U.S. Department of the Interior 

U.S. Geological Survey 

The Outer Banks of 

North Carolina 

Professional Paper 1177-B 

Prepared in cooperation with the National Park Service 

sr.iP.nr.P- fnr :a ~h:anninn llllnrld 
Cover: Pea Island 
The Outer Banks of North Carolina 

By Robert Dolan and Harry Lins 

Prepared in cooperation with the National Park Service 

'I , 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1177-B 
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

BRUCE BABBITT, Secretary 

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Charles G. Groat, Director 

First printing 1986 

Second printing 1991 

Third printing 1993 

Fourth printing 2000 

Reston, Virginia 2000 

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publications Data 

Dolan, Robert. 

The Outer Banks of North Carolina. 

(U.S. Geological Survey professional paper ; 1177-B) 

"Prepared in cooperation with the Nationa Park Service." 

Bibliography: p. 43 

Supt. of Docs. no.: I 19.16: 1177B1 

1. Coast changes-North Carolina-Outer Banks. 2. Shore 

protection-North Carolina-Outer Banks. 3. Land useNorth Carolina-Outer Banks. I. Lins, Harry F. II. United 

States. National Park Service. III. Title. IV. Series: U.S. Geological Survey. Professional paper; 1177-B. 

GB459.4.D64 1985 333.91 '716'09756--dc21 

For sale by U.S. Geological Survey, Information Services, 

Box 25286, Federal Center, 

Denver, CO 80225 

85-600098 
FOREWORD 

In keeping with its commitment to demonstrate and promote the application of 

earth-science information to sound environmental planning and decisionmaking, the 

U.S. Geological Survey is offering this report, Professional Paper 1177-B, which 

analyzes the processes and hazards associated with coastal barrier islands. This is the 

second of several publications that follow the style begun with Professional Paper 

950, Nature to be Commanded. The first report in this series, Geological Analysis of 

Fenwick Island, Maryland, A Middle Atlantic Coast Barrier Island, dealt with a 

highly urbanized barrier island. 

It is important to realize that the hazards associated with natural processes and 

urban development are found all along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. This publication 

focuses on the North Carolina Barrier islands. These islands were selected because 

they are representative of many developed mid-Atlantic coast barrier islands and 

provide, therefore, a generally applicable example. 

We believe that this book, and those that follow, will have a significant and 

positive effect on coastal planning. The documentation of the rates of change of 

natural processes and recent land use provides planners and developers with key 

information for guiding future development of those areas of least hazard and for 

evaluating alternative hazard~ L -e 

Dallas L. Peck 

Director 

III 

CONTENTS 

Foreword......................................................................................... III 

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 1 

Acknowledgment............................................................................ 3 

Barrier Island Dynamics................................................................. 3 

Dominant Processes.................................................................. 3 

Storms and Waves..................................................................... 4 

Tides.......................................................................................... 6 

Barrier Island Landforms . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 

Inlets......................................................................................... 7 

Overwash Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 10 

Sand Dunes............................................................................... 10 

Geological History of the Outer Banks ........ ................ .............. .... 12 

Shoreline Configuration............................................................ 18 

History and Development............................................................... 20 

Recent Trends in Land Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 

Shoreline Processes: Erosion and Overwash.................................. 29 

Shoreline Erosion and the Lost Colony.................................... 31 

Shoreline Engineering ... . . ........... .. . . . . ............ ................ .............. ... 33 

Seawalls .............. ............... ................ .............. ............ .... ......... 33 

Jetties and Groins...................................................................... 33 

Beach Nourishment.................................................................. 34 

Inlet Stabilization...................................................................... 34 

Economics of Stabilization....................................................... 34 

Man's Impact on the Outer Banks.................................................. 36 

Hazards and Land Use.................................................................... 43 

Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 44 

Selected References........................................................................ 46 

v 

THE OUTER BANKS OF 

NORTH CAROLINA 

By Robert Dolan and Harry Lins 

INTRODUCTION landscapes used by man. Storms are the primary cause 

of changes in these landscapes. During the storms, 

private landholdings often are destroyed, and 

communication and transportation facilities are 

disrupted. Loss of life also is not uncommon. In spite 

of these obvious problems, with few exceptions, 

The Outer Banks of North Carolina are some of 

the best examples of the nearly 300 barrier islands that 

rim the Atlantic and Gulf coasts (fig. 1). These low, 

sandy islands are among the most dynamic natural 

NUMBER 

STATE OF ISLANDS 

Alabama 5 

Connecticut 14 

Delaware 2 

Florida 80 

Georgia 15 

Louisiana 18 

Maine 9 

Maryland 2 

Massachusetts 27 

Mississippi 5 

New Hampshire 2 

New Jersey 10 

New York 15 

North Carolina 23 

Rhode Island 6 

South Carolina 35 

Texas 16 

Virginia 11 

18 STATES 295 

;? Galveston 

Island Grand Isle 

Tembalier Island 

Isle Dernieres 

TOTAL ACREAGE 

28,200 

2,362 

10,100 

467,710 

165,600 

41 ,120 

2,640 

14,300 

37,600 

9,500 

1,100 

48,000 

30,310 

146,400 

3,660 

144,150 

383,500 

68,900 

1,605,152 

Horn Island 

Dauphin Island 

Perdido Key 

Santa Rosa Island 

Anclote Keys 

Caladesi Island 

Captiva Island 

Sanibell Island 

o ., ~ Popham Beach 

•oo Biddeford Pool 

'iP 

Barnegat Island 

,' Long Beach 

Atlantic City 

Rehoboth 

Fenwick Island 

• Bodie Island 

) Hatteras Island 

{/o Ocracoke Island 

Core Banks 

Bogue Banks 

Ashe Island 

Debidue Island 

•• Bull Island 

•• ' Kiawah Island 

' St. Phillips Island 

Flagler Island 

\ cape Canaveral 

~ 

Jupiter Island 

Cape Cod 

Figure 1. Along the coastline between Cape Cod, Massachusetts, and Padre Island, Texas. The widths of the 295 barrier islands 

have been exaggerated on this map. (Source: R. Dolan.) 

1 
2 

CAPE HENRY 

'\!."'\) 

Figure 2. The Outer Banks of North Carolina. 

THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA 

Hatteras Island 

development has proceeded as if barrier islands are 

stable or on the assumption that at least they can be 

engineered to remain stable. 

The dynamic nature of the beaches and dunes 

always has been part of the aesthetic and recreational 

appeal of the Outer Banks. Unfortunately, development has taken place more rapidly than our understanding of barrier island dynamics. Processes 

affecting the islands span time scales from hours to 

decades and longer and include variations in the beach 

during a single 12-hour tidal cycle, periodic storm 

surges, shoreline recession in response to long-term 

changes in sea level, changes in storm tracks, and 

islandwide modifications associated with man's activities. 

The Outer Banks (fig. 2), particularly the ocean 

side, have always been hazardous places for man. 

Early inhabitants recognized this and settled the more 

stable parts of the islands well inland from the ocean. 

Over the last several decades, this pattern of land use 

has reversed. Much construction has taken place 

dangerously close to the shoreline because of a desire 

to be near the water's edge, even though this location 

clearly introduces serious risks to life and property 

(fig. 3). 

Figure 3. Damage caused by the Ash Wednesday storm of March 

7, 1962. This storm caused more than $500 million in damages 

between Long Island and Cape Lookout. Most of the damage 

occurred on the barrier islands, as seen in this view of Fire Island 

photographed shortly after the storm subsided. 

(Source: United Press International.) 
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

All barrier islands are the product of a gradually 

rising sea level, a surplus of sand supplied to the coast, 

and waves large enough and winds strong enough to 

move the sand (fig. 4 ). The relation of these factors is 

a continuously changing one. 

Shape of 

barrier 

island 

Beach sand supply 

Size of waves 

Rise in sea 

level due to 

melting 

glaciers 

Figure 4. Simple relation among processes, sand supply, 

and barrier island form. 

The islands are unstable because the constant 

movement of sand by waves and currents affects the 

along-the-coast shape of the islands, and the rising sea 

level causes their migration landward (Dolan and 

others, 1977). Even though unstable, barrier islands 

are environmentally valuable. The estuaries and 

sounds behind barrier islands are among the richest 

and most productive ecosystems known. Nurseries, 

shelter, and food are provided for many species of 

fish, shellfish, and wildlife (Livingston, 1976). 

Several barrier islands have been preserved in 

their undeveloped state because of their environmental 

importance. Nine of the most scenic and natural 

islands or island groups have been set aside by the 

National Park Service as national seashores, and 

others are preserved as national wildlife refuges. Most 

coastal States have placed at least one barrier island 

under such Federal protection. 

Although some of the Atlantic and Gulf coast 

barrier islands were settled during the colonial period 

and some were used as sources of building materials 

or coastal defense sites, changing economic and social 

conditions following World War II made the islands 

more desirable sites for development. Time has not 

changed the natural problems and hazards associated 

with developing barrier islands, however. It is just as 

unsafe to build a house on shifting sand today as it was 

a century ago. The dangers from hurricanes and severe 

northeasters are just as great, and, considering the high 

population density on some of the islands, the 

potential for a disaster is even greater. 

Understanding the natural dynamics of barrier 

islands is the key to recognizing and estimating both 

the short-term and the long-term hazards of living on 

them. This report summarizes how the barrier islands 

were created, how they have changed, and why they 

will continue to change in spite of efforts to halt the 

natural processes. The Outer Banks of North Carolina 

are used as an example in this report, but the principles 

outlined are applicable to other barrier islands on the 

Atlantic and Gulf coasts. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

We wish to acknowledge the assistance of 

Deborah Cairns in conducting the literature research 

necessary for the preparation of this report. 

3 
4 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA 

BARRIER ISLAND DYNAMICS 

The Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains are 

relatively flat and slope gently seaward to a generally 

wide submarine Continental Shelf. The shore zone, or 

interface between the land and sea portions of the 

coastal plain, consists of a series of barrier islands 2 to 

20 miles offshore. Most are low islands 1 to 3 miles 

wide and 10 to 20 miles long. The highest topographic 

features are sand dunes usually 10 to 20 feet above sea 

level. In a few areas, such as Jockey Ridge near Nags 

Head, North Carolina, unvegetated dunes reach a 

maximum height of 120 feet. 

Dominant Processes 

The physical interface between land and sea is a 

zone in constant motion. On sandy coasts, each 

variation in sea level alters the interface. Beach sands 

are transported offshore, onshore, and in the direction 

of prevailing longshore currents. In this way, sandy 

coasts constantly adjust in response to different tide, 

wave, and current conditions. Periodic phases of 

erosion and deposition are superimposed on a longer 

term trend of a rising sea level (Hicks, 1972; Hicks 

and Crosby, 1975). This long-term rise submerges the 

beach, causes shoreline recession, and forces the 

barrier islands landward. 

In cross section, the barrier islands of the Outer 

Banks are an assemblage of sedimentary layers, each 

made up of particles of different sizes that indicate 

their source and the processes responsible for their 

movement (fig. 5). These deposits consist primarily of 

medium quartz sand and a small percentage of heavy 

minerals, gravels, and shell fragments. Beach material 

is carried and deposited, layer upon layer, by one of 

two dominant processes-storm overwash or transport 

by currents flowing through inlets. Bedded within the 

layers of beach material are units of well-sorted finer 

sands and silts transported by wind. The configuration 

of the island, in cross section and plan view, is an 

integration of the along-the-coast transport of sand. 

The processes that formed the islands remain active 

today. 

Figure 5. Primary features of an unaltered barrier island in 

cross section. (Source: R. Dolan.) 

Storms and Waves 

Hurricanes and winter extratropical storms, or 

"northeasters," of the midlatitudes have been the 

principal agents of geomorphic change on the midAtlantic barrier islands since their formation. 

Landscape change occurs with the movement of 

sand by strong wind and wave activity. Hurricanes 

generate high storm surges in contrast to extratropical 

storms that produce small to modest surges. 

Since 1900, the Atlantic and Gulf coast 

barrier islands have been crossed by more than 

100 hurricanes. About one-half of these storms have 

been classified by the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration as major storms having 

winds greater than 90 miles per hour and storm surges 

of more than 9 feet (Hebert and Taylor, 1979a, b). The 

two most damaging hurricanes of this century killed 

more than 6,000 people in Galveston, Texas, in 1900 

(Hughes, 1 979) and almost 2,000 people in Florida in 

1928. The three costliest hurricanes in terms of 

property losses were Frederic in September 1979, 

which caused an estimated $700 million in damage 

along the Gulf coast near Mobile, Alabama; Agnes in 

1972, which caused $2 billion in damage; and Camille 
BARRIER ISLAND DYNAMICS 

in 1969, which destroyed $1.4 billion worth of 

property. Camille was also one of the most intense 

hurricanes since 1900, registering the maximum value 

of 5 on the Saffir Simpson scale, with wind speeds 

over 150 miles per hour and a storm surge that drove 

water more than 25 feet above sea level (Hebert and 

Taylor, 1979a, b). 

Only four major hurricanes have affected the 

U.S. coasts since 1969. Three of these struck relatively 

sparsely populated areas on the Gulf coast: Celia in 

southern Texas in 1970, Carmen in Louisiana in 1974, 

and Eloise in northwest Florida in 1975. Hurricane 

Frederic, a class 3 hurricane on the Saffir Simpson 

scale, struck a densely populated area of the Gulf coast 

in 1979. 

The last major hurricane to hit the Atlantic coast 

was Donna in 1960. As a result of this disparity in the 

frequency and distribution of major hurricanes, fewer 

than 20 percent of the residents of the Atlantic and 

Gulf coast barrier islands have ever experienced the 

impact of such a storm (Frank, 1979). 

Between 1886 and 1970, 15 hurricanes having 

winds in excess of 75 miles per hour were reported 

along the Outer Banks, an average of about one every 

7.5 years (Dunn and Miller, 1960). Hurricanes occur 

most commonly in early September, but the season 

extends from June through November. 

Although hurricanes cause extensive damage 

and loss of life, winter extratropical storms, or 

"northeasters," cause most of the coastal damage 

along the Outer Banks. Unlike hurricanes, which form 

over the warm tropical waters of the Caribbean and 

North Atlantic, extratropical storms develop in the 

midlatitudes along weather fronts that separate cold, 

dry polar air from warm, moist tropical air. Each year 

between 30 and 40 such storms generate significant 

surges and waves of at least 5 feet (Bosserman and 

Dolan, 1968; Hayden, 1975). The Lincoln's Birthday 

northeaster of February 12-13, 1973, for example, 

caused severe erosion on beaches from Long Island, 

New York, to Miami, Florida. The great Ash 

Wednesday storm of March 7, 1962, produced waves 

more than 30 feet high, damaging millions of dollars 

of property along the mid-Atlantic coast (Cooperman 

and Rosendal, 1962; Podufaly, 1962; Stewart, 1962; 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1962; Bretschneider, 

1964 ). Although the normal wave height for the Outer 

Banks averages from 2 to 3 feet, the cumulative effect 

of high tide, spring tide, storm surge, and storm waves 

can produce a water-level rise of up to 30 feet. This 

rise may result in overwashing of the foredune and 

flooding of the back side of the barrier island (Hosier 

and Cleary, 1977). 

Statistics on storm occurrence and waves along 

the Outer Banks are presented in figure 6. The plot of 

storm return interval shows, for example, that a storm 

producing a wave height of 26 feet off Cape Hatteras 

can be expected to occur during a 125-year period. 

CIJ 

a: 

<( 

w 

Expected return interval 

in years of storms producing 

given deep·water wave 

heights at Cape Hatteras 

>- 100 

~ 

_j 

<( 

> 

a: 

w 

1-

z 

z 

a: 10 ::J 

1-

w 

a: 

-L--~~--~--L--L-- _J--~ 

4.9 7.9 11.2 14.1 17.1 20.0 23.0 25.9 28.9 32.1 

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 

7.9 11 .2 14.1 17.1 20.0 23.0 25.9 28.9 32.1 35.1 

DEEP-WATER WAVE HEIGHT, IN FEET 

Figure 6. Expected return interval in years of storms 

producing given wave heights offshore of Cape Hatteras. 

(Source: B. Hayden.) 

The average number of northeast storms per 

month that produce deep-water waves at least 5 feet 

high, based on 32 years of wave data, is shown in 

figure 7. It is evident from this graph that the stormiest 

months are from December to March. 

3.0 

-

- ,---

,---

;--- r---

-_ r---

-

-] 

0 July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June 

MONTHS 

Figure 7. Monthly distribution of storms producing deepwater waves in excess of 5 feet in height. (Source: B. Hayden.) 

5 
6 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA 

Hampton Roads, Virginia 

A 0 E • LUNAR DATA 

A MOON IN APOGEE 

0 LAST QUARTER 

E MOON ON EQUATOR 

• NEW MOON 

NEAP TIDE SPRING TIDE 

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 

DAY 

Figure 8. Representative tide curve f or Hampton Roads, Virginia, of the mid-Atlantic coast. The tide type is semidiurnal with the 

principal variations following the changes in the Moon's phase. Tide range fo r the Outer Banks is 2 to 4 feet. 

Tides 

The water level of the sea is constantly 

changing. Gradual variations in water level occur 

through tides (fig. 8), storm waves, and storm surge 

and through long-term sea-level fluctuations (fig. 9). 

The astronomical tides along the Outer Banks are 

semidiumal (12 hours and 25 minutes apart) with an 

average range of 3.5 feet. The highest, or spring, tides 

occur twice each month when the Earth, Moon, and 

Sun are alined, increasing the tidal range approximately 20 percent. Tidal action alone has little effect 

on sediment transport. When storm surge and high 

waves are superimposed, however, the daily elevation 

and depression of the water level becomes a more 

important agent in sediment transport (fig. 10). 

Storm 

waves t + -' 

Dai ly w 

> tide w 

-' + a: 

Spring/ w 

r- neap tide <( 

~ + ~ Storm z surge 0 + f= 

Sea-level <( 

::::> 

rise r0 

::::> 

-' u.. 

Resultant 1 water level 

Maximum 

TIME 

Figure 9. Sea-level variations occur over a wide range of time 

intervals. 

EXPLANATION 

DAILY 

YEARLY 

MILLENNIA 

\ ectonic 

River 

discharge 

4 ltnosphelic 

Pressu1e 

Figure 10. Cumulative effects of coastal processes on water 

level. 

As a result of the Moon's elliptical orbit, a 

minimal lunar perigee occurs once during each lunar 

cycle. When this happens, higher tides, called perigean 

spring tides, are generated. A recent National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration report 

(Wood, 1976) shows a strong coincidence of 

catastrophic storms and perigean spring tides. One 

hundred of the most severe coastal storms between 

1635 and 1976 occurred at the time of the perigean 

spring tides. The Ash Wednesday storm of 1962 is an 

example of a severe storm that occurred during a 

perigean spring tide. 
BARRIER ISLAND LANDFORMS 

BARRIER ISLAND LANDFORMS 

Continuous changes in sea level, wave action, 

storm surge, and sediment supply lead to rapid 

changes in barrier island landforms. These processes 

vary over an infinite variety of individual actions. The 

following principal classes of sand movement, 

however, are responsible for most changes occurring 

on barrier islands (fig. 11). 

1. Movement along the shore zone: Waves 

approaching the coast at an angle set up 

sediment-transporting processes along the coast 

called longshore currents. The direction and 

strength of these currents depend on wave height 

and wave direction. Over the course of a year, 

there is usually a net flow of water and sediment, 

such as littoral drift, in one direction. Along the 

Outer Banks, this direction is southward toward 

Cape Hatteras and Cape Lookout (Pierce, 1969). 

2. Movement across the shore zone: During periods 

of very high waves and tides, water levels along 

the barrier islands may rise so high that the 

beach may be overwashed by water and 

sediment traveling across the island (Pierce, 

1970; Schwat1z, 1975). Beach sediment also is 

transported offshore by surf-zone processes and 

is deposited by longshore currents at other 

sections of the coast. Inlets also provide a 

means for movement of sediment from the 

beach zone to the sounds. 

3. Movement by wind action: Fine sand from the 

beach face, sand flats, and dunes can be 

transported across and along the islands by 

strong winds. 

FOUR METHODS OF SEDIMENT TRANSPORT 

Littoral drift Overwash 

Inlet 

formation 

Figure 11. The primary methods of sediment transport on 

Atlantic coast beaches and barrier islands. 

Inlets 

Inlets are formed when storm surge and high 

waves drive water across the islands to the sounds 

(fig. 12). As the seawater moves across the island, 

usually into areas of progressively lower topography, 

channels form and may erode to the depths that permit 

a reverse flow (sound to sea) during ebb tide. Most 

such inlets are temporary features of elevated water 

levels that last a few days. 

The formation of inlets has important geologic 

and ecologic implications (Godfrey, 1970). Great 

quantities of saline water and sediment are moved 

through the inlets from the ocean side of the islands to 

the sounds (Moslow and Heron, 1979). The water 

contains nutrients and organisms, and the sediment 

forms shoals that provide new substrates for marsh 

grasses. Soon after the inlets close, the shoals are 

incorporated into the island substrate. Inlet formation 

and closure are, therefore, the fundamental sedimenttransfer processes during which material moves from 

the ocean side to the sound side of the barrier islands 

(fig. 13). The deposits that fill inlets are believed to 

comprise a relatively large percentage of barrier island 

sediments, perhaps as much as 20 to 25 percent. This 

amount depends upon the number and duration of inlet 

openings. In a study along North Carolina's Core 

Banks, Moslow and Heron (1978) calculated that 14 to 

16 percent of the Holocene sediments consists of inlet 

fill material. 

The geological and cultural histories of the 

Outer Banks are tied to the history of inlets along 

the barrier islands (Dunbar, 1958). Up to 30 inlets 

have opened and closed since the first settlers arrived 

almost 400 years ago (fig. 14). During the past 

125 years, however, three inlets have remained open 

as dominant waterways along the coast: Ocracoke, 

Hatteras, and Oregon. The latter two inlets were 

formed during the same storm in 1846 (Fisher, 1962). 

7 
8 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA 

8 

Flood tidal 

delta channel 

- Direction 

of drift 

Flood tidal delta 

~ Distributary 

7 

Inlet/" 

Ebb tidal delta 

OCEAN 

PRESENT-DAY INLET FEATURES 

LAGOON 

Flood tidal 

delta shoal 

Figure 13. The pattern of clearly evident oceanic overwash and 

inlet sedimentation on the bay side of Pea Island. 

(Source: R. Dolan.) 

Figure 12. Features of inlet sedimentation. New lands are 

created as tidal deltas become vegetated. A, Floodtide delta 

in upper right of photgraph, ebb tide delta in lower left. B, 

Diagram of inlet features. C, Inlet features following inlet 

closure. (Source: J. Fisher.) 

c 

LAGOON 

OCEAN 

RELICT INLET FEATURES 
BARRIER ISLAND LANDFORMS 

\ \ 

0 10 20 30 40 50 MILES 

Figure 14. The distribution of historic inlets along the Outer Banks. (Source: J. Fisher.) 

.. 

CJ 

INLET NAMES 

Old Currituck 

2 New Currituck 

3 Musketo 

4 Trinity Harbor 

5 Caffey's 

6 Roanoke 

7 Gunt 

8 Oregon 

9 New 

10 Loggerhead 

11 Chickinacommock 

12 Chacandepeco 

13 Hatteras 

14 Wells 

15 Old Hatteras 

16 Ocracoke 

17 Whalebone 

18 Swash 

19 Sand Island 

20 Drum 

21 Cedar 

22 South Core 1 

23 Old Drum 

24 South Core 2 

25 Barden 

26 Beaufort 

27 Bogue Banks 2 

28 Cheeseman 

29 Bogue Banks 1 

30 Bogue 

EXPLANATION 

Minimum possible time inlet 

could have been open 

Maximum possible time inlet 

could have been open 

0 Information not available 

Note: Time lines do not indicate 

position of coast at that 

particular time 

9 
10 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CA ROLINA 

Overwash Deposits 

Beaches constantly change in response to 

different wave and tide conditions. When waves are 

high, the active beach zone expands both landward 

and seaward, but it contracts when waves are low. 

During hurricanes and other severe storms, the beach 

undergoes major adjustments to dissipate the 

increased wave energy. If the waves and surge are 

very high, the runup can extend into zones normally 

associated with wind-blown deposits. This penetration 

of water and sediment is called overwash (fig. 15), and 

the resultant deposits are known as overwash fans. 

Sand Dunes 

All mid-Atlantic coast barrier islands have 

dunes of various sizes landward of the beach. Most 

dune sand is transported across the beach face or 

backshore and is deposited within the overwash flats 

and vegetated zones. Depending on the grain size, 

wind speeds of 15 to 20 miles per hour are necessary 

to initiate sand movement. In areas with wide, active 

beaches and strong prevailing winds, large dunes may 

form. 

The oldest and largest dunes on the Outer Banks 

were formed 3,000 to 4,000 years ago (Fisher, 1962). 

As the islands were forming, alternating periods of 

erosion and accretion resulted in the development of 

parallel dune ridges with depressions, or swales, 

between them. This process can be seen today near the 

mouths of coastal rivers that carry heavy sediment 

loads. The best examples on the Outer Banks of large, 

stable dune ridges are found at Buxton, Colington 

Island, and Nags Head Woods. These dunes are 

covered with maritime forests of pine and oak and are 

the most stable landscapes along the Outer Banks. 

When the parallel dunes are breached or the vegetation 

cover is destroyed, the dunes become a major source 

of sand for redistribution by the wind. In some places, 

this source of sand has resulted in new dune fields of 

significantly different configurations. Jockey Ridge, 

the highest dune on the Atlantic coast, is an example 

(fig. 16). 

The high beach foredunes, also called barrier 

dunes, are primarily a product of man's efforts to 

stabilize the sand movement along the Outer Banks 

(Dolan, Geofrey, and Odum, 1973). If sand fences are 

placed just inland from the beach face, the flow of air 

carrying sand is disrupted, and the sand accumulates 

as a ridge or dune at the base of the fence. If vegetation 

(fig. 17) and fertilizer are introduced, as they were 

along the Outer Banks in the 1960's, it is possible to 

build, or encourage nature to build, a very large, 

parallel dune. Such dunes began to appear on the 

Outer Banks after 1930, when public works programs 

started large-scale sand stabilization projects. 

Figure 15. Pattern of overwash and storm-surge penetration near 

Cape Hatteras. (Source: R. Dolan.) 
BARRIER ISLAND LANDFORMS 

Figure 16. Jockey Ridge near Nags Head, the highest dune field along the Outer Banks. (Source: R. Dolan.) 

Figure 17. Stabilization of the wide, active sand zone that existed before the 1930's by grass planting (shown) and sand fencing. 

(Source: R. Dolan.) 

11 
12 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA 

GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF 

THE OUTER BANKS 

The processes responsible for the formation of 

barrier islands have been debated by earth scientists 

for many years (Shepard, 1962; Hoyt, 1967; Swift, 

1968, 1975; Hoyt and Henry, 1967, 1971; Otvos, 

1970; Pierce and Colquhoun, 1970; Schwartz, 1971, 

1973). The formation of the Outer Banks is believed to 

have resulted from a combination of spit growth and 

beach emergence. Accordingly, sediment, deposited as 

deltas within Pleistocene coastal river systems, was 

reworked by wave action and transported along the 

shore. As time passed, the complex elongated 

landscape of the Outer Banks evolved. 

Several stratigraphic studies have indicated that 

most mid-Atlantic barrier islands are migrating 

landward (Kraft, 1971; Kraft and others, 1976; Fisher 

and Simpson, 1979; Moslow and Heron, 1979). Peat 

deposits and tree stumps, remnants of forest stands 

which generally occur on the back side of barrier 

islands, are now being found on open ocean beaches 

(fig. 18), indicating distinct landward movement 

(Kraft and others, 1973; Field and others, 1979; Dillon 

and Oldale, 1978). In addition, overall island recession 

can be measured from historical maps (fig. 19) and 

aerial photographs (Shepard and Wanless, 1971; 

Hayden, Dolan, and Ross, 1979). As indicated earlier, 

change on sedimentary coasts is a function of three 

factors: The amount and attributes of sediment within 

a coastal segment, the magnitude of natural processes, 

and the stability of sea level. These factors also are 

related directly to the geological origin of barrier 

islands. 

It generally is accepted that sea level has 

oscillated several times during the past one-half 

million years (Donn, Farrand, and Ewing, 1962; 

Emiliani, 1970). During the warmer interglacial 

periods, continental ice melted causing the shorelines 

to advance inland across the Continental Shelf. During 

Figure 18. As the barrier islands migrate landward, freshwater peat deposits are uncovered. (Source: R. Dolan.) 
GEOLOGICAL IDSTORY OF THE OUTER BANKS 

I Cape Hatteras shoreline 

I 

18721 

I 

: 1 /1a52 

)1962 I I .· I ·.. I 

Lighthouse U.S. Naval station 

• • c 1917 

L--- ...... -- ...... ................... ---------- 1872 

~ ---------------------~ ...... ___ 1852 ------------

------

0 5,000 FEET 

Figure 19. Evidence of shoreline recession is readily available from comparison of old maps and charts. (Source: U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers.) 

the cooler glacial periods, when water was withdrawn 

from the seas and stored as glacial ice, the shorelines 

moved seaward (fig. 20). 

When the last period of glaciation, the 

Wisconsin, ended between 14,000 and 18,000 years 

ago, sea level was approximately 300 feet lower than it 

is today, and the shoreline of the North Carolina coast 

was 50 to 75 miles seaward (fig. 20) of its present 

position (Emery, 1968). With the change from glacial 

to interglacial conditions, which marked the transition 

from Pleistocene to Holocene, the sea level began 

rising, initiating what is known as the Holocene 

marine transgression (fig. 21). 

As sea level rose and the shoreline moved 

across the Continental Shelf, large masses of sand in 

the form of beach deposits were moved with the 

migrating shore zone (Duane and others, 1972; Field 

and Duane, 1976; Emery, 1968). In addition, 

sediment, deposited as deltas within the coastal river 

systems, was reworked by wave action and moved 

along the shore (fig. 22). When the rate of sea-level 

rise slowed about 4,000 years ago, waves, currents, 

and winds reworked the sand to form the beaches and 

barrier islands that stretch from New England to 

Texas. As long as the inshore system contained 

surplus sediment, the beaches continued to build 

seaward. At that time, some parts of the Outer Banks 

may have been wider, perhaps as wide as a mile or 

more. In narrow areas, inlets breached the islands and 

later filled in to reform them. Long spits connected the 

wider, more stable sections, such as the land areas near 

Cape Hatteras, Southern Shores, Colington, Nags 

Head Woods, Avon, Frisco, and Ocracoke, where 

sequences of beach ridges developed (fig. 23). In this 

way, long chains of Holocene barrier islands evolved. 

Figure 20. Atlantic coast shoreline 15,000 years ago when sea 

level was much lower than today. (Source: American Scientist.) 

13 
14 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA 

(1) 15,000 years ago, sea level was 250 

feet or more below its present level 

- and 50 miles seaward of its present position. Beach ridges (dunes) 

were formed along the shelf by 

waves and wind. 

(2) Sea level rose and broke through the 

dune ridge, flooding low area in back 

of dune to form lagoon or sound. The 

former line of dunes is now isolated as 

an island. 

Figure 21. Evolution of the barrier islands. (Source: J. Hoyt.) 

Figure 22. Model for evolution of North Carolina barrier islands. (Source: S. Riggs.) 

Migrating barrier 

Lagoon island 

~ ___,__ -=~ Barner moves I 

as sea lev landward 

e nses 

(3) Island has arrived at its present position 

in response to the continued rise in sea 

level. The island will continue to move 

landward as long as sea level rises and 

a low slope exists behind the island. 

Present 
GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE OUTER BANKS 15 

A 

B 

Cape Point 

ATLANTIC OCEAN 

Figure 23. A, Distribution of high barrier dune ridges of early 

Holocene age, and 8, the complex pattern of dune ridges at Cape 

Hatteras. (Source: J. Fisher.) 

A detailed plot of Holocene sea-level change 

reveals a clear pattern (fig. 24)-a long-term trend of 

sea-level rise. Although this trend may continue for 

only a short geological time (possibly only a few 

thousand years), it may continue long enough to 

have significant effects on coastal development and 

habitation of the Outer Banks. The estimated effects 

on North Carolina's shoreline of a continuation of the 

current rate of sea-level rise for the next 1,000 years is 

shown on the map in figure 25. 

tu MSL w 

lL 

z 

_j 

w 

> w 

....J 

<{ 

w 

(f) 

z 

<{ 

w 

:2 

5: 

0 

....J 

w 

[]J 

I 90 1-

[J_ 

w 

0 

120L__L_~~~-L-L-~-~-L-_L-~_....J-~ 

12 10 8 6 4 2 0 

THOUSANDS OF YEARS BEFORE PRESENT 

RADIOCARBON DATING 

EXPLANATION 

SEA-LEVEL CURVES 

FAIRBRIDGE (1961) 

MILLIMAN AND EMERY (1968) 

CURRAY (1960, 1965) 

JELGERSMA (1966, Fig. 6, Curve Ill) 

COLEMAN AND SMITH (1964) 

KRAFT (1976) 

MEAN CURVE FOR ALL DATA 

Figure 24. Late Holocene sea-level curve based on radiocarbon dates. 

(Source: Maslow and Heron, 1978.) 

As stated previously, overwash and inlet 

formation are the most important processes in 

landward movement of the Outer Banks. During 

severe storms, the beach zone of seaward dunes is 

overtopped by high water and waves (fig. 26). As this 

sediment-laden mass of water spills across the beach 

and flows toward the bays and sounds on the inland 

margin of the islands, a layer of sediment is removed 

from the beach and added to the island's interior. This 

process transforms the shape and position of the island 

but conserves much of the sediment mass. 
16 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA 

-- CURRITUCK SOUND 

AREAS TO BE FLOODED 

Projected future 

locations of islands 

Cape Hatteras 

PROJECTED NORTH CAROLINA COASTAL ZONE 2980 AD 

Figure 25. Land-water relation along the North Carolina coast for the year 2980, based on the assumption that 

past trends in sea-level rise will continue for the next 1,000 years. (Source: S. Riggs.) 

Figure 26. Pattern of overwash and storm-surge penetration at 

Nags Head during the March 7, 1962, storm. (Source: R. Dolan.) 
GEOLOGICAL IDSTORY OF THE OUTER BANKS 17 

During storms, sand also moves inland through 

inlets into the interior bays and lagoons. This type of 

movement is common along the east coast, particularly south of Cape Cod. Temporary inlets are formed 

during storms when the islands are overwashed and 

breached, creating openings to the lagoons and bays 

behind the beaches (fig. 27). Most of these inlets 

eventually close, unless a major river discharges 

behind them. Although the inlet is open, however, 

sand is moved through it and is deposited on the inside 

Figure 27. Temporary inlet formed near Cape Hatteras during the 

March 7, 1962, storm. It was filled in soon after it formed. 

(Source: R. Dolan.) 

Figure 28. Pattern of sedimentation at Oregon Inlet. 

(Source: R. Dolan.) 

of the barrier in large, fan-shaped shoals (Pierce, 

1969). Sand also is carried out during ebb tide, and a 

similar delta may be created in the ocean (fig. 28). The 

bayside inlet shoals are exposed at low tide and 

eventually become new substrates for highly productive salt marshes (Godfrey, 1970, 1976). Shoals below 

low tide support underwater grass beds. Although 

overwash fans crossing the islands also create fringes 

of marsh substrate (fig. 29), the inlet deposits create 

the most extensive marshes that project into the 

sounds and bays (fig. 13) behind the barrier islands 

(Hayden and Dolan, 1979). 

ft'igure 29. Fringe of salt marsh on the sound side of Core Banks. 

(Source: P. Godfrey.) 

Although overwash and inlet formation are 

dominant processes of change, Godfrey, Leatherman, 

and Zaremba (1979) and Fisher (1968) have pointed 

out that regional differences are significant. In the 

Northeast, for example, overwash occurs less 

frequently, and large dunes and cliffs have been 

formed by sediment eroded from glacial deposits. 

Along the Outer Banks, where tide ranges are lower 

and the sediment supply smaller, overwash is more 

common. 
18 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA 

Shoreline Configuration 

Even a cursory inspection of photographs of the 

Atlantic coast obtained from aircraft or spacecraft 

reveals large crescent-shaped configurations (fig. 30). 

Some of these crescentic patterns are the result of 

variations in the rates of shoreline change. Along the 

Virginia barrier islands, for example, the rate of 

shoreline erosion varies systematically with the 

configuration of the shoreline (Dolan, Hayden, and 

Jones, 1979). Erosion rates are greatest where the 

orientation of the shoreline is near 28° east of north; 

Figure 30. Large crescentic landforms. Smaller features also are 

evident in these two space photographs. A, Cape Hatteras. 

B, Cape Lookout. (Source: National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration.) 

that is, where the long axis of the island runs 

northeast-southwest. Erosion is Jess at smaller and 

larger angles. This difference in erosion rates results in 

a series of crescent-shaped landforms. At places, the 

shoreline is concave and, at others, convex, forming 

what are sometimes called false capes. 

Along the Atlantic coast, the largest crescentic 

landforms are the broad arcs of the North Carolina 

coast that span distances of approximately 60 miles. 

Smaller crescentic forms occur within these large arcs, 

including beach cusps (30-100 feet), giant beach 

cusps (330-650 feet), and some larger forms (a mile or 

more long) (Dolan, Hayden, and Vincent, 1974). 

Inshore bars and troughs also may assume crescentic 

and rhythmic configurations in response to sea states, 

tides, and sea level (Sonu, 1973). Smaller forms 

appear, disappear, and may migrate along the 

shoreline, but large ones establish the spatial distribution of shore! ine erosion and storm overwash (fig. 31) 

(Dolan, 1971). 

The pattern of storm-surge deposits, or 

overwash fans, along the Outer Banks after the Ash 

Wednesday storm of 1962 is shown in figure 32. 

Although overwash occurred all along the Outer 

Banks, the distance the sand penetrated inland varies 

markedly from place to place. A similar pattern is 

evident on most barrier islands. Analysis of the 

overwash pattern and the 40-year averages of 

shoreline positions suggests that, along the coast, 

periodicities exist for the long-term average shoreline 

erosion and the penetration of storm surge during a 

single storm. These patterns indicate the places where 

erosion and storm damage occur (fig. 32). The natural 

configuration of sedimentary coastlines, as determined 

by shore-zone processes, is periodic and crescentic 

rather than straight. The larger wave lengths (more 

than 8-10 miles) are less apparent because their 

curvature is smaller; thus, their relative amplitude is 

lower. In analyzing long sections of the coast, their 

absolute amplitude is greater than the smaller 

crescentic features. However, the larger crescentic 

forms are difficult to recognize during a stroll along 

the beach. They are most visible in photographs taken 

from high altitudes. 
GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE OUTER BANKS 19 

Figure 31. Small crescentic landforms along the Outer Banks. (Source: R. Dolan.) 
20 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA 

Figure 32. Pattern of storm-surge penetration along Hatteras 

Island, 1962. (Source: U.S. Army.) 

In the 1950's, some homes on the Outer Banks 

were constructed on concrete slabs. Some are still 

there today, having weathered hundreds of storms, 

including the great Ash Wednesday northeaster, but 

other houses nearby have long since disappeared. Is 

the vulnerability of some places along the coast simply 

a matter of chance or is there a pattern to the hazards? 

Recent research suggests that even at site-level scales 

(hundreds of feet), shore-zone processes and shorezone landforms assume systematic patterns along and 

across the coast (Dolan and Hayden, 1980). This 

conclusion is a departure from the more common 

conception that coastal change and coastal hazards are 

random or happenstance events. 

If storm hazards along the coast are distributed 

systematically, then they should be predictable. The 

problem is that detailed historical information for 

establishing past patterns is not always available. 

However, sections of sedimentary coasts that have 

experienced storm damage and serious erosion in the 

past are likely to experience more of the same in the 

future (fig. 33). Thus, a natural "template of change" 

exists that is governed by the coastal configuration. 

Figure 33. Serious losses of property near Cape Hatteras caused 

by shoreline recession and storm tides. (Source: R. Dolan.) 

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 

The North Carolina barrier islands were discovered by European explorers in the 16th century, but 

they were not permanently settled until the mid-17th 

century. From the beginning, proximity to the ocean 

and the mainland has been important to those living on 

the Outer Banks. The natural processes that formed 

these islands, especially the openings and closings of 

inlets, have hindered trade and commerce and have 

caused major redistributions of the populations for the 

past 400 years. 

In 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh sent two vessels 

across the Atlantic to search for suitable sites for 

settlements in the New World. Within a year, a settlement was established on the Outer Banks at the 

northern end of Roanoke Island (fig. 34). This settlement was, however, short lived. A supply ship, 

returning from England in 1590, found no trace of the 

colonists. To this day, the disappearance of the "Lost 

Colony" has remained a historical puzzle (Dolan and 

Bosserman, 1972). 

The first permanent settlement on the Outer 

Banks was located in 1663 on present-day Colington 

Island (fig. 34), where the English colonists settled 

within the dune fields on the sound side of the island. 

The dunes provided timber, fuel, freshwater, and 

protection from strong winds and storm tides. 

Although the most profitable occupation at the time 
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 21 

The Outer Banks 

in the 

Colonial Period 

Currituck Banks 

' N 

\ 

Figure 34. Location of early settlements on the Outer Banks. 

(Source: National Park Service.) 

was the sale of oil extracted from whales washed up 

on the shore, the extensive unfenced grazing land soon 

led to the development of a livestock industry (Stick, 

1958). 

Before 1700, most settlements were located 

between Roanoke and Currituck Inlets. As Roanoke 

Inlet began to shoal and eventually close, however, 

maritime traffic was routed 75 miles south to 

Ocracoke Inlet. By 1750, hundreds of ships were using 

Ocracoke Inlet as a trade route. Port Bath, the official 

port of entry in 1715, became the largest community 

on the Outer Banks. The town of Portsmouth, 

established as a transshipment point for goods bound 

for the interior of the Carolina colony, grew rapidly. 

A few wealthy businessmen controlled the land 

on the Outer Banks by the 1700's. By the end of the 

Revolutionary War, however, many of the largest 

holdings were subdivided into small plots, and new 

construction began. 

Shipbuilding and lumber industries were among 

the most successful trades in the early 1800's (Stick, 

1958). Forests of live oak, pine, and cedar were 

depleted rapidly. Livestock grazed on the open dunes. 

The new sense of nationalism brought on by independence not only created a desire to acquire title to the 

land, but it also gave "bankers" (farmers) the impetus 

to improve transportation routes and construct 

lighthouses to make ocean travel safer. 

Shipping lanes off the North Carolina coast 

always have been among the most treacherous in the 

world. The northward-flowing Gulf Stream and southbound drift along the Virginia coast make travel in 

sailing vessels faster but also force ships to navigate 

dangerously close to the shore (Roush, 1968). Before 

the construction of lighthouses, hundreds of vessels 

were lost during storms when they were driven either 

onto the shoals or the coast (fig. 35). The area around 

Cape Hatteras known as Diamond Shoals also came to 

be known as the "Graveyard of the Atlantic." 

Figure 35. One of the more than 1,000 ships that wrecked on the 

Outer Banks during the 1800's. (Source: National Park Service.) 

The first lighthouse on the Outer Banks was 

built on an island in Ocracoke Inlet. The original 

foundation of the Cape Hatteras Lighthouse, built in 

1802, can still be seen (Stick, 1958). The present Cape 

Hatteras Lighthouse was completed in 1870. The 

Ocracoke Lighthouse, built in 1823, is the oldest still 

standing on the Outer Banks. On Bodie Island, three 

lighthouses have been constructed. The last, built in 

1872, is still in use today. The Cape Lookout 
22 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA 

Figure 36. The Cape Lookout lighthouse in the 1930's. Note the absence of vegetation during this period. 

(Source: National Archives.) 

Lighthouse, originally built around 1812, was vandalized during the Civil War, and the present structure 

was completed in 1873 (fig. 36). The last Outer Banks 

lighthouse was constructed at Corolla in 1875 

(Holland, 1968). 

Lifesaving stations, built 7 miles apart, appeared 

on the Outer Banks in the late 1800's. Five Coast 

Guard stations are still active on the Outer Banks 

today: Oregon Inlet, Cape Hatteras, Hatteras Inlet, 

Ocracoke, and Cape Lookout. 

With the final closing of Roanoke Inlet in 1811, 

it became apparent that the same thing could happen to 

Ocracoke Inlet. Therefore, in 1830, the first attempt 

was made to alter natural processes along the Outer 

Banks. A special dredging machine was used in the 

inlet to deepen and widen the shipping channel. Sixty 

feet long and propelled by steam-driven paddle 

wheels, the dredge was equipped with buckets on a 

conveyor belt that scooped sand from the channel 

bottom (fig. 37). For 7 years, work continued on 

Ocracoke's main channel until engineers concluded it 

was filling up as fast as it could be dredged (Stick, 

1958). 

When Currituck Inlet closed in 1828, Ocracoke 

was the only navigable inlet north of Cape Lookout. In 

1846, a storm breached the Outer Banks in two places, 

forming what are today Oregon and Hatteras Inlets 

(Pilkey, Neil, and Pilkey, 1978). Within 20 years, use 

of Ocracoke Inlet and the town of Portsmouth 

decreased radically, and Hatteras Inlet surpassed 

Ocracoke as the most traveled inlet on the North 

Carolina coast. 

-· ~ .. ....,._ 

Figure 37. Original drawing of the first dredge (1830 's) used to 

maintain the inlets on the Outer Banks. (Source: National 

Archives.) 
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 

Vacationers were first reported on these barrier 

islands as early as 1750 (Stick, 1958). The first indication that the Outer Banks would someday develop into 

a resort area occurred in 1838 when the first hotel, 

capable of accommodating 200 guests, was 

constructed at Nags Head. The hotel and many 

cottages were built on the sound side because, like the 

first colonists, the summer residents were aware of the 

potential hazards of erosion and severe storm tides. 

Nags Head became known as a favorite "watering 

place" where wealthy mainland North Carolinians 

could escape the heat and fevers of malaria so rampant 

at that time (Stick, 1958). 

Three significant changes occurred on the Outer 

Banks at the end of the Civil War. The first, resulting 

from the opening of Oregon and Hatteras Inlets in 

1846, was the steady withdrawal of shipping traffic 

away from Ocracoke Inlet. By 1867, the town of 

Portsmouth was on a rapid decline. The population of 

that settlement had dwindled to 18 people in 1955, 

and, at present, no permanent residents live there, 

although numerous buildings remain intact. Further 

north, however, summer residents were returning to 

Nags Head. The second change, then, was a new hotel 

built to replace the original Nags Head Hotel (figs. 38, 

39), which had been burned to keep Union forces from 

using it as a base of operations. And third, some 

summer residents began building cottages on the 

ocean side of the island (Pilkey, Neil, and Pilkey, 

1978). 

By the Great Depression, little industry existed 

on the Outer Banks. Nothing had been done over the 

years to improve the strain of cattle, and shipping 

traffic had been reduced to small, private boats. 

Improved navigation aids decreased the number of 

shipwrecks (Stick 1958). Construction of bridges and 

paved roads in the 1920's and 1930's, however, significantly increased the number of summer visitors. 

Unlike their early predecessors, those that could afford 

it preferred to buy land on the ocean side. The location 

of the first paved road near the shoreline had much to 

do with this pattern of land development. Because land 

values were low and household utilities minimal, little 

concern was given to building houses close to the 

beach. During periods of severe erosion, residents 

could move their cottages back to safer positions 

(Outlaw, 1956). 

NORTH CAROLINA SEA BA T!!ING 

Nag's Head Hotel. 

a 

T HIS exllenain e~~ta.bliahment, rece~tly imp~~v· 

ed, will bo opened fur the roceptton o( Vuutnrs, ~uperiutended by the Junior Pa-rtner, A .. J. 

BAn:Mu, on tho bt day of' July The l!otP.llutuat<.Xl in view of the Ocean, J•resellta amagmficent 

prd!pect The great bencuts resulting frvm Sea 

~nthiug and the - brPf'te, are hecoming more 

known and appreciated daily. 1\o place can ·l>e 

mote bea.lthy or poeee81!1 a fi.ner climate than Nag's 

Head. The Bathing is Wll!lllii'JliUI'ed in the l.!nited 

States. We have enga.ged a good Band of Music, 

our Ball Room i1 very epacious and will bo open· 

cd every evening. Active and efficient aMil!tnnta 

havo been en~ged, and no u ertiou.s will be spur· 

ed to render 1t in &11 r~~ta an agreeable and 

int.erestin~ resort. A Rtul Rood will be complet<.Xl oorly m July from the Hotel t() the Ocean. 

that ve1'8ons preferring a ride to walking may be 

accornmode.ted. 

The 'tca.mer Sehults will make a trip every 

Saturday from Fra.nklin Depot, Va ., to l'\ags' !lead, commencing July 12th, immediately after the e.r· 

rim) Qf the Curs from Norfolk, and returning lrfl\'C 

:'\ags· Ilea•1 ::>unde.y evening, at 5 o'clock. Pn.IIMge fr,,m F'ranklin ~3, Hiddick'w Wharf, Winton, 

&c. , 2 50, Edenton to NA.gfl' Head S2. Meal" 

extm. Th-e &hults will make &e"\'eral Escut!l.ious 

to 1\ags' Hood through the ee&WJn, _due notice of 

which will be given. The l'aoket scbr &.rah 

l'ort.:r, C. nl>t· Walker, will ruake two trips from Ed~: nton. (N. C ,) to Nag·a H~>ad each week 

through the senf!On, leaving Edenton Tuesday and 

FridRy, at 8 o'clock, A M. The Packet IlCht A 

Riddick. Capt. Dunbar, will make three triptt each 

week through tho 16UOn. from Elizn ~th Cit" 

( ~. C.,) to Nag's Head, leaviug !<:Iizabeth City 

immediately after tho arrh·al of the Stage Conch 

fr<om !'i<•rfolk, Vo.. Pueago on eMh Paebt $1. 

meals cx tr~ . Boord per day nt the Hotel !1 50. 

By the w<.-ek at tho rate of $1 25 . By the two 

wc<!KS at the rate of f.l. By the month at the 

rate of 75 cenUI per day. Children and Servant~ 

l111lf price. The patronage vf the public i~ YerJ 

re~pectfully svlicited. 

RIDDICK & BATE~L\:'1 . 

June 11. lil51 2>8 ~m. 

Figure 38. Advertisement for Nags Head Hotel in 

1851. (Source: State Archives of North Carolina.) 

23 
24 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA 

Figure 39. Nags Head Hotel in 1898. (Source: National Park Service.) 

In 1933, after one of the most severe hurricanes 

on record, steps were taken to stabilize the moving 

sands. It was not uncommon for storm overwash to 

sweep across some parts of the island from ocean to 

sound (fig. 40). The National Park Service, in collaboration with the Civilian Conservation Corps, proposed 

a massive sand-fixation program (Croft, 1934). 

Between 1933 and 1940, 600 miles of sand fence 

were constructed on 115 miles of beach. To further 

stabilize the dunes, 142 million square feet of grass 

and 2.5 million seedlings, trees, and shrubs were 

planted (Dunbar, 1958). In 1935, free-ranging of 

livestock was prohibited from Currituck to Hatteras 

Inlet. Two years later, the National Park Service 

proposed that the Cape Hatteras National Seashore be 

established (Roush, 1968). 

Although not completed until 1953, the new 

National Seashore (30,000 acres) included most of the 

Outer Banks between Nags Head and Ocracoke Inlet 

(fig. 41), excluding the villages of Rodanthe, Waves, 

Salvo, Avon, Buxton, Frisco, Hatteras, and Ocracoke. 

Two factors contributed to the establishment of the 

first National Seashore. Unquestionably, this was one 

of the world's best examples of a barrier island 

Figure 40. Overwash at Cape Hatteras, 1962. (Source: R. Dolan.) 
RECENT TRENDS IN LAND USE 25 

environment, rich in quality and diversity. Second, 

erosion was becoming a serious problem, and concern 

that the islands would soon disappear was growing. 

Even though the shoreline advanced to within 

150 feet of the historic Cape Hatteras Lighthouse and 

coastal development was continuing at a rapid pace, 

much disagreement occurred about having the Outer 

Banks under Federal control. It was not until Andrew 

Mellon donated over $600,000 for the project, and the 

State of North Carolina matched his gift that the park 

became a reality (Stick, 1958). 

WRIGHT BROTHERS 

NATIONAL MEMORIAL 

!::;) FORT RALEIGH NATIONAL 

~ HISTORIC SITE 

PEA ISLAND NATIONAL 

WILDLIFE REFUGE 

CAPE 

HATTERAS 

NATIONAL 

SEASHORE 

Figure 41. The distribution of federally owned and managed land 

along the Outer Banks. 

Ownership of the land by the National Park 

Service halted construction south of Nags Head 

except, of course, in the exempted villages. Headquartered at Manteo, the Park Service also holds jurisdiction over the Wright Brothers National Memorial at 

Kill Devil Hills and over the Fort Raleigh National 

Historical Site on Roanoke Island (fig. 41). 

Cape Lookout National Seashore was 

authorized in 1966 before Core and Shackleford 

Banks underwent any major development. Even 

though not officially transferred to the National Park 

Service until 1976, this authorization prevented many 

problems that occurred north of Cape Hatteras. The 

boundaries of the park extend 58 miles from Ocracoke 

Inlet to Beaufort Inlet and include Portsmouth Island, 

Core Banks, and Shackleford Banks (24,500 acres). At 

the present time, Cape Lookout National Seashore has 

no roads or bridges and remains, for the most part, in 

its natural state. 

RECENT TRENDS IN LAND USE 

Many Atlantic and Gulf coast barrier islands 

have been developed and highly modified in the last 

two decades. Freshwater supplies are commonly 

overtaxed, and waste products have changed the 

ecological balance of adjacent coastal wetlands. Often 

the changes on barrier islands during storms are 

catastrophic, in that homes and commercial facilities 

built close to the shoreline are destroyed. The Ash 

Wednesday storm of 1962 serves as an example of an 

extreme event along the mid-Atlantic coast. Damage 

to property amounted to more than $500 million (1962 

dollars), and 32lives were lost (Podufaly, 1962). 

Unfortunately, this devastation was soon forgotten, 

and rapid shore-zone development has continued. 

Much of the development shown in figure 42 

has taken place since the 1962 storm. The actual 

overwash zone of that storm was about 350 feet 

wide in this area. After the storm, for example, 

869 buildings remained within 1,200 acres of the 

overwash zone in Nags Head. Today there are 

1 ,304 buildings in the same hazardous area (Dolan, 

Hayden, and Lins, 1980), an increase of 34 percent. 

Each year, erosion and storm surge take a toll on the 

buildings along the Outer Banks (fig. 43). 
26 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA 

Figure 42. Pattern of development at Nags Head. A, 1958. B, 1979. (Source: National Park Service.) 
RECENT TRENDS IN LAND USE 27 

Figure 43. Property damage during a 1972 storm at Killy Hawk. 

(Source: R. Dolan. ) 

Using categories based on the U.S. Geological 

Survey's nationwide land use and land cover mapping 

program, figure 44 shows a cross section of the 

location of typical land use types found on barrier 

islands (Anderson and others, 1976). Table 1 gives the 

natural processes responsible for change, the normal 

period of landscape response, and assessments of the 

stability and vulnerability of each land use and land 

cover category. 

Recent trends in development on the Atlantic 

and Gulf coast barrier islands have been analyzed by 

the U.S. Geological Survey (Lins, 1980). Of the nearly 

300 islands surveyed, roughly 70 are developed or 

urbanized; these areas include Atlantic City, New 

Jersey, Ocean City, Maryland, Virginia Beach, 

Virginia, Wrightsville Beach, North Carolina, Hilton 

Head, South Carolina, Jekyll Island, Georgia, Miami 

Beach, Florida, and Galveston Island, Texas. About 

80 others have been purchased for or included within 

State and local recreation areas or preserves. The 

Federal Government has acquired 15 of the largest 

barrier islands for wildlife refuges and national 

seashores. The remaining 135 islands are privately 

owned and largely undeveloped (Clark and Turner, 

1976). 

The U.S. Geological Survey's study analyzed 

changes in land use and land cover on Atlantic and 

Gulf coast barrier islands for the period from 1945 to 

197 5. Land used for urban development has increased 

by 140,000 acres, or 153 percent, during this 30-year 

period. Urban land accounted for only 5.5 percent of 

Table 1. Dominant coastal processes associated with land use and land cover types (Source: U.S. Geological Survey.) 

Code 

10 

21 

31 

35 

43 

53 

54 

55 

61 

62 

731 

732 

750 

U.S. Geological Survey Processes and periods land classification 

Urban Episodic ; storm surge 

Grass and pasture lands Surface runoff; slow trends 

Vegetated sand flats Eolian; overwash; daily; extreme events 

Vegetated dune systems Eolian; wave erosion (frontal); daily; 

extreme event 

Forests Surface runoff; slow trends 

Reservoirs Siltation; slow trends 

Estuaries and bays Tidal currents; daily now patterns 

Freshwater ponds Rainfall runoff; daily intrusion 

Marshes Biological; tidal overwash; slow trends; 

extreme events; daily 

Mudfl ats Tidal; daily revegetation surge; daily 

(seasonally); extreme events 

Dunes: unvegetated Eolian; daily 

Sand flats: unvegetated Eolian overwash; daily revegetation 

Soil banks Tidal; surface runoff; daily 

Vulnerability 

High, natural changes occur frequently representing risk for development 

Moderate, danger from flood or surge 

Low, natural change low 

Events causing alterations Vulnerabilitf 

of response 

Construction; storm damage Moderate 

Low 

Storm deposition of sand; denudation Moderate 

Storm erosion of dune mass; denudation Low 

Denudation Low 

Siltation High 

Pollution; alteration of flow patterns Moderate 

Siltation; saltwater Moderate 

Overwash; deposition of sand, High 

manmade; landfill restriction of water 

flux 

Current erosion; sea-level trend Moderate 

Vegetation 

Overwash deposition 

Revegetation; erosion 
28 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA 

the totall.7 million acres in 1945, but, in 1975, it 

accounted for nearly 14 percent. Most development 

occurred in wetland areas (80,000 acres) and, to a 

lesser extent, in forests (16,000 acres) and on barren 

lands (sand flats and overwash fans, 7,000 acres). 

Four categories-wetland, urban or built-up 

land, barren land (sand flats and overwash fans), and 

maritime forests-account for 90 percent of the total 

barrier island area. Despite the rapid expansion of 

Storm surge 

Tides and waves 

residential and commercial development, the 

dominant land cover type on barrier islands in 

1975 was wetlands. Barren land occupied another 

250,000 acres, or roughly 15 percent, and maritime 

forests covered 150,000 acres, or about 9 percent. It is 

noteworthy that the area of urban land equaled that of 

barren land. Furthermore, the 14-percent urban area 

represents a very large relative percentage-only 

3 percent of the total land area in the United States is 

urban (Hart, 1975). 

I 

I 

I 

I 

~ '"''""' ••w• 

Figure 44. Cross-sectional view of developed and undeveloped barrier islands, depicting general locations of land-use 

and land-cover types in relation to dominant shoreline processes. (Source: R. Dolan.) 
SHORELINE PROCESSES: EROSION AND OVER WASH 29 

SHORELINE PROCESSES: 

EROSION AND OVERWASH 

The North Carolina barrier islands are, to the 

geologist, temporary features of the coastal environment. Since the last ice age, the level of the sea has 

been rising, causing a steady landward migration of 

the barrier islands (Kraft, 1971). This migration, 

which continues today, is forced incrementally by the 

passage of storms that drive sand along and across the 

islands. A characteristic island configuration is a broad 

beach, a dune field, overwash terraces, and a fringing 

marsh on the sound side of the island. 

An early settlement of the sound side of the 

islands (fig. 45) was due to an awareness of the 

hazards associated with erosion and storm overwash. 

During the 1930's, programs designed to control 

overwash processes focused on sand stabilization 

(Dolan, Godfrey, and Odum, 1973). Sand fences were 

erected on the broad beaches (fig. 46), trapping 

wind-blown sand and forming an unbroken chain of 

barrier dunes. Once these dunes were established, they 

were further stabilized with vegetation and were fertilized periodically to ensure rapid and dense growth. 

Consequently, all but the most severe storm 

overwashes were contained seaward of the barrier 

dunes, and the dunes provided a margin of protection. 

As a result, land use patterns changed dramatically. 

Villages spread rapidly seaward to the barrier dunes, 

Figure 45. Village of Frisco (near Cape Hatteras) in 1936. 

(Source: National Park Service.) 

Figure 46. Sand fencing in 1936 to build barrier dunes along 

Hatteras Island. (Source: National Park Service.) 

and roadbeds and utility lines were constructed along 

the length of the islands. 

The Outer Banks have changed from a system 

dominated by natural processes to a stabilized system. 

The development cautiousness of earlier decades has 

diminished concurrently. As a result of the continuing 

rise in sea level and of the restriction of waves and 

storm surge to the beach, however, the resultant 

prevailing erosion of the beach has been rapid. With 

the narrowing of the beach, progressively smaller 

storm-generated waves and surges have eroded the 

barrier dunes (fig. 47). It was inevitable that a serious 

problem would occur because the processes of erosion 

and overwash have continued forcing the shoreline 

landward, whereas the line of man's development, 

once it was established in the 1930's, has remained 

constant. 

As indicated earlier, coastal erosion and deposition are functions of three interrelated factors: the 

amount and kind of sediment within a coastal area, the 

power of the erosional forces, and the stability of sea 

level. The shoreline recedes when the forces of erosion 

exceed the amount of sediment supplied to the system. 

The greater the deficiency of sand or the higher the 

wave force, the more rapid the rate of erosion. Any 

one of these three factors can vary through time and 

change the balance. It should be stressed that beach 

erosion is a natural process and becomes a serious 

problem, or hazard, only when man's structures are in 

the path of shoreline recession. As shown by maps and 

aerial photographs, the shoreline of the Outer Banks 
30 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA 

Figure 47. The last remains of the large barrier dunes on Pea Island. Shoreline recession is eroding the dunes. 

(Source: R. Dolan.) 

has been moving toward the mainland at the rate of 3 

to 5 feet per year for more than 100 years (Hayden, 

Dolan, and Ross, 1979). 

Despite the well-known, long-term trend of 

barrier island migration, the effects of periodic storms 

(fig. 48), and repeated warnings from the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the Department of the Interior, and the U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers, many coastal zone planners and developers 

seem to have presumed that the beaches and barrier 

islands are stable or that they can be engineered to 

remain stable. This attitude is due to the lack of 

detailed information available to the planners, land 

developers, and the general public and to the difficulty 

and expense of collecting accurate data on shoreline 

changes and storm overwash. 

Analysis of historical changes in a shoreline and 

overwash zone requires repeated sampling in space 

and time. Although this information can be obtained 

from ground surveys, maps, and charts, our research 

leads us to believe that repetitive aerial photography is 

the only reliable source for cost-effective, high-resolution, regional scale analysis of shoreline dynamics 

along the Outer Banks. (See also Knowles, 

Langfelder, and McDonald, 1973; Langfelder, 

Stafford, and Amein, 1968.) Consequently, a 

common-scale mapping system has been used, 

developed by Dolan, Hayden, and Heywood ( 1978) to 

provide a uniform data base for both intrabarrier and 

interbarrier island comparisons. 

The common-scale mapping system is used to 

produce and analyze data on shoreline and overwash 

penetration changes and rates of change at 330-foot 

intervals along the Outer Banks of North Carolina. 

These data span more than 15 years for 1 00 percent of 

the study area, more than 25 years for 91 percent of the 

area, and more than 30 years for 53 percent (Dolan, 

Hayden, and Heywood, 1978). 

Figure 48. Pattern of storm-surge penetration for the 

March 7, 1962, storm at Nags Head. (Source: R. Dolan.) 
SHORELINE PROCESSES: EROSION AND OVERWASH 31 

The common-scale data base is used primarily 

to predict future positions of the shoreline and the 

landward limits of overwash damage zones on the 

assumption that recent history is the key to the future. 

The data required for these calculations are the mean 

rates of change of the shoreline and overwash line and 

the standard deviations of both rates. 

The landward limit of the shoreline at some time 

in the future can be predicted on a probabilistic basis 

using the rate-of-change data and standard deviations. 

At a 50-percent probability level, the change in the 

position is a product of the rate of shoreline change 

times the defined interval of time. Shoreline positions 

at other probability levels also may be calculated by 

using appropriate fractions of the standard deviation of 

the rate of change. Details of these calculations are 

given by Dolan, Hayden, and Heywood (1978). A 

similar procedure is given for probabilistic estimates 

of the change in the position of the landward limit of 

overwash penetration at defined times in the future. 

These projections assume that the trends of the past 30 

to 40 years will continue essentially unaltered. 

Using this approach, the hazards of erosion 

and the danger of destructive overwash for several 

barrier islands have been examined; for example, 

barring anthropogenic activities or alterations, the 

probability is 1 in 2 that the shoreline of Nags Head 

will be 300 feet landward of its current position by the 

year 2010. Using a probability of 1 in 7, the estimate 

increases to 580 feet. The landward limit of overwash 

penetration for the same period is estimated at 265 and 

550 feet, using the 1-in-2 and 1-in-7 probability levels, 

respectively. Clearly, overwash damage increases 

proportionally with the magnitude of shoreline 

recession or erosion. One hazard is, therefore, a 

function of the other-a problem for anyone trying to 

predict the risks of living on a barrier island. 

Shoreline Erosion and the Lost Colony 

Sir Walter Raleigh's first English colony in 

America was established in 1585 on the Outer Banks 

on the northern end of Roanoke Island, North Carolina 

(fig. 49). The "Cittie of Ralegh in Virginia" was, 

however, left to its own resources in 1587 when John 

White, the colony's governor, returned to England for 

supplies. Because England was on the verge of war 

with Spain at this time, suitable ships could not be 

spared for the relief of the colony. When White finally 

returned in the summer of 1590, he found the colonists 

had disappeared but had left behind the remains of a 

crude fortlike settlement and, carved on a tree or post, 

the word "Croatoan." The fate of the Lost Colony 

remains a mystery to this day (Harrington, 1962). 

Although the location of a fort (Fort Raleigh), 

which was built before the return of John White, has 

been verified and well documented, neither research 

through old records nor archaeological fieldwork has 

established the actual location of the settlement. Early 

records reveal that the site was almost certainly near 

Fort Raleigh 

PAMLICO SOUND 00° ~= o 

,{1 

t 

N 

I 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

0 1 2 3 4 5 MILES 

Figure 49. Location of Roanoke Island and Fort Raleigh. 
32 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA 

the fort and close to the shore of Roanoke Island. 

Archaeologists believe that it would be reasonable to 

accept any evidence found in a strip approximately 

one-quarter of a mile wide along the northern shore of 

Roanoke Island (Harrington, 1962). One of the 

problems that archaeologists generally have ignored, 

however, is that the shoreline of northern Roanoke 

Island has not remained stable during the almost 400-

year period since the settlement was established. 

Roanoke Island is part of the Parnlico Terrace 

(Pleistocene), and, at one time, it may have been an 

interfl.uve (situated between two rivers). The southern 

end of the island lies only slightly above sea level, and 

the northern end has a well-developed, 8- to 10-foot 

bluff with a Pleistocene soil horizon and postglacial 

dune sands resting on the terrace surface. Separating 

the Pleistocene layer from the postglacial is a thin 

layer of charcoal, the remnant of a forest fire that 

swept the northern end of the island at some unknown 

earlier date. 

Maps and charts dating from the mid-1800's 

and those prepared by the U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers and the Coast and Geodetic Survey were 

used to establish historic trends of shoreline change of 

Roanoke Island. Aerial photographs, dated 1943, 

1963, and 1970, coupled with field measurements over 

the past decade, were used to determine more recent 

trends. Although charts and maps of Roanoke Island 

date from the 1500's, the earliest ones were too small 

in scale or not sufficiently accurate to be of use. 

For the northern part of Roanoke Island, all 

areas showed varying amounts of shoreline erosion for 

the 119-year period, 1851 to 1970. The 1851, 1903, 

and 1970 shorelines and our estimated 1585 shoreline 

are shown in figure 50A. The only interruption of the 

natural erosional patterns occurred when a break-water 

and groin field were built along the northeast shore in 

the 1950's. 

Several striking shoreline changes also are 

shown in figure 50A. Etheridge Point, for example, 

completely disappeared during the last century. 

Measurements taken from these figures show that 

Roanoke Island lost 928 feet between 1851 and 1970. 

Of this amount, 770 feet of shoreline eroded between 

1851 and 1903. The remaining 158 feet has been lost 

since 1903. Between 1903 and 1950, the tip of the spit 

on the northeastern end of Roanoke Island migrated 

2,500 feet southeast, a rate of over 50 feet per year. 

The spit does not appear on the 1851 map and, thus, 

was formed sometime after that date. 

Recent trends in shoreline change were 

determined for the period 1950 to 1970. Several 

characteristic changes, shown in figure SOB, include 

the following: (1) The northern shoreline west of the 

fort, where groins were installed to curtail erosion, 

accreted about 30 feet, (2) the area east of the fort, not 

protected by groins, receded about 80 feet, or approximately 4 feet per year, (3) the northwestern shore, 

from U.S. 64 to Northwest Point, showed the most 

erosion for the 20-year period-a loss of roughly 

150 feet or about 7.5 feet per year. 

Land areas facing large fetches (open water), as 

well as facing directions of strong winds (northwest 

for coastal North Carolina), have higher erosion rates. 

Northern Roanoke Island is alined with large fetches 

to the north from approximately 270° to 90° and, thus, 

the northern part of the island is subject to destructive 

storm waves and surges from northeasters (fig. 49). 

A 

8 

\ 

1585 --

1851 ----- 1903 .. .. ... ... . . 

1970 ---

Figure SO. Area near Fort Raleigh. A, Historical shorelines for 

the northern end of Roanoke Island. B, Erosion for selected 

locations. The actual rates since 1851 are given in feet; the 

smaller numbers show losses from 1950 to 1970. 

(Source: R. Dolan.) 
SHORELINE ENGINEERING 33 

This situation constitutes a double vulnerability not 

found elsewhere along the Outer Banks and explains 

the high degree of erosion on northern Roanoke 

Island. 

If the trend in the erosion rate for northern 

Roanoke Island over the last 120 years reflects the 

general trend since the "Cittie of Ralegh" was 

established almost 400 years ago, it is not surprising 

that evidence of the settlement site has not been 

discovered (fig. 50A). Projected over the nearly 400-

year period, the present coast from Northwest Point to 

U.S. 64 probably has receded more than 2,000 feet. 

The northeast shoreline (excluding Etheridge Point) 

from U.S. 64 to the Airport Road has receded an 

average of approximately 1,300 feet (fig. SOB). Thus 

shoreline recession along the entire length of northern 

Roanoke Island in the postsettlement period would 

have been over one-quarter of a mile in the very area 

that archaeologists believe was most likely the settlement location. Whether the erosion of the shoreline 

over the first 276 years after settlement equaled that of 

the last 120 years is, of course, speculative, but no 

evidence exists to suggest a significant change in the 

physical processes during this period. Similar rates of 

erosion have been established for most of the shoreline 

between Cape Lookout and Cape Henry (Dolan and 

others, 1979). 

The mystery of the Lost Colony remains 

unsolved, and perhaps no one will ever discover the 

meaning of "Croatoan." An explanation for the 

inability of archaeologists to locate the settlement can, 

however, be offered. If the shoreline has receded 

continuously over the last four centuries, as evidence 

indicates, the settlement site may now be in Roanoke 

Sound, and many artifacts may be lost in the waters 

adjacent to the present shoreline. 

SHORELINE ENGINEERING 

Interfering with the littoral transport of sediment 

to provide a more stable landscape on barrier islands 

profoundly affects geological and ecological 

processes. If man artificially creates dunes that inhibit 

overwash and collect windblown sand, for example, 

then he alters overwash channels and vegetation 

communities and interferes with the landward 

migration of the islands. If groins and jetties are 

constructed to inhibit the longshore currents, the 

shoreline on one side of the groin artificially accretes 

while the shore on the other side erodes. Furthermore, 

when roads, parking lots, and campgrounds are 

constructed, sediment processes are altered, and 

freshwater runoff, plant communities, and animal 

habitats are changed. 

As previously discussed, barrier islands recede 

when the amount of erosion exceeds the amount of 

sediment supplied to the beach energy system. The 

greater the deficiency of sediment or the higher the 

wave forces, the more rapid the rate of erosion. Along 

the mid-Atlantic coast, wave energy ranges from 

modest to high, sediment budget is primarily on the 

deficit side, and sea level continues to rise relative to 

the shoreline. Unfortunately, all these factors 

contribute to erosion. 

Shoreline protection schemes can be 

summarized under three categories designed to inhibit 

direct attack by waves, such as seawalls, bulkheads, 

and revetments, inhibit currents that transport sand, 

such as jetties and groins, and artificially nourish 

beaches (U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Research 

Center, 1973). 

Seawalls 

Seawalls are expensive and only suitable when 

all other means of protection are impractical. In 

principle, the seawall is designed to absorb and reflect 

wave energy and to elevate the problem area above the 

high water line. Unfortunately, seawalls, bulkheads, 

and revetments do not prevent the loss of sand in front 

of the structures. In fact, seawalls commonly 

accelerate the loss of sand as the wall deflects the 

wave forces downward onto the beach deposits. 

Jetties and Groins 

Jetties and groins are obstructions placed in the 

path of longshore currents to trap littoral drift (fig. 51). 

These structures work only if ( 1) the littoral drift 

sediment is of significant volume, (2) the material is at 

least sand sized, and (3) the land down the beach from 

the groin is considered to be expendable. The reason 

for the last is that groins and jetties trap sand, and the 

sand gained at one place must be lost at another. 

Nourishment often is needed to fill or refill the groin 

or jetty compartments as sand is lost. 
34 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA 

Figure 51. Cape Hatteras. A, Groins trap sand that normally 

moves along the shoreline, 1971, and B, Beach nourishment, 

1974. (Source: R. Dolan.) 

Beach Nourishment 

For more than a century, coastal structures 

(jetties, groins, and seawalls) have been built in the 

inshore zone to trap sand and to protect beaches. In 

general, these structures collectively have aggravated 

problems rather than solved them. The disadvantages 

span a wide range of physical problems. On the other 

hand, artificial beach nourishment (fig. 51B) has long 

been considered the most desirable method of protection because (l) placement of sand on a beach does 

not alter the suitability of the system for recreation, 

(2) nourishment cannot adversely affect areas beyond 

the problem area, and (3) if the design fails, the effects 

of the "structure" are soon dissipated. 

Perhaps the greatest disadvantage of artificial 

nourishment is that great quantities of sand of suitable 

quality (type and size) are not readily available. In the 

past, sand was dredged from sounds and bays immediately inland from the beach or transported from inland 

sources. Because of the recent concern about estuarine 

ecology, however, and because materials dredged 

from sounds and bays are generally too fine to be 

effective in beach nourishment, estuarine and bay 

sources have become Jess desirable and are no longer 

readily available. The only future source of large 

quantities of sand for nourishment of the Outer Banks 

appears to be offshore areas, such as Diamond Shoals 

and coastal inlets. 

Inlet Stabilization 

Since its formation in 1846, Oregon Inlet has 

migrated south because of accretion on its north bank 

(Bodie Island) and erosion on the south bank (Pea 

Island). The rate of movement has averaged 100 feet 

per year for 140 years (Dolan and Glassen, 1972). This 

process of accretion and erosion has caused many 

problems for the engineers attempting to maintain 

navigational channels through the inlet. The U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers has found it necessary to 

dredge the channel every year. 

Modifications of the inlet have been proposed 

by the Corps of Engineers to stabilize the banks, to 

increase the depth of the navigational channel, and to 

provide convenient access to a newly developed 

seafood processing industry at Wanchese on nearby 

Roanoke Island. The plan calls for construction of two 

rock jetties, each 1.5 miles long, on either side of the 

inlet (fig. 52). The estimated cost for the project is 

about $80 million (1980 dollars). The project would 

require several years to complete. Although wide 

public support exists locally for the jetty project, 

environmental scientists and the National Park Service 

have serious reservations about its potential adverse 

environmental impact. 

Economics of Stabilization 

Any form of beach restoration, including artificial nourishment, is expensive. The cost per cubic yard 

of sand depends on the source of the material and the 

method and distance of its transport. This cost can 
SHORELINE ENGINEERING 35 

0 5,000 FEET 

Figure 52. Oregon Inlet. A, The inlet, and B, The plan to jetty it. (Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.) 

range from about $3.00 per cubic yard for sand 

pumped by dredge over a short distance to as much as 

$9.00 per cubic yard for truck-hauled sand (1980 

dollars). 

The magnitude of the economic problem associated with erosion along the Outer Banks can be visualized by comparing the erosion rates and sand 

requirements to reach an equilibrium. The average 

shoreline loss for the period from 1950 to 1979 was 

about 150 feet (Dolan, Hayden, and Felder, 1979). 

Using a rule-of-thumb estimate that 2 cubic yards of 

sand are lost for every 1 foot of erosion per 1 foot of 

beach, the 30 miles of developed shoreline (over 

150,000 feet) with 150 feet of erosion and 2 cubic 

yards equals about 45 million cubic yards of sand. 

Even this amount would be inadequate to reestablish 

the 1950 shoreline. Additional material also would be 

required yearly to maintain the beach in a stable 

position. 

The nourishment method of the future will 

involve the inexpensive transfer of large quantities of 

sand from offshore sources directly into the inshore 

bar-trough system, which is adjacent to the beach 

(fig. 53). This method will eliminate the costly step of 

placing the material directly on the beach. Sand added 

to a beach is redeposited within the bar-trough system 
36 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA 

Figure 53. The concept of transferring sand from offshore shoals 

to the inshore zone near Cape Hatteras. (Source: R. Dolan.) 

within a short period of time anyway. This method of 

sand transfer requires a new concept in hopper-dredge 

design, and one now is being developed by the Corps 

of Engineers. The equipment is capable of working in 

shallow water (12 feet or less). 

Over the past two decades, tens of millions of 

dollars from private and public funds have been 

. invested in attempts to stabilize and protect property 

on the beach along the mid-Atlantic coast. The 

methods available to "correct" erosion problems are 

limited. The best method, beach nourishment, clearly 

has serious economic drawbacks. In 1972, the Corps 

of Engineers completed a study that estimated the cost 

of restoring the average 50-foot beachfront lot along 

the Outer Banks at about $20,000, with an additional 

$1,000 to $2,000 per year required to maintain 

stability. Investments this large obviously restrict 

beach erosion control projects to areas where erosion 

has implications of national significance (Dolan and 

others, 1973). 

MAN'S IMPACT ON THE 

OUTER BANKS 

No accurate records have survived that describe 

the conditions along the North Carolina Outer Banks 

when European explorers arrived. The earliest known 

observations date from the late 18th century. By this 

time, the islands had been settled for at least 100 years, 

and large numbers of cattle, sheep, horses, and hogs 

had been introduced (Dunbar, 1958). For these 

reasons, some uncertainty exists about the extent of 

vegetation on the islands before the arrival of the 

English settlers (Cobb, 1903). Cobb suggested that the 

banks originally were covered by extensive vegetation 

and that heavy grazing and wood cutting by the early 

settlers partially denuded the barrier islands of their 

grasses and trees and created a desolate, unnatural 

condition. 

Men and domesticated animals undoubtedly 

have affected the vegetation of the Outer Banks 

(Godfrey, 1972b). The observations of several investigators indicate, however, that vegetation on the islands 

always has been sparse. The regular occurrence of 

overwash and flood tides precludes the establishment 

of permanent forests, except at a few high dune areas, 

such as Buxton. 

One way to visualize the original condition of 

the Outer Banks is to examine a typical barrier island 

such as present-day Core Banks (Brown, 1959). The 

typical cross section of a natural barrier island, in 

contrast to one that has been stabilized, presented in 

figure 54, shows several characteristic features. Storm 

waves and tides have carried sand and shells from the 

beach face to form a broad berm that slopes gently 

toward the interior of the island (Godfrey, 1972c). The 

width of this zone ranges from 325 to 650 feet 

depending on the magnitude and frequency of storms. 

This wide, bare berm serves as a buffer zone in which 

the wave energy of a moderate storm can be 

dissipated. Small dunes form on the berm between 

storms (fig. 55). 
MAN'S IMPACT ON THE OUTER BANKS 37 

A 

NATURAL BARRIER ISLAND 

\._ 

,_1 'y-

..y 

v 

B 

STABILIZED BARRIER ISLAND 

rf19rsn 

911 

\._ ~o"'' 

,_1 'y-

'y- --1' 

..y -.{ 

v 

Figure 54. Idealized profiles of A, natural versus B, stabilized barrier islands. (Source: R. Dolan.) 

Behind the wide berm is a zone of low, irregular 

dunes broken by overwash fans (fig. 56). Storm tides 

carry sand into the interior of the island through the 

depressions between dunes. The dunes form as sand 

accumulates around cordgrass (Spartina patens) and 

sea oats (Uniola paniculata). Both grasses grow 

upward as the dunes increase in height (Godfrey, 

1972a). Sea oats are better dune builders, but 

cordgrass is more common on Core Banks. Sea oats 

grow vigorously when the plants receive fresh sand 

and salt spray, their main source of nutrients 

(Woodhouse, Seneca, and Cooper, 1968). 

Behind the dunes at Core Banks, storms of the 

last 20 years have left a series of flat overwash terraces 

(Godfrey, 1970). The highest terraces are the areas 

which have been overwashed most frequently. The 

distribution of plants found on these flats depends on 

the elevation of each terrace above sea level. 

In the past, spit fonnation, beach progradation, 

and inlet closure have left a series of relic dune 

systems scattered along the Outer Banks. Where these 

dunes are far enough back from the sea to be protected 

from salt spray, they have been stabilized by maritime 

woodlands dominated by pine and oak forests 

(Oosting and Billings, 1942; Oosting, 1945). Typical 

maritime forests can be found on Shackleford Banks, 

scattered on Core Banks, and in the Cape Hatteras 

region, including Ocracoke Village, Buxton, Avon, 

and Nags Head. These forests probably were never 

continuous along the barrier islands. 

The broad salt marshes that border the sound 

side of Core Banks form two basic patterns. The first 

is typically a band of marsh grass, 100 to 160 feet 

wide, that parallels the dune and grassland zones 

between the spring high tide mark and normal low 

tide. Smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) 

dominates the lower zone. This band of marsh 

develops on overwash terraces within reach of the 

tides. The most luxurious stands of marsh grass are 

now where overwash deposits fill part of the sound. 

The second salt marsh pattern is on the complex 

of small islands immediately behind the main barrier 

island. There grasses develop on old tidal deltas left by 

former inlets (Fisher, 1962). Sometimes overwash fills 

in the sound, joining the marsh islands to the main 

barrier island. The islands have the same plant zones 

as the fringing marshes, except that black needlerush 

(Juncus roemerianus) may replace the cordgrasses in 

areas not regularly flooded by tides. 
38 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA 

Figure 55. The history of shoreline stabilization at Coquina 

Beach on Bodie Island. A, The shore zone in 1955 before the 

National Park Service stabilized the active sand zone. B, The 

large comfort station soon after its completion in 1959. C, The 

same structure just before it was destroyed by storm surge in 

1976. (Source: National Park Service.) 

A 

Figure 56. Overwashfans north of Cape Hatteras, 1972. (Source: National Park Service.) 

, 
MAN'S IMPACT ON THE OUTER BANKS 39 

The frequency of severe storms along coastal 

North Carolina and their accompanying overwash 

precluded a permanent road network until the 1930's. 

At that time, it was decided to construct a protective 

dune system between the proposed road and the beach. 

Beginning in 1936, the Civilian Conservation Corps 

and the Work Projects Administration, under the 

direction of the National Park Service, erected almost 

3.3 million feet of sand fencing to create a continuous 

barrier dune along the Outer Banks (fig. 57)-

including Hatteras, Pea, and Bodie Islands (Stratton 

and Hollowell, 1940). 

Figure 57. Sand f encing on Ocracoke Island. (Source: National 

Park Service.) 

Most construction took place in the zone 

comprising the original low beach dunes and a strip 

100 to 300 feet wide behind the foredune (fig. 54A). 

The sand that collected around the fencing was 

stabilized further with approximately 2.4 million trees 

and shrubs and enough grass to protect 3,254 acres. 

The National Park Service resumed the effort in dune 

construction in the late 1950's, and an almost continuous mass of vegetation from south Nags Head to the 

southern tip of Ocracoke Island has resulted. The most 

successful vegetation is American beach grass 

(Ammophila breviligulata) and, to a lesser extent, sea 

oats (Woodhouse and Hanes, 1966). 

Thirty years of artificial dune stabilization has 

altered greatly the ecology and geology of the area 

around Cape Hatteras (fig. 58). A comparison of a 

cross section of Hatteras Island, representing the 

altered condition, shows how stabilization has 

changed the beach, dune, and marsh morphology and 

established new plant communities (fig. 54B). 

CAPE HENRY 

Kitty Hawk 

Bodie Island 

Nags Head 

Hatteras 

Island 

CAPE 

HATIERAS 

Figure 58. The location of stabilized parts of the North Carolina 

Outer Banks. 

Viewed from the air, the most striking difference between the natural and altered barrier islands, 

other than the artificial barrier dune system, is a 

marked difference in beach widths (fig. 59). The 

unaltered islands have beaches 400 to 650 feet wide, 

averaging about 500 feet. On many stretches of the 

Hatteras Island beach, which was altered 30 years 

ago, the shore zone has receded to a width of 100 feet 
40 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA 

or less. Ocracoke Island, which was altered 10 to 

15 years ago, has intermediate-width beaches ranging 

from 160 to 325 feet and averaging 250 feet. 

Figure 59. The difference in beach widths can be seen from 

these two photographs. A, Hatteras Island (stabilized), and 

B, Core Banks (unstabilized). (Source: R. Dolan.) 

Few plants can tolerate the extreme conditions 

near a beach subject to high wave action. The effect of 

salt spray and occasional flooding on dune vegetation 

have been well documented (Boyce, 1954). One major 

difference between natural and stabilized barrier 

islands is the role played by the manmade dune in 

altering the normal vegetation sequence. As shown in 

figure 54, the dune and berm profiles of the two types 

of beach differ strikingly. 

The stabilized dune line, as high as 30 feet in 

places, stops overwash and salt spray and enables 

plants, which usually grow farther away from the 

natural beach, to survive on its back slope. Among the 

plants progressing seaward because of dune stabilization are shrub communities that can form impenetrable 

thickets 10 to 15 feet high. This rapid expansion of 

shrubs can be seen best on Bodie Island (figs. 60, 61). 

Before the dunes were stabilized, a few shrubs grew in 

the drifting sand around Bodie Island Lighthouse near 

Oregon Inlet. By 1979, this same area was covered 

with a dense growth of shrubs, as was the entire center 

of the island. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and 

the National Park Service have attempted to check the 

spread of shrubs with controlled fires (Dolan, 1972). 

Figure 60. Pattern of shrub growth on Bodie Island. This area was 

mostly unvegetated sand flats before 1930. (Source: R. Dolan.) 

Figure 61. Shrub growth along Highway 12 on Bodie Island. 

(Source: R. Dolan.) 
MAN'S IMPACT ON THE OUTER BANKS 41 

The shrubs and other out-of-place species are 

not well adapted to flooding, burial from overwash, or 

salt spray. When the dunes are breached during a 

storm, these plants are killed. It is unknown how 

rapidly this vegetation will recover. On a natural 

barrier island, however, the indigenous plants that 

grow close to the sea can renew themselves within one 

growing season after an overwash. 

Interference with the overwash processes and 

inlet dynamics cannot help but decrease the productivity of the sounds. In the past, new marsh areas have 

grown up on sand deposited in the sounds through 

temporary inlets, and marsh grasses have invaded the 

overwash sediment carried across the islands. Marshes 

can grow vertically by organic accumulation, but they 

cannot expand into the sound once the supply of 

overwash sand, the basis for gradual lateral growth, 

has been cut off. Instead, the marshes tend to have 

scarped and eroding edges. In fact, all the land behind 

the artificial dune accumulates organic matter very 

slowly, so that the land becomes lower with respect to 

the rising sea level once overwash deposition is 

stopped. 

Another problem associated with dune stabilization in the Outer Banks is flooding that occurs when 

northeast storms pile the water of Parnlico Sound 

against the barrier islands. In the past, these surge 

waters simply flowed between the dunes and into the 

ocean. Now the water cannot drain off readily, and 

much of the land behind the stabilized dunes is 

submerged periodically. Hurricane winds from the 

southeast force elevated waters from the ocean into the 

sounds. When the storm moves off the coast, the 

winds shift to the northwest, and water piles up from 

the soundside. Wherever large barrier dunes are 

present, a hurricane causes severe beach erosion on the 

ocean side and floods on the sound side. 

Further compounding the problem has been the 

false impression of safety and stability created by the 

barrier dune. Numerous structures- including motels, 

restaurants, beach cottages, park facilities, and the 

U.S. Naval Station at Cape Hatteras-have been built 

immediately behind the barrier dunes with the belief 

that the dunes would provide permanent protection 

from encroachment by the sea. Instead, the beach has 

narrowed steadily, and the barrier dunes subsequently 

have eroded away, leaving these structures with little 

protection against extreme storms (fig. 62). 

The opening and closing of inlets and oceanic 

overwash create serious problems in maintaining a 

permanent highway down the center of the Outer 

Banks. In the past, the highways have been cleared 

when they were covered with sand deposited by 

overwash and have been rerouted several times when 

erosion destroyed or threatened the dunes. Bridges 

have been abandoned, and roads have been built where 

inlets have closed (fig. 63). 

Figure 62. House on Bodie Island which was later moved back from the shoreline in 1980 with funds provided by the Federal 

Flood Insurance Program. (Source: R. Dolan.) 
42 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA 

Figure 63. New inlet on Pea Island. The inlet was cut through the 

island in the 1930's but was sealed by natural processes before the 

bridge was used. (Source: R. Dolan.) 

Although the present stabilized system is 

undependable, endangered, and expensive to maintain, 

alternatives are even more expensive and somewhat 

questionable in terms of application and economics. 

Attempts have been made to maintain the beaches by 

constructing groins or by dredging sediments and 

pumping them onto the beach. The cost of groin fields 

commonly runs into millions of dollars. Beach 

nourishment may cost $2 million to $5 million a mile, 

and, in most cases, they are only temporary measures. 

Another suggested measure is a reinforced dune 

system at critical sites by forming seawalls of sand 

bags (fig. 64) and filling the center with loose sand. 

Construction of structures such as this ignores the 

basic fact that once the beach is gone, nothing will 

stop heavy surf for long. A better solution, and clearly 

the more desirable from ecological and geological 

standpoints, would be to construct an elevated 

highway on the sound side of the islands. This solution 

would allow natural processes to proceed with little 

resulting damage, although the cost may be prohibitive. 

Cape Hatteras has been urbanized to the point 

where the present highway must be maintained 

(National Park Service, 1978). As the beach system 

continues to narrow, however, new instances of 

overwash, erosion of the artificial batTier dunes, and 

inlet formation can be forecast. Many structures that 

have been built near the beach will be lost, and the 

highway will require relocation in several places 

within a few years. The situation on Cape Lookout 

however is entirely different. The area from 

Portsmouth Island to Cape Lookout and west along 

Figure 64. Sandbag seawall which was constructed at the base 

of the Cape Hatteras lighthouse. This structure was destroyed by 

wave action soon afier it was completed. (Source: R. Dolan.) 

Shackleford Banks is undeveloped. No highways, 

utilities, or permanent settlements are there to protect. 

As early as 1938, National Park Service 

geologists asserted that the low, open nature of the 

Outer Banks was due to natural processes at work, not 

to deforestation. Between 1970 and 1973, Dolan and 

Godfrey presented their findings to the National Park 

Service contending that barrier islands were intrinsically unstable and that their natural response to stress 

was change, by either accretion or erosion (Dolan, 

Godfrey, and Odum, 1973). They advocated the 

termination of large-scale dune stabilization programs 

and held that such programs led to major modifications of the system and result in severe adjustments in 

geological and ecological processes (Dolan, 1973). 

The National Park Service eventually adopted 

the philosophy of letting nature take its course (Behn 

and Clark, 1979). Too much money had been 

expended over the years with too few positive results. 

Upon completion of a beach nourishment project at 

Buxton in 1973, the Park Service outlined the new 

dune stabilization policy 

"Following damaging storms, the dunes [will] 

not be artificially rebuilt, but in extensive barren areas 

a revegetation program [will] be initiated. Inlets which 

opened during storms [will] be permitted to migrate 

and close naturally. This alternative envisions that at 

some time in the future it may be impractical to 

maintain a continuous road through the seashore." 
HAZARDS AND LAND USE 43 

The problem of beach erosion along the Outer 

Banks is rooted not so much in the patterns of land use 

introduced by the early settlers as much as in the rapid 

development which has occurred over the past four 

decades. During this period, the Outer Banks have 

been transformed from an area of open space and 

isolated fishing villages into a crowded resort area that 

has a summer population of close to 100,000 people 

per day. The result has been a rapid alteration of the 

natural environment. 

HAZARDS AND LAND USE 

Two important issues to consider in barrier 

island management are the hazards associated with 

erosion and with storm surge. Because of the 

continuing relative rise in sea level and the frequent 

impact of storm waves and surges, barrier islands are 

moving toward the mainland. The rate of movement 

for the Outer Banks over the last four decades has 

averaged between 3 to 5 feet per year. There is nothing 

to indicate that the natural processes that have been 

forcing barrier islands toward the mainland for many 

decades will soon change. On the basis of data on 20 

to 40 years of shoreline change along the islands, if 

historical trends continue, a forecast of what the Outer 

Banks may look like in another 25 years can be made 

(Dolan, Hayden, and Heywood, 1978b ). This forecast 

is based on the assumption that man will make no 

major alterations in the present system. 

The complexity of barrier island dynamics 

precludes simple rule-of-thumb guidelines for land use 

management. Charts and maps that show the degree of 

vulnerability to extreme storms, the probable results of 

a rise in sea level, and the best possible forecasts of 

future conditions on the Outer Banks are presently 

among the most needed information tools. To be 

effective in a land use management program, these 

data would have to be updated continuously through 

systematic monitoring that includes repetitive aerial 

photography and fieldwork. Only through this method 

can nature's long-term dynamic trends be identified 

and the appropriate management decisions be 

implemented. 

Changes in the shoreline at any point (landward 

or seaward) can be measured by the mean rate of 

change (long-term trend) and standard deviation of 

rate of change (periodic fluctuation). The sum of these 

two measures is one of the best indications of hazards 

and vulnerability or stability of the shoreline. The 

graphs in figure 65 are designed to provide rapid 

visual assessment of shoreline stability along the 

Outer Banks (Dolan, Hayden, and Heywood, 1978a). 

Perhaps more important than the absolute magnitude 

of erosion is the capacity to compare relative 

magnitudes of erosion from point to point and area to 

area. The means and standard deviations of shoreline 

rates of change for areas along the Outer Banks are 

given in table 2. As the graphs and table show, rates of 

change are highly variable quantities in space and 

time. 

The following table lists the long-term average 

rates (M) and the standard deviation (SD) of shoreline 

change in meters per year for the Outer Banks barrier 

islands. A negative sign indicates recession, and a 

positive sign, accretion. Ni indicates the number of 

transacts for each island. [Source: R. Dolan.] 

Table 2. Shoreline rate of change statistics 

Island M SD 

Shackleford: Ni = 123 -0.97 2.74 

Core Banks: Ni = 392 -0.22 2.02 

Portsmouth: Ni = 220 -0.96 0.80 

Ocracoke: Ni = 239 +0.59 3.11 

South Hatteras: Ni = 175 +0.37 1.33 

North Hatteras: Ni = 600 -1.94 1.96 

Beach protection and restoration are expensive 

measures that are generally beyond the means of the 

individual property owner. The best solution to beach 

erosion and flooding, therefore, is to plan carefully 

before building or buying beachfront property. Some 

basic factors to consider are the erosional history of 

the property and recent trends of shoreline change for 

the area; the magnitude of wave forces, storm surges, 

and storm frequencies; and the characteristics of the 

specific site in question, such as beach slope, beach 

width, dunes, and general topography. 

An understanding of the relations among beach 

width, beach slope, and potential storm surge is 

needed so that buildings can be constructed with a 

knowledge of the probability of wave damage within a 

given number of years. For a building far inland, for 
44 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA 

-30-20-10 0 10 20 30 0 50 100 150 0 2,500 5,000 

MEAN RATE OF STANDARD MEAN DISTANCE OF STORM 

SHORELINE CHANGE, IN DEVIATION, PENETRATION, IN FEET (SP) 

FEET PER YEAR (SL) IN FEET (SL) 

Figure 65. Data strips which permit rapid visual assessment of horizontal erosion along the Outer Banks. 

example, storm damage may be of little concern. With 

each unit of distance one moves the building toward 

the beach, however, the probability of damage, within 

a given time period, increases (fig. 66). If the building 

is designed for a life expectancy of 15 years, it is poor 

planning to place it in a zone that has a high 

probability of storm-surge damage within 5 years. 

Design adjustments are possible that can change the 

probability; for example, a building fortified with a 

seawall and elevated on pilings above the storm-surge 

level could be constructed in an otherwise undesirable 

location within a storm-surge zone. 

Few standardized guidelines or generalized 

rules of thumb are available for planning and 

managing land use on barrier islands and, likewise, for 

developing beach property. Every coastal site is 

different. Many costly failures have resulted when a 

workable solution for one beach was tried on another. 

Therefore, planning and developing each site should 

be treated as a unique problem having unique 

appropriate planning and design solutions (Pilkey, 

Neal, and Pilkey, 1978). 

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 

This report has presented an overview of the 

geological history of the Outer Banks of North 

Carolina-how the islands formed, how they have 

changed, and why they will continue to change in the 

future. It has included an assessment of man's activities which have occurred on the Outer Banks since the 

time of the first English settlements. The purpose has 

been to describe the natural processes and to point out 

that some of these processes result in environmental 

hazards. Data also have been presented on rates of 

shoreline change and storm overwash that can be used 

to estimate future positions of these dynamic 

components of the barrier island system. 

Natural processes provide many clear indications of areas that are especially hazardous to develop. 

Data on erosion and overwash penetration rates, 

coupled with land use information, can provide a basis 

for guiding future development away from the more 

hazardous areas and into locations of greater relative 

safety. Similarly, such data can be used effectively to 

evaluate various hazard mitigation techniques and to 
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 45 

~ .. .:!"~· 

. '\ - . ,. 

Figure 66. Potential property losses along the Atlantic Coast (over $100 million) if another March 7, 1962, storm were to occur. 

(Source: A. Brown.) 

choose those which offer the most protection with the 

fewest negative impacts. 

The natural configuration of barrier island 

coastlines, as determined by coastal processes, is not a 

straight line but is rather sinuously curved and bulged. 

Some homes on the Outer Banks, constructed in the 

1950's, are still here today, having weathered 

hundreds of storms, including the destructive 1962 

Ash Wednesday northeaster. Other houses nearby 

have disappeared. The vulnerability of some places 

along the coast is not simply a matter of chance. There 

are patterns to the hazards. Research suggests that 

even for individual sites along the barrier islands, 

natural processes result in shoreline forms that are 

systematic or recurring (Dolan and Hayden, 1980). 

If hazard zones along the barrier islands are 

distributed systematically, then they should be predictable. The problem is that detailed historical information for establishing past patterns is not always 

available. Evidence suggests, however, that sections of 

sedimentary coasts which have experienced storm 

damage and serious erosion in the past are likely to 

experience more of the same in the future. We believe 

a natural "template of change" exists that is governed 

by the coastal configuration. 

Inhabitants of barrier islands continually face 

the need to assess environmental processes and the 

associated potential for hazardous conditions. Such 

assessments are exceedingly complex. The probability 

of error is great because of the high temporal and 

spatial variance inherent within and among such 

factors as sea-level rise, storm frequency, shoreline 

erosion, and increasing residential density. Clearly, the 

hazard potential of a given location to individual 

storms needs to be gaged. However, precise predictions of when or where storms will occur is not 

possible. This does not mean that general assessments 

of along-the-coast variations in hazard probabilities 

are limited. Research indicates that the occurrence and 

impact of coastal storms differ more in intensity than 

in geography. It is possible that one of the most 

important elements in future hazard research and 

assessment is a concept which has so far been 

explored principally on an intuitive level; that is, that 

storms provide the energy for coastal change and that 

geomorphological characteristics determine how that 

energy is distributed. The quantification of this 

concept may offer significant possibilities for progress 

in the study of coastal hazards. 
46 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA 

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