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COVER PHOTOGRAPHS

1

5

9

11

2

7

12

3

6

10

13

4

8

14

1. Asbestos ore

2. Lead ore. Balmat Mine, N. Y.

3. Chromite-chromium ore. Wash.

4. Zinc ore, Friedensville, Pa.

5. Banded iron formation,Palmer, 

Mich.

6. Ribbon asbestos ore, Quebec, Canada

7. Manganese ore, banded 

rhodochrosite

8. Aluminum ore, bauxite, Georgia

9. Native copper ore, Keweenawan 

Peninsula, Mich.

10. Porphyry molybdenum ore, Colo.

11. Zinc ore, Edwards, N. Y.

12. Manganese nodules, ocean floor

13. Botryoidal fluorite ore. 

Poncha Springs, Colo.

14. Tungsten ore, North Carolina
5

World Nonbauxite 

Aluminum Resources 

Excluding Alunite

By JOHN W. HOSTERMAN, SAM H. PATTERSON, and ELIZABETH E. GOOD 

GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1076-C

A compilation of published information on the 

geology and worldwide distribution of 

nonbauxite resources that are potential sources of 

aluminum and on methods for extracting 

alumina from them

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON: 1990
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

MANUEL LUJAN, Jr., Secretary

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Dallas L. Peck, Director

Any use of trade, product, or firm names in this publication is for

descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the

U.S. Government

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Hosterman, John W. (John Wallace), 1923-

World nonbauxite aluminum resources excluding alunite / by John W. Hosterman, Sam H. Patterson, and Elizabeth E. Good.

p. cm. (U.S. Geological Survey professional paper ; 1076-C) 

Includes bibliographical references. 

Supt.ofDocs.no.: I 19.16:1076-C 

1. Aluminum ores. 2. Aluminum ores United States. I. Patterson, Sam H. (Sam Hunting). II. Good, Elizabeth E. III.

Title. IV. Series. 

TN490.A5H67 1990

553.4'926-dc20 89-600402

CIP

For sale by the Books and Open-File Reports Section, U.S. Geological Survey, 

Federal Center, Box 25425, Denver, CO 80225
CONTENTS

Abstract........................................................................... Cl

Introduction...................................................................... 1

History of Research on Nonbauxite Aluminum Resources in the

United States........................................................... 2

Investigations by the U. S. Geological Survey .................. 2

Investigations by the U. S. Bureau of Mines .................... 3

Investigations by State Geological Surveys ...................... 4

Nonbauxite Aluminum Resources......................................... 4

High-Alumina Clay...................................................... 4

United States........................................................ 5

Arkansas........................................................ 5

South Carolina-Georgia-Alabama Kaolin Belt....... 5

Argentina............................................................. 7

Australia.............................................................. 7

Austria................................................................ 7

Brazil.................................................................. 7

Bulgaria............................................................... 8

Czechoslovakia...................................................... 8

Egypt.................................................................. 8

Federal Republic of Germany .................................. 8

France................................................................. 8

German Democratic Republic................................... 8

Guyana and Suriname............................................. 8

India................................................................... 9

Jamaica................................................................ 9

Japan................................................................... 9

Pakistan............................................................... 9

People's Republic of China ..................................... 10

Saudi Arabia........................................................ 10

South Africa........................................................ 10

Spain.................................................................. 10

Tanzania and Other Countries in Africa ................... 10

United Kingdom................................................... 11

U.S.S.R.............................................................. 11

Aluminous Igneous Rocks Anorthosite ......................... 12

United States....................................................... 13

Canada............................................................... 13

Finland............................................................... 14

Greenland............................................................ 14

Norway............................................................... 14

South Korea ........................................................ 14

Sweden............................................................... 14

U.S.S.R.............................................................. 15

Other Countries ................................................... 15

Aluminous Igneous Rocks Nepheline Syenite and

Phonolite.......................................................... 15

United States....................................................... 16

Canada............................................................... 16

Egypt................................................................. 17

Mexico................................................................ 17

Norway............................................................... 17

South Africa........................................................ 18

United Kingdom................................................... 18

U.S.S.R.............................................................. 18

Other Countries ................................................... 21

Nonbauxite Aluminum Resources Continued

Aluminous Igneous Rocks Leucite-Bearing Rocks .......... C21

Dawsonite-Bearing Rocks ........................................... 21

United States....................................................... 22

Geology......................................................... 22

Resources...................................................... 25

Other Countries ................................................... 25

Aluminous Phosphate Rocks......................................... 26

United States....................................................... 26

Senegal............................................................... 26

Other Countries ................................................... 27

Saprolite................................................................... 27

United States....................................................... 28

Southeastern United States.............................. 28

Arkansas....................................................... 29

Oklahoma...................................................... 29

Northwestern United States............................. 29

Hawaii.......................................................... 29

Other Countries ................................................... 30

Aluminous Metamorphic Rocks ..................................... 30

United States....................................................... 31

Canada............................................................... 31

Finland, Sweden, and Norway................................ 32

India.................................................................. 32

South Africa........................................................ 32

U.S.S.R.............................................................. 33

Zimbabwe........................................................... 33

Other Countries ................................................... 33

Aluminous Shale......................................................... 34

United States....................................................... 34

Canada............................................................... 35

Spain.................................................................. 35

Sweden............................................................... 35

Other Countries ................................................... 36

Coal Waste and Coal Ash............................................. 36

United States....................................................... 36

Canada............................................................... 37

United Kingdom................................................... 37

Other Countries ................................................... 37

Miscellaneous Sources of Alumina.................................. 37

Copper Leach Solutions ......................................... 37

Gibbsitic Soils ...................................................... 38

Zunyite............................................................... 38

Alumina Extraction Research............................................. 38

Research Before World War II..................................... 38

U.S. Research During World War II............................. 39

Investigations by U.S. Government Agencies after

World War II.................................................... 40

U.S. Bureau of Mines............................................ 40

Miniplant Studies............................................ 40

Other Studies................................................. 41

U.S. Department of Energy................................... 42

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.................... 42

U.S. Atomic Energy Commission............................ 42

in
IV CONTENTS

Alumina Extraction Research—Continued

Investigations by U.S. Government Agencies after

World War II—Continued 

U.S. National Bureau of Standards.......................... C43

Tennessee Valley Authority ................................... 43

Investigations by Companies ........................................ 43

Aluminum Company of America.............................. 43

Anaconda Aluminum Company-Atlantic Richfield

Company.................................................... 44

Kaiser Aluminum and Chemical Corporation ............. 44

Reynolds Metals Company ..................................... 44

Olin Mathieson Chemical Corporation....................... 44

Aluminium Pechiney ............................................. 44

Alcan International, Ltd........................................ 45

Toth Aluminum Corporation................................... 45

North American Coal Corporation........................... 45

Allied Chemical Corporation................................... 45

Arthur D. Little, Inc............................................. 45

Kennecott Copper Corporation................................ 45

Alumet............................................................... 46

Other Companies.................................................. 46

Investigations by U.S. Colleges and Universities............. 46

Investigations of U.S. Dawsonite .................................. 47

Alumina Extraction Research— Continued

Investigations in Other Countries .....................

Argentina...............................................

Australia................................................

Canada ..................................................

Czechoslovakia........................................

Egypt....................................................

Federal Republic of Germany ....................

German Democratic Republic.....................

Hungary ................................................

Italy... ...................................................

Japan.....................................................

Mexico...................................................

Norway..................................................

Philippines..............................................

Poland ...................................................

Romania.................................................

South Africa ...........................................

South Korea ...........................................

Spain.....................................................

Sweden..................................................

Taiwan...................................................

United Kingdom......................................

U.S.S.R. ................................................

Yugoslavia..............................................

References Cited .................................................

Page

............ C48

............ 48

............ 48

............ 48

............ 49

............ 49

............ 49

............ 49

............ 49

............ 50

............ 50

............ 50

............ 50

............ 51

............ 51

............ 51

............ 51

............ 51

............ 51

............ 51

............ 51

............ 51

............ 52

............ 53

............ 53

ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURES 1-5. Maps showing locations of:

1. Six major kaolin districts in the South Carolina-Georgia-Alabama kaolin belt............................................... C6

2. Major anorthosite deposits in the United States ...................................................................................... 13

3. Maj or nepheline syenite and phonolite deposits in the conterminous United States........................................ 18

4. Nepheline syenite deposits in Ontario and Quebec Provinces, Canada ........................................................ 20

5. Major nepheline syenite deposits in the U.S.S.R., Finland, and Norway ..................................................... 20

6. Map showing the distribution of nahcolite and dawsonite in the Parachute Creek Member of the Green River Formation,

Piceance Creek basin, northwestern Colorado................................................................................................ 24

7. Diagrammatic cross section through the Green River Formation in the Piceance Creek basin, northwestern Colorado..... 25

TABLES

TABLE 1. Nonbauxite aluminum resources used by Japan during World War II—————————————————————————

2. Clays that are derived from Pleistocene volcanic ash and that may be a source of alumina in Japan————————-

3. Major aluminum-bearing materials in the United Kingdom ————————————————————————————————-

4. Chemical composition of some U.S. anorthosites ——————————————————————————————————————

5. Major anorthosite bodies in the United States ———————————————————————————————————————-

6. Nonbauxite sources of alumina in Canada ——————————————————————————————————————————-

7. Mineral composition of nepheline syenite ———————————————————————————————————————————

8. Chemical composition of nepheline syenite from Canada, Norway, and Scotland———————————————————

9. Major nepheline syenite and phonolite deposits in the United States —————————————————————————

10. Mineral composition of samples from four sections of the Parachute Creek Member of the Green River Formation, 

	Piceance Creek basin, northwestern Colorado —————————————————————————————

C9 

9

11

12

12

14

16

16

19

___________ 23
CONTENTS

11. Chemical analyses of seven samples from the aluminum phosphate zone in the Bone Valley Formation, Florida———————— C27

12. Chemical composition ranges of saprolite from Spokane County, Washington———————————————————————————— 29

13. Characteristics of the kyanite-group minerals—————————————————————————————————————————————— 30

14. Typical composition of anthracite culm in Pennsylvania————————————————————————————————————————— 37

15. Ranges in composition of coal-washing rejects in Kentucky and Pennsylvania ———————————————————————————— 44

METRIC CONVERSION FACTORS

This report uses the metric units listed below. To convert to inch-pound units, use the conversion 

factors given below.

Multiply By To obtain

centimeter (cm) 

meter (m) 

kilometer (km)

hectare (ha) 

square kilometer (km2)

liter (L) 

cubic meter (m3)

gram(g) 

metric ton

degree Celsius (°C) 

kilojoule per kilogram (kj/kg)

0.3937 

3.281 

.6214

2.471 

.3861

1.057 

1.308

.03527 

1.102

1.8 and add 32 

.4299

inch 

foot 

mile

acre 

square mile

quart 

cubic yard

ounce 

short ton (2,000 pounds)

degree Fahrenheit 

British thermal unit per pound

GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING

ALUNITE

By JOHN W. HOSTERMAN, SAM H. PATTERSON, and ELIZABETH E. GOOD

ABSTRACT

The nonbauxite resources having the best potential for extraction of 

aluminum are alunite, high-alumina clay, and aluminous igneous rocks; 

those having less potential are dawsonite-bearing rocks, aluminous 

phosphate rocks, saprolite, aluminous metamorphic rocks, aluminous 

shale, coal waste, and coal ash. With the exception of alunite, which 

was discussed in the separately published Chapter A of this Professional Paper, all these resources are discussed in this report.

The high-alumina clays are composed of minerals of the kaolin 

group—kaolinite, halloysite, dickite, and nacrite. Kaolinite is by far the 

most abundant, and it is the major component in a variety of highalumina clays. High-alumina clays have a maximum alumina content of 

about 39 weight percent. However, no large deposits are pure, and 

most high-alumina clay deposits are 25-35 weight percent alumina.

Igneous rocks exceptionally rich in alumina include anorthosite, 

nepheline syenite, phonolite, and leucite-bearing volcanic rocks. U.S. 

anorthosite contains 24-33 weight percent alumina, U.S. nepheline 

syenite contains 17-23 weight percent alumina, and Italian leucitebearing rocks contain 20-22 weight percent alumina.

The mineral dawsonite, which contains 35.4 weight percent alumina, 

occurs in oil shale but makes up no more than 12-25 weight percent of 

the rock. Therefore, any aluminum production from dawsonite must 

depend upon other products from the shale such as oil and soda ash 

derived from nahcolite.

The aluminous phosphate rock associated with phosphate deposits is 

the result of calcium phosphate being leached by meteoric waters. The 

alumina content of such phosphate rock in the United States ranges 

from about 6 to 15 weight percent, and the aluminum phosphate 

minerals make up 20-30 weight percent of the rock. Any aluminum 

production from this rock will depend on the recovery of other products 

such as phosphate and uranium. The Thies region, Senegal, is the only 

place in the world where significant tonnages of aluminum phosphate 

are mined.

Saprolite is a decomposed rock formed in place by subaerial chemical 

weathering of any kind of rock; it retains the original structure and 

texture of the parent rock. Some saprolite is similar in chemical and 

mineral composition to high-alumina clay, and some saprolite contains 

gibbsite replacing kaolinite. Generally, saprolite that is a potential 

resource of alumina contains 20-38 weight percent alumina.

Aluminous metamorphic rocks contain the minerals kyanite, sillimanite, andalusite, topaz, or dumortierite. These minerals contain 55-64

Manuscript approved for publication, November 3, 1989.

weight percent alumina. Aluminous metamorphic rocks may contain as 

much as 40 weight percent kyanite-group minerals, but generally they 

contain less than 15 weight percent.

Aluminous shales are sedimentary rocks formed by the consolidation 

of clay- and silt-sized material. Almost all shales contain some quartz 

and the clay minerals illite, kaolinite, and (or) smectite. The alumina 

content of shale that is a potential resource of alumina ranges from 20 

to 40 weight percent.

Aluminous coal waste includes the claystone and shale removed from 

the coal during beneficiation by washing and shale or slate above the 

coal that is removed during the mining. Fly ash, the fine material, and 

other forms of ash collected from a coal-burning powerplant's combustion system are also aluminous and are potential sources of alumina. 

Some of these materials have an alumina content of about 30 weight 

percent, and because of the enormous amount of coal mined and burned 

annually, they represent a large potential resource of alumina.

Miscellaneous sources of alumina include copper leach solutions that 

have been used to extract copper from many of the porphyry copper 

mining operations. The U.S. Bureau of Mines estimated, before the 

closing of many U.S. copper mines, that 500,000 metric tons of alumina 

per year could have been produced in the United States from copper 

leach solutions. Other materials that have been considered sources of 

alumina are the gibbsitic soils of the U.S. Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico 

Coastal Plains and zunyite in Nevada. There are no estimates on the 

amount of alumina that these materials would yield.

None of the potential resources of aluminum are being exploited 

today in the United States. Currently, U.S. needs for alumina are met 

by bauxite from Arkansas and from imports.

INTRODUCTION

This report provides information on potential nonbauxite aluminum resources excluding alunite. It is the 

third, and last, of a series of reports on the resources of 

aluminum. These reports are separately published by the 

U.S. Geological Survey as Professional Papers 1076-A, 

B, and C. World bauxite resources were summarized in 

Chapter B (Patterson and others, 1986), and alunite 

resources were summarized in Chapter A (Hall, 1978). 

These three reports were prepared in response to the 

increasing demands for information on world aluminum 

resources that have resulted from the increased dependCl
C2 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

ence of the United States on foreign sources for bauxite. 

Domestic reserves of bauxite are not sufficient to supply 

U.S. aluminum needs; therefore, the United States must 

rely on imports of bauxite, alumina (A1203), and aluminum until the production of aluminum from nonbauxite 

sources becomes economical. This report, which emphasizes the United States, summarizes published information on the worldwide distribution and geology of materials containing sufficient alumina to be considered 

alternate sources of alumina were bauxite to become 

unavailable.

The nonbauxite resources (excluding alunite) having 

the best potential for extraction of alumina are highalumina clay and aluminous igneous rocks; those having 

less potential are dawsonite-bearing rocks, aluminous 

phosphate rocks, saprolite, aluminous metamorphic 

rocks, aluminous shale, coal waste, and coal ash. Highalumina clay is any clay containing an appreciable 

amount of aluminum that can be extracted as alumina. 

The common clay minerals that are high in alumina are 

members of the kaolin group, and the terms "kaolin" and 

"high-alumina clay" are used interchangeably. Igneous 

rocks exceptionally rich in aluminum include anorthosite, 

nepheline syenite, phonolite, and leucite-bearing volcanic rocks. Dawsonite, a hydrous sodium and aluminum 

carbonate mineral that contains 35.4 weight1 percent 

alumina or 18.7 percent aluminum, is in the oil shale of 

the Green River Formation in Colorado. Aluminous 

phosphate rocks are the result of leaching and alteration 

by meteoric waters of phosphate deposits. Saprolite is a 

decomposed product of subaerial chemical weathering of 

any kind of rock in place; its principal aluminous minerals 

are of the kaolin group. Aluminous metamorphic rocks 

contain the kyanite-group minerals (kyanite, sillimanite, 

andalusite, topaz, and dumortierite), which contain 

55-64 percent alumina. Aluminous shale and alum shale 

are fine-grained sedimentary rocks that contain enough 

alumina (20-40 percent) to be considered a potential 

resource. The recovery of alumina from coal waste and 

coal ash has received attention in many countries because 

the alumina content can be about 30 percent and because 

so much of this material is available. Alunite is mentioned only briefly in this report because it was discussed 

in detail by Hall (1978).

This report begins with a brief history of investigations of U.S. nonbauxite aluminum resources. The main 

part of the report is a discussion of each resource and the 

worldwide distribution of its potentially economic deposits. The last part of this report is a partial compilation of 

the enormous amount of research done to find the best 

method for extracting alumina from nonbauxite material. 

After a brief history, this compilation is organized by

*A11 percentages are by weight unless otherwise specified.

investigator, such as U.S. government agencies, U.S. 

and international companies, and U.S. colleges and universities. The compilation ends with a summary of 

extraction research in other countries. Our expertise is 

in geology, not metallurgy, but we gathered the scattered extraction data to provide future researchers with 

a background on the work available as a basis for further 

experiments.

HISTORY OF RESEARCH ON NONBAUXITE

ALUMINUM RESOURCES IN THE UNITED

STATES

INVESTIGATIONS BY THE U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

High-alumina clay.—The U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS) investigated many high-alumina clay deposits 

during World War II, including those in the following 

areas:

Cowlitz County, Washington (Nichols, 1945); 

King County, Washington (Nichols, 1946); 

Spokane County, Washington (Scheid, 1946, 1947;

Hosterman and others, 1960); 

Molalla, Clackamas County, Oregon (Nichols, 1944); 

Hobart Butte, Lane County, Oregon (Alien and

others, 1951);

Latah County, Idaho (Scheid and Sohn, 1946; Hosterman and others, 1960);

Clearfield County, Pennsylvania (Foose, 1944); and 

Allegany and Garrett Counties, Maryland (Waage,

1950).

During and after World War II, the USGS also investigated high-alumina clay deposits associated with bauxite in the Southern and Southeastern States in the 

following areas:

Pulaski and Saline Counties, Arkansas (Tracey,

1944; Gordon and others, 1958); 

Tippah-Benton district, Mississippi (Tourtelot,

1964);

parts of eastern Mississippi exclusive of the TippahBenton district (Conant, 1965);

Margerum district, Alabama (Bergquist and Overstreet, 1965);

northeastern Alabama (Denson and Waage, 1966);

Anniston, Fort Payne, and Ashville areas, Alabama 

(Cloud, 1966);

Rock Run and Goshen Valley areas, Alabama 

(Cloud, 1967);

Eufaula district, Alabama (Warren and Clark, 1965);

northwestern Georgia (White and Denson, 1966);

Warm Springs district, Georgia (White, 1965);

Springvale district, Georgia (Clark, 1965);

Andersonville district, Georgia (Zapp, 1943, 1949,

1965);
WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C3

areas adjacent to and between the Springvale and 

Andersonville districts, Georgia (Zapp and Clark, 

1965);

Irwinton district, Georgia (Warren, 1943; Thompson, 1944a, b; Lang and others, 1965); 

central and eastern Tennessee (Dunlap and others,

1965); and

western Virginia (Warren and others, 1965). 

After World War II, the USGS investigations of 

high-alumina clay continued in the following areas: 

eastern Washington (Hosterman, 1969a); 

Front Range, Colorado (Waage, 1953, 1961); 

Jackson Purchase region, Kentucky (Olive and

Finch, 1969); 

eastern Kentucky (Huddle and Patterson, 1961;

Patterson and Hosterman, 1962); 

Andersonville district, Georgia (Gofer and others,

1976; Gofer and Manker, 1983); 

Macon-Gordon area, Georgia (Buie and others,

1979); and 

Mount Holly Springs, Pennsylvania (Hosterman,

1969b, 1984).

The USGS published a map of alumina resources in the 

Columbia River Basin, Northwestern United States 

(Sohn, 1952), and a map and bibliography of high-alumina 

clay deposits in the United States exclusive of Alaska 

and Hawaii (Mark, 1963). Murray and Patterson (1976) 

summarized kaolin, ball-clay, and fire-clay resources in 

the United States and later expanded their study area 

when they (Patterson and Murray, 1984) summarized 

kaolin, refractory-clay, ball-clay, and halloysite resources in North America, Hawaii, and the Caribbean region. 

Aluminous phosphate rocks. —The work by the USGS 

on aluminous phosphate deposits consisted of chemical 

and mineralogical investigations (Altschuler and others, 

1956) and geologic studies (Cathcart and Houser, 1950; 

Cathcart and others, 1953; McKelvey and others, 1953; 

Cathcart, 1963; Espenshade and Spencer, 1963).

Aluminous igneous rocks.— The USGS also studied 

the resources of the igneous rocks that have been considered potential sources of alumina. The earliest work 

included study of nepheline-bearing rocks in the Little 

Belt Mountains, Montana (Weed and Pirsson, 1900); 

potash-bearing rocks in the Leucite Hills, Wyoming 

(Schultz and Cross, 1912); phonolite in the Black Hills, 

South Dakota (Darton and Paige, 1925); and anorthosite 

near Chester, Pennsylvania (Bascom and Stose, 1938). 

The more recent work includes reports on the anorthosite deposits in northern Idaho (Hietanen, 1963); the 

Stillwater Complex, Montana (Jones and others, 1960); 

the Laramie Range, Wyoming (Hagner, 1951; Newhouse 

and Hagner, 1957); and Roseland, Virginia (Herz, 1968; 

Herz and Force, 1984).

Nepheline syenite occurrences were studied in the 

following areas:

Selawik Hills, Alaska (Patton and Miller, 1968;

Miller, 1972);

Granite Mountain, Alaska (Miller, 1972); 

St. Lawrence Island, Alaska (Csejtey and Patton,

1974); 

Shasket Creek, Washington (Parker and Calkins,

1964); 

Lincoln County, Oregon (Snavely and Wagner,

1961); 

Tin Mountain, Inyo County, California (McAllister,

1952); 

Bearpaw Mountains, Montana (Pecora, 1942; Hearn

and others, 1964); 

McClure Mountain, Colorado (Parker and Hildebrand, 1963);

Cornudas Mountains, New Mexico (Holser, 1959); 

Terlingua district, Big Bend area, Texas (Yates and

Thompson, 1959); 

Arkansas bauxite district (Gordon and others, 1958);

and

Magnet Cove, Arkansas (Erickson and Blade, 1963). 

Dawsonite-bearing rocks.— USGS studies of dawsonite from the Piceance Creek basin, Colorado, as a souree 

of aluminum include those by Donnell (1961), Hite and 

Dyni (1967), Dyni and Hite (1968), Hosterman and Dyni 

(1972), Dyni (1974, 1980), and Donnell and Smith (1980). 

USGS research resulted in two U.S. patents for extracting alumina from dawsonite in oil shale (Hite, 1969; Dyni, 

1972); they were assigned to the Secretary of the Interior.

INVESTIGATIONS BY THE U.S. BUREAU OF MINES

The U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM) and the USGS 

conducted many joint and separate investigations of 

nonbauxite aluminum resources during World War II. 

Most of this work was on high-alumina clay, but anorthosite and alunite were also investigated. Much of the 

USBM's work on high-alumina clay resources was published in more than 450 War Minerals Reports between 

1942 and 1945. In 1953, the USBM, with the cooperation 

of the USGS, prepared a materials survey on bauxite for 

the National Security Resources Board (U.S. Bureau of 

Mines, 1953). The report has a chapter on bauxite 

substitutes and includes numerous additional references 

on nonbauxite resources and the methods of alumina 

recovery used before and during World War II. The joint 

work by the USGS and USBM on the alunite deposits 

was summarized by Hall (1978).

An extensive drilling program by the USBM in the 

Arkansas bauxite region revealed that large highalumina clay deposits are associated with the bauxite. 

These data were published in 18 reports by Malamphy
C4 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

and others (1948). The USBM also conducted several 

drilling projects in the South Carolina-Georgia-Alabama 

kaolin belt during the 1940's (Alien, 1949; Beck, 1949a-c; 

KM. Smith, 1949). The USBM contracted for the Georgia Institute of Technology to determine the alumina 

content of 120 kaolin samples from company drill holes in 

Georgia; 79 samples were from the Wrens district, 40 

were from the Macon-Sandersville district, and 1 sample 

was from the Andersonville district (Husted, 1983).

The USBM did extensive work, both resource 

research and extraction research, on the anorthosite 

deposits of the Laramie Range, Wyoming (St. Clair and 

others, 1959), and of the San Gabriel Mountains, California (Lundquist, 1963). Much of what is presently known 

of the potential aluminum resource of dawsonite in the 

Piceance Creek basin, Colorado, was compiled by the 

USBM (J.W. Smith and Milton, 1966; J.W. Smith and 

Young, 1969, 1975; J.W. Smith and others, 1972; Beard 

and others, 1974; Beard and Smith, 1976; J.W. Smith, 

1980). Other nonbauxite sources of aluminum investigated by the USBM include saprolite (Beg, 1982, 1984), 

coal-mine waste (Sorensen and Schaller, 1983), and copper leach solutions (George and others, 1968).

INVESTIGATIONS BY STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS

Several State geological surveys have investigated the 

nonbauxite aluminum resources in their respective 

States. The Geological Survey of Alabama studied kaolin 

associated with bauxite in the Eufaula district (Clarke, 

1972), kaolin in the Tuscaloosa Group (Clarke, 1964), and 

gibbsite in saprolite (Beg, 1984) and mapped the aluminous waste dumps that result from strip mining coal in 

Tuscaloosa County (Beg and others, 1978). The North 

Dakota Geological Survey investigated the alumina 

potential of three formations in the western part of the 

State (Hansen, 1959).

Other State geological surveys that have investigated 

high-alumina clays include those in the States listed 

below:

State Reference

Arkansas. 

California. 

Florida... 

Georgia ..

Illinois

Kansas........

Kentucky......

Maryland......

Minnesota .....

Missouri.......

Nebraska......

New York.....

North Carolina.

Williams and Plummer, 1951.

Cleveland, 1957a, b.

Calver, 1949.

Smith, 1929; Munyan, 1938; Hetrick, 1982; Hetrick

and Friddell, 1982, 1983a, b. 

Grim and Alien, 1938; Lamar, 1948; White, 1959;

Odom and Parham, 1968. 

Plummer and Romary, 1947. 

Crider, 1913. 

Waage, 1950. 

Parham, 1970. 

McQueen, 1943. 

Gould and Fisher, 1901. 

Brownell and others, 1951. 

Parker, 1946.

State—Continued Reference—Continued

Ohio ............ Stout and others, 1923.

Pennsylvania .... Leighton, 1941; Bolger and Weitz, 1952; Pennsylvania Geological Survey, 1964; O'Neill and others, 1965; Hoover and others, 1971.

South Dakota .... Gries, 1942; Rothrock, 1944.

Virginia......... Calver, Hamlin, and Wood, 1961; Calver, Smith,

and LeVan, 1964; Johnson and others, 1965; 

Johnson and Tyrrell, 1967; Sweet, 1973.

Washington...... Glover, 1941; Livingston, 1971.

West Virginia.... Tallon and Hunter, 1959.

The Minnesota Geological Survey (Grout and 

Schwartz, 1939) and the Wyoming Geological Survey 

(Hagner, 1951) published reports on the anorthosite 

deposits within their respective States. The Illinois 

Geological Survey made a comprehensive review of the 

literature on fly ash (Roy and others, 1981) and proposed 

a classification system that should aid in research efforts 

and environmental control.

Research on processes for the extraction of alumina 

from clays has also been done by some State geological 

surveys. The Illinois Geological Survey investigated the 

lime and lime-soda sinter processes for the extraction of 

alumina from several types of clay minerals (Grim and 

others, 1945). Two different processes for the extraction 

of alumina from clays in Kansas were investigated by the 

Kansas Geological Survey (Kinney, 1943; Waugh and 

others, 1964).

The State of Georgia offered an award of $250,000 to 

the first company to build an alumina-extraction plant to 

process 300,000 metric tons per day from the large kaolin 

deposits within the State (Metals Sourcebook, 1974).

NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES

HIGH-ALUMINA CLAY

High-alumina clay is any clay containing an appreciable amount of aluminum that can be extracted as alumina. The common clay minerals that are high in alumina 

are members of the kaolin group, and the terms "kaolin" 

and "high-alumina clay" are used interchangeably. Kaolinite, Al2Si205 (OH)4 , has a theoretical composition of 

A1203 , 39.5 percent; Si02 , 46.5 percent; and H20, 14.0 

percent; it is by far the most common mineral of the 

kaolin group. The other minerals in the kaolin group, not 

discussed in any detail here, are halloysite, dickite, and 

nacrite.

Kaolinite is the major constituent in a variety of 

high-alumina clays, such as ball clay, fire clay, and 

underclay. Ball clay is a secondary clay that contains 

organic matter, is highly plastic, has a high dry strength 

and long vitrification range, and is light colored when 

fired. Fire clay is resistant to heat at temperatures as
WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C5

high as 1,520 °C and is usually slightly darker than ball 

clay when fired. Underclay normally underlies a coal or 

peat bed. Underclay is generally nonbedded and slickensided, fractures irregularly, and contains imprints of 

plant roots. Underclay is also called "seat earth" in 

England and is very similar to the material called "Tonstein" in German.

High-alumina clays in one form or another occur in 

most countries. In the following discussions, no attempt 

will be made to list or even summarize all of the world's 

high-alumina clay resources. Most of the discussions will 

be limited to those resources that have been investigated 

as potential sources of alumina or that are large enough 

to supply an alumina-extraction plant for many years. A 

realistic potential resource should contain at least 100 

million metric tons of high-alumina clay.

UNITED STATES

The United States has many deposits of high-alumina 

clays. The extensive kaolin deposits in Arkansas and the 

kaolin belt of South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama have 

by far the greatest potential for nonbauxite aluminum 

resources in the United States, and only they are discussed in this report. The Aluminum Company of America and Reynolds Metals Company own property in 

Arkansas, and four major aluminum companies control 

property in the South Carolina-Georgia-Alabama kaolin 

belt (Mining Journal, 1977). In both regions, the kaolin 

occurs in large areas that can be mined by inexpensive 

open-pit methods.

Many other high-alumina clay deposits throughout the 

United States are much smaller and lower grade and 

would probably be more costly to mine. During and after 

World War II, these deposits were investigated by the 

USGS and USBM as summarized above. Results were 

given in reports by Sohn (1952), the USBM (1953), 

Patterson (1967), Murray and Patterson (1976), Patterson and Murray (1984), and Hosterman (1984) and in 

other reports listed in the bibliography by Mark (1963).

ARKANSAS

The principal high-alumina clay deposits in Arkansas 

are associated with the bauxite deposits that fringe the 

buried nepheline syenite hills in Pulaski and Saline 

Counties (Gordon and others, 1958, p. 255). The bauxite 

bodies grade both laterally and vertically through bauxitic clay into the enclosing large masses of kaolin clay. 

These clays and the bauxite are a facies of the Berger 

Formation, the lower formation of the Wilcox Group of 

early Eocene age. The bauxite-kaolin zone attains a 

maximum thickness of 24 m, but in most places, it does 

not exceed 18 m. The typical kaolin zone in these deposits 

contains more than 35 percent A1203 , less than 45 percent Si02 , and less than 5 percent Fe208 . The clay is 

chiefly kaolinite, and the principal impurities are siderite, limonite, ilmenite, and carbonaceous material; biotite 

is common locally. According to a conservative estimate, 

the Arkansas bauxite region contains at least 100 million 

metric tons of kaolin that is covered by less than 15 m of 

overburden (Tracey, 1944); presumably, additional 

larger resources exist under greater thicknesses of overburden.

Numerous kaolin deposits also occur in a broad belt of 

Wilcox Group rocks extending southwest of the Arkansas bauxite region in parts of Grant, Hot Springs, Dallas, 

Ouachita, and Miller Counties (Williams and Plummer, 

1951). The clay in this belt is in lenses ranging in 

thickness from 15 cm to 9 m and in areal extent from a 

few square meters to 16 ha or more. The clay lenses are 

enclosed by beds of chiefly unconsolidated sandstone, 

which contain appreciable quantities of lignite. Part of 

the clay is pure, and part is contaminated with silt, sand, 

and lignite. One sample examined by R.E. Grim consisted chiefly of kaolinite but also contained montmorillonite and quartz (Williams and Plummer, 1951, p. 6).

The Arkansas bauxite region and the belt of Wilcox 

Group rocks extending southwest of the bauxite region 

are estimated to contain 545 million metric tons of kaolin 

having an average alumina content of about 31 percent 

(U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1967, p. 38). This estimate is 

based on references cited in the foregoing two paragraphs and on the results of an extensive drilling program described in 18 U.S. Bureau of Mines Reports of 

Investigations (Malamphy and others, 1948).

SOUTH CAROLINA-GEORGIA-ALABAMA KAOLIN BELT

The South Carolina-Georgia-Alabama kaolin belt 

extends for nearly 400 km from Aiken, S.C., to Eufaula, 

Ala. There are six major districts within this belt; from 

northeast to southwest, they are Augusta-Aiken, 

Wrens, Sandersville, Macon-Gordon, Andersonville, and 

Eufaula (fig. 1). All the kaolin deposits are in sedimentary rocks, and, except for a small outlier at Warm 

Springs, Ga., all are in the Coastal Plain. This belt is the 

world's leading producer of sedimentary kaolin, and 

more than 100 million metric tons of kaolin have been 

mined. Our description of this belt is derived mostly from 

that by Patterson and Murray (1984).

The resources of kaolin in the South CarolinaGeorgia-Alabama kaolin belt are estimated to be 7 

billion-10 billion metric tons (Patterson and Murray, 

1984, p. 7). This estimate may prove to be very conservative because meaningful estimates are available for only 

three of the six major districts in the kaolin belt.

The kaolin deposits in the South Carolina-GeorgiaAlabama belt are of Late Cretaceous and early Tertiary
C6 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

EXPLANATION

I.'.':.-!:.':) Lower Tertiary outcrops 

^^^ Upper Cretaceous outcrops

\AUGUSTA, GA.- 

\AIKEN, S.C. f:_

100 KILOMETERS

FIGURE 1.—Six major kaolin districts in the South CarolinaGeorgia-Alabama kaolin belt. Modified from Patterson and Murray 

(1984, fig. 3).

ages. Deposits of Late Cretaceous age occur in the 

Augusta-Aiken district, in the western part of the Sandersville district, and in the Macon-Gordon district. The 

kaolin deposits of this age are scattered throughout a 

wedge-shaped Upper Cretaceous sand unit that thickens 

downdip toward the ocean; more than 335 m of this unit 

was penetrated by a drill hole near Tarversville, Ga. 

(Buie and others, 1979, p. 8). Updip, the Upper Cretaceous sand unit is truncated by erosion.

Kaolin deposits of early Tertiary age, which are larger 

than the Upper Cretaceous deposits, occur in all six 

major districts (fig. 1). The Tertiary strata containing 

the kaolin are similar in lithology to the underlying 

Upper Cretaceous beds. The Cretaceous-Tertiary contact is unconformable, and at several localities, the 

Tertiary beds extend over pre-Cretaceous crystalline 

rocks.

Warm Springs district, Georgia.—The Warm Springs 

district contains small kaolin deposits dated as Paleocene 

by pollen studies (N.O. Frederiksen, oral commun., 

1979). The deposits probably are mined out, and little is 

known about them other than that they were associated 

with small gibbsitic bauxite deposits in a downfaulted 

block of Tertiary sediments surrounded by crystalline

rocks of the Piedmont region (White, 1965). The geographic location of the Warm Springs district strongly 

suggests that kaolin deposits were widespread north of 

Andersonville before extensive erosion of Tertiary and 

Upper Cretaceous beds.

Augusta, Ga.-Aiken, S.C., district.—Deposits in the 

Aiken district, South Carolina, were investigated by the 

U.S. Geological Survey (Lang and others, 1940), and 200 

coreholes were drilled by the U.S. Bureau of Mines 

(K.M. Smith, 1949). Buie and Schrader (1982) completed 

more recent work in this district and found that most of 

the kaolin produced there is from the lower Tertiary 

Huber Formation, which is equivalent to the Claiborne 

Formation. Kaolin in the Augusta district, Georgia, was 

described by R.W. Smith (1929, p. 389-407). Resource 

estimates are not available.

Wrens district, Georgia.—The kaolin in the Wrens 

district is believed to be Eocene in age (Husted, 1983, p. 

10). Husted (1983) estimated the kaolin under less than 

55 m of overburden in the Wrens district to be 5.4 billion 

metric tons of material averaging 35.5 percent alumina. 

The study also revealed that the kaolin occurs as a single 

continuous body having an average thickness of 7.6 m 

and underlying 490 km2 .

Sandersville district, Georgia.—The western part of 

the Sandersville district and the eastern part of the 

Macon-Gordon district were included in the Irwinton 

district of Lang and others (1965). This area also was 

studied by Warren (1943) and Thompson (1944a, b) and 

was drilled by the U.S. Bureau of Mines (Beck, 1949b). 

More recently, deposits in the Sandersville district were 

investigated by the Georgia Geologic Survey (Hetrick, 

1982; Hetrick and Friddell, 1982, 1983a, b).

The commercial-grade kaolin in this district occurs in 

the Eocene Huber Formation and in the undifferentiated 

Cretaceous sediments (Hetrick and Friddell, 1983a). 

Resource estimates are not available.

Macon-Gordon district, Georgia.—Early studies of 

the Macon-Gordon district are mentioned under the 

Sandersville district above. More recent work has been 

done by Buie (1978), Buie and others (1979), and Husted 

(1983).

The lower Tertiary strata of the Macon-Gordon district 

are in the Huber Formation (Buie, 1978), which is typical 

of a tidal-flat environment of deposition. Channel-fill 

deposits are abundant, and most of the formation is 

intricately crossbedded. Ilmenite and other dark heavy 

minerals are abundant and are concentrated along bedding planes. Lignitic clays, which contain pollen, occur at 

many places, usually as single beds or as restricted 

lenses. Rounded boulders of pisolitic kaolin and gibbsitic 

kaolin, ranging in diameter from a few centimeters to 

more than 2 m, are present in the upper part of the
WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C7

formation at many places. Many of these boulders are 

enclosed in sand, and they clearly indicate a high-energy 

environment of deposition.

Buie and others (1979, p. 31) estimated the total kaolin 

resources in the Macon-Gordon district to be greater 

than 100 million metric tons. Subeconomic resources 

were estimated to be an additional 700 million-900 million metric tons and undiscovered kaolin resources to be 

700 million-1 billion metric tons. Accordingly, the total 

kaolin resources in the Macon-Gordon district are estimated to be 1.5 billion-2 billion metric tons.

Andersonville district, Georgia.—During World War 

II, the U.S. Geological Survey investigated kaolin and 

bauxite in the Andersonville district (Zapp, 1943, 1949, 

1965), in the Springvale district (Clark, 1965), and in 

areas adjacent to and between the Springvale and the 

Andersonville districts (Zapp and Clark, 1965). The 

Springvale district, Georgia, is southwest of the Andersonville district. The U.S. Bureau of Mines drilled 1,192 

coreholes in the Andersonville district (Beck, 1949a) and 

388 coreholes in the Springvale district (Beck, 1949c). 

The kaolin deposits occur in the Paleocene Nanafalia 

Formation (N.O. Frederiksen, oral commun., 1979). The 

geology of the district was described by Gofer and 

Manker (1983).

A computerized study of approximately 2,500 drillhole records for the Andersonville district (Gofer and 

others, 1976, table 1) indicated reserves to be 290 million 

metric tons of kaolin containing 30-35 percent alumina. 

The study also indicated the presence of an equal amount 

of subeconomic sandy kaolin. Therefore, the total 

resource of kaolin was estimated to be 580 million metric 

tons.

Eufaula district, Georgia and Alabama.— During 

World War II, the U.S. Geological Survey (Warren and 

Clark, 1965) and the U.S. Bureau of Mines (Alien, 1949) 

investigated kaolin in the Eufaula district. The Geological Survey of Alabama (Clarke, 1972) and the refractories industry (Jones, 1972; Burst, 1974) also investigated 

the Eufaula district. The kaolin deposits occur in the 

Paleocene Nanafalia Formation (N.O. Frederiksen, oral 

commun., 1979). Resource estimates are not available.

ARGENTINA

Although information on the size of kaolin resources in 

Argentina is unavailable, kaolin deposits are known to 

occur at many places (N.I. Rosy, written commun., 

1980). The deposits in central Neuquen Province apparently are the largest, and they were once considered to 

be the potential source of raw material for a proposed 

plant to extract alumina from kaolin (Engineering and 

Mining Journal, 1954). This kaolin is of sedimentary 

origin and was transported from a region of weathered

basalt. Kaolin deposits in Chubut Province are also 

significant. The largest of these deposits consists of 

residual kaolin from pyroclastic volcanic rocks; other 

deposits were formed by hydrothermal alteration.

AUSTRALIA

Australia has many kaolin deposits. Gaskin (1969) 

listed the following occurrences: 36 in weathered granite 

and related rocks, 32 in kaolinized metamorphic rocks, 30 

in kaolinized dike rocks, and 15 in kaolinized sedimentary 

rocks. Gaskin and others (1979) discussed the following 

six kaolin districts that presumably contain the most 

important kaolin deposits in Australia: (1) Gabbin, Western Australia, (2) Imbitch, South Australia, (3) Crawford, South Australia, (4) Gulong, New South Wales, (5) 

Pittong, Victoria, and (6) Egerton, Victoria. More recent 

work by Murray (1984) outlined very extensive kaolin 

deposits underlying the bauxite in the large Weipa 

district of Queensland. However, interest in recovering 

alumina from clay is unlikely to develop because Australia's bauxite reserves are measured in billions of 

metric tons.

AUSTRIA

The kaolin deposits of Austria occur on a deeply eroded 

and peneplained basement complex of granite and metamorphic rocks (Holzer and Wieden, 1969). The principal 

deposits occur at Kriechbaum and Weinzierl near the city 

of Schwertberg in Upper Austria and at Mallersbach and 

Niederfladnitz near the city of Retz in Lower Austria. 

These residual deposits formed by weathering, and they 

contain 35-45 percent kaolinite (Grim, 1979, p. 198). 

According to Vachtl (1969, p. 14), the kaolin resources 

of Austria are greater than 100 million metric tons. 

However, the small areas occupied by kaolinized rock 

(Holzer and Wieden, 1969, p. 27) make Vachtl's estimates suspect.

BRAZIL

Several large sedimentary kaolin deposits have been 

discovered in the Amazon Basin of Brazil (Souza Santos, 

1976; Azevedo Branco, 1984). One district is along the 

Capim River about 240 km by road south of Belem, the 

capital of the State of Para. It contains an estimated 560 

million metric tons (Souza Santos, 1976). A second district is in Amapa Territory in the valley of the Jari River, 

which flows into the Amazon River from the north. The 

kaolin in this district is presently being mined for use in 

the manufacture of paper and ceramics. Resources of 

kaolin in the Jari district are estimated at 100 million 

metric tons (Souza Santos, 1976). The third district is at 

Ananindeua, near Belem, in Para State. Approximately
C8 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

2 million metric tons of kaolin are mined there annually 

(Azevedo Branco, 1984). A reference clay sample (IPT28) from a deposit in this district contains 95 percent 

kaolinite and 5 percent quartz (Hosterman and others, 

1987, p. 4). The large kaolin resources of the Amazon 

Basin have little foreseeable value as an alumina 

resource because of the large resources of bauxite that 

also are present.

BULGARIA

Numerous deposits of sandy kaolin in karst depressions occupy a total area of 3,000 km2 in northeastern 

Bulgaria between the towns of Russe and Varna 

(Manolov and others, 1969). Of the kaolin deposits, 30-60 

percent are white, pale pink, and cream and contain less 

than 1.2 percent Fe203 . According to Vachtl (1969, p. 

15), the kaolin resources of Bulgaria are greater than 100 

million metric tons. The average kaolinite content is 

18-25 percent (Grim, 1979, p. 198).

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

Kaolinized granites and arkoses are widespread in 

western Bohemia and southern Moravia, Czechoslovakia. Kuzvart (1969a, p. 71) estimated that the country 

has 163 million metric tons of known kaolin reserves, 370 

million metric tons of probable reserves, and more than 

1 billion metric tons of "prognostic" reserves. These 

reserve estimates are for material containing 10-25 

percent alumina (Grim, 1979, p. 199).

EGYPT

During 1966-68, the Egyptian Geological Survey, in 

cooperation with Soviet experts, examined most of the 

known clay deposits in Egypt for nonbauxite sources of 

aluminum (Amer and others, 1970). The largest kaolin 

resources known at the time of these investigations were 

those in the Upper Cretaceous Budra deposits in the 

west-central Sinai. The probable reserves in these 

deposits are as follows: 23.4 million metric tons containing 32-35 percent alumina and 79.0 million metric tons 

containing 27-32 percent alumina. The kaolin resources 

in the other deposits investigated were much smaller 

than the probable reserves in the Budra deposits.

Other kaolin deposits in Egypt that have been investigated as possible sources of alumina occur at Wadi 

Kalabsha, about 105 km southwest of Aswan (Shaaban, 

1971; El Badry and others, 1981). These deposits occur as 

a member of the Nubia Formation. Resources were 

estimated by El Ramly and others (1971, p. 19) to be 9.4 

million metric tons of pisolitic kaolin, 6.6 million metric 

tons of concretionary kaolin, and 0.5 million metric tons 

of plastic kaolin.

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

Kaolin deposits occur at several places in the Federal 

Republic of Germany (Lippert and others, 1969). The 

deposits most favorable for the extraction of alumina are 

those in Bavaria that were investigated by the Vereinigte Aluminium-Werke A.-G. (Belsky and others, 1981). 

These deposits are of Tertiary age; they formed by the 

transportation of clay from weathered granite into the 

Naab Valley. The deposits are estimated to contain more 

than 200 million metric tons of kaolin and are present 

chiefly in an area 20x20 km. The calcined kaolin contains 

26-32 percent A1203, 55-65 percent Si02 , 2.5-5 percent 

Fe203 , 1.0-1.5 percent Ti02 , 0.2-1.5 percent CaO, 

0.4-2.5 percent MgO, and 1.8-2.5 percent K20.

FRANCE

About 80 percent of the kaolin production in France 

comes from several areas in Brittany where kaolinized 

granitic rocks contain 25-45 percent kaolinite (Grim, 

1979, p. 199). Numerous small kaolin deposits also occur 

around the Massif Central (Damiani and Trautmann, 

1969). Total kaolin reserves in France are greater than 

100 million metric tons (Vachtl, 1969, p. 14).

GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

The largest kaolin resources in the German Democratic Republic are along the north side of Mittelgeberge 

(Storr and others, 1969), which is in the southwestern 

part of the country. Kaolin extends in a belt 10-50 km 

wide. Many deposits are present as residual kaolin on 

weathered granite and arkose (Grim, 1979, p. 199). 

According to Storr and others (1969), the kaolinite 

content of the residual rocks in the Mittelgeberge belt 

ranges from 15 to 35 percent. The total kaolin resources 

in the country exceed 100 million metric tons (Vachtl, 

1969, p. 14).

GUYANA AND SURINAME

Large kaolin deposits are closely associated with highgrade bauxite in the Coastal Plain of Guyana and in the 

central and eastern parts of Suriname. The sedimentary 

kaolin is of Late Cretaceous to early Eocene age, and the 

interval of bauxite formation was from early Eocene to 

early Oligocene. Authorities agree that the kaolin beds 

are the immediate parent material of the bauxite, and 

Kersen (1956, p. 326) has presented mineralogical evidence supporting this theory. A description of these 

deposits by Moses and Michell (1963) shows that the 

kaolin is thicker than the bauxite and underlies it. The 

total bauxite reserves in Guyana and Suriname are 

estimated at 1.275 billion metric tons (Patterson and 

others, 1986, table 12), and the kaolin resources associ-
WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C9

ated with the bauxite probably are at least as large as the 

bauxite resources. Furthermore, thick kaolin deposits 

have been found in the swampy areas of the Coastal Plain 

of central and western Suriname where bauxite is not 

known to be present (R. Cambridge, oral commun., 

1977). The kaolin resources of Guyana and Suriname 

probably are much greater than a billion metric tons.

INDIA

A great many occurrences of high-alumina clay in India 

have been described by Arogyaswamy (1968). Most of 

the known occurrences are small, but some are apparently large enough to be considered potential economic 

sources of aluminum. One such deposit in the Quilon 

district, Kerala, may contain a few hundred million 

metric tons of kaolin (Arogyaswamy, 1968, p. 79). 

According to Ghosh (1986), the kaolin occurs in two beds 

separated by sandstone, and the lower bed is purer than 

the upper bed. Kaolinite makes up about 25 percent of 

the lower bed and is derived from the underlying Precambrian crystalline rocks (Arogyaswamy, 1968, p. 79; 

Ghosh, 1986).

Fire clay is associated with coal beds at several places 

in India and may constitute large resources of alumina 

(Aravamuthan and Sundaram, 1965).

JAMAICA

The interest in Jamaica about nonbauxite aluminum 

resources has been primarily concerned with the effect 

these materials would have on Jamaican bauxite production. Kaolinite and halloysite occur in minor amounts in 

the bauxite that is mined, but both of them are abundant 

in the low-grade, high-silica bauxite that is not mined 

yet. Davis (1975), of the Ministry of Mining and Natural 

Resources of Jamaica, published a report on the alternatives to bauxite and concluded that demand for bauxite 

was likely to remain strong. A later report by Ostojic 

(1980), of the International Bauxite Association, lists the 

nonbauxite materials on a worldwide basis that would 

have to compete with the low-grade, high-silica bauxite 

from Jamaica.

JAPAN

During World War II, Japan used alunite, aluminous 

shale, clay, and aluminous phosphate rock for aluminum 

resources (table 1). The most important kaolinitic clays in 

Japan are sedimentary varieties called Kibushi and 

Gairome or Gaerome clays. Kibushi means woody material, and the name is applied to clay containing organic 

matter such as pieces of lignite. Gairome or Gaerome 

means frog eye in Japanese, and the name is given to 

clays containing visible quartz and other impurities

TABLE I.—Nonbauxite aluminum resources used by Japan during 

World War II

[Modified from Sato and others (1956, p. 197). If ores did not contain more 

than 30 percent alumina, the alumina content was raised to 30 percent by 

beneficiation]

Resource Locality A1203 content 

(weight percent)

Aluminous shale ............ Manchuria ............ 35-70

Alunite .................... Japan and Korea ...... 15-30

Aluminous clay ............. Japan ................ 20-35

Aluminous phosphate rock ,.. North Daito Island, 23-30

Japan.

(Hideo Minato, written commun., 1982). Kibushi clay is 

abundant north of Nagoya in central Japan. Both Kibushi 

and Gairome clays are present in the Hirono and Iwaki 

areas north of Tokyo. Sedimentary clays occur in the 

Joban coal field in northeastern Japan, in southern 

Japan, and elsewhere (Fujii and others, 1976). Both flint 

and plastic clays are mined at the Iwate mine in northeastern Honshu, which is one of the most active refractory clay mines in Japan (Fujii and others, 1976, p. 19). 

The reserves of kaolin in Japan were listed by Fujii 

and others (1969) as follows: Gairome clay approximately 

31 million metric tons and fire clay and kaolin approximately 88 million metric tons. Sato and others (1956) 

listed another 59 million metric tons of clay derived from 

volcanic ash that may be a source of alumina (table 2). 

The value of kaolin in Japan as a potential alumina 

resource is reduced because individual deposits and 

districts are small and widely scattered.

TABLE 2.— Clays that are derived from Pleistocene volcanic ash and

that may be a source of alumina in Japan

[Modified from Sato and others (1956, p. 197)]

Unit name Locality

Reserves

(metric tons

x 1,000)

Hayakita clay 

Fukuban soil.

Kanuma soil . 

Joshin clay... 

Chikushi clay 

Yame clay ...

Iburi district, Hokkaido Prefecture.. .5,000-6,000 

Kurosawajiri, Waga-gun, Iwate 28,000

Prefecture. 

Imaichi, Tochigi Prefecture....,...,. 20,000

Azuma-gun, Gumma Prefecture...... 300

Chikushi-gun, Fukuoka Prefecture ... 10 

Yame-gun, Fukuoka Prefecture...... 5,000

PAKISTAN

High-alumina clays have been investigated at several 

places in Pakistan. According to Ashraf and others (1976, 

p. 41), resources of bauxite, clay, and aluminous laterite 

in Pakistan amount to 500 million metric tons. Kaolin is 

undoubtedly a major component of these resources. 

Large deposits of clay are associated with bauxite in the 

Kala Chitta Range and in the central part of the Salt 

Range, Punjab Province (Ashraf and others, 1972). The 

Kala Chitta deposits occur within a sedimentary forma-
CIO GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

tion of Jurassic age, and the Salt Range deposits are 

underlain by Permian rocks and overlain by strata of 

Paleocene age. Other deposits associated with bauxite 

occur in the North-West Frontier Province and in Azad 

Kashmir.

Fire-clay resources in Pakistan were estimated by 

Gauhar (1976, p. 13) to be more than 100 million metric 

tons. Gauhar listed fire clay in the Sargodha, Mianwali, 

and Campbellpur Districts of Punjab Province, in parts 

of the Tatta and Dadu Districts of Sind Province, and in 

Dera Ismail Khan District of the North-West Frontier 

Province. Faruqi (1966) described high-alumina fire clay 

from Skesar Hills, and Raza and Iqbal (1977) listed 

several other fire-clay districts.

PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA

The eastern part of the People's Republic of China 

(PRC) has many high-alumina clay deposits (Zheng Zhi, 

written commun., 1982). However, the PRC has large 

resources of diaspore bauxite, and probably recovery of 

alumina from high-alumina clay has not been considered. 

The largest deposits of high-alumina clay in the PRC are 

of sedimentary origin. One type occurs in basins near 

weathered crystalline rocks from which it has been 

derived. A second type is clay associated with coal beds; 

this type is similar to underclay in the United States. 

Some of this Chinese underclay is more than 90 percent 

kaolinite. A third type is high-alumina clay or mudstone, 

which, in places, is several tens of meters thick, and 

which occurs in Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic strata 

(Ikonnikov, 1984). Many of the high-alumina clays of 

Paleozoic age are associated with bauxite.

A large kaolin deposit was recently discovered in 

Fujian Province according to Dong Bi, Geologist with the 

Fujian Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources (oral 

commun., July 21, 1989). The size of this deposit has not 

been determined.

SAUDI ARABIA

According to Black (1982, p. 72), approximately 1 

billion metric tons of high-alumina clay are present in the 

Zabirah bauxite district, Saudi Arabia. The bauxite and 

clay are under no more than 80 m of overburden in an 

area larger than 250 km2 (Black and others, 1984, p. 619). 

The clay is mainly kaolinite, but it contains some gibbsite, a trace of boehmite, and several minor impurities. 

The clay is in two layers, each having an average 

thickness of 2 m; the average partial composition of the 

clay is 45 percent A1203 and 24 percent Si02 (Black and 

others, 1984).

SOUTH AFRICA

The largest deposits of kaolin in South Africa are in 

weathered shales of Devonian to Carboniferous age

(Coetzee, 1969). These deposits were formed by weathering that took place when the Grahamstown peneplain 

was formed. According to Coetzee (1969, p. 62), the 

reserves of kaolin in deposits related to the Grahamstown peneplain are very large. Murray and Smith (1973) 

reported that more than 60 million metric tons of kaolinized tillite at Grahamstown, Cape of Good Hope Province, contains as much as 80 percent kaolin.

Flint clay, containing as much as 44 percent alumina 

after calcination, occurs in a zone from Hammanskraal to 

Bronkhorstspruit in the Transvaal region (Brabers, 

1974). A sulfuric acid leaching process can recover 85-90 

percent of the alumina in this clay in the form of 

aluminum sulfate (McCulloch, 1967, p. 38-39). However, 

flint-clay resources are not sufficiently large to be a 

significant resource of alumina.

SPAIN

Many kaolin deposits are known in Spain; Galan Huertos and Espinosa de los Monteros (1974, p. 93-111) listed 

more than 700 kaolin claims. Of the largest of these claim 

areas, 3 are 5,001-8,125 ha, 8 are 1,001-5,000 ha, 7 are 

751-1,000 ha, 12 are 501-750 ha, 13 are 401-500 ha, 22 

are 301-400 ha, and 38 are 201-300 ha.

According to Martin Vivaldi (1969), the most important kaolin deposits in Spain belong to two main types. 

One type occurs in Cretaceous sandstone in eastern 

Spain in Zaragoza, Teruel, Cuenca, Valencia, Castellon, 

and Albacete Provinces. The kaolin formed by weathering of crystalline rock and was transported to the basin in 

which the sandstone accumulated. The kaolinitic Cretaceous sandstone underlies large areas, is 10-20 m thick, 

and probably consists of more than 1 billion metric tons of 

sandstone containing 5-25 percent kaolinite (Martin Vivaldi, 1969, p. 225; Galan Huertos and Martin Vivaldi, 

1973, p. 742).

The other type occurs in Galicia in northwestern Spain 

and consists of kaolin formed by hydrothermal alteration 

of deformed granites. A few of these deposits were 

formed by transporting the kaolin after alteration to 

nearby basins of deposition. The kaolin reserves in 

Galicia are estimated to be 300 million metric tons 

(Martin Vivaldi, 1969, p. 225), and the total kaolin 

resources in Spain are on the order of 400 million metric 

tons (Galan Huertos and Martin Vivaldi, 1973, p. 737).

TANZANIA AND OTHER COUNTRIES IN AFRICA

The largest kaolin resources in Tanzania consist of 

white kaolin-rich sandstone of Neogene age in the Pugu 

Hills, near Dar es Salaam (Harris, 1969). This sandstone 

is about 183 m thick, and the kaolin resources are 

estimated to be 2 billion metric tons.

High-alumina clay deposits occur in many other countries in Africa (Kuzvart, 1969b), but insofar as is pres-
WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE Cll

TABLE 3.—Major aluminum-bearing materials in the United Kingdom 

[Modified from Christie and Derry (1976). n.a., not available]

Material

Schist .............

Shale ..............

Marl. ..............

Seat earth .........

Clay...............

Location

. . Wales ................................

A1203 

content 

(weight percent)

<50

3(M5

<45

<40

<30

25-30

15-25

15-25

20-24

<22

15-20

Reserves

Small ............

Small ............

Comments

. . . Mining costs high.

, . . Alumina content variable.

, . . Alumina content low.

, . . Alumina content low.

. . . Mining difficult.

. . . Alumina content low.

ently known, few deposits are large enough to be of 

interest as a source of aluminum. The absence of large 

kaolin deposits on a large continent having enormous 

tropical areas is difficult to understand. The apparent 

absence of such deposits may be due partly to the fact 

that large areas have not been investigated thoroughly. 

Africa has large bauxite resources, and, therefore, there 

is little reason to explore for high-alumina clays. Tanzania is the only African country known to have large 

kaolin resources, and South Africa and Egypt are apparently the only African countries where kaolinitic clays 

have been investigated as potential sources of alumina.

UNITED KINGDOM

High-grade kaolin in the United Kingdom is found in 

Cornwall and Devon in the southwestern part of the 

country (Bristow, 1969). The kaolin occurs in granite that 

has been hydrothermally altered and probably later 

weathered. The altered granite is composed of 20-30 

percent kaolinite. Reserves are very large, but meaningful tonnage estimates are not available (table 3). In 

addition, deposits of ball clay in southern Devon contain 

90 percent kaolinite. However, these deposits are too 

small to have any value as an alumina resource. Ball clay 

occurs in three early Tertiary basins in southwestern 

England (Highley, 1975)—at Bovey, southern Devon, at 

Petrockstow, northern Devon, and in the area around 

Wareham, southeastern Dorset.

Enormous deposits of fire clay associated with Carboniferous coal beds are present in central and northern 

England and in Scotland. Much of this fire clay is 80-90 

percent kaolinite, and it can be considered a potential 

source of alumina. High-alumina fire clays occur in the 

Clackmannan syncline in Scotland (Read and Dean, 

1978). Fire clays containing more than 30 percent alumina occur in the Coalbrookdale, North Wales, South 

Derbyshire, Northumberland, Durham, West Cumbria, 

East Pennines, Central, and Ayshire coal fields.

In County Antrim and in parts of adjoining Londonderry County of northern Ireland, a deeply weathered zone of basalt occurs below bauxite deposits (Eyles 

and others, 1952). This weathered zone contains kaolinite 

and probably halloysite, but it is not known to contain 

sufficient tonnage to be considered a source of alumina.

Common clay is widely distributed in the United 

Kingdom (Ridgway, 1982), and the deposits have a wide 

range of compositions, although few exceed 20 percent 

alumina. The most extensive common-clay deposits are 

in the Carboniferous coal measures and in Jurassic 

sedimentary rock (Highley, 1982).

U.S.S.R.

Kaolin deposits in the U.S.S.R. number in the hundreds (Petrov, 1969), but many are small and of little 

importance. The most important districts are in five 

regions—Ukraine, Ural Mountains, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and south-central Siberia.

Kaolin occurs in weathered crusts of granite in the 

Ukrainian Precambrian shield and has been mined in 

several districts. The Ukraine is the leading producer of 

kaolin in the U.S.S.R. The Glukhovetskoye and Prosyasovitski districts are particularly productive. The alumina content of the weathered granite is between 20 and 

25 percent (Grim, 1979, p. 201).

The kaolin in the Ural Mountains also occurs in weathered granite (Grim, 1979, p. 202). The Dombarkskoie 

district is the most important producer.

The kaolin deposits in Kazakhstan also occur in weathered granite (V.P. Petrov and F.V. Chukrov, written 

commun., 1982). Those in the Alekseevskoye district, 

northern Kazakhstan, formed from granite and quartz 

diorites.

The kaolin in the Angren district, Uzbekistan, is in 

porphyry and tuff (V.P. Petrov and F.V. Chukrov, 

written commun., 1982). The Angren district is about 120 

km southeast of Tashkent and is 12 km long and 4-8 km 

wide. The kaolin zone is 10-15 m thick.
C12 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

The kaolin deposits in south-central Siberia are in the 

area of the headwaters of the Ob and Yenisey Rivers. 

Kaolinitic rocks in this region are reported to be 15-20 

percent alumina (Petrov, 1969; Grim, 1979, p. 201).

ALUMINOUS IGNEOUS ROCKS-ANORTHOSITE

Anorthosite is an igneous rock consisting of 90 percent 

or more plagioclase feldspar, (Na,Ca)Al(Al,Si)Si208 , 

which is typically andesine or labradorite but may be as 

calcic as bytownite or as sodic as oligoclase. Andesine 

contains 24-28 percent A1203 and 56-61 percent Si02 ; 

labradorite contains 28-31 percent A1203 and 51-56 percent Si02 . The minerals other than plagioclase that are 

commonly present in minor amounts are clinopyroxene, 

orthopyroxene, potassium feldspar (commonly intergrown with plagioclase), and quartz. Accessory minerals 

in anorthosite include iron and titanium oxides, apatite, 

zircon, and sphene. Metamorphosed anorthosite intrusions contain minor amounts of biotite, hornblende, 

garnet, and chlorite (National Research Council, 1979, p. 

143). Anorthosite occurs in large Precambrian bodies 

(massifs) and as segregated layers in large intrusions. 

Table 4 gives the chemical composition of anorthosites 

from three areas in the United States.

TABLE 4. —Chemical composition (in weight percent) of some U.S, 

anorthosites

[LOI, loss on ignition; dash (—), data not available]

._ _

SiOo.................... 51.91-55.60

.AlpL/g»

Fe203 

FeO.. 

MnO.. 

MgO.. 

CaO..

.............. 25.87-28.92

.............. .26-1.42

.............. .14-2.80

.............. .00-.05

.............. .04-2.20

.............. 9.18-10.78

Na20................... 4.26-5.20

K2 0

C02 . 

LOI. 

P205 .

S.... 

BaO.

.62-1.01

.08-1.29

.01-.05

.39-.94

.02-.82

.04-.11 

.00-. 04 

.03-.06

47.06-53.47

26.82-32.61

.03-.26

.37-2.60

.01-.04

.13-2.58

11.63-16.03

1.97-4.65

.06-.40

.05-.09

.03-.07

.46-1.00

.00-.01

.01-.05

52.9

27.8 

1.9

.4

9.5

5.8

.3

.3

.7

1. Range in composition of samples from the Laramie Mountains, Wyo. (Hagner, 1951, table 1, 

samples 1-5).

2. Range in composition of samples from Boehls Butte, Idaho (Hietanen, 1963, table 11, 

samples 949, 1016, 1015, 611).

3. Sample from the San Gabriel Mountains, Calif. (Lundquist, 1963, table 1).

TABLE 5.— Major anorthosite bodies in the United States 

[Modified from National Research Council (1979, table 5.9). Dash (—), data not available. Do., ditto]

Locality

number Anorthosite body County in

figure 2

Area 

State ox (km2)

tonnage 

(metric

x 109)

A1208

content 

(weight

percent)

References

1 San Gabriel Mountains.. Los Angeles............. California...,

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

Piedmont.............. New Castle ...........

Boehls Butte........... Shoshone, Clearwater..

Keweenawan series..... Cook, Lake ...........

Duluth Complex........ Lake .................

Stillwater Complex... 

Bitterroot Range..... 

Adirondacks: 

Main body (Marcy 

massif).

Stillwater, Sweet Grass 

Ravalli................

Delaware. 

Idaho ....

Minnesota 

Minnesota

Montana. 

Montana.

Essex, Franklin ......... New York,

Thirteenth Lake ..... Hamilton, Warren

Carthage............ Jefferson.........

Rand Hill............ Clinton ..........

Wichita Mountains ..... Kiowa, Comanche, 

	Jackson.

Honey Brook .......... Chester..........

Roseland .............. Nelson, Amherst..

New York... 

New York... 

New York... 

Oklahoma ...

Pennsylvania 

Virginia.....

Mineral Lake .......... Ashland.........

Laramie Range ........ Albany, Laramie.

Wisconsin .., 

Wyoming...,

135

150

520

3,300

235

2

15

40

40 

<60

120

518

27

2.6 

.9

18 3.7 

2.5 -

342

10

.45 

2.6 

.9

.18

27

29

30

30

26

Oakeshott in Lundquist, 1963;

Carter and Silver, 1972;

Ryder and others, 1975. 

Thompson, 1975. 

Hietanen, 1963. 

Phinney, 1968; Green, 1972. 

Taylor, 1964; Davidson, 1972;

Phinney, 1968, 1969, 1972a,b. 

Bowes and others, 1973, 

Berg, 1968.

Buddington, 1968, 1972;

Isachsen and Moxham, 1968;

Letteney, 1968. 

26 Do. 

26 Do. 

25 Do. 

28 Scofield, 1975.

27 Crawford and others, 1971.

24 Herz, 1968; Herz and Force, 

1984.

- Olmsted, 1968. 

25-30 St. Glair and others, 1959;

Hagner, 1951; Newhouse and 

Hagner, 1957; De Vore, 1975.
WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C13

UNITED STATES

Anorthosite bodies are widely scattered through the 

United States (table 5, fig. 2). The deposits that have 

been investigated most thoroughly as potential sources 

of alumina are the large bodies in the Laramie Range, 

Wyo., and in the San Gabriel Mountains, Calif. The 

anorthosite bodies in the Laramie Range underlie more 

than 518 km2 according to maps by Hagner (1951, fig. 1) 

and Newhouse and Hagner (1957). The total resources of 

anorthosite in these bodies that are less than 30 m below 

the average ground level are estimated to be 30.2 billion 

metric tons (St. Clair and others, 1959, p. 69). The total 

anorthosite present is many times this figure because the 

rock extends to depths of more than 228 m. Most of this 

rock contains 25-30 percent alumina, and it is also rich in 

calcium and sodium (table 4).

Anorthosite in the central part of the western San 

Gabriel Mountains, Calif., crops out or is near the surface 

in an area of 135 km2 (Oakeshott in Lundquist, 1963, 

p. 9); exposures are at altitudes ranging from 520 to 1,980 

m. Reserves are very large. The average alumina content of eight samples analyzed is 27.16 percent.

CANADA

Anorthosite is Canada's most abundant potential 

source of alumina, and the Canadian Centre for Mineral 

and Energy Technology (CANMET) has done considerable research on the extraction of alumina from anorthosite (Quon, 1976; Ripley, 1976; Hamer and others, 1978; 

Winer and Quon, 1979). Many of the anorthosite bodies in 

Canada have alumina contents of 24-28 percent (Hamer 

and others, 1978, p. 97), and parts of some bodies con120° 775° 110° 105° 100° 90° 85°

35°

30°

25'

T~~ -__ ...K f^

 Anorthosite deposit

1. San Gabriel Mountains, Calif.

2. Piedmont, Del.

3. Boehls Butts, Idaho

4. Keweenawsn series, Minn.

EXPLANATION

5. Duluth Complex, Minn.

6. Stillwater Complex, Mont.

7. Bitterroot Range, Mont.

8. Marcy massif, N.Y.

9. Thirteenth Lsks, N.Y.

10. Carthage, N.Y.

11. Rand Hill, N.Y.

12. Wichita Mountains, Okla.

13. Honey Brook, Pa.

14. Roseland, Va.

15. Mineral Lake, Wis.

16. Laramie Range, Wyo.

FIGURE 2. —Major anorthosite deposits in the United States. Modified from National Research Council (1979, fig. 5.14). Deposit sizes are provided

in table 5.
C14 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

tain as much as 30 percent alumina (table 6). Although 

only general geologic reconnaissance investigations have 

been completed in several large areas, the anorthosite 

bodies are known to underlie thousands of square kilometers. A report compiled by Anderson (1968) contains a 

table of the world anorthosite resources that gives 

estimates of the area covered by each anorthosite mass 

known at the time the work was done. At the time 

Anderson compiled his report, 55 anorthosite bodies 

were known in Canada. Most of these bodies are in 

Quebec and Labrador. Sixteen of these bodies underlie 

areas ranging from about 1,000 km2 to 20,000 km2. The 

total area underlain by the 16 bodies is about 80,000 km2. 

The known anorthosite resources of Canada are far 

greater than those of any other country. The aluminum 

in anorthosite bodies of Canada could supply the world's 

requirements for aluminum for many centuries if an 

alumina extraction process were to become feasible.

FINLAND

Shaikh (1977, p. 194) listed six bodies of anorthosite in 

Finland. The largest body is at Vaskojoki, which is west 

of Lake Inari in the northern part of Finland. The 

Vaskojoki anorthosite contains as much as 30 percent 

alumina. Other bodies of anorthosite occur at Repokaise, 

Nitsijarvi, Mustavaara, Otanmaki, and Avenisto.

GREENLAND

According to many authors (Windley, 1969; Walton, 

1973; Upton, 1974; Bondam, 1976), anorthosite gabbros 

in the Fiskenaesset area of southwestern Greenland are 

potential nonbauxite sources of aluminum because they 

contain approximately 30 percent alumina and are very 

low in iron oxides. The anorthosite bodies are at the coast 

and, therefore, are readily accessible to ocean transport.

NORWAY

Shaikh (1977, p. 194) stated that "[tjhere are a number 

of anorthosite intrusions in Norway," but he provided 

information on only two. He reported the alumina contents of the anorthosites at Indre Sogn and Egersund as 

28-30 percent and 24-26 percent, respectively, and he 

estimated that the two areas contained several billion 

metric tons of anorthosite. Anderson (1968, table 1) 

listed four anorthosite districts in Norway—the Egersund district, which he reported as having an area of 900 

km2 , the Vossestrand district, which has an area of 100 

km2 , and the Jotun and Lofoten districts, for which no 

sizes were available.

SOUTH KOREA

The South Korean Research Institute of Geoscience 

and Mineral Resources discovered a large anorthosite

TABLE 6.—Nonbauxite sources of alumina in Canada 

[From Winer (1977, table 1)]

Material Aluminiferous 

component

A1203

content 

(weight

percent)

Location

Anorthosite .... Plagioclase 

Nepheline Nepheline

syenite. 

Clay........... Kaolinite.

Shale,

Coal shale and 

coal-washing 

rejects.

Fly ash.......

Feldspar and 

mixed clays.

Kaolinite and 

feldspar.

Mullite and 

glass.

24-30 Quebec and southern

Ontario. 

21-28 Ontario and Quebec.

20-22 Nova Scotia.

20-24 Quebec.

10-16 Northern Ontario.

20-24 Southern

	Saskatchewan. 

20-25 British Columbia.

20 Newfoundland.

24 Nova Scotia.

20 New Brunswick.

<29 Nova Scotia.

^22 Saskatchewan.

<36 Alberta and British

	Columbia. 

<30 British Columbia.

stock near Hadong in the southern part of South Korea. 

The discovery was erroneously reported in some trade 

journals as the finding of a billion metric tons of bauxite; 

Professor Byung Koo Hyun (written commun., July 20, 

1976) informed us that it is definitely anorthosite. The 

institute investigated this anorthosite as a possible 

source of alumina.

Anderson (1968, table 1) listed only the Chingyo 

anorthosite deposit in southern South Korea. According 

to the geologic map by Kim and Kang (1965), the Chingyo 

deposit underlies about 32 km2 west of Hadong and east 

of Chinjoo. This is probably the same deposit mentioned 

by Professor Byung Koo Hyun. The anorthosite is composed mainly of anhedral andesine and labradorite and 

contains some hornblende (Kim and Kang, 1965, p. 7 of 

the English version).

SWEDEN

Anorthosite occurs at several places in Sweden 

(Shaikh, 1977, p. 194). The largest body is in the Ruotevare district, northwest of Kvikkjokk, where the intrusion underlies 70-100 km2 . Iron deposits associated with 

the anorthosite contain 47 percent Fe203 , 11 percent 

Ti02 , and 0.26 percent V205 . The second largest anorthosite body in Sweden underlies an area of 33 km2 at 

Nordingra (Shaikh, 1977, p. 194). Three anorthosite 

masses occur northeast of Stockholm, and at least five 

small anorthosite bodies are known elsewhere in 

Sweden.
WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C15

U.S.S.R.

Much of the early work on anorthosite in the U.S.S.R. 

was cited by Anderson (1968) and was used in his 

compilation. A more recent volume on the subject is that 

edited by Bogatikov (1974). In this volume, Bogatikov 

and A.P. Birkis (p. 5-20) recognized seven widely distributed anorthosite regions in the U.S.S.R.—(1) Kola 

Peninsula, (2) Baltic region, (3) Ukraine, (4) VolgaUrals, (5) Anabar, (6) Aldan, and (7) Okhotsk.

Kola Peninsula region.— Gabbros and anorthosite 

rocks are widely distributed on the Kola Peninsula. 

These rocks occur on the Glavnyi (main) ridge and in 

intrusive rocks of the Keivy region and SaPnyi, Kandalaksha, and Kolvitsa tundras (Bogatikov and Birkis in 

Bogatikov, 1974, p. 6; B.A. Yudin in Bogatikov, 1974, p. 

21-29; E.V. Sharkov in Bogatikov, 1974, p. 30-41). The 

Glavnyi ridge massifs underlie an area of 1,000 km2 along 

the contact between metamorphosed Precambrian rocks 

and pyroxene schist.

Baltic region.—Numerous gabbro-norite-anorthosite 

massifs are associated with a large granitic pluton in 

western Latvia (Birkis and Bogatikov in Bogatikov, 

1974, p. 42^17). The total area underlain by anorthosite is 

more than 2,700 km2 (Bogatikov and Birkis in Bogatikov, 

1974, p. 7).

Ukraine region.—More than 10 gabbro-noriteanorthosite massifs in the Ukraine underlie a total area 

of about 4,000 km2 (Bogatikov and Birkis in Bogatikov, 

1974, p. 7). These rocks were investigated by several 

Soviet geologists (V.N. Moshkin and I.N. Dagelaiskaya 

in Bogatikov, 1974, p. 48-56), who have shown that all 

anorthosite massifs are within two large plutons of 

granite and related igneous rocks that are younger than 

the anorthosite. These plutons were emplaced in the 

Archean-Early Proterozoic basement.

Volga-Urals region.—Three large anorthosite bodies, 

underlying a total area of 1,000 km2 , have been found in 

the Volga-Urals region (S.V. Bogdanova in Bogatikov, 

1974, p. 57-69).

Anabar region.—The Anabar anorthosite occurs as 

batholithic massifs in the central Siberia Precambrian 

shield area north of the Arctic Circle. B.G. Lutts (in 

Bogatikov, 1974, p. 70-84) reported the following anorthosite massifs: (1) one in the central part of the region 

underlying 765 km2; (2) one in the northern part of the 

region underlying 180 km2; (3) one in the eastern part of 

the region underlying 100 km2; and (4) two in the 

southern part of the region, one underlying 14 km2, and 

the other, 8 km2 .

Aldan region. —More than one anorthosite body is 

present in the Aldan region, but the Kalar massif has 

received the most attention (Bogatikov and Birkis in 

Bogatikov, 1974, p. 5-20; G.N. Bazhenova in Bogatikov,

1974, p. 85-99). The Kalar massif extends along the 

eastern margin of Early Proterozoic rocks in a northeasterly direction for as much as 150 km. It ranges in width 

from 5 to 20 km. The total area underlain by anorthosite 

is about 1,500 km2 (Bazhenova in Bogatikov, 1974, p. 86). 

Okhotsk region.—The region in eastern Siberia 

extending west from the Okhotsk Sea, called the 

Okhotsk region by Bogatikov and Birkis (in Bogatikov, 

1974, p. 5-20), contains several anorthosite bodies of 

Precambrian age. Included are the very large 

Dzhugdzhur and the smaller Lavlin and Sekhtag 

anorthosite massifs. The host rocks are schists and 

gneisses that were metamorphosed to the granulite 

facies and somewhat younger igneous rocks including 

charnockites, syenites, and rapakivi granites (A.M. Lennikov in Bogatikov, 1974, p. 100-112).

OTHER COUNTRIES

In addition to the countries mentioned above, 

anorthosite occurs in 15 localities in India, 4 localities 

each in Tanzania and Madagascar, 3 localities in the 

People's Republic of China, 2 localities in Australia, and 

1 locality each in the United Kingdom, Angola, Egypt, 

Mozambique, Antarctica, and Brazil (Anderson, 1968, 

table 1). Anorthosite also occurs in the Bushveld Complex and elsewhere in South Africa. The Bushveld Complex has been studied as a potential source of aluminum 

(Brabers, 1974).

ALUMINOUS IGNEOUS ROCKS-NEPHELINE SYENITE AND 

PHONOLITE

Coarsely crystalline nepheline syenite and its finegrained equivalent, phonolite, are igneous rocks composed chiefly of feldspar and nepheline. Nepheline, 

(Na,K)AlSi04, is a feldspathoid mineral consisting of 21.8 

percent Na20, 35.9 percent A1203 , and 42.3 percent Si02. 

Nepheline syenite bodies are more variable in composition than anorthosite, but generally feldspar and 

nepheline make up 80-90 percent of the rock. The 

remainder is primarily alkalic pyroxene and as much as 5 

percent accessory minerals (table 7). Nepheline contents 

range from a trace to 40 percent. In some syenites, other 

feldspathoids such as analcime or sodalite substitute for 

nepheline.

Aluminous rock types related to nepheline syenite are 

urtite, which contains more than 70 percent nepheline 

and 0-29 percent mafic minerals, and ijolite, which 

contains 40-70 percent nepheline and 30-60 percent 

mafic minerals. Nepheline syenite and phonolite are 

deficient in silicon, calcium, magnesium, and iron, and 

they are enriched in aluminum (table 8). Because of the 

silica deficiency, alumina can be recovered from
C16 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

TABLE 7.—Mineral composition of nepheline syenite 

[Modified from National Research Council (1979, table 5.13)]

Concentration

Mineral Formula range

(weight 

percent)

Principal minerals:

Nepheline.......

Alkalic feldspar..

Alkalic pyroxene.

Analcime........

Sodalite.........

Accessory minerals:

Melilite .........

Na3K[Al4Si4016] ..................

(K,Na)[AlSi308] ..................

(Na,Ca)(Fe +3,Fe +2,Mg,Al)[Si206]..

Na8[Al6Si6024]Cl2

Sphene 

Apatite .... 

Zircon .... 

Pyrochlore 

Rutile .... 

Magnetite., 

Perovskite 

Eudialyte ., 

Columbitetantalite .

(Ca,Na,K)2

[(Mg,Fe +2,Fe +3,Al,Si)207] 

CaTi[Si04](0,OH,F).........

Ca5(P04)3(OH,F,Cl).........

ZrSi04 .....................

(Na,Ca)2(Nb,Ti)206(OH,F)...

Fe304 ...........................

(Ca,Na,Fe +2,Ce)(Ti,Nb)03 ........

Na4(Ca,Fe +2)2ZrSi6017(OH,Cl)2 ....

0-40 

0-50 

5-10 

0-10 

0-5

0-5

0-5 

0-2 

0-2 

0-? 

0-? 

0-1

(Fe,Mn)(Ta,Nb)206 ................ ?

feldspathoid-bearing rocks more readily than from other 

igneous rocks that are either low in alumina or high in 

silica, or both.

The U.S.S.R. was the first country to utilize nepheline 

syenite commercially for the production of aluminum. 

After World War II, the U.S.S.R. produced alumina and 

alkalies and cement from waste nepheline concentrates 

from the Kola apatite mines (Alien and Charsley, 1968, p. 

98). Deposits of nepheline syenite in Egypt and in other 

countries have been investigated as a potential source of 

aluminum. Nepheline syenite is used in the manufacture 

of glass and ceramics in Canada and Norway and for 

roofing granules and crushed rock in the United States 

and in other countries (Alien and Charsley, 1968, p. 1). 

Phonolite was investigated as a source of alumina in 

Germany in 1939 (U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1939, p. 2), and 

phonolite is mined in the Federal Republic of Germany 

and Czechoslovakia for use in the manufacture of glass 

and ceramics (Alien and Charsley, 1968, p. 2).

UNITED STATES

Nepheline syenite bodies are widely distributed in the 

United States (fig. 3, table 9), and phonolite is present in 

several areas. Barker (1974, table 1) listed the occurrences of North American alkalic rocks, which include 

nepheline syenite and phonolite. Clearly, the United 

States would have ample resources if alumina could be 

recovered profitably from nepheline syenite. However, 

there have been no serious attempts in the United States 

to recover alumina from this rock. The alumina contents 

of U.S. nepheline syenite and anorthosite are 17-23

percent and 25-33 percent, respectively, and the silica 

contents of both rock types are approximately equal 

(tables 4, 9). U.S. anorthosite resources are very large. 

Therefore, aluminum recovery from nepheline syenite is 

unlikely in the United States.

CANADA

Hewitt (1957, p. 186) noted the following historical 

facts regarding interest in Canadian nepheline syenite as 

a possible source of alumina, "The earliest commercial 

interest in Ontario nepheline syenite began in 1912 when 

N.B. Davis sampled a nepheline deposit on Exolon Hill 

as a potential source of alumina." During World War II, 

the Aluminium Company of Canada (Alcan) and Ventures Limited became interested in nepheline syenite as 

a potential source of alumina, and considerable diamond 

drilling was undertaken in the Bancroft area (fig. 4).

For many years after 1936, Canada was the sole 

producer of nepheline syenite for the glass and ceramics 

industries. All but a small proportion of the production 

came from the Blue Mountain district (Alien and Charsley, 1968, p. 64) in Ontario about 151 km northeast of 

Toronto (fig. 4). Blue Mountain consists of a group of 

glaciated ridges that stand 61-107 m above the surroundTABLE 8. — Chemical composition (in weight percent) of nepheline 

syenite from Canada, Norway, and Scotland 

[LOI, loss on ignition; dash (—), data not available]

Si02 .......

Al O

Fe203 ......

FeO .......

MnO .......

MgO .......

CaO .......

NaaO ......

K>0. .......

Ti02 .......

H20~ ......

H20 + ......

C02 . .......

LOI. .......

p o

Cl .........

BaO .......

SrO........

Zr02 .......

Total.

Canada

1

59.18

23.06

2.15

.17

.76

10.48

3.94

.06

.4

.02

.05

. . 100.27

Norway

2

52.37

23.22

1.14

1.86

.09

.25

3.11

6.87

8.30

.61

.04

.26

1.88

.09

.34

.59

101.02 1

3

52.73

23.71

1.89

1.04

.06

.24

2.54

7.78

8.08

.51

.05

.26

.77

.05

.32

.39

00.42

Scotland

4

55.1

22.7

2.2

.4

1.9

2.2

12.8

_

_

_

—

97.3

5

51 ?,

25>9

3 1

3

33

52

88

_

_

—

948

1. Nepheline syenite from Blue Mountain, Ontario, Canada. From Derry and Phipps (1957, 

table 1) and Alien and Charsley (1968, p. 68).

2. Biotite nepheline syenite from Stjernoy, Norway. From Heier (1966, table 1) and Alien and 

Charsley (1968, p. 90).

3. Pyroxene-sphene nepheline syenite from Stjernoy, Norway. From same sources as data in 

column 2.

4. Gray nepheline syenite from the Loch Borolan complex, Loynes Valley, Scotland. Average 

of 13 samples. From Alien and Charsley (1968, p. 46).

5. Gray nepheline syenite from the Loch Borolan complex, Anltivullin, Scotland. Average of 

nine samples. From Alien and Charsley (1968, p. 46).
WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C17

ing peneplain. The main mass of nepheline syenite 

exposed in Blue Mountain crops out in an area about 4.0 

km long and 2.0 km wide (Hewitt, 1961).

Many Rosiwal modal analyses (Keith, 1939, p. 1806) 

show that the Blue Mountain nepheline syenite has the 

following representative mineralogical composition: 54 

volume percent albite, 20 percent microcline, 22 percent 

nepheline, 2 percent muscovite, and 2 percent mafic 

minerals. The chemical composition of typical Blue 

Mountain nepheline syenite is given in table 8.

Nepheline syenite bodies also occur at numerous other 

places in Ontario, including Monteagle and elsewhere in 

the Haliburton-Bancroft area (Adams and Barlow, 1910; 

Moyd, 1949), Sioux Lookout (Alien and Charsley, 1968, 

p. 75), and the following eight districts discussed by 

Hewitt (1957): (1) Sturgeon Lake, (2) Port Coldwell, (3) 

Herman Lake, (4) Nemegosenda Lake, (5) Nemegos, (6) 

Otto, (7) French River, and (8) Callander Bay (fig. 4).

Nepheline syenite occurs in the following localities in 

Quebec: (1) Lake Albanel district (Neilson, 1953); (2) 

Gouin Reservoir basin (Laurin, 1965); (3) LabelleL'Annonciation area (Osborne, 1935); (4) Oka and Mount 

Royal area or Monteregian Hills, Montreal (Finley, 

1930); and (5) St. Hilaire area (O'Neill, 1914).

In addition to the deposits in Ontario and Quebec, 

nepheline syenite occurs at scattered localities in British 

Columbia (Alien and Charsley, 1968, p. 75).

EGYPT

Thorough investigations of nepheline syenite in Egypt 

were conducted from 1966 to 1969 by the Egyptian 

Geological Survey with the cooperation of Soviet geologists and aluminum experts (El Ramly, Dereniuk, and 

others, 1970). The main nepheline syenite deposit investigated was in the Jabal Abu Khuruq (spelled Gabal Abu 

Khruq in some reports) massif about 140 km northeast of 

the Aswan Dam. This massif is an oval complex consisting of an incomplete ring of alkalic syenite intrusive 

bodies surrounding a group of conical or stocklike intrusive bodies of nepheline syenite. The part of the massif 

on which most of the field work was done contains 26 

million metric tons of nepheline syenite in which the 

average content of the main components is 55.69 percent 

Si02 , 21.08 percent A1203 , 4.92 percent Fe203 , 9.63 

percent Na^O, and 5.08 percent K20 (El Ramly, Dereniuk, and others, 1970, p. 178-179). Another part of the 

massif that was less thoroughly investigated was estimated to contain an additional 40 million-50 million 

metric tons of rock of similar composition.

A large sample of the nepheline syenite was studied in 

U.S.S.R by the All Union Institute of Aluminum and 

Magnesium (VAMI) in Leningrad. The VAMI metallurgical tests and similar tests by the Egyptian Geological 

Survey showed that alumina can be recovered from the 

Jabal Abu Khuruq nepheline syenite when it is mixed 

with Egyptian limestone. The VAMI process yields 

valuable byproducts. An annual production of 100,000 

metric tons of alumina would yield the following byproducts: 1.5 million-1.6 million metric tons of portland 

cement, 75,000 metric tons of soda, and 30,000-35,000 

metric tons of potash (El Ramly, Dereniuk, and others, 

1970, p. 180).

The investigation also showed the presence of at least 

nine other igneous ring complexes between the Nile 

River and the Red Sea (El Ramly, Budanov, and others, 

1970). At least four of these complexes contain nepheline 

syenite.

MEXICO

Nepheline syenite occurs near the town of San Jose 

about 64 km southeast of Linares in northeastern Mexico 

(Alien and Charsley, 1968, p. 130). It extends for 24 km 

south of the town of San Jose and forms part of the San 

Carlos Mountains. The Arroya Grande nepheline syenite, which is the most commercially interesting of the 

three types present in this area, contains, by volume, 60 

percent orthoclase, 25 percent nepheline, 5 percent plagioclase, 1 percent augite, 8 percent magnetite, and 0.7 

percent sphene. This nepheline syenite is probably the 

material that Industria Penoles SA planned to process 

for alumina when it acquired the U.S.S.R.'s VAMI 

process (Industrial Minerals, 1979a).

NORWAY

Norway is surpassed only by Canada and the U.S.S.R. 

in the production of nepheline syenite, which has all been 

obtained from one mine on the island of StjernSy (fig. 5), 

402 km north of the Arctic Circle (Alien and Charsley, 

1968, p. 88). This deposit is thought to be a stocklike 

body having a lenticular outcrop 1,829 m long and about 

244 m wide. Mining is by underground methods, and so 

the mine can be worked the entire year. Production 

began in 1961. Two grades of beneficiated nepheline 

syenite are produced, one for making glass and one for 

making ceramics.

Two types of nepheline syenite are recognized at 

Stjernoy (Heier, 1966; Alien and Charsley, 1968). 

Pyroxene-sphene nepheline syenite is more abundant 

and occupies the center of the outcrop. Biotite nepheline 

syenite is present primarily at the ends of the body. The 

chemical compositions are listed in table 8.

Alien and Charsley (1968, p. 88) noted the presence of 

several other nepheline syenite bodies in Norway.
CIS GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

- -—r-~v_ j*~\

25°-

	EXPLANATION

Nepheline syenite or phonolite deposit 8. Litchfield, Maine

9. Bearpaw Mountains, Mont.

10. Highwood Mountains, Mont.

11. Little Belt Mountains, Mont.

12. Crazy Mountains, Mont.

13. Red Hill, N.H.

14. Beemerville, N.J.

15. Cornudas Mountains, N. Mex.

1. Bauxite, Ark.

2. Magnet Cove, Ark.

3. Potash Sulfur Springs, Ark.

4. Tin Mountain, Calif.

5. Iron Hill, Colo.

6. McClure Mountain, Colo.

7. South Park, Colo.

16. Coastal Range, Oreg.

17. Black Hills, S. Oak.

18. Cornudas Mountains and 

	Diablo Plateau, Tex.

19. Christmas Mountains, Tex.

20. Terlingua-Big Bend, Tex.

21. Solitario, Tex.

22. Shasket Creek, Wash.

FIGURE 3.—Major nepheline syenite and phonolite deposits in the conterminous United States. Modified from National Research Council (1979, 

fig. 5.16). Number 17 is the only phonolite deposit plotted. Deposit sizes are provided in table 9.

SOUTH AFRICA

Nepheline-bearing rocks occur at several places in 

South Africa (Alien and Charsley, 1968; Mathias, 1974). 

Both nepheline syenite and phonolite are associated with 

several masses of alkalic rocks that are close to or within 

the Bushveld Complex in Transvaal. Nepheline-bearing 

rocks in the Spitskop area, eastern Transvaal, contain as 

much as 20.5 percent alumina (Brabers, 1974, table 8). In 

addition, nepheline syenite and associated carbonatite 

make up one of the major intrusive rock types in southwestern Africa.

UNITED KINGDOM

The United Kingdom has only one nepheline syenite 

deposit of economic importance; it is the Loch Borolan

alkalic complex near Ledmor in Sutherland County, 

Scotland (Alien and Charsley, 1968, p. 45-47). Red 

syenite is the most common rock type in the igneous 

complex, and it contains less than 20 percent alumina. 

The less abundant gray nepheline syenite contains nearly 

23 percent alumina (table 8).

U.S.S.R.

In the Kola Peninsula of the U.S.S.R., two large 

bodies of nepheline syenite (fig. 5) are separated by Lake 

Umbozero (Alien and Charsley, 1968). The Lovozero 

massif underlies 650 km2 and has not been mined. The 

Khibiny massif underlies 1,327 km2 and is the source of 

apatite and nepheline. The alumina contents of the 

nepheline syenite from the Lovozero and Khibiny mas-
WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C19

TABLE 9.—Major nepheline syenite and phonolite deposits in the United States 

[Modified from Barker (1974) and National Research Council (1979, table 5.12). Dash (—), data not available!

Locality

in

figure 3

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

Nepheline syenite

or 

phonolite deposit

Selawik Hills .........

Granite Mountain.

St. Lawrence Island . . .

Bauxite .............

Magnet Cove .........

Potash Sulfur Springs . .

Tin Mountain .........

Iron Hill. ............

McClure Mountain.

South Park ..........

Litchfield ............

Bearpaw Mountains. . . .

Highwood Mountains. . .

Little Belt Mountains

(Otter Creek).

Crazy Mountains ......

Red Hill. ............

Beemerville ..........

Cornudas Mountains

(Wind Mountain).

Coastal Range

(Blodgett Peak).

Black Hills...........

Cornudas Mountains

and Diablo Plateau.

Christmas Mountains. . .

Terlingua-Big Bend

(Sawmill Mountain).

Solitario .............

Shasket Creek ........

County

—

—

—

Pulaski, Saline. ....

Hot Spring. .......

Garland ..........

Inyo .............

Gunnison .........

Fremont. .........

Park. ............

Kennebec .........

Hill, Blaine .......

Cascade, Chouteau,

Judith Basin.

Meagher. .........

Park. ............

Carroll ...........

Sussex ...........

Otero ............

Lincoln. ..........

Lawrence ........

Hudspeth. ........

Brewster .........

Brewster .........

Brewster,

Presidio.

Ferry ............

State

Alaska ..........

Alaska ..........

Alaska ..........

Arkansas ........

Arkansas .........

Arkansas ........

California. .......

Colorado ........

Colorado ........

Colorado ........

Maine. ..........

Montana. ........

Montana. ........

Montana. ........

Montana. ........

New Hampshire . .

New Jersey ......

New Mexico.

Oregon. .........

South Dakota.

Texas...........

Texas. ..........

Texas ...........

Texas ...........

Washington ......

(km2)

. 200

9.5

44*

. 750

12

2

—

30

50

—

6

. 780

. 400

—

25

7.4*

2

8*

. 250

25

20

10

. 500

.2

2

A120S

(weight 

percent)

22

—

21-23

18-21

20

—

22

—

—

17

—

18

18

—

17

—

20-22

—

19

20

18

18-19

18-19

18

—

Rock type

Nepheline syenite .....

Nepheline syenite .....

Nepheline syenite .....

Nepheline syenite .....

Sphene and garnet

nepheline syenite.

Nepheline syenite .....

Nepheline syenite .....

Nepheline syenite .....

Nepheline syenite .....

Analcime syenite ......

Nepheline syenite .....

Nepheline syenite .....

Nepheline syenite .....

Analcime nepheline syenite.

Nepheline syenite .....

Nepheline sodalite

syenite.

Nepheline syenite .....

Porphyritic analcime

nepheline syenite.

Nepheline analcime

syenite.

Phonolite ............

Nepheline analcime

syenite.

Nepheline syenite .....

Analcime syenite .....

Analcime syenite ......

Nepheline(?) syenite . . .

References

Patton and Miller, 1968;

Miller, 1972.

Miller, 1972.

Csejtey and Patton, 1974.

Gordon and others, 1958;

Marks and Jackson, 1975.

Erickson and Blade, 1963.

Hollingsworth, 1967.

McAllister, 1952.

Temple and Grogan, 1965.

Parker and Hildebrand, 1963.

Jahns, 1938.

Barker, 1965.

Pecora, 1942; Hearn and

others, 1964.

Burgess, 1941.

Weed and Pirsson, 1900.

Wolff, 1938.

Quinn, 1937; Size, 1973.

Maxey, 1976.

Holser, 1959.

Snavely and Wagner, 1961.

Barton and Paige, 1925.

Gross, 1965; Hodges, 1975;

Barker, 1977; Barker and

Hodges, 1977; Barker and

others, 1977.

Swadley, 1958; Jenkins, 1959;

Joesten, 1977.

Yates and Thompson, 1959.

Lonsdale, 1940.

Parker and Calkins, 1964.

' Actual area of exposed or shallowly buried nepheline syenite. Other values relate to area of the alkalic complex, of which nepheline syenite may represent only a small portion.

sifs average 17.39 and 21.26 percent, respectively 

(Gerasimovsky and others, 1974, table 2). The nepheline 

concentrate obtained by removal of apatite consists of 

90-93 percent nepheline. According to Euros and Wagner (1978), the major components of the concentrate are 

29.5 percent A1203 , 43.5 percent Si02, 3.5 percent Fe203 , 

12.5 percent Na^, and about 7.8 percent K20. Alumina 

is recovered from the concentrate along with cement, 

soda (Na20), and potash (K20), whose recovery make the 

process economical.

The apatite-nepheline bodies being mined are in the 

southwestern part of the Khibiny massif in a curved zone 

13 km long and as much as 200 m thick (Kalinkin, 1969). 

The reserves of the apatite-nepheline ore in the Khibiny 

massif are estimated to be 2.7 billion metric tons, from 

which 500 million metric tons of nepheline concentrate is 

recoverable (Euros and Wagner, 1978, p. 45).

In Siberia, huge massifs of nepheline-bearing rocks are 

near Kemerovo and in the Krasnoyarsk region (fig. 5). 

Near Kemerovo are the Goryachegorsk and KiyaShaltyr massifs. The Kiya-Shaltyr deposit has been 

mined, and the Goryachegorsk deposit has been prepared for mining (Mikhaylov and others, 1977). In the 

Krasnoyarsk region, the Kiya complex of nepheline and 

alkalic syenites is near the Yenisey River (Mikhaylov and 

others, 1977), and nepheline syenite containing 21 percent alumina has been discovered in the Srednyaya and 

Pravaya Noyba interstream areas of the northern Yenisey Range (Nozhkin and Cherepnin, 1967). These nepheline syenite occurrences seem to correspond to the 

Central Tartar massif of Alien and Charsley (1968, p. 

105). The Sangilen Range in southeastern Tuva contains 

nepheline rocks (Alien and Charsley, 1968, p. 106). The 

Synnyr complex north of Lake Baykal consists of 10
C20 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

95'

45'

95° 85° 75°

FIGURE 4.—Nepheline syenite deposits in Ontario and Quebec Provinces, Canada. Modified from Alien and Charsley (1968, fig. 6).

• Nepheline syenite deposit

Scale (approximate)

FIGURE 5. —Major nepheline syenite deposits in the U.S.S.R., Finland, and Norway. Modified from Alien and Charsley (1968) and Mikhaylov and

others (1977).
WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C21

alkalic massifs, one of which contains the Synnyr deposit 

of nepheline and pseudoleucite syenites (Mikhaylov and 

others, 1977). Mikhaylov and others (1977) described 

other nepheline syenite massifs in Siberia.

In Kazakhstan, three areas are known to contain 

deposits of nepheline syenite—the Bayan-Aul, TyuPkubas, and Karsakpay massifs (fig. 5) The Bayan-Aul 

nepheline syenites consist of pipes and dikes containing 

26-44 percent nepheline; one sample contained 20 percent alumina (Alien and Charsley, 1968). The TyuPkubas 

nepheline syenite contains 20-22 percent nepheline. One 

sample of nepheline syenite from the Karsakpay massif 

contained 24 percent alumina (Alien and Charsley, 1968, 

p. 107).

Several deposits of nepheline syenite occur in the 

southern Ural Mountains. One sample from the Vishnevyie Mountains near Orsk contained almost 22 percent 

alumina in rock that usually contains 25 percent nepheline and 65 percent alkalic feldspar and sodic plagioclase 

(Alien and Charsley, 1968, p. 107). Other nepheline 

syenite deposits are Kasli and Kyshtym near Chelyabinsk. Attempts have been made to beneficiate the 

nepheline syenite from these areas, but the results were 

not promising (Alien and Charsley, 1968).

OTHER COUNTRIES

Nepheline syenite and phonolite occur in many countries in addition to those mentioned above. Alien and 

Charsley (1968) described these rocks in 39 more countries, and probably their list is incomplete. The Sarhad 

Development Authority of Pakistan has proven 6 billion 

metric tons of nepheline syenite near Mardan (U.S. 

Embassy, Islamabad, Pakistan, written commun., 1983). 

In Greenland, nepheline syenite occurs in two large 

masses, each underlying more than 100 km2 (Alien and 

Charsley, 1968, p. 127-128; Upton, 1974). The only 

nepheline-bearing rocks in Finland are in the livaara 

intrusion (fig. 5) southeast of Kuusamo, near the Soviet 

border (Shaikh, 1977, p. 194). Their iron content makes 

the livaara rocks unlikely to be mined (Alien and Charsley, 1968, p. 86). In Zimbabwe, nepheline syenite is 

present in three igneous complexes in the Sabi River 

valley southeast of Harare (Alien and Charsley, 1968, 

p. 56).

Phonolite occurs in four areas in the Federal Republic 

of Germany, but only the extensive deposits in the Eifel 

region are mined (U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1939; Alien and 

Charsley, 1968, p. 87). In Czechoslovakia, phonolite 

deposits occur in the Ceske Stfedohori Mountains, about 

72 km northwest of Prague, between the towns of Most 

and Bilina (Alien and Charsley, 1968, p. 83).

ALUMINOUS IGNEOUS ROCKS-LEUCITE-BEARING ROCKS

Leucite (KAlSi206) is a feldspathoid mineral having a 

composition of 21.5 percent K20, 23.5 percent A1203 , and 

55.0 percent Si02. It is common in fine-grained or 

porphyritic volcanic rocks; in some regions, it is in 

hypabyssal rocks.

Large leucite deposits are in the volcanic rocks in the 

Latium region and at Mount Vesuvius, Italy (Landi, 

1975). Abbruzzese and Rinelli (1981, p. 23-24) estimated 

that the total alumina in these rocks is several billion 

metric tons. In 1918, it was estimated that the leucitebearing rocks in Italy contain enough alumina and potash 

to supply the world for several centuries (Blanc, 1931, p. 

50). According to Blanc (1931), leucite-bearing rocks 

having particularly favorable physical and chemical compositions for the extraction of alumina are in the region of 

the Roccamonfina Volcano near Sessa Aurunca. Massacci 

(1978, p. 558) estimated that this region holds 100 million 

to 1 billion metric tons of leucite-bearing rock containing 

20-22 percent A1203 and 10-11 percent K20. Another 

region extends from Mount Cimini and the surrounding 

mountains to the crater of Vico. A part of this district 

near Civita Castellana contains several hundred million 

metric tons of leucite-bearing rocks (Massacci, 1978, p. 

559).

Leucite occurs in several other countries. The largest 

known body of leucite-bearing rock in the United States 

is in the Leucite Hills, Sweetwater County, Wyo. 

Resource estimates indicate the presence of nearly 2 

billion metric tons containing 200 million metric tons of 

A1203 and 200 million metric tons of K20 (Schultz and 

Cross, 1912, p. 35). Leucite-bearing rocks also occur in 

Sussex County, N.J.; near Magnet Cove, Ark.; in the 

Absaroka Range, Wyo.; and in the Bearpaw and Highwood Mountains, Mont. (Pirsson, 1905; Ford, 1932, p. 

551; Burgess, 1941). Leucite is present in Western 

Australia (Wade and Prider, 1940); near Gnjilane, Kosovo, Yugoslavia (Logomerac and Crnko, 1981); and in 

southwestern Uganda and neighboring Zaire (Sahama, 

1952).

Pseudoleucite-bearing rocks in the northern Baykal 

region, U.S.S.R., have been investigated as a possible 

source of alumina (Kostyun, 1975). Pseudoleucite is a 

pseudomorph after leucite composed of a mixture of 

nepheline, orthoclase, and analcime. Pseudoleucite also 

occurs with nepheline syenite in Arkansas, Montana, and 

Brazil.

DAWSONITE-BEARING ROCKS

Dawsonite, NaAl(OH)2C03 , a colorless or white, acidsoluble mineral, occurs in small needlelike crystalline 

aggregates or as fine-grained to microscopic crystals in
C22 GEOLOGY AND EESOUECES OF ALUMINUM

several types of rocks. Dawsonite contains, by weight, 

35.4 percent A1203 or 18.7 percent aluminum metal. 

When heated, dawsonite loses hydroxyl water and carbon dioxide to form a water-soluble sodium aluminate 

(Schmidt-Collerus and Hollingshead, 1968). Until the 

discovery of dawsonite in the Eocene oil shale of Colorado, the mineral was known to occur in small amounts at 

only a few localities in the world (Smith and Milton, 

1966). Alumina for production of aluminum metal and 

sodium aluminate for use in water-pollution control are 

potential products of the dawsonite from oil shale (Hite 

and Dyni, 1967). This section summarizes the pertinent 

information on dawsonite as an aluminum resource.

UNITED STATES

The principal dawsonite resources in the United States 

occur in the oil shale of the Parachute Creek Member of 

the Eocene Green River Formation in northwestern 

Colorado. In some beds, large quantities of dawsonite 

are mixed with nahcolite (NaHC03), several other minerals, and kerogen (organic matter that yields oil when 

distilled) in the oil shale. In addition to kerogen, the oil 

shale in the Parachute Creek Member is made up chiefly 

of quartz, calcite, dolomite, and feldspar (table 10); 

analcime and clay minerals are minor constituents. The 

clay minerals present are illite and a trace amount of 

mixed-layer clays; the mixed-layer clays consist of illite 

and montmorillonite. The lack of kaolinite and the presence of illite suggest that the sedimentary material was 

deposited in a lake that had a reducing environment of 

slightly alkaline, brackish to saline waters. As discussed 

below, the oil shale contains potentially extractable 

alumina in some form other than dawsonite (Smith, 

1980).

A great deal of research and money has been invested 

in finding ways to extract oil from the Green River 

Formation oil shale. Most of the effort has been concentrated in the Piceance Creek basin in northwestern 

Colorado. At least 45 different minerals have been 

identified from the Green River Formation (Milton and 

Eugster, 1959), and those unique to the Green River 

Formation are shortite, eitelite, bradleyite, reedmergnerite, garrelsite, and loughlinite. Parts of the 

Parachute Creek Member contain as much as 15-25 

percent dawsonite. Large dawsonite concentrations have 

not been found in the Green River Formation in other 

basins in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming.

For many years, the chemical analyses of the oil shale 

have been known to contain more alumina than could be 

accounted for by the aluminous minerals found in the oil 

shale (Desborough and Pitman, 1974, p. 85). This excess 

alumina was thought to be present in the form of gibbsite 

(DeVoto and others, 1970). Milton and others (1975)

identified nordstrandite, a polymorph of gibbsite, in the 

oil shale. Smith (1980, p. 2) noted that "Nordstrandite in 

oil shale occurs everywhere with dawsonite." However, 

both minerals may not always be present together 

because Asai and others (1983, p. 4) described the Saline 

zone as containing 12 percent dawsonite (4 percent 

extractable alumina), essentially no nahcolite, and no 

detectable amounts of nordstrandite. In addition, three 

samples from the Parachute Creek Member contain 

dawsonite and no nordstrandite (table 10). Zen and 

Hammarstrom (1975) concluded that X-ray diffraction 

methods are not reliable for determining the amount of 

nordstrandite present in oil shale, and Desborough and 

others (1974, p. 6) noted that amorphous alumina is 

present. Therefore, the problems concerning the form in 

which the excess alumina occurs make it clear that much 

remains to be learned about aluminum in the Green 

River Formation oil shale. The reasons for the shortcomings in our knowledge of aluminum in shale include the 

following: (1) much of the dawsonite is very fine grained 

and cannot be isolated for study from the other finegrained minerals and organic matter; (2) variable 

amounts of aluminum in the shale are caused by the 

feldspars, by other nonclay alumina minerals, and by the 

clay mineral illite; and (3) most of the data on mineralogy 

and geochemistry of oil shale have been acquired by 

analyzing ashed samples (samples ashed in oxygen 

plasma at about 100 °C), and little is known about what 

happens during ashing to aluminous minerals associated 

with organic matter.

GEOLOGY

The Green River Formation is composed of dark shale 

and magnesian marl, both of which yield oil on distillation 

(Donnell, 1961, p. 847). Sandstone, siltstone, and limestone beds are also present in parts of the formation. 

Bedding is remarkably regular and tends to persist 

throughout large areas. In the Piceance Creek basin, the 

formation can be divided into five members, the first four 

of which are, from oldest to youngest, the Douglas 

Creek, Garden Gulch, Parachute Creek, and Evacuation 

Creek (Bradley, 1931, p. 9); the fifth member, the Anvil 

Points, is present along the east side of the basin and is 

laterally equivalent to the Douglas Creek, the Garden 

Gulch, and part of the Parachute Creek (Donnell, 1961, 

p. 848). The Parachute Creek Member is much richer 

in oil shale, dawsonite, and nahcolite than the other 

members.

The Parachute Creek Member ranges in thickness 

from about 260 m on the margins of the Piceance Creek 

basin to about 550 m in the central part of the basin (Hite 

and Dyni, 1967, p. 26-28). The lower part of the Parachute Creek Member is called the Saline zone. It is at
WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C23

TABLE 10.— Mineral composition of samples from four sections of the Parachute Creek Member of the Green River Formation, Piceance Creek

basin, northwestern Colorado

[Modified from Hosterman and Dyni (1972, table 1). Mineral designations: Dol, dolomite; Cal, calcite; Daw, dawsonite; Qtz, quartz; Kfs, potassium feldspar; Naf, 

sodium feldspar, Anl, analcime; 111, illite; Mix, mixed-layer clay. Depths were measured in feet. Do., ditto; tr, trace; dash (—), not detected]

Rock type

Oil shale, dolomitic

Do.

Do.

Do.

Oil shale, dolomitic

Do.

Do.

Do.

Oil shale

Do.

Do.

Oil shale, dolomitic

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Oil shale, dolomitic

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Oil shale

Color1

(5Y6/2)

(2.5Y6/2)

(2.5Y6/1)

(2.5Y4/2)

(2.5Y6/1)

(2.5Y6/2)

(2.5Y5/2)

(2.5Y4/2)

(5Y4/1)

(5Y5/1)

(5Y5/1)

(2.5Y6/1)

(2.5Y5/2)

(5Y4/1)

(5Y5/1)

(5Y4/1)

(5Y6/2)

(5Y6/2)

(2.5Y6/2)

(5Y4/2)

(10YR5/1)

(5Y6/2)

(10YR4/2)

Carbonates2 

(percent)

Dol

55

40

40

35

30

50

40

30

15

10

20

40

40

25

25

25

30

50

40

30

40

50

40

Cal Daw

— —

10 -

15 -

— —

5 -

— —

10 -

10 -

- 15

- 25

- 20

5 -

5 -

tr -

5 -

— —

10 -

tr -

10 -

5 -

— —

— —

— —

Qtz

Sec.

20

25

20

30

Sec

30

20

20

25

Sec.

35

40

40

20

25

35

35

40

Sec.

20

20

20

25

15

25

35

Kfs

36, T.

5

5

5

5

. 6, T.

15

tr

5

tr

14, T.

10

10

10

5

5

5

5

10

34, T.

5

5

5

5

15

5

(4)

Noncarbonates3 

(percent)

Naf Anl

7 S., R.

10

10

10

20

97 W.

5

5

5

5

111

5

5

5

5

Mix

tr

tr

tr

tr

Sample position

15.5 ft (4.72 m) above Mahogany zone.

2.5 ft (0.76 m) above Mahogany zone.

3 ft (0.9 m) below Mahogany zone.

12.5 ft (3.81 m) below Mahogany zone.

4 S., R. 94 W.

10

10

10

15

tr

15

10

10

10

5

5

10

tr

tr

tr

tr

46.5 ft (14.2 m) above Mahogany zone.

39 ft (11.9 m) above Mahogany zone.

22.4 ft (6.83 m) above Mahogany zone.

Mahogany zone.

1 N., R. 97 W.

10

10

5

15

5

20

10

5

2 S., R.

10

10

10

20

15

5

(4)

5

tr

tr

10

10

5

10

10

100 W.

15

10

10

10

5

5

5

10

5

5

5

10

10

10

10

10

5

5

5

10

10

10

tr

tr

tr

tr

tr

tr

tr

tr

tr

tr

tr

tr

tr

tr

5

Not available.

Not available.

Not available.

16.9 ft (5.15 m) above Mahogany zone.

4.3 ft (1.3 m) above Mahogany zone.

1 ft (0.3 m) above Mahogany zone.

Mahogany zone.

20 ft (6.1 m) below Mahogany zone.

333.2 ft (101.6 m) above Mahogany zone.

200.4 ft (61.08 m) above Mahogany zone.

15.5 ft (4.72 m) above Mahogany zone.

Mahogany zone.

15.7 ft (4.79 m) below Mahogany zone.

334.7 ft (102.1 m) below Mahogany zone.

405.3 ft (123.6 m) below Mahogany zone.

1 Rock-color designations from Munsell Color Company (1929-60).

2 The percentage of total carbonate minerals is based on weight loss after dilute HC1 treatment. The kerogen content of the rock was not determined.

3 The percentages of noncarbonate minerals are based on the peak-height ratios of the major peaks on the X-ray diffraction traces.

4 Potassium feldspar and sodium feldspar total 5 percent.

least 215 m thick in the depositional center of the basin 

and contains the richest known dawsonite beds in the 

Green River Formation. The Saline zone penetrated by 

the USBM mine shaft in Horse Draw (fig. 6) was 

described by Cole and others (1982, fig. 6), who showed 

the dawsonitic oil shale to be about 130 m thick. Three 

thin persistent beds containing nahcolite are present 

near the base of the Saline zone (fig. 7). In the depositional center of the basin, two lenticular units of halite 

(NaCl), each more than 30 m thick, are present in the 

upper part of the Saline zone. These units include thin 

layers of nahcolite that occur in cyclic fashion. Accessory 

minerals associated with the halite include wegscheiderite, Na2C03 -3NaHC03, shortite, Na2C03 -2CaC03, northupite, Na2C03 -MgC03-NaCl, searlesite, NaBSi206 -H20, 

and possibly trona, Na2C03 -NaHC03 -2H20 (Kite and 

Dyni, 1967, p. 31). The top of the Saline zone is marked 

by a dissolution surface on the upper halite unit.

Overlying the Saline zone is the Leached zone, which is 

several hundred meters thick. The Leached zone consists 

of broken and brecciated oil shale that has abundant 

solution cavities. Most of the soluble saline minerals have 

been removed by ground water. The zone is water 

bearing, and water-soluble minerals are probably still 

being removed. The drill cores from CR-1 and CR-2 (fig. 

6) penetrated several dawsonitic units (Donnell and 

Smith, 1980, fig. 3), which are mostly in the lower half of 

the Leached zone. The concentration of dawsonite in the 

Leached zone is generally not as great as that in the 

underlying Saline zone.

Above the Leached zone is the Mahogany zone, which 

includes the resistant Mahogany ledge in outcrops; the 

Mahogany zone is bounded by the A groove (above) and 

the B groove (fig. 7). The grooves are the reentrants in 

cliffs formed by the erosion of thin tuffaceous beds. The 

Mahogany zone is about 61 m thick locally (Brobst and
C24 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

108°30' 108°00° 

R. 100 W. R. 99 W. R. 98 W. R.97W. R.96W. R.95W. R.94W. R.93W.

10 KILOMETERS

GARFIELD CC IJNJY 

10 MILES~ MESA COUNTY 

DeBeque

EXPLANATION

Green River Formation 

Parachute Creek Member

Saline and Leached zones of oil shale 

containing significant amounts of 

nahcolite, dawsonite, and halite

Saline and Leached zones of oil shale 

containing significant amounts of 

nahcolite and dawsonite

Leached zone of oil shale containing

dawsonite

m*m Approximate limit of oil shale 

O Corehole 

D U.S. Bureau of Mines shaft

rea of figure

COLORADO

FIGURE 6. —Distribution of nahcolite and dawsonite in the Parachute Creek Member of the Green River Formation, Piceance Creek basin, 

northwestern Colorado. Modified from Weichman (1974b, fig. 3) and Dean and others (1981, fig. 1).

Tucker, 1973, p. 5), and it is one of the richest oil shale 

units in the Parachute Creek Member (Stanfield and 

others, 1957). Hosterman and Dyni (1972, table 1; this 

report, table 10) found that three surface samples from 

the Mahogany ledge lacked dawsonite, and Brobst and 

Tucker (1973, tables 4 and 5) also found no dawsonite in 

most surface samples. Desborough and others (1974) 

found dawsonite in core samples of the Mahogany zone, 

and Beard and others (1974, p. 103) noted that small 

amounts of dawsonite are present in the Mahogany zone. 

The Parachute Creek Member above the Mahogany 

zone is called the Upper Oil Shale zone (Cole and others, 

1982, fig. 3) and consists chiefly of tuffaceous marl and oil 

shale (Donnell, 1961, p. 856-857). These beds have 

numerous cavities resulting from the solution of crystals 

of gypsum, anhydrite, and saline minerals. Brobst and 

Tucker (1973, fig. 6) found only a minor amount of 

dawsonite in this zone.

All three saline minerals, nahcolite, dawsonite, and 

halite, are present in the Saline and Leached zones in the 

center of the Piceance Creek basin (fig. 6). Around this 

central area are an inner belt, in which only nahcolite and 

dawsonite are present, and an outer belt of Leached 

zone, in which only dawsonite is present, Dawsonite in 

the Saline zone crops out in the northern part of the basin 

(Brobst and Tucker, 1973, p. 42), but nahcolite has been 

found only in the subsurface (Dyni, 1974; Desborough 

and Pitman, 1974). According to Cole and others (1982), 

nahcolite is most abundant in oil-rich zones, and dawsonite tends to be more abundant in the zones that are lean 

in oil shale. The bulk sample of dawsonitic oil shale 

investigated by Asai and others (1983) and White and 

others (1985) was taken from the 640-m level of the 

USBM mine shaft; it was about 12 percent dawsonite, 

which is equivalent to about 4 percent recoverable alumina. According to Cole and others (1982, fig. 6), the
WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C25

FIGURE 7.— Diagrammatic cross section through the Green River 

Formation in the Piceance Creek basin, northwestern Colorado. 

Modified from Dyni and Hite (1968, fig. 2).

beds at this level are in lean oil shale of the Saline zone 

and contain only a small amount of nahcolite and a little 

more than an average amount of dawsonite.

RESOURCES

Estimates of the dawsonite resources in the Piceance 

Creek basin have been made. Dyni and Hite (1968, p. 23) 

and the U.S. Department of the Interior (1968, p. 27) 

listed the total dawsonite in the basin as 24.5 billion 

metric tons containing 8.5 billion metric tons of alumina. 

Beard and others (1974, p. 103-108) and Patterson and 

Dyni (1973, p. 40) estimated the total dawsonite in the 

Saline zone of the Parachute Creek Member to be 17 

billion metric tons, which could yield 6 billion metric tons 

of alumina. This estimate excluded the small amounts of 

dawsonite in the Mahogany and Leached zones.

The estimate by Beard and others (1974, p. 103-108, 

table 1, figs. 1-11) was based on analyses of samples of 

the Saline zone taken from 22 drill holes. Thickness of the 

Saline zone sampled ranged from about 91 m to more 

than 360 m. The average dawsonite content from 14 holes 

ranged from 1.9 to 5.9 percent. Oil shale having a 

dawsonite content of 5 percent or more underlies approximately 161 km2 in the depositional center of the basin. 

According to Desborough and others (1974, p. 6), some of 

the units in the center of the basin contain more than 12 

percent dawsonite.

Recovery of oil from shale would be less expensive if 

other products could also be produced. Dawsonite and 

nahcolite are possible coproducts. Cameron and Jones, 

an engineering company, proposed that alumina (from 

dawsonite) and soda ash (NagCOg, from nahcolite) could 

be recovered as coproducts with oil from shale (Nielsen,

1969; National Materials Advisory Board, 1970, p. 

45-46). The Superior Oil Company patented a process for 

the recovery of oil, alumina, and soda ash (Weichman, 

1974a). Beard and Smith (1976) outlined a process for the 

in-place recovery of dawsonite and other mineral products from the Saline zone in the Piceance Creek basin.

Nahcolite has received much attention because it can 

remove sulfur dioxide from flue gas of coal-fired 

electricity-generating plants (Dyni, 1980, p. 1855). For 

this use, the mineral is thermally decomposed to form 

anhydrous sodium carbonate, which reacts with sulfur 

dioxide in the flue gas to form sodium sulfate. To 

evaluate nahcolite as a desulfurizing agent, Multi Minerals Corporation tested 500 metric tons from a bed in the 

Saline zone of the Parachute Creek Member of the Green 

River Formation (Dyni, 1980, p. 1857). This material, 

containing 70 percent nahcolite, removed 75-80 percent 

of the sulfur from the flue gas in a coal-fired powerplant.

Because of the many mining problems in the recovery 

of dawsonite from the Green River Formation of the 

Piceance Creek basin, it is presently considered to be a 

hypothetical resource of aluminum. The Upper Oil Shale 

zone, the kerogen-rich Mahogany zone that does not 

contain much dawsonite, and the Leached zone would 

have to be mined before the underlying dawsonite-rich 

Saline zone could be mined. The base of the Saline zone 

is at a depth of about 900 m in the center of the basin 

(Beard and Smith, 1976). The Leached zone contains 

saline water that is the result of the dissolution of 

nahcolite, dawsonite, and halite. The saline water in this 

aquifer could be a serious problem if it were encountered 

during mining because it cannot be discarded into the 

surface drainage (Smith, 1980, p. 2). Miners of the Saline 

zone would have to prevent saline water inflows from the 

overlying Leached zone.

OTHER COUNTRIES

When dawsonite was identified in the Green River 

Formation, U.S.A. (Smith and Milton, 1966), it was 

known to occur in Montreal, Canada; Tuscany, Italy; the 

Drin Valley, Albania; Alger, Algeria; and the Olduvai 

Gorge, Tanzania. Since then, dawsonite has been found 

in California, where it is a daughter product of fluid 

inclusions in gold-quartz veins in the Alleghany district 

(Coveney and Kelley, 1971). It has also been found in 

several other countries, including (1) Canada, where 

dawsonite is in feldspathic sills at two localities in Quebec 

(Stevenson and Stevenson, 1978; Jambor and others, 

1976); (2) Hungary, where dawsonite is in andesite 

breccia (Baksa and others, 1975); (3) Japan, where dawsonite is in fossiliferous marine mudstone associated with 

tuff (Aikawa and others, 1972); (4) Mauritania, where 

dawsonite is in analcimite in Adrar (Blanc and others,
C26 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

1971); (5) Australia, where dawsonite is in Permian 

marine strata (Goldbery and Loughnan, 1970) and the 

Singleton coal measures (Loughnan and Goldbery, 1972) 

in the Sydney basin and the coal measures in the 

Muswellbrook district, New South Wales (Loughnan and 

See, 1967); and (6) the U.S.S.R. (Batalin and others, 

1975), where dawsonite is in the Donets, Pripet, 

Kuznetsk, and Solotyinsk regions. Dawsonite is present 

in Carboniferous rocks in the Pripet basin in Byelorussia, 

where it occurs in kaolinitic clays interbedded with 

siderite and anhydrite (Dmitriyev and others, 1975). 

Amounts present range from 21 to 74 percent of the rock. 

Dawsonite in the Kuznetsk basin is in coal-bearing rocks 

(Volkova and Rekshinskaya, 1975). It occurs in shales, 

silty shales, and carbonate rocks in amounts ranging 

from a few percent to as much as 40 percent of the rock 

(Volkova and Rekshinskaya, 1975). Dawsonite has also 

been found in the Carpathians (Gabinet and Lozynyak, 

1975) and in the Transcarpathian region (Lazarenko and 

Mel'nikov, 1969). The only place in the U.S.S.R. where 

dawsonite occurs with sodium-bearing minerals is in the 

bottom sediments of the present-day lakes in the TransVolga region (Mikhaylov and others, 1977, p. 1222).

ALUMINOUS PHOSPHATE ROCKS

Many aluminous phosphate rocks result from the 

leaching and alteration of aluminous calcium phosphate. 

Slightly leached zones contain carbonate-fluorapatite, 

Ca10(P04C03)6F2^ (Altschuler and others, 1956, p. 499). 

More thoroughly leached zones contain crandallite 

(CaAl3(P04)2(OH)5 -H20), which replaced apatite or kaolinite (Al2Si205(OH)4), and millisite ((Na,K)CaAl6(P04)4 

(OH)9 -3H20), which may have replaced montmorillonite. 

The most completely altered zones are dominated by 

wavellite, A13 (P04)2(OH,F)3 -5H20.

UNITED STATES

Aluminous phosphate rock occurs at several localities 

in the Southeastern United States. The principal deposits are in the land-pebble phosphate district, which is 

centered in Polk and Hillsborough Counties east of 

Tampa Bay, Florida (Cathcart and Houser, 1950). The 

deposits extend northward through the hard-rock district, Florida (Espenshade and Spencer, 1963), into 

southern Georgia (Sever and others, 1967). They constitute the leached upper part of the Bone Valley Formation of Pliocene age. The leached, or aluminum phosphate, zone has a maximum thickness of about 18 m and 

overlies the calcium phosphate pebbles mined for fertilizer (Cathcart and others, 1953, p. 77). The leached zone 

is overlain by a blanket of sandy soil 1-6 m thick. The 

amount of overburden stripped annually during mining of

the phosphate pebbles was estimated in 1957 to be 15 

million metric tons (Calver, 1957, p. 52).

The leached zone, discarded by the mining operation, 

contains uranium in addition to phosphate and alumina, 

and the recovery of all three commodities may be an 

attractive possibility. Although much of this rock contains only 6-15 percent alumina (table 11), both the 

alumina and phosphate content can be increased by 

removing the quartz, which is coarser grained than the 

phosphatic material (Cathcart, 1963, p. 46). Aluminum 

phosphate coating the quartz grains would be lost unless 

the leached zone material were digested in Na2C03 

before the quartz was removed (National Materials 

Advisory Board, 1970, p. 52). The aluminum phosphate 

minerals usually make up 20-30 percent of the rock in the 

leached zone; of the remainder, 60 percent or more is 

sand-sized quartz grains (Altschuler and others, 1956).

In the early 1950's, these resources were estimated to 

contain 800 million metric tons of aluminum phosphate 

(McKelvey and others, 1953). Probably at least half of 

these aluminum resources have been lost as a result of 

mining the calcium phosphate pebbles since the estimate 

was made.

SENEGAL

The Thies region, Senegal, includes the Pallo deposit, 

14 km north of Thies, the Lam-Lam deposit, 12 km 

north-northeast of Thies, and a small occurrence near 

Popenguine, south-southwest of Thies (Bruckner, 1957, 

p. 248-250). Aluminum phosphate is now mined at Pallo 

by the Societe Senegalaise des Phosphates de Thies 

(SSPT), a company jointly owned by Pechiney and the 

Senegal Government (Mining Annual Review, 1988). The 

deposits contain aluminum phosphate, calcium aluminum 

phosphate, and tricalcium phosphate. Information on the 

relative abundance of the three types is not available. 

Deposits are of middle Eocene to Oligocene age and 

contain the phosphate minerals carbonate-fluorapatite, 

crandallite, millisite, and wavellite (Capdecomme, 1953; 

Flicoteaux and others, 1977). The phosphate in the Thies 

region, like that in Florida, contains uranium (Capdecomme and Pulou, 1954; Latrilhe, 1959, p. 81). 

Reserves of aluminum phosphate rock in the Pallo 

deposit are estimated to be 100 million metric tons 

(Mining Annual Review, 1988). The Thies region is the 

only place in the world where significant tonnages of 

aluminum phosphate are mined. The Mining Annual 

Review (1988) reported that the 1985 production of 

aluminum phosphate, used for fertilizer, was 355,300 

metric tons.

Aluminous phosphate rocks in the Taiba district, north 

of the Thies region, are reported to consist chiefly of
WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C27

TABLE II. —Chemical analyses (in weight percent) of seven samples from the aluminum phosphate zone in the Bone Valley Formation, Florida

[From Altschuler and others (1956, p. 501). Analyst: F. Cuttitta, U.S. Geological Survey]

Si02 ................

A1203 ...............

Fe203a ..............

MnO ................

MgO ................

CaO ................

NaaO

^0

Ti02 ................

P205 . ...............

LOIb

C02 .................

F.. ..................

Cl...................

Cr203 ...............

V205 ................

ud ..................

Total............

Ho-20

........ 51.48

........ 8.26

........ 2.76

........ .70

........ .01

........ 8.98

........ .23

........ .00

........ .37

........ 19.72

........ 6.76

........ .80

........ 1.15

........ .03

........ .01

........ .01

........ .00

........ .01

........ 101.28

Ho-20A

62.60

5.98

2.86

.53

.01

8.25

.13

.00

.40

13.60

6.09

.24

.52

.02

.01

.01

.00

.03

101.28

Ho-21

40.92

12.48

2.61

2.14

.01

8.00

.12

.00

.63

20.79

11.72

.26

.63

.04

.01

.01

.00

.02

100.39

Ho-22

57.24

14.17

2.17

.16

.01

3.10

.15

.00

.63

12.79

9.96

.05

.59

.01

.01

.01

.00

.01

101.06

Ho-23

69.46

8.16

1.32

.16

.01

.90

.06

.00

.31

11.61

7.91

.02

.51

.03

.01

.01

.00

.01

100.49

Ho-24

68.08

9.40

1.33

.14

.01

.20

.04

.00

.42

11.32

9.18

.02

.70

.02

.01

.01

.00

.01

100.89

Ho-25

51.32

14.91

2.19

.13

.01

1.20

.03

.00

.65

16.35

13.24

.05

.53

.01

.01

.01

.00

.01

100.65

a Fe203 represents total iron, some of which may be present as ferrous iron.

b The figures for loss on ignition (LOI) include adsorbed water (H20~) and exclude C02.

c S03 represents total sulfur; no sulfides were found.

d Uranium is reported as a metal, as its valence state was not determined.

crandallite and to contain 25-32 percent A1203 (Slansky 

and others, 1964).

OTHER COUNTRIES

Aluminous phosphate rocks occur in several countries 

other than the United States and Senegal, which have 

the largest known resources. Deposits of phosphatic 

bauxite on Trauira Island in the delta of the Maracassume River, Maranhao, Brazil, are reported to contain 10 

million metric tons of rock (Brazil Divisao de Fomento da 

ProduQao Mineral, 1943, p. 26-27) having 31 percent 

A1203 and 30 percent P205 (Paiva and others, 1937, p. 

147). Another deposit, at Pircaua near the coast in 

northeastern Maranhao, is reported to contain 10 million 

metric tons that are 40 percent A1203 (Harrington and 

others, 1966, p. 35). An aluminous phosphate layer is 

present locally between the bauxite and the underlying 

limestone in Jamaica (Eyles, 1958, p. 1367). Deposits of 

aluminous phosphate rock having some economic potential occur in the Los Islands, Guinea, and near Abeokuta, 

Nigeria (Russ, 1924; Arnaud, 1945, p. 85-86). The deposits in Nigeria contain 25-29.7 percent A1203 and 26.3-33 

percent P205 (Russ, 1924). Aluminous phosphate rocks 

are present in the Saldanha Bay area, South Africa 

(Visser and Schoch, 1973). Aluminous phosphate rock on 

North Daito Island, Japan, which contains 23-30 percent 

A1203 , was investigated as a source of aluminum during 

World War II (Sato and others, 1956, p. 197). Resources 

of aluminous phosphate rock in this area and elsewhere in

Japan are too small to be considered a viable source of 

aluminum in peacetime. Aluminous phosphate rock 

occurs in association with bauxite in Jurassic rocks in the 

northern Urals, U.S.S.R. (Bushinsky and Bogolyubova, 

1960), and crandallite occurs in supergene phosphate 

deposits in the Karatau basin (Zanin and others, 1977).

SAPROLITE

"Saprolite," a term introduced by Becker (1895, p. 

289), means rotten rock. Saprolite is an earthy, decomposed product of the subaerial chemical weathering of 

any kind of rock in place (Overstreet, 1961, p. 447). 

Textural, structural, planar, and linear features of the 

original rock are preserved in saprolite. The term "saprolite" has about the same meaning as the British term 

"lithomarge." However, Tardy and Nahon (1985, p. 

869-871) suggested that the name "saprolite" be applied 

to weathered rock containing some of the unweathered 

minerals of the parent rock, whereas lithomarge refers to 

weathered rock in which all the original parent rock 

minerals have been replaced or destroyed.

The principal aluminous minerals in saprolite include 

kaolinite (39.5 percent A1203 , 46.5 percent Si02 , and 14.0 

percent H20), halloysite (34.7 percent A1203 , 40.8 percent Si02 , and 24.5 percent H20), and gibbsite (65.4 

percent A1203 , 34.6 percent H20). Generally, saprolite 

that is a potential resource of alumina contains 20-38 

percent A1203 .
C28 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

UNITED STATES

Saprolite in the United States occurs in the Piedmont 

region of the Southeastern States, is associated with the 

bauxite deposits of Arkansas, is present in Oklahoma, 

and is developed on basalt in the Northwestern States 

(Oregon, Washington, and Idaho) and Hawaii. Although 

these areas of saprolite contain large amounts of alumina 

resources and although considerable research has been 

devoted to the extraction of alumina from saprolite, 

producing aluminum from saprolite is currently too 

costly.

SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES

In the Piedmont region of the Southeastern States, 

saprolite was investigated by major aluminum companies 

in 1957 (Chemical Week, 1957). Piedmont Properties, 

affiliated with Alcoa, obtained an option on 10,000 ha in 

the Spartanburg-Rutherfordton region, North Carolina 

and South Carolina. Palmetto Lands Company acquired 

land for Kaiser Aluminum in the same region. Gibbsite 

Corporation of America, a subsidiary of Colonial Oil and 

Gas Corporation, patented a process for separating 

gibbsite, A1203 -H20, from saprolite for use in aluminum 

production and obtained options on thousands of hectares 

of land in northwestern North Carolina and southwestern Virginia (Engineering and Mining Journal, 1970). 

Environmentalists in North Carolina opposed this effort, 

and two newspapers in Winston-Salem won a 1971 

Pulitzer Prize in recognition of their successful efforts to 

prevent strip mining of saprolite in North Carolina 

(Winston-Salem Journal, 1971). After a period of inactivity, the Gibbsite Corporation of America leased 4,047 ha 

of gibbsite-bearing land near Galax, Va., and announced 

plans to construct a plant (American Metal Market, 

1981). The plant was not built, and it is unlikely that one 

will ever be built because of a Final Judgment of Permanent Injunction by Consent that was filed in February 

1982 (United States Court, Western District of New 

York, 1982, Civ.-82-0018B(Q).

The saprolite examined by the companies in the 

Spartanburg-Rutherfordton region, North Carolina and 

South Carolina, formed on sillimanite and biotite schists 

and igneous rocks (Overstreet and Griffitts, 1955). Councill and Llewellyn (1959) summarized the results of 

chemical analyses of 90 samples of saprolite, mostly from 

a large area in South Carolina south and east of the area 

investigated by the aluminum companies. These samples 

are from saprolite developed on various types of mica 

schist, rocks of the slate belt, granite, pegmatite, sillimanite schist, and hornblende-bearing rocks. The analyses indicate 2-16 percent free A1203 in gibbsite, 2-11 

percent Fe203 , and 8-26 percent total A1203.

As part of a reconnaissance investigation, the authors 

collected 12 samples of saprolite in the vicinity of Shelby, 

N.C., and northwest of Gaffhey, S.C. Both areas are in 

the belt investigated by aluminum companies. These 

samples were analyzed by X-ray fluorescence and were 

found to contain 25-36 percent A1203 . Some of these 

samples contained more gibbsite than required to 

account for the small amount of free alumina reported by 

Councill and Llewellyn (1959). In addition to gibbsite, 

the saprolite contains halloysite, altered mica, quartz, 

and iron-bearing minerals. Most of the gibbsite is very 

fine grained and intimately mixed with clay minerals so 

that it is extremely difficult to make a gibbsite concentrate. The saprolite in the region where these samples 

were collected also contains minor quantities of monazite, zircon, ilmenite, sillimanite, rutile, and garnet 

(Overstreet and others, 1963). No information is available on the total size of these deposits, but they are 

known to extend irregularly over many tens of square 

kilometers, and if the average thickness is only a few 

meters, they contain many hundreds of millions of metric, 

tons of aluminous rock.

Saprolite occurs on many types of sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks in the Piedmont from southcentral Pennsylvania in the north to north-central Alabama in the south. Alexander and others (1942) 

recognized gibbsite in soils developed on saprolite 

derived from the following types of bedrock: (1) amphibolite in Hall County, Ga., and Rutherford County, N.C.; 

(2) norite in Mecklenburg and Rowan Counties, N.C.; (3) 

epidote-bearing greenstone schist in Chatham County, 

N.C.; (4) diabase in Fauquier County, Va.; and (5) 

biotite-muscovite schist in Hall County, Ga., and Pickens 

County, S.C. The gibbsite contents in whole-soil samples 

collected from above the five rock types were low, but in 

the clay-sized fraction, the gibbsite content was as high 

as 33 percent.

Other investigations of gibbsite in saprolite and soil in 

the Southeastern United States include those of (1) 

Bryant and Dixon (1964), who studied the soil from the 

Alabama Piedmont area; (2) Clarke (1963), who worked 

on several types of residual materials from the Alabama 

Piedmont; (3) Cady (1951), who described saprolite 

formed from diorite in Rowan County, N.C.; (4) Calvert 

and others (1980), who studied saprolite in a quarry at 

Raleigh, N.C.; (5) Gate and McCracken (1972), who 

found gibbsite in both soil and saprolite of a micahornblende gneiss and a mica gneiss in Caldwell and 

Rutherford Counties, N.C.; and (6) McCracken and 

others (1971) and Losche and others (1970), who discussed gibbsite in surficial materials in the southern 

Piedmont and Appalachian basin.

Saprolite in Coosa County, Ala., and at Ennice in 

Alleghany County, N.C., was investigated as a possible
WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C29

substitute for refractory-grade bauxite (White, 1984). 

Additional investigations of gibbsite in saprolite in eastcentral Alabama were conducted by Beg (1982, 1984). 

Saprolite formed from feldspathic hornblende gneiss in 

three areas in Chambers County, Ala., contains 915,225 

metric tons of gibbsite (Beg, 1984, table 4). The gibbsite content in the saprolite ranges from 10.0 to 19.25 

percent.

Extensive titaniferous aluminous saprolite in the 

weathered parts of the Roseland Anorthosite in Nelson 

and Amherst Counties, Va., is a potential important 

source for both alumina and titania (Ti02). Rutile (Ti02) 

and ilmenite (Fe2+Ti03) have been recovered from this 

saprolite. The inferred reserves of saprolite exceed 20 

million metric tons and contain an average of 7 percent 

Ti02 (Fish, 1962, p. 38). No information on the alumina 

content of saprolite in this area has been published, but 

part of the saprolite contains considerable kaolin and, 

therefore, is rich in alumina.

ARKANSAS

The saprolite associated with the bauxite in Arkansas 

has not been adequately investigated, and little is known 

of its extent or quality. However, information presented 

by Gordon and others (1958, p. 255) indicates that 

reserves of kaolin in saprolite are probably large enough 

to supply a large alumina plant. Two samples of kaolinbearing saprolite derived from the nepheline syenite 

underlie the bauxitic clay and contain 37.2-39.6 percent 

A1203 and 42.9-44.0 percent Si02; 13.5-14.4 percent of 

the samples was lost on ignition (Gordon and others, 

1958, table 10, samples 15 and 16).

OKLAHOMA

Large deposits of clay and underlying saprolite occur 

on the anorthosite and other igneous rocks in Kiowa 

County, Okla. Knox (1948, p. 4) described this saprolite 

as having formed by the decomposition of anorthosite 

and gabbro in place. An analysis of a composite sample 

of saprolite from this area (Knox, 1948, p. 17) shows 

21.89 percent A1203 , whereas the clay above the saprolite contains 26.34 percent A1203. The low alumina content of these rocks limits their potential as a source of 

aluminum.

NORTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

Deposits of aluminous saprolite and associated ferruginous bauxite are on weathered basalt in Oregon and 

Washington. The saprolite underlies the bauxite and 

varies considerably in thickness. According to Alien 

(1952, fig. 2), one drill hole in Oregon showed 34 m of 

basalt saprolite overlain by approximately 14 m of bauxite. Valentine and Huntting (1960, p. 16) reported that 

bauxite in Washington is as much as 6 m thick and is 

underlain by 6 m or more of basalt saprolite. According 

to chemical analyses, much of this saprolite contains 

25-30 percent A1203, 25-35 percent Fe203 , and 5-7 

percent Ti02. This saprolite consists chiefly of halloysite 

and iron oxide minerals and contains minor amounts of 

gibbsite, ilmenite, and titaniferous magnetite.

In eastern Washington and northern Idaho, two types 

of aluminous saprolite (called high-alumina clay by some 

researchers) occur—(1) saprolite derived from the 

Columbia River Basalt Group of Miocene age and (2) 

saprolite derived from granodiorite and related intrusive 

rocks of the Idaho batholith of Late Jurassic or Cretaceous age. The basalt saprolite is composed of white 

halloysite, which is commonly colored blue or gray hy 

ilmenite and which, in places, is stained brown *»y 

limonite or green by nontronite. The granodiorite saprolite consists predominantly of kaolinite and quartz (Ho> .- 

terman and others, 1960). Table 12 summarizes the range 

in chemical composition for 41 granodiorite saprolite 

samples and 59 basalt saprolite samples. The thickness of 

the granodiorite saprolite is reported to be at least 30 m 

(Wilson and Goodspeed, 1934, p. 8). According to Scheid 

(1946), there are 11.3 million metric tons of saprolite a 

Spokane County, Wash. Scheid and Sohn (1946) reporte • 

9.8 million metric tons of transported clay and saprolito 

in Latah County, Idaho; 40 percent of this estimated 

resource is saprolite. Several of the saprolite deposits in 

Latah County have been mined for use as a paper filler.

TABLE 12.— Chemical composition ranges of saprolite from Spokane

County, Washington 

[Modified from Hosterman (1969a, tables 1, 3, 19). LOI, loss on ignition]

Granodiorite saprolite 

(41 samples)

Basalt saprolite 

(59 samples)

Si02 .. 

A1203 . 

Fe203 

Ti02 .. 

LOI..

48-73 

15-29 

0.4-12.7 

0.1-2.0 

1.5-11.1

26-70 

14-38 

0.4-24 

0.8-9.7 

7.2-14.6

HAWAII

Large deposits of aluminous saprolite are associated 

with low-grade bauxite on the islands of Kauai and Maui, 

Hawaii. The saprolite occurs below the bauxite as well as 

in many areas where bauxite is absent. This saprolite 

consists chiefly of fine-grained mixtures of halloysite, 

gibbsite, and iron- and titanium-bearing minerals. The 

deposits on Kauai have weathered from olivine basalt 

and feldspathoid-rich rocks; those in eastern Maui are 

from olivine basalt, and those in western Maui are from 

andesite and soda trachytes. The potential resource of 

aluminous saprolite on Kauai is estimated to be 500
C30 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

million metric tons (Patterson, 1971, p. 1, 42). This 

saprolite contains approximately 20 percent Si02 , 27 

percent A1203 , 27 percent Fe203 , and 5 percent Ti02 . At 

least 200 million metric tons of gibbsitic and halloysitic 

saprolite in western Maui contain approximately 20 

percent Si02 , 33 percent A1203 , 22 percent Fe203 , and 4 

peieent Ti02 (Patterson, 1971, p. 66). More than 200 

mil-ion metric tons of gibbsitic and halloysitic saprolite in 

eas:ern Maui contain about 15 percent Si02 , 31 percent 

A12 D3 , 27 percent Fe203 , and 6 percent Ti02 (Patterson, 

1971, p. 66).

OTHER COUNTRIES

Very extensive deposits of aluminous saprolite underlie most major bauxite areas of the world except those 

thai: are associated with limestone. Extensive saprolite 

deposits occur in tropical areas where bauxite is absent 

(Tardy, 1969), and many deposits underlie the widespread ferruginous laterites (Sivarajasingham and others, 1962, p. 24-39). The world's aluminous saprolite 

deposits are probably many times larger than the total 

bauxite deposits. There is no information in the literature to indicate that aluminous saprolite deposits outside 

the United States have been considered as possible 

sources of aluminum.

ALUMINOUS METAMORPHIC ROCKS

aluminous metamorphic rocks contain kyanite and 

related minerals, known as the kyanite- or sillimanitegrcap minerals; these high-alumina minerals are used in 

the manufacture of refractory materials and a few other 

products. The three most common members of the group 

are kyanite, sillimanite, and andalusite, all of which have 

the chemical composition Al203 -Si02 (63.2 percent A1203 

anc 36.8 percent Si02). Topaz is also a member, and 

dmaortierite is related to this group (table 13) in compositi 3n and thermal behavior. All five minerals convert to 

mullite (3Al203 -Si02) and free silica, usually cristobalite, 

at about 1,200-1,600 °C (Foster, 1960). Natural mullite is

very rare, but large amounts of synthetic mullite are 

used for refractory purposes and ceramic products.

Kyanite-group minerals occur chiefly in metamorphic 

rocks such as schists and gneisses, but they also occur in 

quartz veins and pegmatites. They are locally abundant 

in placer deposits. Kyanite is the principal mineral of the 

group that is mined.

As described by Espenshade (1973), the kyanite-group 

minerals are very common in many parts of the world in 

aluminous metamorphic rocks that have recrystallized at 

elevated temperatures. Each mineral in this group forms 

at certain distinctive temperature and pressure conditions (Bell, 1963). Kyanite forms in schists and gneisses 

at fairly high temperatures and pressures under conditions of strong metamorphism. Andalusite forms at lower 

pressures and is common in contact metamorphic zones 

of large intrusions of granite or gabbro. Sillimanite forms 

during both regional and contact metamorphism and 

indicates higher temperatures than does andalusite. 

Topaz and dumortierite, which are much less common 

than the other three minerals, are most abundant in 

quartz-rich rocks such as granite and gneiss and in 

hydrothermally altered volcanic rocks. Metamorphic 

rocks may contain as much as 40 percent kyanite-group 

minerals, but generally the content of these minerals is 

less than 15 percent (Espenshade, 1973, p. 309). Ordinarily, only one of the kyanite-group minerals is present, 

but two of them do occur together in some deposits, and 

kyanite, andalusite, and sillimanite have been found 

together in a few deposits.

The United States is the world's leading producer of 

kyanite, and kyanite is the only mineral of its group 

being mined on a commercial scale in the country. Brazil 

has the potential to become a major kyanite producer; its 

kyanite reserves are at least 3 million metric tons 

(Potter, 1985, p. 427). India has been a major kyanite 

producer but has restricted exports to conserve limited 

reserves of high-grade residual lumps of kyanite (Potter, 

1985, p. 426, 428). Significant kyanite deposits are also 

present in Australia, Austria, Bulgaria, Canada, FinTABLE 13. — Characteristics of the kyanite-group minerals 

[From Ford (1921, p. 612-617, 637)]

Mineral

Theoretical content1

ALOo Si09

Specific gravity Hardness

*A 03 and SiO2 contents are in weight percent. 2Contains B2O3 and H20. 3Contains F and H20.

Crystal system

Kymite. ...................

Topiz3 .....................

......... 63.2

......... 63.2

......... 63.2

......... 64.5

......... 55.4

......... 72.8

36.8

36.8

36.8

28.5

32.6

27.2

3.56-3.67

3.16-3.20

3.23-3.24

3.26-3.36

3.4-3.6

3.23

5-7.25

7.5

6-7

7

8

6-7

Triclinic.

Orthorhombic.
WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C31

land, Kenya, Liberia, Namibia, Norway, South Africa, 

Spain, Sweden, the U.S.S.R., and Zimbabwe.

South Africa is the world's leading producer of 

andalusite, and its reserves of andalusite and sillimanite 

are about 105 million metric tons (Potter, 1985, p. 427). 

Sillimanite deposits are also present in Australia, India, 

and the U.S.S.R. Andalusite deposits are also present in 

France, Spain, and Swaziland.

Nearly all of the kyanite-group minerals that have 

been mined were prepared for use as refractory materials, and the iron and steel industry was the principal 

consumer (Radcliffe, 1976). Minor uses of kyanite include 

blown alumina silicate, high-temperature insulation, 

brake linings, foundry mold facings, pyrometer tubes, 

electric porcelain insulators, spark plug insulators, mortars, grinding media, and welding rod coating (Potter, 

1980). The extraction of alumina from kyanite-group 

minerals has been investigated by Sweden and the 

U.S.S.R. This research is discussed in the "Alumina 

Extraction Research" section.

UNITED STATES

The kyanite-group minerals occur in almost every 

large area of metamorphic rocks in the United States 

(Espenshade and Potter, 1960; Espenshade, 1961, 1962, 

1973). Members of this group have been found in at least 

30 States, as documented in a bibliography by Grametbaur (1959). Many of the known occurrences of these 

minerals are in deposits that are too small or too impure 

to be classified as resources (Espenshade, 1973). Only 

those deposits containing at least 10 percent kyanitegroup minerals are of potential value. Total identified 

and hypothetical resources of kyanite-group minerals in 

the United States were estimated by Espenshade (1973, 

table 62) to be a little more than 2 billion metric tons. 

According to Industrial Minerals (1985, p. 50), the identified resources of kyanite in the United States are 30 

million metric tons, which represent 28 percent of the 

world's total.

Most kyanite-group minerals in the United States 

occur in micaceous schist and gneiss, but 95 percent of 

the U.S. production of these minerals has come from 

quartzose deposits, such as quartzite and quartz-rich 

igneous rock, which contain no more than 5 percent of the 

total U.S. resource (Espenshade, 1973, p. 309). Most of 

the domestic production of kyanite has come from large 

quartzose deposits in the Southeastern States. Similar, 

though much smaller, deposits have been mined in the 

Western States. Quartzose deposits in the Western 

States include kyanite in Imperial County, Calif. 

(Wright, 1957), andalusite at White Mountain, Mono 

County, Calif. (Kerr, 1932), and dumortierite and 

andalusite near Oreana, Nev. (Kerr and Jenney, 1935).

The most recently active mines in the Southeast are the 

Wills Mountain and East Ridge mines in Buckingham 

County, Va., which have been operated since 1922 and 

which are the only active U.S. mines today; the Henry 

Knob mine in York County, S.C., which was operated 

from 1948 through 1969; and the Graves Mountain mine 

in Lincoln County, Ga., which was operated from 1963 to 

September 1986 (Potter, 1980, 1988).

Minor kyanite and sillimanite deposits in schists and 

gneisses are widely distributed in the Appalachian region 

from Maine to Alabama. The principal deposits are near 

New Hartford, Conn. (Espenshade, 1973), near Spruce 

Pine, N.C. (Brobst, 1962), in central Maine (Espenshade 

and Boudette, 1967), and in Hart County, Ga. (Teague, 

1950). Kyanite-group minerals are also widely distributed in schists and gneisses in Montana (Groff, 1963), 

Washington (Thorsen, 1966), Oregon (Espenshade, 

1973), the Black Hills, S.D. (Redden and Norton, 1975), 

the Sierra Nevada Mountains, Calif. (Wright, 1957), and 

the east-central Front Range, Colo. (Marsh and Sheridan, 1976). The largest known deposits in the Western 

States that are sufficiently large and rich to be considered a major resource are the kyanite-sillimanite deposits at Woodrat Mountain, Idaho (Hietanen, 1956; Van 

Noy and others, 1970). These deposits contain an estimated 5.1 billion metric tons of micaceous gneiss that is 

15 percent kyanite and sillimanite (Van Noy and others, 

1970, table 7).

Minor quantities of kyanite-group minerals occur in 

clastic sedimentary rocks in the Coastal Plains bordering 

the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. Kyanite and 

sillimanite occur in small amounts in beach sands of 

Florida, Georgia, and New Jersey (Browning and others, 

1956; Espenshade, 1973, p. 310). Potter reported (1985, 

p. 425, 426) that kyanite and sillimanite were recovered 

from Pleistocene beach sands in Florida from 1968 to 

1973, and he estimated (1985, p. 432) that an additional 

10 million metric tons of kyanite and sillimanite could be 

recovered from the Florida beach sands as a coproduct 

with zircon and titanium-bearing minerals.

Small amounts of kyanite-group minerals and other 

heavy minerals are present in Florida in the phosphate 

rock. Stow (1968) estimated that about 200,000 metric 

tons of heavy minerals containing about 16 percent 

kyanite and sillimanite are discarded yearly from the 

Florida phosphate mining operations.

CANADA

The Canadian Department of Mines and Technical 

Surveys described kyanite deposits in Ontario and 

British Columbia (Haw, 1954), and its successor, the 

Canadian Centre for Mineral and Energy Technology 

(CANMET), investigated kyanite deposits as a possible
C32 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

alumina resource (Collings and Brown, 1976). The kyanite at Mattawa, Ontario, occurs as disseminated crystals in a gneiss, and of two samples analyzed, the higher 

grade was only 14.6 percent kyanite (Haw, 1954, p. 29). 

The kyanite in the Sudbury district, Ontario, occurs as 

coarse blades making up 15-30 percent of a kyanitegarnet-biotite-quartz-feldspar gneiss (Haw, 1954). According to Industrial Minerals (1985, p. 50), the identified 

resources of kyanite in Canada are 45 million metric tons, 

which represent 42 percent of the world's total.

FINLAND, SWEDEN, AND NORWAY

Metamorphic rocks containing sillimanite, kyanite, 

and andalusite are found at various places in Finland 

(Shaikh, 1977, p. 195; Sotka and Soderholm, 1980). 

According to Industrial Minerals (1985, p. 50), the identified resources of kyanite in Finland are 300,000 metric 

tons. Deposits of kyanite-group minerals were listed by 

Shaikh (1977, p. 195). In 1977, kyanite in a sericite schist 

in t -e Hallavaara area was investigated. Some zones 

contain 16-21 percent kyanite. A deposit at Mantovaara, 

niinsd for use in a cement plant, contains as much as 30 

percent andalusite. Other deposits at Tohmajarvi and 

Hat:rJa contain 10-15 percent andalusite. Deposits containrr.g 30 percent sillimanite are at Kursukylla and 

Pahako^roou.

Mar.v sikim.anits, ar.dalusjte. and kyanite deposits 

occur ir, Sweden; the largest is ? kyarsite deposit at 

HaTsjoberget, Varmland (Shaikh, 1977, p. 195), This 

deposit, which consists of kyamte-bearing micaceous 

quartzite, has a known reserve of 22 million metric tons 

and a potential resource of an additional 25 million metric 

tons. T/ie reck averages about 33 percent kyanite. Similar deposits containing 5-30 percent kyanite also occur in 

Norway (Shaikh, ;?77; p.

INDIA

Kyanite -group minerals are distributed widely in 

India,, and India was formerly among the world's leading 

producers and exporters of kyanite-group minerals (Varley, 1965). According to a market survey (Indian Bureau

of Mines, 1975;. ir, 1975 India had reserves of 20.2 million 

metric tons of kyanits in quartzose rocks and V3 2 million 

metric tons of sillimanite in teach sa^ds. The Indian 

government now severely restricts ohy export of refractory minerals, and production is now small 'Potter. 1982, 

1985". The principal kyanite districts of Jr.dia are in 

Bihar. a.;y;! most sillimanite deposits are ;:•:. ~">st Bengal 

and Assa.ni.

Varley \'19S5. p. 69-70) described tbe most important 

kyanite deposits of Sihar. These deposits are in the 

Singhbhv.ri district, wh; cn is about 130 km long. Mica 

schist, is the princi~ca.ii cour'tr"1

kyanite is associated with quartz-kyanite rock or granulite. The most productive deposits in this district were at 

Lapsa Buru, where the best grade material was found in 

massive boulders. The kyanite is in medium to large 

crystals, many of which are radiating. India's identified 

resources of kyanite are more than 3.8 million metric 

tons (Industrial Minerals, 1985, p. 50).

The principal sillimanite deposits in West Bengal are in 

the Purulia district (Varley, 1965, p. 79; Potter, 1982) 

and consist of heavy-mineral sand deposits having an 

average thickness of about 1.2 m. The sillimanite content 

of the sand is 0.80-1.00 percent, and the sand contains 

similar percentages of ilmenite and monazite and lesser 

amounts of zircon, rutile, and other heavy minerals.

The principal sillimanite deposits in Assam are on the 

Khasi Hills plateau, and these deposits have been the 

source of most of India's production (Varley, 1965, p. 68). 

The typical deposit consists of boulders, weighing as 

much as 100 metric tons each and containing massive 

sillimanite and a little corundum. Some boulders are 

almost wholly corundum, and several have been found 

that are wholly sillimanite. A typical boulder of commercial interest from this area averages 61 percent A1203 (58 

percent minimum), averages 1.0 percent Fe203 (1.8 

percent maximum), and has a maximum loss on ignition 

of 2.0 percent.

Sillimanite-bearing beach sand occurs in many places 

and is most abundant in the States of Kerala and Madras 

in southernmost India (Varley, 1965, p. 73-74). It varies 

considerably in composition from place to place but 

generally consists of 75-95 percent heavy minerals. This 

beach sand is estimated to contain 12 million-14 million 

metric tons of sillimanite (Varley, 1965, p. 66).

SOUTH AFRICA

Kyanite-group minerals are widely distributed in 

South Africa, and this country is the world's leading 

producer of andalusite (Potter, 1985, p. 425). South 

Africa's reserves of andalusite and sillimanite are about 

105 million metric tons (Potter, 1985, p. 427). In 

1S65, kyanite had not been found in economic quantities 

.Varley, 1965, p. 96), but in 1985, Industrial Minerals 

(1985, p. 50) estimated the identified kyanite resources to 

oe 12 million metric tons, which had not been mined 

commercially.

Most of the andalusite production comes from 

andalusite-bearing shales and alluvial deposits in the 

Transvaal region (Industrial Minerals, 1985, p. 41). The 

alluvial deposits contain andalusite eroded from shales of 

the Pretoria Group in the contact metamorphic zone 

surrounding the Bushveid Complex (Varley, 1965, p. 97). 

A^olahosite, liberated from the parent rock by weather-
WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C33

ing, was transported by flood waters to a more level 

terrain where it was upgraded by strong winds that 

removed the fine-grained, light-weight material. The 

alluvial deposits contain 10-50 percent andalusite with 

53-58 percent alumina, and the shale contains 7-15 

percent andalusite with 52-60 percent alumina (Industrial Minerals, 1985, table 2). In 1965, reserves of material containing at least 50 percent andalusite were conservatively estimated to be 800,000 metric tons in the 

Marico district, Transvaal (Varley, 1965, p. 97). According to a review by Brabers (1974, p. 12-13) of the 

potential aluminum resources of South Africa, some of 

the very large resources of andalusite in the contact 

metamorphic zone surrounding the Bushveld Complex 

are associated with staurolite, which contains about 16 

percent iron oxide that would make alumina extraction 

difficult. Industrial Minerals (1985, table 2) estimated 

that the Transvaal region contains 50.5 million metric 

tons of andalusite reserves and 106.5 million metric tons 

of resources.

Irregular lenticular bodies of corundum-sillimanite 

rocks have been mined in the Namaqualand region in the 

northwestern part of the Cape of Good Hope Province 

(Varley, 1965). The sillimanite reserves of this area were 

estimated by Jager (1963) to be only 126,000 metric tons, 

an amount that would last only a few years at the 1963 

rate of mining. Jager further estimated that the region 

contained 3 million metric tons of low-grade sillimanite 

rock containing 568,000-955,000 metric tons of sillimanite. Sillimanite production in South Africa has been 

steadily decreasing because the high-grade deposits have 

been depleted (Industrial Minerals, 1985, p. 45).

U.S.S.R.

The largest reserves of kyanite in the U.S.S.R. (and in 

the world) are in the elongated Keiv district in the 

central part of the Kola Peninsula (Kirpal' and Tenyakov, 

1974, p. 320-322). A rich kyanite schist in this district 

ranges from 80 to 150 m in thickness and extends for 140 

km. Three grades of kyanite schist are recognized:

(1) rich ores containing more than 40 percent kyanite,

(2) medium-grade ores containing 30-40 percent kyanite, 

and (3) lean ores containing less than 20 percent kyanite. 

Several deposits of kyanite and sillimanite in Siberia 

have been investigated as possible sources of alumina 

(Galaburda, 1958; Mikhaylov and others, 1977). Sillimanite deposits near Kyakhta, near the Mongolian border 

south of Lake Baykal, are among the most important 

deposits in the U.S.S.R. (Varley, 1965). Concentrates 

from these deposits are reported to contain 53.44 percent 

A1203 and 39.62 percent Si02 (Varley, 1965, p. 92). 

Kyanite-group minerals also occur in the eastern Sayan 

Mountains west of Lake Baykal, in at least two areas

north of Lake Baykal, and in several areas along the 

southern and western margins of the Aldan Shield in 

eastern Siberia. The identified resources of kyanite in 

the U.S.S.R. are 3.5 million metric tons (Industrial 

Minerals, 1985, p. 50).

Andalusite was formerly recovered as a byproduct of 

corundum mining in the Semiz-Bugu district, central 

Kazakhstan (Varley, 1965, p, 93). The deposits are in 

quartzites. which contain 30-80 percent andalusite and 

12-51 percent pyrophyllite. The highest grade material 

averaged 52 percent A1203, less than 2 percent Fe203, 

and less than 6 percent combined alkalies. These highgrade reserves were nearly depleted by 1949. Reserves 

of lower grade material containing 18 or more percent 

andalusite were estimated to be 72 million metric tons 

(Varley, 1965, p. 93).

ZIMBABWE

Large deposits of kyanite are in northeastern Zimbabwe (Morrison, 1976; Manos 1978). The top 30 m of the 

biotite-kyanite schist at the Ky mine contains an estimated 2 million metric tons of kyanite, which averages 61 

percent alumina. The top 6 m of the biotite-garnetkyanite schist at Madecheche contains an estimated 2.7 

million metric tons of kyanite, which contains 58-62 

percent alumina. The garnet could be a coproduct. Kyanite is also found at Masterpiece and Inyanga North, 

Zimbabwe, but the alumna content and resources are 

not known. Although these areas are remote and relatively unexplored, they could sustain a large refractory 

industry and possibly an aluminum industry.

OTHER COUNTRIES

Kyanite-group minerals occur in a great many more 

countries and are far more widely distributed than 

indicated in the foregoing discussion. For additional 

information on these minerals, the reader is referred to 

reports by Klinefelter and Cooper (1961), Varley (1965), 

and Espenshade (1973). The references in these reports 

and the bibliography by Grametbaur (1959) list many 

more reports on the kyanite-group minerals.

Kyanite-group minerals occur in several African countries other than South Africa and Zimbabwe. Andalusite 

in Swaziland (Davies and others, 1964) occurs as thin 

veinlets or small pods in the pyrophyllite zone of a 

diaspore deposit. The andalusite reserves in these rocks 

are estimated to be 240,000 metric tons (Davies and 

others, 1964, p. 9). Liberia has approximately 10 million 

metric tons of measured, indicated, and inferred 

reserves of metamorphic rock containing an estimated 

2.5 million metric tons of kyanite (Stanin and Cooper, 

1968, p. 2; Industrial Minerals, 1985, p. 50).
C34 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

Kyanite occurs at many places in Kenya (Temperley, 

1953; Varley, 1965, p. 45) and was mined during the 

1940's and early 1950's. The best grade kyanite deposits 

are those in the Murka-Loosoito belt, a 14-km-long belt 

west of the Coastal Plain. The kyanite occurs in a 

kyanite-quartz schist. The kyanite shipped between June 

1946 and February 1947 contained an average of 61.5 

percent alumina (Varley, 1965, p. 46). The identified 

resources of kyanite in Kenya are 1.2 million metric tons 

(Industrial Minerals, 1985, p. 50).

Kyanite deposits occur at several places in Namibia. 

The highest grade material is in the Windhoek district. 

Other deposits such as those near Rehoboth in the Uisib 

Valley (Varley, 1965, p. 101-103) apparently have little 

or no commercial value. One particularly high grade 

body, about 91 m in diameter and 24 m high, of kyanite 

and corundum in the Windhoek district contained 81.25 

percent alumina. The identified resources of kyanite in 

Namibia are 120,000 metric tons (Industrial Minerals, 

1985, p. 50).

Kyanite occurs in the Provinces of Salzburg, Styria, 

and Tyrol, Austria (Varley, 1965, p. 85). No kyanite has 

been produced, but the identified resources are 4 million 

metric tons (Industrial Minerals, 1985, p. 50).

French production of andalusite is second only to that 

of South Africa (Industrial Minerals, 1985, p. 45), 

although French reserves are much smaller than those of 

South Africa. The French andalusite is produced from 

Ordovician schist at one mine at Glomel, Brittany (Industrial Minerals, 1985). The French reserves were 

reported to be 3 million metric tons by Potter (1985, p. 

427) and 4 million-5 million metric tons by Industrial 

Minerals (1985, p. 45).

The andalusite reserves in Spain are not known, but 

thrt country produced 5,500 metric tons of andalusite in 

1983 (Potter, 1985, p. 426, 429). Kyanite production in 

Spain has been about 5,000 metric tons annually for some 

years (Industrial Minerals, 1985, p. 46). Kyanite fragments are dredged from alluvial deposits containing as 

much as 20 percent kyanite in La Coruna Province 

(Industrial Minerals, 1985).

Australia has produced sillimanite from New South 

Wales, sillimanite and andalusite from South Australia, 

an', a small amount of kyanite from Western Australia 

(V?,rley, 1965, p. 79-84). No current resource data are 

available for sillimanite and andalusite; the identified 

resources of kyanite in Australia are 3 million metric tons 

(Industrial Minerals, 1985, p. 50). Australia is evaluating 

a large industrial topaz deposit in New South Wales, 

wh ch contains at least 400,000 metric tons of recoverable 

topaz (Potter, 1988, p. 575). According to Industrial 

Mirsrals (1985, p. 61), this topaz deposit is 30 km 

northeast of Emmaville and contains more than 1.2

million metric tons of topaz in 6 million metric tons of 

quartz-rich rock known as silexite.

Kyanite and topaz occur in Brazil principally in the 

States of Minas Gerais and Sao Paulo (Varley, 1965, p. 

123). The identified resources of kyanite in Brazil are 3 

million metric tons (Potter, 1985, p. 427). Industrial 

Minerals (1985, p. 47) reported that a deposit of boulder 

kyanite close to the surface in the State of Goias contained measured reserves of 2 million metric tons.

ALUMINOUS SHALE

Shale is a fine-grained sedimentary rock formed by the 

consolidation of clay, silt, or mud; shale has a finely 

stratified structure that results in fissility that is approximately parallel to the bedding. Almost all shales contain 

some quartz and other impurities, and many contain 

organic matter. The most common clay mineral in most 

shales is illite, which is also called hydromica or sericite. 

Elite has the same structure as muscovite, which has a 

theoretical composition of 38.5 percent A1203 , 45.2 percent Si02, 11.8 percent K20, and 4.5 percent H20. Shale 

may also contain kaolinite (39.5 percent A1203 , 46.5 

percent Si02, and 14.0 percent H20), smectite (approximately 28.3 percent A1203 , 66.7 percent Si02, and 5 

percent H20), mixed-layer clay (illite-smectite), or chlorite (approximately 17.6 percent A1203 , 31.4 percent 

Si02 , 37.6 percent MgO, and 13.4 percent H20). The 

Cambrian and Ordovician alum shale of Scandinavia 

chemically consists mainly of hydrated potassium aluminum sulfate (Industrial Minerals, 1977) and is, therefore, 

quite different in composition from the typical shale.

The aluminous shale and slate (metamorphosed shale) 

extracted during coal mining and processing are discussed in the following separate section even though they 

are identical to the aluminous shale discussed in this 

section. Although extraction of alumina from aluminous 

shale is not economic at the present time, extraction of 

alumina from coal waste (shale and slate) may become 

economic because the cost of mining has already been 

paid by coal producers.

UNITED STATES

Aluminous shales are widely distributed in the United 

States, but none are exceptionally rich in alumina. A 

thorough search of published and unpublished reports by 

the staff of the U.S. Bureau of Mines revealed only two 

districts having shale rich enough in alumina to be 

considered potential alumina resources (U.S. Bureau of 

Mines, 1967). One district in Missouri was estimated by 

Wheeler (1896) to contain 750 million metric tons of 

Ordovician shale having an average alumina content of 28 

percent. The other district near Wenatchee, Wash.,
WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C35

contains shale in the Swauk Formation of Cretaceous and 

Paleocene age; Glover (1941) reported its reserves to be 

between 20 million and 100 million metric tons having an 

average alumina content of 30-35 percent.

Unlimited quantities of shale are present in the Middle 

and Upper Cambrian Conasauga Shale, the Lower and 

Middle Silurian Red Mountain Shale, and the Upper 

Mississippian Floyd Shale in northwestern Georgia and 

northeastern Alabama. Most of these shales contain only 

about 20 percent alumina (Smith, 1931).

Shales of Pennsylvanian age are abundant in the areas 

where coal is produced in the Eastern United States. 

Some shales of Pennsylvanian age contain only 20-23 

percent alumina (Clarke, 1924, p. 552; Patterson and 

Hosterman, 1962, table 8). Although too low grade to be 

an economic source of alumina, the shales of Pennsylvanian age in the United States amount to many billions of 

metric tons.

The United States also contains very large bodies of 

younger shale. Much of the 125 million metric tons of 

aluminous shale and clay in Kansas is of Cretaceous age 

and contains 20-40 percent alumina (Jewett and others, 

1942, p. 129-131).

Extraction of alumina from the Upper Cretaceous 

Pierre Shale in South Dakota has been considered (Gries, 

1942, p. 63-66; Rothrock, 1944, p. 65-66), and chemical 

engineering students at the South Dakota School of 

Mines and Technology have studied this problem (Miller, 

1959, p. 26). The Pierre Shale, however, is not a potential 

source of aluminum because it contains only 12-18 percent alumina (Tourtelot, 1962, table 7).

Shales of Tertiary age occur in the southern and 

western parts of the United States. Glover (1941) listed 

several scattered deposits of Tertiary shale and clay in 

Washington in addition to those in the Wenatchee district.

CANADA

The Canada Department of Mines and Technical Surveys investigated the recovery of alumina from shales in 

Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick (see 

table 6) (Thomas and Ingraham, 1959; Winer and Quon, 

1979, table 2). Dean (1975) found that these shales are of 

Cambrian, Ordovician, and Pennsylvanian age and that 

most of the shales average 20-24 percent alumina. Upper 

Cretaceous shale that correlates with the Pierre Shale in 

the United States is present in the Canadian Great Plains 

region. This shale has received very little attention as a 

potential source of alumina because its alumina content is 

less than that of the Whitemud Formation in southern 

Saskatchewan; the Whitemud has a large shale resource 

that contains 20-24 percent alumina (Bell and Brady, 

1976; Bell, 1978, 1979).

SPAIN

The Puentes de Garcia Rodriguez Tertiary clay and 

the Carboniferous slate in northwestern Spain were 

investigated by the Empresa Nacional del Aluminio and 

the Escuela Tecnica Superior de Ingenieros de Minas 

(Sancho, Iglesias, and others, 1981; Sancho, Verdeja, 

and others, 1981). The alumina content of the clay is 20 

percent, and that of the slate is 22 percent. The mineral 

composition of these materials is shown (in weight percent) in the following table from Sancho, Verdeja, and 

others (1981, p. 84, 91):

Component Puentes de Garcia 

Rodriguez clay

Carboniferous 

slate

Kaolinite .......

Illite...........

Chlorite........

Mixed-layer clay 

Quartz .........

Organic matter.. 

Other..........

Total.

24

31

0

0

28

2

J5

100

11

46

9

6

20

0

8

100

SWEDEN

Sweden has very large resources of Cambrian and 

Ordovician alum shale, a marine black shale, in Vas' ergotland, Ostergotland, Narke, Oland, and Scrnia 

(Shaikh, 1977, p. 192). The sulfur-rich alum shale contains oil, vanadium, potassium, uranium, and aluminum 

(Duncan and Swanson, 1965, p. 25; Shaikh, 1977, p. 132). 

During the period 1942 to 1962, about 10 million bar-els 

of oil were produced from the alum shale from Nt "ke 

(Duncan and Swanson, 1965, p. 25). Byproducts of the 

alum shale included substantial amounts of combus' ble 

gas, heat for electric power generation, sulfur, ammc lia, 

lime, and brick clay (Gejrot, 1958).

AB Svensk Alunskifferutveckling was formed by I- oliden AB and Luossavaara-Kirunavaera AB (LKAE in 

1977 to mine alum shale in Sweden (Industrial Minerals, 

1977). Plans were made to mine 6 million metric tor 5 of 

shale annually at Ranstad in Vastergotland; that E ale 

would have contained about 355,000 metric tons of aluminum (Shaikh, 1977, p. 192). Information on whe.her 

alum shale was ever used as a source of alumina ig not 

available; however, almost all of Sweden's almr—um 

production is from imported bauxite.

The alum shale of Sweden varies in composite In 

places, it is rich in organic matter, and the 2' ina 

content is generally less than 20 percent (Shaikh, ~ , p. 

192). The Swedish National Board of Industry • ?; ID) 

has stated that the quantity of alum shales in Sv7 •= i is 

600 billion metric tons, and additional resov" ' are 

likely to be present in the mountain ridges -~ ° arn 

Sweden and in the Gulf of Bothnia (Mining I ng, 

1977).
C36 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

OTHER COUNTRIES

The distribution of aluminous shale and slate throughout the world is poorly known. The alum shales that 

occur in Sweden are also in Denmark and Norway 

(Shaikh, 1977, p. 192). However, there is no information 

available to indicate that these shales were ever investigated as a source of alumina. The deposits in Denmark 

are on the island of Bornholm, and those in Norway are 

in the Oslo-Ringerike area and in the Mjosa-Ringsaker 

district. Aluminous slate occurs in Wales and Scotland 

and in Cornwall and the Lake District, England 

(Crocket, 1975). The Japanese recovered alumina during World War II from shales mined in Manchuria (table 

1); these shales contained boehmite (A1203 -H20) and 

diaspore (A1203 -H20) and were, therefore, a type of 

bauxite.

COAL WASTE AND COAL ASH

Coal wastes are the several types of aluminous materials discarded during coal mining and treatment. Overburden or spoil is the material above the coal removed 

during strip mining. Washing rejects obtained during the 

purification or beneficiation process of washing the coal 

with water are the partings or bands of waste in the coal 

bed. Roof rock or draw slate is the soft shale or slate 

above the coal bed; it is extracted with the coal in some 

underground mines to provide headroom. Carbonaceous 

shale and impure fissile anthracite are called culm in the 

coal industry. Culm is discarded in piles known as banks, 

and if the banks burn by spontaneous combustion, then 

the resulting material is known as red dog.

Draw slate and washing rejects are the coal wastes 

most likely to be used as sources of alumina, and they are 

readily available in refuse stockpiles wherever coal is 

mined. Coal waste is an impure mixture consisting 

principally of fine coal, silicate minerals, including clay 

minerals, and iron minerals such as pyrite and siderite. 

Most of the alumina in coal waste is in the clay minerals 

kaolinite and illite. The alumina content of draw slate is 

reported to range from 15 to 35 percent (Shafer and 

Solomon, 1967); however, draw slates having alumina 

contents at the high end of the range probably are not 

very abundant. The alumina content of washing rejects is 

probably highly variable.

Coal-washing rejects obtained annually contain more 

alumina than the world produces annually. In 1973, the 

annual world production of coal was 2,200 million metric 

tons; washing rejects associated with this production 

were estimated to amount to 600 million-1,200 million 

metric tons that contained 120 million-240 million metric 

tons of alumina (Cohen and Mercier, 1976, p. 6). The 

world production of aluminum in 1976 was about 14

million metric tons per year (Cohen and Mercier, 1976, p. 

3), which was obtained from about 26 million metric tons 

of alumina.

The noncombustible residues of coal are classed under 

the general term "ash." Fly ash is the fine-grained 

material carried out of the combustion chamber by draft 

and deposited in the quiet places of the furnace and flue 

system or discharged with the waste gases. The coarser 

material is usually called ash or bottom ash because most 

of it passes through the grates. Clinker is the fused or 

partly fused form of ash. Slag is formed in some furnaces 

when the bottom ash is dropped into water.

Recovery of aluminum from ash from coal-fired powerplants has been studied, but such material is less 

attractive than coal waste because high temperature 

affects the alumina solubility. Shafer and Solomon (1967) 

have shown that the extractability of alumina from draw 

slate by use of sulfuric acid (H2S04) increases in material 

heated to 500 °C but drops off markedly in material 

heated higher than 500 °C. This is the approximate 

temperature at which kaolinite and most illites lose their 

crystal structure and begin to form a high-temperature 

phase. Because fly ash and bottom ash or slag form at 

temperatures considerably above 500 °C, the alumina is 

difficult to extract.

UNITED STATES

According to Sorensen and Schaller (1983, p. 2), about 

80 million metric tons of shale are discarded annually 

from coal mines and coal treatment plants in the United 

States, and over the years, about 3 billion metric tons of 

this material have accumulated. The total ash produced 

annually is about 70 million metric tons, and about 500 

million metric tons have accumulated. About 20 percent 

of this ash is bottom ash or slag, and fly ash accounts for 

10-90 percent of the ash produced in the United States 

from coal that yields 3-30 percent ash.

A study of coal waste by Sorensen and Schaller (1983, 

p. 12-13) led to the conclusion that of all coal waste in the 

United States, culm in the Anthracite district in eastern 

Pennsylvania is the most attractive potential source of 

alumina. These authors gave the following reasons for 

this conclusion: (1) anthracite waste materials have accu-, 

mulated in about 800 banks for a total of about 688 million 

m3; (2) these waste materials are unsuitable for construction materials, such as lightweight aggregate; (3) continued storage of the waste material containing coal and 

sulfides and other leachable compounds poses environmental pollution and combustion hazards, and the district 

has become more populated than most other coal districts; (4) the waste material in the Anthracite district 

generally has a higher alumina content than the wastes of 

other coal districts; and (5) most of the waste in the
WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C37

TABLE 14.— Typical composition of anthracite culm in Pennsylvania

[Data from Apa and others (1982). Heating value 

of ash is 6,745-10,700 kJ/kg]

Constituent Percent by weight

Composition of culm

C .....

H.....

0 .....

N.....

S......

Ash...

................. 21-32

................. 1.4-2.0

................. 3.4-7.0

................. 0.5-1.5

................. 0.4-1.2

................. 57-70

Composition of culm ash

Si02 ...

A1203 ..

Fe^ .

Ti02 . . .

CaO . . .

MgO...

KaO...

Na.,0..

S08 ...

V205 ..

P n

................. 50-57

................. 30-37

................. 3-10

................. 1-2

................. 1-2

................. 0-1

................. 1-3

................. 1-3

................. 0-1

................. 0.2-0.4

................. 0.2-0.4

Anthracite district contains sufficient coal for the calcination step in the alumina extraction process.

Apa and others (1982) studied extraction of alumina 

from anthracite culm in the Pennsylvania Anthracite 

district; they estimated that 696 million m3 of culm is 

present in 863 separate banks and contains 30-40 percent 

anthracite. The culm ash contains 50-57 percent Si02 , 

30-37 percent A1203, and 3-10 percent Fe203 (table 14).

Robl and Bland (1977, p. 98) found that shale and clay 

associated with coal in the Appalachian basin of eastern 

Kentucky contain 20.8--37.5 percent alumina. One particularly valuable low-sulfur coal (Hazard No. 4) has a clay 

parting that yields 1 metric ton of waste for every 2 

metric tons of coal produced. Because of the demand for 

low-sulfur coal, large tonnages of Hazard No. 4 coal are 

mined, and large tonnages of waste are made available. 

An ashed sample of this waste contained 35.20 percent 

alumina (Robl and Bland, 1977, table 4).

CANADA

Table 6 shows Winer's (1977) estimates of the alumina 

content of Canadian coal wastes. Winer and Tibbetts 

(1976), of Canada's Centre for Mineral and Energy 

Technology (CANMET), evaluated the coal wastes in 

Canada as potential sources of alumina. They found that 

(1) the coal-mine waste and washing rejects from Alberta 

and British Columbia represent the best potential 

sources of alumina of all Canadian coal waste; (2) the Hat 

Creek district located 193 km northeast of Vancouver, 

British Columbia, is the best potential source of coalassociated alumina in Canada both qualitatively and

quantitatively; and (3) in 1976, the amount of coal ash 

generated at any one place in Canada was not sufficient 

to be considered a potential source of alumina. However, 

large tonnages of ash may become available in the future 

when very large coal-fired powerplants are constructed 

in British Columbia and Alberta. Therefore, coal ash may 

become a potential nonbauxite source of alumina.

The British Columbia Hydro Power, Ltd., obtained a 

license to explore part of the Hat Creek coal district. 

This district has coal whose ash contains as much as 32 

percent alumina (Winer, 1977, p. 104; Winer and Tibbetts, 1978). Estimated resources of lignite in the Hat 

Creek district in 1978 were 460 million metric tons of 

proved reserves, 572 million metric tons of indicated 

reserves, and 1,113 million metric tons of inferred 

reserves.

UNITED KINGDOM

Wills and Phillips (1977) reported that colliery spoil 

(coal-mine waste) is a potential source of alumina in the 

United Kingdom. Material available in 1966 included 

about 1.2 billion metric tons of unburned coal-mine waste 

containing 19.4 percent alumina, about 630 million metric 

tons of burning waste (no alumina analysis), and about 

320 million metric tons of burned waste containing 21.2 

percent alumina.

OTHER COUNTRIES

Roasting of shale associated with coal in France yields 

a product having a typical composition of 24.4 percent 

A1203 , 7.8 percent Fe203, 0.65 percent NasO, 4.4 percent 

K20, 1.9 percent MgO, 0.25 percent P205, 0.9 percent 

Ti02 , and 57.9 percent Si02 (Cohen and Mercier, 1976, p. 

8). Fly ash tested in a pilot plant at the Tatabanya coal 

mines in Hungary has the following composition: 29-31 

percent A1203, 41-45 percent Si02 , 9-12 percent Fe203, 

6 percent CaO, 2 percent MgO, 2 percent S, and 1-2 

percent loss on ignition (Gulyas and Vamos, 1976). 

Coal-mine waste from the Ekibastuz coal field in the 

U.S.S.R. contains 22-30 percent A1203 (Sukhanova and 

Ponomarev, 1969).

MISCELLANEOUS SOURCES OF ALUMINA

COPPER LEACH SOLUTIONS

The USBM and the Kennecott Copper Corporation 

investigated the recovery of alumina from circulating 

solutions used to extract copper from waste dumps at 

many of the porphyry copper mining operations. These 

solutions contained 3.0-11.9 g/L alumina and could have 

yielded approximately 500,000 metric tons of alumina 

each year in the United States (Petrick and others, 1973)
C38 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

before many of the copper mines were closed. These 

figures are only estimated because of variations in leaching rates and concentration of alumina in the solutions. 

George and others (1968) suggested that as much as 

2,000 metric tons of alumina per day could have been 

recovered from copper leach solutions in the 1960's when 

14 copper mines were active in the United States. 

Because many copper mines closed during the last three 

decades, copper leach solutions are not likely to provide 

significant amounts of alumina. Furthermore, the 

National Materials Advisory Board (1970, p. 60) concluded that, although extracting alumina from copper 

leach solutions may prove economic, this raw material is 

not a potentially large source of alumina.

GIBBSITIC SOILS

Gibbsitic soils are present in scattered deposits on the 

U.S. Atlantic Coastal Plain and occur in a broad belt on 

the U.S. Gulf of Mexico Coastal Plain; the belt extends 

550 km from southern Mississippi to west-central Georgia (Clarke, 1971; White, 1984). Gibbsite (A1203 -3H20) is 

most abundant in the clay- and silt-sized fractions of the 

B and C soil horizons. The clay and silt fractions made up 

15-52 percent of the 10 samples examined by Clarke 

(1971, table 1), and the gibbsite content of the clay and 

silt fractions ranged from 15 to 45 percent. Other minerals in the clay and silt fractions were kaolinite, quartz, 

hematite, vermiculite, and illite. Alumina contents of the 

clay and silt fractions ranged from 28 to 43 percent. Over 

much of the two coastal plains, the gibbsite content in 

soils and saprolite is low to negligible; therefore, gibbsitic soils are not likely to become an important resource 

of alumina.

ZUNYITE

Zunyite, Al13Si502o(OH,F)18Cl, has an Al:Si ratio of 

13:5. The regional distribution of zunyite in the United 

States is similar to that of high-fluorine silicic volcanic 

rocks, and zunyite is commonly associated with alunite 

(Hall, 1978; Coats and others, 1979). It was originally 

described from the Zuni mine near Silverton, Colo. 

(Hillebrand, 1885).

One major occurrence of zunyite in the United States 

is in the south half of sec. 3, T. 40 N., R. 47 E., Elko 

County, Nev. It occurs in an outcrop approximately 365 

m long and 3-18 m wide (Coats and others, 1979). The 

depth is not known, and no reserve estimates are available. The chemical analyses of two samples averaged 

26.6 percent Si02 , 58.2 percent A1203 , 9.6 percent H20, 

2.5 percent Cl, and 5.3 percent F.

Coats and others (1979) reported that zunyite has been 

found in the United States at Butte, Mont.; in the Red 

Mountain district, Ouray County, Colo.; in the Bonanza

district, Saguache County, Colo.; in the Tintic district, 

Utah; and in porphyry copper deposits, Puerto Rico. 

They also mentioned reports of zunyite from Ishidoriya 

district, Japan; Cerro de Pasco, Peru; Azrou-Melloul, 

Morocco; Beni-Embarek, Algeria; near Postmasburg, 

South Africa; and the U.S.S.R., where zunyite occurs in 

the Kabansk deposit of massive pyrite in the Ural 

Mountains and is associated with alunite in many localities. Worldwide, zunyite is a rare mineral, but local 

concentrations may one day be a source of aluminum and 

fluorine.

ALUMINA EXTRACTION RESEARCH

RESEARCH BEFORE WORLD WAR II

Probably the first preparation of aluminum from nonbauxite material was in Denmark in 1825 by H.C. 

Oersted, who produced aluminum by heating potassium 

amalgam with aluminum chloride and distilling the mercury from the resulting aluminum amalgam (Edwards 

and others, 1930, p. 2). Oersted called the aluminum 

"metal of clay," but the source and type of raw material 

are unknown, and so we are not certain that he used clay. 

Oersted's process was never used commercially. After 

the Bayer process for obtaining alumina from low-silica 

bauxite was developed in the late 1800's, all aluminum 

was made by the reduction of alumina by the HallHeroult electrolytic method.

The following brief history on the production of alumina from nonbauxite material is from information published by Edwards and others (1930, p. 155-235). R.A. 

Tilghman received U.S. patent 5,383 in 1847 for a 

process to recover alumina from aluminum phosphate. In 

1858, Le Chatelier applied for British patent 413 for a 

process using hydrofluosilic acid, made by passing steam 

over a heated mixture of fluorspar and silica, to recover 

soluble aluminum fluosilicate from clay. A process for the 

recovery of alkali aluminate from blast furnace slag was 

proposed in 1862. In 1871, J. Townsend applied for 

British patent 995 for a process to recover alumina from 

natural aluminum phosphates.

Between 1890 and 1910, only a few processes for the 

extraction of alumina from nonbauxite materials were 

proposed, but between 1910 and 1930, many processes 

were patented, including the following: (1) hydrochloric 

acid processes for recovering alumina from leucite 

(Italy), clay (United States), and calcined clay (England); 

(2) nitric acid processes for recovering alumina from 

leucite in Italy, England, and the United States and from 

labradorite in Norway; (3) a hydrofluoric acid process for 

treating clay or kaolin in the United States and feldspar 

in the United States and England; (4) a sulfuric acid
WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C39

process for recovering alumina from alunite in the United 

States; (5) the treatment of pulverized clay with sodium 

hydroxide under pressure in the United States (Bayer 

process); (6) the treatment of aluminum silicates such as 

leucite with concentrated sodium hydroxide and lime 

after part of the silica was removed with alkali hydroxide 

in France; (7) the digestion of feldspar with alkali carbonate under pressure to dissolve silica and leave alumina and iron oxide in the United States; (8) the digestion of clay with strong sodium hydroxide under 

pressure, then the separation of alumina and silica by 

fractional precipitation in the United States; (9) the 

treatment of alunite with barium hydroxide solution 

under pressure in the United States; (10) the digestion of 

aluminous iron ores by sodium hydroxide in the United 

States; (11) the roasting of cryolite and caustic lime and 

leaching in water in the United States; (12) the digestion 

of cryolite with calcium carbonate and alkali carbonate in 

Germany; (13) the digestion of natural aluminum phosphates with sodium or potassium hydroxide in Germany; 

(14) the treatment of aluminum chloride with alkali 

chloride in Japan; (15) the treatment of calcium aluminum 

phosphate with caustic soda solution and sodium silicate 

to combine with alumina in England; and (16) the leaching of a mixture of aluminum and calcium phosphate to 

form calcium aluminate and volatile phosphorus pentoxide in the United States. The foregoing is by no means a 

complete list of all the proposed processes for extracting 

alumina from nonbauxite material, and in addition, there 

are many patented modifications to both the alkali and 

acid digestion processes.

U.S. RESEARCH DURING WORLD WAR II

During World War II (1941-45), the United States had 

its bauxite imports from Suriname and Guyana seriously 

reduced by submarine warfare. As a consequence, the 

U.S. Government formed the Defense Plant Corporation 

and authorized the construction of four experimental 

plants at Laramie, Wyo., Harleyville, S.C., Salt Lake 

City, Utah, and Salem, Oreg. A fifth plant, at Oak 

Ridge, Tenn., was operated by the Tennessee Valley 

Authority (TVA) under the authorization of the War 

Production Board and under the direction of the Metallurgy Committee of the National Academy of Sciences. 

Also during World War II, the U.S. Bureau of Mines 

(USBM) developed a lime-soda sinter process for 

extracting alumina from low-grade materials. The materials studied included Wyoming anorthosite (Brown and 

others, 1947), South Carolina kaolin (Cservenyak, 1947), 

and nodular diaspore clay from Clearfield County, Pa. 

(Conley and others, 1947).

The plant 5 km south of Laramie, Wyo., was designed 

to recover alumina from anorthosite by an alkali-sinter

process (St. Clair and others, 1959; Kirby and Barclay, 

1981, p. 5-6). This plant was not finished when the 

program was terminated in 1945. It sat idle until the 

U.S. Bureau of Mines reconditioned it and operated it 

from 1952 to 1954. The plant was designed for the USBM 

by the Dorr Company in cooperation with Monolith 

Portland Midwest Company. The process tested (St. 

Clair and others, 1959, p. 13-14) consisted of the following steps: (1) preparing a slurry of anorthosite, limestone, and soda by grinding to minus-200 mesh;

(2) drying and sintering the slurry at about 1290 °C;

(3) grinding the dried material with a soda solution and 

removing the resulting sodium aluminate solution;

(4) desilicating the sodium aluminate solution by pumping it under pressure through preheaters at 100 °C, 

adding lime, and autoclaving at 160 °C; (5) carbonating 

the desilicated solution to precipitate alumina hydrate; 

and (6) purifying the alumina hydrate in a hydroseparator and calcining it at 1232 °C to recover alumina.

The plant at Harleyville, S.C., tested the extraction of 

alumina from South Carolina kaolin by the lime-sinter 

method (Archibald and Jackson, 1944; Archibald and 

Nicholson, 1949). The plant was built and operated for 

the Defense Plant Corporation by Ancor Corporation, 

which had been formed by Paraminas, Inc., and American Nepheline Corporation. Kaolin was sintered with 

limestone in a rotary kiln at 1315 °C. The resulting 

material was ground and leached for 20 minutes at 70 °C 

with a solution having a 2:1 mole ratio of Na20 to A1203 

and a concentration equivalent to 85 g A1203 per liter of 

solution. Desilication was increased by adding a colloidal 

agent to serve as collectors or crystal growth centers. 

This lime-sinter method required more than 2 metric 

tons of limestone to process 1 metric ton of kaolin.

The plant at Salt Lake City, Utah, was designed to 

produce 100 metric tons of alumina a day from alunite 

from the Marysville district, Utah (Fleischer, 1944; Hall, 

1978, p. A10). The plant used the Kalunite process 

developed by Kalunite, Inc. The process involved the 

treatment of alunite with sulfuric acid and the production 

of potassium alum. By heat treatment under pressure, 

the potassium alum was converted to a water-insoluble 

compound, a basic alum precipitate, and sulfuric acid and 

potassium sulfate were regenerated. The basic alum 

precipitate was calcined to produce a mixture of potassium sulfate and alumina, which was separated by autoclave treatment. The Kalunite process was also tested on 

clays.

The plant at Salem, Oreg., tested the ammonium 

sulfate process on kaolin from the Western United States 

(Seyfried, 1949). In the process, which was designed by 

the Chemical Construction Corporation, the roasted clay 

was leached with molten ammonium bisulfate and water 

to form a slurry. During controlled cooling, nearly all of
C40 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

the alumina crystallized in the form of ammonium alum. 

Alumina was then recovered by a method similar to the 

one used by the Kalunite process described above.

The testing done by the Tennessee Valley Authority at 

Oak Ridge, Tenn. (Copson and others, 1944a, b; Hignett, 

1947), was on the extraction of alumina from clay by the 

lime-sinter modification of the Pedersen (1927) process. 

It involved the following steps: (1) heating a mixture of 

clay and limestone to form a sinter containing calcium 

aluminate and dicalcium silicate; (2) leaching of the sinter 

with a sodium carbonate solution to form a sodium 

aluminate solution and a residue of calcium carbonate and 

calcium silicate; (3) treating the sodium aluminate solution with carbon dioxide to precipitate aluminum trihydrate and regenerate sodium carbonate, which was recycled; and (4) calcining the aluminum trihydrate to 

produce alumina. The TVA investigated the geology and 

resources of the western Tennessee high-alumina clay 

deposits (Gildersleeve and Whitlatch, 1944) as a possible 

raw material for the extraction process described above.

INVESTIGATIONS BY U.S. GOVERNMENT AGENCIES AFTER 

WORLD WAR II

In 1970, the National Materials Advisory Board, which 

was part of the National Research Council, published a 

report reviewing the most promising processes for 

obtaining alumina from nonbauxite sources in the United 

States. The most promising method appeared to be an 

acid process for the treatment of kaolin. The report 

recommended that the U.S. Bureau of Mines, with help 

from the aluminum industry, build and operate pilot 

plants to test the hydrochloric acid and nitric acid 

processes for extracting alumina from kaolin.

U.S. BUREAU OF MINES 

MINIPLANT STUDIES

After World War II, the U.S. Bureau of Mines continued to investigate many processes for extracting alumina 

from nonbauxite material, including the alkali-sinter 

process to obtain alumina from anorthosite near 

Laramie, Wyo. (see the section above, "U.S. Research 

During World War II"), and the lime-soda sinter process 

to obtain alumina from anorthosite in the San Gabriel 

Mountains, Calif. (Lundquist, 1963). Following the recommendation of the National Materials Advisory Board 

(1970), the USBM attempted to begin miniplant studies 

in July 1971 to reexamine the technology for recovering 

alumina from domestic nonbauxite sources, but lack of 

funds and insufficient industry interest caused negotiations to fail (Kirby and Barclay, 1981, p. 3). The USBM 

began the miniplant program in July 1973 a few months

before the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) imposed an oil embargo on the United 

States. Fears that bauxite-producing countries would 

impose a similar embargo encouraged companies to 

respond to another invitation in January 1974 to participate in the miniplant program. Participants in the 

program between 1974 and its conclusion in 1982 were 

listed by Barclay (1984, p. 166) as (1) Alcan International, Ltd.; (2) Aluminum Company of America; (3) 

Anaconda Aluminum Company; (4) Amax Aluminum 

Company, Inc.; (5) Billiton International Metals; (6) 

Combustion Engineering, Inc.; (7) Consolidated Aluminum Corporation; (8) Kaiser Aluminum and Chemical 

Corporation; (9) Martin Marietta Aluminum, Inc.; (10) 

Reynolds Metals Company; and (11) Vereinigte 

Aluminium-Werke A.-G. Six miniplants were to be constructed at Boulder City, Nev., but only two were 

actually built and operated (Barclay, 1984). The term 

"miniplant" was chosen to indicate a testing scale beyond 

the usual laboratory facilities but not as large as a pilot 

plant.

The objectives of the miniplant tests were to select the 

most favorable processes and raw materials, on the basis 

of relative costs and technical factors, and to make a 

preliminary design for a pilot plant to use the best 

process to treat 10-50 metric tons of ore per day (Bengston and others, 1978a, b, 1979, 1981; Nunn and others, 

1979). The following six processes were chosen for study 

because they were believed to be the most promising: 

(1) nitric acid leaching of clay; (2) hydrochloric acid 

leaching of clay followed by evaporative crystallization of 

aluminum chloride hexahydrate; (3) hydrochloric acid 

leaching of clay followed by hydrochloric acid gas sparging crystallization of aluminum chloride hexahydrate; 

(4) sulfurous acid leaching of clay; (5) sintering anorthosite with limestone and leaching the dried material with 

a caustic solution; and (6) reducing alunite by roasting 

followed by caustic leaching.

Process 1, Nitric acid leaching of clay.—The nitric 

acid leaching of calcined clay was tested in the first 

miniplant (Olsen and others, 1983b; Barclay, 1984, p. 

167-168). This process was selected because of the 

recommendation of the National Materials Advisory 

Board (1970) and because of the widespread interest in it. 

Between 1965 and 1975, 14 U.S. patents were issued for 

the recovery of alumina from clay by the nitric acid 

process. Five of these patents were assigned to Arthur 

D. Little, Inc. (George and Stone, 1965; Beutner and 

Huska, 1971; Flood, 1971; Hyde and Margolin, 1971; 

Huska and others, 1972), four to Allied Chemical Corporation (Amano and Taylor, 1968; Gerry and others, 1968; 

Kelly and Yodis, 1968; Yodis and Schnoor, 1968), and five 

to Reynolds Metals Company (Brown and Hrishikesan, 

1966; Kelly and Bruen, 1971; Wise, 1971; Royce and
WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C41

Drown, 1974; Bruen and Kelly, 1975). The investigations 

of the nitric acid process by the USBM were described by 

Bengston and others (1978a, b), Sorensen (1982), and 

Olsen and others (1983b). With additional work, the 

USBM found that the consumption of nitric acid was 

excessive (White, Henry, and Traut, 1982; Turner and 

Rogers, 1983). Bengston and others (1978a, b) also found 

that the capital, operating, and energy costs for the nitric 

acid process were significantly higher than those for the 

two processes using hydrochloric acid. Technical 

research on the nitric acid leaching of clay has been 

outlined by the following: Eisele and others (1982), 

Sorensen (1982), White, Henry, and Traut (1982), Olsen 

and others (1983b), and Turner and Rogers (1983).

Process 2, Hydrochloric acid leaching of clay followed 

by evaporative crystallization of aluminum chloride 

hexahydrate.—The recovery of alumina from calcined 

clay by hydrochloric acid leaching followed by evaporative crystallization of aluminum chloride hexahydrate 

was initially selected for the second miniplant because 

considerable research had already been done on it by 

industry and by the USBM. A pilot plant designed 

to extract alumina from clay by the hydrochloric acid 

process was operated by Chemische Fabrik GriesheimElektron in Germany from 1924 to 1928 (Belsky and 

others, 1981, p. 102). However, this process was not 

tested in a miniplant because hydrochloric acid leaching followed by gas sparging crystallization was more 

efficient.

Process 3, Hydrochloric acid leaching of clay followed 

by hydrochloric acid gas sparging crystallization of 

aluminum chloride hexahydrate. —The second miniplant 

was built to test the hydrochloric acid leaching of calcined 

clay followed by hydrochloric acid gas sparging crystallization of aluminum chloride hexahydrate. This process 

has the greatest potential of the six studied to be 

commercially useful. Barclay (1984, p 171-172) cited 25 

reports on the process, including USBM reports by the 

following authors: Good and others (1966), Singleton and 

others (1968), Eisele and others (1976, 1983), Eisele 

(1980), Sorensen and others (1981, 1983), Doerr (1982), 

Maysilles and others (1982), Olsen and others (1982, 

1983a, c), Turner and others (1982), Miller and others

(1983), Sawyer and others (1983), Hunter and others

(1984), and Sorensen and Sawyer (1984). Additional 

research on the recovery of alumina from clay by the 

hydrochloric acid leach process was reported in the 

following references: Brown and others (1979), Gokcen 

(1980, 1983), Covino and others (1981), Shanks and 

others (1981), Schaller and others (1982), White, Henry, 

and Krogh (1982), Ko and others (1983), Rao and Soleiman (1983), Bauer and others (1984), and Bremner and 

others (1984).

Process 4, Sulfurous acid leaching of clay.—The 

USBM considered making miniplant tests of a sulfurous 

acid process applied to calcined clay but decided not to do 

so (Barrett and others, 1973; Barclay, 1984, p. 175-177). 

The process had been used on a semicommercial scale in 

Germany in 1938 (Anderson, 1940, p. 275) and during 

World War II, and patents were obtained in the 1930's 

and 1940's, as listed by Peters and others (1962, p. 21) 

and Raddatz and others (1981, p. 15). The decision not to 

build a miniplant to test the sulfurous acid process was 

based on a USBM laboratory study (Raddatz and others, 

1981) and on cost evaluations (Kramer, 1983; Kramer and 

Peters, 1983) indicating that this process has high energy 

consumption, excessive capital and operating costs, and 

long leaching time. The process has only a 67 percent 

recovery of aluminum from clay, and the final product 

has contents of K20, Cr303, P205, and Si02 higher than 

those specified for cell-grade alumina (alumina to be 

supplied to a cell for electrolytic production of aluminum 

metal).

Process 5, Sintering anorthosite with limestone and 

leaching the dried material with a caustic solution.— 

USBM research on the extraction of alumina from anorthosite by the lime-sinter caustic leaching process was 

described by Hayashi (1982) and Edlund (1982). Miniplant support studies, not complete tests, were made of 

the process (Ampian, 1967; Hayashi, 1982; Barclay, 1984, 

p. 179-185). The objective of these studies was to resolve 

the problems that plagued the pilot plant operated by the 

USBM at Laramie, Wyo., shortly after World War II 

(St. Clair and others, 1959). Research on this problem 

(Edlund, 1982) was encouraging, but a miniplant was not 

built and operated because the Kaiser contract studies 

(Bengston and others, 1978a) showed this process to be 

as much as twice as costly as the two processes using 

hydrochloric acid to leach clay.

Process 6, Reducing alunite by roasting followed by 

caustic leaching.—The USBM had planned miniplant 

tests of the roasting of alunite followed by caustic 

leaching. When Alumet announced plans for a pilot plant 

to test this technology (see the Alumet section below), 

the USBM avoided duplicating Alumet's work (Kirby 

and Barclay, 1981, p. 7). However, the USBM did 

research on the reduction roast step in which fine alunite 

ore was pelletized and roasted (Riley and others, 1983).

OTHER STUDIES

In addition to the six processes considered for 

miniplant tests, other processes have been studied by the 

USBM. Descriptions of USBM research on dawsonite 

are included in a separate section titled, "Investigations 

of U.S. Dawsonite." Work on the recovery of alumina 

from coal ash was done by Eisele and Bauer (1979),
C42 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

Gabler and Stoll (1983), and Sorensen and Schaller 

(1983). Apa and others (1982) studied extraction of 

alumina from anthracite culm in Pennsylvania. The culm 

ash content is given in table 14. After the ash was burned 

in a fluid-bed calciner and leached with sulfuric acid, 

about 80 percent of the alumina in the bed ash and 90 

percent of the alumina in the cyclone fines were leached. 

The leaching efficiency was greatly reduced in culm that 

had been heated sufficiently to form mullite.

Dilute sulfuric acid has been used to leach copper from 

mine dumps and low-grade copper ores. This acid also 

removes aluminum and other metallic ions from the 

material (National Materials Advisory Board, 1970, p. 

57-60). The USBM investigated the possibility of recovering the alumina from the acid-sulfate solution (George 

and others, 1968; Petrick and others, 1973). Additional 

research by the USBM on extracting alumina from 

copper leach solutions is described by Iverson and Leitch 

(1968) and May and Seidel (1976). However, no U.S. 

commercial extraction of alumina from copper leach 

solutions is known.

Sawyer and Turner (1985) developed a method of 

pressure leaching raw kaolin. Pressure leaching of kaolin 

has a potential for bypassing the calcining step that had 

been required in earlier investigations.

The USBM did some research on the recovery of 

alumina from aluminum chloride obtained by carbochlorination of high-alumina clay—that is, chlorination of clay 

in the presence of carbon or carbon monoxide (Good and 

others, 1966; Singleton and others, 1968; Kirby and 

others, 1970). Research on this process was summarized 

by Landsberg (1975, 1977, 1983) and Landsberg and 

Wilson (1984). Mah (1982) compiled the thermodynamic 

data for chlorination reactions, and Gokcen (1983) evaluated rates of chlorination of aluminous materials.

Alumina extraction from unsintered anorthosite by 

leaching with hydrochloric acid and fluoride was 

described by Bremner and others (1982) and Eisele and 

Bauer (1983). Leaching was followed by hydrochloric 

acid gas sparging. This process would save energy by 

avoiding sintering of anorthosite. However, the energy 

saved would be needed to recover chloride and fluoride 

ions for recycling. Recycling the chloride and fluoride 

would consume more energy than recycling chloride 

after process 3 described above.

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY

In 1977, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) succeeded the U.S. Energy Research and Development 

Administration (ERDA), which had been formed in 1973. 

Both agencies have conducted and sponsored investigations related to the recovery of alumina from nonbauxite 

materials. Included are studies of dawsonite in oil shale

by the Energy Technology Center, Laramie, Wyo., 

which are described in the section titled "Investigations 

of U.S. Dawsonite." Also included are studies of fly ash 

and other coal wastes by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tenn. (DeCarlo and others, 1978; 

Egan and others, 1980; Kelmers and others, 1981; Seeley 

and others, 1981). DOE and ERDA sponsored bibliographies on dawsonite-bearing oil shale (U.S. Energy 

Research and Development Administration, 1977; Farris 

and Leland, 1978; Farris and Mains, 1978; George and 

Jackson, 1984) and on the recovery of alumina from coal 

wastes (Burnet and others, 1983, 1984).

ERDA shared with the Aluminum Company of America a $5 million contract to investigate the technical 

feasibility of the carbothermic reduction of alumina-silica 

ores (Energy Research Digest, 1977; Russell, 1981, p. 

207). The direct-reduction process was designed to produce an aluminum-silicon alloy, ferrosilicon, and carbon 

monoxide. This process has serious problems, and, 

before it can be used commercially, appropriate refining 

technology must be developed.

ERDA and DOE financed research at the Ames Laboratory, Energy and Minerals Resources Research Institute, Iowa State University, on the extraction of alumina 

from coal ash that resulted in several reports (Cavin, 

1974; Chou, 1976; Chou and others, 1976; Murtha and 

Burnet, 1976, 1978, 1979; Burnet, 1977; Burnet and 

others, 1977, 1983, 1984; Wijatno, 1977) described in the 

section titled "Investigations by U.S. Colleges and 

Universities."

U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 

supported research on the recovery of alumina from fly 

ash by the sodium hydroxide-sodium carbonate leaching 

method. The research supported by this program 

included work by Ray and Parker (1977), who studied fly 

ash from coal-fired powerplants, and Lawrence and 

Coalgate (1973), who evaluated the recovery of alumina 

from fly ash.

U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION

In the 1950's, the search for uranium resources led to 

considerable interest in aluminum phosphate, which 

commonly contains a trace amount of uranium. The 

objective of much of this work was to find methods of 

recovering uranium, alumina, and phosphate as coproducts (Mining World, 1953). The U.S. Atomic Energy 

Commission (AEC) investigated the uranium and aluminum content of the leached zone overlying the phosphate 

deposits in Florida (Mining World, 1953). Phosphate, 

uranium oxide, and alumina were successfully recovered 

in a pilot plant set up by the AEC in cooperation with the
WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C43

International Minerals and Chemical Corporation (Mining World, 1953; Bugger and others, 1955). Work by the 

AEC resulted in four U.S. patents for extracting alumina 

from aluminous phosphate rock (Piros, 1956; McCullough, 1959; McCullough and Adams, 1959; Oberg and Le 

Baron, 1959). The discovery of roll uranium deposits 

(Shawe, 1956) diminished the interest in recovering 

uranium and alumina from U.S. phosphate deposits.

U.S. NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The U.S. National Bureau of Standards (NBS) conducted research, including bench tests and the operation 

of a small pilot plant, on extracting alumina from Georgia 

kaolin by a lime-sinter process (Flint and others, 1946). 

The sinter was prepared by annealing a fired mixture of 

kaolin and limestone. Alumina was extracted with a 

solution containing about 200 g of Na2C03 and 150 g of 

NaCl per liter. The extracted solution contained 70-80 g 

of A1203 and 1-2 g of Si02 per liter. After the extract was 

boiled with a charge of synthetic sodalite, the silica 

content was reduced to 0.1 percent or less of the alumina 

content. Alumina was precipitated by passing carbon 

dioxide into the desilicated solution. The NBS also 

conducted pilot-plant investigations on the recovery of 

alumina from clay by the hydrochloric acid leach process 

(Hoffman and others, 1946).

TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY

The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) operated an 

experimental plant to extract alumina from clay and 

evaluated western Tennessee resources of high-alumina 

clay as described above in the section titled "U.S. 

Research During World War II." The TVA also investigated the extraction of alumina from aluminous phosphate rock (Hignett and others, 1957).

INVESTIGATIONS BY COMPANIES

ALUMINUM COMPANY OF AMERICA

The Aluminum Company of America (Alcoa) has had a 

long history of research on the nonbauxite sources of 

alumina, which has been discussed by Edwards and 

others (1930). In 1942, Alcoa was the first company to 

use its combination process on Arkansas bauxite; it 

involved the extraction of alumina from high-silica bauxite and kaolin after the alumina had been extracted from 

the gibbsite fraction of the ore. The combination process 

consisted of sintering and leaching the high-silica red 

mud discarded from the Bayer process (Edwards, 1949). 

The red mud was sintered with limestone and soda ash. 

The sinter was leached with a caustic soda solution,

which dissolved most of the alumina but only a very small 

proportion of the silica. The leach solution was included 

with the next cycle of bauxite in the Bayer process. The 

combination process made possible the economic extraction of 85-90 percent of the alumina from the high-silica 

bauxites in Arkansas.

Much research has been done on obtaining aluminum 

chloride directly from nonbauxite materials for reduction 

to aluminum (Landsberg, 1983). Alcoa and the Atlantic 

Richfield Company (Arco) agreed in 1983 to develop a 

method for making aluminum chloride from kaolin (Aluminum Company of America, 1984). The two companies 

jointly operated a pilot plant at Arco's research and 

development facility in Tucson, Ariz.

Alcoa's other activities related to obtaining alumina 

from nonbauxite sources included purchase of a 3,238-ha 

tract in the Laramie Range, Wyo., containing anorthosite (Rocky Mountain News, 1972) and research on the 

recovery of alumina from Wyoming anorthosite by a 

hydrothermal alkaline process (Hittner, 1981). According to Hamer and others (1978, p. 99), during the 1970's, 

Alcoa workers (Hudson and Swansiger, 1976; Hudson 

and others, 1977) researched the hydrochemical method 

proposed by Ponomarev and Sazhin (1959) for the extraction of alumina from high-silica ores.

Alcoa patented a carbothermic method of producing 

aluminum-silicon alloys (Cochran and others, 1977; 

Cochran, 1980). As mentioned above in the U.S. Department of Energy section, Alcoa and ERDA jointly 

funded a $5 million research program in 1977 to make 

an aluminum-silicon alloy by carbothermic reduction 

(Energy Research Digest, 1977; Russell, 1981, p. 207).

Alcoa operated a pilot plant to investigate the extraction of alumina from coal waste (Beizer, 1974). In other 

work, both the lime-soda sinter process and a hydrochloric acid process were tested on coal-washing rejects and 

coal ash (Goodboy, 1976; Hudson, 1977). Hudson (1977, 

p. 82) concluded that alumina might be recovered economically from coal-washing rejects if (1) the rejects 

contained energy of approximately 9,304 kJ/kg, (2) the 

ash was approximately 30 percent alumina, and (3) the 

rejects could be obtained at no cost. Furthermore, the 

rejects would have to be adjacent to supplies of limestone 

and, perhaps, a source of high-alumina clay. The ranges 

in composition of coal-washing rejects investigated by 

Hudson (1977) are listed in table 15.

Workers in Alcoa laboratories also researched a hydrothermal alkaline process to extract alumina from anthracite coal waste near Shamokin, Pa. (Hsieh, 1981). This 

work was performed under a contract from the Appalachian Regional Commission.

Alcoa was one of the cooperating companies in the 

USBM miniplant program.
C44 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

TABLE 15.—Ranges in composition (in weight percent) of coalwashing rejects in Kentucky and Pennsylvania 

[Modified from Hudson (1977, table 2)]

Ash ...............

S. .................

AI n

Si02 ...............

Fe203 .............

Western Eastern 

Kentucky Kentucky

Coal-washing rejects

.. 8,490-20,700 2,675-21,400

38-68 36-82

3.0-13.8 0.3-5.0

Ash composition

. . 10.5-20.8 15.0-23.4

. . 34.7-60.9 48.2-66.7

9.0-^34.0 3.7-14.0

4.4-13.8 4.3-8.1

Western 

Pennsylvania

2,908-18,143

44—74

0.6^.3

19.3-27.8

51.7-64.1

3.4-17.0

2.9-9.4

ANACONDA ALUMINUM COMPANY-ATLANTIC 

RICHFIELD COMPANY

The Anaconda Aluminum Company patented a hydrochloric acid leaching process to recover alumina from 

kaolin (Holderreed and Sullivan, 1960; Laist, 1960a, b); it 

is similar to the process considered most promising by 

the National Materials Advisory Board (1970). Anaconda 

operated a pilot plant at Butte, Mont., that processed 5 

metric tons a day in 1963. The first kaolin that Anaconda 

investigated intensively was from Latah County, Idaho 

(American Metal Market, 1963). This kaolin contained 

26-27 percent alumina (Mining Engineering, 1963). Anaconda shifted its search to Georgia in order to obtain 

kaolin that had a higher alumina content. Anaconda and 

the Thiel Kaolin Company evaluated kaolin from Glasscock, McDuffie, and Warren Counties, Ga. (Georgia 

Mineral Newsletter, 1963), and shipped kaolin from 

Georgia to Butte for pilot-plant testing (Engineering and 

Mining Journal, 1963). Anaconda announced that a plant 

capable of producing significant quantities of alumina 

from kaolin was to be built in Georgia (Mining Journal, 

1965). However, no such plant was ever constructed.

Anaconda was an original cooperator in the USBM 

miniplant program beginning in 1974. The Atlantic Richfield Company later bought Anaconda.

KAISER ALUMINUM AND CHEMICAL CORPORATION

Kaiser Aluminum and Chemical Corporation and its 

affiliate, Kaiser Engineers Corporation, constructed and 

operated the two USBM miniplants (Bengston and others, 1981; Barclay, 1984, p. 167) discussed above in the 

section titled "Miniplant Studies." Kaiser also investigated the extraction of alumina from kaolin by a hydrochloric acid process (Sawyer and Turner, 1985, p. 9-10) 

and investigated the extraction of alumina from aluminous phosphate resources (Porter, 1957, 1959). The 

Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) awarded Kaiser a contract to study the recovery of alumina and other

materials from coal fly ash by a hydrochloric acid process 

developed for the EPRI by DOE's Oak Ridge National 

Laboratory (Chemical Engineering, 1984; Baumgardner 

and Hough, 1985, p. 152). Kaiser estimated that 

28,000-87,000 metric tons of alumina could be obtained 

from each million metric tons of coal ash processed 

(Kaiser Engineers Corporation, 1986, v. 1, p. 4-1). 

Kaiser obtained a patent to form sodium dawsonite from 

the effluent of the Bayer alumina extraction process 

(Roberson and others, 1977).

REYNOLDS METALS COMPANY

The Reynolds Metals Company investigated the 

extraction of alumina from clay by a nitric acid process, 

as indicated by U.S. patents (Brown and Hrishikesan, 

1966; Kelly and Bruen, 1971; Wise, 1971; Royce and 

Drown, 1974; Bruen and Kelly, 1975), and also did 

considerable research on the extraction of alumina from 

nonbauxite materials by an alkaline process (Kamlet, 

1960; Brown, 1966) and a carbothermic process (Kibby, 

1977). Reynolds also participated in the USBM miniplant 

program.

OLIN MATHIESON CHEMICAL CORPORATION

The Olin Mathieson Chemical Corporation developed a 

process for purifying aluminum sulfate that could be 

applied to the extraction of alumina from common clays 

or coal wastes (Light Metal Age, 1961; Higbie and 

others, 1963). The process involved the following steps: 

(1) leaching clay with sulfuric acid; (2) letting iron and 

aluminum sulfate crystallize and filtering out the large 

crystals; and (3) thermally decomposing aluminum sulfate crystals to form alumina and sulfur trioxide for 

making sulfuric acid.

Olin's affiliate Kalunite, Inc., developed the Kalunite 

process for treating alunite to produce alumina and 

potassium sulfate (Fleischer, 1944, p. 267). The process 

was used in Salt Lake City, Utah, during World War II 

as described above in the section titled "U.S. Research 

During World War II."

ALUMINIUM PECHINEY

Aluminium Pechiney investigated several techniques 

for the extraction of alumina from nonbauxite materials. 

The most advanced research was on the H+ process 

(Bliss, 1976; Cohen and Mercier, 1976; Cohen and 

Adjemian, 1978a, b), which utilizes a two-stage acid 

attack. Sulfuric acid dissolves aluminum from the raw 

material. Impure aluminum sulfate is precipitated and 

then is converted to aluminum chloride hexahydrate by 

treatment with hydrochloric acid. The aluminum chloride
WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C45

hexahydrate is decomposed to alumina, and the hydrochloric acid is recycled.

Pechiney tested the H+ process in the laboratory 

beginning in 1964 and in a small pilot plant beginning in 

1968. In 1976, Pechiney cooperated with Alcan in the 

construction of a plant near Marseilles, France, having 

the capacity to produce 15-20 metric tons of alumina per 

day (Cohen and Mercier, 1976, p. 16). Shale associated 

with coal in France and kaolin from Georgia were tested 

in the plant. The process is suitable for use on several 

different aluminous materials, including clay, shale, and 

coal-mine waste, but not on those that contain appreciable quantities of alkalies, such as anorthosite. Although 

the H+ process is effective in extracting alumina from 

some nonbauxite materials, it is not competitive with the 

Bayer process for extracting alumina from bauxite.

Pechiney and Alcan announced a feasibility study for a 

demonstration plant 10-20 times larger than the one at 

Marseilles (Barclay, 1984, p. 177). In 1982, the French 

Government nationalized Pechiney Ugine Kuhlmann, the 

parent company of Aluminium Pechiney, and plans for 

the demonstration plant were terminated.

As a partner with the Senegal Government, Pechiney 

has mined aluminous phosphate rock and has investigated the extraction of alumina from it (Mining Annual 

Review, 1988). Two French patents (Beja and Vincent, 

1958; Jardin, 1959) may be products of Pechiney research 

on the extraction of alumina from aluminous phosphate 

rock.

Other research by Pechiney includes investigations of 

a process of continuous treatment of clay or shale by 

sulfuric acid (Maurel and Duhart, 1975) and a hydrochloric acid process (Maurel and Duhart, 1971)

ALCAN INTERNATIONAL, LTD.

Alcan International, Ltd. (Alcan), prepared several 

reports on the potential nonbauxite resources of alumina 

in Canada (Gummer, 1952; Bliss, 1976; Greig and Adams, 

1977). As noted above, Alcan participated with Aluminium Pechiney in the construction of a pilot plant for 

extracting 15-20 metric tons of alumina per day from 

nonbauxite materials by the H+ process (Cohen and 

Mercier, 1976). Alcan also investigated the hydrochloric 

acid process for extracting alumina from nonbauxite 

materials (Dewing and others, 1978). Alcan participated 

in the USBM miniplant program.

TOTH ALUMINUM CORPORATION

In 1967, Charles Toth applied for the first U.S. patent 

(3,615,359) for the Toth process (Toth, 1969; Engineering 

and Mining Journal, 1973). Toth received other patents, 

including one in 1975 (Toth, 1975). The process consists 

of chlorination of calcined kaolin with recycled chlorine to

form aluminum trichloride, which is reduced by manganese powder at about 230 °C to aluminum powder. Iron is 

removed as a sandlike mixture in the form of ferric 

chloride and ferro-aluminum compounds, and the 

byproduct manganese dichloride is decomposed by an 

oxidation-reduction method into manganese metal powder and chlorine, which are recycled (Engineering and 

Mining Journal, 1973). U.S. patents obtained by the Toth 

Aluminum Corporation include those by Lippman and 

others (1976), Nemecz and others (1976a, b), and Lippman and Sebenik (1978). By 1984, the Toth Aluminum 

Corporation had constructed a carbochlorination plant at 

Vacherie, La., to recover aluminum from kaolin (Baumgardner and Hough, 1984, p. 142,1985, p. 152; McCawley 

and Stephenson, 1984, p. 84).

NORTH AMERICAN COAL CORPORATION

The first effort in the United States to recover an 

aluminous product from shaly coal-mine waste was made 

by the North American Coal Corporation in cooperation 

with the Strategic Materials Corporation (Mining Journal, 1959). They built a pilot plant at Powhatan Point, 

Ohio, to extract aluminum and aluminum sulfate from 

shaly roof rock removed in the mining of the Pittsburgh 

coal bed. This plant used a sulfuric acid process and had 

an annual capacity for treating about 40,000 metric tons 

of shale, but it produced only a small quantity of aluminum sulfate in 1962 (Wilmot and others, 1960, p. 239; 

Higbie and others, 1963, p. 291). Extraction was not 

profitable, and the plant was dismantled (American 

Metal Market, 1964; Mining Journal, 1964).

ALLIED CHEMICAL CORPORATION

The Allied Chemical Corporation did considerable 

research on the extraction of alumina from clay and other 

nonbauxite materials, as is indicated by several U.S. 

patents for methods devised by Amano and Taylor 

(1968), Gerry and others (1968), Kelly and Yodis (1968), 

and Yodis and Schnoor (1968).

ARTHUR D. LITTLE, INC.

Arthur D. Little, Inc., patented several methods for 

extracting alumina from nonbauxite materials by using 

the nitric acid process. The patented methods were 

devised by George and Stone (1965), Beutner and Huska 

(1971), Flood (1971), Hyde and Margolin (1971), Huska 

and others (1972), Huska and Meissner (1974), and 

Margolin and Hyde (1974).

KENNECOTT COPPER CORPORATION

The Kennecott Copper Corporation obtained two U.S. 

patents relating to the recovery of alumina from copper
C46 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

leach solution (Spedden and Schellinger, 1969a, b). One 

patent was for removing multivalent impurities from the 

solution, and the other patent was for producing highpurity alumina.

ALUMET

Alumet is a partnership of National Steel Corporation, 

Southwire Company, and Earth Sciences, Inc. Since 

1971, Alumet has evaluated the recovery of alumina from 

alunite. Pure alunite, KA13(S04)2(OH)6 , is 37 percent 

A1203 , 38.6 percent S04 , 11.4 percent K20, and 13.0 

percent H20. A preliminary evaluation indicated that 

more than 100 million metric tons of rock in the Wah Wah 

Mountains, Utah, contained more than 35^40 percent 

alunite (Walker and Stevens, 1974). A pilot plant was 

constructed in 1973 near Golden, Colo., to test the 

recovery of alumina from alunite by roasting and leaching the alunite ore to remove potassium sulfate and then 

using a modified Bayer method to recover cell-grade 

alumina. Further information can be obtained from 

reports by the National Research Council (1979) and 

Barclay (1984, p. 183-186).

OTHER COMPANIES

Companies that did not participate in the USBM 

miniplant program described above but that have done 

research pertinent to the recovery of alumina from 

nonbauxite materials can be identified from the U.S. 

patents issued, as follows: (1) Phillips Petroleum Company (Arnold, 1945); (2) Kerr-McGee Corporation (Rado, 

1981); (3) the Public Service Company of Albuquerque, 

N. Mex. (Reynolds and Williams, 1981); (4) Waldo 

Foundry of Bridgeport, Conn. (Gooch, 1896); (5) Monolith Portland Midwest Company (Spence, 1961); and (6) 

several German companies (Specketer and others, 1924; 

Marburg, 1930; Jonas and others, 1931; Messner, 1976). 

Houdry Process Corporation was granted a patent (Milliken, 1957) for a process to recover alumina from aluminum phosphates. Other companies are mentioned below 

in the sections on alumina extraction research done in 

different countries.

INVESTIGATIONS BY U.S. COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES

The Mining Experiment Station and State Electrometallurgical Research Laboratories of Washington State 

College (now University) investigated the recovery of 

alumina from high-alumina clay in the 1930's (Parkman, 

1935) and early 1940's. Woody (1943) prepared a bibliography on the extraction of alumina from clay. March 

(1943a, b) worked on the beneficiation of residual clays to 

upgrade the alumina content and a method of producing 

alumina from kaolin by sulfate leaching. Redlich and

others (1946) investigated the recovery of alumina from 

clays in the Pacific Northwest by a sulfurous acid leaching process.

The extraction of alumina from high-alumina clays in 

Pennsylvania was investigated by the Pennsylvania 

State University (Sun and others, 1967). The extraction 

from clays was either by sulfuric acid or gaseous sulfur 

trioxide. Iron was removed by selective leaching of clay 

by hydrochloric acid or by electrolysis of the aluminum 

sulfate leach liquor. Fetterman (1961) and Fetterman 

and Sun (1962) investigated the extraction of alumina 

from diaspore clays by an ammonium sulfate process. 

The Pennsylvania State University's Coal Research Section released the results of literature surveys by Spicer 

(1971) on the uses of Pennsylvania anthracite waste and 

by Sun and others (1971) on chemical elements in anthracite waste. These surveys include information on alumina 

extraction from coal waste.

The Mining and Mineral Resource Research Institute 

of the University of Utah used grants from the USBM to 

investigate three methods of extracting alumina from 

coal waste (Sohn, 1983). The methods were the lime-soda 

sinter process, the carbothermic reduction of alumina to 

aluminum nitride, and the separation of alumina by the 

volatilization of silica. The waste material investigated 

came from the York Canyon coal mine, New Mexico. 

This material, which included both overburden and 

waste from the coal preparation plant, consisted of coal, 

quartz, muscovite, kaolinite, feldspar, pyrite, and other 

minor constituents. The preparation plant waste contained 22.8 percent alumina, and the overburden contained 17.9 percent alumina.

The Engineering Experiment Station of Georgia Institute of Technology investigated raw materials containing 

aluminum and methods of extracting alumina from kaolin (Ward and others, 1972; Husted, 1977; Ward and 

Husted, 1977). Husted (1974) reviewed the potential 

nonbauxite resources of alumina in the United States.

In the 1970's, workers at the Ames Laboratory at Iowa 

State University studied three processes for recovering 

alumina from fly ash from which as much as 85 percent of 

the iron oxide had been removed by magnetic separation; 

the processes were lime sinter, hydrochemical, and hightemperature chlorination (Burnet and others, 1977, p. 

83). Cavin (1974) extracted alumina from the nonmagnetic fraction of powerplant fly ash by first sintering it 

with limestone, then leaching it with sulfuric acid. Other 

research was described by Chou (1976), Chou and others

(1976), Murtha and Burnet (1976, 1978, 1979), Burnet

(1977), and Wijatno (1977). Burnet and others (1983, 

1984) prepared a bibliography on the recovery of metals 

from coal ash. Goodwin (1978) used magnetic separation 

and the method described by Chou and others (1976) for 

sintering fly ash with limestone, then leaching with a
WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C47

Na2C03 solution. Goodwin (1978) estimated that this 

method would recover 98 percent of the iron, 98 percent 

of the alumina, and 85 percent of the calcium silicate from 

the fly ash.

Research on alumina extraction from coal waste has 

been done at the Coal Research Bureau of West Virginia 

University (Condry, 1976; Akers and others, 1978; Coalgate, undated) and the Institute for Mining and Minerals 

Research, University of Kentucky (Robl and Bland, 

1977).

INVESTIGATIONS OF U.S. DAWSONITE

Information on dawsonite in oil shale of the Green 

River Formation can be found in publications of the 

Colorado School of Mines (CSM), the American Institute 

of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers 

(AIME), and the Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists (RMAG). CSM, in cooperation with the Colorado 

School Research Foundation, Inc., and the Laramie 

Energy Technology Center, sponsored 18 symposia on 

oil shale. Although the primary subject was the distribution of oil in the oil shale, each symposium volume has 

several papers describing dawsonite and nahcolite in the 

shale (Colorado School of Mines, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1967, 

1968; Gary, 1970, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1979, 

1980, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985). More information on 

dawsonite can be found in various bibliographies (Mullens, 1973; Chronic and Matsushita, 1974; U.S. Energy 

Research and Development Administration, 1977; Farris 

and Leland, 1978; Farris and Mains, 1978; George and 

Jackson, 1984).

The USBM issued a contract to the Harrison-Western 

Corporation for drilling a mine shaft having a 2.4-m 

diameter at a site known as Horse Draw in the Piceance 

Creek basin, 37 km southwest of Meeker, Colo. (Cox, 

1979). The Multi Minerals Corporation, under an agreement with the USBM, developed the mine (Cole and 

others, 1982). The purpose of the shaft and mine was to 

develop new mining techniques, to collect mine safety 

and environmental data, and to provide large samples of 

oil shale for research and process testing. A 100-metricton sample from the 640-m level contained about 12 

percent dawsonite, which is equivalent to about 4 percent recoverable alumina.

The DOE Laramie (Wyo.) Energy Technology Center, 

formerly the USBM Laramie Energy Research Center 

until 1975 and the ERDA Laramie Energy Research 

Center until 1977, has done a great deal of work on 

dawsonite resources and the recovery of alumina from 

dawsonite. The first published report on the large 

resources of dawsonite in the Green River Formation 

was by Smith and Milton (1966). Stanfield and others 

(1957) presented information on the stratigraphic units

that contain dawsonite. Smith and Young (1969, 1975), 

Young and Smith (1970), and Robb and Smith (1974) 

analyzed dawsonite and nahcolite and determined their 

content in the oil shale. Young and others (1975) investigated the carbonate minerals, including dawsonite, in 

the oil shale because the thermal activity of carbonates is 

important when oil shale is retorted. Trudell and others 

(1970) reported on the distribution of dawsonite in the 

Piceance Creek basin, and the U.S. Bureau of Mines 

(1972a, b) made economic studies on the recovery of oil, 

nahcolite, and dawsonite from shale. Smith and others 

(1972) devised a method of estimating nahcolite and 

dawsonite in oil shale from the oil-yield data. Huggins 

and others (1973) evaluated methods of determining 

amounts of dawsonite and nahcolite in oil shale. Beard 

and others (1974) estimated the tonnage of nahcolite and 

dawsonite in the Piceance Creek basin to be 29 billion and 

19 million metric tons, respectively. Robb and others 

(1978) investigated the mineral and hydrocarbon distributions across part of the Green River Formation in the 

Piceance Creek basin. Johnson and others (1977) determined potential oil yields and dawsonite, nordstrandite, 

and nahcolite contents of oil shale. Beard and Smith 

(1976) outlined a plan for the in-place recovery of dawsonite and other mineral products from the Saline zone in 

the Piceance Creek basin. Asai and others (1983) and 

White and others (1985) investigated the extraction of 

alumina from dawsonite. Jackson and others (1972) found 

ways of synthesizing dawsonite. Ferrante and others 

(1976) investigated the thermodynamic properties of 

synthetic dawsonite.

The mineralogy and properties of dawsonite have been 

investigated by Frueh and Golightly (1967), Estep and 

Karr (1968), Miiller-Vonmoos and Bach (1969), Harris 

and others (1971), Tomilov and others (1971), Jackson 

and others (1972), and Huggins and Green (1973). Synthetic dawsonite has been made by the decomposition of 

sodium aluminate solutions by bubbling carbon dioxide 

into the sodium aluminate solution containing carbonate 

ions (Cada and others, 1972). Dawsonite has also been 

made synthetically in Japan (Kwon and others, 1971), 

France (Besson and others, 1973), Germany (Bader, 

1938; Bader and Esch, 1944), and the United States 

(Jackson and others, 1972). Kim and Ishikawa (1974) 

investigated the changes in properties of synthetic dawsonite caused by thermal treatments. A U.S. patent has 

been issued for a process to form sodium dawsonite as 

a byproduct of the cleanup of effluent from a Bayer 

alumina extraction plant (Roberson and others, 1977); 

the dawsonite would be recycled to produce additional 

alumina.

The Superior Oil Company tested a process to produce 

nahcolite, oil, alumina (from dawsonite), and soda ash 

from oil shale (Weichman, 1974a, b, 1976). Nahcolite,
C48 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

more friable than the host shale, was to be removed as 

the fine material after crushing. Oil was to be recovered 

by retorting the oil shale, and the alumina and soda ash 

were to be recovered by leaching of the retorted shale 

followed by selective precipitation. The Oil Shale Corporation (TOSCO) also devised a process for recovering 

alumina from dawsonite (Haas and Atwood, 1975). The 

following list of U.S. patents gives an indication of the 

many studies that were made on the recovery of alumina 

from dawsonite in oil shale: (1) TOSCO patented methods 

for recovering alumina and sodium aluminate from oil 

shale (Hall and Haas, 1970; Haas, 1975); (2) Shell Oil 

Company patented methods for recovering oil and dawsonite from oil shale (Prats, 1970; Templeton, 1971; 

Papadopoulos and Ueber, 1972; Closmann and Suman, 

1974), and Shell International patented a process for 

recovering alumina (Middelhoek and others, 1977); (3) 

Sinclair Research, Inc., patented a process for recovering aluminum from retorted shale (Van Nordstrand, 

1968); (4) Marathon Oil Company patented a method of 

extracting dawsonite and nahcolite from crushed oil shale 

(Tackett, 1970); and (5) MacMillan and Jackson (1972) 

patented an alkaline method of extracting alumina from 

oil shale.

INVESTIGATIONS IN OTHER COUNTRIES

ARGENTINA

In 1954, Argentina was reported to have plans to build 

a plant at Comodoro Rivadavia, Chubut Province, that 

would have cost approximately $25 million (Engineering 

and Mining Journal, 1954). This plant was to recover 

alumina from clay from Neuquen Province, but it was 

never built.

Later, plans were made for the extraction of alumina 

from lateritic clays in Misiones Province (U.S. Bureau of 

Mines, 1965). An Argentine firm obtained a license to use 

the Australian Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial 

Research Organization (CSIRO) process for the extraction of alumina from clays that was developed in 1962 

(Scott, 1962). No plant was built (Kimbell, 1967, p. 148).

The Mining Annual Review (1971) reported that the 

Alto Parana Mining Company did pilot-plant tests on 

extracting alumina from laterite in Misiones Province. 

Apparently that work never led to a commercial plant.

AUSTRALIA

The Australian Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) developed a twostage process for the recovery of alumina from clay or 

low-grade bauxite ores that are high in silica or iron 

(Scott, 1962). The process involved digestion of the ore

by acid at 180 °C, modification of the liquor at 130 °C by 

dissolution of more alumina to make the liquor slightly 

basic, reduction of iron oxide by sulfur dioxide, hydrolysis at about 200 °C to precipitate basic aluminum sulfate 

crystals, calcination of the residual sulfur, and absorption 

of the sulfurous gases to form acid for reuse. Research on 

the extraction of alumina from clay ceased in the late 

1960's because Australia's large bauxite deposits were 

developed; the total bauxite resources of Australia are 

presently estimated to be 6 billion-^ billion metric tons 

(Patterson and others, 1986, p. B128).

CANADA

During World War II, Canada, like other bauxitedeficient, aluminum-producing countries, was concerned 

about possible substitutes for bauxite. As reported by 

Gummer (1952, p. 605), "At one time during the last war, 

Aluminium Limited [which became Alcan] and its affiliates fielded a large group of geologists, mineralogists, 

engineers, and chemists, who applied their combined 

efforts to new untried sources of the metal." Canadian 

governmental agencies, provincial bureaus of mines and 

geological surveys, and corporations such as Aluminium 

Company of Canada, Limited (Alcan), and the American 

Nepheline Corporation participated in the wartime 

effort. The rocks investigated included laterite, residual 

clay, sedimentary clay and shale, nepheline rocks, anorthosite, andalusite schist, muscovite schist, pyrophyllite 

schist, and alunite. According to Gummer (1952, p. 610), 

the results of this work could be summarized as follows:

The relation of alumina to other constituents of the ore will be 

important; alumina can be recovered from some compounds more 

easily than from others. A rock with medium alumina and high 

alkalies (such as the nepheline rocks) might be preferable to one with 

high alumina and low alkalies. On the basis of our present knowledge 

of aluminum-bearing rocks other than bauxites, the most likely 

Canadian sources of aluminum in a case of emergency or radically 

modified economics appear to be anorthosite and nepheline syenite. 

Both these rocks have been successfully processed on the pilot-plant 

scale. There are enormous bodies of both rocks in Canada, and 

anorthosite is one of the most abundant types adjacent to the great 

Arvida power and production centre.

Clays are treatable by more than one method, and alumina can be 

recovered from them, but the results of our surveys show that they 

cannot have the same potential importance for the aluminum industry 

of Canada as they appear to have for that of other countries; as a 

consequence, their utilization has been given less emphasis in process 

development studies.

In the 1970's, the Canadian Centre for Mineral and 

Energy Technology (CANMET) did considerable 

research on the recovery of alumina from nonbauxite 

materials. The following processes applied to anorthosite 

were researched: (1) alkali sinter (Winer and Quon, 

1979); (2) hydrochemical (Hamer and others, 1978); (3) 

acid leaching of melted and quenched anorthosite 

(Hamer and others, 1978); (4) acid extraction (Hamer and
WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C49

others, 1978); and (5) lime sinter (Quon, 1976; Ripley, 

1976). In tests of the sulfuric and hydrochloric acid 

processes, 90 percent of the alumina was recovered from 

Saskatchewan clays (Earner and others, 1978). A hydrochloric acid process applied to coal-mine wastes recovered 90 percent of the alumina (Earner and others, 1978). 

CANMET has investigated the recovery of alumina from 

coal waste in the Eat Creek coal district, British Columbia; the methods studied were hydrochloric acid leaching 

of ash (Earner, 1977), hydrochloric acid and hydrofluoric 

acid leaching of ash (Ripley, 1979a), and a modified 

lime-sinter process applied to coal waste (Ripley, 1979b).

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

During World War II, an experimental plant at 

Stramberk used a lime-sinter method to recover 

hydrated alumina from coal ash (Tomka, 1974, p. 196). 

The plant had a production capacity of about 5,000 metric 

tons of hydrated alumina per year and used ash from the 

Ostrava powerplant. The ash contained about 20 percent 

A1203 and 28 percent Si02. The plant was expensive and 

was closed when low-grade Bungarian bauxite became 

available (Tomka, 1974).

Because Czechoslovakia has no bauxite, research on 

nonbauxite sources of alumina has continued. Eubacek 

and Svejda (1965) described how to produce portland 

cement and recover alumina from clay and coal ash after 

sintering the source material with limestone and then 

leaching with Na2C03 solution.

EGYPT

The Alexandria University, Egypt, supported the 

study of the extraction of alumina from kaolin by the 

hydrochloric acid method (Bakr and El-Abd, 1969). The 

Metallurgy Department, National Research Centre 

(Cairo), researched the extraction of alumina from kaolin 

by the lime-soda sintering process (Eussein and others, 

1974). The kaolin tested was from Sabba, in northern 

Egypt, and Aswan, in southern Egypt. The Sabba kaolin 

contained 36.9 percent alumina and 44.0 percent silica, 

and the Aswan kaolin contained 27.4 percent alumina and 

57.2 percent silica (Bussein and others, 1974, p. 85).

From 1966 to 1969, the Egyptian Geological Survey 

and the U.S.S.R. investigated the nepheline syenite of 

the Jabal Abu Khuruq area, Egypt. Metallurgical tests 

showed that alumina can be recovered from the nepheline syenite when it is mixed with Egyptian limestone; 

the process is technologically feasible and results in 

valuable byproducts—portland cement, soda, and potash 

(El Ramly, Dereniuk, and others, 1970).

Rehim (1974), of Alexandria University, also studied 

the alkali-sinter process for recovering alumina from the 

Jabal Abu Khuruq nepheline syenite. Bussein and others

(1974) researched lime sintering of the same rock. The 

sample tested by Eussein and others (1974, p. 97) 

contained the following major components: 21.6 percent 

A1203 , 55.2 percent Si02 , 5.1 percent Fe203 ,10.1 percent 

Na20, and 5.0 percent K20.

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

A sulfurous acid process for extracting alumina from 

clay was attempted on a semicommercial scale in Germany in 1938 (Anderson, 1940, p. 275; Kramer, 1983, p. 

2). The resulting alumina was too impure to be cell grade, 

and the Bayer process was used to reduce the impurities.

Phonolite was investigated as a source of alumina in 

Germany in 1939 (U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1939, p. 2). The 

method considered involved mixing ground phonolite 

with alkali and limestone, sintering the mixture at 1,200 

°C, and leaching with soda. The products of this method 

are potassium-sodium aluminate, from which alumina 

would be obtained, potassium and sodium carbonate, and 

calcium silicate used to make cement.

Several U.S. patents for alumina extraction methods 

were awarded to German companies during the period 

1934 to 1941 (Staufer and Konopicky, 1934; Wiedbrauck 

and Buche, 1934, 1935; Fulda and others, 1935; Fulda, 

Wiedbrauck, and Buche, 1938, 1941; Buche and Ginsberg, 1941; Fulda, Wrigge, and Logemann, 1941). In 

1955, the Vereinigte Aluminium-Werke A.-G. (VAW) 

obtained a British patent for a process to recover aluminum from coal fly ash (VAW, 1955). A German patent 

(Euber and Rohlfs, 1957) suggests that Chemische 

Werke Albert did some work on the recovery of alumina 

from aluminum phosphates. A U.S. patent for the 

extraction of alumina from nonbauxite materials was 

awarded to VAW (Belsky, 1974); leaching aluminum 

silicates with an aqueous solution of hydrochloric and 

fluosilicic acids eliminated the need for calcination of the 

ore. VAW surveyed potential nonbauxite aluminum 

resources (Bielfeldt and others, 1978; Belsky and others, 

1981) and found large available quantities of coal wastes 

and kaolin. VAW investigated a hydrochloric acid process for extracting alumina from lignite-bearing kaolin 

(Belsky and others, 1981).

GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

According to Belsky and others (1981, p. 102), VEB 

Elektro-Chemisches Kombinat operated experimental 

plants in the German Democratic Republic for several 

years after World War II; the plants tested a hydrochloric acid process for extracting alumina from clay.

HUNGARY

The Eungarian Ministry of Eeavy Industry, the Institute of Energetics, and the Tatabanya coal mines coop-
C50 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

erated with Professor Grzymek of Poland in research on 

a self-disintegration process for recovering alumina from 

aluminum silicates (Gulyas and Vamos, 1976; Kapolyi 

and others, 1981). The Tatabanya coal mines operated a 

large pilot plant to test a modification of Professor 

Grzymek's process for the extraction of alumina from fly 

ash from powerplants (Gulyas and Vamos, 1976). The 

pilot-plant process involved sintering of the ash with 

limestone and the extraction of alumina with a Na2C03 

solution. The modified process requires less energy than 

the original but still produces 10 metric tons of portland 

cement for each metric ton of alumina. This modified 

process is patented in the United States (Kapolyi and 

others, 1980).

ITALY

When the supplies of potash from German and Alsatian 

mines were cut off during World War I, attempts were 

made to recover potash and aluminum chloride from 

leucite in Italy on a "semi-commercial scale" (Edwards 

and others, 1930, p. 57). The process first used was a 

hydrochloric acid method developed by Blanc (1931, p. 

53). The leucite was ground in a plant at Sessa Aurunca, 

which is a few kilometers northwest of Naples. In 1931, 

a plant designed to extract potash and alumina from 

leucite by a nitric acid process was built at Civitavecchia 

by Aluminium Limited (Blanc, 1931, p. 56).

The Societa Italiana Potassa (SIP) modified the Jourdan lime-sinter process to recover alumina from leucite 

at the Bagnoli plant in 1942^3 (Abbruzzese and Rinelli, 

1981, p. 24). The Jourdan process was patented in Italy 

in 1926 (Jourdan, 1926).

Interest in the extraction of alumina from Italian 

leucite developed again in the 1970's and 1980's, when 

considerable research was done (Cocco and others, 1978, 

1981; Massacci, 1978; Abbruzzese and Rinelli, 1981; 

Massacci and others, 1981). Tests were made on the 

extraction of alumina from leucite by the alkali-sinter 

process (Landi, 1975), by the direct carbothermic process (Landi, 1981; Landi and others, 1984), and by a 

carbochlorination process (Bombara and Tanzi, 1984). 

According to World Mining (1980), Alumetal planned to 

build a plant to process leucite in Sardinia.

The extraction of alumina from coal fly ash at the Porto 

Vesme powerplant was investigated by the Institute of 

Mineral Processing in Rome (Abbruzzese, 1983). The ash 

contained only 13.8 percent alumina, but large quantities 

were available.

According to Hall (1978, p. A23), preliminary research has been undertaken to determine the feasibility 

of using alunite as a source of aluminum. However, 

commercial development seems unlikely in the near 

future.

JAPAN

During World War II, alumina was extracted from 

alunite, clay, shale, and aluminous phosphate rock in 

Japan (Sakamoto, 1951; Sato and others, 1956, p. 197). 

Only material that contained or could be upgraded by 

beneficiation to 30 percent or more alumina was used 

(table 1).

A process for extracting alumina from coal fly ash was 

patented shortly after the war (Hiku, 1947); the ash was 

sintered with limestone and a small amount of NaCl and 

was leached with sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid processes 

were also studied by Funaki (1950) and Arimori (1952). 

More recent studies in Japan include (1) research at an 

experimental plant operated by the Mitsui Group to test 

the direct smelting of bauxite or aluminous clay with 

coke and chemicals (Mining Journal, 1981) and (2) 

research on a chloric acid process for extracting alumina 

from Japan's 1 billion metric tons of colloidal earth 

(high-alumina clay) and using the byproduct silica to 

make glass (Mining Journal, 1971).

MEXICO

Industria Penoles S.A. planned to use nepheline syenite as a source of alumina in Mexico. This company 

acquired the U.S.S.R.'s VAMI process for extracting 

alumina from nepheline syenite (Industrial Minerals, 

1979a).

A process to extract alumina, aluminum sulfate, sulfuric acid, and potassium ammonium sulfate from alunite 

was developed on a laboratory scale at the University of 

Guanajuato (Hall, 1978, p. A20-A21). The plan to erect a 

full-scale plant at Salamanca, Guanajuato, to process 

alunite has been suspended.

NORWAY

A plant was built at Hdyanger, Norway, in 1928 to 

recover alumina from anorthosite consisting predominantly of labradorite (U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1953, p. 

VII-8). In the Pedersen process used, the labradorite 

was mixed with limestone and coke in an electric furnace 

to produce a calcium aluminate-calcium silicate sinter. 

The sinter was then leached with sodium carbonate to 

put the alumina in solution as sodium aluminate. After 

removal of the insoluble residue, the alumina was precipitated by carbon dioxide. Iron was a byproduct.

During the 1970's, a research company called Anortal 

was set up by Norway's aluminum producers to investigate nonbauxite sources of aluminum (Industrial Minerals, 1979b). The work was primarily on anorthosite 

(apparently from the Vossestrand district), although 

Norway is one of the world's few producers of nepheline 

syenite.
WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C51

Kurtz (1978, p. 211) reported that two Norwegian 

aluminum companies, A/S Aardal og Sunndal Verk and 

Elkem Spigerverket, had constructed a pilot plant to test 

a new process for extracting alumina from anorthosite.

PHILIPPINES

The Philippines Bureau of Mines (1978) investigated 

the recovery of alumina from clay deposits on Batag 

Island, northern Samar. It was found that the pulp 

viscosity, calcining temperature, and leaching temperatures are the most critical factors controlling leaching of 

alumina from these clays. The test results showed the 

recovery of 72 percent of the alumina in clay as sodium 

aluminate compounds.

POLAND

Two processes for the recovery of alumina from nonbauxite raw material have been developed in Poland. 

One process, developed by Professor Grzymek (1976, 

1978), is applied to fly ash or coal waste. It is based on an 

automatic disintegration of a sinter containing calcium 

aluminates and dicalcium silicate. The dust is mixed with 

water and sodium carbonate and undergoes a complicated series of chemical treatments including carbonization and water scrubbing to produce alumina and portland cement in the approximate ratio of 1:12. The other 

process, known as Professor Bretsznajder*s process 

(Nowak, 1974), is an acid leach process. Sulfuric acid is 

added to aluminous material (clay or fly ash) and heated 

with high-pressure steam. Complete disintegration takes 

place in about 30 minutes.

Two experimental alumina plants were constructed in 

Poland (Kurtz, 1972, p. 222; 1976, p. 214). A plant 

between Glogow and Lubiri was designed to process clay 

with acid. The other plant, near Kielce, tested production of alumina and portland cement by Professor 

Grzymek's process.

ROMANIA

Investigations were made in Romania of a process for 

the recovery of alumina and iron oxide from carbonaceous shale, kaolin, and powerplant coal fly ash (Sarbu 

and others, 1981). The process included sintering the 

aluminous material with NaCl, quenching the sinter with 

water, and leaching the remaining sinter with hydrochloric acid.

SOUTH AFRICA

Several nonbauxite materials have been considered as 

potential sources of alumina in South Africa (McCulloch, 

1967; Brabers, 1974). They include diaspore-bearing 

shale, several types of igneous rocks, muscovite clay,

flint clay, and sericite. Pressure leaching of fly ash with 

an alkali solution has also been investigated (Adrian and 

McCulloch, 1966).

SOUTH KOREA

The South Korean Research Institute of Geoscience 

and Mineral Resources investigated the extraction of 

alumina from alunite (Cho and Son, 1978) and from a 

large anorthosite stock near Hadong (Professor Byung 

Koo Hyun, written commun., July 20, 1976). The South 

Korean National Industrial Research Institute studied 

the preparation of polyaluminum chlorides from anorthosite, kaolin, and alunite (Kim and Kim, 1969).

SPAIN

The aluminum company owned by the Spanish Government, Empresa Nacional del Aluminio, Madrid, and 

the Escuela Tecnica Superior de Ingenieros de Minas, 

Oviedo, investigated the extraction of alumina from the 

Puentes de Garcia Rodriguez Tertiary clay in La Coruna 

and from Carboniferous coal-bearing slate in Asturias 

(Brime and others, 1978; Sancho, Iglesias, and others, 

1981; Sancho, Verdeja, and others, 1981). Investigations 

of kaolin also were made by the Spanish universities 

(Galan Huertos and Martin-Vivaldi, 1973; Galan Huertos 

and Espinosa de los Monteros, 1974).

SWEDEN

A plant at Sundsvall, Sweden, erected to recover 

alumina from andalusite by the Pedersen process, produced about 8,000 metric tons per year of alumina from 

1942 to 1947 (Bracewell, 1962, p. 54, 156; Barr, 1977, p. 

C64). In 1977, two of Sweden's largest mining groups, 

Boliden AB and Luossavaara-Kirunavaera AB (LKAB), 

formed a subsidiary for the purpose of developing the 

country's alum shale deposits (Industrial Minerals, 1977; 

Mining Engineering, 1977).

TAIWAN

The National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan, investigated the extraction of alumina from kaolin that had been 

calcined and then treated with hydrochloric acid (Lin and 

Chen, 1978).

UNITED KINGDOM

The resources and alumina extraction of nonbauxite 

material were investigated by the British Geological 

Survey, formerly known as the Institute of Geological 

Sciences (Varley, 1965; Alien and Charsley, 1968; 

Crocket, 1975; Highley, 1975, 1982; Read and Dean, 

1978; Ridgway, 1982), by the Camborne School of Mines
C52 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

(Wills and Phillips, 1977; Phillips and Wills, 1979), and by 

the Warren Spring Laboratory (Christie and Derry, 

1976). Some materials that have been considered as 

possible sources of alumina in the United Kingdom are 

listed in table 3. Other materials considered include coal 

waste, coal fly ash, mica-rich residue from china clay 

washings, and fly ash from refuse incineration.

U.S.S.R.

The first significant peacetime use of nonbauxite material for producing alumina was the use of nepheline 

syenite in the U.S.S.R. The material used was the 

tailings that remained after apatite, used in fertilizer, 

was extracted from nepheline syenite (Shabad, 1976a). 

Apatite mining began in 1931, and the syenite used was 

from the Khibiny pluton on the Kola Peninsula. The 

possibility of using nepheline syenite tailings as a source 

of alumina was demonstrated experimentally in 1932. In 

1939, a concentrator was built, but it was not until after 

World War II that nepheline syenite was used as a 

source of alumina.

In 1949, the first nepheline syenite tailings were 

shipped from Khibiny to the Volkhov alumina plant 112 

km east of Leningrad, and the technology was finally 

mastered in 1954 (Shabad, 1976a). The Volkhov alumina 

plant, which originally processed bauxite from the Boksitogorsk district, was converted to use nepheline syenite. Nepheline syenite was also used in the Pikalevo 

alumina plant commissioned in 1959 about 240 km southeast of Leningrad. According to Shabad (1976a), in 1976, 

the annual alumina production at Volkhov was 50,000 

metric tons and that at Pikalevo was 300,000 metric tons. 

Stankovich (1978, table 2) estimated the annual capacities of these plants in 1976-80 as 130,000 metric tons of 

alumina for the Volkhov plant and 500,000 metric tons for 

the Pikalevo plant.

The Kandalaksha plant in the Murmansk region of the 

Kola Peninsula also processed nepheline syenite. Stankovich (1978, table 2) estimated its capacity to be 70,000 

metric tons of alumina per year.

Two other plants for extracting alumina from nepheline syenite or similar material were designed (Shabad, 

1976a, p. 228-229). A plant at Achinsk, which is about 

150 km west of Krasnoyarsk, Siberia, has an annual 

capacity of 800,000 metric tons of alumina (Stankovich, 

1978, table 2). It was to process nepheline syenite from 

Goryachegorsk, but a richer deposit at Belogorsk on the 

v Kiya-Shaltyr River 206 km southwest of Achinsk became 

the source of ore (Shabad, 1976a, p. 228). Apparently the 

plant at Achinsk was partly converted to bauxite and 

never reached its full capacity using nepheline syenite 

(Shabad, 1976b).

The second plant was in Armenia and was to be 

supplied with nepheline syenite from Tezhsar near 

Razdan. Construction of the plant in Armenia progressed 

slowly, and the plant may have been converted to 

processing imported bauxite before it was completed 

(Shabad, 1976b).

According to Stankovich (1978), the alumina output 

from at least three of the Soviet plants processing 

nepheline syenite was 700,000 metric tons in 1976.

The process for extracting the alumina from nepheline 

syenite at the Volkhov plant, which is apparently the 

process used in the other Soviet plants processing nepheline syenite and similar raw materials, was described 

by Alien and Charsley (1968, p. 103-104). The nepheline 

tailings are finely ground with limestone in water to 

form a sludge. This sludge is dried and calcined at about 

1,300 °C to produce a sinter consisting mainly of dicalcium silicate and aluminates of sodium and potassium. 

The sinter is ground to 40-50 mesh and treated with 

caustic soda solutions to leach out the alkali aluminates 

and to leave a residue that is called nepheline slurry. The 

solution containing the aluminates is treated with carbon 

dioxide to precipitate aluminum hydroxide, which is 

converted to alumina by calcining. Sodium and potassium 

are recovered from the solutions. The quality of the 

alumina from nepheline syenite is reported to be similar 

to that of the alumina extracted from bauxite; the 

principal impurities are 0.12 percent Si02, 0.31 percent 

Fe203 , and 0.37 percent Na20.

The nepheline slurry at the Volkhov plant contains 

solids consisting mainly of calcium silicate, some aluminum, iron, and sodium oxides, and traces of titanium and 

phosphorus oxides (Alien and Charsley, 1968, p. 104). To 

manufacture portland cement clinker, the slurry is mixed 

in the proportion of 45 parts (dry) with 49 parts ground 

limestone, 4 parts bauxite, and 2 parts pyrite clinker. 

After calcining, the cement clinker contained the following major components: 21.83 percent Si02, 64.95 percent 

CaO, 4.97 percent A1203 , 4.33 percent Fe203 , and 1.62 

percent MgO. Alien and Charsley (1968, p. 103) reported 

that, in 1955, 150,000 metric tons of nepheline concentrates were used to produce 40,000 metric tons of alumina, 30,000 metric tons of soda and potash, and 300,000 

metric tons of portland cement.

In addition to nepheline syenite, alunite is also used as 

a source of alumina in the U.S.S.R. The deposits mined 

are in the Zaglik district near Kirovabad in Transcaucasia. The initial process for extracting alumina from 

alunite was designed by Georgiy V. Labutin (Shabad, 

1976a, p. 230) to yield 1 metric ton of alumina, 1.15 

metric tons of sulfuric acid, and 0.2-0.235 metric ton of 

potassium sulfate from 6.6-6.7 metric tons of ore containing 50 percent alunite. In this process, the alunite ore 

is crushed, ground, and roasted to drive off water of
WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C53

crystallization (National Research Council, 1979, p. 128). 

Sulfates of potash and alumina are dissolved and selectively precipitated to recover alumina, potash, and sulfuric acid. The All Union Scientific-Research and Designing Institute for Aluminium, Manganese, and Electrode 

Industry (VAMI), Leningrad, modified the process and 

claimed to have attained 95-97 percent alumina recovery 

(Smorgunenko and Vlasov, 1981). According to Shabad 

(1976a, p. 230), construction of the alunite processing 

plant at Kirovabad began in 1955; the plant reached 40 

percent of capacity in 1969 and full capacity in 1973. In 

1973, the plant is reported to have produced 550,000 

metric tons of sulfuric acid, about 200,000 metric tons of 

alumina, and 40,000 metric tons of potassium sulfate. 

Stankovich (1978) described other alumina plants processing alunite and estimated total Soviet alumina production from alunite as 650,000 metric tons in 1976.

The U.S.S.R. has also investigated the alumina recovery from nonbauxite materials other than nepheline 

syenite and alunite. A pilot plant was operated from 

1968 to 1972 at the Alimalyk metallurgical complex in 

Uzbekistan to test a lime-sinter process proposed in the 

1950's for extracting alumina from kaolin from the 

Angren district (Shabad, 1976a, p. 231). Cement was a 

byproduct.

In 1933, a process for the extraction of alumina from 

ash of the Moscow basin coal was patented (Gusev and 

others, 1933). The extraction of alumina from coalwashing rejects by a nitric acid process was investigated 

by Korshunov and Shmuk (1957). The alumina content of 

the rejects was 30-35 percent. Mine waste from the 

Ekibastuz coal field contained 22-30 percent alumina, 

which was extracted by Sukhanova and Ponomarev 

(1969) by a sulfuric acid-ammonium sulfate process. In a 

pilot plant at Alma-Ata, 90 percent of the A1203 and 90 

percent of the Na20 were recovered from coal fly ash 

sintered with CaO and Na2C03 (Nurmagambetov and 

others, 1977).

The recovery of alumina from sillimanite in the Kyakhta district, near the Mongolian border south of Lake 

Baykal, was investigated during the 1950's by the Rare 

Metals Research Institute at Irkutsk (Varley, 1965, p. 

92). The Kyakhta deposits are among the largest nonbauxite alumina resources in the U.S.S.R. (Varley, 

1965). Sillimanite from the Kyakhta deposit was suggested in the late 1950's as a possible raw material for the 

Irkutsk alumina plant at Shelekhov, but the work probably did not go beyond the pilot-plant stage (Shabad, 

1976a, p. 231).

Research on processes for recovering alumina from 

kyanite has been done by Shul'gin and others (1975). The 

Kola Branch of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R. 

recommended that kyanite concentrates from the Shuururta deposits on the Kola Peninsula be used for direct 

electrothermal reduction to aluminum-silicon alloys (Shabad, 1976a, p. 231).

YUGOSLAVIA

Paulin and others (1981), working at the Edvard 

Kardelj University, Ljubljana, Yugoslavia, conducted 

research on the chlorination of low-grade aluminous 

materials. Logomerac and Crnko (1981), working at the 

University of Zagreb, Sisak, investigated the recovery of 

rare-earth elements and alumina from leucite near 

Gnjilane, Kosovo, Yugoslavia.

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WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C55

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C56 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

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WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C57

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C58 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

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WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C61

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C64 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

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Kinney, E.D., 1943, A process for extracting alumina from Kansas 

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Kirby, R.C., and Barclay, J.A., 1981, Alumina from nonbauxitic 

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Kramer, D.A., and Peters, F.A., 1983, Cost estimate of the Bayer 

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WORLD NONBAUXITE ALUMINUM RESOURCES EXCLUDING ALUNITE C67

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C68 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF ALUMINUM

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Geology and Resources of Aluminum

A. World Nonbauxite Aluminum Resources—Alunite 

By ROBERT B. HALL

B. World Bauxite Resources

By SAM H. PATTERSON, HORACE F. KURTZ, JANE C. 

OLSON, and CATHY L. NEELEY

C. World Nonbauxite Aluminum Resources Excluding Alunite

By JOHN W. HOSTERMAN, SAM H. PATTERSON, and 

ELIZABETH E. GOOD

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1076

This volume was published as separate chapters A—C
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

MANUEL LUJAN, Jr., Secretary

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Dallas L. Peck, Director

Any use of trade, product, or firm names in this publication is for 

d does not imj" 

Government

descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the

U.S. ~
CONTENTS

[Letters designate the separately published chapters]

(A) World Nonbauxite Aluminum Resources—Alunite, by Robert B. Hall.

(B) World Bauxite Resources, by Sam H. Patterson, Horace F. Kurtz, Jane C. Olson, and Cathy 

L. Neeley.

(C) World Nonbauxite Aluminum Resources Excluding Alunite, by John W. Hosterman, Sam H. 

Patterson, and Elizabeth E. Good.