accessed, November 26, 2015, 

“Creating Alaska, http://www.alaska.edu/creatingalaska/

Three-year project to research and commemorate the fiftieth anniversaries of Alaska’s 

Constitutional Convention in 2005-06 and the granting of statehood in 2009. Through a 

documentary series, an interactive multimedia website, teacher education programs, university 

courses and public symposia, Creating Alaska helped to give present and future generations a 

better understanding of the creation of the great State of Alaska

University of Alaska Fairbanks, “The Movement towards Alaska’s Statehood A Guide to Primary 

Resources in the Alaska & Polar Regions Collections, University of Alaska Fairbanks.” Accessed, 

December 8, 2015. http://library.uaf.edu/sites/default/files/aprfiles/guide-to-statehood.pdf

Overview of archival materials pertaining to the statehood movement

1964 GOOD FRIDAY EARTHQUAKE

Christensen, Doug D., PhD. (2002, November). The Great Alaska Earthquake of 1964. Retrieved March 

18, 2016, from http://www.aeic.alaska.edu/quakes/Alaska_1964_earthquake.html

Information about the Good Friday Earthquake, 1964

Eckel, Edwin B. The Alaska Earthquake March 27, 1964: Lessons and Conclusions. Report no. 546. Vol. 

546. Geological Professional Paper. United States Department of the Interior. USGS Printing Office, 

1970.

A summary of what was learned from a great earthquake about the bearing of geologic and 

hydrologic conditions on its effects, and about the scientific investigations needed to prepare for 

future earthquakes

Hansen, Wallace R., and Edwin B. Eckel. The Alaska Earthquake, March 27, 1964; Field Investigations 

and Reconstruction Effort. Washington: USGS Printing Office, 1966. 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0541/pp541.pdf. 

Detailed report on earthquake investigations including information of the activities of the Corps 

of Engineers in communities throughout the state

Hartness, N. B. (2001, June). 1964 Good Friday Great Alaskan Earthquake. Retrieved March 18, 2016, 

from http://www.geo.arizona.edu/~nhartnes/alaska/index.html

Compilation of information on earthquake damage and links to additional sources of information 

about the earthquake

"Historic Earthquakes: 1964 Great Alaska Earthquake." USGS Earthquake Hazards Program, 

241
Historic Earthquakes. Accessed April 02, 2016. 

http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/states/events/1964_03_28.php.

Detailed seismic information about the 1964 earthquake in Alaska

National Research Council (U.S.) Committee on the Alaska Earthquake, The Great Alaska Earthquake of 

1964, Volume 6.

Overview of the damage caused by the 1964 earthquake

Salisbury, C.A. Soldiers of the Mists: Minutemen of the Alaska Frontier, Pictorial Histories Publishing 

Company, Inc., Missoula, Montana 1992. 

Alaska National Guard post-earthquake participation 

Sokolowski, Thomas J. "The Great Alaskan Earthquake and Tsunamis of 1964." Accessed March 18, 

2016. http://wcatwc.arh.noaa.gov/about/64quake.htm.

Article includes list of tsunamis

West, Michael E., Peter J. Haeussler, Natalia A. Ruppert, and Jeffrey T. Freymueller. "Why the 1964 

Great Alaska Earthquake Matters 50 Years Later.” Seismological Research Letters 85, no. 2 (March 

2015): 245-51. http://srl.geoscienceworld.org/content/85/2/245.full.pdf html.

Examination of impact of Quake on seismological research

Zheng, Xiao Ye. "1964 Alaska Earthquake (March 27, 1964)." 2012. Accessed March 17, 2016. 

https://failures.wikispaces.com/1964 Alaska Summary. 

Comprehensive summary of various reports on earthquake cause, damage and legacy

CENTENNIAL

"ALASKA ‘67 | Part Disneyland, Part History Lesson." View-from-the-future-20. Accessed March 6, 

2016. http://museums.alaska.gov/lam/view2017/HTML/view-from-the-future-20.xhtml. 

Development history of the centennial exposition park in Fairbanks

Alaska ‘67. “What 67 Means to Alaska,” Accessed, November 15, 2015, 

http://www.co.fairbanks.ak.us/pioneerpark/about/images/a_67_brochure.pdf

Exposition Center and Pioneer Park/Alaskaland Planning and Design Information

Brown, Tricia, George Bryson, Mark Kelley, Dermot Cole, Charles Mason, Nick Jans, Clark Mishler, 

Nancy Lord, Jim Lavrakas, Kathleen McCoy, Jeff Schultz, Debra McKinney, and Matt Hage. The View 

from the Future, 2017: Fifty Years after the Alaska Purchase Centennial, State of Alaska, Department of 

Education and Early Development, Division of Libraries, Archives, and Museums, Juneau, Alaska, Taku 

Graphics, 2015.

Centennial Commission and Public Funding of Projects across Alaska

242
Pioneer Park. “Pioneer Park: A History.” Fairbanks Northstar Borough Recreation Department, 2008, 

Accessed, November 24, 2015. 

http://old.fnsb.us/ParksandRecreation/PioneerPark/about/history_pioneer_park.htm.

Brief history of Pioneer Park on Pioneer Park Web site 

Vries, Tity De. "Ambiguity in an Alaskan History Theme Park: Presenting History as Commodity and 

History as Heritage" The Public Historian 29, no. 2 (2007): 55-79. http://tph.ucpress.edu/content/29/2/55. 

Critical examination of Alaska Centennial 

RESOURCE EXPLORATION/EXTRACTION

Aaron, Jayne and Steven Chris Baker. Historic Context and Evaluation of Ranger Boats in Alaska, 

Chugach and Tongass National Forests, for US Forest Service, Alaska Region, 2011.

Alaska Spruce Log Program, need for water access for management of forest lands by National 

Forest Service, establishment of pulp mills in southeast Alaska, Japanese demand for timber, 

annual board footage calculations, shifts in forest uses, USFS Ranger Boats

Alaska Forest Association. Alaska Timber Industry History Southeast Alaska. Report. Ketchikan: Alaska 

Forest Service Association, n.d., 1-9. Accessed March 02, 2016. http://www.akforest.org/Alaska Timber 

Industry History.pdf. 

Summary of timber history in SE Alaska until 2004

Alaska Humanities Forum. "Alaska History and Cultural Studies - Alaska's Heritage – CHAPTER 4-15: 

MINING.” Accessed February 13, 2016. http://www.akhistorycourse.org/americas-territory/alaskasheritage/chapter-4-15-mining

Summary of mining in Alaska, beginning in 1848 through 1983

Alaska Humanities Forum. "Alaska History and Cultural Studies - Alaska's Heritage – CHAPTER 4-16: 

FISHING AND SEA HUNTING.” Accessed February 13, 2016. 

http://www.akhistorycourse.org/articles/article.php?artID=181

Post-war whaling, establishment of regulations and fish hatcheries in Alaska, ban of fish traps

Alaska Humanities Forum. "Alaska History and Cultural Studies - Alaska's Heritage -CHAPTER 4-17: 

FARMING, HERDING, AND LUMBERING. Accessed February 24, 2016. 

http://www.akhistorycourse.org/articles/article.php?artID=182

Pulp mills in southeast Alaska, harvest increases, shifting of forest uses

Alaska Humanities Forum. "Alaska History and Cultural Studies - Modern Alaska - Oil Discovery and 

Development in Alaska." Alaska History and Cultural Studies - Modern Alaska - Oil Discovery and 

Development in Alaska. Accessed February 09, 2016. 

http://www.akhistorycourse.org/articles/article.php?artID=140.

Oil discovery and development in Cook Inlet, Kenai Peninsula, gas lines in Nikiski, Prudhoe Bay 

discovery and development 

243
Baily, Alan. “Marathon to Exit Alaska.” Petroleum News, Vol 17, No 16. Accessed March 1, 2016. 

Available at: http://www.petroleumnews.com/pntruncate/943451226.shtml

Cook Inlet natural gas

Belowich, Mark. Coal Exploration Permit Application for Mental Health Land Coal Lease MHT 9200375 

Chickaloon Coal Project. Alaska Earth Sciences, for Riversdale Alaska LLC, 2012.

Evan Jones Coal Mine, shuttering of Matanuska mines, leases on Castle Mountain

Braund, Steven R. and Associates. Alaska Stand Alone Pipeline Final Environmental Impact Statement, 

Cultural Resources Results. Alaska Gasline Development Corporation, Anchorage, 2012:

Beluga field and Kenai Peninsula gas and oil interests

Cargill, Simon M., ed., “Prospects for mineral resource assessments on public lands; proceedings of the 

Leesburg workshop Circular 980, http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1986/0980/report.pdf

A good summary of post-World War II mining developments in Alaska, see page 27

Huston, Robert John. Geographical Analysis of the Fur Farming Industry in Alaska. Thesis submitted for 

partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Arts in Geography. Graduate Division 

of the University of California, 1963. 

Brief overview of the history of fur farming and fur demand in Alaska

Mackovjak, Jim. Navigating Troubled Waters: History of Commercial Fishing in Glacier Bay, Alaska. 

National Park Service, Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, Gustavus, Alaska, 2010.

Historic overview of fishing industry in southeast Alaska

Meinhardt, Robert L. Section 106 Review of the Alaska Native Allotment of Dorothy Knapp Volkheimer 

(F-18591) and the Knapp Fox Farm (NOA-306), Located on the Noatak River, Near Kotzebue, Alaska 

(Noatak Quadrangle). Prepared for the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Alaska Region, Regional Archaeology, 

2005.

Decline of fur farming in Alaska after WWII

Merritt, Roy D. Chronicle of Alaska Coal Mining History. Alaska Division of Geological and 

Geophysical Surveys. Fairbanks, Alaska, 1986.

Coal mining in the Matanuska Valley, Navy exploration and claims, Wishbone Hill and Castle 

Mountain deposits near Chickaloon, expansion of Usibelli claims out of Healy

Nelson, Kristen. Old Pipelines an Issue in Moving Cook Inlet Gas. Petroleum News Vol 9, No 26. 

Accessed February 23, 2016. Available at: http://www.petroleumnews.com/pnnew/303487414.html

Legal definition of a pipeline; many in Cook Inlet do not qualify

244
Palmer Historical Society. “A History of Palmer.” Accessed February 23, 2016. Available at: 

http://www.palmerhistoricalsociety.org/.

Military use of milk from Matanuska and Tanana River Valleys

Rakestraw, Lawrence W., “A history of the United States Forest Service in Alaska,” United States. Forest 

Service. Alaska Region, 1981, Accessed, December 1, 2015, 

http://www.foresthistory.org/aspnet/publications/region/10/alaska_by_rakestraw/contents.htm

Chapters 6 and 7 deal specifically with the Forest Service during the period of significance and 

the growth of both the timber industry and recreational use during the post-War period. Includes 

list of buildings

US Army, Corps of Engineers (USACE). Haines-Fairbanks Pipeline Final Brochure; Gate Valves: 

History, Construction, and Function. USACE, Alaska District. Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson, 

Anchorage, 2015.

Construction, closure, remediation of the Haines-Fairbanks Pipeline and associated 

infrastructure

Usibelli Coal Mine. History: The Usibelli Story. Accessed February 12, 2016, Available at: 

http://www.usibelli.com/History-Story.php

History of the Usibelli Coal Mine

TRANSPORTATION

Alaska Aviation Museum. “Alaska Aviation Hall of Fame.” Accessed February 25, 2016, 

http://www.alaskaairmuseum.org/#!hall-of-fame/cyo5. 

Famous bush pilots, notable small flight companies in Alaska

Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities, Alaska Marine Highway System. “History of 

AMS,” 2016. Accessed January 2, 2016. http://www.dot.state.ak.us/amhs/history.shtml.

Establishment of private ferry system, state purchase of ferry system, Alaska Marine Highway 

and its expansion, list of boats in service

Alaska Humanities Forum. "Alaska History and Cultural Studies - Alaska's Heritage -CHAPTER 4-9: 

RIVER TRANSPORTATION. Accessed March 3, 2016, available at: 

http://www.akhistorycourse.org/articles/article.php?artID=174. 

Alaska Railroad interior river steamboat use, Yukon River steamboats 

Alaska Humanities Forum. "Alaska History and Cultural Studies - Alaska's Heritage -CHAPTER 4-8: 

OCEAN TRANSPORTATION. Accessed March 3, 2016, 

http://www.akhistorycourse.org/articles/article.php?artID=173. 

World Allied steamship requirements, decline of steamship use in southeast Alaska, post-war 

steam shipping, introduction of container ships, tug and barge, rail car barge services, van ships

245
British Columbia Geographical Names. “GeoBC: Contact Creek.” Province of British Columbia. 

Accessed December 15, 2015. Available at: http://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/13395.html. 

ALCAN route, completion date and location

Diamand, M. “1000 Events that Shaped The World.” National Geographic Society, US. Accessed 

February 25, 2016, https://books.google.com/books?id=8AceAd41awC&pg=PA344&lpg=PA344&dq=Great+Circle+Route+1946&source=bl&ots=uh245UGvv&sig=_4kUTTAOk8T1dTRmbQlLGzNvBe4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiS_ZDOn5TLAh

VB6GMKHeHVCZIQ6AEINDAG#v=onepage&q=Great%20Circle%20Route%201946&f=false. 

1946 Azimuthal World Air Charts

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Guidance for FAA Airport Compliance Program, Chapter 1: 

Scope and Authority. Accessed February 26, 2016. 

https://www.faa.gov/airports/resources/publications/orders/compliance_5190_6/media/5190_6b_chap1.pd

f 

Federal Airport Act of 1946, Federal Aviation Act of 1958

Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). “Final List of Nationally and Exceptionally Significant 

Features of the Federal Interstate Highway System,” Accessed, December 11, 2015, 

https://www.environment.fhwa.dot.gov/histpres/highways_list.asp. 

Five significant bridges on Alaska interstate system

Gillette, Gary and Matthew Halitsky. Historic Property evaluation of the Alaska Coastal Airlines Hangar 

(Merchant's Wharf). Juneau, Alaska, City and Borough of Juneau, 2006.

Early southeast Alaska airlines in Juneau, property types

Hoh, John L Jr.. “Pioneers of Profit Among the Clouds.” Accessed February 25, 2016, 

https://books.google.com/books?id=YRzuAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA69&lpg=PA69&dq=Great+Circle+Route

+1946&source=bl&ots=5PlLEq2ip6&sig=z5yPJTVADw3dDx8KUYMFXf4em0c&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0

ahUKEwiS_ZDOn5TLAhVB6GMKHeHVCZIQ6AEIKTAD#v=onepage&q=Great%20Circle%20Route

%201946&f=false. 

Great circle routes in aviation

Holeski, Marlene Conger. In search of gold: the Alaska journals of Horace S. Conger, 1898-1899. 

Carolyn Jean editor. Anchorage, Alaska: Alaska Geographic Society, 1983.

Steamboats used on the Yukon River 

Juneau International Airport Planning, Design, and Construction Projects. “A Brief History of Juneau’s 

Airport.” Accessed February 26, 2016. http://www.juneau.org/airport/projects/TerminalHistory.php. 

Development of a terminal at Juneau and subsequent additions/remodel efforts

246
K2 Aviation. “K2 Aviation History.” Accessed February 25, 2016. http://www.flyk2.com/why-flyk2/history.html. 

Early aviation in Talkeetna and Mount McKinley National Park 

Lundburg, Murray, “Alaska Highway and Canol Bibliography, Great North Books, 

http://www.greatnorthbooks.com/alcan-bibliography.html, accessed November 13, 2015. 

Fiction and Nonfiction books and travel guides written about Alaska Highway

Mead and Hunt. Alaska Roads Historic Overview Applied Historic Context of Alaska’s Roads. Alaska 

Department of Transportation and Public Facilities, 2014.

Alaska transportation from 1948 through 1970s, federal legislation and funding of Alaska roads, 

territorial and state departments overseeing road construction and design, Pioneer Access Road 

Program, damage from the earthquake, post-earthquake road development, on-going road 

improvements, highways built by the US Forest Service (Tongass, Sitka, Douglas, Glacier, and 

Mitkof highways, and a portion of the Copper River Highway), 1965 The Alaska Highway Study, 

1965 National Highway Beautification Act, construction of the Alcan, public opening and 

reconditioning of the Alaska Highway portion of the Alcan, summary of construction of the 

Palmer-Wasilla, Seward, Haines (reconstruction), Sterling, Taylor, Denali, and Elliot Highways, 

Copper River Highway Million Dollar Bridge, post-war bridge specifications

Municipality of Anchorage. “Merrill Field: Anchorage Aviation History & Development.” Accessed 

February 26, 2016. http://www.muni.org/Departments/merrill_field/Pages/History.aspx. 

Opening of Anchorage as an international airport location, land select for the new international 

airport, expansion of Lake Hood

Neely, Burr. Cultural Resources Survey for Alaska Highway MP 1222-1235 Rehabilitation Project Near 

the Yukon-Alaska Border. PDC Engineering, Fairbanks, 2007.

Route of the Alaska Highway

Premier Pacific Seafoods. “Vessels: SS Ocean Phoenix.” 2015. Accessed February 2, 2016. 

http://www.prempac.com/vessels/ocean_phoenix.html. 

Remodeled steamships still in use 

Rust’s Flying Services. “Rust’s Flying Service History.” Accessed February 25, 2016. 

http://www.flyrusts.com/why-fly-rusts/rusts-history.html. 

Rust’s history in Talkeetna, Mt McKinley National Park 

Sheldon Air Services. “Don Sheldon-Father.” Accessed February 25, 2016. 

http://www.sheldonairservice.com/About-Sheldon-Air-Service/Don-Sheldon.html. 

History of bush pilots in Talkeetna and Don Sheldon, Mount McKinley National Park

247
Talkeetna Air Taxi. “About Us.” Accessed February 25, 2016. http://www.talkeetnaair.com/about-us/. 

Early flight service in Talkeetna to Mount McKinley National Park

TRAVEL/TOURISM

Alaska State Museum. “The Lure of Alaska: A History of Tourism in the Great Land: Exhibition 

Catalog.” Friends of the Alaska State Museum, Juneau. 2007.

Exhibition catalog on The Lure of Alaska. Provides a nicely illustrated overview of the history of 

tourism, and a more detailed look at the many facets of tourism in Alaska. 

Cerveny, Lee. “Tourism and its effects on southeast Alaska communities and resources: case studies from 

Haines, Craig, and Hoonah, Alaska.” US Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Research 

Paper PNW-RP-566, 2005.

Pulp mills and logging camps in Southeast Alaska, definition of tourism, impacts on local 

resources from tourism

DeVaughn, Melissa, Recollections from the People who Shaped Alaska’s State Park System, Alaska 

Humanities Forum, Anchorage, 2010.

Information about the formation of the Alaska State Park system and the people who helped 

establish them 

Kiffer, Dave. “History of Alaska Tourism, Part 3: A Steady Boom in Tourism, Post World War II.” Sit 

News, 2010, Accessed, November 26, 2016. 

http://www.sitnews.us/Kiffer/Tourism3/122910_tourism_pt3.html. 

Alaska Magazine, 1967 federal tourism study, Alcan and tourism, air travel for tourism, 

southeast Alaska ferry and tour boat services, Westours

National Park Service. The National Parks: Index 2009-2011 (revised to include the actions of the 110th

Congress ending January 3, 2009). Office of Public Affairs and Harpers Ferry Center, Washington, D.C., 

2011.

Mission 66, National Parks, National Monuments, Wild and Scenic Rivers, Wilderness Areas, 

Katmai National Monument, Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes

Sisk, John. The Southeastern Alaska Tourism Industry: Historical Overview and Current Status, Chapter 

9.8” In The Coastal Forests and Mountains Ecoregion of Southeastern Alaska and the Tongass National 

Forest, A Conservation and Resource Assessment Synthesis in Southeast Alaska. John W. Schoen and 

Erin Dovichin, editors. A joint effort by the Nature Conservancy and Audubon Alaska, 2007.

Glacier Bay Tourism

EDUCATION

Alaska Humanities Forum. "Alaska History and Cultural Studies - Alaska's Heritage - CHAPTER 4-20: 

EDUCATION." Accessed, Nov. 24, 2015. http://www.akhistorycourse.org/articles/article.php?artID=185

Discussion of statehood transfer of schools in Alaska and their funding

248
"Alaska Pacific University." History. Accessed April 11, 2016. https://www.alaskapacific.edu/history/.

History of the establishment of APU and the first buildings constructed on campus

Barnhard, Carol, “A History of Schooling for Alaska Native People,” Journal of American Indian 

Education, Volume 40, Number 1, Fall, 2001, Accessed, December 12, 2015, 

http://www.ankn.uaf.edu/curriculum/Articles/CarolBarnhardt/HistoryofSchooling.html

Overview and historical analysis of development of schooling for the Alaska Native people 

including the development of a dual federal/territorial system of schools, and the initiation of a 

range of federal and state reform efforts

Barnhardt, Ray, and A. Oscar Kawagley. Alaska Native Education: Views from within. Fairbanks, AK: 

Alaska Native Knowledge Network, Center for Cross-Cultural Studies, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 

2010.

BIA and early Board of Education in rural Alaska

POST-WWII BUILDINGS

Construction Types 

"ACI 318.1-14 Thin Shells, Approved Version, 2013-10-08." October 8, 2013. Accessed March 31, 2016. 

https://www.concrete.org/portals/0/files/pdf/318reorg/thinshells_code_and_commentary_approvedversio

n_revised_13-10-08.pdf. 

Useful definitions of thin-shell concrete

Von Heidenstam, Erik Johan. Lift-slab Construction of Buildings. US Patent US3017723 A, filed March 

17, 1958, and issued January 23, 1962. 

Patent filing for concrete lift-slab construction

Manufactured Housing 

"About Homasote® and Homasote Company." Homasote Company History and Manufacturing Process. 

Accessed April 01, 2016. http://www.homasote.com/about. 

History of the Homasote Company which mentions Alaska projects on Woody Island and Dew 

Line 

Bartley, Ernest R. and Fredrick H. Bair, Jr. Mobile Home Parks and Comprehensive Community 

Planning. Gainesville, Florida: Public Administration Clearing Service of the University of Florida. 1960. 

Accessed, December 8, 2015, 

http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015052067900;view=1up;seq=7

Excellent overview of history and evolution of manufactured housing 

Campbell, Larry. Disappearing Neighborhoods. October 2, 2002.

Statistical numbers for trailer parks in Anchorage 

249
Carr, A. L. A Practical Guide to Prefabricated Houses. New York: Harper, 1947. 

Guide to prefabricated houses published in 1947. It includes a directory of prefab house 

manufacturers in the US. There are no manufacturers listed in Alaska.

Ebong, Ima. Kit Homes Modern. New York: Collins Design, 2005.

Public sentiment for precut and kit homes after WWII

"Harman Houses" in SAH Archipedia, eds. Gabrielle Esperdy and Karen Kingsley, Charlottesville: UVaP, 

2012, http://sah-archipedia.org/buildings/AK-01-SC035.4. Accessed April 1, 2016.

Company history and locations in Alaska

ICF International. Village Trailer Park 2930 Colorado Avenue Santa Monica, California City Landmark 

Assessment Report. Santa Monica: City of Santa Monica Planning Division, 2001. 

Good summary of history of manufactured housing and trailer parks and assessment locally 

significant examples

Johnson, Cynthia E. House in a box: prefabricated housing in the Jackson Purchase Cultural Landscape 

Region, 1900 to 1960. Frankfort, KY: Kentucky Heritage Council, 2006.

History of and common design of prefab housing in the US

Kulash William and Kathy Price. Nome Roads Improvement Project. Determination of Eligibility and 

Finding of Effect. SDP-0002(185)/62067. Fairbanks: Alaska Department of Transportation and Public 

Facilities, 2009.

Military knock down 800 Series prefab housing unit descriptions 

Pan Abode. Pan Abode the Original Heritage Series. Richmond, B.C.: Pan Abode, 2015. 

Catalog of Pan Abode homes which includes brief history of company 

TEC Inc. Pan Abode Buildings in Aspen: A Historic Context. Report. June 2010. 

http://www.aspenmod.com/wp-content/themes/AspenModern/panadobe.pdf. 

History of Pan Abode log buildings. While specific to the Aspen context the history of the 

buildings is useful

Quonset 

Decker, Julie and Chris Chiei. Quonset Hut: Metal Living for a Modern Age. New York: Princeton 

Architectural Press, 2005.

A comprehensive look at the Quonset Hut

250
A-Frame 

Randl, Chad. "The Mania for A-Frames." Old House Journal Online. July 2004. 

http://www.oldhouseonline.com/the-mania-for-a-frames/. 

History of the evolution and development of the A-frame, primarily focused on residential 

examples

Material Types 

"Anchorage Sand & Gravel History - Part I." Anchorage Sand & Gravel. Accessed April 16, 2016. 

http://www.anchsand.com/default.aspx?tabid=125.

First manufacture and use of concrete products in Alaska

Jester, Thomas, ed., Twentieth-Century Building Materials: History and Conservation. Los Angeles: 

Getty Conservation Institute, 2014.

Developed by the U.S. Department of the Interior’s National Park Service and first published in 

1995 the invaluable guide was reissued in 2014

"Joy Elementary School" in SAH Archipedia, eds. Gabrielle Esperdy and Karen Kingsley, 

Charlottesville: UVaP, 2012—, http://sah-archipedia.org/buildings/AK-01-IN014. Accessed 2015-11-17. 

Discussion of the school, built in Fairbanks during the period of significance; good example of 

concrete folded plate material use

Mauslof, Lisa. Mid 20th Century Architecture in New Hampshire. Report. Concord, New Hampshire: 

New Hampshire Employment Security, 2012.

Post-WWII uses of concrete blocks and reinforced concrete in the US

Musick, Mike, and Phil Loudon. Alaska Log Building Construction Guide. Anchorage: Alaska Housing 

Finance, 1999. https://www.ahfc.us/files/5613/5716/0253/log_construction_logmanlo.pdf.

The basic skills needed and designs of log cabins in Alaska

National Trust for Historic Preservation. "Lustron Preservation." Lustron Preservation. 

http://apps.ohiohistory.org/lustronpreservation.org/htdocs/meet-the-lustrons/lustron-history/.

A comprehensive web site on Lustron Houses which includes a history of the development of 

porcelain enamel

Suchsland, Otto, and George E. Woodson. Fiberboard Manufacturing Practices in the United States. 

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, 1987. 

http://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/CAT87881030/PDF. 

Types and uses for fiberboard in construction applications

251
BUILDING TYPES

Earthquake and Seismic Architecture 

Ferrians, Oscar J., Jr., Ruben Kachadoorian, and Gordon W. Greene. Permafrost and Related Engineering 

Problems in Alaska. Report no. 678. USGS Professional Paper. Washington DC: United States 

Government Printing Office, 1969.

Detailed analysis of climate related issues in building construction in Alaska 

Kunze, Walter E., John A. Sbarounis, and James E. Amrhein. Behavior of Prestressed Concrete 

Structures During the Alaskan Earthquake. Technical paper. Washington DC: Precast Concrete Institute, 

1965. 

Examination of effects of Quake on pre-stressed concrete structures

Jull, Matthew G., and Leena S. Cho. "Architecture and Urbanism of Arctic Cities: Case Study of Resolute 

Bay and Norilsk." School of Architecture, University of Virginia. Accessed April 2, 2016. 

http://www2.gwu.edu/~ieresgwu/assets/docs/JULL_CHO_%20Architecture%20_Urbanism_of%20Arctic

%20Cities_FINAL_X.pdf

Generalized overview of arctic architecture, needs, and adaptations

Leith, William. "Hearing: Oversight Hearing Entitled "Advances in Earthquake Science: 50th 

Anniversary of the Great Alaskan Quake." Subcommittee on Energy and Mineral Resources (Committee 

on Natural Resources)." Accessed April 17, 2016. 

http://docs.house.gov/Committee/Calendar/ByEvent.aspx?EventID=101949. 

Statement presented at the fifty year anniversary of the 1964 Good Friday Earthquake

Strub, Harold. Bare Poles: Building Design for High Latitudes. Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1996. 

Overview of northern architecture in North America

Residential Architecture 

Ames, David A. and Linda McClellan, “Historic Residential Suburbs: Guidelines for Evaluation and 

Documentation for the National Register of Historic Places,” National Park Service, Washington, DC, 

2002. Accessed, November 27, 2015, http://www.nps.gov/nr/publications/bulletins/suburbs/index.htm

Guidance on Evaluation and Documentation of Historic Residential Suburbs

Dunn, Steven M. “Prebuilts and Conventional Construction: A Comparative Analysis of Single Family 

Residential Development in Alaskan Metropolitan Areas.” Typescript, 1972.

Trends in residential development across Alaska

Hanchett, Tom. “The Other ‘Subsidized Housing’ Federal Aid to Suburbanization, 1940s-1960s.” From 

Tenements to Taylor Homes: In Search of Urban Housing Policy in Twentieth Century America.

University Park, Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press. 2006, 5. 

(http://www.historysouth.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/The-Other-22Subsidized-Housing22-FederalAid-To-Suburbanization-.pdf)

252
Avenues of federal funding for housing and the various types of dwellings 

Hess, Alan. The Ranch House, Harry Abrams, Inc., New York, 2004. 

Overview of the history and evolution of ranch houses. Lots of illustrations

Jensen, Cory, “Post-War Typology and Stylistic Designations for Residential Architecture, “NAPC 

Alliance Review, January/February 2004, Accessed, November 26, 2015, 

http://www.preservationidaho.org/sites/default/files/images/idahomodern/docs/jan-feb04.pdf

Guide for identifying post-war dwelling styles in the US

Page and Turnbull. South Addition: Historic Resources Manual. Anchorage, BGES & Municipality of 

Anchorage, 2011. Accessed, November 26, 2015, 

http://dnr.alaska.gov/parks/oha/publications/southaddition.pdf

Manual on how to conduct surveys includes a style guide for properties in the South Addition and 

discussion of developer Wally Hickel 

Pettis, Emily. A Model for Identifying and Evaluating the Historic Significance of Post-World War II 

Housing. Washington, D.C.: Transportation Research Board, 2012.

Comprehensive overview of how to identify and evaluate post-war residential including 

information survey methodology, residential styles, types, context and materials

Sullivan, Patrick, Mary Beth Reed and Tracey Fedor. The Ranch House in Georgia, Guidelines for 

Evaluation. Tucker, Georgia: Georgia Transmission Corporation, 2010.

Historic characteristics/character defining features of ranch homes in the US 

US Department of Housing and Urban Development. “HUD Timeline.” Accessed March 28, 2016. 

https://www.huduser.gov/hud_timeline/

A brief history of the formation of federal housing legislation, organizations it created, and 

resulting housing options

Commercial Architecture 

Jakle, John, and Keith A. Sculle, Fast Food: Roadside Restaurants in the Automobile Age, Baltimore: 

Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999. 

Styles of fast food restaurants during the period of significance 

Jakle, John, and Keith A. Sculle, The Gas Station in America: Creating the North American Landscape, 

Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994. 

Excellent book tracing the history and evolution of the gas station. Good for understanding 

context 

253
Jakle, John, and Keith A. Sculle and Jefferson Rogers, The Motel in America, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins 

University Press, 1996.

Context and designs of the American Motel

Jones, W. Dwayne. A Field Guide to Gas Stations in Texas. Historical Studies Report No. 2003-03. 

Austin, Texas: Texas Department of Transportation, Environmental Affairs Division, Historical Studies 

Branch, 2003.

Evolution of gas service along roadsides in the US

Langdon, Philip, Orange Roofs, Golden Arches: The Architecture of American Chain Restaurants, New 

York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1986.

Styles and designs of fast food restaurants in the US 

Liebs, Chester, Main Street to Miracle Mile: American Roadside Architecture, 1985, reprint ed., 

Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995

Types and styles of commercial roadside architecture

Slayton Deborah and William G. Foulks, “Storefronts of Tomorrow: American Storefront Design, 1940-

1970. (paper presented at Preserving the Recent Past 2, Historic Preservation Foundation, 2002). 

Accessed, November 28, 2015. https://www.illinois.gov/ihpa/Preserve/midcentury/Documents/Storefronts-of-Tomorrow.pdf

Storefront styles during the period of significance 

Bank Architecture 

Dyson, Carol J. and Anthony Rubano, Banking on the Future: Modernism and the Local Bank. 

Preserving the Recent Past, ed. Deborah Slayton and William G. Foulks, 2000.

Design and use of modernist styles in bank facilities

Keehn, Richard H. "Banking on Alaska: The Story of the National Bank of Alaska." EH.Net - Economic 

History Services. July 2004. Accessed March 01, 2016. http://eh.net/book_reviews/banking-on-alaskathe-story-of-the-national-bank-of-alaska/.

Discussion of bank branch expansion legislation in Alaska

Reiner, Donna Jean, “A Brief History of Bank Building Architecture in the US,” Defining Downtown at 

Mid-Century: The Architecture of the Bank and Building Equipment Corporation of America, 2010. 

Accessed, November 27, 2015. http://www.midcenturybanks.recentpast.org/history/item/211-a-briefhistory-of-bank-building-architecture-in-the-us

Design and use of bank facilities

254
Shopping Malls 

Gwinn, David, “The History of the American Shopping Center,” Paper prepared for LIS 620 – Dr. James 

Carmichael. Accessed, Nov. 28, 2015,

http://www.otherstream.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/12/bibliography.pdf

A very comprehensive annotated bibliography accompanied by a short chronological history. 

Also contains info on pedestrian malls, festival market places and outlet stores

Mall Hall of Fame, “Anchorage: The Mall,” Mall Hall of Fame Blog, Accessed, Nov. 27, 2015, 

http://mall-hall-of-fame.blogspot.hk/search/label/Alaska

A short article The Mall in Anchorage as well as a list of other malls built in and around 

Anchorage

Supermarkets 

Gwynn, David, “A Quick History of the American Supermarket,” Grocerteria.com, 

http://www.groceteria.com/about/a-quick-history-of-the-supermarket/, Accessed, November 27, 2015

Short overview of evolution of American Supermarket

Civic/Government Architecture 

"Federal Facilities in Alaska." Department of Environmental Conservation. Accessed April 18, 2016. 

https://dec.alaska.gov/spar/csp/federal.htm#civilian. 

Includes short history and list of federal agencies present in state and includes list of 

contaminated sites

Federal Housing Administration. Technical Bulletin No. 4. Principals of Planning Small Houses. 

Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1936.

Basic guidance and restrictions of small house design under FHA loaning programs 

Federal Writers' Project. The WPA Guide to Alaska: The Last Frontier State. Trinity University Press, 

2013.

WPA construction efforts on post offices in Alaska

Gail Radford, "Modern Housing for America: Policy Struggles in The New Deal Era,” ed. Robert 

Leighninger, Louisiana State University, The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare, Vol. 25: Iss. 1, 

Article 13 (2015,) http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2477&context=jssw, 3.

Public Works Administration, context for creation of Housing Act and FHA

"GSA Buildings - Alaska." General Services Administration. Accessed March 25, 2016. 

http://www.gsa.gov/portal/ext/html/site/hb/category/25431/actionParameter/exploreByBuilding/buildingI

d/186.

Anchorage Old Federal Building information

255
Meinhardt, Robert L. Section 106 Review for BIA Funding Allocated for Housing Improvements on the 

William Buck House (Alaska Road Commission Cook House) Located at Mile 185.5 of the Glenn 

Highway (Gulkana Quadrangle). Anchorage: BIA Office of Regional Archeology, 2005.

Detailed information regarding roadside administrative buildings in Glennallen

Educational Architecture 

Dunham, Mike, “Bringing Down the House--APU Plans a Make-over for Historic Auditorium, 

Anchorage Daily News, February 5, 2001. Accessed, February 3, 2010.

Planned renovation of Grant Hall at APU, constructed during the period of significance 

Industrial Architecture 

MacRostie Historic Advisors, LLC. Knik Arm Power Plant, Anchorage Alaska, Historic Preservation 

Certification Application Part 1 for Dgheyaytnu Energy, LLC., 2006.

Knik Arm Power Plant history and coal fire power statistics, Alaska Rail Road rehabilitation 

efforts

Recreational Architecture 

Grosvenor, John R. A History of the Architecture of the USDA Forest Service. Washington, D.C.: 

Engineering Staff, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Forest Service, 1999. Available on line at: 

http://www.foresthistory.org/ASPNET/Publications/architecture/index.htm.

Overview of history of architecture and building types including administrative buildings, 

housing and visitors centers

Lantz, K. Nicole. Everyone’s Cabin in the Woods: Historic Context for Public Recreation Cabins in the 

Alaska Region 1960-1971. Juneau, Alaska. U.S. Forest Service, Alaska Region. Publication R10-FR-009. 

2012.

History of Pan Adobe and A-frame cabins on Forest Service lands in Alaska

National Park Service, “List of Classified Structures, Glacier Bay Lodge Cabins 26-27,” Glacier Bay 

National Park and Preserve, Juneau, nd. Accessed, December 10, 2015, 

http://hscl.cr.nps.gov/insidenps/report.asp?STATE=&PARK=&STRUCTURE=&SORT=2&RECORDN

O=6921

Short summary and significance statements for the Lodge Cabins at Glacier Bay National Park

National Park Service. "National Park Service: Mission 66 Visitor Centers (Appendix I)." National Parks 

Service. Accessed March 7, 2016. http://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/allaback/vci.htm. 

Mission 66 visitor’s centers, Glacier Bay

National Park Service. “Spaces & Places: America's Cultural Landscapes, Glacier Bay Lodge Complex.”

Accessed, December 10, 2015, http://www.nps.gov/cultural_landscapes/snp/100035.html. 

Glacier Bay National Monument and the Mission 66 Program

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National Park Service. “Sitka National Historical Park Visitor’s Center.” Accessed March 8, 2016. 

http://www.nps.gov/media/photo/view.htm?id=C0CBC3D3-1DD8-B71C-07F83B51810EDDCB. 

History of the creation of the park and images of the visitor center

Norris, Frank B. "Klondike Gold Rush NHP: Legacy of the Gold Rush: An Administrative History of 

Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park." National Parks Service. September 24, 2000. Accessed 

March 30, 2016. https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/klgo/adhi/. 

Over view of some early historic preservation efforts in Alaska

Norris, Frank B. "Managing Cultural Resources in Alaska's Parklands." CRM Journal 2, no. 2 (2005): 62-

72. https://www.nps.gov/history/crmjournal/Summer2005/article2.pdf. 

Details early CRM efforts in Alaska

ARCHITECTURE

Hoagland, Alison K. Buildings of Alaska. Society of Architectural Historians, Buildings of the United 

States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993

Detailed information regarding buildings, architects, and developers working in Alaska during 

the period 

Longstreth, Richard, “A Historical Bibliography of Architecture, Landscape Architecture and Urbanism 

in the United States Since World War II. The Recent Past Preservation Network, Accessed, November, 

28, 2015. http://www.recentpast.org/bibliography/RPPNbib2012.pdf

In preparing this 63-page bibliography Longstreth focused on, “substantive historical accounts 

related to the shaping of the American landscape since World War II. To facilitate use, listings 

are divided into several subject categories: Building Types, Houses and Housing, Architects, 

Landscape Architecture, Architecture and Places, and Planning-Urbanism.”

Nelson, Arthur C. "Toward a New Metropolis: The Opportunity To Rebuild America." December 01, 

2004. Brookings Institute. Accessed March 17, 2016. 

http://www.brookings.edu/research/reports/2004/12/metropolitanpolicy-nelson. 

Includes detailed inventory of existing building stock in Alaska

Style Guides 

Alaska Office of History and Archaeology (OHA). Alaska Historic Buildings Survey Manual and Style 

Guide, by Summer Rickman. OHA Report Number 162. Anchorage, 2016.

Building styles in Alaska 

"Architectural Style Guide." – Alaska Office of History and Archaeology. Accessed March 31, 2016. 

http://dnr.alaska.gov/parks/oha/styleguide.htm.

A guide created by the Alaska Office of History and Archaeology/State Historic Preservation 

Office that establishes commonly seen architectural styles in Alaska, including brutalism, curtain 

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wall construction, corporate modern, deconstructivism, neoexpressionism, post modernism, 

streamline modern, structural expressionism, spilt entry/bi-level, dingbat, geodesic dome, 

minimal traditional, neo-eclectic, mansard/neo-mansard, ranch, modern ranch/cottage, shed, and 

spilt level, as well as additional references.

Grimes, Teresa and Christina Chang. Thematic Survey of Modern Movement, Non-Residential 

Architecture, 1945 - 1975, in St. Louis City. Riverside, California: City of Riverside, 2009.

Character defining features of mid-century architectural styles 

Houser, Michael. Mid-Century Modern Architecture in Washington State Olympia, Washington: 

Department of Archaeology and Historic Preservation, 2014.

Character defining features of various types of mid-century modern buildings and examples of

extant buildings in Washington 

McAlester, Virginia, A Field Guide to American Houses. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991.

Architectural style guide for houses in the US

Melvin, Jeremy. ISMS: Understanding Architectural Styles, New York, Universe Publishing, c.2000

Architectural style guide

Hess, Alan, Googie: Fifties Coffee Shop Architecture, San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1985.

Architectural style guide

“Recent Past Revealed: The On-line Style Guide and Glossary,” Accessed, November 23, 2015, 

http://recentpastnation.org/. 

Architectural style guide

Rifkind, Carole, A Field Guide to American Architecture, New York: New American Library, 1980.

Architectural style guide

Rifkind, Carole, A Field Guide to Contemporary Architecture, New York: Penguin Group, 1998.

Architectural style guide

Walker, Lester, American Shelter: An Illustrated Encyclopedia of the American Home, Woodstock, NY: 

The Overlook Press, 1981.

Architectural style guide for residential properties

258
Architects and Architects Directories 

“1955-1956 Roland Stock.” University of Alaska, UA Journey – Home - Regents. Accessed March 8, 

2016. https://www.alaska.edu/uajourney/regents/1955-1956-roland-stock/

Biography of developer Roland Stock, Anchorage, former University Regent

“A Fairbanks 50: Remembering a few who helped build a frontier town.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, 

May 28, 2000. Accessed March 8, 2016. 

https://www.alaska.edu/files/uajourney/A%20Fairbanks%2050.pdf.

Development information about Captain AE Lathrop

“About – Timeline.” HOK International. Accessed March 3, 2016. http://www.hok.com/about/timeline/

Company history for architectural firm Heilmuth, Obata and Kassabaum, Inc. (HOK)

“About Us-Alaska/Arctic.” ABKJ. Accessed March 3, 2016. http://www.abkj.com/projects/4/alaskaarctic

Professional history and projects by engineer Arthur Jacobs

"Admirer Unearths Memory of Young Architectural Genius." Spokesman.com. Accessed March 7, 2016. 

http://www.spokesman.com/stories/2012/jul/06/admirer-unearths-memory-of-young-architectural/./

Information about early works of Earl W Morrison

“Alaska, the World, & Wally Hickel.” Institute of the North. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://www.governorwallyhickel.org/timelines/wallyhickel/#17

Biographical information about developer Wally Hickel

American Institute of Architects. The AIA Historical Directory of American Architects: Find Names. 

Accessed March 3, 2016. http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/Wiki%20Pages/Find%20Names.aspx

Directory of Architects 

American Institute of Architects Archives. Earl Fullingim, Obituary. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/AIA%20scans/F-H/Earl%20Payton%20Fullingim_obit.pdf

Obituary for Earl Fullingim, architect

American Institute of Architects Archives. Earl Fullingim, Resume. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/AIA%20scans/F-H/fullingim%20resume.pdf

Education, designs, and employment history for Earl Fullingim, architect

American Institute of Architects (AIA), Archived Membership Files

 Francis B Mayer http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/AIA%20scans/M-P/MayerFrancisB.pdf

Earl W Morrison http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/AIA%20scans/M-P/MorrisonEarlW.pdf

259
American Institute of Architects. Knowledge Net. Robert Fehlberg, FAIA. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://network.aia.org/committeeondesign/sectiondirectory/profile?UserKey=770bd33c-d360-44df-947ccd0c5af3626c

Firm and professional profile for architect Robert Fehlberg

American Institute of Architects. Membership Application for Victor Cochran. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/AIA%20scans/C-E/CochranVictorE.pdf

Firm and professional profile for architect Victor Cochran.

American Institute of Architects. Member Questionnaire for Victor Cochran, 1946. Accessed March 3, 

2016. http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/AIA%20scans/Rosters/CochranVictor_roster.pdf.

Firm and professional profile for architect Victor Cochran.

“Andrew Donald Bowles, Memorial.” Find a Grave. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=25536331. 

Obituary and professional profile for Andrew Bowles, architect

“Arthur R, Jacobs, Memorial.” Accessed March 3, 2016. http://www.findagrave.com/cgibin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=11837059. 

Professional profile and obituary for engineer Arthur Jacobs

“Austin Lathrop.” University of Alaska, UA Journey – Notable People – Fairbanks. Accessed March 8, 

2016. https://www.alaska.edu/uajourney/notable-people/fairbanks/austin-lathrop/

Biographical information regarding developer Captain AE Lathrop

“Austin E. Lathrop.” Wikipedia. Accessed March 8, 2016. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austin_E._Lathrop.

Biographical information regarding developer Captain AE Lathrop

“Bids Opened on AK Rail Job.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Tuesday, April 12, 1949, Vol. XXVII, No. 

85, Page 1.

Bidders on 1949 rail road projects: Max Kuney Co, Lytle and Green, MP Munter

“Big Apartment Project Here Announced.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Tuesday, July 5, 1949, Vol. 

XXVII, No. 129, Page 1.

News article about a large apartment complex project in Fairbanks on Cushman Street

"Bjarne Carl Olsen." Juneau Empire, August 14, 2012. Accessed March 31, 2016. 

http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/juneauempire/obituary.aspx?n=Bjarne-Carl-Olsen&pid=159068496.

Obituary for Olsen, buildings designed by Olsen

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Bowker, R. R. "The AIA Historical Directory of American Architects." - 1956. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/Wiki Pages/ 1956 American Architects Directory.aspx.

Profiles of architects and firms registered with AIA from 1920s through 1956

Bowker, R. R. "The AIA Historical Directory of American Architects." - 1962. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/Wiki Pages/ 1962 American Architects Directory.aspx.

Profiles of architects and firms registered with AIA from 1920s through 1962

Bowker, R. R. "The AIA Historical Directory of American Architects." - 1970. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/Wiki Pages/ 1970 American Architects Directory.aspx.

Profiles of architects and firms registered with AIA from 1920s through 1970

Bowker, R.R. “Name Look Up.” Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/Wiki%20Pages/Find%20Names.aspx

A “search” tool for locating information on AIA-registered architects from inception through 

1978

“Burgess Construction Company.” Project Jukebox, Digital Branch of the University of Alaska, 

Fairbanks Oral History Program. Accessed March 2, 2016. 

http://jukebox.uaf.edu/haul_road/assets/docs/bc_burgess_info.pdf

Documentation of the role the Burgess Construction Company played in building the Haul Road 

Clark, Robert J. and Andrea P.A. Belloli, editors. Design in America: The Cranbrook Vision, 1925-1950. 

New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1984.

Education of architect Donald Knorr 

“Council OK’s Fairview Lease.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Friday, April 14, 1950. Vol. XXVIII, No. 

87, Page 1. 

Information about the Fairview Development Corporation

Documentation and Conservation of the Modernist Movement, Western Washington 

(DOCOMOMO,WEWA). http://www.docomomo-wewa.org/architects. 

Biographies of notable western Washington architects of the modernist movement

"Douglas W Ackley, Obituary." Juneau Empire, January 9, 2014. Accessed March 31, 2016. 

http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/juneauempire/obituary.aspx?n=Douglas-Ackley&pid=168980021.

Obituary of Doug Ackley

"Edgar L. Mills.” Documentation and Conservation of the Modernist Movement, Western Washington. 

Accessed March 3, 2016. http://www.docomomo-wewa.org/architects_detail.php?id=117.

Professional history of architect Edgar Mills

261
"Edward Durell Stone, Life." Edward Durell Stone. Accessed March 29, 2016. 

http://www.edwarddurellstone.org/. 

Biography of Edward Durell Stone

“Edwin Butler Crittenden, Obituary.” Sitka Sentinel. Accessed March 10, 2016. 

http://www.sitkasentinel.com/7/2012-05-10-22-08-43/obituaries/8177-edwin-butler-crittenden

Birth, death, project works of Edwin Crittenden

“Ellerbe Architects Papers, 1914-1959.” Northwest Architectural Archives, Manuscripts Division. 

Accessed March 7, 2016. Ellerbe Architects Papers, 1914-1959

Documentation of designs by Ellerbe Architects, Fairbanks

"Fairbanks to Get $1,566,750 APW Funds for 1954 Building." Fairbanks Daily News Miner, November 

19, 1953, Page 41. Accessed March 8, 2016. https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/4514624/.

Contract award to Philleo Architects and Engineers, Fairbanks

“Federal Building, Anchorage, AK.” General Services Administration. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/sontag/underwood.htm.

Information about architect Gilbert Stanley Underwood

“Francis Joseph McInnis, Memorial.” Funeralnet. Accessed March 4, 2016. 

http://memorialobituaries.com/memorials/memorials.cgi?action=Obit&memid=140459&clientid=flint

Biographical information about architect Francis McInnis

Grosvenor, John R. A History of the Architecture of the USDA Forest Service: Chapter 3 People: Leaders 

and Implementers, Linn Argile Forrest, Regional Architect, Region 10 (1934 – 1952). Washington, D.C.: 

Engineering Staff, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Forest Service, 1999. Available on line at: 

http://www.foresthistory.org/ASPNET/Publications/architecture/chap3d.htm.

Overview of professional work of Linn Forrest, architect

Gunn, Kenny. Alaska SHPO Section 106 Review for the JN3053 Ketchikan Cell Tower Relocation 2016. 

Summit Solutions Group, LLC, Portland, Oregon, 2016. 

Earl Morrison and Ferris Court (now Mary Francis) in Ketchikan

“Harley H. Hightower, Resume.” Society of American Military Engineers. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://sameblog.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Hightower.pdf

Professional resume of architect/engineer Harley Hightower

"Harold B Foss." Wikipedia. Accessed March 24, 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_B._Foss. 

Overview of HB Foss’s life and contributions to Alaska architecture

262
“Harley H. Hightower, Resume.” Society of American Military Engineers. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://sameblog.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Hightower.pdf

Professional resume of architect/engineer Harley Hightower

Hays, Lydia L. and Michael S. Kennedy, National Register of Historic Places Inventory - Nomination 

Form, Campus Center (AHRS Site No. ANC-251) Student Center, AMU, National Register #79000409, 

March 21, 1979.

Information regarding the Native Rights Movement and design work by Edward Durell Stone

"History." Jensen Yorba Lott. Accessed March 15, 2016. 

http://www.jensenyorbalott.com/about/history.htm.

Firm history for HB Foss Company, Foss Malcolm, Foss, Malcolm and Olsen, Foss Olsen, Foss 

Olsen Sands, Olsen Sands, Sands Ackley, Ackley and Associates, Ackley Jensen, Jensen Douglas, 

Jensen, Yorba and Lott; images of buildings completed during each firm iteration

“History-About Us.” Kiewit. Accessed March 7, 2016. http://www.kiewit.com/about-us/history/

The history of constructors Peter Kiewit and Company

“In Honor of Joyce Stevens.” Capitolwords, Volume 160, Number 112, pages e1183-e1184. Accessed 

March 6, 2016. http://capitolwords.org/date/2014/07/17/E1183-3_in-honor-of-joyce-stevens/

Detail of professional and personal life of architect Joyce Stevens

“Jackson Akimoto, Obituary.” Seattle Times, May 4, 2007. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/seattletimes/obituary.aspx?n=jackson-akimoto&pid=87744410

Obituary and buildings designed by Jackson Akimoto

James, Elizabeth. "Howard Rock and the Tundra Times." LitSite Alaska. Accessed April 16, 2016. 

http://www.litsite.org/index.cfm?section=Digital-Archives. 

Interesting biography of Rock, editor of the Tundra Times 

“Jennings Heber ‘Jinks’ Graham, Memorial.” Find a Grave. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=70442710

Obituary for Jinks Graham architect

"John H. Graham, Jr." Documentation and Conservation of the Modernist Movement, Western 

Washington. Accessed March 31, 2016. http://www.docomomo-wewa.org/architects_detail.php?id=60. 

Biography of architect John “Jack” Graham

"John Lautner - NCMH Masters Gallery." North Carolina Modernist Houses. Accessed March 4, 2016. 

http://www.ncmodernist.org/lautner.htm

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Life story of John Lautner

"John Lautner Foundation." John Lautner, Architect. Accessed March 31, 2016. 

http://www.johnlautner.org/. 

Images, designs, state-by-state look at Lautner residences

“John McCool, AIA, CCS.” McCool, Carlson, Green – People. Accessed March 6, 2016. 

http://mcgalaska.com/people/

Professional history of architect John McCool

"John M. Morse." Documentation and Conservation of the Modernist Movement, Western Washington. 

Accessed March 31, 2016. http://www.docomomo-wewa.org/architects_detail.php?id=46. 

Biography of architect John Morse

“Khan, Albert.” Architectural Foundation of Cincinnati, Biographical Dictionary of Cincinnati Architects, 

1788-1940. Accessed March 3, 2016. http://www.architecturecincy.org/programs/biographical-dictionaryof-cincinnati-architects/k/

Personal and professional history of architect Albert Khan

“Keithahns to celebrate their 50th.” Juneau Empire, August 27, 2004. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://juneauempire.com/stories/082704/nei_keithahns.shtml#.VvRSj3pLH4g

Residency history for architect Richard Keithahn

"Kenneth Douglas Maynard." Prabook. Accessed February 27, 2016. http://prabook.org/web/personview.html?profileId=676146. 

Obituary for Maynard

"Kenneth D. Maynard Collection Description." Consortium Library Archives. Accessed February 27, 

2016. https://consortiumlibrary.org/archives/FindingAids/hmc-0172.html.

Maynards architectural designs; overview

“Lawrance T. Shultz, (1926-2015), Obituary.” Legacy.com. Accessed March 4, 2016. 

http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/adn/obituary.aspx?pid=176290457

Obituary for architect Lawrance Schultz

“Leadership –Principals.” Danadjieva Hansen Architects, Inc. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://www.hansenarchitects.com/v2/index.php?nav=leadership&sub=4. 

Employment and design works of architect Gray Hansen

Leagle. “Filler v. Commissioner.” US Tax Court, September 17, 1987. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://www.leagle.com/decision/198761154cltcm557_1522/FILLER%20v.%20COMMISSIONER

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Information regarding failed development opportunity in Juneau for architect George Filler 

Linked In. “Robert Fehlberg.” Accessed March 3, 2016. https://www.linkedin.com/in/robert-fehlberg10a08a2b.

Firm and professional profile for architect Robert Fehlberg

"Linn Argile Forrest." MRV History. Accessed March 20, 2016. http://www.mrvarchitects.com/linn.html. 

Architectural portfolio of Linn A Forrest

“Looking Back in Fairbanks Oct. 3.” Fairbanks Daily News-Miner. October 3, 2010. Accessed March 8, 

2016. http://www.newsminer.com/news/local_news/looking-back-in-fairbanks-oct/article_d8f5a964-

cc98-565c-8929-68ae8f8d099a.html

Chena Hot Springs early developments

“Loussac-Sogn Building.” Alaska.org. Accessed March 8, 2016. http://www.alaska.org/detail/loussacsogn-building

History of the Loussac-Sogn Building and Zachariah Loussac, Anchorage

“Low Offers Total Over $14 Million.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Friday, April 8, 1949. Vol. XXVII, 

No. 82, Page 1.

Funding allocations for Alaska construction projects 1949

“Margaret Fritsch.” Wikipedia. Accessed March 2, 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Fritsch

Life and works of architect Margaret Fritsch

Matuscak, Melissa. John Lautner: A Southern California Visionary with Northern Michigan Sensibilities. 

Michigan Magazine. DeVos Art Museum, Northern Michigan University. Marquette, Michigan. 

July/August, 2012: 32-38. 

Biography of John Lautner

“Maynard L. Taylor.” Wikipedia. Accessed March 2, 2016. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maynard_L._Taylor,_Jr.

Life and works of architect Maynard Taylor

Meinhardt, Robert L., Casey Woster and Amy Ramirez. Determination of Eligibility of the Old Kake 

Elementary School, Located in Kake, Alaska and Recommendations for Issuing a Section 106 Finding for 

Demolition and Redevelopment. Anchorage, Alaska: Shannon and Wilson, Inc., 2014.

Architectural portfolio of Linn A Forrest

“M. Jenkins, Obituary.” Legacy.com Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://www.legacy.com/Obituaries.asp?Page=LifeStory&PersonId=11810

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Firm history for architect Morris Jenkins

MVR Architects. Company Profile, Linn Argyle Forrest. Accessed March 2, 2016. Available at: 

http://www.mrvarchitects.com/linn.html. Juneau, Alaska, 2009

History of the architectural firm established by Linn Forrest

"Myron Pendergrast, New Rockford, N.D." INFORUM. Accessed February 23, 2016. 

http://www.inforum.com/content/myron-pendergrast-new-rockford-nd. 

Obituary and list of buildings he designed

“N. Lester Troast.” Wikipedia. Accessed March 2, 2016. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N._Lester_Troast#cite_note-Sitka-2 

Life and works of architect Lester Troast

National Park Service. A History of the Architecture of the USDA Forest Service, Chapter 3 People: 

Leaders and Implementers, Linn Argile Forrest, Regional Architect, Region 10 (1934 – 1952). Accessed 

February 29, 2016. Available on line at: 

http://www.foresthistory.org/ASPNET/Publications/architecture/chap3d.htm. Washington, D.C., 2008.

Education and early works of architect Linn Forrest

National Park Service. "Biography (Gilbert Stanley Underwood)." National Parks Service. Accessed 

March 10, 2016. http://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/sontag/underwood.htm.

Biography of Underwood

“Nearby Jobs Total Nearly $10 Million.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Monday, April 18, 1949. Vol. 

XXVII, No. 90, Page 1.

Funding allocations for Alaska construction projects 1949

Newby, Douglas. Architecturally Significant Homes. Dallas: Texas, Douglas Newby and Associates. 

Accessed March 7, 2016. http://significanthomes.com/home/3805-mcfarlin-boulevard-dallas-texas/

Information regarding architect David Williams

Pacific Coast Architecture Database (PCAD). Accessed March 31, 2016. http://pcad.lib.washington.edu

Name look up for west coast architects and firms

"Paul H. Kirk.” Documentation and Conservation of the Modernist Movement, Western Washington. 

Accessed March 31, 2016. http://www.docomomo-wewa.org/architects_detail.php?id=48. 

Professional history of architect Paul Kirk

266
“Pete Zamarello, colorful 'King of the Strip Malls,' dies at 86.” Alaska Daily News. Accessed March 3, 

2016. http://www.adn.com/article/20141029/pete-zamarello-colorful-king-strip-malls-dies-86

Obituary for strip-mall king/developer Pete Zamarello

"Porreca Memorial Scholarship." Scholarships and Fellowships. Accessed March 30, 2016. 

http://www.sp2.upenn.edu/make-a-gift/scholarships-and-fellowships/. 

Educational history of Augustine Porreca

“Railroad in Call for Bids on New Rail.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Wednesday, April 6, 1949. Vol. 

XXVII, No. 80, Page 1.

Contract bids for 1949 rail road replacement efforts

Powell, John Edward. A Guide to Historic Architecture in Fresno, California – Biographies of Architects, 

Designers, and Builders: B. Marcus Priteca (1881-1971). Accessed March 6, 2016. 

http://www.historicfresno.org/bio/priteca.htm.

Professional portfolio of architect Marcus Priteca

“Ralph F. Taylor photograph collection, 1960-1965.” University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska and Polar 

Regions Collections. Accessed March 6, 2016. 

https://beta.worldcat.org/archivegrid/collection/data/309455660

Information on work in Alaska for architect Ralph Taylor

“Raymond H. Peck.” Documentation and Conservation of the Modernist Movement, Western 

Washington. Accessed March 3, 2016. http://www.docomomo-wewa.org/architects_detail.php?id=136

Professional history of architect Raymond Peck

“Richard E. Keithhan.” Alaska Licensing. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://www.alaskalicensing.com/richard-e-keithahn

Architectural licensing history for Richard Keithahn

"Roman Catholic Cathedral Opens Doors." Fairbanks Daily News Miner. April 1, 1966. Newpapers.com. 

Accessed March 21, 2016. https://www.newspapers.com/image/16420566/?terms=Douglas+Ackley.

Details of building designed by Doug Ackley in Fairbanks

“Seattle Firms Bid Low on ANS Hospital.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Tuesday, April 26, 1949. Vol. 

XXVII, No. 97, Page 1.

Contract award for the Alaska Native Hospital, Anchorage, 1949

“Thomas B. Bourne Associates, Inc.” New York Company Search. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://newyorkcompanysearch.com/thomas-b-bourne-associates-inc.

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Detailed information on Thomas Bourne, architect, and works in Alaska

US Tax Court. C. TED BRADY AND AGNES J. BRADY, HIS WIFE, PETITIONERS, v. 

COMMISSIONER OF INTERNAL REVENUE, RESPONDENT, No. 35 T.C. 311 slip op. at 312. 

Casetext, Incorporated, 1960.

Documentation of corporation iterations of Brady/Swalling, Coffeehouse Company in Anchorage 

“University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Master Plan, Fairbanks, AK (1965).” Pacific Coast Architecture 

Database (PCAD). Accessed March 30, 2016. http://pcad.lib.washington.edu/building/4178/.

Details of architects who assisted in the master plan for UAF

"Wallace J. Wellenstein, Obituary.” St. Cloud Times, May 20, 2012. Accessed March 5, 2016. 

http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/sctimes/obituary.aspx?pid=157683897#sthash.OXfi9VrG.dpuf.

Obituary for architect Wallace Wellenstein

“Walter J. Hickel, Obituary.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, May 16, 2010. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/newsminer/obituary.aspx?pid=142842721

Biographical information about developer Wally Hickel

“Walter J. Hickel.” National Governors Association, Alaska: Past Governors Bios. Accessed March 3, 

2016. http://www.nga.org/cms/home/governors/past-governors-bios/page_alaska/col2-content/maincontent-list/title_hickel_walter.default.html

Biographical information about developer Wally Hickel

“Walter Hickel, Nixon Interior Secretary, Dies at 90.” New York Times, May 8, 2010. Accessed March 3, 

2016. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/09/us/09hickel.html?_r=0 (add him to bio section?)

Biographical information about developer Wally Hickel

“Wally Hickel.” Wikipedia. Accessed March 2, 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wally_Hickel.

Biographical information about developer Wally Hickel

“Williams, David Reichard.” Texas State Historical Association. Accessed March 7, 2016. 

https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fwi19

Biographical information for architect David Williams

Young, Morgan. "Mary Margaret Goodin Fritsch (1899-1993)." Oregon Ecyclopedia. Accessed March 6, 

2016. 

http://www.oregonencyclopedia.org/articles/fritsch_mary_margaret_goodin_1899_1993_/#.VyAVl3pLH

4h.

Portfolio and personal information about architect Mary Goodin Fritsch.

268
Appendix A: Alaska Historic Buildings Style Guide 

Alaska Office of History and Archaeology 2016

269
SECTION 7:ALASKA ARCHITECTURAL STYLEGUIDE

This Alaska Architectural Style Guide is an introduction to architectural styles commonly found in 

Alaska. In the years since the first Russian outposts were established in Alaska, buildings have been 

constructed in a wide variety of architectural styles. From the simple vernacular log structures of the 

late 18th century, to the steel and glass curtain-wall buildings of the 20th Century, the architecture of 

Alaska is as diverse as its many geographical regions.

The architectural styles on the following pages are presented according to the period or movement 

with which they are traditionally associated. Dates are provided for the years when the style was most 

popular in the United States, although examples of each style could pre- or post-date the dates given. In 

addition to a short history of each style, a list of primary and secondary stylistic features associated 

with each style, as well as National Register considerations are provided. These considerations will 

provide guidance when evaluating a building for National Register eligibility under Criterion C. Under 

this criterion, properties may be eligible for the National Register if they embody the distinctive 

characteristics of a type, period, or method of construction, or that represent the work of a master, or 

that possess high artistic value, or that represent significant and distinguishable entity whose 

components may lack individual distinction (district).

The considerations provide in the following pages are meant to assist, but not dictate a specific 

outcome. It is also important to note that a number of the styles found on the following pages became 

popular less than 50 years ago. When properties are being evaluated for the National Register and they 

are less than 50 years old they must meet Criteria Consideration G which requires that properties be of 

exceptional importance. For more information on applying Criteria Consideration G see the National 

Register Bulletin: Guidelines for Evaluating and Nomination Properties that Have Achieved Significance

within the Past Fifty Years.

When conducting a survey, use this style guide as a tool for identifying and evaluating architectural 

styles. It is not a comprehensive list of all styles and types of buildings. For a more detailed description 

of architectural styles and the history of neighborhood development in the United States, see A Field 

Guide to American Houses: The Definitive Guide to Identifying and Understanding America’s Domestic 

Architecture, revised edition 2013, by Virginia Savage McAlester. Not all buildings in Alaska and 

elsewhere have a style. It is acceptable to say they have no style or are vernacular.

The conversation about architectural styles, especially recent past architectural styles, will evolve as 

more surveys are conducted and more research completed. The current classification system should be 

reexamined every five years and evaluation considerations should be revisited after additional study is 

conducted.

270
RUSSIANCOLONIAL (1784-1867)

The least represented type of colonial architecture in the United States is Russian Colonial. Russian settlement

started in North America in the late 1700s. As settlements developed in the Aleutians, Kodiak Island and the

southern coast of Alaska, the Russian Colonial esthetic developed. At first a quick adaption to the land, Russian

Colonial architecture soon evolved to incorporate the traditional vernacular building techniques used in Russia. 

The only locations in the United States where this style of architecture is found areAlaskaand California. 

Today,only fourRussian Colonial buildingssurvivein North America: the Russian Bishop’sHouse (Sitka, 

AK), Building 29 (Sitka, AK), Rotchev House (Fort Ross, CA), and the Russian American Magazin (Kodiak, 

AK). Features and concepts of this style are evident in the Russian Orthodox churches that post-date the

Russian Colonial era.

Stylistic Features:

• Horizontal interlocking log construction

• Rectangular or polygonal plan

• Communitysettingon a promontoryatheadof a bay ormouthof a river

Evaluation Considerations:

All Russian Colonial era buildings in Alaska have been identified and listed in the National Register of Historic 

Places and designated as National Historic Landmarks.

Russian American Magazin, Kodiak Building 29, Sitka

COLONIAL

271
The term Victorian refers collectively to several architectural styles that were popular during the middle 

and late 19th century. The styles often included interpretations and eclectic revivals of historic styles 

mixed with the introduction of Middle East and Asian influences. The term Victorian represents the 

British and French custom of naming architectural styles for a reigning monarch. It follows Georgian and 

Regency architecture and was succeeded by Edwardian architecture.

ITALIANATE (1850-1985)

The Italianate style dominated American houses constructed between 1850 and 1880 and was 

particularly common in expanding towns and cities of the Midwest and West. Italianate homes first 

appeared in the United States in the 1830s in advice books about modern life, morality, and architecture. 

Andrew Jackson Downing popularized the style in the 1840s and 1850s in his pattern books. The style 

was adapted to urban environments in commercial districts and residential townhouses. The style was 

popular until the 1873 financial panic; however, the style was used in Alaska after that date.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Two to three stories tall

• Tall narrow windows

• Bracketed cornices

• Aligned first and second story windows

• Low pitched pyramidal, hip, flat or gable roof

• Wide overhanging eaves

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Arched windows

• Grouped windows

• Porches, full or partial width

McKinnon Apartments, Juneau

 

LATE VICTORIANERA

McKinnon Apartments, Juneau

272
• Porches, Full or partial width

• Cupola

• Quoins

• Elaborate window crowns/hoods, cornice, porch, and doorway designs

Evaluation Considerations:

Italianate buildings in Alaska will likely be found individually. Some will be located in mixed-style 

commercial districts. To be individually eligible, Italianates should exhibit a majority of the primary 

features as well as some secondary features. If an Italianate building is located in a potential mixed-style 

historic district, it should exhibit a majority of the primary stylistic features. Italianate buildings are rare in 

Alaska. Although many false front buildings have Italianate features, these buildings will not be 

individually eligible for their Italianate architecture since the elements are merely applied, rather than 

integrated into the building design.

QUEEN ANNE (1880-1920)

TheQueen Annestyleepitomizes the Victorian era. Althoughthe styledevelopedin England,itwas quickly

adoptedinthe UnitedStateswithan American flair. Queen Annewasthedominant styleof domestic building

from about 1880 until 1900, with decreasing popularity through the first two decades of the 20th century. The style

spread throughout the country by pattern books and mail-order house plans.

The expanding network of railroads expedited the process by making pre-cut architectural details readily

available throughout the nation. Although Queen Anne

buildings have a variety of forms and styles, they are easily 

identifiable. Many examples found in Alaska are not high 

style examples and can be considered Folk Victorian.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Asymmetrical

• Steeply pitched roof

• Hipped roof with lower cross 

gables

• Patterned shingles

• Dominant porches

• Decorative spindlework

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Finials

• Towers

• Gable end and roof top 

ornamentation

• Projecting bay windows

• Porch columns

Evaluation Considerations:

Queen Anne style buildings are found in 

residential areas throughout Alaska. 

Small Queen Anne districts may be present, but are 

extremely rare. Queen Anne homes may be located in a 

mixed-style residential district. To be eligible 

Residential Building, Juneau

Residential Building, Nome

273
as a contributing property in a district, a Queen Anne must be asymmetrical, have a hipped roof with lower 

cross gables, and a steeply pitched roof. Furthermore, the building should exhibit some primary and some 

secondary features. To be eligible individually, a Queen Anne must have a majority of the primary stylistic 

features and a number of secondary features. Some of the decorative features, such as spindlework, 

patterned shingles, towers, finials, bay windows or porch columns, should be incorporated in the design.

274
Unlike the free stylistic mixtures that dominated the preceding Victorian Era, building designs of this era

were intended to be more exact versions of earlier architectural styles and traditions, inspired by elements of

various European styles. The larger size, scale and arrangement of details set the buildings of the Colonial

Revival and Neoclassical Revival apart from the original forms that inspired them. The Spanish Revival and

Tudor Revival styles also looked back to the buildings of America's colonial beginnings for inspiration.

COLONIALREVIVAL (1880-1955)

Colonial Revival was the dominant style for domestic building throughout the United States during the first

halfofthetwentiethcentury.Colonial Revival referstotherebirthofinterestintheearlyEnglishand Dutch 

houses of the Atlantic Seaboard. The Philadelphia Centennial of 1876 is credited with reawakening an

interest in our colonial architectural heritage. The Georgian (1700-1780s) and Federal (1780-1820) styles 

form the backbone of the Revival, with secondary influences from Postmedieval English (1600-1700) and

Dutch Colonial (1625-1840).Attheturnofthecentury,itbecamefashionable tocloselymatch particular

types of Colonial architecture, especially

Georgian. Homes were proportioned and detailed in an

attempt to replicate their colonial predecessors; however, 

pure copies of colonial houses are far less common than

are eclectic mixtures.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Accentuated front door

• Symmetrical façade

• Multi-pane double hung wood windows

• Paired or triple windows

• Columned porch or portico

• Sidegable, gambrel orhiproof

• Dormers

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Fanlights and sidelights

• Pedimented door, windows, and dormers

• Pilasters

• Dentils and modillions

Evaluation Considerations:

In most situations, Colonial Revival buildings will be

eligible individually or as a component of a mixed-style

residentialdistrict. To be eligible, Colonial Revival

Mayflower School, Douglas

HoukHouse,SheldonJacksonCollege, Sitka

buildings should retain their massing and scale and a number of the primary and secondary stylistic features

should be present. 

 

LATE 19TH AND EARLY 20TH CENTURY REVIVALS

275
NEOCLASSICAL REVIVAL (1900-1950)

Neoclassical Revival was a principal style throughout the early 20th century, although not as prevalent as the

Colonial Revival. Chicago’s ColumbianExpositionin1893popularizedthestyle. Manyofthe state

pavilions at the Exposition featured Neoclassical Revival buildings that were small in scale and residential in

feel. Theseheavilyphotographedbuildingshelpedpromotethestyle. Thereweretwodistinctwavesof

thestyle. Oneintheearly part ofthecenturythatusedhiproofsand elaboratecolumns,thesecondduring

the 1930s to 1950s, which employed side gabled roofs and simple columns.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Full height porch with classical columns (usually 

Ionic or Corinthian)

• Symmetrical

• Boxed eaves with moderate overhang

• Dentils or modillions

• Decorative door surrounds

• Centrally located door with balanced windows

• Mixture of classical elements incorporated in

design

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Balustrades

• Broken pediment at entrance or above windows

• Wide frieze

• Pilasters

Evaluation Considerations:

Neoclassical Revival style buildings are most often

eligible for listing as individual buildings or components

ofmixed-stylehistoricdistricts. Thisstyleisoften found

in residential, financial, and public buildings. To be

individually eligible, Neoclassical Revival buildings must

be symmetrical and exhibit a mixture of classical

elements. Additional primary and secondary features

must also be present for the building to be individually 

eligible.

AlaskaGovernor’sMansion,Juneau

Masonic Temple, Fairbanks

276
TUDOR REVIVAL (1890-1940)

Tudor Revival is loosely based on late Medieval English buildings from the 15th century and influenced by

the American Eclectic movement. The style also embraced the modern Craftsman ideas and incorporated

these components into the buildings. Early 20th century subdivisions embraced this style and promulgated it 

throughout the United States. In Tudor Revival buildings the house plan could rule the design rather than it

being dictated by symmetry, allowing rooms to be oriented in any direction and windows to be placed

where needed. The style quickly faded in the 1930s, but became popular again during the 1970s and is

sometimes referred to as the Tudor Re-Revival.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Steeply pitched roof

• Dominant cross gable

• Decorative half-timbering

• Tall narrow windows, often in groups

• Prominently placed massivechimneys

• Arched doorway

• Multiplematerialssuchasstucco,brick, orwood

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Simulated thatch roofs

• Parapeted gables

• Cast stone trim

• Overlapping gables

• End porches

Evaluation Considerations:

Tudor Revival stylebuildings are rarein Alaska. To be

eligible individually or as a component of a district,

they should have, at a minimum, a steeply pitched roof,

tall narrow windows, and multiple materials.

Other characteristics should be presentto emphasis

thecharacterofthestyle. Thisstylewasusedin

residential and institutional buildings inAlaska. 

Folta House, Juneau

Allen Auditorium, SheldonJacksonCollege, Sitka

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MISSION/SPANISH REVIVAL (1890-1940)

Mission and Spanish Revival are common styles found primarily in the southwestern United States and

Florida. In manyways,thisstyle was a responsetothe Colonial Revivalsfoundinotherpartsofthe

country. Prior to 1920, the homes were based on simple early Spanish missions. The 1915-1916 PanamaCalifornia Exposition in San Diego popularized the Spanish Revival style. The elaborately designed buildings

on display at the Exposition showed details found throughout Latin America and Spain. The style quickly 

spread from the publicity associated with the Exposition. While landmark buildings are rarely found 

outside of the Southwest and Florida, vernacular examples can be found in suburban developments

throughout the country.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Low pitchedroofwith little or no

eave overhang

• Redtileroofcovering

• Prominent arch above door or

windows

• Asymmetrical façade

• Stucco wall surface

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Carved doors

• Spiral columnsor pilasters

• Tilework

• Decorative window grills

• Arcaded walkways

Pioneers’ Home, Sitka

Evaluation Considerations:

The Mission/Spanish Revival style is rare in Alaska. This style will likely be encountered with individual

buildings and may exist within a mixed-style historic district. To be eligible, a Mission/Spanish Revival

building should have a tile low pitched roof and stucco. Other primary and secondary features should be

present.

278
The early 20th century saw the transition of familiar architectural styles into a new modern era of building.

There were changes in construction techniques, especially the development of skyscraper technology, and new

designs which created houses that fit visually into their environment. The Bungalow or Craftsman style, 

inspiredbythe English Artsand Craftsmovement, developedattheturnofthe20th centuryand became

widespread throughout the country. Known for their heavy-columned front porches, front facing gables, and

overhanging eaves, often have exposed rafters and other decorative wood trim. The styles of this period set

the stage for even greater change in architectural theory and practice in the years to follow as designs moved

away from traditional inspirations to modern styles.

BUNGALOW/CRAFTSMAN (1905-1940)

The Craftsman style originated in California in the early

20thcentury. CharlesSumner Greeneand Henry

Mather Greene promoted the style and are credited as

the inspiration behind the style. Asian wood

construction, the English Arts and Crafts movement,

and interest in traditional manual arts culminated in this

detailedbuildingstyle. Thedesignsof Greeneand

Greene were highlighted in many magazines such as

Western Architect, Ladies HomeJournal, Architectural Record, 

and HouseBeautiful as well as numerous pattern books. 

This was the dominant style for smaller houses built

throughout the country from 1900 until the 1930s. 

More vernacular types of the Craftsman style are often

referred to as “bungalows.”

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Low pitchedgableorhiproof

• Wide unenclosed eave overhangs

• Onetooneandone-half storiestall

• Exposedrafters

• Full or partial front porch with columns

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Knee braces or exposed roof beams

• Battered/taperedsquarecolumns

• Openfloor plans

• Front door entry to living space

Norman R. Walker House, Ketchikan

Residential Building, Downtown Anchorage

EARLY 20TH CENTURY AMERICAN MOVEMENTS

279
Evaluation Considerations:

Bungalows will most often be found in historic districts comprised of other bungalows or mixed-styles. 

To be contributing in a district, bungalows should exhibit a majority of their primary stylistic features. 

Individually eligible bungalows are rare and should embody all the primary stylistic features and most 

secondary features. A relatively high level of integrity should be present to list individual bungalows.

RUSTIC (1916-1960)

Rustic style buildings employ traditional building techniques and natural materials. The style was widely 

used during the Great Depression and popularized by federal land managing agencies and the Civilian

Conservation Corps (CCC). This style is

commonly found in rural areas of the

country.When executedeffectively, Rustic

style buildings are sensitive to their natural

surroundings. Key concepts embodied in

the style include subordination, nonintrusiveness and a reflection on the past.

Rustic style buildings strongly influenced the

publicperceptionofwhattypeof building

should be located in the country’s

parks and outdoor environments.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Log or stone construction

• Horizontal orientation

• Low pitched roof

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Battered walls

• Wide overhanging eaves

• Small paned windows

• Constructed of locally available

materials

• Minimalornamentation

• Stone foundation

Rock House, Denali National Park and Preserve

Skater’s Cabin, Mendenhall, Juneau

280
Evaluation Considerations:

Rustic style architecture is most often found in a park-like setting or rural communities. Districts will 

be rare, but may be found in parks. Most often Rustic style buildings will be found and evaluated for 

individual significance. To be eligible individually, Rustic style building should have all the primary 

stylistic features and possess a high degree of integrity.

281
The styles of the Modern Movement began in Europe and spread to the United States in the 1920s. 

Embracing a sleek, sharp-edged appearance with distinctive decorative details, the Art Deco style 

presented an exotic new look for buildings. The smooth wall surface of the Art Deco style was carried over 

into the development of the more streamlined, less ornamented Art Moderne style. The International style, 

with its starkly unornamented appearance of rectangular shapes, punctuated with bands of windows, 

announced a new view of the style and purpose of architecture. With new shapes and forms utilizing the 

new construction technologies of the time, the International style was portrayed as a new kind of 

architecture designed solely to meet the needs of the common people in the Machine Age. In the period 

between the two world wars, European architects embraced this concept and designed not just 

commercial buildings, but houses in this bold, new form. In that same timeframe in the United States, 

American architects continued to design houses in traditional style, while experimenting with new modern 

forms for skyscrapers and commercial buildings. As Europe sunk into chaos just before WWII, many 

prominent architects immigrated to the United States, bringing their new architectural concepts with 

them. In 1932 the first modern architectures exhibit in America was held at the Museum of Modern Art in 

New York City, which brought these new concepts in architecture to the forefront of modern design.

ARTDECO (1930-1950)

Eliel Saarinen introduced the style in 1922, when he entered the Chicago Tribune Tower Design Contest 

and came in second. His design was widely publicized and the style quickly became desired. Art Deco style 

gained its name from the Paris’ Exposition des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels Modernes in 1925. The 

Machine Age inspired the geometric patterns and curves found in this style. Art Deco did not simply stay in 

the realm of architecture. Jewelry, appliances and furniture also incorporated Art Deco concepts in their 

design. Art Deco is more of a decorative application in the architecture than a stylistic ideology. The style 

is widely used in commercial buildings, but rarely found in residential architecture. Other commonly 

applied names to the style include Zigzag Modern, Cinema Style, Depression Modern, or Jazz Modern.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Vertical emphasis

• Rooflines are stepped or flat

• Concrete is a common material used in construction

to achieve smooth white surfaces. However, 

polychromatic examples exist with painted concrete

• A minimum of one of the following decorative 

elements: zigzags, chevrons, sunburst, fluting, 

banding or other references to the Machine Age

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Projections are often incorporated into the 

roof design

MODERN MOVEMENT

Holy Family Cathedral, Anchorage 

282
• Glass brick and tile are used to decorate the building

• Windows are often large with metal sashes

• Additional decorative features that are distinctly non-Western

Evaluation Considerations:

Art Deco buildings are not found in clusters in Alaska. Art Deco buildings can contribute to the 

significance of a district, but most often will be considered for individual eligibility. To be eligible, an 

Art Deco building must have all the primary characteristics and at least one of the secondary features.

ART MODERNE (1930-1955)

Art Moderne is closely related to Art Deco, but the emphasis is on horizontal plane. The Machine Age 

is still present in decorative reference with an emphasis on the designs found in automobiles, planes, 

trains and ships. The horizontal lines of Art Moderne were also incorporated into the design of the 

machines in which they found reference. Zoom and speed are embodied in the design of Art Moderne 

buildings. This style was more prominent in residential architecture than Art Deco and many 

examples resemble the contemporaneous International Style, in which decorative details are reduced 

to the bare minimum. Streamline Modern is another term used for this style.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Horizontal massing

• Flat roofs with ledge (coping) at roof line 

• Asymmetrical façade

• Smooth concrete or stucco exterior finish

• Speed bands or other horizontal emphasis

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Curved building corners

• Metal sash windows, sometimes found 

in ribbons to accentuate the horizontal 

• Corner windows

• Glass brick

• Rounded porthole windows

• Cantilevered awnings (sometimes curved)

ResidentialBuilding, SouthAddition,Anchorage

Masonic Temple, Ketchikan

283
Evaluation Considerations:

Art Moderne is a rare building type inAlaska. Clusters of this buildingtype do not exist. MostArt Moderne

buildingswillbe eligible individually. In order to be eligible, Art Moderne buildingsmustexhibitall the primary

characteristics and some of the secondary characteristics. Art Modernes cancontribute to the eligibility of a district

that has a variety of architectural styles. 

284
CURTAINWALL (1945-1975)

Curtain Wall was a dominant building style for commercial buildings in Alaska and was widespread in the 

1950s and 1960s. In many cases the exterior curtain wall was a prefabricated system used to hang 

windows and exterior sheathing. The sheathing varied significantly from porcelain enamel panels, 

exposed aggregate, or stone veneers. Curtain Wall buildings are often found in commercial, institutional, 

educational, and government buildings of a variety of sizes. Oftentimes, stylistic components will be 

incorporated into period buildings. The style evolved into the popular Corporate Modern style buildings of 

the 1980s.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Simple geometric forms, often rectangular

• Curtain wall

• Rectangular massing

• Metal skeleton that expresses the building’s structure

• Flat roof

• Prominent use of glass

• Lack of contexualism

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Spacious interiors that create a sense of 

openness

• Asymmetrical composition

• Lack of ornamentation

• Colored ceramic glass panels

Evaluation Considerations:

To be considered individually eligible, a Curtain Wall 

building must exhibit the metal skeleton that expresses 

the building’s structure, flat roof, and prominent use of 

glass as well as other primary and secondary stylistic 

features.

Furthermore, the building should exhibit some unique 

design elements that separate it from other examples in 

the area. Curtain Wall buildings may also be eligible as 

parts of a mixed style historic district. To contribute to 

a district, Curtain Wall buildings should exhibit the 

metal skeleton that expresses the building’s structure 

and retain a majority of its original building materials.

 First Federal Savings Building, Anchorage

 City Hall, Seward

285
BRUTALISM(1950-1970)

Brutalism was intended as a utopian style, but this relationship was not cemented due to the urban decay

that immediately followed the style’s popularity. The name of the style comes from the French term, béton

brut, for roughconcrete. Le Corbusier, one ofthepioneersofmodernarchitecture, oftenusedthe termto

describehischoiceofmaterial. Concreteisthepredominantchoiceofmaterial inthisstyle, butBrutalism

also incorporate glass, wood, brick, and stone. According to architecture critic Reyner Banham, Brutalism

exhibits three main qualities including exhibition of structure, transparency of space typology, and honesty

of materials. Famousexamplesofthis style include the J.Edgar Hoover FBI building inWashington, D.C.

and Boston City Hall.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Exposed concrete

• Disproportionately arranged

• Heavy, blocky appearance to highlight the

sculptural aspects of concrete

• Evidence of functionality in the exterior form

whether it is human function or building

function

• Window and doors appear as voids in the

massive concrete

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Abstract in nature

• Hammered concrete to give a distressed look

• Waffle slabs

• Intentionalavoidance of traditional materials

• Repetitivepatterns

Evaluation Considerations:

Examples of Brutalist style buildings, although rare in

Alaska, can be found individually throughout the state. 

These buildings should embody a majority of the

primary stylistic features and at least one secondary 

feature. Modifications to the form and materials could

render them not eligible. Materials, workmanship,

and design are extremely important when assessing

eligibility. Preservation of the surrounding site may be

an important consideration since many landscapes are

incorporated into the design of Brutalist buildings.

HASCO Building, Anchorage

Gruening Building, University of Alaska Fairbanks

286
NEW FORMALISM (1965-1980)

New Formalism emerged in direct opposition to the modernist ideas. Sometimes referred to as 

Palladianism, New Formalism incorporates exaggerated classical elements to achieve modern 

monumentality. Buildings of this style use the massing and forms found in classical architecture such 

as arches, colonnades, classical columns, and entablatures in a modern method. The style used 

current technology to take representations of the past to a new extreme. Universities, banks, and 

libraries often used this design. This style is rarely found in small scale or residential architecture.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Singular volume of space

• Symmetrical plan

• Smooth wall surfaces

• Heavy projecting roof slab

• Stylized full height columnar supports

• Repeating arches or rounded openings

• Evident construction techniques

• Classical elements interpreted in a 

modern way

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Separation from natural environment 

by placing building on a podium

• Hierarchical spatial relationship

• Placed on axis

• Concrete and glass are materials of 

choice. High quality stones and steel 

are also used

• Building set behind a plaza or 

fountain

• Large screens of perforated concrete, 

metal grilles or cast stone

Atwood Center, Alaska Pacific University, Anchorage

287
Evaluation Considerations:

Examples of New Formalist architecture are relatively rare in Alaska. In most situations, 

these buildings will be individually eligible for listing in the National Register. To be eligible, 

New Formalist buildings must exhibit a singular volume of space, symmetrical plan, classical 

elements interpreted in a modern way and some secondary features.

Modification to the symmetry or spatial volume will render a New Formalist building not 

eligible. The surrounding landscape must also be considered when nominating a New 

Formalist building, since site planning was often incorporated into the building design.

288
STRUCTURAL EXPRESSIONISM (1970-PRESENT)

Structural Expressionism, also known as High Tech Modernism, is a branch of modernism in which

buildings display their structural elements inside and out. The larger design features are liberated by the

possibilities of engineering. Like Brutalism, Structural Expressionist buildings reveal their structure on the

outside of the building as well as on the inside. Structural Expressionist buildings incorporate the ideals of

interchangeable prefabricated parts, flexibility in design and economy of construction. The main concept

behindthisdesignistheuseofstructural componentstodictatetheaestheticofthebuilding. Oftentimes,

structural elements are exposed and employ innovative approaches to structural stability. Engineering

created new possibilities in building design.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Exposed or visible structural elements

inside and out

• Emphasison theindustrial materials

• Functional building components are

exposed

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Adaptable interior spaces

• Detached frames

• Exposed trusswork

• Extensive use of glass and metal

• Highly complex shapes

Evaluation Considerations:

Aviation Building, Anchorage

Structural Expressionist buildings will be considered for their individual eligibility. To be considered

eligible, Structural Expressionist buildings should retain all the primary stylistic features and some of the

secondary features that exemplify the materials, design, workmanship, and association. This recent past

resource should retain a high level of integrity and be an important expression of the style.

289
CORPORATE MODERN(1950-PRESENT)

Takingits cuesfromtheidealsof Architect Mies vander Roe, Corporate ModernorSlickSkins tookholdin

the 1950s with seamless exterior glass sheathing. The improvements in window technology making this 

style possible included larger panes, increased strength and the ability to make glass thinner to create curves.

Window assemblies needed smaller clips to place windows and create the smooth surface. It is sometimes

difficult todiscernthenumberoffloorsin a CorporateModernbuilding exceptwhen dark and lights are

visible. Likemuchmodernarchitecture, theintentofthe Corporate Modernstyleisthedesireistoexpress

the structure in its outward appearance.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Tinted or mirrored glass

• Wet and reflective in nature surfaces

• Smooth sculptural surfaces

• Overall rectangular volumes

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Horizontal window bands

• Articulated ground floor, often on pilotis

• Concrete or exposed aggregate surface

• Later examples are more sculptural with curved corners

• Multi-story examples are prevalent

• Indistinguishabledivisionof floors

• Building setback onplaza

Evaluation Considerations:

Corporate Modern Style buildings are found throughout

Alaska and are located predominantly in business and

commercial centers. Corporate Modern buildings will most

likely be eligible individually, or as a contributing property in

Atwood Building, Anchorage

a historic district if they exhibit a majority of the primary features and some secondary features. The

Corporate ModernStyleusuallytakestwoforms. Thefirstformissmallerinheight, morehorizontally

orientated, and more likely to be found in a suburban setting. The second form is vertically orientated and

found more often in an urban setting.

290
POSTMODERNISM (1960S-PRESENT)

Postmodernism is a rejection of the Modern Movement. This style rejects the purity of form and purity of 

function in favor of the wide usage of materials and references. Postmodernism brought back classical 

detailing in a whimsical way. This school of architecture was developed by Robert Venturi, Michael 

Graves, Charles Moore, and Robert A.M. Stern. They believed it was important to absorb and reformulate 

traditional architectural components instead of continuing to construct “glass boxes void of heritage.”

While playing homage to the past, many buildings within this stylistic movement feature playful designs 

and ironic combinations. Various architectural elements could be selected and then exaggerated, 

manipulated, and even distorted.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Prominent entrances

• Traditional and Modern 

construction techniques 

incorporated 

• Polychromatic paints or materials

• Multiple geometric forms

• References to historic 

or vernacular 

architecture

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Lunette windows

• Arches with keystones 

incorporated in the design, 

often in an exaggerated 

manner

• Pediments

• Reference to adjacent 

buildings

• Arched windows

• Dormers

• Exaggeratedcolumns

 Alaska Center for the Performing Arts, Anchorage

Evaluation Considerations:

Postmodern buildings are found individually throughout Alaska. To be eligible, Postmodern buildings 

must embody nearly all the primary features and some secondary features. Design, workmanship, 

materials, and setting are extremely important aspects of integrity and should be retained. Postmodern 

buildings should make reference to historic or vernacular aspects of architecture. Landscaping should 

also be considered when evaluating these buildings.

291
DECONSTRUCTIVISM (1980-PRESENT)

Deconstructivism is a style that embraces the individuality of unrelated parts, combining them form a

building. Eachbuildingexhibits a bitofchaosandstillrefrainsfromutterconfusion. Thestyleisartistic

in nature with no sensible logic presented. Disassembly of building components and reassembly in a new

way is inherent in this style. In residential architecture the house is generally divided into separate

volumes that are visually distinct from the each other.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Unrelated forms

• Abstract in nature

• Smooth exterior surfaces

• Contrast of shapes and forms

• Large expanses of a single material

(glass,metals, stones,etc.)

Residential Buildings, Anchorage

292
Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Window frames often hidden in the walls

• Simple metal frame doors

• Exposed materials

Evaluation Considerations: Deconstructivist buildings are rare in Alaska and shouldbe considered individually 

eligible. These buildings must exhibit a majority of the primary features and some secondary features. Integrity of

design, materials, and workmanship are extremely important whenevaluating thisbuilding style. Settingis less

important but still relevantin the assessment.

Residential Building, South Addition, Anchorage

293
NEO-EXPRESSIONISM (1955-PRESENT)

Neo-Expressionism is loosely based on the German Expressionist movement of the early 20th century. NeoExpressionism, a rejection of the modern ideals, is sculpture-like and theatrical in appearance. This style of

architecture never dominated the American architectural scene, but is most commonly found in religious

and public buildings from the period. Strict geometric shapes are rejected and sculpted forms emerge.

Innovation of building materials such as concrete, plastics, and laminates are often incorporated in the

design to achieve artistic forms.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Sculptural forms

• Non-traditional structural

elements

• Distortionofformtoevoke

emotion

• Organic design

• Experimental materials

• Unconventional roof designs

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Irregularly shaped windows

• Same materials usedinside and out

• Roofs as continuation of walls

• Use of topography as design element

• Use of cantilever

• Laminated wood

• Asymmetrical

Evaluation Considerations:

Neo-expressionist buildings will most often be considered for eligibility as an individual resource. To be

eligible, Neo-expressionist buildings should be sculptural, evoke emotions, and have an unconventional roof

design. The setting and area landscaping are often critical components of this architectural style. It is

necessary to document the concepts and ideas that were used in the design.

ANSEP Building, University of Alaska Anchorage

294
The primary influence on residential architecture of the mid-century was the American banking system. 

The practices of the Federal Housing Administration’s (FHA) mortgage insurance program effectively 

regulated the kind of modern home that could be built in the typical neighborhoods of the mid-century. 

Houses built from the early 1940s through the mid-1960s are often called Bankers Modern because of 

this and include Minimal Traditional, Ranch, and Split level houses. By the mid-1960s, home finance was 

no longer an issue and larger homes with more architectural flair could be constructed. In recent 

decades the design of dramatic and varied modern houses has had little effect upon the typical 

American home which has mostly returned to historic architectural roots for inspiration.

MINIMAL TRADITIONAL (1940-1960)

The Minimal Traditional house was a small house that could be financed with FHA-insured loans. These 

houses were constructed quickly, in order to accommodate the millions relocating to work in World 

War II production plants. Following the war, neighborhoods of these homes expanded rapidly, due in 

part to the GI Bill, which entitled every returning serviceman the opportunity to purchase a home. The 

style reached its peak in popularity in the 1940s through the widespread distribution of house plans 

and pattern books. It was of paramount importance to design the most efficient floor plans since every 

extra square foot added to the cost, and a higher home cost made it harder to qualify for an FHA loan. 

This also meant that the homes had minimal decorative elements as these elements would also increase 

the cost of the home. The postwar prosperity of the 1950’s led to the replacement of the smaller 

Minimal Traditional with the modern Ranch.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Compact in size, typically one story in height

• Moderately pitched gable or hip roofs with minimal overhangs, if any

• Simplified details to reflect modernity

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Side gable buildings may have an intersecting gable to shelter the main entrance

• Clad in narrow horizontal wood siding, wood shingles, asbestos shingles, or aluminum

• Windows are typically wood and modest. In some cases, one large picture window is 

incorporated on the street facing elevation

• Multi-lite windows are common in the style before the World War II

• Simple floor plan

• Traditional building materials (wood and brick) used in cladding to emphasize the street facing 

elevation on later forms

Evaluation Considerations:

In most cases, the Minimal Traditional house will be significant as a component of a historic district. 

Minimal Traditional homes may be found in Alaska as early components of tract developments. In many

cases, newer developments grew around these homes. Do to their prevalent nature and minimal

MID TO LATE 20TH CENTURY

295
architectural details Minimal Traditional houses will rarely be found individually eligible, to be eligible

individually the building must embody all the primary features, and a majority of the secondary features, be

associatedwith a prominentbuilderordeveloper, andbe a rarearchitectural typeinthe locality. In a

district, Minimal Traditional buildings must embody all the primary features and a majority of the secondary

features.

Minimal Traditional homeswere intended to be flexible in design. In a district, small additions should not

render a buildingnon-contributing. Additionsmust maintainthe small building feel embodiedinthe style.

The additionmustbe carefully consideredtoensure thatthebuilding is still able toconveyits significance.

Additionally, each building must maintain enough primary and secondary features to maintain eligibility.

Residential Building, Fairview, Anchorage

Residential Building, Downtown, Anchorage

296
TRANSITIONAL RANCH (1945-1955)

The Transitional Ranch,alsocalledMinimal Ranch, Cottage Ranch, orRanchetteisaninterimstyle

between the Minimal Traditional style and Modern Ranch. Transitional Ranches brought home ownership

to the masses following the war. They generally share the compact floor plan and spatial organization of the

Minimal Traditional; however, their external appearance displays the one-story, horizontal massing of the

Ranch form, a shallow roof pitch, overhanging eaves, use of picture windows or corner windows and wall

cladding that differs on the lower half of the house. They are generally found in large subdivisions with

slight design variations and were often financed through federal housing initiatives. Transitional Ranches

generally lack the broader overhanging eaves and many of the elaborations that became common as the

house sizes increase into what we know as a Modern Ranch.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Asymmetrical façade

• Moderate to low pitched side gabled roof

• Minimalornamentation

• Horizontal massing

• Single story

• Compact size

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Carports or garages (attached or detached)

• Composition shingle roof

• Horizontal wood siding or asbestos siding

• Picture, double-hung, corner, and casement

windows

Evaluation Considerations:

Transitional Ranches are abundant in Alaska due to the rapidgrowthafter World War II andthemass production of

this housing type during that period. Transitional Ranch districts will usually follow subdivision lines and

Transitional Ranches should be the prevalent, ifnottheonly,housingtypeinthedistrict. Transitional Ranches

were designed for additions, so sympathetic additions should not negate eligibility. Transitional Ranches will rarely 

be significant individually. In those rare circumstances, they should embody all the primary features and all the

secondary features. They must retain a high level of integrity and be associated with a prominent builder, 

developer or designer.

Residential Building, South Addition, Anchorage

297
MODERN RANCH (1955-1975)

TheModernRanchmadeitswaytoAlaskaduringthelate1950sandearly1960s. Thepopularityofthe

house type waned during the 1970s. The Modern Ranch typified suburban development in the western

UnitedStates. Therootsofthestyle are groundedin Californiaandembodytheidealsofthe Prairiestylein

a vernacular form. Thefatherofthe styleisClifford May. Hebeganconstructingtheseramblinghomesin

the 1930s, dedicating ample lawn space and creating a horizontal orientation. There are numerous modern

ranch subtypes (post and beam, chalet, storybook, western, etc.) that warrant further consideration and

creation of their own evaluation considerations.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• One story

• Low horizontal massing

• Low pitched roof

• Overhanging boxed eaves

• Wide street façade

• Combination of siding materials,

including accent veneer

• Attachedgarage

• Hip, sidegable, orgable-on-hiproof

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• L-shaped or U-shaped plan

• Extended massive roof beams

• Wide masonry chimney

• Weeping mortar

• Large wood or aluminum frame

windows

• Clerestory, picture windows, corner

windows, or bands of windows

• Brick and stone veneers

• Recessed front entrance

• Flower boxes

Evaluation Considerations:

Modern Ranch buildings are located in

neighborhoods throughout Alaska. In most situations, Modern Ranch buildings will be eligible as

contributingfeaturesin a historicdistrict. Districtswillusuallyfollowsubdivision lines. Overall,the

district and contributing features should retain design, materials, setting, and location. The Modern Ranch

must be one story with low horizontal massing, embody a majority of the primary features and some

secondary features. Small additions or appropriately placed additions do not negate eligibility.

298
To be individually eligible, a Modern Ranchmustbeonestorywith lowhorizontal massing,mustexhibit all

primary characteristics, and must have a majority of the secondary features. Individual properties should

retain sufficient materials, design, workmanship, association, and feeling to covey significance.

Additionally, individual Modern Ranches must be associated with a prominent architect, builder or

developer for listing.

STYLED RANCH (1955-1985)

While the standard Ranch house may have incorporated one or more common historic elements Styled

Ranch houses have a more complete and unified set of stylistic details that spell out a distinct style. Styled

Ranches were built throughout the modern Ranch era but became common during the 1970s and

dominated new home construction in the 1980s. Each of these variations have the same features found on

theEclecticversionofeachstyle but areadaptedtowide, low, one-storyformof a Ranch.

Spanish Ranch- Generally clad in stucco or buff-colored brick with a tiled roof. Use of rounded or

parabolic arches for windows, entries, or porches. Decorative features may include exposed roof rafters,

window grills or balconettes, and inward-slanting chimneys or wing walls.

ColonialRevivalRanch- Often symmetrical or include a symmetrical central blockwith a side gable or

hippedroof. Commonlythe central blockis cladinonematerial,usuallybrickorwoodsiding,with

attached wings possibly clad in a secondary material. Front doors are usually enhanced with a Colonial

Revival door surround or entry porch.

NeoclassicalRanch- Characterized by a one storyporchsupportedbyClassical columns. Theporchmay

be presentonly attheentryorextendthefullwidthofthehouse. Generally, thereis a symmetrical main

block. Traditional multi-pane windows are typical and roof dormers may be present.

FrenchRanch- Generally the central block is topped by a high-pitched hipped roof.One or more

segmented arches is present on doors, windows, or dormers. Windows are usually tall and narrow and may

have shutters. Walls are generally clad with brick veneer.

TudorRanch- Half-timbering as a stylistic

element is almost always present, and merely 

attached to the exterior as ornamentation. Other

stylistic elements that may be present include

casement windows (which may have diamondshaped panes) and decorative garage doors. The roof

form is generally gabled or cross-gabled.

StorybookRanch- Popularduring the1950s and

early 60s, they resemble Swiss chalets with added

deepscallopedvergeboard, diamond-shaped window

panes, and window boxes.

299
CONTEMPORARY (1940-1970)

The Contemporary style has its roots solidly in the modern movement, specifically the International

style. It was the style most favored by American architects from 1945-65. The Contemporary style is 

more concerned with the spaces inside the house and the way in which each space relates to the 

outdoors. Entry facades typically reveal little of the house itself. The design is created from the inside 

out, with the focus not on details visible as one approaches the house but rather on the functionality of 

the interior space and the integration of outdoor views.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Low pitched gable roof, sometimes flat

• Asymmetrical

• Widely overhanging eaves

• Roof beams commonly exposed

• Wide fascia

• Use of natural materials (wood, stone, 

brick or occasionally concrete block)

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Broad expanses of interrupted wall 

surface typically on primary facade

• Entrances are recessed, obscured or 

hidden

• Windows situated near the roof line or 

located in gable ends 

• Massive concrete block or stone 

chimneys

• Integration of outdoor views

• Decorative screening fences

• Repetitive ornamental element 

integrated into masonry walls

Evaluation Considerations: 

Contemporaries will likely be components of a historic district. To be a contributing component they 

must embody nearly all the primary characteristics and some secondary features. In some cases, 

Contemporaries can be found as components in larger mixed style subdivisions. Higher style architectdesigned contemporaries may be individually eligible if they have a majority of the primary and 

secondary stylistic features.

Residential Building, South Addition, Anchorage

Residential Building, South Addition, Anchorage

300
SPLIT LEVEL (1950-1975)

Thesplit level isthenameof a newanddistinctiveformofhouseratherthan a style. Thesplitlevel formis

found in different styles- primarily Ranch, Styled Ranch, and Contemporary. Split levels rose in popularity

duringthe1950s. Theformofthesplit level allowedfordistinctseparationofspace. Theyprovided

practical ways to incorporate a location for two new family possessions, the car and the TV. The garage

was locatedinthe lower level ononewing. Theotherwingofthe lower level containedthe livelyareaof

thehome, usually a TVorgameroom. Theupper floorscontained livingspaceandkitchens. Bedrooms

wereoftensituatedinonewingseparatefromthe livingareas. Theformcould be bi-levelortri-level.

Primary FormFeatures:

• Horizontal massing

• Two or three stories

• Entry split between levels or

onthemiddle level

• Prominentgarage

incorporated into the design

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Accompanying style (Ranch,

Styled Ranch,or

Contemporary) Bi-level Contemporary- Residential Building, College Village, Anchorage

Evaluation Considerations:

Split Levels are abundant in Alaska.

Split Level districts will usually 

followsubdivision lines. To

contribute to a district, a SplitLevel

should retain a majority of the

primary features. Additions must be

sympathetic to the overall size, scale 

and massing of the original building. 

The accompanying style (Ranch,

Styled Ranch,or Contemporary)

should also be provided when 

describing a Split Level and the 

building should also

be evaluated using that style’s evaluation considerations.

Split Levels will rarely be significant individually. In those rare circumstances, the Split Level should 

embody all primary features and all secondary features. It must retain a high level of integrity for its 

accompanying style and be associated with a prominent builder, developer, or designer. Additions and

converted garages will render a split level not eligible for individual listing.

Tri-level Contemporary- Residential Building, South Addition, Anchorage

301
DINGBAT (1960-1980)

Francis Ventre coined the term, but the rationale for the use of the term in unknown. It is often 

considered that the name is derived from the stylistically-applied naming on the exterior of the 

buildings. Dingbats were a prevalent building style for Californian apartment buildings, but also found 

their place in Alaska.

Early forms of this building style used Le Corbusier’s pilotis concept and placed the apartment buildings 

on beams to maximize space. Taking this form, residences can use the space under the building for 

parking. Other names associated with this style include Shoebox and Dumb-box.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Applied period naming devices

• Multi-story rectangular buildings

• Flat roof

• Exterior walkways and stairs

• Individual entrances to living spaces

• Uniformity of building materials

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Clad in brick, concrete, stone, T1-11 or 

wood

• Pierced brick work

• Exposed aggregate

• Mablecrete

• Parking below the building

• Pilotis

Evaluation Considerations:

Dingbats are rarely found in groups in Alaska. 

To be individually eligible Dingbats must 

maintain a majority of the primary 

characteristics. All eligible Dingbats must 

have their period naming sign. Additionally, 

Dingbats must retain most secondary 

characteristics to maintain eligibility for their 

architecture. Integrity of design, materials and 

workmanship are extremely important when 

evaluating Dingbats.

 Hillgate Apartments, Midtown, Anchorage

Hillgate Apartments, Midtown, Anchorage

302
A-FRAMES (1950S-1970S)

A-Frames became extremely popular throughout the United States, especially in areas where outdoor 

recreation was developing. For the most part, A-Frames are simple buildings with small square 

footage. A- Frame kits were widely distributed throughout the country. Lofts are common in the 

interior living space for a grand room. Residential use of the style was more common than commercial 

or governmental use, however, some national chain stores used the style to distinguish their buildings 

from others, and religious organizations often incorporated the A-Frame style in their design. As the 

style matured, buildings incorporated other roofs in addition to gables.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Prominent steeply pitched roof with eaves 

that reach or nearly reach grade

• Interior lofts

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Windows dominate the main elevation

• Porches and decks

• Wood siding

• Open floor plan

• Great room

• Deep set eaves

Evaluation Considerations:

To be eligible, individually or as part of a district, 

an A-Frame must maintain its distinctive roof. 

A-Frames can be found throughout Alaska. For 

A-Frames to be individually eligible both primary 

stylistic features must be present and a majority 

of secondary features must exist. A-Frames may 

be found in mixed style districts. To contribute to 

the district, A-Frames must embody both primary 

stylistic features and most secondary stylistic 

features. A small number of A-Frames have 

gambrel-roofs or are double standard A- Frames 

(two A-Frames laced perpendicular to each other), 

so evaluators should consider these rarer subtype 

when assessing eligibility. Materials, design, 

workmanship, setting and feeling are important 

aspects of integrity when nominating A-Frames.

Residential Building, South Addition, Anchorage

Residential Building, South Addition, Anchorage

303
GEODESIC DOMES (1965-1980)

Although domes had existed for some time, Buckminster Fuller popularized them through lectures 

demonstrating the effectiveness and resourcefulness of the building style. In 1954, Fuller patented 

the dome. A famous example of a spherical geodesic Dome is the Spaceship Earth exhibit at Walt 

Disney World, Florida. Most Geodesic Domes are hemispherical, or half the sphere. Many domes were 

sold in kits and assembled by the property owners. They could be assembled in a couple of days by 

constructing the wall units, attaching them together and finishing the interior spaces. The triangular 

shaped panels meant load bearing walls were not necessary. Most domes average 30 feet in diameter. 

In Alaska most geodesic domes are residential.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Dome shape

• Clad in wood shingles or three tab 

asphalt shingles

• Windows and skylights found in a 

variety of shapes (triangular, square, 

rectangular or round)

• Space frames

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Flat roofed wings

• Segmented dormers

• Wood porches

• Clad in wood, stone veneer, plastic or 

T1-11

•

•

•

Residential Building, Nome

Evaluation Considerations:

Due to the do-it-yourself nature of residential Geodesic Domes, they are often found in isolation. 

Domes may be contributing features in a mixed style district. To be eligible in a district the shape 

must be intact with one other primary stylistic feature. Additions that overwhelm the dome will result 

in the building being not eligible. Geodesic Domes were used for recreation, military, residential, and 

civic buildings. When they retain their domed shape and exhibit a majority of the primary 

characteristics and at least two secondary features, they may be considered individually eligible.

304
QUONSET HUT (1941-1960)

Quonset Huts are an easily identified architectural form. Engineers at Quonset PointNaval Air Station in

Rhode Island designed the building type in 1941. Other companies quickly developed their own versions,

including the Pacific, Emkay, Armco, and Jamesway Huts. After World War II, numerous surplus Army

huts were used by the general public as commercial and residential buildings.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Barrel shape

• Curved steel ribs

• Corrugated metal

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• False fronts.

• Tongue and groove plywood floors

• Shed dormers

Evaluation Considerations:

Quonset Hutswillonly be eligibleas componentsto a QuonsetHuthistoricdistrictor mixed-styledistrict.

To be eligible, Quonset Hutsmusthavealltheprimarystylisticfeaturesandretain a highdegreeof

integrity.

Residential Building, Government Hill, Anchorage

305
NEO-MANSARD (1970-1985)

The Neo-Mansard style, also referred to as the Mansard, is a reinterpretation of the Second Empire style

popular during the 1880s. Gas stations used the Mansard style to soften their previous modernist concrete

buildings. McDonald’s also popularized the style with the creation of their eat-in restaurants featuring a

mansard roof. A variety of building types exhibit the Neo-Mansard style including apartment buildings,

single family residences, condominiums, gas stations, restaurants and commercial buildings. Older

buildings are sometimes modernized by adding mansard roofs to their facades. Many Neo-Mansards have

since been covered with newer façade treatments.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Mansard roof(dual-pitched hipped roof)

• Twoormorestories

• Windows and/or porches inserted in the

roofs

• Flat roofs

• Aluminum sliders and aluminum doors

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Segmented or arched dormers.

• Parapetsusedtodisguisemechanical

equipment

• Recessed entries

• Primary roofing material is asphalt shingles,

but can be tile orwood

• Dominate garages

Evaluation Considerations:

Neo-Mansard buildings are scattered throughout

Alaska. Theyoftentakeforminmulti-family

housing, commercial buildings, townhouses, and

single family homes. Neo-Mansard style buildings

will rarely be eligibleindividually. To be 

Multi-family Building, South Addition, Anchorage

Residential Building, Geneva Woods, Anchorage

individually eligible, Neo-Mansards must exhibit a mansard roof and a majority of the other primary

features. Additionally, they must contain a majority of the secondary features, and be associated with a

prominentbuilder, developerorarchitect. Neo-Mansardmay be partof a mixedstyledistrict. To be

eligible as part of a district, Neo- Mansards must embody the distinctive roof as well as two primary and

two secondary features.

306
SHED (1970-1985)

The Shed Style was used in residential and commercial buildings in the early 1970s. The Shed Style 

has the modern movement’s smooth finishes and postmodernism’s multiple massing. Much of the 

construction took place during the energy crisis so some employed the use of solar panels and south 

facing clerestories. The style was often used for vacation homes, schools, apartment complexes and 

condominiums. Popularity declined as people demanded homes with less maintenance, because the 

wood exteriors of Shed Style homes required significant maintenance.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Overall asymmetrical with strong lines

• Mixed massing

• Busy roofline

• One to two stories

• Intersecting gable and/or shed roofs

• Seamless roof and wall intersection

• Asymmetrical placement of windows

• Recessed or obscured door

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Long and geometric windows

• Clerestory windows

• Wood wall cladding (vertical, diagonal, 

horizontal, or shingles)

• Large interior volumes of space

• Blank wall surfaces

Evaluation Considerations:

Shed Style buildings will be found individually and in 

mixed style districts. To be eligible as a contributing 

building in a district, the Shed must maintain a 

distinctive roofline and asymmetry. Additions can be 

sympathetically applied to this style while 

maintaining its distinctive characteristics especially 

in historic districts. Setting and location are extremely 

important for the district overall. High style Sheds can 

be individually eligible when they have a majority of 

the primary stylistic features and at least three 

secondary stylistic features. Integrity of design, 

workmanship and materials are important. 

Additions to shed style buildings will make them 

not eligible individually.

Residential Building, Nome

Residential Building, South Addition, Anchorage

307
NEW TRADITIONAL (1970S-PRESENT)

New Traditional architecture is a rejection of modernism and a renewed interest in historical styles first

inspired by the U.S. Bicentennial celebrations in 1976. The style is widespread in newer developments.

Homes are commonly based on styles popular in the early 20th century- Colonial Revival, Tudor,

Neoclassical, French, Italian Renaissance, Spanish, Craftsman, and Prairie, as well as Romantic and

Victorian-era styles. New Traditional, though inspired by historic styles, commonly exhibit a lack of

understanding of the design principles behind those earlier styles. Porches may be improperly scaled, few

or no windows placed on side elevations, use of modern materials that mimic historic materials (i.e. vinyl

or hardy-plank in place of wood), and a misinterpretation of classical details such as columns too skinny,

too few or poorly spaced. High quality New Traditional homes should be difficult to distinguish from

earlier construction; generally, the location and size of the house and garage provide clues to more recent

construction.

Primary Stylistic Features:

• Twoormorestories

• Imitatedhistoric styles

• Multiple roof lines

• Brick or stone veneer

• Modern materials that mimic historic

materials (i.e. vinyl or hardy-plank)

• Large footprint

• Applied decorative features

Secondary Stylistic Features:

• Unfinished attics

• Vinyl windows

• Mixed synthetic materials

• Multi-car garage

Prairie influenced, Residential Building, South Addition, Anchorage

Shingle influenced, Residential Building, South Addition, Anchorage

308
Evaluation Considerations:

New Traditional buildings are found in residential developments. Mostoftentheywillbefoundin

developments with other similar resources, but on occasion are found as new infill construction in older

neighborhoods. New Traditionals are rarely eligible as individual resources. Design, workmanship, materials,

location, association, and setting are extremely important aspects of integrity.

309
Appendix B: Architects Table

310
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

Ackley, Douglas 

W.

1923-2014

Douglas Ackley Architecture

Alaska Architectural and 

Engineering Co

Sands and Ackley 

Ackley and Associates

Ackley Jensen

Seattle

Fairbanks

Juneau

Juneau

Juneau

1955-1956

1956-1968

1968-1974

1974-1979

1979-1985

Joy Elementary School 

1960 (under Lee S. 

Linck), Alaska State Jail, 

Delta Junction High 

School, Ketchikan 

General Hospital, Sitka 

Court and Office Building, 

Petersburg Post Office 

and Federal Building, 

Sealaska Plaza and 

Juneau Airport (Juneau), 

Hydaberg School, 

Ketchikan Community 

College, Ryan Jr. High 

School and Zion Lutheran 

Church (Fairbanks), 

Regional High School 

Gym (Nome), UAS 

Library, Sacred Heart 

Catherdral, Fairbanks 

1966 (Part of design 

team) 

Obituaryi

Firm Profile

AIA 1970iii

PCADiv

Fairbanks D

News Miner

Akimoto, Jackson

1923-2007

Seattle

Anchorage

x

1950s-1980s

Bartlett High School 

(Anchorage)

Obituaryvi 

Alley, Ralph 

Martin, Jr. 

1935-Present

Ralph M Alley 

Alley Architectural Group

Anchorage

Anchorage

1968-

at least 

1973-75

Robert B Atwood 

Residence, apartment 

building for LW Hines, 

Wonder Park elementary 

School (All Anchorage); 

Matanuska-Susitna 

Community College plan

AIA 1970vii 

Bell, Thomas and 

Upjohn, Hobart

Bell and Upjohn New York City 1940s Saint Matthew's 

Episcopal Church, 

Fairbanks 1948

Hoaglandviii

311
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

Bourne, Thomas 

B. 

Thomas Bourne and 

Associates, Inc.

International 1951-

mid1970s

Cordova Public School

Glover Building, 

Anchorage. Known 

internationally for airports 

- Fairbanks Airport 

Terminal (1951)

AIA 1962ix

Firm Profile

Bowles, Andrew 

Donald 

1917-1994

Quick and Maguolo

Super, Hummel, Hummel and 

Jones

Andrew Bowles Architecture

Senior Architect USACE Alaska

Idaho?

Idaho?

Boise, Idaho

Anchorage

1946-1947

1950-1952

1952-1966

1966- 1982

Snettisham Hydroelectric 

Power Project (Juneau)

Kenai Peninsula Flood 

Control (1961)

fallout shelter blower, 

patent no. 199, 052, 66

AIA, 1956xi

AIA 1962xii, 

AIA 1970xiii

Obituaryxiv

Bridges, Jim L. 

1930-? 

Devlin and Bridges

Jenkins and Bridges

Odessa, TX 

Anchorage

1967-1969

1970-at least 

1976

Served as on Alaska 

Historic Sites Committee 

(precursor to SHPO), 

appointed by Governor 

Egan

AIA, 1970xv 

Bunnell, Arthur 

Moe

Anchorage 1965-at least 

71

Kenai Municipal Airport,

Main Armory Building at 

DMVA Alcantra, Wasilla

AIA Historic

Directoryxvi

City of Kena

Cannon, Kenneth 

D.

1929-1988

Alaska Road Commission

CCWJ (Crittenden, Cassetta, 

Wirum and Jacobs)

CCWC (Crittenden, Cassetta, 

Wirum and Cannon)

CCC (Crittenden, Cassetta and 

Cannon)

CCC/HOK (Crittenden, 

Cassetta and 

Cannon/Hellmuth-ObataKassabaum)

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

1946-1960

1962

1962-1970

1970-1989

1970-1982

Sheraton Anchorage 

Hotel, Project Manager; 

William A. Egan Civic and 

Convention Center (83); 

Atlantic Richfield 

Basecamp Expansion at 

Prudhoe Bay; Alyeska 

Pipeline Permanent 

Housing Project; 

McLaughlin Youth Center 

Cottages, 

AIA 1970xviii

OHA Filesxix

312
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

Moore and Bartlett Halls, 

1966 and 1970, UAF

Cassetta, Lucien 

Anthony

1919-1994

Mithun and Nesland

Mallis and Dehart Assoc

Johnston Campanella 

Architects

Edwin Crittenden, Architects & 

Associates (Partner)

CCWJ (Crittenden, Cassetta, 

Wirum and Jacobs)

CCWC (Crittenden, Cassetta, 

Wirum and Cannon)

CCC (Crittenden, Cassetta and 

Cannon)

Cassetta Krochina (1982--88)

Studio 21

Bellevue, WA 

Seattle

Seattle

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

Albuquerque, NM

1955

1956

1956-1957

1958-1962

1962

1962-1970

1970-1982

1982-1988

1988-1994

Anchorage Natural Gas 

Building (69), Bristol Bay 

High School (69), 

McLaughlin Youth Center 

(67), Air Traffic Control

Center, Anchorage (67), 

Orah D Clark Junior High 

School, Anchorage (58), 

1st Federal Savings and 

Loan Association, 

Spenard (60), Consortium 

Library at UAA (73)

AIA, 1962xx

AIA 1970xxi

OHA Files

Cochran, Victor E

1906-1978

Jaccobberger and Smith

Cochran and Zeller 

Government Architectural 

Dept., Bonneville Power 

Administration

Tourlelott and Hummel

Victor E Cochran, architect

US Army Corps of Engineers, 

architect

Robert Thompson Architect

Federal Aviation Agency

US Army Corps of Engineers, 

architect

Portland

Portland

Portland

Boise, ID

Portland

Portland

Portland

Anchorage

Anchorage

1929-1930

1931-1938

1938-1941

1954-1955

1945-1956

1958-1959

1959-1960

1960-1962

1962- 1966?

Bonneville Dam facilities 

in Oregon, airports 

terminal and housing 

facilities in Alaska

OHA Files

AIA 1956xxii

AIA Architec

Questionna

1946xxiii

AIA 

Membership

Coolidge, Donald 

James 

1922-2003

Crittenden and CCC

Coolidge and Mayo

DJ Coolidge

CCC (Crittenden, Cassetta and 

Cannon)

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

1952-

1965-1966 

1966-1977

1966-1977 

teaming

City of Anchorage Water 

Utility Headquarters 

(1966), Albert S Kaloa Jr 

Memorial Buildings 

(1966), Mackay Office 

AIA, 1970xxv

Consortium

313
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

Building (1969), Wonder 

Park Elementary Building

Cotting, Roger 

Bruce 

1931-? 

Roger B Cotting

Gray, Rogers, Cotting

Roger B Cotting

Fairbanks

Fairbanks

Fairbanks

1959-1965

1965-1969

1969-at least 

1970

North Pole School (1966), 

First All Electric Home in 

Fairbanks "Purcell Home" 

(1965), Alaska 67 

Alaskaland/Pioneer Park 

Design, Aurora Building, 

Moose Creek School, 

Medical Dental Arts 

Building, North Pole 

Library, adaptive 

additions to numerous 

historic buildings, 

Burgess Office Building 

(69), Nerland Office 

Building (70), Adak 

Hospital (70)

AIA, 1970xxv

Crittenden, Edwin 

Butler

1916 - 2015

US Coast Guard, Architect

Roy C Wilson, Architect

Alaska Housing Authority, 

Technical Director

Edwin B. Crittenden, Architect

Edwin B. Crittenden and 

Associates

CCWJ (Crittenden, Cassetta, 

Wirum and Jacobs)

CCWC (Crittenden, Cassetta, 

Wirum and Cannon)

CCC (Crittenden, Cassetta and 

Cannon)

CCC/HOK (Crittenden, 

Cassetta and 

Cannon/Hellmuth-ObataKassabaum)

Crittenden Krochina

California?

Santa Paula, CA

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

1942-1946

1946-1948

1949-1951

1951-1955

1955-1958

1958-1962

1962-1970

1970-1989

1970-1982

1978?

Hotel Captain Cook First 

Tower, St Mary's 

Episcopal Church (ANC), 

Prudhoe Bay Main Camp, 

Anchorage Old Federal 

Building Court House 

Addition (1958), Hillcrest 

Presbyterian, Shiloh 

Baptist, unknown Catholic 

chapel in Spenard, 

unknown Lutheran church 

in Spenard, addition to 

Calvary Baptist, First 

Methodist (1955), Austin 

House (Sheldon Jackson 

Campus, Sitka), Egan 

Convention Center and 

Conoco Phillips tower in 

AIA, 1962xxv

AIA 1970xxix

Hoaglandxxx

DOExxxi

Interviewxxxi

Obituaryxxxiii

314
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

ANC, Anchorage Visitor 

Information Center Cabin 

(1954), UAF President's 

House 1958, Bartlett High 

School and Central 

Middle School of Science 

(Anchorage), The 

University District (UAA 

Master plan, Providence 

Hospital, McLaughlin 

Youth Center 

Campuses), Sitka U.S. 

Post Office modifications 

with Robert Fehlberg, 

Conoco Phillips Tower 

and Egan Convention 

Center (Anchorage)

Elliott, Edward 

Proctor

1916-? 

Walter Bogner, Architect

Eero Saarinen and Associates

Elliot and Dworski

Knorr Elliot and Associates, 

Architects 

Lackey Knorr Elliott

Graham Knorr Elliott

Lane Knorr Elliott

Lane-Knorr-Plunkett

Michigan

Bloomfield Hills, 

MI

Birmingham, MI

San Francisco

San Francisco

Anchorage 

Anchorage 

Anchorage 

pre-1952

1945-1952

1952-1958

1957-1976

1958 team

1970-1983

? 

1970-1984?

UAA College of Arts and 

Sciences (1974)

UAF Gruening Building 

1973 (Graham Knorr 

Elliot)

OHA Files

Hoaglandxxx

PCADxxxv 

Ensign, Melverne 

Coats

Arizona State University 

College of Architecture, 

instructor

Arizona

Alaska

1950-1963

1963-? 

Haines Presbyterian 

Church (69) - destroyed

Navajo Dept. prefab 

neighborhood, Prescott, 

AZ (53-54)

OHA Files

Fehlberg, Robert

1926-present

CTA Architects, Engineers, 

Planners

Robert Fehlberg Architects

R.Fehlberg Architects

Billings, MT; ID, 

WY

Sitka, AK

San Francisco

1958-1987

1992-2007

2007-

present

Sitka Post Office 

modifications, Wolf Point 

High School, MSU Life 

Sciences Building, 

Missoula Community 

Hospital, Fortlin 

Education Center at 

Crittenden 

Obituaryxxxvi

AIA 1970xxxv

Linked Inxxxv

AIA Network

315
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

Rocky MT College 

Billings

Field, Gerald 

Castle

1919-? 

Gerald C Field Architect Seattle, WA 1919-at least 

1950s

Government Hill Housing 

Development, 682 units 

in multi-family dwellings, 

Anchorage (49-51)

OHA Files

AIA Historic

Directoryxl 

PCADxli 

Filler, George US Department of the Interior

Alaska Dept. of Public Works, 

State Architect

George Fuller Architect

Juneau

Anchorage

Anchorage/WA

1956-1959

1959-1968

1968-1979

Housing developments 

and adaptive reuse in 

Juneau, 1970s-1980s

AIA 1970xlii

Legalxliii

Forrest, John 

Stevens 

1937-1991

Linn A Forrest Juneau 1952- ~1970 Glacier 

Observatory/Mendenhall 

Glacier Visitor Center, 

Juneau (62), Fairbanks 

Pioneers' Home, Auk Bay 

Elementary School and 

Centennial Museum 

(Juneau, 67), Blatchy 

Junior High School and 

Swimming Pool, Sitka 

(67)

AIA 1970xliv

AIA Historic

Directoryxlv

316
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

Forrest, Linn 

Argile , Sr.

1905-1987

F Mason White

Hugh Thompson

Roi L Morn

Whitehouse, Stanton & Church 

US War Department, Bonneville 

Power Administration

US Forest Service, architect 

(Regions 6 and 10)

Alaska Public Works 

Commission/Civilian 

Conservation Corps

Linn A Forrest

Portland

Bend, OR

Portland

Portland

Portland

Portland and AK

Juneau

Juneau

1926-1927

1927-1928

1929

1929-1931

1932-1934

1934-1952

1937-1939

1952-1987

Juneau-Douglas High 

School (60), University of 

Alaska Phys Education 

Building (62) and 

Geophysical Institute 

(68), Petersburg 

Elementary School (68), 

Sitka Branch of First 

National Bank (70), 

Mendenhall Glacier 

Visitors’ Center - 

Determined NRHP 

Eligible (62), Wrangell, 

Chief Shakes Community 

House (39-40); Chief 

Son-i-hat House (38-39);

Totem Bight Community 

House (40) Saxman, 

Tribal House; UAF Patty 

Gymnasium (63), 

Timberline Lodge, Mount 

Hood, Oregon - NRHP 

(38), Bonneville Dam, 

Oregon (34), Kake 

Elementary School (52), 

Chapel by the Lake, Auke 

Bay, Juneau 1958 (with 

Harold Foss)

AIA 1956xlvi

AIA 1970xlvii

Hoaglandxlv

Firmxlix

DOEl

NPSli

Foss, Harold 

Byron 'Hal'

1910-1988

HB Foss Company

Foss Malcolm

Foss, Malcolm and Olsen

Foss Olsen

Foss Olsen Sands

Juneau

Juneau

Juneau

Juneau

Juneau

1935-1945

1945-1949

1949-1951

1951-1956

1956-1958

Juneau Memorial Library 

(1950, Now Juneau 

Douglas City Museum), 

Juneau City Hall (50-51), 

Terminal at Juneau 

International Airport (48-

49 and 56-57), Bethel 

Hospital, Bethel Armory 

(56-57), Alaska State 

Office Building, Juneau 

(52), UAF Eielson 

Memorial Building upper 

AIA 1956lii

Firmliii

Wikiliv

317
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

levels (1940), Petersburg 

Hospital (54), Mt 

Edgecumbe Hospital, 

Sitka (47-48), UAF 

Constitution Hall, 1956 

(Hoagland, 225), UAF 

Brooks Building 1952 

(Hoagland, 225)

Chapel by the Lake, Auk 

Bay, Juneau 1958 (with 

Linn Forrest), Buckner 

Building (53) and Hodge 

(now Begich Towers) 

Building (54-56), Whittier, 

Cathedral Arms 

Apartments in Sitka (50) 

with Earl W Morrison

Fritsch, Margaret 

Goodin

1899-1993

Morris H Whitehouse

Horace W Castor

Georgina Pope Yeatman

Jamieson Parker

Margaret G Fritsch

Harland Nelson and Associates

Juneau/Douglas

Portland

Philadelphia

Unknown

Portland

Portland

Lake Oswego,

OR

Juneau

1925-1929

1929

1930-31

1932-1935

1935-1956

1956-1957

1957-1969

Juneau City Plan (57-59)

Vancouver Washington 

Urban Renewal (60)

Pullman Washington City 

Plan (60-61)

AIA, 1962lv

AIA 1970lvi

Wikilvii

Encycloped

Fullingim, Earl 

Peyton 

1926-2014

Earl Fullingham, Architect

Anchorage School District, 

Director of Architecture

University of Alaska, Regional 

Architect

Municipal Building Board

Governor's Committee on 

Employment of Persons with 

Disabilities

Alaska Housing Finance 

Minneapolis

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

1949-1964

1972-1975

1977-1981

1972-1984

1977-1981

1987-1995

Architect for restoration 

work after the 1964 

Alaska Earthquake. He 

was a member of the 

President's Committee on 

Employment of Persons 

with Disability and a 

member of the 

International Code 

Council. He wrote, 

AIA 1970lix

Archiveslxlxi

318
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

Corporation, Weatherization 

Policy Advisory Council

illustrated and published 

two books on accessibility 

to buildings and facilities 

for persons with 

disabilities, one of which 

is used on the website of 

the Alaska Division

of Vocational 

Rehabilitation and the 

Washington Disability and 

Business Technical 

Assistance Center 

(Checklist for 

Accessibility, 1992)

Geron, Harry 

Rufus 

1922-2008

Texas Highway Department

O'Neil Ford

Unknown

Unknown

CCWC

Texas

Texas

Tacoma, WA

Fairbanks

Anchorage

N/A

x-1951

~1955?

1963-1967

1967-~ 1970

instructor in building 

construction at the 

Anchorage community 

college; Practiced for 40 

years in Alaska, both 

Anchorage and Fairbanks

AIA 1970lxii

Obitlxiii

Graham, 

Jennings Heber 

"Jinks"

1924-2001

GA Pehrson

George C Ritter

Stationed at Ladd Field (Korean 

War)

Alaska Architects and 

Engineering Co

Gray, Rogers, Graham and 

Associates/Gray, Rogers, 

Graham and Osbourne

Olsen and Sands (partner)

Private Practice

Spokane, WA

Spokane, WA

Fairbanks

Fairbanks

Fairbanks

Juneau

Ketchikan

1947

1947-1950, 

1953-56

1951-1953

1956

1957-1960

1960-1964

1964-? 

Fairbanks Super Market, 

Bowling Alley (59), 

Fairbanks Elementary 

School (60), Wasilla 

Elementary School (61), 

Armory Building, Bethel 

(61), Mens Dormitory, 

UAF (61), Ketchikan 

Bank Building (61), 

Ketchikan Centennial 

Building (67), State Court 

and Office Building, 

Juneau, Site plan for 

AIA, 1962lxiv

Obitlxv

319
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

University of Alaska 

Southeast

Graham, John H., 

Jr. (known as 

Jack)

1908-1991

Graham Company (with Sr.)

Graham Company - Branch 

Office called Graham and 

Painter

John Graham (Jr.) and

Company

Merged with DLR Group 

Seattle

New York, D, 

Seattle, Shanghai

Seattle

Seattle

1937-1946

1937-1942

1946-1986

1986

Alaska State Office 

Building, Juneau (1972) 

with CCC/HOK, 

Edgewater Park (1939) in 

Seattle, Northgate 

Shopping Center in 

Seattle (1950), Westin 

Towers Seattle (1969, 

1982), Lloyd Center, 

Portland (60), 44-story 

Wells Fargo Building in 

San Francisco (1966), 

Seattle Space Needle 

(1962) with Victor 

Steinbrueck

AIA 1970lxvi

DOCOMOM

lxvii

PCADlxviii

Gray, Rogers, 

Graham and 

Associates

1957-1960

Gray, Rogers and Cotting

Gray, Rogers, Myers and 

Morgan 

Fairbanks

Fairbanks

1965-1969

1970

See individual architects 

of Cotting, Graham

AIA 1970lxix

Groves, George 

Wesley

George W Groves Architect Seattle, WA 1953?- design of the Revilla 

Theater in Ketchikan (54)

OHA Files

AIA 1956lxx

AIA, 1962lxx

Hansen, Gary 

Valentine 

1935-? 

Gary Hansen

Danadjieva Hansen Architects, 

Inc. 

Anchorage

Tiburon, CA

1965-1980

1980 -2008?

Voyager Hotel, 

Anchorage 5th Ave (66), 

Owen Meals Residence, 

Valdez (66), Soldotna 

Elementary School Multipurpose Building (68), 

William H Seward School, 

Seward (69), Master 

Planning for the 

University of Alaska, UC 

AIA 1970lxxii

Firmlxxiii

320
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

Davis Medical Center, 

Sacramento

Heilmuth, Obata 

and Kassabaum, 

Inc., 

HOK St Louis, San 

Francisco, New 

York, DC, Dallas

1955-

present

St Louis Abbey (62), 

Eagan Civic and 

Convention Center 

Anchorage (With CCC), 

BP Building (82-85), US 

Federal Courthouse (with 

John Graham and CCC, 

76-79, Anchorage), Major 

airports and skycrapers in 

most major international 

cities

AIA 1970lxxiv

Hoaglandlxxv 

Firmlxxvi

Hightower, 

Harley H.

Chief State Review Architect for 

all medical facilities

Lane+Knorr Architects and 

Planners

Harley H Hightower Architect, 

FAIA

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorge

1960s?

1980s

x-2014

primary works were 

above the Arctic Circle 

and in Antarctica

OHA Files

Resumelxxvii

Jacobs, Arthur 

Roland

1926-2000

US Army Corps of Engineers

Crittenden, Cassetta, Wirum 

and Jacobs

Jacobs and Husbey 

Engineering

ABKJ (mergers with Jacobs 

and Husbey Engineers)

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage and 

Seattle

Anchorage and 

Seattle

1951

~1954-1962

1962-1970?

1970-1988

Prudhoe Bay ARCO 

Operations Center (1977 

as ABKJ), high rises in 

Anchorage in 1980s 

(Petersen Tower), 

SeaTac Airport 

Expansion, Alaska Native 

Heritage Center, Alyeska 

Prince Resort, ANC 

Airport FAA Tower, 

Sullivan Arena

PCADlxxviii

Obitlxxix

Firmlxxx

321
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

Jenkins, Morris 

Troy 

1923-2000

Broome, Selig and Oringdulph

Manley and Mayer

Jenkins and Bridges Architects

Inlet Architects

Oregon

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

1959-1965

1965-1970

1970-~1976

1978?

N/A AIA 1970lxxx

Obitlxxxii

Johnson, William 

Arlid

1906-1989

Heath, Cove and Bell

J. Braeaseman

William Arlid Johnson and 

Assoc.

William Arlid Johnson and 

Assoc.

Tacoma, WA

Tacoma, WA

Everett, WA

Alaska

1924-1926

1928-1938

1938-1975

1976-1989

Schools in Anchorage, 

Sitka, Ketchikan High 

School, Palmer, Kodiak 

and others, Mendenhall 

School (Juneau), 

Anchorage Pioneers’ 

Home remodel, Sitka 

Elementary (Lincoln 

Street School?) and High 

School, Palmer High 

School, Wrangell High 

School Addition, Kodiak 

Elementary and High 

School

AIA 1956lxxx

AIA, 1962lxx

OHA Files

Jorgensen, Vetle 

W. 

1933-? 

Alaska State Housing Authority 

Architect 

Fairbanks?

Denmark/Seattle

1968 Rammed Earth House 

1968, Kotzebue

Hoaglandlxxx

Kahn, Albert 

1869-1942

Mason and Rice

Nettleson and Trowbridge

Kahn and Associates 

(continued after Kahn's death)

Detroit, MI

Detroit, MI

Detroit, MI

1884-1889

1892-1902

1902-1942

Composite Buildings at 

Dutch Harbor Naval 

Operating Base/Fort 

Mears and Amaknak, 

Military prefab buildings

Hoaglandlxxx

AIA Historic

Directorylxxxv

Biographylxx

322
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

Kantz, Ralph 

Clayton, Jr.

1916-1986

Schmidt, McVay and Peddie

County of Santa Barbara, 

Planner

Brewer and Kantz Architects

Robert Kaestner, AIA

Clayton Kantz

Phillio Engineering and 

Architectural Services

University of California, Office 

of the President, Physical 

Planning and Construction

Parsons Company

Unknown

Santa Barbara, 

CA

Owosso, MI

Visalia, CA

Redding, CA

Fairbanks

Berkeley, CA

Pasadena, CA

1946

1947

1946-1947

1948-1949

1950-1961

1962-1963

1963-70s

1980s

NASA Tracking Station, 

Clear Creek, Alaska (63)

AKA Clear Station

AIA 1956lxxx

AIA 1962xc, 

AIA 1970xci

Keithahn, 

Richard "Dick" 

Edward

1933-? 

US Coast Guard, Chief of 

Structural Section

RE Keithahn, Architect

Juneau

Lopez Island, WA

1970-1987

1987-1999 

(retired)

Kul Kah Han Native Plant 

Garden, Chimacum, WA 

(2013)

AIA 1970xcii

Licensexciii

Newspaperx

Ketola, Andrew

1931-1997

CCWJ

Manley and Mayer

Wallace Weinstein

John Graham Company

Design Group

USKH

Bezek, Durst, Seiser (est 1981)

Krochina Architects

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

1965

1966

late 1960s

1970s

1980s

1980s

1981-? 

1990s-1994

N/A OHA Files 

323
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

Kirk, Paul 

Hayden

1914-1995

Floyd Naramore, A.M. Young, 

B. Dudley Stuart, and Henry 

Bittman

Chiarelli & Kirk

Paul Hayden Kirk & Associates

Kirk, Wallace, McKinley and 

Associates

Seattle

Seattle

Seattle

Seattle

Seattle

N/A

1944-1950

1950-1957

1957-1960

1960-1979

Anchorage Museum of 

Art and History (original 

1966-1968), Pike Place 

Market plan and rehab 

(1969, with John Morse)

Hoaglandxcv

DOCOMOM

xcvi

Kirk, Wallace, 

McKinley and 

Associates

Kirk, Wallace, McKinley and 

Associates

Seattle 1960-1979 Anchorage Museum of 

Art and History (original 

1966-1968) with 

Schultz/Maynard, Pike 

Place Market plan and 

rehab (1969, with John 

Morse)

Hoaglandxcv

Knorr, Donald 

Robert

1922-2004

Eero Saarinen and Associates

Skidmore, Owings and Merrill

Don Knorr and Associates

Knorr Elliot and Associates, 

Architects 

Lackey Knorr Elliott

Graham Knorr Elliott

Lane Knorr Elliott

Lane-Knorr-Plunkett

Don Knorr and Associates

Bloomfield Hills, 

MI

San Francisco

San Francisco

San Francisco

San Francisco 

Anchorage

Anchorage 

Anchorage 

San Francisco

1945-1949

1949-1951

1951-1957

1957-1976

1958 team

1970-1983

1970-~ 1984

1979-~1983

1983

Supervision of student 

housing construction UAF 

(63 Lackey Knorr, Elliot), 

University of Alaska, 

Fairbanks Master Plan 

(with Lawrence Lackey 

1965), UAF Gruening 

Building 1973 (Graham 

Knorr Elliot)

OHA Files

AIA 1970xcv

Hoaglandxcix

PCADc 

Clark and 

Bellolici

Kozlovski, 

Joseph

N/A Juneau N/A N/A AIA 1970cii 

Lackey, 

Lawrence

1914-1995

Lawrence Lackey, AIA

Lackey Knorr Elliott

San Francisco 

San Francisco 

1959-?

1958 

teaming

UAF master plan with D. 

Knorr

AIA 1970ciii

PCADciv 

Lautner, John

1911-1994

Taliesin Fellows East and West 

Lautner Associates

Wisconsin and 

Arizona

Los Angeles, CA

1933-1938

1938-1994

The Willis Harpel House 

No. 2 (Anchorage, 1966), 

Leonard Malin residence 

(the Chemosphere in 

L.A.), Sheats-Goldstein 

residence (L.A.), Garcia 

Residence (L.A.) 

Marbrisa (concrete moat, 

Acapulco, Mexico)

Foundationc

Modernistcvi

Historycvii

324
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

Lawson, 

Raymond Anson

1928-1994

Skidmore, Owings and Merrill 

Unknown

Texas

Anchorage, 

Valdez, Kodiak

1960s

1964-? 

Stephens Park 

Apartments (3200 

Latouche St, Anchorage);

Horizon West Apartments 

(Lst and 6th Ave, 

Anchorage);

Stephan Building (733 W 

4th Ave, Anchorage)

One Main Place, Dallas 

(NRHP; for Skidmore, 

Owings and Merrill)

OHA Files 

Linck, Lee 

Stanley

1919-1978

US Smelting, Refining and 

Mining Company

US Army Corps of Engineers, 

Ladd Field

Alaska Architectural and 

Engineering Company

Fairbanks

Fairbanks

Fairbanks

1940-1942

1942-1944

1945-1971

Fairbanks, LF Joy 

Elementary School, 1960, 

with Douglas Ackley; 

Nordale Elementary (53) 

and Nerland Commercial 

Building (Fairbanks), 

Juneau Jail and Juvenille 

Detention Center, Fort 

Yukon High School, 

Chena Elementary 

School at Ft. Wainwright, 

Duckering Building 

(UAF), Creamer's Dairy 

Processing Plant, Royal 

Crown Bottling Plant, 

Eielson AFB Locomotive 

Roundhouse, Fairbanks 

Medical and Surgical 

Clinic, AIrports in 

Nondalton, Shaktoolik, 

Nenana, Fairbanks, and 

Harding Lake

Hoaglandcvi

OHA Files

325
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

Lunsford, 

Thomas Wesley 

1932-? 

CCWR (Crittenden, Cassetta, 

Wirum and Cannon)

Thomas W Lunsford 

Architectural Services

Anchorage

Nevada

1969-~1970 N/A AIA 1970cix 

Maier, Frank G.

1932 - 1990

Sands and Ackney

Frank Maier Architects

Juneau (born and 

raised!)

Juneau

1965-1991 

(Licensed)

1985?

AWARE Shelter (Juneau) AIA 1970cx

Hoaglandcxi

Malcolm, MacKay

1885-1951

Foss Malcolm

Foss Malcolm Olsen

Juneau

Juneau

1945-1949

1949-1951

Juneau Public Library 

(1945; now the Juneau 

Douglas City Museum)

OHA Files

Firmcxii

Manley, William 

Arnold

1903-1979

David C. Lange

L. Solberg

N. Lester Troast

Manley and Troast Architects

William A. Manley (Manley and 

Troast)

Manley and Mayer

William A. Manley

Moscow, ID

Wenatchee, WA

Juneau

Juneau

Anchorage

Anchorage

Washington

1927-1928

1928-1931

1931-1933

1933-1937

1937-1947

1947-1972

1972-1976

Howard Romig House 

(Anchorage; by Manley 

and Troast, first 

architecturally designed 

house in town, now the 

Copper Whale Inn at 5th 

and L), Loussac Sogn 

Building (Anchorage, kept 

his offices there too)

Alaska Railroad Depot., 

Fairbanks Main School, 

Inlet Tower, Mt McKinley 

Bldg, Anchorage West 

High School, Grant Hall 

and Gould Hall at APU, 

Anchorage Intl Airport 

North Terminal, Bartlett 

High School (Anchorage)

Sand Point School , 

Valdez School, Z. J 

Loussac Library (original), 

Ursa Major and Ursa 

AIA 1956cxiii

AIA 1962cxiv

AIA 1970cxv

AIA 

Membership

Hoaglandcxv

326
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

Minor Elementary 

Schools (Anchorage), 

Block 13 FHA Army 

Housing (1940)

Denali School, Bunnell 

Building at UAF, Elemer 

E. Rasmuson Library 

(Fairbanks), Seward City 

Hall

Mayer, Francis 

Bernardo 

1914-1985

Heath Gove and Bell Architects

Sutton Whitney and Dugan 

Joseph Wohleb

Lytle and Shorett Architects

Seims Drake Puget Sound 

Company

US Army Corps of Engineers

Civil Aeronautics Administration 

(CAA)

William A. Manley

Manley and Mayer

Tacoma

Washington

Olympia

Seattle

Sitka

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

1932-1936

1937

1938

1939

1940-1941

1941-1944

1944-1946

1946-1947 

1947-1972

Original J.Z. Loussac 

Library, Homer High 

School, East ANC High 

School (’61), Inlet Tower, 

Mt McKinley Bldg, 

Anchorage High School, 

Grant HAll at APU, 

Anchorage INtl AIrport 

North Terminal, Bartlett 

High School (Anchorage), 

Sand Point School , 

Valdez School, Z. J 

Loussac Library (original), 

Denali School, Bunnell 

Building at UAF, Elemer 

E. Rasmuson Library 

(Fairbanks), Seward City 

Hall

AIA 1956cxv

AIA 1962cxix

AIA 1970cxx

AIA 

Membership

Maynard, 

Kenneth Douglas 

1913-? 

Morross & Graff 

Pearse Aneck-Hahn & Bristol

Pearse Aneck-Hahn & Bristol 

Worked in teaming with Manley 

& Mayer 

Crittenden Cassetta Wirum & 

Jacobs

Schultz & Maynard 

Kenneth Maynard Associates 

Maynard and Wirum 

Maynard NBBJ (partnership of 

Maynard and Partch with Brady 

and Johnson of Seattle)

South Africa

Johannesburg

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

1950-1957

1957-1960

1960-1962

1960-1961

1962-1965

1965-1968

1968-1974

1975-1978

Anchorage Museum of 

History and Art 

(Schultz/Maynard), 

Museum West Addition 

(Maynard and 

Associates), Hotel 

Captain Cook Second 

Tower, 1970s, Helen S 

Whaley Center at APU 

1972 (Maynard and 

Wirum), Cook Inlet 

Building (Maynard NBBJ, 

1979), Museum Seventh 

AIA 1970cxxi

OHA Files

Hoaglandcxx

Obitcxxiv

Consortium

327
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

Maynard & Partch 

Principal at USKH, Incorporated Anchorage

Anchorage

1978-1996

1996-? 

Ave Addition (Maynard 

and Partch 1984)

McCool, John E. McCool McDonald

McCool (unnamed firm)

McCool, Carlson, Green (MCG)

Seattle

Juneau

Anchorage

?

John: c.1965

MCG: 1970s

Sitka Centennial Bldg. 

oversight (67), Kenai 

Peninsula works, L Street 

Towers (inlet Towers) 

and McKay (Mt McKinley)

Building post-earthquake 

work

OHA Files

Firmcxxvi

McDonald, 

Donald N. Sr.

1906-1964

City of Seattle

McDonald Stimson

McDonald Architecture (?)

Seattle

Seattle

Seattle

1927-1929

1930-1935

1938-1964

Hotel Baranof, Juneau 

(39), Anchorage, Inlet 

Towers and McKinley 

Apartment Building in 

association with Earl 

Morrison (1951-1952) 

Registered Architect and 

Francis B. Mayer was the 

local architect. 

DOCOMOM

cxxvii

McEntire, Merle 

Rodney

1921-1996

Foss, Malcolm, Olsen 

Alaska Architectural and 

Engineering Company

McEntire and White

McEntire, White, Pendergrast 

and Jellison 

McEntire-Pendergast 

Architecture

State of Alaska, Regional 

Review

Juneau

Fairbanks

Fairbanks

Fairbanks

Anchorage

Anchorage

1951

1953

1957-1959

1959-1981

1981-1989

1966 Holy Family Church 

alterations for cathedral 

status (McEntire and 

Pendergast), Buildings AE at UAA (1970), Kenai 

Peninsula Borough 

Building, Kenai 

Elementary School, 

Anchor Point, 

Tustumena, and Sterling 

school sites multipurpose buildings, 

AIA 1956cxxv

OHA Files

Hoaglandcxx

328
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

Oversaw Yang's Cordova 

Bldg. construction, 

(Anchorage)

McInnis, Francis 

Joseph Jr. 

“Frank”

1913-2004

Wright and Wright

Edward G. Rosella

City of Detroit

Elmendorf AFB, AK Air 

Command

Construction Supervisor, US Air 

Command HQ

Detroit

Detroit

Detroit

Anchorage

Colorado 

Springs, CO

1945-1946

1946-1947

1945-1951

1951-1955

1955-1962

built family housing 

facilities at over 100 radar 

stations throughout the 

US (AIA 62)

AIA 1956cxxx

AIA, 1962cxx

Obitcxxxii

Mills, Edgar L. 

1921-1967

Heath, Gove and Bell

Rueger and Rueger

Lea, Pearsons and Richards

Jensen and Mills

EL Mills and Associates 

Architects (became GW Norris 

and Assoc in 1967, after death)

Tacoma, WA

Tacoma, WA

Tacoma, WA

Tacoma, WA

Seattle, WA

1940-1941

1941-1944

1944-1949

1949-1962?

1962-1967?

Fairbanks Medical 

Complex, 4th Ave (1965-

67), Radio 

Communications Building 

(1952); Holy Cross 

Catholic Church (1957); 

Apex Cleaners (1950) - 

all Tacoma; the Harrison 

Pistol Range (1953) for 

the Tacoma Police 

Department; Puyallup 

City Hall (1953)

OHA Files

AIA Historic

Directorycxxx

DOCOMOM

cxxxiv

Morgan, Charles, 

Rice, Jr., 

1931-? 

Gray, Rogers, Myers and 

Morgan

Fairbanks 1969 University Apartments, 

UAF (1970)

AIA 1970cxxx

OHA Files

Morrison, Earl 

Wilson

1888-1955

Morrison and Stimson

Morrison and 

Stimson/McDonald Stimson, 

Seattle Branch

Spokane, WA

Seattle

1911-1926

1920-1954

Anchorage, Inlet Towers 

and McKinley Apartment 

Building in association 

with Donald McDonald 

(1951-1952), Mendenhall 

Apartments, Juneau (50-

52) with HB Foss, Ferris 

Hoaglandcxx

AIA 

Membership

cxxxvii

PCADcxxxviii

Ketchikancxx

Inlet Towers

329
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

Court, Ketchikan (50), 

Cathedral Apartments, 

Sitka (50) with HB Foss, 

Wingren Court (Marine 

View, 53) and Austin 

Tower (54 Tongass 

Tower) in Ketchikan (53), 

Edward and Ellen 

Cannon House (Spokane, 

NRHP listed)

Morse, John 

Moore

1911-2000

Markus and Nocka Architects

Passive Defense Project

Kastner and Hibben Architects

C.B. Ross Company

George W Stoddard

Boeing Aircraft Company

Chiarelli and Kirk Architects

Bassetti and Morse

John M. Morse and Associates

Kirk, Wallace, McKinley and 

Associates

Boston

Boston

Washington, D.C.

Washington, D.C.

Seattle, WA

Seattle, WA

Seattle, WA

Seattle, WA

Seattle, WA

Seattle, WA

1939-1940

1940-1941

1941

1941-1942

1942

1943-1945

1945

1947-1962

1962-2000

1969 proj 

team

Glacier Bay Lodge (66), 

Sitka National Historical 

Park (63-64, 68); With 

Frederick Bassetti: 

McChord AFB Housing, 

Union Washington 

Elementary School, 

Lynwood Shopping 

Center, Lynnwood Post 

Office, PUD Admin 

Building (Kennewick), 

Mercer Island Elementary 

School, Washington 

Corrections Center, 

Garfield Swimming Pool

AIA 1956cxli

AIA 1962cxlii

AIA 1970cxlii

AIA Historic

Directorycxliv

DOCOMOM

cxlv

NPScxlvi

Myers, Gerald D.

1929-? 

Gray, Rogers, Myers and 

Morgan

Fairbanks 1969 Communication Satellite 

Corp, Talkeetna

Garden Apartments, UAF

AIA 1970cxlv

Neimi, Donald

1936-1986

US Coast Guard, draftsman

S Linn A. Forrest Architects 

(Now MRV)

Juneau

Juneau

1959

1960s-1986

Fairbanks Pioneer Home 

Addition, Haines Learning 

Center, Juneau-Douglas 

High School Renovation, 

Auke Bay Fire Station 

(78)

OHA Files 

330
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

Olsen, Bjarne 

Carl

1913-2012 

B Dudley Stuart

HB Foss

Naramore, Bain, Brady and 

Johanson

Olsen Ridley and Olson

Olsen and Olson

Foss, Malcolm and Olsen

Foss Olsen

Foss Olsen Sands

Olsen Sands

Seattle

Juneau

Seattle

Seattle

Seattle

Juneau

Juneau

Juneau

Juneau

1938-1939

1939-1941

1941-1945

1945

1946

1949-1951

1951-1956

1956-1958

1958-1968

Alaska Office Building 

(Juneau), Bethel Hospital, 

Hodge Building (Begich 

Towers, Whittier), Juneau 

Municipal Airport 

Terminal Building, 

Dillingham High School, 

University of Alaska BioSciences Building, 

Rehabilitation of the 

Mental Health Facility, 

Valdez (60), Bartlett 

Hospital, U of A labs for 

study of Musk Oxen, and 

the Alaska State Building. 

AIA 1956cxlv

AIA, 1962cxl

Firmcl

Obitcli

Olsen, George M.

1922-1994

FAA

USACE

Public Health Services

Anchorage 1961-? Employed by FAA, Corps 

of Engineers and Public 

Health Services as an 

architect, involved in 

construction of personnel 

quarters, water and 

sewage treatment plans 

and hospital services in 

many rural areas(obit)

OHA Files 

Osborne, Edward 

Youmans

1930-? 

Gray Rogers and Osborne

Py-Vavra Architects/Engineers

Wisconsin ? 

Wauwatosa, WI

1957-1965

1965-at least 

1970

Barnett Elementary 

School, UAF Faculty 

Housing and Married 

Student Housing (With 

Lackey, Knorr and Elliot

AIA 1970clii

Licensecliii

331
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

Peck, Raymond 

Holmes

1917-1998

Raymond H Peck

Peck and O'Brien

Peck and Detlie

Seattle, WA

Seattle, WA

Seattle, WA

1943-at least 

1963

1952

late 1950s

Polaris Hotel, Fairbanks 

(52) NRHP eligible 2008, 

The Polynesia 

Restaurant, Pier 51, 

Seattle (61), Dick's 

Burger Drive-Ins. Seattle 

(mid-50s)

DOCOMOM

PCADclv

Pendergast, 

Myron "Mike" J. 

1920-2003

Pendergrast Architecture

McEntire and Pendergast 

Kirkland, WA

Anchorage

1954-1958

1958-1980

Kenai Peninsula Borough 

Building, Kenai 

Elementary School, 

Anchor Point, 

Tustumena, and Sterling 

school sites multipurpose buildings, 

Oversaw Yang's Cordova 

Bldg. construction, 1966 

Holy Family Church 

alterations for cathedral 

status (Anchorage)

AIA 1970clvi

OHA Files

Obitclvii

Peters, Richard 

Walter

1930-? 

Detroit Steel Production Co.

Palmquist and Wright

Henry J. Abrams

Eero Saarinen and Assoc

Yamasaki and Assoc 

Richard W Peters

Wyller, Killewich, Peters, Van 

Doren, Hazard Architects and 

Engineers

Detroit, MI

Detroit, MI

Detroit, MI

Bloomfield Hills, 

MI

Troy, MI

Juneau

Juneau

1951-1954

1954-1955

1954-1957

1957-1961

1961-1964

1966-1970

1970

Resurrection Lutheran 

Church 1967, Evergreen, 

WA; Bowl Recreation 

Facility 1969 Juneau

AIA 1970clvi

Peterson, Robert 

Henry

1924-? 

Lindsey and Lindsey

AC Martin and Associates

Robert H Peterson Architect

Robert H Peterson and 

Associates

California

California

Pasadena, CA

Pasadena, CA

1954

? 

1960-1963

1963-at least 

1966

Sears Roebuck Shopping 

Center (65), Second 

unnamed shopping 

center in ANC (possibly 

5th Ave Mall, built 1968)

OHA Files

AIA, 1962clix

332
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

Piper, Kenneth 

M. 

1922-1989

John Graham Architects

USKH Architects and Engineers

T.S. Bettis Associates

Anchorage/WA

Anchorage

Anchorage

1956-1978

1978-1985

1985-1989

Fairbanks, Woodriver 

Elementary School

Fairbanks, Tanana Junior 

Senior High (1975)

Chugiak, Gruening Junior 

High school 

OHA Files

Porreca, 

Augustine 

Antonio 

1898-1992

Pennsylvania Railroad 

Company

Augustine A Porreca

Augustine A Porreca

Philadelphia

Seattle 

Philadelphia

1918

c, 1955

c. 1960

Fourth Avenue Theater 

1947 (Lathrop Building), 

KENI Radio Building 

1948 (Anchorage), Holy 

Family Cathedral 1952 

(Anchorage)

Hoaglandclx

SAHclxi

PCADclxii

Scholarship

Priteca, B. 

Marcus

1889-1971

Private Practice? Seattle

Los Angeles

Seattle

1911-1922

1922-1929

1929-1960

Fourth Avenue Theater 

(the Lathrop Building), 

Lacey Street Theater 

1939 (Fairbanks), 

Washoe Theater, 

Anaconda, MT 1939 

(NRHP?), Chevra Bikur 

Cholim Synagogue #2, 

Seward Park, Seattle 

1964, Evergreen State 

Theater 1948-1950 

Olympia

OHA Files

Hoaglandclx

PCADclxv 

Fresnoclxvi

Roff, Dale M.

1931-? 

N/A Juneau N/A N/A Licenseclxvii 

Russett, Jasper 

P.

D. 1964

N/A Anchorage N/A N/A AIA 1970clxv

333
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

Sands, Edward 

Elmer

1910-1996

FA Naramore

Naramore and Brady

Siems Drake

UASCE 

Decker and Christenson

Alaska Architectural and 

Engineering Company

Foss Olsen Sands

Olsen Sands

Sands Ackley 

Seattle

Seattle

Puget Sound

Seattle

Seattle

Fairbanks

Juneau

Juneau

Juneau

1934-1940

1940

1940-1943

1943-1945

1945-1955

1955-1956

1956-1958

1958-1968

1968-1974

Juneau Municipal Airport 

Terminal, Dillingham High 

School, University of 

Alaska Bio-Sciences 

Building (Fairbanks), 

Delta Junction High 

School, Ketchikan 

General Hospital, Sitka 

Court and Office Building, 

Petersburg Post Office 

and Federal Building

AIA 1970clxix

AIA Historic

Directoryclxx 

Firmclxxi

PCADclxxii

Schultz, 

Lawrance 

Theodore "Ted"

1926-2015

Schultz/Maynard Anchorage 1965-1968 Original Anchorage Art 

and History Museum 

(Schultz/Maynard)

Obitclxxiii

Hoaglandclxx

Smith, Donald 

Clement

1921-2000

Chief Architect HUD Anchorage 1965-1992 Buildings and Bridges OHA Files

Obitclxxv

Stetson, Donald 

Warren 

1924-2002

DW Stetson

Philleo Engineering and 

Architectural Services (10 yrs, 

chief arch)

Fairbanks

Fairbanks

1961-1966

1966-1976

Civic Center at 

Alaskaland, DOT 

complexes in Anchorage 

and Fairbanks

AIA 1970clxx

OHA Files

Obitclxxvii

Stevens, Joyce, 

Smith

1927-? 

N/A

Fort Ord, Post Engineer

Fairbanks

Carmel, CA

1957?-1962 Joyce Stevens Monterey 

Pine Forest Preserve

AIA 1970clxx

AIA, 1962clx

Licenseclxxx

Honorsclxxxi

Stone, Edward 

Durell 

1902-1978

Strickland, Blodgett & Law

Schultze & Weaver

Hood, Godley & Fouilhoux and 

Boston, MA

New York

New York

1922-1928

1929

Anchorage, Atwood 

Center (Campus Center) 

1963-1966, WaldorfHoaglandclxx

AIA 1970clxx

Foundationc

334
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

Reinhardt & Hoffmeister

Edward Durell Stone and Assoc

worked with Manley and Mayer

Various, New 

York City

1929-1933

1933-1974

Astoria, New York, ABC 

Television Bldg. (NY), 

Good Housekeeping 

Magazine House of the 

Fifties Model Home 

(1952), Philadelphia 

Museum (1954), Dallas 

Downtown 

Redevelopment (1958), 

JFK Center for the 

Performing Arts (DC 

1959), Radio City Music 

Hall

NRHPclxxxv 

Taylor, Maynard, 

Loren, Jr. 

1917-1992

US Army Corps of Engineers

Maynard Taylor, Architect

Anchorage

Anchorage

1941-1948?

1948-1979

Hillside Apartments on 

16th Ave between G & H 

Streets in Anchorage 

(destroyed by 64 quake)

Wikiclxxxvi 

Taylor, Ralph F.

1902-1968

Philleo Architects and 

Engineers

Fairbanks 1960-1967 Fairbanks Municipal 

Center and other 

government buildings, 

including the Distant 

Early Warning radar and 

telescopic facilities

UAFclxxxvii 

Thompson, 

Edwin Bradford 

Richard P. Fox

Alfred H. Croonquist

Maloney, Herrington, Freez and 

Lund

Natl Bank of Commerce 

Newark, 

Delaware

Seattle

1964-1969

1969

1969-1971

First National Bank of 

Alaska, Anchorage 

Branch (Project Architect 

for Graham and Co. 

1971), Juneau Medical 

OHA Files 

335
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

John Graham and Company

Alaska Architectural and 

Engineering Company

Seattle

Seattle

Fairbanks

1971-1972

1972-1974

1974-? 

Surgical Clinic and 

Juneau RCA Switch 

Center (Graham and Co.)

Troast, N. Lester

1899-1958

Sheldon Jackson College, 

instructor

N. Lester Troast

Manley and Troast Architects

Sitka

Sitka/Juneau

Juneau

1925?-1930

1930-1933

1933-1946

Sage Memorial Building 

(29) and St. Peter's 

Episcopal Church 

Alterations (Sitka, both 

NRHP); Mayflower 

School in Douglas (33-

34); AK Electric Light and 

Power Building, Juneau 

(36, NRHP); Decker 

Building, Juneau (35, 

NRHP); Bunkhouse at the 

Independence Mines (38, 

with Manley, NRHP); 

Howard Romig House, 

Anchorage (41) by 

Manley and Troast, first 

architecturally designed 

house in town, now the 

Copper Whale Inn at 5th 

and L), UAF Eielson 

Building (34), Daly 

House, Ketchikan (37)

Hoaglandclxx

Wikiclxxxix

Underwood, 

Gilbert Stanley

1890-1960

National Park Service as 

private architect

LA, California

Washington, D.C.

1923

1947-1949

Federal Building 

(Anchorage), Timberline 

Lodge (Mt Hood), 

Ahwahnee, Lodge in 

Yosemite, Bryce Canyon 

Lodge, the Grand Canyon 

Lodge, and Zion Lodge; 

San Francisco Mint, Los 

Angeles Federal Building, 

US State Department 

Complex Building #1 

NPScxc

GSAcxci

336
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

(D.C.), consolidation of 

the Old Faithful Lodge

Wellenstein, 

Wallace John 

1921-2012

Unknown

CCWJ (Crittenden, Cassetta, 

Wirum, Jacobs)

WJ Wellenstein Architectural 

Consultants

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage and 

MN

1949-1962

1960-1962

1962-1983

Northern Lights 

Elementary School, 

Muldoon Elementary 

School (Anchorage), 

Glenallen High School, 

UAA Building F (1972), 

First Arctic Valley Ski 

Lodge

AIA 1970cxc

Hoaglandcxc

Obitcxciv

Westbrook, L.E.., 

Jr., 

N/A Anchorage N/A N/A AIA 1970cxcv

White, Fred 

Wayne

1924-? 

Fred F Wilson, Architect

Smith, Carroll and Johanson 

Architects

Jay Robinson, Jr Architect

Brandt Gessel Architect

McEntire and White

McEntire, White, Pendergrast 

and Jellison Architects

F Wayne White Architect 

Bozeman, MT

Seattle, WA

Pasco, WA

Walla Walla, WA

Fairbanks

Fairbanks

Fairbanks

1948-1949 

1950 

1951-1954

1954-1957

1957-1959

1959

1959-~1966

School Addition First 

Methodist Church, 

Fairbanks (65-66)

Seventh Day Adventist 

Church (Corner of Slater 

and Bentley drives, 

Fairbanks, 1960)

AIA, 1962cxc

337
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

Williams, David

Reichard

1890-1962

Federal Govt Architect, various 

agencies

Texas 1933-1950 Matanuska Colony Home 

Designs, Created the 

definitive Texas ranch 

style home with vaulted 

ceilings

Hoaglandcxc

Real Estate

Biographycx

Wirum, Carl 

Harold

1927-? 

Edwin Crittenden

Crittenden, Wirum , Cassetta, 

Jacobs

Crittenden, Cassetta, Wirum, 

and Cannon

Maynard and Wirum

Wirum NBBJ

Harold Wirum and Associates

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

1954?

1958-1962

1962-1970

1972

1977

early 1980s

Wendler Junior High 

School, Sears Roebuck 

Building, Air Route 

Control Center 

Anchorage, Union Oil 

Bldg. (Anchorage), *All 

with iterations of 

Crittenden et al., Hotel 

Captain Cook Second 

Tower, 1970s, Helen S 

Whaley Center at APU 

1972 (As Maynard and 

Wirum), CIRI Building 

1977 (As NBBJ), George 

M. Sullivan Arena (1980, 

Harold Wirum Assoc)

AIA 1970cc

Hoaglandcci

Yahn, Wilbert H.

1911-2001

National Plans Service

US Govt, Marine Engineering 

Department

US Navy, architect

unknown architectural firms

Ketchikan Pulp Company, 

architect

WH Yahn Architect

Chicago, IL

Portland, OR

Portland, OR

Portland, OR

Ketchikan, AK

Portland, OR

1930s

1942-1946

1946-1949

1949-1951

1951-1956

1956-1976

Naval Housing in Astoria, 

OR (46-49)

Ward Cove Pulp Mill 

Admin Building (1954)

Tongass View Housing 

Addition, Ketchikan (53)

numerous churches in 

Oregon

AIA, 1962cci

AIA 1970ccii

DOEcciv

Yang, Edith

1918-2012

Cleo Jenkins

Oregon State University 

Physical Plant

Independent Practice

Corvallis, Oregon

Corvallis, Oregon

Corvallis, Oregon

1950-1954

1979-1991

1954-2000

Nahoney Medical Office 

and Apartments and the 

Cordova Building, 

Anchorage, Chi Phi 

Fraternity in Corvallis, OR

Biographycc

AIA 1970ccv

Zuendel, Charles, 

Sherman 

1927-2003

Alaska Architectural and 

Engineering Co

Gray Rogers Myers and 

Morgan

Fairbanks

Fairbanks

Fairbanks

1965-1971

1971-1973

1973-1978

Fairbanks, University of 

Alaska Duckering 

Building, 1964 with Lee 

S. Linck; Moore, Bartlett 

AIA 1970ccv

Obitccviii

338
Architect Name Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source (s) 

Ellerbe Alaska

GDM and Associates

Fairbanks 1978 and Skarland Halls 

(Skarland, 1966)

References Cited

i "Douglas W Ackley, Obituary." Juneau Empire, January 9, 2014. Accessed March 31, 2016. 

http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/juneauempire/obituary.aspx?n=Douglas-Ackley&pid=168980021. ii "History." Jensen Yorba Lott. Accessed March 15, 2016. http://www.jensenyorbalott.com/about/history.htm. iii Bowker, R. R. "The AIA Historical Directory of American Architects." - 1970. Accessed March 3, 2016. http://public.aia.org/sites/hdo

American Architects Directory.aspx. iv Pacific Coast Architecture Database (PCAD). Accessed March 31, 2016. http://pcad.lib.washington.edu/firm/1425/. v "Roman Catholic Cathedral Opens Doors." Fairbanks Daily News Miner. April 1, 1966. Newpapers.com. Accessed March 21, 2016. 

https://www.newspapers.com/image/16420566/?terms=Douglas+Ackley.

vi “Jackson Akimoto, Obituary.” Seattle Times, May 4, 2007. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/seattletimes/obituary.aspx?n=jackson-akimoto&pid=87744410 vii Bowker, 1970.

viii Alison K. Hoagland. Buildings of Alaska. Society of Architectural Historians, Buildings of the United States. New York: Oxford Univer

ix Bowker, R. R. "The AIA Historical Directory of American Architects." - 1962. Accessed March 3, 2016. http://public.aia.org/sites/hdo

American Architects Directory.aspx.

x “Thomas B. Bourne Associates, Inc.” New York Company Search. Accessed March 3, 2016. http://newyorkcompanysearch.com/thom

inc. xi Bowker, R. R. "The AIA Historical Directory of American Architects." - 1956. Accessed March 3, 2016. http://public.aia.org/sites/hdo

American Architects Directory.aspx.

xii Bowker, 1962.

xiii Bowker, 1970. xiv “Andrew Donald Bowles, Memorial.” Find a Grave. Accessed March 3, 2016. http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&G

xv Bowker, 1970.

xvi American Institute of Architects (AIA). The AIA Historical Directory of American Architects: Find Names. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/Wiki%20Pages/ahd1005869.aspx

339
xvii City of Kenai. Resolution No. 65-1: Approving the Completed Planning Documents, 1965. Accessed March 2, 2016. 

http://weblink.ci.kenai.ak.us/WebLink8/docview.aspx?id=22126&dbid=0 xviii Bowker, 1970. xix The Alaska Office of History and Archaeology (OHA) maintains a hard-copy folder with obituaries for some architects practicing in A

xx Bowker, 1962.

xxi Bowker, 1970. xxii Bowker, 1956. xxiii American Institute of Architects. Member Questionnaire for Victor Cochran, 1946. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/AIA%20scans/Rosters/CochranVictor_roster.pdf

xxiv American Institute of Architects. Membership Application for Victor Cochran. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/AIA%20scans/C-E/CochranVictorE.pdf xxv Bowker, 1970. xxvixxvi Consortium Library at the University of Alaska, Anchorage. Guide to the Donald J. Coolidge Papers, 1949-2003. Archives and Spe

Department, Historical Manuscripts Collections List. Accessed March 3, 2016. https://consortiumlibrary.org/archives/FindingAids/hm

xxvii Bowker, 1970. xxviii Bowker, 1962. xxix Bowker, 1970. xxx Hoagland, 77, 83, 87, 191, 225. xxxi Amy Schlenker, Jason Allen, and Jim Steely. Recommendation of Eligibility for the 1958 Crittenden Addition of Anchorage Old Feder

Alaska. Seattle: General Services Administration, Northwest/Arctic Region. 2010, 28. xxxii "Crittenden Churches." E-mail to Robert L. Meinhardt. September 10, 2012. From John Crittenden, Architects Alaska. xxxiii “Edwin Butler Crittenden, Obituary.” Daily Sitka Sentinel, January 16, 2015. Accessed March 10, 2016. http://www.sitkasentinel.co

43/obituaries/8177-edwin-butler-crittenden. xxxiv Hoagland, 99. xxxv PCAD. Accessed March 5, 2016. http://pcad.lib.washington.edu/person/1466/. xxxvi “Edwin Butler Crittenden, Obituary.” Daily Sitka Sentinel, January 16, 2015. Accessed March 10, 2016. http://www.sitkasentinel.co

43/obituaries/8177-edwin-butler-crittenden. xxxvii Bowker, 1970. xxxviii Linked In. “Robert Fehlberg.” Accessed March 3, 2016. https://www.linkedin.com/in/robert-fehlberg-10a08a2b. xxxix American Institute of Architects. Knowledge Net. Robert Fehlberg, FAIA. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

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xliii Leagle. “Filler v. Commissioner.” US Tax Court, September 17, 1987. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

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340
xlvi Bowker, 1956. xlvii Bowker, 1970. xlviii Hoagland, 178, 199, 205, 206, 226. xlix MVR Architects. Company Profile, Linn Argyle Forrest. Accessed March 2, 2016. Available at: http://www.mrvarchitects.com/linn.h

l Robert L. Meinhardt, Casey Woster and Amy Ramirez. Determination of Eligibility of the Old Kake Elementary School, Located in Kake

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liv “Harold B. Foss.” Wikipedia. Accessed March 2, 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_B._Foss lv Bowker, 1962.

lvi Bowker, 1970.

lvii “Margaret Fritsch.” Wikipedia. Accessed March 2, 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Fritsch lviii Morgan Young. "Mary Margaret Goodin Fritsch (1899-1993)." Oregon Ecyclopedia. Accessed March 6, 2016. 

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lix Bowker, 1970.

lx American Institute of Architects Archives. Earl Fullingim, Obituary. Accessed March 3, 2016. http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/A

H/Earl%20Payton%20Fullingim_obit.pdf

lxi American Institute of Architects Archives. Earl Fullingim, Resume. Accessed March 3, 2016. http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/A

H/fullingim%20resume.pdf

lxii Bowker, 1970. lxiii “Harry R. Geron, Obituary.” Express News, February 28, 2008. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

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lxvi Bowker, 1970.

lxvii "John H. Graham, Jr." Documentation and Conservation of the Modernist Movement, Western Washington. Accessed March 31, 2

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lxxiv Bowker, 1970. lxxv Hoagland, 77, 92, 95.

341
lxxvi “About – Timeline.” HOK International. Accessed March 3, 2016. http://www.hok.com/about/timeline/ lxxvii “Harley H. Hightower, Resume.” Society of American Military Engineers. Accessed March 3, 2016. http://sameblog.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/05/Hightower.pdf

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lxxxiii Bowker, 1956. lxxxiv Bowker, 1962. lxxxv Hoagland, 265. lxxxvi Hoagland, 294. lxxxvii AIA, Find Names, http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/Wiki%20Pages/Find%20Names.aspx lxxxviii “Khan, Albert.” Architectural Foundation of Cincinnati, Biographical Dictionary of Cincinnati Architects, 1788-1940. Accessed Mar

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xci Bowker, 1970. xcii Bowker, 1970. xciii “Richard E. Keithhan.” Alaska Licensing. Accessed March 3, 2016. http://www.alaskalicensing.com/richard-e-keithahn xciv “Keithahns to celebrate their 50th.” Juneau Empire, August 27, 2004. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

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xcv Hoagland, 93. xcvi "Paul H. Kirk.” Documentation and Conservation of the Modernist Movement, Western Washington. Accessed March 31, 2016. htt

wewa.org/architects_detail.php?id=48. xcvii Hoagland, 93. xcviii Bowker, 1970. xcix Hoagland, 225. c PCAD. Accessed March 3, 2016. http://pcad.lib.washington.edu/person/1465/. ci Robert J. Clark and Andrea P.A. Belloli, editors. Design in America: The Cranbrook Vision, 1925-1950. New York: Metropolitan Museu

cii Bowker, 1970.

ciii Bowker, 1970. civ PCAD. Accessed March 3, 2016. http://pcad.lib.washington.edu/person/3022/ cv "John Lautner Foundation." John Lautner, Architect. Accessed March 31, 2016. http://www.johnlautner.org/. cvi "John Lautner - NCMH Masters Gallery." North Carolina Modernist Houses. Accessed March 4, 2016. http://www.ncmodernist.org/

cvii Matuscak, Melissa. John Lautner: A Southern California Visionary with Northern Michigan Sensibilities. Michigan Magazine. Marque

Museum, Northern Michigan University. July/August. 2012, 32-38. cviii Hoagland, 223. cix Bowker, 1970.

342
cx Bowker, 1970.

cxi Hoagland, 178. cxii "History." Jensen Yorba Lott. Accessed March 15, 2016. http://www.jensenyorbalott.com/about/history.htm. cxiii Bowker, 1956. cxiv Bowker, 1962. cxv Bowker, 1970. cxvi American Institute of Architects. Membership Application for William Manley. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/AIA%20scans/M-P/ManleyWilliamA.pdf cxvii Hoagland, 77, 88 cxviii Bowker, 1956. cxix Bowker, 1962. cxx Bowker, 1970. cxxi American Institute of Architects. Membership Application for William Manley. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/AIA%20scans/M-P/ManleyWilliamA.pdf cxxii Bowker, 1970. cxxiii Hoagland, 92. cxxiv "Kenneth Douglas Maynard." Prabook. Accessed February 27, 2016. http://prabook.org/web/person-view.html?profileId=676146

cxxv Consortium Library at the University of Alaska, Anchorage. Guide to the Kenneth D. Maynard Papers, 1964-1967. Accessed March 

https://consortiumlibrary.org/archives/FindingAids/hmc-0172.html cxxvi “John McCool, AIA, CCS.” McCool, Carlson, Green – People. Accessed March 6, 2016. http://mcgalaska.com/people/ cxxvii "Donald N. McDonald, Sr.” Documentation and Conservation of the Modernist Movement, Western Washington. Accessed March 

http://www.docomomo-wewa.org/architects_detail.php?id=163. cxxviii Bowker, 1956. cxxix Hoagland, 85, 99. cxxx Bowker, 1956. cxxxi Bowker, 1962. cxxxii “Francis Joseph McInnis, Memorial.” Funeralnet. Accessed March 4, 2016. 

http://memorialobituaries.com/memorials/memorials.cgi?action=Obit&memid=140459&clientid=flint

cxxxiii AIA, Find Names, http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/Wiki%20Pages/Find%20Names.aspx cxxxiv "Edgar L. Mills.” Documentation and Conservation of the Modernist Movement, Western Washington. Accessed March 3, 2016. h

wewa.org/architects_detail.php?id=117. cxxxv Bowker, 1970. cxxxvi Hoagland, 94. cxxxvii American Institute of Architects. Membership Application for Real W. Morrison. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/AIA%20scans/M-P/MorrisonEarlW.pdf. cxxxviii PCAD. Accessed March 7, 2016. http://pcad.lib.washington.edu/person/1268/. cxxxix Kenny Gunn. Alaska SHPO Section 106 Review for the JN3053 Ketchikan Cell Tower Relocation 2016. Portland, Oregon: Summit So

cxl Michael R. Yarborough, Shawna M. Rider, Catherine L. Pendleton, and Amanda Welsh. Determination of National Register of Histor

Inlet Towers (ANC-2900), Anchorage, Alaska. , Anchorage, Alaska: DOWL Engineers. 2008, 5.

343
cxli Bowker, 1956. cxlii Bowker, 1962. cxliii Bowker, 1970. cxliv AIA, Find Names, http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/Wiki%20Pages/Find%20Names.aspx cxlv "John M. Morse.” Documentation and Conservation of the Modernist Movement, Western Washington. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

wewa.org/architects_detail.php?id=46. cxlvi National Park Service. "National Park Service: Mission 66 Visitor Centers (Appendix I)." National Parks Service. Accessed March 7, 2

http://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/allaback/vci.htm

cxlvii Bowker, 1970. cxlviii Bowker, 1956. cxlix Bowker, 1962. cl "History." Jensen Yorba Lott. Accessed March 15, 2016. http://www.jensenyorbalott.com/about/history.htm. cli "Bjarne Carl Olsen." Juneau Empire, August 14, 2012. Accessed March 31, 2016. http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/juneauempire/

Carl-Olsen&pid=159068496. clii Bowker, 1970. cliii “Architects Receive Alaska Licenses.” Architect and Engineer, v. 208-211, 1957. Accessed March 4, 2016. http://www.ebooksread.c

eng/montanapublic-assistance-bureau/architect-and-engineer-volume-v208-211-1957-fna/page-19-architect-and-engineer-volume-v

cliv “Raymond H. Peck.” Documentation and Conservation of the Modernist Movement, Western Washington. Accessed March 3, 2016

http://www.docomomo-wewa.org/architects_detail.php?id=136 clv PCAD. Accessed March 3, 2016. http://pcad.lib.washington.edu/person/2367/ clvi Bowker, 1970. clvii “Myron Pendergrast, New Rockford, N.D.” Inforum. Accessed March 5, 2016. http://www.inforum.com/content/myron-pendergra

clviii Bowker, 1970. clix Bowker, 1962. clx Hoagland, 85. clxi Society of Architectural Historians. Archipedia, Search Results. Accessed March 2, 2016. http://saharchipedia.org/search?q=(state%3AAlaska)%20AND%20agent%3A%22Augustine%20A.%20Porreca%22. clxii PCAD. Accessed March 5, 2016. http://pcad.lib.washington.edu/person/5673/ clxiii "Porreca Memorial Scholarship." Scholarships and Fellowships. Accessed March 30, 2016. http://www.sp2.upenn.edu/make-a-gift

fellowships/.

clxiv Hoagland, 85, 218. clxv PCAD. Accessed March 7, 2016. http://pcad.lib.washington.edu/firm/567/. clxvi John Edward Powell. A Guide to Historic Architecture in Fresno, California – Biographies of Architects, Designers, and Builders: B. M

1971). Accessed March 6, 2016. http://www.historicfresno.org/bio/priteca.htm. clxvii “Architects Receive Alaska Licenses.” Architect and Engineer, v. 208-211, 1957. Accessed March 4, 2016. http://www.ebooksread

eng/montanapublic-assistance-bureau/architect-and-engineer-volume-v208-211-1957-fna/page-19-architect-and-engineer-volume-v

clxviii Bowker, 1970. clxix Bowker, 1970. clxx AIA, Find Names, http://public.aia.org/sites/hdoaa/wiki/Wiki%20Pages/Find%20Names.aspx

344
clxxi "History." Jensen Yorba Lott. Accessed March 15, 2016. http://www.jensenyorbalott.com/about/history.htm. clxxii PCAD. Accessed March 7, 2016. http://pcad.lib.washington.edu/person/3272/. clxxiii “Lawrance T. Shultz, (1926-2015), Obituary.” Legacy.com. Accessed March 4, 2016. http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/adn/obitu

clxxiv Hoagland, 92. clxxv “Donald Clement Smith, Memorial.” Findagrave. Accessed March 4, 2016. http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GR

clxxvi Bowker, 1970. clxxvii “Donald Warren Stetson.” BillionGraves. Accessed March 5, 2016. https://billiongraves.com/grave/Donald-Warren-Stetson/1519

clxxviii Bowker, 1970. clxxix Bowker, 1962. clxxx “Architects Receive Alaska Licenses.” Architect and Engineer, v. 208-211, 1957. Accessed March 4, 2016. http://www.ebooksread.

eng/montanapublic-assistance-bureau/architect-and-engineer-volume-v208-211-1957-fna/page-19-architect-and-engineer-volume-v

clxxxi “In Honor of Joyce Stevens.” Capitolwords, Volume 160, Number 112, pages e1183-e1184. Accessed March 6, 2016. 

http://capitolwords.org/date/2014/07/17/E1183-3_in-honor-of-joyce-stevens/ clxxxii Hoagland, 100. clxxxiii Bowker, 1970. clxxxiv "Edward Durell Stone, Life." Edward Durell Stone. Accessed March 29, 2016. http://www.edwarddurellstone.org/. clxxxv National Register of Historic Places, Nomination: Campus Center. National Park Service. focus.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=50

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clxxxvi “Maynard L. Taylor.” Wikipedia. Accessed March 2, 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maynard_L._Taylor,_Jr. clxxxvii “Ralph F. Taylor photograph collection, 1960-1965.” University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska and Polar Regions Collections. Access

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clxxxviii Hoagland, 77, 138, 179, 224. clxxxix “N. Lester Troast.” Wikipedia. Accessed March 2, 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N._Lester_Troast#cite_note-Sitka-2 cxc National Park Service. "Biography (Gilbert Stanley Underwood)." National Parks Service. Accessed March 10, 2016. 

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cxci “Federal Building, Anchorage, AK.” General Services Administration. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

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cc Bowker, 1970.

cci Hoagland, 92, 95, 96.

345
ccii Bowker, 1962. cciii Bowker, 1970. cciv Rosalind Keeney. Documentation for Determination of Eligibility, Ketchikan Pulp Company Ward Cove Pulp Mill Administration Buil

Highway, Ketchikan, Alaska. Anchorage, Alaska: HDR Alaska, Inc. 2007, 5. ccv “Edith Yang.” Architecture Foundation of Oregon. Accessed March 7, 2016. https://af-oregon.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/EY

ccvi Bowker, 1970. ccvii Bowker, 1970. ccviii “Carl Sherman Zuendel, Obituary,” Prabook. Accessed March 7, 2016. http://prabook.org/web/person-view.html?profileId=60800

346
Appendix C: Developers/Construction Companies

347
Developer Other names Location Years Notable Works Source 

(s)

Commen

Alaska 

Architectural 

and 

Engineering 

Company

1945-1978

staff -

Lee S. Linck, 

engineer

(partners JF Potter 

and FH Mapleton; 

Linck bought them 

out in 1949)

George Crosman, 

Edwin S. 

Thompson, Doug 

Ackley (architects)

Fairbanks 1945-1978 Fairbanks: Joy Elementary and 

Chena Elementary, Fairbanks (60 

with Doug Ackley); First National 

Bank of Alaska, Anchorage Branch 

(1971, Project Architects Edwin S. 

Thompson and Bradford); University 

of Alaska, Fairbanks, Duckering 

Building, (64 with Lee S. Link) and

Moore, Bartlett and Skarland Halls 

(Skarland, 1964); Lathrop High 

School Auditorium and Addition, 

Fairbanks (64 with Doug Ackley); 

Nerland Store and Office Building, 

Bus terminal, Nerland Commercial 

Building, Lavery Commercial Building, 

J.C. Penny Company Building, Elks 

Building, Methodist Church and 

Educational Unit with Parsonage, 

Episcopal Mission office and 

Apartment Building, Fairbanks 

Pioneer Home, Large housing 

complexes and urban renewal efforts. 

Eielson AFB: Locomotive 

roundhouse, Boiler Plant Addition, 

Pennell Elementary and High School, 

Ben Eielson High School, Taylor 

Junior High School, Ladd AFB: 

Rehabilitation of Hangars #2, #3, #6, 

Cold Room Test Facility, McKinley 

Elementary, Aurora Elementary, Birch 

Elementary. Other: Juneau Jail and 

Juvenile Detention Home, Fort Yukon 

High School, Northway School, 

Nenana School and Apartments, 

Delta Junction Elementary and High 

Schools

Historyi

OHA File

The firm 

organizat

equipped 

architectu

-planning

supervisi

surveys. 

planning, 

commerc

religious, 

roads, air

utilities, p

facilities., 

climate c

well as ac

with Critte

1950s.

348
Developer Other names Location Years Notable Works Source 

(s)

Commen

Brady 

Construction 

Company

1949-at least 

1954 

Brady Swalling 

Construction 

Company (with Al 

Swalling)

1200 L Street 

Corporation (with Al 

Swalling and JH 

Clawson)

Coffey House 

Corporation (with Al 

Swalling and JH 

Clawson)

Brady Construction 

Company

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage 

(Spenard), 

Valdez

1949-1952

1950-1954

1950-1954

1949-? 

Built two 130+ unit housing 

developments in Anchorage

McKinley Tower Apartments (1952)

The Inlet Towers Apartments (1951-

1952)

three unnamed elementary schools in 

Anchorage

Naskeii

Tax 

Courtiii

Coffey Ho

were spe

FHA loan

houses o

had acqu

Each rec

substanti

contract w

Construc

story apa

McKinley 

Burgess 

Construction 

Company, Ltd. 

1948-at least 

1972

Burgess 

Construction Co.

Joint venture with 

Reed and Martin, 

Inc. 

Burgess Houston 

Construction

Burgess 

Intercontinental, 

Inc.

Burgess Overseas 

Sales Corporation

Burgess Interstate

Astoria, OR

Fairbanks

Fairbanks

Fairbanks

Fairbanks

Fairbanks

1948-1951

1951- 

1951-? 

1969-1970s

1969-1972

1972-? 

LF Joy Elementary, Fairbanks (60), 

Fairbanks Bus Depot (52)

Haul Road

Deadhorse Air Strip

TAPS work

Soldier Creek Dam, Utah

OHA 

Files

Jukeboxiv

"From its 

construct

Construc

role in ma

Bid on th

Hickel 

Construction 

Company

Walter Joseph 

Hickel, owner 

(1919-2010) 

1947-2012

Hickel Investment 

Company

Anchorage 1947-2012 Hotel Captain Cook (65), postearthquake towers in Anchorage, 

Northern Lights Shopping Center (60-

61, Alaska's First shopping center, 

affiliated with Safeway, first escalator, 

Spenard), First motel in Alaska: 

Traveler's Inn Anchorage (53), 

Travelers Inn Fairbanks (55), 

hundreds of homes as well as 

shopping centers, motels, rental units 

and residential areas 

Wikiv

Manualvi

Governor

vii

Obitviii

NY 

Timesix

Institutex

Became 

groups of 

town/FHA 

shopping 

his comp

firm. 

Active in 

Hickel so

Alaskan N

on Native 

Secretary 

349
Developer Other names Location Years Notable Works Source 

(s)

Commen

Wally Hickel served as 2nd and 8th 

governor of Alaska

Interior u

in 1969-1

opposed 

Slowed c

and push

environm

resources

the Hicke

its constr

Pete 

Zamarello

1930s-2014

Olympic Inc. Anchorage 1965-? Anchorage: Muldoon Mall, Lake Otis 

and Tudor Mall, Bonface Plaza, 

Olympic Plaza, Muldoon Z Plaza, 

International Z Plaza, Patricia 

Subdivision (71-73)

Wasilla: Cottonwood Creek Mall 

ADNxi King of S

malls and 

AK

Karl Alvin 

Bachner

1927-1989

Bachner Northwest 

(with William G 

Jones and Edgar 

Billimek)

Anchorage ~1950-at 

least mid1980s

Portage Glacier Visitors Center, Eagle 

River Correctional Institution, Sitka 

Centennial Building, Schools and 

Office Buildings

Began to 

1970s

Born in F

company 

Compani

buildings 

the Nerla

and Engi

McKinley 

designed 

Graham?

Captain Austin 

E Lathrop

1865-1950

California-Alaska 

Mining and 

Development 

Company

Alaska Transfer 

Company, Cordova

Alaska Transfer 

Company, 

Anchorage

Lathrop Company, 

Washingto

n 

Cordova

Anchorage

Fairbanks

1902

1907

1915

1927-1950

Empress Movie Theater, Cordova 

(1911), Empress Anchorage (1916), 

Empress Fairbanks (27, first concrete 

building constructed in Fairbanks), 

Lacey Street Theater, Fairbanks (36-

40, designed by Priteca), Fourth 

Avenue Theater, Anchorage (47, 

designed by Priteca), KFAR Radio 

/Lathrop Building, Fairbanks (39), 

KENI Radio Building, Anchorage (48, 

designed by Porecca), Suntrana Coal 

NRHPxii

Biography

xiii

Wikixiv

Newsxv

Business 

entertainm

radios, ne

Fairbanks 

first home

developin

helped br

1948, wh

need of f

$200,000 

private bu

350
Developer Other names Location Years Notable Works Source 

(s)

Commen

Plant, Healy River Coal Corporation 

bunkers (32)

High Sch

Lathrop R

Design Alaska 

1957-present

Bob Gray and Les 

Rogers

Design Alaska

Design Alaska / 

Ellerbe Alaska

Design Alaska

Fairbanks

Fairbanks, 

Anchorage

Anchorage

1957-1973

1973-1988

1988-

present

Fairbanks: Alaskaland (site and 

landscape design and Pioneer 

Museum), Barnette School, Gladys 

Morris Dress Shop, relocation of the 

steamship Nenana, Fairbanks 

Federal Building, Butrovich Building at 

UAF, Duckering Building addition, 

UAF, Big Dipper Ice Arena

Historyxvi Founders 

Architectu

then esta

company 

Assoc in 

1983 emp

from Elle

Peter Kiewit 

and Company

1884-present

Kiewit Brothers 

Peter Kiewit and 

Company

Peter Kiewit Sons' 

Company

Kiewit (logo still 

has PKS)

Omaha, 

NB

Omaha, 

NB

Omaha, 

NB

Sherdian, 

WY 

North 

America 

1884-1904

1904-1931

1931-

present

Ladd AFB Power House and Ft 

Richardson Power House Addition 

(48), Ft Richardson Utilities work (49), 

Heating Plant at Ladd Field (49), ANS 

Hospital, Anchorage (49), Fairbanks 

Memorial Hospital (68-72),1930s 

Interstates 90 and 93, WWII military 

bases from Washington to Alaska, 

coal mine in Wyoming supplied 

Hanford in WA and coal was used in 

first A-Bombs, Thule Greenland AFB 

BMEWS and DEW Line, Minute Man 

Missle Bases, ND (1960s), Decker 

Coal Mine, MT (71) and Black Butte 

Coal Mine, Gillette, WY (79)

Historyxvii

Newsxviii

News2xix

News3xx

Firmxxi

In AK sin

contracto

Knudsen 

Narrows 

dams; off

states an

351
Developer Other names Location Years Notable Works Source 

(s)

Commen

Ellerbe and 

Associates

1973-1983

Ellerbe and 

Company/Ellerbe 

Architects, Inc. 

Ellerbe Alaska

Bloomingto

n, MN

Fairbanks

Anchorage

1914-1988

1973-1988

Fairbanks Federal Building (1977)

Butrovich Building, Big Dipper Ice 

Arena, Duckering Building Addition at 

UAF (85), UAF Patty Gymnasium 

Addition 1970 as Ellerbe AK

OHA 

Files

Hoagland

xxii

Archives

xxiii

1973 pur

changed 

Ellerbe p

Minnesot

Beckett 1

Beckett 2

Stock 

Construction 

Company

1938 - 1960s

RH Stock and Co. 

Roland Henry 

"Dick" Stock (1889-

1976)

Anchorage 1938-1960s Afognak Road System (29)

First paved streets in Anchorage on 

4th Ave (38)

Block 13 FHA Army Housing (1940)

Roads and Bridges in southeast and 

the Kenai

DOExxiv

Biography

xxv

In 1948 S

Chapter o

Contracto

years as 

president

Zachariah J. 

Loussac

Anchorage First Loussac Library, Loussac Sogn 

Building

Building

xxvi

Hoagland

xxvii

Russian 

civic ente

(Current A

name); ra

Anchorag

impact on 

opened th

a foundat

the arts in 

building w

ground flo

above, an

commerc

served tw

beginning 

352
Developer Other names Location Years Notable Works Source 

(s)

Commen

Harold B Foss 

1935-present

HB Foss Company

Foss Malcolm

Foss, Malcolm and 

Olsen

Foss Olsen

Foss Olsen Sands

Olsen Sands

Sands Ackley

Ackley and 

Associates

Ackley Jensen

Jensen Douglas

Jensen, Yorba and 

Lott

Juneau 1935-1945

1945-1949

1949-1951

1951-1956

1956-1958

1958-1968

1968-1974

1974-1979

1979-1985

1985-1996

1996-

present

Juneau Memorial Library (1950, Now 

Juneau Douglas City Museum), 

Juneau City Hall (50-51), Terminal at 

Juneau International Airport (48-49 

and 56-57), Bethel Hospital, Bethel 

Armory (56-57), Alaska State Office 

Building, Juneau (52), UAF Eielson 

Memorial Building upper levels 

(1940), Petersburg Hospital (54), Mt 

Edgecumbe Hospital, Sitka (47-48), 

UAF Constitution Hall, 1956, UAF 

Brooks Building 1952, Chapel by the 

Lake, Auk Bay, Juneau 1958 (with 

Linn Forrest), Buckner Building (53) 

and Hodge (now Begich Towers) 

Building (54-56), Whittier, Cathedral 

Arms Apartments in Sitka (50) with 

Earl W Morrison; Juneau Municipal 

Airport Terminal, Dillingham High 

School, University of Alaska BioSciences Building (Fairbanks), Delta 

Junction High School, Ketchikan 

General Hospital, Sitka Court and 

Office Building, Petersburg Post 

Office and Federal Building, 

Seaalaska Plaza and Juneau Airport 

(Juneau), Hydaberg School, 

Ketchikan Community College, Ryan 

Jr. High School and Zion Lutheran 

Church (Fairbanks), Regional High 

School Gym (Nome), UAS Library, 

Sacred Heart Cathedral, Fairbanks 

1966 (Part of design team) 

Firmxxviii

353
Developer Other names Location Years Notable Works Source 

(s)

Commen

Philleo 

Architects and 

Engineers/Eng

ineer- Edgar 

S. Philleo

1946- at least 

1972

Philleo Engineers 

Architects- Ralph 

Taylor, John E 

"Jack" Haley

Fairbanks 1946-1948

1948- 

CAA International Airport 

(Fairbanks?) (49-50), Dixon 

Apartments, Fairbanks (49), The 

Polaris and Northward Buildings, 

Fairbanks (52), Fairbanks City Hall 

and Municipal Center (61), Queens 

Court Apartments (60), Girdwood 

School and Willow School (61), 

Distant Early Warning radar and 

telescopic facilities (early 60s), Valdez 

Hotel (64) unbuilt, City of Nome Water 

and Sewer System (64-65), Fairbanks 

Comprehensive Plan, Sewage 

Facilities and Solid Waste (72)

News4xxix

Al Swalling Swalling 

Construction 

Company

Brady and Swalling

1200 L Street 

Corporation (with 

Ted Brady and JH 

Clawson) 

Coffey House 

Corporation (with Al 

Brady and JH 

Clawson)

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

Anchorage

1947-

present

1949-1952

1950

1950

Turnagain Arms Apartments (49-50), 

1948 KENI Radio Building (48), 

McKinley Tower Apartments (1952), 

The Inlet Towers Apartments (1951-

1952), St. George School, St. 

George, AK (55)

DOExxx

NRHPxxxi

St. 

George

xxxii

TAX 

Courtxxxiii

Coffey Ho

were spe

FHA loan

houses o

had acqu

Each rec

substanti

contract w

Construc

story apa

McKinley 

Francis M

Swalling 

Whittier f

award fro

of Alaska

Company 

Michael S

concrete 

Fairview 

Development 

Corporation

Fairbanks 1950s Weeks Field Subdivision, Fairbanks 

(50)

News5

xxxiv

354
Developer Other names Location Years Notable Works Source 

(s)

Commen

Batchelder 

and Hazen

Fairbanks 1940s-

1950s

Yukon Engineering Office, Fairbanks 

(49), UAF Faculty Cottages (48)

News6xxxv

Selid 

Construction 

Company

Eielson AFB Outdoor Utilities (49) Newsxxxvi

Lewis 

Construction 

Company

Seattle, 

WA

UAF Geophysical Institute Building 

(48)

News6

xxxvii

Morrison 

Knudsen

1912-Present

Boise, ID

Global

1912-

Present

Fairbanks Municipal Airport (49), 

Alaska Rail Road Bank Widening at 

Turn Again Arm (48), Ft. Richardson 

Power Plant Addition and Outdoor 

Utilities (48), Whittier Bulk Fuel 

Storage Tanks, Wharf, Pipeline (49), 

ANS Hospital, Anchorage (49), TAPS, 

DEW Line Facilities, Hoover Dam (35)

Newsxxxviii

News3

xxxix

News6xl

world-wid

construct

least 194

Merril Fie

bases, po

facilities/p

facilities, 

a defense 

with Kiew

Narrows 

William A 

Smith 

Company

Kansas Alaska Rail Road Rail Replacements 

(48-49)

News6xli

Reed Martin 

Company

Fairbanks 1940s-

1950s

McKinley Manor (50, Fairbanks), 

Runway lighting at Eielson AFB and 

Ladd AFB Power House (48)

News6xlii

Fred Wager 

Company

Auburn, 

WA

Eielson AFB Utility work (48) Newsxliii

William 

Hufelsen

Anchorage Ft Richardson Telephone Building 

(49)

Newsxliv

S Birch and 

Sons 

Company

Greatfalls, 

MT and 

Seattle, 

WA

Eielson AFB Barracks and Supply 

Storage Building (49)

Newsxlv

Slater 

Construction 

Company

Slater and 

Jacobson

Fairbanks Ladd AFB Heated vehicle storage 

building (49)

Big Delta Family Quarters (49)

Newsxlvi

News2xlvii

355
Developer Other names Location Years Notable Works Source 

(s)

Commen

Henrik Valle 

Company

Seattle Whittier Utilities Newsxlviii

Max Kuney 

Company

Alaska Rail Road Expansion, Peters 

Creek to Indian (49)

News7xlix

Lytle and 

Green

Alaska Rail Road Expansion, Seward 

to Portage (49)

News7l

MP Munter Alaska Road Commission, Quartz 

Creek to Portage Road Expansion 

and installation of 15 bridges (49)

News7li

B & M 

Construction

Oklahoma 

City, 

Oklahoma

Ladd AFB Outdoor Utilities (48-49) Newslii

Gothberry 

Construction 

Company

Anchorage Ft Richardson 12 Family Quarters 

(49)

News2liii

JC Boesplug 

Constrcution 

Company

Seattle ANS Hospital, Anchorage (49) News2liv

News3lv

Strands 

Construction 

Company

Fairbanks Adlvi 1949 beg

Daily New

Gaasland 

Construction 

Company

Fairbanks 61 housing units on South Cushman 

St, Fairbanks (49, billed as a large 

apartment project)

News8lvii the FHA 

and Meye

Williams 

Equipment 

Company

Fairbanks City Roads Improvements, Fairbanks 

(49)

News2lviii

SS Mullins 

Construction 

Company

Fairbanks 1950s The Polaris Building (52) Marlow 

2008

356
References Cited

i Dermot Cole. Historic Fairbanks: An Illustrated History. San Antonio, Texas: Historical Publication Network. 2002. ii Claus M. Naske and Herman E. Slotnick. Alaska: A History of the 49th State. University of Oklahoma Press; Second Edition. 1994, 134

iii United States Tax Court. C. TED BRADY AND AGNES J. BRADY, HIS WIFE, PETITIONERS, v. COMMISSIONER OF INTERNAL REVENUE, R

311 slip op. at 312. Casetext, Incorporated. 1960. iv “Burgess Construction Company.” Project Jukebox, Digital Branch of the University of Alaska, Fairbanks Oral History Program. Acces

http://jukebox.uaf.edu/haul_road/assets/docs/bc_burgess_info.pdf

v “Wally Hickel.” Wikipedia. Accessed March 2, 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wally_Hickel. vi Page and Turnbull. South Addition: Historic Resources Manual. Anchorage: BGES & MUNICIPALITY OF ANCHORAGE, 2011. Accessed, 

http://dnr.alaska.gov/parks/oha/publications/southaddition.pdf, pg. 63. vii “Walter J. Hickel.” National Governors Association, Alaska: Past Governors Bios. Accessed March 3, 2016. http://www.nga.org/cms/

governors-bios/page_alaska/col2-content/main-content-list/title_hickel_walter.default.html viii “Walter J. Hickel, Obituary.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, May 16, 2010. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/newsminer/obituary.aspx?pid=142842721

ix “Walter Hickel, Nixon Interior Secretary, Dies at 90.” New York Times, May 8, 2010. Accessed March 3, 2016. 

http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/09/us/09hickel.html?_r=0 (add him to bio section?)

x “Alaska, the World, & Wally Hickel.” Institute of the North. Accessed March 3, 2016. http://www.governorwallyhickel.org/timelines/

xi “Pete Zamarello, colorful 'King of the Strip Malls,' dies at 86.” Alaska Daily News. Accessed March 3, 2016. http://www.adn.com/art

zamarello-colorful-king-strip-malls-dies-86 xii National Register of Historic Places, Nomination: KENI Radio Building. National Park Service. http://focus.nps.gov/nrhp/AssetDetail?

478c-8bf1-bbbf3b00b9e7 xiii “Austin Lathrop.” University of Alaska, UA Journey – Notable People – Fairbanks. Accessed March 8, 2016. https://www.alaska.edu

people/fairbanks/austin-lathrop/ xiv “Austin E. Lathrop.” Wikipedia. Accessed March 8, 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austin_E._Lathrop. xv “A Fairbanks 50: Remembering a few who helped build a frontier town.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, May 28, 2000. Accessed Marc

https://www.alaska.edu/files/uajourney/A%20Fairbanks%2050.pdf. xvi Cole, 2002 xvii Cole, 2002 xviii “Low Offers Total Over $14 Million.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Friday, April 8, 1949. Vol. XXVII, No. 82, Page 1. xix “Nearby Jobs Total Nearly $10 Million.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Monday, April 18, 1949. Vol. XXVII, No. 90, Page 1. xx “Seattle Firms Bid Low on ANS Hospital.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Tuesday, April 26, 1949. Vol. XXVII, No. 97, Page 1. xxi “History-About Us.” Kiewit. Accessed March 7, 2016. http://www.kiewit.com/about-us/history/ xxii Hoagland, Alison K. Buildings of Alaska. Society of Architectural Historians, Buildings of the United States. New York: Oxford Univer

xxiii “Ellerbe Architects Papers, 1914-1959.” Northwest Architectural Archives, Manuscripts Division. Accessed March 7, 2016. Ellerbe A

1959

357
xxiv Meinhardt, Robert L., Casey Woster and Amy Ramirez. Determination of Eligibility of the Old Kake Elementary School, Located in K

Recommendations for Issuing a Section 106 Finding for Demolition and Redevelopment. Anchorage, Alaska: Shannon and Wilson, Inc

xxv “1955-1956 Roland Stock.” University of Alaska, UA Journey – Home - Regents. Accessed March 8, 2016. https://www.alaska.edu/u

1956-roland-stock/ xxvi “Loussac-Sogn Building.” Alaska.org. Accessed March 8, 2016. http://www.alaska.org/detail/loussac-sogn-building xxvii Hoagland, 89. xxviii "History." Jensen Yorba Lott. Accessed March 15, 2016. http://www.jensenyorbalott.com/about/history.htm. xxix "Fairbanks to Get $1,566,750 APW Funds for 1954 Building." Fairbanks Daily News Miner, November 19, 1953, Page 41. Accessed M

https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/4514624/.

xxx Michael R. Yarborough, Shawna M. Rider, Catherine L. Pendleton, and Amanda Welsh. Determination of National Register of Histor

Inlet Towers (ANC-2900), Anchorage, Alaska. Anchorage, Alaska: DOWL Engineers. 2008, 3. xxxi National Register of Historic Places, Nomination: KENI Radio Building. National Park Service. http://focus.nps.gov/nrhp/AssetDetai

6a30-478c-8bf1-bbbf3b00b9e7 xxxii NOAA. Letter Report Re Evaluation of Eligibility For The St. George School, St. George, AK. St. George School District. 2007. xxxiii United States Tax Court. C. TED BRADY AND AGNES J. BRADY, HIS WIFE, PETITIONERS, v. COMMISSIONER OF INTERNAL REVENUE, 

311 slip op. at 312. Casetext, Incorporated, 1960.

xxxiv “Council OK’s Fairview Lease.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Friday, April 14, 1950. Vol. XXVIII, No. 87, Page 1. xxxv “Railroad in Call for Bids on New Rail.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Wednesday, April 6, 1949. Vol. XXVII, No. 80, Page 1. xxxvi “Low Offers Total Over $14 Million.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Friday, April 8, 1949. Vol. XXVII, No. 82, Page 1. xxxvii “Railroad in Call for Bids on New Rail.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Wednesday, April 6, 1949. Vol. XXVII, No. 80, Page 1. xxxviii “Low Offers Total Over $14 Million.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Friday, April 8, 1949. Vol. XXVII, No. 82, Page 1. xxxix “Seattle Firms Bid Low on ANS Hospital.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Tuesday, April 26, 1949. Vol. XXVII, No. 97, Page 1. xl “Railroad in Call for Bids on New Rail.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Wednesday, April 6, 1949. Vol. XXVII, No. 80, Page 1. xli “Railroad in Call for Bids on New Rail.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Wednesday, April 6, 1949. Vol. XXVII, No. 80, Page 1. xlii “Railroad in Call for Bids on New Rail.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Wednesday, April 6, 1949. Vol. XXVII, No. 80, Page 1. xliii “Low Offers Total Over $14 Million.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Friday, April 8, 1949. Vol. XXVII, No. 82, Page 1. xliv “Low Offers Total Over $14 Million.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Friday, April 8, 1949. Vol. XXVII, No. 82, Page 1. xlv “Low Offers Total Over $14 Million.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Friday, April 8, 1949. Vol. XXVII, No. 82, Page 1. xlvi “Low Offers Total Over $14 Million.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Friday, April 8, 1949. Vol. XXVII, No. 82, Page 1. xlvii “Nearby Jobs Total Nearly $10 Million.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Monday, April 18, 1949. Vol. XXVII, No. 90, Page 1. xlviii “Low Offers Total Over $14 Million.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Friday, April 8, 1949. Vol. XXVII, No. 82, Page 1. xlix “Bids Opened on AK Rail Job.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Tuesday, April 12, 1949, Vol. XXVII, No. 85, Page 1. l “Bids Opened on AK Rail Job.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Tuesday, April 12, 1949, Vol. XXVII, No. 85, Page 1. li “Bids Opened on AK Rail Job.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Tuesday, April 12, 1949, Vol. XXVII, No. 85, Page 1. lii “Low Offers Total Over $14 Million.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Friday, April 8, 1949. Vol. XXVII, No. 82, Page 1. liii “Nearby Jobs Total Nearly $10 Million.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Monday, April 18, 1949. Vol. XXVII, No. 90, Page 1. liv “Nearby Jobs Total Nearly $10 Million.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Monday, April 18, 1949. Vol. XXVII, No. 90, Page 1. lv “Seattle Firms Bid Low on ANS Hospital.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Tuesday, April 26, 1949. Vol. XXVII, No. 97, Page 1.

358
lvi Fairbanks Daily News Miner. Tuesday, April 26, 1949. Vol. XXVII, No. 97. Page 1.

lvii “Big Apartment Project Here Announced.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Tuesday, July 5, 1949, Vol. XXVII, No. 129, Page 1. lviii “Nearby Jobs Total Nearly $10 Million.” Fairbanks Daily News Miner, Monday, April 18, 1949. Vol. XXVII, No. 90, Page 1.

359
Appendix D: Architects, Post-Period of Significance

360
Architect 

Name

Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source(s) Comm

Arachuete, 

Helena

Lautner 

Associates-Helena 

Arahuette 

Architect

California 1971-

present

Private residence in

Chugach Mountains/East 

Anchorage Hillside

http://www.lautner

associates.com/html

/about.html

work

notes 

resid

Brown, 

Daphne

1948-2011

Crittenden 

Cassetta and 

Cannon Architects 

and Planners, 

Kumin Associates, 

Inc.

Anchorage 1975-

2010

Anchorage Museum 

Expansion project 

manager

https://en.wikipedia

.org/wiki/Daphne_B

rown

work

Alask

Awar

Carlson, 

Michael 

McCool Carlson 

Green (MCG)

Anchorage Ted Stevens Intl New 

Terminal, Alaska Airlines 

Center at UAA, 

Alaska/Yukon Border 

Station

OHA, 

http://mcgalaska.co

m 

Green, 

Douglas 

McCool Carlson 

Green (MCG)

Anchorage 1970sPresentAnchorage’s Latter-Day 

Saints temple, Mountain 

View Library, Anchorage 

Planet Walk

OHA, 

http://mcgalaska.co

m 

Hyer, Terry Terry Hyer 

Architecture 

(1973-1981)

ECI/Hyer (1981 - 

Wasilla, 

Anchorage

1973-

Present

Loussac Library, Eagle 

River Valley School, 

Alaska Rail Road Terminal 

Restoration, Orthodox 

Churches restoration, 

South Anchorage High 

School, Alaska Native 

Medical Center, Homer 

Library

OHA

Jensen, 

Wayne 

Keith 

Ackley and Assoc

Ackley Jensen

Jensen Douglas

Jensen, Yorba, 

Lott

Juneau

Juneau

Juneau

Juneau

1977-

1979

1979-

1985

1985-

1996

Juneau Centennial Hall 

(JV with John Graham, 

79)

Gastineau Salmon 

Hatchery, Juneau (89)

OHA

Jensen, Yorba, Lott

http://www.jenseny

orbalott.com/about

/history.htm

AIA M

Firm 

361
Architect 

Name

Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source(s) Comm

1996-

present

William A Egan Library at 

UAS (90)

Kumin, 

Johnathan 

Phillip

d. 2005

Kumin Associates, 

Inc.

Anchorage 1977-

2005

Benny Benson School 

(ANC), PI for Anchorage 

Museum Expansion

Work in Alaska, 

Antarctica, and Russia

OHA, AIA name 

look-up

AIA m

Awar

Co-au

techn

and b

Lane, 

Roland 

Howard

d ~2005?

Lane+Knorr 

Architects and 

Planners

Anchorage 1986-

present

Student Center Complex, 

University of Alaska, 

Anchorage, Alaska

Gruening Building, 

University of Alaska, 

Fairbanks, Alaska

OHA

http://www.wonder

lane.com/rlane/resu

me.htm

Hoagland 99

AIA m

Nows 

Livingston, 

Thomas W. 

Livingston Sloan. 

Inc.

Anchorage 1975-

Present

Seward Sealife Center, 

UAA Health Sciences 

Bldg, Museum of the 

Aleutians

OHA, AIA name 

look-up

co-fo

AIA m

Minch, 

Robert Allen

Linn Forrest 

Architecture

Minch Ritter 

Forrest 

Minch Ritter 

Voelckers 

MRV Architects

Juneau 1973

1983

1989

2005

OHA, AIA name 

look-up

AIA m

Not i

Work

Plunkett, 

Michael E.

Lane, Korr & 

Plunkett

Juneau

Anchorage

1970- at 

least 1976

1975 AHTNA Hotel in 

Glennallen

OHA, AIA name 

look-up

http://www.consort

iumlibrary.org/times

_project/AHTNA%20

DEVELOPMENT%20

TO%20BUILD%20+%

2010-5-75.pdf

AIA 1

Ritter Minch Ritter 

Forrest 

Juneau 1983

1989

OHA

362
Architect 

Name

Firm Name(s) Location Years Notable Works Source(s) Comm

Minch Ritter 

Voelckers 

MRV Architects

2005-

Present

Slone, Don Livingston Sloan. 

Inc.

Anchorage 1975-

Present

Seward Sealife Center, 

UAA Health Sciences 

Bldg, Museum of the 

Aleutians

OHA co-fo

Voelckers, 

Paul

Minch Ritter 

Forrest 

Minch Ritter 

Voelckers 

MRV Architects

Juneau 1981

1989

2005-

Present

OHA

363