Studies Related to the 

Charleston, South Carolina, 

Earthquake of 1886 

Neogene and Quaternary 

Lithostratigraphy and Biostratigraphy

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367

Prepared in cooperation with the 

U.S. Nwlear Regulatory Commission
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STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA,

EARTHQUAKE OF 1886-NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY

LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND BIOSTRATIGRAPHY
Biostratigraphy is the essential chronologic 

basis of geologic maps of lithologic units in 

the Coastal Plain of South Carolina and 

elsewhere. Accuracy is achieved through 

the use of several fossil groups. Some of 

the Neogene species in the Charleston area 

are (1) Momipites sp. (pollen, x 1600, early 

Miocene; photograph by N.O. Frederiksen); (2) Trinovantedinium capitatum 

Reid, 1977 (dinocyst, x400, early Miocene; 

photograph by L.E. Edwards); (3) 

Cunearca brasiliana (Lamarck) (pelecypod, xl, late Pleistocene; photograph by 

Lucy McCartan); (4) Paracytheridea altila 

Edwards, 1944 (ostracode, x86, late Pleistocene; photograph by T.M. Cronin); and 

(5) Actinoptychus virginicus (Grunow) 

Andrews (diatom, x600, middle Miocene; 

photograph by G.W. Andrews).

X .- '** *

<wr#
Momipites sp.

Trinovantedinium capitatum

Cunearca brasiliana

Paracytheridea altila

Actinoptychus virginicus
Cliff face cut by a tidal creek at Scanawah Island, S.C., 50 km (31 mi) southwest of Charleston, S.C. The 

lithologic sequence is shelly, muddy, fine-grained quartz sand at the base (shallow-shelf environment, SH); 

quartz sand interbedded with montmorillonitic clay in the middle (lower intertidal environment, LI); and 

fine- to medium-grained quartz sand containing root casts at the top (upper intertidal environment, UI). 

This sequence records the upper part of a transgressive-regressive cycle, the depositional regression, 

which was caused by a rapid influx of sediment. Mollusks and ostracodes present suggest a late Pleistocene 

age for the unit (unit Q2), which extends from about 12 m (40 ft) below sea level to about llm (37 ft) above 

sea level in this area. The photograph was taken by J.P. Owens. Ostracode shown on previous page is from 

this locality.
Studies Related to the 

Charleston, South Carolina, 

Earthquake of 1886 

Neogene and Quaternary 

Lithostratigraphy and Biostratigraphy

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367

Prepared in cooperation with the 

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Neogene and Quaternary surface and shallow-subsurface 

lithostratigraphy and biostratigraphy of parts of the 

middle and outer Coastal Plains of South Carolina and 

southern North Carolina

This volume is published as chapters A G. These chapters are 

not available separately. Chapter titles are listed in the volume 

table of contents

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON: 1990
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

MANUEL LUJAN, Jr., Secretary

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Dallas L. Peck, Director

Any use of trade, product, or firm names in this publication is

for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the

U.S. Government

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Studies related to the Charleston, South Carolina earthquake of 1886 Neogene and Quaternary lithostratigraphy and 

biostratigraphy.

p. cm. (U.S. Geological Survey professional paper ; 1367)

Includes bibliographical references.

Supt.ofDocs.no.: 119.16:1367

1. Paleontology Neogene. 2 Paleontology Quaternary. 3. Paleontology South Carolina Charleston Region. 4. Paleontology, Stratigraphic. 5. Geology, Stratigraphic Neogene. 6. Geology, Stratigraphic Quaternary. 7. GeologySouth Carolina Charleston Region. I. Geological Survey (U.S.) II. Series.

QE7385.S78 1990 560'.!' 780975791 -dc20 89-600161

CIP

For sale by the Books and Open-File Reports Section, U.S. Geological Survey, 

Federal Center, Box 25425, Denver, CO 80225
CONTENTS

[Letters designate the chapters]

Introduction, by Lucy McCartan.

(A) Quaternary stratigraphy in the vicinity of Charleston, South Carolina, and its relationship 

to local seismicity and regional tectonism, by Lucy McCartan, R.E. Weems, and 

E.M. Lemon, Jr.

(B) Calcareous nannofossils from Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits in South Carolina, by 

Laurel M. Bybell.

(C) Evolution of Neogene and Quaternary marine Ostracoda, United States Atlantic Coastal Plain: 

Evolution and speciation in Ostracoda, IV, by Thomas M. Cronin.

(D) Biostratigraphic and paleoenvironmental interpretations from late Pleistocene Ostracoda,

Charleston, South Carolina, by Sharon King Lyon. 

(E) Neogene and Pleistocene dinocysts of the Charleston, South Carolina, region, by

Lucy E. Edwards. 

(F) Mollusks from the Edisto Formation (lower Miocene) of South Carolina, by Lauck W. Ward and

Blake W. Blackwelder. 

(G) A summary of selected stratigraphic occurrences of Neogene and Quaternary invertebrate

faunas and microfloras in the Charleston, South Carolina, area, by R.E. Weems and

Lucy McCartan.

VII
VIII CONTENTS

METRIC CONVERSION FACTORS

For readers who wish to convert measurements from the metric system of units to the inch-pound system of 

units, the conversion factors are listed below:

Multiply metric unit By To obtain inch-pound unit

micrometer (|xm) 0.00003937 inch (in.)

millimeter (mm) .03937 inch (in.)

centimeter (cm) .3937 inch (in.)

meter (m) 3.281 foot (ft)

kilometer (km) .6214 mile (mi)
STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886- 

NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND BIOSTRATIGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION

By LUCY MCCARTAN

This is the third volume in a series of Professional 

Papers describing the results of geologic studies conducted mainly from 1973 through 1984 of the Charleston, 

S.C., earthquake of 1886. Professional Paper 1367 presents in seven chapters interpretations of lithostratigraphic and biostratigraphic data accumulated by the 

U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the U.S. 

Nuclear Regulatory Commission. The two previous Professional Papers in the series contain discussions of 

subsurface stratigraphy and regional and local tectonism 

and seismicity (Rankin, 1977; Gohn, 1983).

The stratigraphic framework of the surface and shallow subsurface of the Charleston area is presented 

briefly in the following discussion as a context for the 

subsequent chapters.

LITHOSTRATIGRAPHIC UNITS

In the Charleston, S.C., area, there are at least 11 

Neogene and Quaternary lithostratigraphic marine units 

(table 1). These units are bounded by unconformities and 

most are fossiliferous. From oldest to youngest, they are 

Edisto Formation, Marks Head Formation, Coosawhatchie Formation, Raysor Formation and Givhans beds, 

Goose Creek Limestone and Bear Bluff Formation, Waccamaw(?) Formation (equivalent to unit Q6 of McCartan 

and others, this volume), Penholoway Formation (unit 

Q5), Ladson Formation (unit Q4; Canepatch Formation), 

Ten Mile Hill beds (unit Q3; Socastee Formation), Wando 

Formation (unit Q2), and Holocene deposits (unit Ql). 

Names of regionally mapped surface units that are used 

widely in the Atlantic Coastal Plain at the time of this 

writing, such as Hawthorn Formation, Yorktown Formation, and Duplin Formation, are omitted from table 1

Manuscript approved for publication August 9, 1988.

but are discussed in the text. Brief lithologic descriptions 

of the units, as well as our sense of the relationships 

among the regional and local units, are given below.

The lithostratigraphic units, shown in detail in McCartan and others (1984), were delineated and dated on the 

basis of textures, sedimentary structures, and mineralogy noted in outcrops and in samples from subsurface 

borings; biostratigraphic data; uranium-disequilibriumseries coral dates; and geomorphology.

EDISTO FORMATION

The Edisto Formation (Sloan, 1908; Ward and others, 

1979; Ward and Blackwelder, this volume) is a soft, 

fine-grained quartz sandstone to quartzose calcarenite. 

It is separated from underlying fine-grained calcarenite 

of the Oligocene age Ashley Formation of the Cooper 

Group either by a bed of phosphate pebbles, which is a 

few centimeters thick, or by a burrowed surface. In the 

Charleston area, the Edisto Formation is a lower Miocene unit known only from a few outcrops, where the unit 

is less than a meter thick, and from subsurface patches, 

where the unit is less than 3 m thick.

MARKS HEAD FORMATION

The Marks Head Formation of early Miocene age 

(Sloan, 1905; Abbott and Huddlestun, 1980) has two 

interbedded lithofacies, fine-grained phosphatic quartz 

sand and cheese-textured clay, both of which have a 

distinctive brownish- to grayish-olive color. The lower 

contact of the unit is marked by a burrowed surface, and 

sparse phosphate pebbles and worn shell fragments 

occur just above the contact. Palygorskite and sepiolite 

are distinctive among the clay minerals. In Georgia, the 

Marks Head is found at the surface, but it is found in
STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

TABLE 1. Correlation and ages of Neogene and Quaternary lithostratigraphic units in the South Carolina Coastal Plain

[ka, kilo-annum (103 years); Ma, Mega-annum (106 years)]

Colquhoun 

(1965, 1974)

South Carolina 

Coastal Plain

Holocene

Silver Bluff

Princess Anne 

Formation

Pamlico 

Formation

Talbot 

Formation

Penholoway 

Formation

Wicomico 

Formation

DuBar (1971), DuBar 

and others (1974) 1

Myrtle Beach, S.C.

Ocean Forest Peat

Socastee Formation

Socastee Formation 

Canepatch Formation

Waccamaw Formation, 

upper part

Waccamaw Formation, 

lower part

This report

Charleston, S.C. (unit)

Holocene deposits (Ql)

Wando Formation3 (Q2)

Ten Mile Hill beds (Q3) 

Ladson Formation (Qr)

Penholoway Formation (Q5)

Waccamaw(?) Formation (Q6)

Bear Bluff Formation, 

Goose Creek Limestone

Givhans beds, 

Raysor Formation

Coosawhatchie Formation

Marks Head Formation

Edisto Formation

Age2

8-0 ka

130-70 ka

240-200 ka 

450^00 ka

1.25? Ma-730 ka

1.67-1.25? Ma

Series

Holocene

Pleistocene

Pliocene

o> 

c o>

o

0

i

S 

S3

^ en

QUATERNARY

NEOGENE

1 Somewhat modified (see McCartan and others, 1982, and table 1 in McCartan and others, this volume).

2 Based on uranium-disequilibrium-series coral age estimates (Szabo, 1985; McCartan and others, 1980, 1982; Cronin and others, 1981) and 14C dates 

(McCartan and others, this volume), magneto stratigraphy (Liddicoat and others, 1981), and calcareous nannofossils (Gartner and others, 1983).

3 Wando Formation (McCartan and others, 1980).

South Carolina only in the subsurface, mainly south and 

east of Charleston. It is as much as 15 m thick in the 

Charleston area.

The Marks Head Formation, as used by Abbott and 

Huddlestun (1980), is here adopted for use by the U.S. 

Geological Survey.

COOSAWHATCHIE FORMATION

In the Beaufort, S.C., area, the Coosawhatchie Formation of middle Miocene age overlies the Marks Head 

Formation. It consists of two parts, a lower sand unit and 

an overlying fine-grained clay unit. The lower quartz 

sand part is several meters thick, is phosphatic in places, 

and rarely is laterally more extensive than the clay 

(Heron and Johnson, 1966). The upper part of the 

Coosawhatchie Formation is as much as 7 m thick near 

Coosawhatchie, S.C., and is composed mainly of montmorillonitic clay and lesser amounts of illite, kaolinite, 

palygorskite, sepiolite, and, rarely, cristobalite. In the 

Charleston area, a sandy unit that may be part of the

formation is present without the overlying clay; it contains dinoflagellates of middle or late Miocene age (L.E. 

Edwards, written commun., 1984).

The informal Coosawhatchie Clay (Heron and others, 

1965), adopted for U.S. Geological Survey usage by 

Abbott and Andrews (1979) as the Coosawhatchie Clay 

Member of the Hawthorn Formation, is here redefined to 

include underlying or laterally detached sand beds of the 

same age in South Carolina and is raised to formational 

status as the Coosawhatchie Formation.

Abbott and Huddlestun (1980) raised the Hawthorn 

Formation of Ball (1892; see also Cooke, 1936) to a group 

consisting of five formations, among them the Marks 

Head Formation, Coosawhatchie Clay, and Edisto Formation. The Hawthorn Formation as now defined in its 

type area consists of a lower to middle Miocene phosphatic dolomite and dolomite-bearing phosphatic clay 

and sand (Scott, 1983, and Scott and MacGill, 1981). 

Because of the paucity of dolomite in beds of similar age 

in South Carolina, the name Hawthorn probably should 

not be used in South Carolina.
INTRODUCTION

YORKTOWN AND DUPLIN FORMATIONS

The most frequently applied names for Pliocene units 

in the Atlantic Coastal Plain are the Yorktown Formation (Clark and Miller, 1906; LeGrand and Brown, 1955; 

Akers, 1972; Hazel, 1971, 1977, 1983) from Virginia to 

North Carolina and the Duplin Formation (Cooke, 1936, 

1945; Akers, 1972; Hazel, 1977) from North Carolina to 

Florida. Blackwelder and Ward (1979) equated the Duplin only with the middle part of the Yorktown (type 

area), proposed substituting the names Yorktown and 

Raysor for Duplin in South Carolina, and suggested that 

the name Duplin be abandoned. Cronin and others (1984) 

correlated the type Duplin (Natural Well, N.C.) with the 

upper part of the Yorktown Formation, and they consider both units to be late Pliocene in age. Both the 

Raysor Formation and the Givhans beds, which are local 

lithic names used in this paper, are correlated faunally to 

parts of the Yorktown Formation.

RAYSOR FORMATION

The Raysor Formation (Cooke, 1936; Blackwelder and 

Ward, 1979) is a bluish- to greenish-gray, shelly, calcareous quartz sand to noncalcareous, micaceous, finegrained sand of Pliocene age. Both aragonite and calcite 

shells are present, but the aragonite is more leached and 

appears chalky. Blackwelder and Ward (1979) equated 

the Raysor Formation with the Givhans beds (our usage) 

and correlated them with the Duplin Formation in North 

Carolina and the middle part of the Yorktown Formation 

in its type area in Virginia.

GIVHANS BEDS

The Givhans beds, an informal unit in this paper 

named from the Pliocene beds exposed just north of 

Givhans Ferry on the east bank of the Edisto River, 

Dorchester County, S.C., are composed of fine- to 

medium-grained quartzose calcarenite. Aragonite is 

absent in these beds, but molds and casts of aragonitic 

mollusk shells are present. The basal contact is below a 1- 

to 2-cm-thick bed of black, rounded phosphate pebbles. 

The unit is up to 7 m thick and is known from only a few 

outcrops and subsurface localities in the Charleston area. 

Although the unit is lithically distinct from the Raysor 

Formation, Blackwelder and Ward (1979) and Cronin 

(this volume) cannot separate this unit temporally from 

the Raysor Formation.

GOOSE CREEK LIMESTONE

The Goose Creek Limestone of Pliocene age (Sloan, 

1908; Weems and others, 1982) is a quartzose, phosphatic, medium- to coarse-grained calcarenite that has 

sparse to abundant, calcitic shells and large, calcitic shell 

fragments. It is pale orange to chalk white in outcrop 

but is blue gray in some subsurface samples. The base of 

the unit has a 2- to 10-cm-thick bed of rounded phosphate 

pebbles, and some beds contain abundant, sand-sized 

phosphate grains. The unit is up to 12 m thick and is 

found as remnant channel fill beneath Quaternary deposits in the Charleston area; a few outcrops are present 

along Goose Creek in Charleston and Berkeley Counties, 

S.C. The oldest known horizons of the Goose Creek are 

possibly slightly older than the oldest known horizons of 

the Bear Bluff (Bybell, this volume), but poor preservation of most fossils in both the Goose Creek Limestone 

and the Bear Bluff Formation precludes firm relative 

stratigraphic placement of these two units at present. 

Mollusks suggest that the Raysor and lower part of the 

Givhans beds are older than the Bear Bluff, Goose 

Creek, and upper part of the Givhans (L.W. Ward, 

written commun., 1985).

BEAR BLUFF FORMATION

The most extensive surficial unit inland from Charleston, between 35 m and 45 m altitude, correlates with the 

Bear Bluff Formation. The unit includes interbedded 

coarse- to fine-grained sand, muddy sand, and minor clay 

beds containing sand-filled burrows. The colors range 

from orange, red, and white at the top to medium gray 

and greenish black at the base. Fossils, present only in 

some places at the base, include a mixture of Eocene to 

Pliocene, open-bay, shallow-shelf taxa. The name is 

extended southward from the type area (DuBar, 1971; 

DuBar and others, 1974) partly on the basis of unpublished data (J.P. Owens, oral commun., 1984).

QUATERNARY UNITS

The six Quaternary lithostratigraphic units discussed 

in this volume (units Q1-Q6) include Holocene deposits 

(table 1) and consist of unconsolidated, well-sorted 

quartz sand, muddy sand, and interbedded sand, mud, 

and shell beds (McCartan and others, this volume). 

Although the lithologies grade into one another, the 

dominant depositional lithofacies have typical lithologies: 

shelf deposits are burrowed, fine- to medium-grained 

sand containing interbedded mud and shells at some 

localities; beach deposits are typically well-sorted, fineto medium-grained sand; backbarrier deposits are mainly 

muddy, fine- to medium-grained sand or interbedded
STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

sand, mud, and sparse wood and shells; fluvial deposits 

are muddy, fine- to coarse-grained sand containing pebbles; and swamp deposits are muck or clean, fine-grained 

sand of Holocene age. The oldest unit (Q6, Waccamaw(?) 

Formation) is found farthest inland and at the highest 

altitude; the youngest unit (Ql, Holocene deposits) is 

present at the coast and along modern swamps and 

rivers.

The Waccamaw(?) Formation (DuBar, 1971; DuBar 

and others, 1974) is a northern South Carolina name 

equivalent to unit Q6 mainly on the basis of stratigraphic 

position. Penholoway Formation as used by Weems and 

Lemon (1984a, b) is equivalent to unit Q5. Canepatch 

Formation and Socastee Formation (DuBar, 1971; 

DuBar and others, 1974), names originally used in northern South Carolina, are correlated with units Q4 and Q3, 

respectively, in the restricted sense of McCartan and 

others (1982). The Ladson Formation of Malde (1959) 

was divided and restricted by Weems and Lemon (1984a, 

b) as follows: the part of Malde's Ladson Formation that 

includes the type section but excludes the Ten Mile Hill 

beds is equivalent to unit Q4, and the Ten Mile Hill beds 

are equivalent to unit Q3. The Wando Formation 

(McCartan and others, 1980) as amended in McCartan 

and others (this volume) is equivalent to unit Q2, and 

Holocene deposits are equivalent to unit Ql.

REFERENCES CITED

Abbott, W.H., and Andrews, G.W., 1979, Middle Miocene marine 

diatoms from the Hawthorn Formation within the Ridgeland 

Trough, South Carolina and Georgia: Micropaleontology, v. 25, p. 

225-271.

Abbott, W.H., and Huddlestun, P.F., 1980, The Miocene of South 

Carolina, in DuBar, J.R., DuBar, S.S., Ward, L.W., and Blackwelder, B.W., Cenozoic biostratigraphy of the Carolina outer 

Coastal Plain, Field Trip 9 in Frey, R.W., ed., Excursions in 

southeastern geology, v. 1 [Guidebook] Geological Society of 

America, 1980 Annual Meeting, Atlanta, Ga.: Falls Church, Va., 

American Geological Institute, p. 208-210.

Akers, W.H., 1972, Planktonic Foraminifera and biostratigraphy of 

some Neogene formations, northern Florida and Atlantic Coastal 

Plain: Tulane Studies in Geology and Paleontology, v. 9, 139 p.

Blackwelder, B.W., and Ward, L.W., 1979, Stratigraphic revision of 

the Pliocene deposits of North and South Carolina: South Carolina 

Geological Survey Geologic Notes, v. 23, p. 33-49.

Clark, W.B., and Miller, B.L., 1906, A brief summary of the geology of 

the Virginia Coastal Plain: Virginia Geological Survey Bulletin 2, 

p. 19.

Colquhoun, D.J., 1965, Ten-ace sediment complexes in central South 

Carolina: Atlantic Coastal Plain Geological Association, 6th Annual 

Field Conference, 1965, Guidebook, 62 p.

 1974, Cyclic surficial stratigraphic units of the middle and lower 

Coastal Plains, central South Carolina, in Oaks, R.Q., Jr., and 

DuBar, J.R., eds., Post-Miocene stratigraphy central and southern Atlantic Coastal Plain: Logan, Utah, Utah State University 

Press, p. 179-190.

Cooke, C.W., 1936, Geology of the Coastal Plain of South Carolina: 

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 867, 196 p.

 1945, Geology of Florida: Florida Geological Survey Bulletin 29, 

p. 180-195.

Cronin, T.M., Bybell, L.M., Poore, R.Z., Blackwelder, B.W., Liddicoat, J.C., and Hazel, J.E., 1984, Age and correlation of emerged 

Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits, U.S. Atlantic Coastal Plain: 

Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 47, p. 

21-51.

Cronin, T.M., Szabo, B.J., Ager, T.A., Hazel, J.E., and Owens, J.P., 

1981, Quaternary climates and sea levels of the U.S. Atlantic 

Coastal Plain: Science, v. 211, p. 233-240.

Dall, W.H., 1892, On the marine Pliocene beds of the Carolinas, in 

Dall, W.H., ed., Contributions to the Tertiary fauna of Florida, 

with especial reference to the Miocene silex-beds of Tampa and the 

Pliocene beds of the Caloosahatchie River: Wagner Free Institute 

of Science of Philadelphia, Transactions, v. 3, pt. 2, p. 201-217.

DuBar, J.R., 1971, Neogene stratigraphy of the lower Coastal Plain of 

the Carolinas: Atlantic Coastal Plain Geological Association, 12th 

Annual Field Conference, Myrtle Beach, S.C., 1971 [Guidebook], 

128 p.

DuBar, J.R., Johnson, H.S., Jr., Thorn, Bruce, and Hatchell, W.O., 

1974, Neogene stratigraphy and morphology, south flank of the 

Cape Fear arch, North and South Carolina, in Oaks, R.Q., Jr., and 

DuBar, J.R., eds., Post-Miocene stratigraphy central and southern Atlantic Coastal Plain: Logan, Utah, Utah State University 

Press, p. 139-173.

Gartner, Stefan, Chen, M.P., and Stanton, R.J., 1983, Late Neogene 

nannofossil biostratigraphy and paleoceanography of the northeastern Gulf of Mexico and adjacent areas: Marine Micropaleontology, v. 8, p. 17-50.

Gohn, G.S., ed., 1983, Studies related to the Charleston, South 

Carolina, earthquake of 1886 Tectonics and seismicity: U.S. 

Geological Survey Professional Paper 1313, 375 p.

Hazel, J.E., 1971, Ostracode biostratigraphy of the Yorktown Formation (upper Miocene and lower Pliocene) of Virginia and North 

Carolina: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 704, 13 p.

 1977, Distribution of some biostratigraphically diagnostic ostracodes in the Pliocene and lower Pleistocene of Virginia and 

northern North Carolina: U.S. Geological Survey Journal of 

Research, v. 5, p. 373-388. 

-1983, Age and correlation of the Yorktown (Pliocene) and

Croatan (Pliocene and Pleistocene) Formations at the Lee Creek 

Mine, in Ray, C.E., ed., Geology and paleontology of the Lee 

Creek Mine, North Carolina, I: Smithsonian Contributions to 

Paleobiology 53, p. 81-199.

Heron, S.D., Jr., and Johnson, H.S., Jr., 1966, Clay mineralogy, 

stratigraphy, and structural setting of the Hawthorn Formation, 

Coosawhatchie district, South Carolina: Southeastern Geology, v. 

7, p. 51-63.

Heron, S.D., Jr., Robinson, G.C., and Johnson, H.S., Jr., 1965, Clays 

and opal-bearing claystones of the South Carolina Coastal Plain: 

South Carolina Division of Geology Bulletin 31, 66 p.

LeGrand, H.E., and Brown, P.M., 1955, Guidebook of excursion in the 

Coastal Plain of North Carolina, October 8-9, 1955: Carolina 

Geological Society, p. 11-12.

Liddicoat, J.C., McCartan, Lucy, Weems, R.E., and Lemon, E.M., 

Jr., 1981, Paleomagnetic investigation of Pliocene and Pleistocene 

sediments in the Charleston, South Carolina, area [abs.]: Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, v. 13, p. 12, 29.

Malde, H.E., 1959, Geology of the Charleston phosphate area, South 

Carolina: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1079, 105 p.

McCartan, Lucy, Lemon, E.M., Jr., and Weems, R.E., 1984, Geologic 

map of the area between Charleston and Orangeburg, South
INTRODUCTION

Carolina: U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Investigations 

Series Map 1-1472, scale 1:250,000.

McCartan, Lucy, Owens, J.P., Blackwelder, B.W., Szabo, B.J., 

Belknap, D.F., Kriausakul, Nivat, Mitterer, R.M., and Wehmiller, J.F., 1982, Comparison of amino acid racemization geochronometry with lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy, uranium-series 

coral dating, and magnetostratigraphy in the Atlantic Coastal 

Plain of the southeastern United States: Quaternary Research, v. 

18, p. 337-359.

McCartan, Lucy, Weems, R.E., and Lemon, E.M., Jr., 1980 [1981], 

The Wando Formation (upper Pleistocene) in the Charleston, 

South Carolina, area, in Sohl, N.F., and Wright, W.B., Changes 

in stratigraphic nomenclature by the U.S. Geological Survey, 1979: 

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1502-A, p. A110-A116.

Rankin, D.W., ed., 1977, Studies related to the Charleston, South 

Carolina, earthquake of 1886 A preliminary report: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1028, 204 p.

Scott, T.M., 1983, The geology of the Hawthorn Formation of northeastern Florida, pt. 1 of The Hawthorn Formation of northeastern 

Florida: Florida Bureau of Geology Report of Investigations 94, p.

Scott, T.M., and MacGill, P.L., 1981, Geology of the Hawthorn 

Formation in central Florida, pt. 1 o/The Hawthorn Formation of 

central Florida: Florida Bureau of Geology Report of Investigations 91, p. 1-32.

Sloan, Earle, 1905, Geognostic map of South Carolina, in pocket of 

Sloan, 1908.

 1908, Catalogue of the mineral localities of South Carolina: South 

Carolina Geological Survey, ser. IV, Bulletin 2, 505 p. [reprintedin 

1958 by the South Carolina Division of Geology and in 1979 by the 

South Carolina Geological Survey].

Szabo, B.J., 1985, Uranium-series dating of fossil corals from marine 

sediments of southeastern United States Atlantic Coastal Plain: 

Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 96, p. 398^06.

Ward, L.W., Blackwelder, B.W., Gohn, G.S., and Poore, R.Z., 1979, 

Stratigraphic revision of Eocene, Oligocene, and lower Miocene 

formations of South Carolina: South Carolina Geological Survey 

Geologic Notes, v. 23, p. 2-32.

Weems, R.E., and Lemon, E.M., Jr., 1984a, Geologic map of the 

Mount Holly quadrangle, Berkeley and Charleston Counties, 

South Carolina: U.S. Geological Survey Geologic Quadrangle Map 

GQ-1579, scale 1:24,000.

 1984b, Geologic map of the Stallsville quadrangle, Dorchester 

and Charleston Counties, South Carolina: U.S. Geological Survey 

Geologic Quadrangle Map GQ-1581, scale 1:24,000.

Weems, R.E., Lemon, E.M., Jr., McCartan, Lucy, Bybell, L.M., and 

Sanders, A.E., 1982, Recognition and formalization of the Pliocene 

"Goose Creek phase" in the Charleston, South Carolina, area, in 

Stratigraphic notes, 1980-1982: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 

1529-H, p. H137-H148.

Quaternary Stratigraphy in the Vicinity of 

Charleston, South Carolina, and Its 

Relationship to Local Seismicity and 

Regional Tectonism

By LUCY McCARTAN, R.E. WEEMS, and E.M. LEMON, JR.

STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, 

EARTHQUAKE OF 1886-NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY 

LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND BIOSTRATIGRAPHY

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-A

CONTENTS

	Page

Abstract............................................................................ Al

Introduction....................................................................... 1

Mapping and laboratory techniques.................................. 2

Acknowledgments......................................................... 3

Geomorphology .................................................................. 4

Previous work.................................................................... 4

Quaternary stratigraphy...................................................... 4

Informal stratigraphic nomenclature used in this report...... 4

Comparison of this report, the 1:250,000-scale geologic map,

and 1:24,000-scale mapping in the Charleston area .......... 7

Description of lithostratigraphic units .............................. 7

Mineralogy and weathering .................................................. 20

Discussion of depositional history of Quaternary units............... A24

Regional geology of the South Carolina Coastal Plain ............... 26

The relationship among Quaternary sedimentation, Charleston

seismicity, and tectonism ............................................ 28

Quaternary upwarp of the Charleston area and its relationship to the Cape Fear Arch......................................... 28

Small deformational features .......................................... 33

Crustal movement affecting Cretaceous and Cenozoic 

Coastal Plain deposits between New Jersey and 

South Carolina.......................................................... 34

Summary .......................................................................... 36

References cited................................................................. 37

ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

FIGURE 1. Maps of South Carolina showing localities mentioned in text and part of the Coastal Plain province showing the

geomorphology of the study area ....................................................................................................................... A2

2-5. Geologic maps of the Charleston, S.C., area showing:

2. Generalized Quaternary stratigraphy that emphasizes depositional lithofacies..................................................... 6

3. Localities of samples and subsurface logs discussed in this report..................................................................... 8

4. Thickness of Quaternary deposits................................................................................................................ 9

5. Contours of the erosional surface underlying Quaternary deposits.................................................................... 10

6. Time-stratigraphic map of generalized Quaternary geologic units in the Charleston, S. C., area.......................................... 11

7. Photograph of buried Holocene trees south of Pinopolis, S.C........................................................................................ 12

8. Schematic cross section and graphic lithologic logs showing Quaternary unit Q2 lithofacies in the Charleston, S.C., area ....... 13

9. Photographs showing Ophiomorpha nodosa burrows east of Charleston, S.C.................................................................. 14

10-12. Schematic cross sections and graphic lithologic logs in the Charleston, S.C., area showing:

10. Unit Q3 lithofacies..................................................................................................................................... 15

11. Units Q5 and Q4 lithofacies........................................................................................................................ 17

12. Unit Q6 (oldest Pleistocene) lithofacies ........................................................................................................ 19

13. Map showing depth of weathering in Quaternary beach deposits in the Charleston, S. C., area .......................................... 23

14. Diagram showing proportions of heavy minerals in Quaternary beach deposits in the Charleston, S.C., area........................ 23

15. Separate time-stratigraphic maps for Quaternary units Q1-Q6 in the Charleston,S.C., area .............................................. 29

16. Photographs and stratigraphic column of typical Quaternary lithostratigraphic unit in the Charleston, S.C., area ................. 30

17. Map showing generalized pre-Miocene geology of the South Carolina Coastal Plain.......................................................... 32

18. Map showing structural framework of the Atlantic Coastal Plain of the Southeastern United States .................................. 33

19. Time-stratigraphic map of generalized geologic units of Quaternary age in South Carolina and North Carolina..................... 34

20. Photographs and sketch showing disrupted Pleistocene unit in railroad embankment west of Goose Creek Reservoir, S.C. .... 35

in
IV CONTENTS

TABLES

Page

TABLE 1. Correlation chart of Quaternary stratigraphic units in the South Carolina Coastal Plain................................................... A5

2. 14C dates from Holocene deposits in the Charleston, S.C., area.................................................................................... 12

3. Summary of heavy minerals in Quaternary deposits (units Q1-Q6) in the Charleston,S.C., area ........................................ 21

4. Dominant clay minerals in selected Pleistocene units in the Charleston, S.C., area.......................................................... 22

5-9. Heavy minerals in the fine-grained sand fraction of Pleistocene deposits in the Charleston, S.C., area:

5. Unit Q2 deposits....................................................................................................................................... 24

6. Unit Q3 deposits....................................................................................................................................... 25

7. Unit Q4 deposits....................................................................................................................................... 26

8. Unit Q5 deposits....................................................................................................................................... 27

9. Unit Q6 (oldest Pleistocene) deposits............................................................................................................ 28
STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886- 

NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND BIOSTRATIGRAPHY

QUATERNARY STRATIGRAPHY IN THE VICINITY OF CHARLESTON, 

SOUTH CAROLINA, AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO LOCAL SEISMICITY

AND REGIONAL TECTONISM

By LUCY MCCARTAN, R.E. WEEMS, and E.M. LEMON, JR.

ABSTRACT

The outer Coastal Plain of South Carolina is covered by a thin 

blanket of marine, estuarine, and fluvial sediment of Quaternary age 

that has been divided into six lithostratigraphic units deposited in 

separate transgressive-regressive cycles. Depositional lithofacies, such 

as shelf, beach, backbarrier, and fluvial sediments, are differentiated 

within the lithostratigraphic units. In the Charleston area, Holocene 

age marginal marine deposits, unit Ql, occur on the modern shelf below 

sea level, in beach dunes as high as 5 m above sea level, and in 

backbarrier flats as much as 2 m above sea level. Deposits of unit Q2 

are about 100,000 years old; dunes on unit Q2 beach ridges reach an 

altitude of 11 m. Deposits of unit Q3, about 200,000 years old, include 

beach ridges as much as 16 m above sea level. Deposits of unit Q4, 

about 450,000 years old, reach 19 m, and deposits of unit Q5, more than 

730,000 years old, reach 28 m. Beach dunes of the oldest Quaternary 

unit, Q6, are found as high as 32 m above sea level.

Each unit rests mainly on pre-Quaternary bedrock, remnants of 

older Quaternary units being preserved beneath younger Quaternary 

units in only a few places. The freshest sediment from the marine facies 

of all the formations is chiefly fine quartz sand containing variable 

amounts of shell, heavy minerals derived from a metamorphic terrane, 

and mud containing kaolinite, illite, and illite-smectite mixed-layer 

clay. As age of the deposits increases, weathered sediment of the six 

Quaternary lithostratigraphic units shows progressive depletion of 

certain minerals, such as ilmenite, hornblende, epidote, and illitesmectite, and secondary enrichment of others, such as leucoxene, 

kaolinite, dioctahedral vermiculite, and gibbsite. Eelative and absolute 

ages of the units are based on mollusk and ostracode biostratigraphy, 

uranium-disequilibrium-series age estimates on corals, mineralogic 

trends, magnetic polarity, and amino-acid ratios. Unit boundaries are 

based on morphologic factors, mainly slope and altitude, and on 

distribution of lithofacies in three dimensions.

The pattern of successive Quaternary deposits in the Charleston area 

reflects the sporadic upward movement of the Cape Fear Arch to the 

north, the relative downward movement of the southeast Georgia 

embayment to the south, and the overall uplift of the entire South 

Carolina coastal area, relative to modern sea level, throughout the

Manuscript approved for publication March 25, 1988.

Quaternary. Smaller scale domes and basins are part of the complex 

pattern. Eecent Charleston seismicity, including the 1886 earthquake, 

may be caused by release of energy during tectonic movement involving one or more of these structures.

INTRODUCTION

On August 31, 1886, an earthquake that occurred in 

the Charleston, S.C., area killed 60 people and was felt 

widely over the eastern half of the United States. The 

magnitude of the earthquake is estimated to have been 

6.5-6.8 (Bollinger, 1977). Although no major earthquake 

has taken place there since, a large number of small 

earthquakes, to magnitude 4, continue to be recorded in 

the area between Charleston and Orangeburg, S.C. 

(Tarr, 1977). The Charleston Project, a study conducted 

by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in conjunction 

with the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, seeks to 

understand the tectonic setting of the Charleston-area 

seismicity, to estimate the likelihood of other major 

earthquakes near Charleston, and to determine whether 

the seismic risk near Charleston is unique or whether 

such a risk actually extends to other areas of the Atlantic 

Coastal Plain. As part of this project, this volume and a 

geologic map of the area between Charleston and 

Orangeburg (McCartan and others, 1984) summarize the 

results of lithostratigraphic, mineralogic, and biostratigraphic investigations of the surface and shallowsubsurface geology of the Charleston area with emphasis 

on Quaternary stratigraphy. This chapter describes the 

regional Quaternary stratigraphic framework and depositional history and relates them to the continuing late 

Cenozoic tectonism and seismicity of the Charleston 

area. The relationships among these factors are assessed

Al
A2 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

Bulls Bay

River 

Mt'. Pleasant 

'Charleston

Harbor 

Charleston

Base drawn from U.S. 

cultural base map. 1972 

Scale 1:2,500.000

FIGURE 1. Maps of South Carolina and part of the Coastal Plain 

province of South Carolina. A, Localities mentioned in text and 

generalized Coastal Plain topography (25-m contour interval). 

Locality labeled "Area of figure IB" shows area discussed in this 

chapter: long dashes outline area of detailed mapping, and curved, 

short dashes enclose area of greatest intensity of 1886 earthquake

in the context of the Cenozoic tectonic history of the 

entire Atlantic Coastal Plain.

MAPPING AND LABORATORY TECHNIQUES

The distribution of map units and the subsurface 

extent of and relationships among lithofacies presented 

in this chapter are based on a combination of detailed and 

reconnaissance mapping. Surface and shallow-subsurface 

geology principally of the area between Summerville and

(Dutton, 1889). B, Geomorphology of the study area. Modern 

swamps and coastal marshes are screened; sand ridges are generalized as rows of short dashes; and scarps at seaward edge of the 

major sand ridges are shown as solid curved line segments. 

Geomorphology modified from Colquhoun (1965, 1969).

Charleston was mapped at a scale of 1:24,000 by Weems 

and Lemon (for example, 1984a, b) (fig. 1). Lithofacies 

that have distinct morphologic expression, especially 

beach and dune deposits, and contacts along scarps 

between lithostratigraphic units were mapped by "surface expression."

Mapping of surface and shallow-subsurface units was 

aided by more than 600 power auger holes and coreholes 

and by published drill logs (Pooser, 1965) and logs in the 

files of the South Carolina Geological Survey and other 

agencies.
QUATEENARY STEATIGEAPHY IN THE VICINITY OF CHAELESTON A3

81°00' 80°30' 79°30' 79°00'

33°00'

32°30'

30 MILES

B

FIGURE 1. Continued.

Laboratory analyses for this report include microscope 

identification of the sand grains, 14C and uraniumdisequilibrium-series age determinations, and paleomagnetic studies. The results of Neogene and Quaternary 

biostratigraphic studies related to the 1886 Charleston 

earthquake are presented in chapters B through G of this 

volume.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We appreciate the assistance of the State Geologist of 

South Carolina, N.K. Olson, and that of the staff of the 

South Carolina Geological Survey. D.J. Colquhoun of the 

University of South Carolina and A.E. Sanders of the 

Charleston Museum have been particularly helpful. The 

Westvaco Corporation and many other South Carolina 

landowners cooperated with our drilling program.

We also wish to thank many USGS colleagues for their 

help, especially J.P. Owens, G.S. Gohn, B.B. Houser,

T.A. Ager, G.W. Andrews, B.W. Blackwelder, 1 L.M. 

Bybell, T.M. Cronin, L.E. Edwards, N.O. Frederiksen, 

T.G. Gibson, J.E. Hazel,2 L.W. Ward, R.Z. Poore, R.B. 

Mixon, W.L. Newell, B.D. Stone, B.C. Prowell, S.F. 

Obermeier, D.W. Duty, D.G. Queen, and O.B. Butler. 

Meyer Rubin (USGS) provided the 14C analyses, and 

B.J. Szabo (USGS) provided the uranium-disequilibriumseries age estimates on corals. We also thank W.H. 

Abbott of Mobil Oil Corporation, S.K. Lyon of PEER 

Consultants, andJ.C. Liddicoat of Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory.

This work was supported by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Office of Nuclear Research, under 

agreement No. AT(49-25)-1000.

1 Current affiliation: Tenneco, Houston, TX 77001.

2 Current affiliation: Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803.
A4 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

GEOMORPHOLOGY

This report covers an area of about 15,000 km2 

between Charleston, on the coast, and Orangeburg, 125 

km inland (fig. I A). The average surface slope decreases 

from 5 m/km at the Orangeburg Scarp (Colquhoun, 1965) 

to 0.2 m/km between Summerville and Charleston. The 

very low gradient coastal belt is dissected by tidal creeks 

and estuaries. Most of the estuaries are fed by Coastal 

Plain streams. The Santee River, flowing southeastward 

across the northeast part of the map area, and the 

Savannah River, flowing along the southwest border of 

the area, rise in the Piedmont.

Most rural land is covered by cultivated pine forests 

and field crops. Swamps are common, particularly in 

forests, and are usually drained by networks of large 

open ditches.

Several discontinuous belts of sand ridges as much as 

several kilometers long and 3 to 5 m high roughly parallel 

the coastline (fig. IB). The top of the highest ridge is 

about 32 m above sea level; the lowest, about 5 m, is the 

line of dunes on the Holocene barriers. Many ridges or 

groups of ridges are at intermediate positions and altitudes. Most of these highs coincide with Pleistocene 

beach ridges, but some are erosional remnants of other 

types of deposits, such as backbarrier flats.

Colquhoun (1965, 1969) discussed South Carolina geomorphology in detail. Figure IB is based partly on 

Colquhoun's maps.

PREVIOUS WORK

Work directly related to the Charleston seismicity was 

initiated by Button (1889), who described the surface 

effects and estimated the positions of two epicenters for 

the 1886 events. Many results of the present Charleston 

Project have been summarized by Rankin (1977) and 

Gohn (1983).

Cooke's (1936) classic "Geology of the Coastal Plain of 

South Carolina" is the earliest thorough account of 

Quaternary deposits in South Carolina. His work was 

based partly on the pioneering morphology studies of 

Shattuck (1901), who differentiated several terraces that 

he ascribed to interglacial marine highstands, and partly 

on the stratigraphy of Stephenson (1926, 1928). Cooke 

mapped surficial deposits as high as 82 m altitude as 

Pleistocene on the basis of geomorphic evidence. Other 

stratigraphic interpretations were expressed by MacNeil 

(1950), Colquhoun and Pierce (1971), and DuBar, 

Johnson, and others (1974).

Colquhoun (1965, 1974) and his students have compiled 

and interpreted a large body of data on the South 

Carolina Coastal Plain. A major contribution of Colquhoun is the concept of primary and secondary beach 

deposits, a concept applied in the present report. Primary beaches are deposited when the sea level is highest 

during a transgressive-regressive cycle, and secondary 

beaches are deposited during the regressive phase. Colquhoun's lithostratigraphic interpretations were based 

mainly on geomorphology and textural analyses of slurry 

samples from rotary drill holes (oral commun., 1982). 

Lithostratigraphic analysis in the present report differs 

from the previous workers' interpretations (table 1) and 

is based on lithologic sections, subsurface extent and 

nature of contacts between lithofacies, and mineralogic 

and textural analyses from stratigraphic auger and core 

samples.

Malde (1959) examined the Quaternary geology of the 

Charleston phosphate mining district, centered on the 

Ladson quadrangle, which he mapped at 1:24,000 on the 

basis of outcrops and shallow auger holes. This was the 

first detailed map in the Charleston area. Malde recognized lithofacies mainly on the basis of texture and drew 

boundaries at geomorphic breaks. His geologic map and 

cross sections reflect an interpretation of the lithologic 

data that is different from the interpretation in the 

present report. In particular, Malde's Ladson Formation, shown over most of the Ladson quadrangle, is part 

of three lithostratigraphic map units (Q2, Q3, Q4) in the 

present report. One reason for Malde's interpretation is 

the presence of a phosphate pebble bed at the base of the 

Quaternary deposits in most of his sections. The pebble 

bed is misleading, however, as it is present also at the 

base of pre-Quaternary deposits.

Other work in the Charleston area that has influenced 

the present study is by Hayes and Kana (1976) on 

modern coastal processes and by Wojtal and Tye (1980) 

on the depositional environment of unit Q2 near Mount 

Pleasant (just east of Charleston) as inferred from sedimentary structures. Reports by Pooser (1965) on preQuaternary ostracodes, Sanders and others (1982) on 

vertebrates, and Heron and Johnson (1966) on preQuaternary structure and stratigraphy helped us delineate the extent of Quaternary deposits.

On a broader scale, some workers have noted tectonic 

effects (Cooke, 1936; Hoyt and Hails, 1971; Winker and 

Howard, 1977) on the broad Coastal Plain terraces 

outlined by Shattuck (1901) and Cooke (1931, 1932, 1935) 

or have investigated the interplay between rates of 

deposition and tectonism (Curray, 1964; Pitman, 1978; 

Owens, 1983).

QUATERNARY STRATIGRAPHY

INFORMAL STRATIGRAPHIC NOMENCLATURE USED IN 

THIS REPORT

This report describes the stratigraphy shown on the 

geologic map of the area between Charleston and 

Orangeburg at 1:250,000 scale (McCartan and others,
QUATEENAEY STEATIGEAPHY IN THE VICINITY OF CHAELESTON A5

TABLE I. Correlation chart of Quaternary stratigraphic units in the South Carolina Coastal Plain 

[Correlations with previous publications are approximate, ka, kilo-annum (10s years); Ma, Mega-annum (106 years)]

Cooke (1936)

South Carolina 

Coastal Plain

Recent terrace

Pamlico Formation

Talbot Formation

Penholoway 

Formation

Wicomico 

Formation

Colquhoun 

(1965, 1974)

South Carolina 

Coastal Plain

Holocene

Silver Bluff 

Princess Anne 

Formation 

Pamlico Formation

Talbot Formation

Penholoway 

Formation

Wicomico 

Formation

DuBar (1971), 

DuBar, Johnson, and 

others (1974) 1

Myrtle Beach, S.C.

Ocean Forest Peat

Socastee 

Formation

Socastee 

Formation 

Canepatch 

Formation

Waccamaw 

Formation, 

upper part

Waccamaw 

Formation, 

lower part

This report (and McCartan and others, 1984)

Charleston, S.C.

Unit Ql

Unit Q22

Unit Q3 

Unit Q4

Unit Q5

Unit Q6

Age estimate

<8ka

About 100 ka

About 200 ka 

About 450 ka

>730 ka

>lMa

Quaternary 

chronostratigraphy

Holocene

Pleistocene

1 Modified from DuBar (1971) and McCartan and others (1982). There is a small patch of deposits equivalent to unit Q2 in the Myrtle Beach area, but it was 

not distinguished by DuBar (1971) or DuBar, Johnson, and others (1974). DuBar incorrectly correlated his Socastee Formation with the Pamlico Formation of Cooke 

(1936) (J.P. Owens, oral commun., 1987), and DuBar did not recognize two parts in the Waccamaw Formation (J.P. Owens and L.W. Ward, oral commun., 1987).

2 Wando Formation (McCartan and others, 1980).

1984). The generalized geologic map (fig. 2) shows the 

main lithostratigraphic units of the 1:250,000-scale 

map. Informal map units Q1-Q6 are used in this report 

instead of formation names for Quaternary units in 

Charleston for two reasons. First, units previously 

defined or used in the Charleston area (for example, 

Colquhoun, 1965), around Myrtle Beach (for example, 

DuBar, 1971), or along the whole South Carolina Coastal 

Plain (for example, Cooke, 1936) are similar generally to 

units described in this report but do not have exactly the 

same boundaries and stratigraphic extent as the units 

described in this paper (table 1). Second, we suggest that 

Quaternary stratigraphy in the Charleston area is best 

understood in the context of the entire Atlantic Coastal 

Plain. When regional names are applied to Quaternary 

units in the future, a formal process will be necessary to 

suppress formal local names, whereas informal local 

designations such as units Q1-Q6 will be more easily 

superseded.

Symbols, such as Ql, Q2, Q3, are used to designate 

mappable units, each of which was deposited during a 

single marine transgressive-regressive cycle. These are 

the major lithostratigraphic units and may be thought of 

as informal equivalents of formations. In Holocene and 

pre-Holocene deposits, lowercase letters, as in Qlb (b, 

beach, which may or may not be on a barrier spit or 

island), Qll (1, backbarrier), Qlr (r, fluvial), and Qls (s, 

swamp), are used to designate depositional lithofacies,

which are subunits within lithostratigraphic units. In 

pre-Holocene deposits, swamps are incorporated in the 

fluvial lithofacies (Q2r-Q6r), and shelf and open-bay 

deposits (Q2o-Q6o) are differentiated in the lower part of 

some sections. Each lithostratigraphic unit (Q1-Q6) 

records a distinct depositional cycle, inferred from the 

distribution of the member lithofacies. The genetic and 

descriptive term "depositional lithofacies" is used to 

indicate that the environment of deposition has been 

inferred from several of the properties of each lithofacies 

and that the lithology is distinguishable from that of 

adjacent lithofacies. Properties that characterize a depositional lithofacies are texture, primary and secondary 

mineralogy, sedimentary structures, shape of deposit, 

and fossil content. The altitude and orientation of the 

deposit, the position of the deposit relative to deposits of 

other depositional lithofacies, and the nature of the 

contacts between deposits are additional properties that 

serve to differentiate lithofacies and lithostratigraphic 

units. The relative positions of the lithofacies are not 

random; the lateral and vertical succession of associated 

lithofacies of a single lithostratigraphic unit, such as 

shelf, beach, and backbarrier facies, strongly suggests 

that the lithofacies were deposited during a single depositional cycle.

Although the range of some of the properties in one 

depositional lithofacies may overlap the range of properties in other depositional lithofacies, the sum of the
A6

33°30' 81W

STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

80°30' 80°00' 79-30' 79°00'

33°00'

32°30'

EXPLANATION

Lithostratigraphic Depositional

units

r

01 |

02 <!

Q3 f

I

04, 1

Q5 | 1 r

- I

^§\j§§

 ' - ' V

sfy/,

^

Tu

Q1b 

011, 

Q2b 

Q2I, 

Q3b 

031, 

Q4b, 

Q4I,

Q6I,

lithofacies 

Q1r, Q1s 

Q2r

Q3r 

Q5b 

Q5I, Q4-5r

Q6r

Undifferentiated

Coral dates

~ 100 ka

-200 ka

-450 ka

>lMa

Beach facies Clean, fine- to medium-grained sand deposited parallel to 

modern coast. Includes shelf and open-bay facies (o) of clean to muddy, 

fine- to medium-grained sand and medium- to coarse-grained, shelly 

sand deposited adjacent to and seaward of beaches; found in lower 

part of some sections

Backbarrier facies Muddy, fine- to medium-grained sand containing clay 

layers, clean sand layers, shells, and sparse wood; deposited in flats landward of beaches

Fluvial facies Muddy, fine- to coarse-grained sand containing pebbles; 

deposited in belts oriented 45° to 90° to coastline. Includes swamp facies 

(s) in pre-Holocene deposits

Swamp facies Muck or clean, fine-grained sand of Holocene age

FIGURE 2. Generalized Quaternary stratigraphy in the Charleston, S.C., area. Depositional lithofacies are emphasized. Coral dates according 

to McCartan and others (1982). Abbreviations: ka, kilo-annum (103 years); Ma, Mega-annum (106 years).
QUATERNARY STRATIGRAPHY IN THE VICINITY OF CHARLESTON A7

properties of each mapped lithofacies serves to distinguish mappable genetic members that constitute a lithostratigraphic unit.

The estimates of the absolute ages of each lithostratigraphic unit (fig. 2, table 1) are based on one or more of 

the following: 14C (unit Ql, 8 kilo-annum (ka, 103 years) 

to the present); uranium-disequilibrium-series coral 

dates (unit Q2, about 100 ka; unit Q3, about 200 ka; unit 

Q4, about 450 ka by extrapolation from corals in the 

Canepatch Formation at Myrtle Beach); and reversed 

magnetic polarity (units Q5 and Q6, older than 730 ka). 

On the basis of trends of weathered minerals, unit Q6 is 

judged to be significantly older than unit Q5. Unit Q6 

also appears to occupy a stratigraphic position similar to 

that of the Waccamaw Formation near Myrtle Beach, 

S.C., which is in turn a biostratigraphic correlative of the 

Caloosahatchee Formation in Florida. M.L. Bender 

(written commun. to B. W. Blackwelder in McCartan and 

others, 1982) dated Caloosahatchee corals at older than 1 

Mega-annum (Ma, 106 years) by the U-He method, so 

unit Q6 is probably older than 1 Ma.

The dates and age ranges are discrete and reproducible and are supported by mollusk and ostracode biostratigraphy and weathering studies. Biostratigraphy is the 

subject of chapters B through G of this volume, and 

weathering studies are discussed in detail in this chapter.

COMPARISON OF THIS REPORT, THE 1:250,000-SCALE

GEOLOGIC MAP, AND 1:24,000-SCALE MAPPING IN THE

CHARLESTON AREA

The most significant difference between figure 2 and 

the l:250,000-scale geologic map by McCartan and others 

(1984) is the portrayal of the offshore facies. In the 

l:250,000-scale geologic map, offshore deposits that 

occur at the land surface are shown separately; in figure 

2, they are incorporated with the beach facies of the same 

age. Subsurface shelf deposits are shown separately in 

the cross sections for both maps. Since the 1:250,000- 

scale geologic map was published, the narrow belt of 

shelly sand just seaward of lithofacies Q3b, labeled 

lithofacies Q3o on the larger scale map, has been dated 

by Szabo (1985). This belt is part of unit Q2, not unit Q3 

as reported on the larger scale map, and is designated 

lithofacies Q2b in figure 2 (lithofacies Q2b here includes 

lithofacies Q2o of the larger scale map).

Detailed mapping at a scale of 1:24,000 in the immediate Charleston area reveals more stratigraphic complexity than is presented in this report, but it supports the 

general stratigraphic framework. In particular, detailed 

mapping suggests that unit Q2 includes a short hiatus 

and that some pre-Quaternary units can be delineated 

that would be difficult to show at scales of 1:250,000 or 

less (Weems and Lemon, 1984a, b).

The location of samples and subsurface logs used in 

this report are shown in figure 3.

DESCRIPTION OF LITHOSTRATIGRAPHIC UNITS

The six Quaternary lithostratigraphic units in the 

Charleston area, Q1-Q6, are described in this section in 

terms of (1) the distribution and lateral and vertical 

succession of the depositional lithofacies in each lithostratigraphic unit, (2) altitude, (3) texture, (4) sedimentary structures, (5) shape of deposit, and (6) presence or 

absence of fossils. Primary mineralogy and secondary 

weathering effects of each lithostratigraphic unit are 

discussed in the next section.

A thin blanket (less than 25 m over most of the area) of 

unconsolidated Quaternary sediment covers unconsolidated to lithified Tertiary deposits in the Charleston area 

(fig. 4). The basal contact of this thin cover is an irregular 

erosional surface (fig. 5) that dips gently toward the sea; 

this surface was beveled repeatedly by marine erosion 

and incised by rivers. Quaternary sediment is youngest, 

freshest, and least eroded at the coast, where Holocene 

deposits have been accumulating for about 8,000 years.

UNIT Ql

The distribution of depositional lithofacies in lithostratigraphic unit Ql of Holocene age (McCartan and 

others, 1984) is similar to that of older Quaternary 

deposits. The Holocene deposits are used in this study as 

a model with which older deposits are compared.

Modern rivers debouch on a barred coast that has a 

tidal fluctuation of 1.5 m. Behind the sandy bars, muddy 

sand accumulates in tidal flats up to several kilometers 

wide. The bars are punctuated by tidal inlets that are as 

deep as 20 m and are associated with sandy ebb and flood 

deltas. Sand moves southward in the wave-zone longshore drift and describes wide seaward arcs as it moves 

through the ebb deltas. Mud winnowed out in the surf 

zone moves into the backbarrier and shelf deposits. Tidal 

flats and storm-generated washover fans incorporated 

into beach deposits or on the landward side of the bars 

are reworked continually by tidal distributary creeks.

If sediment is supplied at the rate necessary to compensate for a slowly rising sea level, deposition equals 

erosion and no net change occurs in the shape of the 

shoreline despite accretion. More rapid deposition results in accretion of all facies, and slower deposition leads 

to net erosion and landward retreat of the shoreline. 

Plants tend to stabilize dunes, sand flats, and river bars, 

but a century of stabilization may be eliminated during a 

single hurricane or flood.
A8 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

1 81°00' 2 3 80°30' 4 5 80°00' 6 7 79°30' 8 9 79°00'

33°00'

32°30'

0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS

1 D2

2 D3

3 E3

4 E3

5 E3

6 B5

7 B6

8 C6

9 C6

10 B5

11 B5

12 B5

13 B6

14 C2

15 B8

16 B8

17 C6

18 D6

19 D5

20 D5

21 E3

22 C6

23 D5

24 C5

25 C5

26 C6

27 B7

28 C5

29 C6

30 C5

31 E3

32 C5

33 C6

34 C5

35 C4

36 B7

37 A6

38 C4

39 A8

40 B6

41 B5

42 E2

43 B5

44 B5

45 B5

46 B5

47 C3

48 D2

49 B5

50 C5

51 C6

52 A7

53 B5

54 B5

55 B5

56 C3

57 B4

58 C3

59 C3

60 C2

61 C3

62 C1

63 D1

64 B4

65 C3

EXPLANATION

.6 Sample location

* Sand blow discussed in text

 Suspected sand blow

1 D2 Locality number and grid 

coordinates:

FIGURE 3. Localities of samples and subsurface logs discussed in this report. Contacts on base map are as shown in figure 2. Grid coordinates

for each locality are shown in table.

During the Holocene, sediment has accumulated in the 

coastal zone in a belt as wide as 12 km (north of Bulls Bay 

and south of St. Helena Sound) (figs. 2, 6). Unit Ql 

contains marine and marginal marine deposits and fluvial 

sand. Incorporated into the belt, which is punctuated by 

tidal inlets, are a few erosional remnants of deposits of 

units Q2 and Q3.

Well-sorted sand of depositional lithofacies Qlb occurs 

mainly in beach and dune, tidal-delta, and shallow-shelf

deposits. The elongate sand bodies that are barrier 

islands are broader on the north, upcurrent end, and 

backbarrier deposits are widest farthest from inlets.

Beach deposits as high as 1.5 to 2 m above sea level, 

topped by as much as 3 m of dune sand, compose 

lithofacies Qlb. Fine- to medium-grained sand containing 

some mud and shells (lithofacies Qlo) extends offshore in 

open bays and on the shelf. The base of the deposits is as 

much as 10 m below sea level at the modern shoreline.
81°00'

7

QUATERNARY STRATIGRAPHY IN THE VICINITY OF CHARLESTON

80°30' 80°00' 79°30'

A9

79°00'

33°00'

32°30' -

FIGURE 4. Thickness of Quaternary deposits in the Charleston, S.C., area. Modified from Force (1978b). Contour interval, 5 m.

Sand above sea level is pale orange (10 YR 7/2) (Goddard 

and others, 1948); below sea level, it is blue gray (5BG 

5/1). Sedimentary structures associated with beaches 

include (1) long, low-angle planar crossbeds delineated 

by heavy-mineral laminae in sets as much as several 

centimeters thick; (2) several sizes and shapes of ripples 

and crossbeds in ridge and runnel systems; and (3) highto low-angle crossbeds, planar to arcuate, in the dunes 

(not preserved in older dune deposits).

Muddy sand and sandy mud occupying backbarrier 

flats (depositional lithofacies Qll) are found from 10 m 

below to 2 m above sea level. These deposits are dark 

gray (iV4) to grayish brown (5YR 4/1) where organic rich. 

Holocene mud and clay deposits are soft and noncompacted, in contrast with the stiff, dewatered muds and 

clays of Pleistocene deposits.

Holocene fluvial deposits of lithofacies Qlr are most 

notable along the Santee, Edisto, and CombaheeSalkehatchie Rivers (fig. 1A). The sediment grades from 

fine gravel at the base of a sequence, through coarse to 

fine, locally muddy sand in the middle, to overbank mud

at the top. Muck, chiefly organic-rich mud, fills cutoff 

meanders. Point bars in channels display megaripples 

containing high-angle planar crossbeds and festoon 

crossbeds in small channels. The southwest part of the 

map area is covered by 1929 flood deposits of the 

Savannah River. The color of fluvial deposits varies from 

the light gray (N7) of the sands to brownish black (5YR 

2/1) in the organic-rich clays.

Swamps (depositional lithofacies Qls) are ubiquitous in 

the low-lying area around Charleston. The deposits in 

most of them consist of a thin layer of clean, fine-grained 

sand. Locally a thin layer of clay or peat is at the base.

Deposits of unit Ql, unlike those of Pleistocene units, 

are young enough to be dated by 14C radiometry (table 2) 

(Weems and others, 1986). Dates were estimated for four 

types of deposits: marginal marine (mainly backbarrier 

marsh), fluvial, eolian sand redeposited from old beach 

ridges, and ovoid depressions.

Dates associated with marginal-marine marshes in 

backbarrier deposits are younger than 8 ka, similar to 

ages of other Atlantic Coastal Plain lower estuary depos-
A10

81°00'

STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886 

80°30' 80°00' 79°30' 79°00'

33°00'

32°30' 

FIGURE 5. Contour map of the erosional surface underlying Quaternary deposits in the Charleston, S.C., area. Modified from Force (1978a).

Contour interval, 5 m.

its (Cinquemani and others, 1982). The absence of 30-ka 

dates near Charleston contrasts sharply with the numerous 30-ka dates from similar deposits in the Chesapeake 

Bay area (Owens and Denny, 1979). Unlike the Chesapeake Bay area, mid-Wisconsin (30 ka) marginal-marine 

deposits are not preserved above modern sea level near 

Charleston.

Reoccupation of pre-Holocene river valleys during the 

Holocene is noted elsewhere in this report and is used by 

Sanders and others (1982) as evidence of structural 

control of these coastal valleys. The two 14C dates on 

upright buried cypress stumps in the Santee River valley 

(>40 ka, 2.09 ka) are further evidence for the antiquity 

of the valley and the sporadic deposition of terraces.

Dates associated with stumps in thin eolian sand 

sheets suggest that sand derived from Holocene and 

Pleistocene beach ridges has moved over much of the 

surface several times during the Holocene. Two and 

possibly three layers of buried trees, preserved as 

upright stumps, have been found some places in the

Charleston area (fig. 7). The sand sheets are thin, 

patchy, and difficult to delineate, except in plowed fields 

or sand pits; therefore, they are not shown in figure 2. 

Rapid invasion of a forest by sand implies a rather dry 

climate with little understory unlike the wet climate 

and dense vegetation found today in the South Carolina 

Coastal Plain for a period of at least several years.

UNIT Q2

The youngest and best preserved Pleistocene deposits 

are contained in a northeast-trending belt immediately 

landward of Holocene coastal deposits (figs. 2, 6, 8). The 

belt widens from about 10 km at the Santee River to 

more than 45 km at St. Helena Sound. The longest 

continuous sand body in the map area is the Mount 

Pleasant barrier, over 60 km long, which extends from 

Charleston Harbor to the Santee River (fig. 2). Unit Q2 

consists of generally fossiliferous, sandy marine deposits 

mostly between surface altitudes of 11 m and 2 m and 

fluvial sand at altitudes higher than 3 m. Unit Q2 is most
81W

QUATERNARY STRATIGRAPHY IN THE VICINITY OF CHARLESTON

80°30' ROW 79°30'

All

79°00'

33°00' -

32°30' -

FIGURE 6. -Time-stratigraphic map of generalized Quaternary geologic units in the Charleston, S.C., area (simplified from fig. 2). Belts 

marine and marginal marine deposits of units Q2-Q6 are emphasized. Crosses indicate 14C sample localities (see table 2).

disrupted by Holocene erosion and deposition in the 

vicinity of St. Helena Sound.

Four depositional lithofacies constitute unit Q2 (figs. 

2, 8): well-sorted, fine- to medium-grained quartz sand 

containing some shells (lithofacies Q2b, deposits from 

beach and associated environments); shelly, gray, fine- to 

medium-grained quartz sand, locally having a mud 

matrix and clay layers (lithofacies Q2o, shelf deposits, 

fig. 8; in fig. 2, Q2o is included in Q2b); muddy quartz 

sand with clay, shell, and sand layers (lithofacies Q21, 

backbarrier deposits); and gravelly, coarse quartz sand 

(lithofacies Q2r, fluvial deposits).

The sand of lithofacies Q2b is found as much as 11 m 

above sea level and as low as 12 m below sea level. The 

top 2 m of sand is massive and is commonly humate rich. 

In some places, this upper material of probable eolian 

origin may be about the same age as deposits of unit Q2, 

but elsewhere it encloses trees in life position that are 

younger than 2 ka (table 2, sample Iocs. 10 and 13).

Lower in lithofacies Q2b, planar laminations outlined 

by heavy minerals are common up to 2 m from the 

surface. Burrows up to 2 cm across interrupt the heavymineral laminae in some places (fig. 9), and some burrows are filled with small shells. Planar laminae grade 

laterally into festoon crossbed sets a few centimeters 

thick. Shells occur individually and concentrated in 

lenses within the beach deposits (Wojtal and Tye, 1980). 

The top part of uneroded deposits of lithofacies Q2b is 

locally pale grayish orange (10 YR 7/3), but the bulk of the 

sand is yellowish gray (57 8/1) above the water table and 

gray (N 5) below.

Lithofacies Q21 sediment occurs in flat, irregular 

patches up to 8 m above sea level and down to 10 m below 

sea level. Whereas some of these patches, such as along 

the Wando River (fig. LA), are parallel to unit Q2 

barriers, many are elongate toward the northwest and 

aligned with Holocene rivers. This alignment indicates 

that Holocene rivers occupy Pleistocene tidal channels.
A12 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

TABLE 2. 14C dates from Holocene deposits m the Charleston, S.C., area 

[Data from Meyer Rubin, written commun., 1975-82J

Type of 

deposit

Fluvial and

swamp

Backbarrier

Eolian sand

sheet

Ovoid

depressions

Sample 

locality 

(see fig. 6)

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

uses

I4C

lab. no.

W-4593

W-4157

W-4590

W-4591

W-5039

W-5038

W-4219

W-4217

W-4461

W-3963

W-4220

W-4457

W-3817

W-5022

Quadrangle 1

Santee

Eadytown

Sewee Bay

Cainhoy

Fort Moultrie

Fort Moultrie

Moncks Corner

Stallsville

Stallsville

Fort Moultrie

Stallsville

Cummings

Sewee Bay

Awendaw

Lat (°N.)

33°24'00"

33°25'30"

32°55'30"

32°55'45"

32°47'30"

32°51'

33°09'15"

32°59'30"

32°58'

32°49'30"

32°58'30"

33°55'

32°55'

33°06'

Long (°W.)

79°52'00"

80°08'

79°43'30"

79°48'

79°47'30"

79°46'

80°03'30"

80°11'30"

80°12'

79°49'30"

80°14'30"

81°00'

79°43'30"

79°36'

I4C

date

2,090±70

>40,000

430 ±50

940±60

950 ±100

7,860±80

210+70

317+50

670 ±70

900±200

1,560±70

1,840±70

1,960±200

2,900±60

Material

Wood in sand.2

Wood in sand.2

Shell in mud.

Wood in sandy mud. 2

Wood in sandy mud.2

Peat.

Wood in sand. 2

Wood in sand. 2

Wood in sand. 2

Wood in sand. 2

Wood in sand. 2

Charcoal in sand.

Wood in sand. 2

Peat.

Cummings quadrangle is a 15-minute quadrangle: remainder are 7 V2-minute quadrangles, 

ight buried stumps.

1 The . _________ .. _._

2 Upright buried stumps,

Muddy, fine-grained quartz sand is the usual texture, but 

the unit also contains common layers of clay, shell, and 

well-sorted fine-grained quartz sand. Burrows are common, and crossbeds are almost absent. Weathered 

muddy sand of lithofacies Q21, at the top of unstripped 

sections, is dark yellowish orange (IOYR 6/6). This color 

changes downward to grayish orange (1017? 7/4), and 

below the water table, it changes to gray (M> to N4).

Lithofacies Q2r sediment is preserved along the Santee, Stono, and Broad Rivers (fig. 1A). The limited 

extent of the fluvial deposits of lithofacies Q2r, as 

compared with that of older river deposits, may be due to 

erosion by Holocene rivers. Poorly sorted, gravelly, 

coarse quartz sand and muddy, medium-grained quartz 

sand containing pebbles make up the bulk of lithofacies 

Q2r sediment. The deposits are commonly under modern forest or swampy vegetation, and weathering characteristics are not well known. Unweathered lithofacies 

Q2r deposits are gray (N4).

FIGURE 7. Buried Holocene trees in a sand pit 8 km south of 

Pinopolis, S.C. (fig. 1A). Below the modern vegetation and above 

the interbedded sand and clay of unit Q5 are two sand sheets 

containing upright, rooted stumps. Wood from a trunk in the 

upper sheet yielded a 14C age of about 210 years before present 

(Meyer Rubin, written commun., 1979, USGS laboratory no. 

W-4219). Outcrop is about 4 m high.
QUATERNARY STRATIGRAPHY IN THE VICINITY OF CHARLESTON

NORTHWEST

Q6

A13 

SOUTHEAST

9 m

5m

2mMODERN 

SEA LEVEL

-2 

Q2I

Tu

-2

-10 

Q2b

Q2I

Tu

-11

8 m

Q3b

5 m

Q3I

Q3o

-8

Tu

-12 

Q2I'

-2

Q2o

Tu

-11

/Y-.

Depositional 

lithofacies

b Beach

o Shelf

I Backbarrier

r Fluvial

EXPLANATION 

2 Lithologic log number (keyed to fig. 3)

Q2I'

Q2o

Younger unit 

Well-sorted sand 

Muddy sand

Mud containing plant fragments 

No sample

Sand containing shells 

Coarse sand and gravel 

-Unconformity 

Older unit (undifferentiated Tertiary unit, Tu)

FIGURE 8. Schematic cross section and graphic lithologic logs of 

auger-hole and corehole samples showing Quaternary unit Q2 lithofacies in the Charleston, S.C., area (locations of logs shown in fig. 3). 

The youngest shoreline deposits of unit Q3 preserved in the area are 

at the same altitude as the oldest deposits of lithofacies Q21 and Q2b. 

In the broad sounds in the southwest part of the map area, tidal

deltas of lithofacies Q2b accumulated landward of unit Q3 deposits. 

Seaward of unit Q3, early unit Q2 beach and shelf deposits are 

overlain by later deposits of the same unit that are as much as 30,000 

years younger (Q2b', Q21') (coral date spread of 120 to 90 ka; 

McCartan and others, 1980).
A14 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

FIGURE 9. Ophiomorpha nodosa burrows in shelly sand of unit Q2. Locality is the Yenning pit at Mount Pleasant east of Charleston, S.C. 

A, Large Dinocardium shell is about 10 cm across. B, Several types of burrows appear in upper part of photograph; shovel handle is 

40 cm long.

The age of unit Q2 is judged to be late Pleistocene on 

the basis of mollusk and ostracode faunas (Ward and 

Blackwelder, this volume; Cronin, this volume; Lyon, 

this volume; see also Cronin, 1981) and normal magnetic 

polarity (Liddicoat and others, 1981). A late Pleistocene 

age is supported also by several corals from unit Q2 that 

have uranium-disequilibrium-series dates of about 90 ka 

and some as old as 120 ka (McCartan and others, 1980; 

Szabo, 1985), intermediate amino-acid epimerization and 

racemization ratios from Mercenaria (McCartan and 

others, 1982), and the relatively fresh minerals above the 

water table.

UNIT Q3

A third northeast-trending belt of Quaternary sediment, unit Q3, extends from the coast just north of 

Winyah Bay to the southwest corner of the mapped area 

(figs. 2, 6, 10). Unit Q3 locally contains fossiliferous 

marine and marginal marine deposits between surface 

altitudes of 16 m and 5 m and unfossiliferous fluvial

sand at altitudes above 5 m. The outcrop belt is typically 

25 km wide and is more continuous in the north than the 

south, where it is more extensively embayed and overprinted by younger units. Deposits of unit Q3 unconformably overlie fossiliferous pre-Quaternary sediment in 

most places (fig. 10), but remnants of older Pleistocene 

units occupy the lower part of a few channels beneath 

unit Q3 sediments.

Four depositional lithofacies are associated with unit 

Q3 (figs. 2, 10): well-sorted, fine- to medium-grained 

quartz sand (lithofacies Q3b, beach and associated environments); well-sorted to silty, fine- to medium-grained 

quartz sand containing sparse mud lenses and shell 

fragments concentrated in layers mainly near the base 

(lithofacies Q3o, shelf; shown separately in fig. 10, but 

combined with lithofacies Q3b in fig. 2); muddy, finegrained quartz sand (lithofacies Q31, backbarrier); and 

muddy, medium-grained quartz sand to gravelly, coarsegrained sand (lithofacies Q3r, fluvial).

Sediment of lithofacies Q3b is found as high as 16 m 

above sea level and as low as 5 m below sea level, and its
QUATERNARY STRATIGRAPHY IN THE VICINITY OF CHARLESTON

NORTHWEST

A15 

SOUTHEAST

15 m

7m5 m

MODERN 

SEA LEVEL

Q3I

Tu

-7-

Q3I

Tu

9 m

Q3I

Tu

Q3b

Q3o

Tu

Depositional 

lithofacies

b Beach

o Shelf

I Backbarrier

r Fluvial

EXPLANATION

2 Lithologic log number (keyed to fig. 3)

Younger unit

Well-sorted sand

Muddy sand

Mud containing plant fragments

No sample

Sand containing shells

Coarse sand and gravel 

-Unconformity 

Older unit (undifferentiated Tertiary unit, Tu)

FIGURE 10. Schematic cross section and graphic lithologic logs showing unit Q3 lithofacies in the Charleston, S.C., area (see fig. 3 for 

locations). Beach deposits of unit Q3 accumulated just seaward of 

unit Q4 sediment, in some places remobilizing all of unit Q4 beach

(Q4b) and some backbarrier (Q41) deposits. Unit Q3 backbarrier 

deposits (Q31) have been embayed and dissected by deposits of units 

Q2 and Ql, particularly southwest of Charleston, S.C.
A16 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

outcrop belt varies between 3 and 12 km wide. Lithofacies Q3b deposits consist mainly of one or more beach and 

dune ridges. For example, between the Stono and Edisto 

Rivers is a large sand plain that has several ridges 

trending east-northeast. This deposit consists of coalesced beach ridges that were supplied with sediment 

mainly by the Edisto River. Detailed mapping north of 

the Santee River suggests that lithofacies Q3b may be 

divided by Winyah Bay. However, the seaward part may 

belong with unit Q2 instead.

Within lithofacies Q3b, planar laminations outlined by 

heavy minerals, indicative of a beach environment, are 

evident below the water table in some places but are 

rusted out above the water table. Shells are abundant 

locally at the base of lithofacies Q3b, and silt is abundant 

especially in the lower part of some sections. Shells and 

fine matrix are characteristic of the shallow-shelf environment (McCartan and others, 1984), which is designated lithofacies Q3o in figure 10, but is combined with 

lithofacies Q3b in figure 2. Burrows are common in some 

places, and massive, well-sorted sand containing disseminated heavy minerals is interpreted as thoroughly bioturbated beach, open-bay, or shallow-shelf sand. Colors 

range from light brown (5YR 5/6) at the surface to very 

pale orange (WYR 8/2) below.

Lithofacies Q31 deposits occur between llm above sea 

level and 5 m below sea level. They occur in flat, irregular patches typically 3 to 10 km across showing 

marked internal dissection. Muddy, fine-grained quartz 

sand and more than 15 percent clay is the usual texture, 

but lenses of well-sorted, fine- to medium-grained quartz 

sand and mud without sand are also present. Burrows 

are common. The unit weathers to light brown (5YR 5/6) 

at the surface but is gray (M>) in fresher material below.

Deposits of lithofacies Q3r are present in a large patch 

east of the Edisto River, in an old channel of the Cooper 

River (fig. 1A) that lies west of the present course, and 

along the south bank of the Santee River. Lithofacies 

Q3r fluvial sediment is generally poorly sorted and varies 

from muddy, medium-grained quartz sand containing 

pebbles to gravelly, coarse-grained quartz sand. The 

deposits are typically light brown (5YR 5/6) at the 

surface and gray (Af4) below.

The age of unit Q3 sediment is judged to be late 

Pleistocene on the basis of the clams Lunarca ovalis and 

Cunearca brasiliana, other mollusk and ostracode taxa 

(Ward and Blackwelder, this volume; Cronin, this volume; see also Cronin, 1981), and normal magnetic polarity (Liddicoat and others, 1981). A late Pleistocene age is 

supported also by two corals from unit Q3 that have 

uranium-disequilibrium-series dates of about 200 ka 

(McCartan and others, 1982; Szabo, 1985), amino-acid 

ratios from Mercenaria (McCartan and others, 1982), 

and the limited extent of weathering. The faunas and

other evidence support correlation with upper Pleistocene units, such as the Socastee Formation at Myrtle 

Beach.

UNIT Q4

The town of Bethera, S.C. (fig. 1A), is on the largest 

barrier of unit Q4, from which lithofacies Q41 backbarrier 

material extends northwestward. Seaward of Bethera, a 

patch of lithofacies Q41 remains, although its associated 

barrier deposits have been eroded. In addition, a remnant of a unit Q4 barrier that trends north is surrounded 

by unit Q3 deposits on the north edge of the map (figs. 2, 

6, 11). Unit Q4 consists of marine and marginal marine 

deposits between surface altitudes of 19 m and 15 m; the 

highest sea level for deposits of unit Q4 was about 10 m 

below deposits of the unit Q5 high stand. Fluvial deposits 

of unit Q4 could not be separated from those of unit Q5, 

and so they were combined in the unit designated Q4-5r 

(fig. 2).

Lithofacies Q4b sand, found up to 19 m in altitude, is 

coarser and less muddy than lithofacies Q5b sand, and it 

forms a single, large, low sand body. These characteristics suggest that the younger beach sand was deposited 

closer to the mouth of the old Santee River drainage at a 

slower rate that allowed winnowing of mud. Sand of 

lithofacies Q4b weathers from very pale orange (WYR 

8/2) to grayish orange (IQYR 7/4).

Sediment of lithofacies Q41 is similar in texture and 

weathering characteristics to the sediment of lithofacies 

Q51, but it occurs in the subsurface below 15 m altitude 

and is restricted to the area between the Cooper and 

Santee Rivers. Northwest of the Bethera barrier, lithofacies Q41 sediment is very gritty. Lithofacies Q41 

muddy, medium-grained sand weathers to light brown 

(5YR 5/6).

Unit Q4 is correlated with the Canepatch Formation at 

Myrtle Beach, S.C., on the basis of mollusk and ostracode faunas (Ward and Blackwelder, this volume; Cronin, this volume; see also Cronin, 1981), weathering 

studies, and geomorphology. The Canepatch has yielded 

several corals with uranium-disequilibrium-series dates 

of about 450 ka (Cronin and others, 1981; McCartan and 

others, 1982; Szabo, 1985).

UNIT Q5

A fourth northeast-trending belt of Quaternary sediment, unit Q5, consists of sparsely fossiliferous, sandy 

marine deposits between surface altitudes of 28 m and 23 

m (figs. 2, 6, 11). The outcrop pattern is about 5 km wide 

in the south and as much as 50 km wide adjacent to the 

Santee River (fig. 2). The largest patch of lithofacies Q5b 

sand (to the east) and lithofacies Q51 muddy sand (to the 

west) is the Summerville-Pinopolis barrier system
NORTHWEST

Q4-5r

QUATERNARY STRATIGRAPHY IN THE VICINITY OF CHARLESTON

10

A17

SOUTHEAST

Tu

23m

10

20 m

15

Q5I

Q5o 

Tu" 15-

Q5b 12

20m

Q5I

12-

Q5b'

13

17m

Q5o 

Tu"

EXPLANATION 

2 Lithologic log number (keyed to fig. 3)

Depositional 

lithofacies

b Beach

o Shelf

I Backbarrier

r Fluvial

Younger unit

Well-sorted sand

Muddy sand

Mud containing plant fragments

No sample

Sand containing shells

Coarse sand and gravel 

 Unconformity 

Older unit (undifferentiated Tertiary unit, Tu)

Q4b

Q4I

Tu

FIGURE 11. Schematic cross section and graphic lithologic logs in the 

Charleston, S.C., area (see fig. 3 for locations) showing the lithofacies of units Q5 and Q4, which accumulated more than 730 ka and 

about 450 ka, respectively. In the area just west of section 12, clean 

sand remobilized from earliest Q5b deposits prograded seaward to

between Lake Moultrie and the Edisto River. North of 

the Santee River, lithofacies Q51 backbarrier deposits 

remain, although beach sand in lithofacies Q5b has been 

eroded and has been replaced by younger material. 

South of the Edisto River, beach deposits of lithofacies 

Q5b lie adjacent to the beach deposits of unit Q6 with 

much less associated backbarrier material than farther 

north. Fluvial deposits associated geomorphically with 

unit Q5 marine deposits are prevalent along the south 

shores of Lakes Moultrie and Marion and along the 

Edisto and Salkehatchie Rivers but occur in the other 

major drainages as well. Fluvial deposits associated with

form lithofacies Q5b' and accumulated at the same time as the muddy 

sand of lithofacies Q51'. Unit Q4 accumulated at least 300,000 years 

after unit Q5 deposits. River deposits from lithostratigraphic units 

Q5 and Q4 are combined in lithofacies Q4-5r.

deposits of units Q5 and Q4 could not be separated; 

therefore, the designation lithofacies Q4-5r is applied to 

them.

Four depositional lithofacies are recognized in this unit 

(figs. 2, 11): well-sorted, fine- to medium-grained quartz 

sand (lithofacies Q5b, beach and associated environments); muddy, fine- to medium-grained sand containing 

sparse to abundant shells and interbedded clay and sand 

(lithofacies Q5o, shelf; McCartan and others, 1984; shown 

separately in fig. 11, but combined with lithofacies Q5b in 

fig. 2); muddy, fine-grained quartz sand (lithofacies Q51, 

backbarrier); and well-sorted to muddy, medium- to
A18 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

coarse-grained quartz sand (lithofacies Q4-5r, fluvial 

deposits).

Lithofacies Q5b is found between 28 m and 15 m above 

sea level in a series of sand ridges that form an outcrop 

belt about 2 to 20 km wide. Sand weathers from very pale 

orange (WYR 8/2) to grayish orange (WYR 7/4), and 

secondary clay lamellae are present in some outcrops. A 

large sand pit 8 km south of Pinopolis on U.S. route 17A 

exposes the beach and shelf deposits (both included in 

lithofacies Q5b) of the Summerville-Pinopolis barrier 

system. The upper part of lithofacies Q5b in the pit 

consists of medium-grained quartz sand in planar beds 

sloping eastward, which grades eastward and downward 

to short-wavelength festoon crossbeds, below which clay 

is interbedded with the sand. A few Ophiomorpha burrows were found in the interbedded clay and sand at this 

locality, but even more of these burrows were found in a 

ditch in the Sangaree housing development north of 

Summerville on U.S. route 17A.

Muddy quartz sand constitutes the bulk of the large 

recurved spit that prograded from north to south 

between Lake Moultrie and Summerville and is the 

barrier of the Summerville-Pinopolis system. Sediment 

from the Santee River drainage apparently was supplied 

faster than it could be winnowed by the waves that 

constructed the barrier; the sand of the lower part of 

lithofacies Q5b is much more poorly sorted than the sand 

in beach deposits older or younger than unit Q5b. Clean 

sand constitutes the top 2-3 m of this barrier and 

suggests a slowing of deposition and winnowing by wave 

action during the latter stages of deposition. Sand in 

deposits of lithofacies Q5b south of the Edisto River is 

better sorted than that north of the river and reflects the 

more thorough winnowing of Edisto River-derived material and the addition of sand reworked from adjacent 

lithofacies Q6b deposits.

Relatively unfossiliferous shelf deposits of lithofacies 

Q5o occur at the surface seaward of lithofacies Q5b 

(McCartan and others, 1984) and are combined with 

lithofacies Q5b in figure 2. However, in the subsurface, a 

shell-rich bed of lithofacies Q5o forms a thin, discontinuous sheet between about 11 m and 16 m (noted previously by Colquhoun and others, 1968) beneath the large 

recurved spit system extending from Lake Moultrie to 

Summerville. The shelly material of lithofacies Q5o also 

occupies the deeper parts of some channels under units 

Q3 and Q2. The lithology is typically coarse- to mediumgrained, shelly quartz sand containing variable amounts 

of mud, quartz and phosphate granules, and blebs of 

waxy, green reworked clay. Fossils suggest two environments shelf and restricted bay or backbarrier. In 

some drill holes, the fossils are mixed in one bed at the 

base of the section; in other holes, beds containing fossils 

from the restricted environments are overlain by beds

containing open-marine fossils. The mixed or sequential 

assemblages and the upward-fining texture suggest deposition during transgression, possibly during a rise in sea 

level. The basal part of the shell bed contains fossils 

reworked from deposits of units Q6 and Tu (fig. 2).

Lithofacies Q51 deposits occupy fairly flat, irregular 

patches at altitudes below 23 m that are typically 

between 5 and 15 km across. Lithofacies Q51 is most 

extensive west of the Summerville-Pinopolis barrier 

system and north of the Santee River. This depositional 

lithofacies includes sandy mud and muddy, fine-grained 

sand containing more than 15 percent clay, and it has 

clean, fine-grained sand or clay lenses locally. Lithofacies 

Q51 interfingers with lithofacies Q5b and unconformably 

overlies Tertiary deposits. Lithofacies Q51 beneath the 

water table is generally a medium gray (M>); it weathers 

to light brown (5YR 5/6) and moderate reddish brown 

(WR 4/6) above the water table, and the color is most 

intense on steeper slopes.

Lithofacies Q4-5r sediment is clean to muddy, 

medium- to coarse-grained quartz sand and sparse gravel 

lenses distributed in elongate patches generally along the 

modern rivers. Northeast of Summerville, the deposit of 

lithofacies Q4-5r sediment adjacent to lithofacies Q5b is 

larger than would be suggested by the present drainage 

area. The Santee River may have contributed sediment 

to this area through a channel that is now filled with 

younger deposits. Fresh sediment of lithofacies Q4-5r is 

gray (M>) or pale orange (WYR 8/2), but it weathers to 

grayish orange (WYR 7/4) or dark yellowish orange 

(WYR 6/6).

South of the Santee River, the seaward limit of unit Q5 

deposits is described by a broad arc that trends east to 

the north of the Edisto River and northeast to the south 

of the Edisto. The southern part of the outcrop belt is 

much narrower than the northern part. The narrowness 

suggests that the major sediment source was the Santee 

River and that more erosion took place toward the south 

in the relatively starved part of the Charleston depositional area.

Less sediment was deposited from the Santee River 

northward, apparently because longshore drift has been 

toward the south throughout the Quaternary. Deposits 

of lithofacies Q5b or Q4b seaward of lithofacies Q51 were 

removed during deposition of unit Q3 sediment; also 

removed were deposits of unit Q5 and possibly unit Q4 

south of the Edisto River.

Unit Q5 deposits are magnetically reversed (Liddicoat 

and others, 1981), which indicates an age older than 730 

ka. On the basis of weathering trends and fossils (Weems 

and McCartan, this volume), these deposits, however, 

are judged to be significantly younger than unit Q6 

deposits.
NORTHWEST

Tu

QUATERNARY STRATIGRAPHY IN THE VICINITY OF CHARLESTON

14

A19 

SOUTHEAST

24m

19

11

Q6o?'

Q6b

Q6I

EXPLANATION 

2 Lithologic log number (keyed to fig. 3)

Q6r

Depositional 

lithofacies

b Beach

o Shelf

I Backbarrier

r Fluvial

Younger unit

Well-sorted sand

Muddy sand

Mud containing plant fragments

No sample

Sand containing shells

Coarse sand and gravel 

-Unconformity 

Older unit (undifferentiated Tertiary unit, Tu)

FIGURE 12. Schematic cross section and graphic lithologic log (see fig. 3 for location) showing the lithofacies of the oldest Pleistocene deposits,

unit Q6, in the Charleston, S.C., area.

UNIT Q6

The oldest Quaternary unit in the Charleston area, 

unit Q6 (figs. 2, 6, 12), is a northeast-trending belt of 

unfossiliferous, sandy marine deposits mostly between 

surface altitudes of about 27 m and 32 m and fluvial sand 

above about 27 m. The towns of Dorchester, Walterboro, 

and Gillisonville are located on the clean sand ridge of 

lithofacies Q6b, and the ridge is sharply truncated 

toward the northeast by the Santee River between 

Lakes Marion and Moultrie (fig. 1A).

Four depositional lithofacies are recognized in unit Q6 

(figs. 2, 12): well-sorted, fine- to medium-grained sand 

without shells (lithofacies Q6b, beach and associated 

environments) and with shells (lithofacies Q6o, shelf 

deposits); muddy, fine- to medium-grained sand (lithofacies Q61, backbarrier); and poorly sorted, muddy gravel 

to gravelly sand (lithofacies Q6r, fluvial).

Lithofacies Q6b deposits are as high as 32 m, are as low 

as 16 m, and vary in width between 4 km and 18 km. 

Primary depositional features are rare, other than the 

general shape of the deposit, and presumably were
A20 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

destroyed by postdepositional processes. Clay lamellae 

that accumulated during soil formation constitute less 

than 1 percent of the sediment. Colors range from very 

pale orange (IOYR 8/2) at the surface to yellowish orange 

(IQYR 7/6) at the base of loose sand. Where disseminated 

clay is most abundant (up to 10 percent), the sand is 

cemented, apparently by iron and aluminum oxides that 

formed postdepositionally. Colors there range from moderate reddish orange (WYR 4/6) at the surface to medium 

gray (AT4) at depth. Minor, thin clay beds occur in the 

lower half of the sand body in some places, and planar 

zones enriched with iron oxide occur in the upper half of 

the body; the planar zones suggest weathered heavymineral laminae deposited in a beach face. Few burrows 

have been observed in lithofacies Q6b. The textural 

pattern, the overall shape of the body, and the bed forms 

suggest a shallow-shelf, open-bay, or backbarrier environment of deposition (interbedded clay and sand) succeeded by beach and possibly dune conditions.

Within the lithofacies Q6o shelf sediments, common 

colors are medium gray (M>) to greenish gray (5GY 5/1). 

In spoil piles, shells turn chalky within a few days and 

begin to break down into small fragments within a few 

weeks. The noncalcareous material becomes light gray 

(N7) during weathering.

Backbarrier deposits of lithofacies Q61 occur between 

26 m and 9 m in irregular patches with fairly flat upper 

surfaces. The deposits are typically 8 km across. This 

facies includes interbedded silty clay; muddy, fine- to 

medium-grained quartz sand; and minor, clean, finegrained sand, as well as massive muddy sand containing 

coarser lenses in some areas. Most samples contain more 

than 15 percent clay. Burrows are abundant in some 

places. Colors range from dark reddish brown (IOR 3/6), 

red and white (Af8), or pale pinkish gray (5YR 8/1) at the 

surface to light or medium gray (NT to M>) at depth.

Lithofacies Q6r sediment is present in large patches in 

a belt just northwest of lithofacies Q6b and Q61. These 

fluvial deposits are superimposed on and incised into 

sediment of early Pliocene and older ages. The generally 

poorly sorted, muddy, coarse-grained quartz sand is 

moderate reddish brown (IQR 4/6) at the surface and 

medium gray (M>) at depth. At a few places, lenses of 

clean, coarse-grained quartz sand are yellowish orange 

(WYR 7/6). The present distribution of lithofacies Q6r 

deposits suggests that the Salkehatchie and Edisto Rivers contributed some sediment to the coast in unit Q6 

time, but the Santee River, flowing through the Four 

Hole Swamp drainage about 20 km southwest of Lake 

Marion, delivered the largest amount of sediment to unit 

Q6 beaches.

Unlike younger units, depositional lithofacies in unit 

Q6 are distributed in a relatively simple pattern (figs. 2, 

6, 12). This pattern strongly suggests that all of unit Q6

was deposited while the sea was at about 26 m altitude 

(fig. 5). Landward erosion during unit Q5 deposition was 

extensive and removed most, if not all, of the seaward 

extension of unit Q6 deposits.

The age of unit Q6 deposits is judged to be early 

Pleistocene on the basis of mollusk and ostracode faunas 

in isolated remnants of lithofacies Q6o and in a reworked 

zone at the base of lithofacies Q5o (Ward and Blackwelder, this volume; Cronin, this volume; see also Cronin, 1981), magnetic polarity (Liddicoat and others,

1981), and weathering profiles. Formations that have 

similar fossil assemblages are the Caloosahatchee Formation in Florida (DuBar, Solliday, and Howard, 1974) 

and the Waccamaw in northern South Carolina and 

southern North Carolina (DuBar, 1971; DuBar, Johnson, 

and others, 1974). The Caloosahatchee yielded U-He 

coral dates of older than 1 Ma (M.L. Bender, written 

commun. to B.W. Blackwelder in McCartan and others,

1982). An early Pleistocene age also is supported by

mined by the uranium-disequilibrium-series technique 

for corals from unit Q6 and the Waccamaw Formation at 

Myrtle Beach, S.C. (Szabo, 1985), and by high aminoacid ratios for Mercenaria from unit Q6 and the Waccamaw Formation at Myrtle Beach (McCartan and others, 

1982).

MINERALOGY AND WEATHERING

The mineralogy of the freshest material in each Quaternary lithostratigraphic sequence, units Q1-Q6, is 

essentially fine-grained quartz sand, typically 1 to 2 

percent total heavy minerals (mainly ilmenite, phosphate 

minerals, sillimanite, hornblende, epidote, and staurolite) (table 3) and, in muddy facies, up to 75 percent clay 

minerals, mainly kaolinite, illite, and mixed-layer clay 

(illite-smectite) (table 4). The weathering profile, thicker 

in older deposits, contains a higher proportion of resistant minerals, such as quartz, rutile, and zircon, and 

secondary products, such as leucoxene, kaolinite altered 

postdepositionally, dioctahedral vermiculite, gibbsite, 

and goethite (compare Owens and others, 1983). Weathering and biological processes progressively remove primary sedimentary structures and produce characteristic 

soil structures.

UNIT Ql

Quartz is the predominant mineral in the sand fraction 

of unit Ql deposits. Heavy minerals are found mainly in 

the fine sand fraction (0.06-0.25 mm) and generally 

constitute less than 5 percent by weight of the total sand 

fraction. The heavy-mineral suite mainly ilmenite and
QUATERNARY STRATIGRAPHY IN THE VICINITY OF CHARLESTON A21

TABLE 3. Summary of heavy minerals in Quaternary deposits (units Q1 Q6) in the Charleston, S.C., area, in percent of number of grains in the fine-grained

sand fraction

[0, not observed; tr, less than 0.5 percent of heavy fraction. "Nonresistant minerals" include the previous four columns (except spinel and corundum); "resistant minerals" include the previous

seven columns]

Lithofacies

Qlb

Qlr

Q2b

Q2o

Q21

Q3b

Q3o

Q31

Q3r

Q4b

Q4-5r

Q5b

Q5o

Q51

Q6b

Q61

Q6r

Age Facies

Holocene Beach

Fluvial (P3)

Fluvial (CP3)

-100,000 Beach

Shelf

Backbarrier

-200,000 Beach

Shelf

Backbarrier

Fluvial

-450,000 Beach

Fluvial

>730,000 Beach

Shelf

Backbarrier

>1 m.y. Beach

Backbarrier

Fluvial

umber locations of 

Z

4

1

2

7

2

3

7

1

2

5

2

3

6

8

5

7

2

1

"a,

£

o

1

3

Z

5

1

3

16

3

5

11

1

4

7

2

5

10

9

6

9

3

2

ornblende

K

28

33

tr

22

19

9

9

19

1

12

4

0

1

26

tr

0

2

1

H 

o o 'a,

W

20

31

7

30

39

21

32

17

6

16

18

5

10

29

5

5

4

tr

u

O

1

5

1

tr

1

1

1

1

tr

tr

0

0

tr

1

3

0

0

1

S-i 

OJ

6

1

1

0

tr

0

3

0

0

0

tr

0

tr

4

1

1

1

1

0

minerals onresistant 

Z

50

70

8

52

59

34

42

37

7

28

22

5

15

57

9

6

7

2

aurolite

CO

2

5

5

1

3

1

3

4

1

2

4

4

4

3

6

8

5

9

onazite

S

tr

0

2

0

0

0

tr

0

1

tr

0

1

tr

1

1

tr

0

1

H "c

X

1

2

tr

tr

0

1

1

3

1

tr

1

2

2

tr

1

1

1

2

llimanite

CO

7

9

8

7

4

8

8

1

8

7

10

8

15

4

17

16

14

2

ourmaline

h

2

1

4

1

2

2

1

2

1

2

2

4

4

1

3

3

2

6

3

3

1

5

3

1

4

2

0

1

2

3

5

4

2

5

5

5

2

rcon

N

4

1

12

6

5

4

7

3

3

2

6

4

11

5

8

10

13

3

esistant minerals

e*

19

19

36

18

15

20

22

13

16

15

26

28

40

16

41

43

40

25

V

1a

O

31

11

56

30

26

46

36

50

77

57

52

67

45

27

50

51

53

73

1 Other nonopaque minerals: biotite, chlorite, chloritoid, pyroxene, glauconite, spinel, corundum.

2 Opaque grains: oxides, sulfides, phosphates, shell fragments.

3 P, headwaters in the Piedmont province; CP, headwaters in the Coastal Plain province.

varying amounts of hornblende, epidote, garnet, staurolite, monazite, kyanite, sillimanite, tourmaline, rutile, 

zircon (table 3) reflects metamorphic source rocks. 

Small quantities of glauconite, oxides, sulfides, and phosphates were derived from Coastal Plain deposits. Piedmont rivers carry a larger proportion of labile minerals 

(less resistant to mechanical abrasion and chemical dissolution), such as hornblende, epidote, and garnet, in the 

sand fraction than do Coastal Plain rivers. Wave-action 

depletion of labile minerals in beaches is evident in 

lithofacies Qlb mineralogy (table 3). Reworking of older 

deposits by Coastal Plain rivers results in the most 

mature unit Ql deposits (lithofacies Qlr, table 3). 

Although older Quaternary river deposits are not separated into Piedmont and Coastal Plain categories in table 

3, the older deposits show the same trend as the Holocene river deposits in the maturity of the heavy-mineral 

suite.

Kaolinite is generally the dominant clay mineral in the 

fine fraction of unit Ql deposits, and it is also the 

principal clay mineral in suspension in modern rivers that 

have headwaters in the Piedmont. Because of its relatively large crystal size, kaolinite tends to remain nearshore. Illite appears to be derived from weathered 

Piedmont rocks, as well as from pre-Holocene deposits 

on the shelf, and illite-smectite is reworked largely from 

Oligocene and Eocene deposits underlying the Coastal 

Plain in the Charleston area. Finer grained than kaolinite, illite and illite-smectite tend to accumulate in the 

quieter water environments behind the barriers and on 

the shelf. The same processes probably were operating in 

the past; despite subsequent weathering, the clay distribution in pre-Holocene Quaternary units is generally 

similar to that in unit Ql deposits (table 4).

Weathering is slight in older Holocene deposits. The 

maximum depth of weathering in the earliest Holocene 

beaches is less than 2 m (fig. 13).

UNIT Q2

The mineralogy of deposits in unit Q2 is mainly quartz; 

heavy minerals constitute less than 5 percent of the sand 

fraction, and kaolinite is dominant in the clay-mineral
A22 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

TABLE 4. Dominant clay minerals in selected Pleistocene units in the 

Charleston, S.C., area, in percent of total clay

[Method of calculation of percentages among three clays taken from Reynolds and Hower 

(1970) and Perry and Hower (1970). Relative abundance of dioctahedral vermiculite and 

gibbsite given in McCartan and others (1984)]

Depositional 

environment

Beach. .........

Shelf. ..........

Backbarrier. . . .

Lithofacies

..... Q2b

Q3b 

Q4b 

Q5b

..... Q2o

Q3o 

Q4o 

Q5o

..... Q21

Q31 

Q41 

Q51

Kaolinite

60

82 

100 

100

52

42 

66 

46

46

50 

52 

42

Illite

26

12 

0 

0

14

36 

23

28

18

18 

32 

56

Illite-smectite

14

6 

0 

0

34

22 

11 

26

36

32

17 

3

assemblage. The heavy-mineral (fig. 14; tables 3, 5) and 

clay suites (table 4) are almost indistinguishable from 

those in modern deposits, although the depth of weathering in clean sand is about 3 m in unit Q2 and less than 

2 m in unit Ql (Holocene) (fig. 13). One distinguishing 

characteristic is that unit Q2 clay beds are more consolidated than clay beds of unit Ql, even below the water 

table.

UNIT Q3

The mineralogy of unit Q3 deposits is typical of the 

Charleston-area Quaternary deposits: mainly quartz 

with heavy minerals less than 5 percent and a claymineral assemblage dominated by kaolinite. The weathered material at the top of the most complete sections 

(least eroded) yields a much more weathered heavymineral suite (fig. 14; compare hornblende, epidote, 

garnet, and other nonresistant minerals to rutile, zircon, 

and other resistant minerals in tables 3 and 6) and a 

significantly more altered clay-mineral assemblage than 

younger units yield (kaolinite is 82 percent in Q3b, 60 

percent in Q2b, table 4; dioctahedral vermiculite and 

gibbsite are developed deeper in unit Q3 than in unit Q2 

(McCartan and others, 1984)). Weathering is detectable 

in clean sand to a depth of 7 m (fig. 13) and in muddy 

sediment is shallower. Flowing ground water, which 

enhances weathering, is impeded by a fine-grained 

matrix, so cleaner deposits of each age are more deeply 

weathered than are muddier deposits.

UNIT Q4

Although the mineralogy of unit Q4 was not investigated in detail, the heavy-mineral suite of the unit is

intermediate in maturity between the heavy-mineral 

suites of units Q3 and Q5 (fig. 14; tables 3, 7). The 

proportion of kaolinite increases 20 percent from unit Q3 

to unit Q4 beach deposits (table 4). Deposits of unit Q4 

are weathered to a depth of about 8 m (fig. 13).

UNIT Q5

Heavy-mineral (fig. 14; tables 3, 8) and clay proportions of unit Q5 (table 4) reflect considerably more 

weathering than younger deposits, but they reflect less 

weathering than unit Q6 deposits. The nonresistant 

(hornblende, epidote, and garnet) heavy-mineral percentage, for example, decreases from more than 40 

percent in the heavy fraction of lithofacies Q3b, to 22 

percent in lithofacies Q4b, to 16 percent in the sand of 

lithofacies Q5b, and to 6 percent in the sand of lithofacies 

Q6b (table 3). Lithofacies Q5b is distinguished from all 

the other units by the high proportion of biotite and 

chlorite in many samples. Sillimanite is usually 10-30 

percent of the heavy-mineral fraction in lithofacies Q51 

and the muddier samples of lithofacies Q5b (table 8). 

Heavy-mineral, clay, and feldspar proportions, protected both by burial and by the chemical buffering 

action of abundant shell material, are probably closer to 

their original proportions in lithofacies Q5o than in the 

other unit Q5 facies. The presence of large amounts of 

hornblende and epidote in lithofacies Q5o reflects both 

the high calcium-ion concentration, abundant due to 

dissolution of shells, and the impeding of oxidizing 

ground-water flow by clay particles. In the clay fraction, 

gibbsite, which indicates long-term weathering, is 

absent from younger units, is present in lithofacies Q5b, 

and is ubiquitous in lithofacies Q6b (McCartan and others, 1984). The depth of weathering is typically 9-10 m in 

sand of both units Q5 and Q6 (fig. 13).

UNIT Q6

The mineralogy of unit Q6 deposits is basically the 

same as that of other Quaternary units (tables 3, 9); the 

differences are mainly due to the effects of weathering 

(fig. 14). Lithofacies Q6b is the most weathered facies 

because it is very permeable, contains few shells, and is 

at the surface. The weathering is pervasive, occurring 

from the surface to the base (fig. 13). Ilmenite, the main 

heavy mineral, has altered to leucoxene; hornblende and 

garnet have disappeared completely, and epidote is rare 

in most samples; micas and feldspars have altered postdepositionally to kaolinite, dioctahedral vermiculite, and 

gibbsite. In many deposits, iron derived from heavy 

minerals and dissolved in ground water is reprecipitated 

as goethite.
81°00'

QUATERNARY STRATIGRAPHY IN THE VICINITY OF CHARLESTON

80°30' SOW 79°30'

A23

79°00 r

33°00

32°30

FIGURE 13. Depth of weathering in Quaternary beach deposits in the Charleston, S.C., area. Numbers indicate depth, in meters, to which 

vermiculite has been detected, secondary iron oxide has accumulated, and (or) hornblende has been destroyed. Modified from McCartan and 

others (1984).

OPAQUE 

MINERALS

NON RESISTANT 

MINERALS

NONOPAQUE 

MINERALS

RESISTANT 

MINERALS

FIGURE 14. Heavy minerals (specific gravity greater than 2.85 

g/cm3) in Quaternary beach deposits in the Charleston, S.C., area. 

Because of intrastratal solution by moving ground water, older 

deposits contain lower proportions of more labile heavy minerals, 

such as hornblende, epidote, and garnet, and higher proportions of 

resistant heavy minerals, such as rutile and zircon. Percentages 

and definition of categories are in tables 3 and 5-9; ages, based 

partly on uranium-disequilibrium-series coral dates (McCartan 

and others, 1982) are Ql, <8 ka; Q2, about 100 ka; Q3, about 200 

ka; Q4, about 450 ka; Q5, >730 ka; and Q6, >1 Ma.
A24 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

TABLE 5. Heavy minerals in the fine-grained sand fraction of unit Q2 deposits in the Charleston, S.C., area, in percent of number of grains

[0, not observed; tr, less than 0.5 percent. Localities shown in figure 3. "Nonresistant minerals" include the previous four columns (except corundum); "resistant minerals" include the previous

seven columns]

Lithofacies

Q2b

Q2o

Q21

u

Facies -i

Beach 15

16

17

18

19

20

21

Shelf 22

24

Backbarrier 24

4

25

below (m) surface i 

o.

1

4

7

4

5

12

3

8.5

9

9.5

10

3

2

.5

1

2

11

11

14

3

3

8

3

6

TJ

^ « 

u OJ -0 ">

II

8

3

8

5

5

3

4

3

2

7

5

5

u -a

V

3

a

o

41

29

25

34

23

23

13

11

19

16

12

31

14

2

6

18

24

6

21

1

5

8

23

18

OJ

o-o

'&H 

W

29

39

35

30

36

32

50

21

27

38

37

29

19

18

45

25

44

42

23

8

27

19

34

33

|

rt 

O

0

tr

tr

0

1

0

0

2

0

0

tr

tr

1

0

1

5

1

0

2

0

0

1

1

1

"i.

u

J3

O

1

tr

tr

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

tr

0

0

2

esistant minerals

h

o 

Z

71

68

60

64

60

55

63

34

46

54

49

60

34

20

52

48

69

48

46

11

32

28

58

54

& 

1

3 

us

0

1

1

tr

1

0

5

2

0

5

5

1

tr

6

1

2

0

8

4

0

1

1

9

1

u

IS

o 

S

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

tr

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

V

'a

IS

0

0

tr

0

0

0

0

0

3

2

1

tr

0

0

1

0

tr

0

0

0

4

0

tr

1

V

a

J

i/5

7

9

10

12

5

5

3

3

5

6

1

7

2

10

11

9

7

0

0

9

18

8

5

0

u

1h

1

1

0

1

tr

0

1

1

3

0

2

1

1

1

3

0

7

0

2

4

2

1

4

3

1

3

1

2

1

2

1

3

1

3

0

0

1

3

7

3

2

5

1

2

0

6

8

2

1

0

a

o

u'rN

2

3

7

8

6

0

1

3

2

7

2

5

14

14

5

5

6

4

2

0

15

6

3

2

minerals ;ant 

£

11

15

20

22

13

9

11

14

10

22

11

18

24

36

20

28

14

16

10

17

47

21

21

5

fi 

I

a"

g,

0

18

18

20

13

25

36

26

51

44

22

40

22

42

43

26

25

16

24

44

71

22

51

30

41

1 Other nonopaque minerals: biotite, chlorite, pyroxene, glauconite, corundum.

2 Opaque grains: oxides, sulfides, phosphates, shell fragments.

Both lithofacies Q61 and Q6r have small amounts of 

hornblende and epidote, as well as the other heavy 

minerals. As in younger Quaternary deposits, kaolinite 

(mainly detrital, but not distinguishable by our techniques from kaolinite that formed postdepositionally) is 

the dominant clay in lithofacies Q61. More accessory illite 

occurs in the clay of lithofacies Q61 than in lithofacies Q6b 

clay, both because lithofacies Q61 had more primary illite 

and because the clayier Q61 lithofacies is less permeable 

than the sandier Q6b lithofacies and is, therefore, less 

subject to weathering.

DISCUSSION OF DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY OF 

QUATERNARY UNITS

The Quaternary depositional record of the Charleston, 

S.C., area contains one Holocene and at least five Pleistocene sedimentary transgressive-regressive sequences 

(figs. 2, 6, 15). These sequences consist of several 

depositional lithofacies, including one or more long, low, 

well-sorted, fine- to medium-grained sand bodies 

(beaches and dunes, some of which are on barrier spits or 

islands); extensive thin sheets of locally upward-fining, 

fine- to coarse-grained sand that underlie the remainder 

of each cyclic deposit and that commonly contain a 

mixture of intertidal and subtidal shells (shelf and open 

bay); and muddy, fine- to medium-grained sand containing clay, shells, and wood particularly in the lower 

half that occupies thin wedges backed up behind sand 

bars or occupies channels or sheets beneath the bars 

(backbarrier) (fig. 16). The main channels continue landward (fluvial or estuarine); the minor channels die out or 

are double-ended without significant gradient (tidal 

channels not connected to fresh water streams).
QUATERNARY STRATIGRAPHY IN THE VICINITY OF CHARLESTON A25

TABLE 6. Heavy minerals in the fine-grained sand fraction of unit Q3 deposits in the Charleston, S.C., area, in percent of number of grains 

[0, not observed; tr, less than 0.5 percent. Localities shown in figure 3. "Nonresistant minerals" include the previous four columns; "resistant minerals" include the previous seven columns]

Lithofacies

Q3b

Q3o

Q31

Q3r

£, 

1

Facies >-J

Beach 26

27

28

29

30

31

Shelf 32

Backbarrier 33

34

Fluvial 35

36

37

24

38

£

js 

a,

&

3

5

2

1

3

7

12

4

4

2

4

17

2

3

9

2

5

3

6

4

5

3

10

Altitude (m) above le\sea

13

12

15

1

9

5

7

10

4

13

11

13

7

4

Hornblende

18

0

14

2

18

20

4

0

11

5

6

19

3

6

0

tr

1

0

6

45

4

15

tr

w 

o o'a, 

w

28

14

34

13

28

26

34

25

47

41

46

17

0

16

17

1

4

14

55

30

4

9

0

Garnet

0

5

0

0

3

0

0

1

0

1

tr

1

0

0

0

tr

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

1 i.<u

JS6

0

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

Nonresistant

46

19

48

17

49

46

38

26

58

47

52

37

3

22

17

1

5

14

61

76

10

24

1

Staurolite

5

5

0

6

0

2

9

3

1

4

2

4

2

4

1

tr

1

4

0

0

5

0

1

Monazite

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

0

0

0

0

0

6

1

0

0

0

0

0

2

0

0

w 

rt &

1

0

2

5

0

6

2

tr

0

1

0

3

2

2

tr

0

0

0

0

tr

0

0

0

Sillimanite

15

0

7

12

5

11

17

6

9

6

10

1

31

3

13

0

5

17

8

8

5

1

3

Tourmaline

8

0

0

7

7

0

3

0

tr

2

tr

2

2

2

3

0

1

4

0

4

0

0

1

JU

1

1

12

1

1

2

1

1

3

2

3

1

0

1

2

3

0

1

1

1

tr

4

0

11

I

N

2

26

7

1

9

4

4

7

3

7

1

3

2

7

5

0

0

1

1

tr

5

4

6

Resistant mil

32

43

17

32

23

24

36

22

15

23

14

13

40

26

26

tr

8

27

10

12

21

5

22

w

<u 

IT

a,

0

21

38

36

50

29

29

24

52

26

30

32

50

57

52

57

98

87

58

30

12

70

71

76

1 Other nonopaque minerals: glauconite, pyroxene.

2 Opaque grains: oxides, sulfides, phosphates, shell fragments.

These transgressive-regressive sequences, preserved 

as lithostratigraphic units consisting of several depositional lithofacies, are complex deposits of beach, shallowshelf, backbarrier, and estuarine to fluvial environments. Each sequence records a discrete period of 

deposition during the Quaternary. The transgressive 

phase of each cycle is recorded in the poorly sorted basal 

sand sheet of each unit. The regressive part of each unit 

includes one or more barrier-backbarrier pairs deposited 

during short-term, sea-level stillstands or possibly even 

slight rises in sea level. The result of discontinuously 

dropping sea level is a deposit that has an overall 

regressive appearance (for example, a tilted plain consisting of barrier sand ridges and intervening backbarrier deposits), which also has a transgressive sequence 

consisting of clean beach sand above muddy backbarrier 

sand at many localities.

The highest backbarrier deposits mark approximately 

the highest relative sea level for each period of deposition, and corals dated by the uranium-disequilibriumseries method give the age of most of the sequences. The 

oldest lithostratigraphic unit, Q6, is probably more than 

1 Ma, and its backbarrier deposits occur up to 26 m above 

sea level; unit Q5, older than 730 ka (on the basis of 

reversed magnetic polarity), has backbarrier deposits as 

high as 23 m; unit Q4, probably about 500 ka (McCartan 

and others, 1982), includes backbarrier deposits up to 15 

m; unit Q3, about 200 ka, is as high as 11 m; and unit Q2, 

about 100 ka, has backbarrier deposits as high as 8 m. 

Modern backbarrier deposits occur as extensive flats up 

to 2 m above sea level. The successive offlap of younger 

and lower deposits may be due in part to a long-term 

eustatic lowering of maximum sea level but is also 

probably a function of continuing upwarp of the crust.
A26 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

TABLE 1. Heavy minerals in the fine-grained sand fraction of unit Q4 deposits in the Charleston, S.C., area, in percent of number of grains 

[0, not observed; tr, less than 0.5 percent. Localities shown in figure 3. "Nonresistant minerals" include the previous four columns; "resistant minerals" include the previous seven columns]

 

Lithofacies Fades J

Q4b Beach

(S)3 39

(N)3 40

Q4-5r Fluvial 41

35

42

8 £

s

o

5

?

a.

7

3

1

8

10

2

6

Altitude (m) 

level above sea

18

13

13

13

14

Hornblende

7

tr

0

0

0

tr

0

V

o

T! 'a.

w

33

3

5

0

0

1

16

Garnet

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

J3

6

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

Nonresistant minerals

40

3

5

0

1

1

16

Staurolite

0

4

3

3

1

9

7

Monazite

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

"fl &

t^

0

1

1

5

2

3

1

V

"a 

I 

b/5

9

11

9

7

0

12

9

Tourmaline

1

3

5

8

0

2

1

1

1

5

5

8

4

2

3

o

u

N

4

7

12

9

5

2

4

minerals Resistant 

15

31

35

40

13

31

25

T 

O. 

O

44

64

63

60

87

67

58

1 Other nonopaque minerals: biotite.

2 Opaque grains: oxides, sulfides, phosphates, shell fragments.

3 S, just south of Santee River; N, just north of Santee River.

During the last 8,000 years, the coastline has prograded seaward as much as 12 km (for example, unit Ql 

southeast of Beaufort, S.C., and immediately south of 

the mouth of the Santee River; figs. IA, 2, 6, 15A) due to 

net accumulation of beach and backbarrier deposits. The 

sediment in these deposits was derived from the Piedmont by way of the Santee and Pee Dee Rivers, by 

erosion of pre-Holocene units in the Coastal Plain, and, 

to a smaller extent, by onshore movement of relict shelf 

sediment by tides and bottom currents running counter 

to the Gulf Stream. The second and third processes 

result in partial or complete destruction of older deposits. In general, older deposits are more dissected than 

younger deposits.

One aspect of earlier Quaternary deposition has no 

obvious Holocene analog, that is, the pattern of successively (seaward) lower tidal flats and beach deposits that 

mark a fall in maximum interglacial sea level. Holocene 

sea level is currently at its highest level for the middle 

and southern Atlantic Coastal Plain; therefore, no "lower 

deposits" have accumulated.

The result of progressive mineralogic (weathering) 

and physiographic (erosion and dissection) changes on 

the primary mineralogy, biota, and depositional style is a 

unique set of characteristics for each depositional 

sequence. These characteristics distinguish each lithostratigraphic unit within the Quaternary (Q1-Q6) and 

distinguish the Quaternary units from earlier units.

Quaternary units were deposited in generally northeast-trending belts (fig. 15) during interglacial periods 

that lasted thousands to tens of thousands of years. The 

strike of Pliocene deposits and their duration of deposition are similar to those of Quaternary units. Pliocene 

beach deposits are present at Orangeburg (fig. I A), and 

shallow-shelf deposits are irregularly distributed landward (west) of and beneath Quaternary deposits. Pliocene beach ridges have not been preserved.

Miocene deposits are mostly eroded; therefore, contacts are indeterminate. The deposits are thicker and 

more continuous west of Beaufort (fig. I A). Unusual 

minerals, such as palygorskite and sepiolite, suggest a 

unique environment of deposition for some of the Miocene sediment.

Oligocene and older units trend generally more easterly and, in some cases, represent time periods of several 

million years. Primarily nearshore and midshelf limestones, these deposits are easily distinguished from overlying shoreline sequences.

REGIONAL GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTH 

CAROLINA COASTAL PLAIN

Underlying the Quaternary deposits in South Carolina 

is a seaward-thickening wedge of Cretaceous and Tertiary sediment that is as much as a kilometer thick at the 

coast and about 350 m to 400 m thick just south of 

Orangeburg (fig. IA). Cretaceous and Tertiary units, 

traced in surface exposures and wells, are generally 

thinner in the northern part of the area and thicker in the 

south. These units crop out in irregular east- or 

northeast-trending arcs (fig. 17). The outcrop belts consist of progressively older sediments toward the north. 

These patterns indicate the presence of a basin (southeast Georgia embayment) toward the south and an arch 

(Cape Fear Arch) toward the north. Occasional reversals
QUATERNARY STRATIGRAPHY IN THE VICINITY OF CHARLESTON A27

TABLE 8. Heavy minerals in the fine-grained sand fraction of unit Q5 deposits in the Charleston, S.C., area, in percent of number of grains

[0, not observed; tr, less than 0.5 percent. Localities shown in figure 3. "Nonresistant minerals" include the previous four columns (except spinel); "resistant minerals" include the previous seven

columns]

Lithofacies Fades

Q5b Beach

(Natural placer)

Q5o Shelf

Q51 Backbarrier

J

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

43

50

26

51

52

53

40

45

54

55

56

3 

_O

JS

a

Q

3

5

1

1

2

3

1

2

1

4

6

6

9

13

14

17

17

6

7

1

4

4

1

5

1

Ititude (m) level iove sea

<^

25

18

25

15

6

26

22

25

15

13

8

9

27

22

25

23

24

14

ornblende

a

1

6

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

1

18

48

35

20

22

8

35

35

13

1

0

tr

tr

tr

0

o 

'a

w

1

48

0

1

0

0

1

tr

tr

33

28

21

23

21

21

26

35

33

38

1

15

9.

1

2

tr

c

O

2

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

1

0

4

tr

0

0

14

0

tr

tr

JS

6

tr

2

0

0

0

643

1

tr

0

0

0

13

tr

0

0

0

0

0

tr

0

6

tr

tr

tr

tr

onresistant minerals

z

4

57

0

1

0

643

3

tr

1

34

46

83

59

42

44

35

70

72

51

2

21

23

1

2

tr

aurolite

Cfl

4

tr

9

0

3

0

1

8

6

2

12

1

tr

2

0

0

0

1

tr

2

0

17

5

4

9

onazite

§

0

0

0

0

0

0

tr

tr

1

0

4

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

tr

0

0

0

3

V

a

*)

2

0

2

2

4

1

2

4

2

1

0

0

1

0

1

0

2

tr

tr

1

1

tr

2

0

2

llimanite

i/3

15

12

13

43

39

19

14

15

10

5

3

7

2

6

4

0

8

3

7

23

23

2

23

28

12

ourmaline

h

7

1

3

5

6

0

3

4

7

3

2

0

tr

2

1

1

0

2

tr

1

1

5

3

1

5

jy 

3

1

tr

2

1

0

0

9

5

9

5

1

2

1

0

0

0

2

1

2

6

3

1

4

2

12

8

N

11

3

22

1

0

0

15

8

17

7

tr

0

6

2

3

8

1

3

12

4

3

14

9

6

12

esistant minerals

&

40

16

51

52

52

20

44

44

52

23

22

10

10

12

9

9

13

10

21

37

31

39

46

41

55

' V

1a

O

54

28

49

47

48

15

54

56

47

42

33

7

33

47

44

55

18

17

29

61

49

36

52

57

44

1 Other nonopaque minerals: biotite, chlorite, chloritoid, spinel.

2 Opaque grains: oxides, sulfides, phosphates, shell fragments.

3 Chlorite.

in thickness and dip trends in these units (Gohn, Christopher, and others, 1978; Gohn, Bybell, and others, 1978) 

suggest sporadic differential movement in the direction 

opposite to the long-term motion (upward motion of 

"basins"; downward motion of "arches"). Unusually high 

seismicity in the Charleston area (Tarr, 1977) may reflect 

continuing modern tectonism.

Pre-Quaternary sediment, probably Pliocene, covers 

the northwest part of the map area above about 30 m 

altitude (figs. 2, 5). In addition, fossiliferous upper 

Pliocene shelf sediment occurs in depressions beneath 

the Quaternary cover near the coast. Miocene deposits 

are below the Quaternary sediment in the southwest and 

are thicker in the Ridgeland area (fig. 1A) (Ridgeland

basin; Heron and Johnson, 1966) and westward into 

Georgia. The Cooper Group (Ward and others, 1979; 

Weems and Lemon, 1984b), a semilithified, calcareous, 

fine-grained unit of Oligocene and Eocene age, underlies 

about 7,500 km2 of the Quaternary in the Charleston area 

(fig. 17). Older beds of the Cooper Group occur near the 

surface at the margin of this small depositional basin; 

toward the southwest, part of the Cooper Group may 

grade into the Ocala Limestone (fig. 17) (Counts and 

Donsky, 1963). The Santee Limestone, typically a wellcemented, medium-grained biocalcarenite of middle 

Eocene age, underlies the Cooper Group everywhere, 

except generally northeast of the Santee River where 

the Cooper is absent, although the Santee does underlie
A28 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

TABLE 9. Heavy minerals in the fine-grained sand fraction of unit Q6 (oldest Pleistocene) deposits in the Charleston, S.C., area, in percent of number of grains

[0, not observed; tr, less than 0.5 percent. Localities shown in figure 3. "Nonresistant minerals" include the previous four columns (except spinel); "resistant minerals" include the previous seven 

columns]

Lithofacies

Q6b

Q61

Q6r

§

Fades J

Beach 57

58

54

60

61

62

63

Backbarrier 64

44

Fluvial 65

pth below surface (m) 

0

1

3

2

1

.5

.5

2

4

1

1

3

4

1

4

itude (m) level sea >ve

 M U

33

24

23

26

17

26

21

26

18

26

rnblende

o 

ffi

0

0

0

0

0

tr

0

0

0

2

0

2

0

1

o o'a, 

w

2

17

1

15

0

1

1

tr

6

2

2

7

0

tr

£

0

0

tr

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

tr

2

I

6

0

0

tr

0

1

tr

6

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

minerals nresistant 

o

Z

2

17

1

15

1

1

7

tr

6

6

2

9

tr

3

4>

13

to

3

4

7

11

12

5

8

6

9

5

8

1

12

6

>nazite

o

1

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

V

'3

1

1

1

3

1

1

0

1

1

3

1

0

tr

1

3

imanite

1

8

8

22

14

22

16

14

26

13

11

26

5

3

2

urmaline

H

1

6

5

1

2

2

1

3

6

1

5

0

12

1

1

5

6

5

2

5

4

7

3

11

7

2

3

3

1

8i.

N

14

12

6

13

11

16

5

2

5

16

5

13

4

2

sistant minerals

&

33

37

49

42

53

44

36

41

47

41

46

22

36

15

1

a, 

O

65

46

50

43

46

54

59

59

46

53

52

67

63

83

1 Other nonopaque minerals: biotite, chlorite, chloritoid, spinel.

2 Opaque grains: oxides, sulfides, phosphates, shell fragments.

the seaward 40 km of the emerged part of the Santee 

River delta (Gohn, Bybell, and others, 1978). The Santee 

Limestone is underlain and succeeded at the surface in 

the northeast part of the area by the Black Mingo 

Formation of Paleocene age (Van Nieuwenhuise and 

Colquhoun, 1982) and consists of a sequence of fissile, 

dark, calcareous silts and fine-grained quartz sands.

THE RELATIONSHIP AMONG QUATERNARY

SEDIMENTATION, CHARLESTON SEISMICITY,

AND TECTONISM

Modern seismicity in the Charleston area originates at 

depths of 3 to 13 km (Tarr and Rhea, 1983). The seismic 

events occur beneath an area in which there are several 

small structures, such as domes, in older rocks, and these 

structures appear to have affected sedimentation during 

the Quaternary. In addition, large structures, such as 

the Cape Fear Arch, and small, near-surface features, 

such as sand blows, also controlled or interrupted Quaternary sedimentation or altered the shape of the deposit 

after deposition. As yet, no direct geologic evidence has 

been found of the cause of the 1886 earthquake. In view 

of this, all features possibly related to Quaternary seismicity and tectonism will be discussed.

QUATERNARY UPWARP OF THE CHARLESTON AREA AND 

ITS RELATIONSHIP TO THE CAPE FEAR ARCH

The most widespread feature of the Charleston area 

that may be related to regional tectonism and possibly to 

seismicity is the pattern of belts of Quaternary deposits 

that are progressively lower and younger toward the sea 

(figs. 2, 6). This pattern suggests either successively 

lower sea-level stands or progressive uplift or a combination of both. Although the Eastern United States 

Atlantic continental margin is a "trailing margin" (Pitman, 1978), it is not as stable as, for example, eastern 

Australia (Thorn and others, 1981), where only two 

Quaternary depositional cycles are recorded one about 

125 ka and the other modern. The Australian pattern is 

the ideal pattern suggested by deep-sea oxygen-isotope 

studies; the Charleston pattern, however, strongly 

suggests significant, long-term uplift (Shackleton and 

Opdyke, 1973).

The Cape Fear Arch and southeast Georgia embayment (fig. 18) have influenced sedimentary patterns for 

at least 140 million years (m.y.). A comparison of figures 

17, 18, and 19 reveals that Quaternary units Q6 and Q2 

pinch out across the nose of the Cape Fear Arch, as do 

most Tertiary and some Cretaceous units. The preQuaternary pattern on the southern flank of the arch
QUATERNARY STRATIGRAPHY IN THE VICINITY OF CHARLESTON A29

TERTIARY 

DEPOSITS

40 MILES

I T 

20 40 KILOMETERS

TERTIARY 

DEPOSITS

20 40 MILES 

I________I

20 40 KILOMETERS

B

TERTIARY 

DEPOSITS

20 40 MILES

L I I

20 40 KILOMETERS

D

TERTIARY 

DEPOSITS

40 KILOMETERS

TERTIARY 

DEPOSITS

40 MILES 

J

40 KILOMETERS

FIGURE 15. Quaternary lithostratigraphic units Q1-Q6 in the 

Charleston, S.C., area. The modern shoreline and the seaward edge 

of the Tertiary outcrop belt are lines of reference. A, Unit Ql, <8

ka; B, unit Q2, about 100 ka; C, unit Q3, about 200 ka; D, unit Q4, 

about 450 ka; E, unit Q5, >730 ka; F, unit Q6, >1 Ma. Dashed line 

in D indicates approximate seaward edge of unit Q4 outcrop belt.
L

Low

5m'

'{

21 | 

Je f

o < 5m - 

f

/ 

\

/Tree-root zone

^

/T^Xj

a

. /°" ~-

"o ""'""'.

v.'.'l

/ > ^ .

_"r>

/^ ~ ,

->4T

I i i 

I

Beach and dune facies \ 

1. Tan, fine-grained sand containing I 

heavy-mineral laminae and rusty- \ 

brown-stained zones; planar bed- I 

ding - 

2. Well-sorted, fine- to medium-grained 

tan to gray sand; broad trough 

crossbeds, ripple laminae; shells in 

stringers and wedges that end abruptly in unfossiliferous sand; bur- 

\ rows f

Back barrier and foreshore facies 

3. Blue-gray to green-gray silty clay and 

silty fine-grained sand containing 

abundant shell beds several centimeters thick; Mulinia is dominant 

species; borrows

\ 4. Fine- to medium-grained, clayey, gray 

u sand and minor shells

1 5. Coarse-grained, gray, fairly well 

1 sorted sand containing whole and 

1 broken shells

I 6. Clayey, fine-grained, gray-green sand 

\ and fine-qrained shell fragments

7. Medium- to coarse-grained, silty gray 

\ sand and shell hash

8. Clayey gray sand containing mica and 

1 shells

9. Well-sorted, gray, medium-grained 

sand

COOPER FORMATION

| PLEISTOCENE AGEj HOLOCENE 

| TERTIARY
FIGURE 16. Typical Quaternary lithostratigraphic unit in the 

Charleston, S.C., area. Stratigraphic column for unit Q2 at 

Mount Pleasant (modified from McCartan and others, 1980) 

includes, from the top, lithofacies Q2b (beach), Q21 (backbarrier), and Q2o (shelf). Uppermost 1.5 m of section is not shown 

because it is eolian sand derived from lithofacies Q2b and was 

redeposited during the Holocene (14C date no. 10 on stumps of 

forest trees engulfed by sand; see table 2). This section records 

transgression during sea-level rise, as shown by the thick 

section of shelf deposits at the base, and regression accompanying a sea-level drop, as shown by the superposition of 

shallower water fades over slightly deeper water fades beach 

and backbarrier over shelf. A stillstand or slight rise in sea level 

is indicated by the superposition of beach deposits over backbarrier deposits (see text for further discussion). Section below 

sea level is known from drill-hole samples; photographs A and B 

are from shallow-shelf deposits elsewhere. A, Lithofacies Q2o, 

shelly sand, poorly sorted, crudely bedded; head of shovel is 20 

cm long. B, Lithofacies Q2o, muddy shelly sand; divisions on 

rule are centimeters. C, Backbarrier, lithofacies Q21; interbedded mud and sand containing shells, overlain by beach sand in 

which shells are dissolving; shovel head is 20 cm. D, E, and F, 

Foreshore and shore fades, lithofacies Q2b; long, low-angle 

crossbeds in shelly sand; megaripples; lined burrows; landward 

is to the right in D and behind the viewer in E and F; shovel 

head is 20 cm, and large shell in E is 7 cm across. G, Dune, 

lithofacies Q2b; crossbedding marked by heavy minerals; lens 

cover is about 5 cm across; photograph is from a modern dune 

elsewhere because dunes in units Q2-Q6 appear massive due to 

loss of heavy minerals by weathering. H, Beach, lithofacies 

Q2b; well-sorted, medium- to fine-grained sand; dark patches 

are oxidized heavy-mineral layers; landward is to the right; 

shovel head is 20 cm long. I, Trench through beach fades; rod 

is at a 90° bend in face; dark laminae are heavy minerals; 

seaward is toward the right; lens cover is about 5 cm across.
A32 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

82°

LOWER BLACK CREEK

FORMATION 

(LOWER CAMPANIAN)

LIGOCENEy Charleston Harbor

FIGURE 17. Generalized pre-Miocene geology of the South Carolina 

Coastal Plain (J.P. Owens, written commun., 1981). The lower part 

of the Cooper Group (upper Eocene) grades southwestward into the 

Ocala Limestone. In this area, the orientation of contacts is controlled by tectonism expressed as the Cape Fear Arch (North 

Carolina) and the southeast Georgia embayment (see fig. 18).

appears to be related to continual or sporadic uplift, as 

the depositional strikes of successively younger units 

become progressively more east of north. If this tectonic 

style continued into the Quaternary, it probably influenced Quaternary deposition as well. In addition, other 

factors, such as changes in ocean currents, may have 

affected the pattern of Quaternary deposits.

To the southwest, downwarping of the southeast Georgia embayment during the Quaternary is suggested by 

the extensive erosion of each Quaternary unit by the sea 

during each succeeding depositional cycle. For example, 

in the southwest quarter of the maps in figures 2 and 6, 

backbarrier sediment of each unit younger than unit

Shaded areas are regional aeromagnetic highs (over 11,000 gammas 

total magnetic intensity; Zietz and others, 1982). Local aeromagnetic highs (labeled 1, 2, and 3 where residual magnetic intensity is 

greater than 0 gammas; Phillips and others, 1978) coincide approximately with areas in which Eocene deposits of the Cooper Group 

and Santee Limestone are at unusually high altitudes.

Q6 is found in a relatively narrow outcrop belt near or 

adjacent to lithofacies Q6b. By contrast, north of 

Charleston, broad outcrop belts of units Q5 and Q3 were 

preserved, probably by Quaternary uplift of the Cape 

Fear Arch.

Weems and others (1982) have inferred from the 

superposition of three Quaternary (units Ql, Q2, and Q5, 

fig. 2) and at least three pre-Quaternary units that the 

Cooper River (fig. 1A) is a tectonically controlled drainage within the downwarped southeast Georgia embayment. This inference is further supported by the disequilibrium bottom profile of the Back River, which drains 

eastward into the Cooper River (Force, 1979). The main
QUATERNARY STRATIGRAPHY IN THE VICINITY OF CHARLESTON A33

I ^Southeast Georgia 

Embayment

FIGURE 18. Structural framework of the Atlantic Coastal Plain of 

the Southeastern United States (modified from Owens, 1983). 

Area of this report is outlined at lat 33° N., long 80° W. Dashed 

lines outline the named arches and basins; arrows indicate the 

axial trend and plunge of each arch through time. Abbreviations: 

C, Charleston; 0, Orangeburg; B, Beaufort high; R, Ridgeland 

basin (see fig. I A).

channel of the upper reaches of the Back River is steeper 

than neighboring streams and cannot be explained by 

harder bedrock. Recent uplift of the headwaters region 

could account for the steep profile.

On the basis of the distribution of Eocene and Miocene 

units, Heron and Johnson (1966) established the presence of a high at Beaufort and a trough extending 

westward into Georgia from the Ridgeland area (B and R 

in fig. 18). Preservation of a notable high as an erosional 

remnant during a succeeding marine incursion is unlikely, as is confinement of sediment containing minerals 

suggestive of restricted water conditions within an erosional trough. These features are more likely to have 

been controlled structurally during at least part of their 

depositional history. The Savannah River flood of 1929 

deposited sediment in the Ridgeland basin (lithofacies 

Qlr, southwest corner of fig. 2). Therefore, the concentration of flood deposits in this area suggests continued 

downwarping here.

Drilling studies of the Tertiary section over three of 

the aeromagnetic highs near Charleston (1, 2, and 3 in 

fig. 17) suggest that the highs coincide approximately 

with unusually high areas of Eocene deposits. These 

areas of unconsolidated to semilithified deposits are 

interpreted as structural domes rather than erosional 

remnants, because they have been, since deposition, 

under at least 10 m of seawater five to nine times during 

the Tertiary and early Pleistocene.

Modern small-magnitude earthquakes coincide with an 

area 5 km south of Summerville (fig. 1A) near the "Cooke 

Fault" of Behrendt and others (1981). No causal relationship has been shown between the minor northeasttrending disruption of seismic lines there and modern 

seismicity.

SMALL DEFORMATIONAL FEATURES

A series of spectacular small faults, sand dikes, and 

contorted sand and clay beds are associated with preQuaternary deposits at the surface in the upper Coastal 

Plain (Colquhoun and others, 1969) in the Orangeburg 

area and farther west (fig. I A) (Owens and others, 1976; 

McDowell and Houser, 1983). The features appear to be 

the result of rapid earth movements or pore pressure 

changes and thus could have accompanied an earthquake. This zone of disruption lies east and northeast of 

the high-angle faults proposed by Faye and Prowell 

(1982) and appears to be on strike with one of them. On 

the basis of the probable age of the disrupted deposits, 

some of the structures may be as old as early Tertiary. 

Whether or not earth movements have occurred during 

the Quaternary is unknown, as there are no recognizable 

Quaternary units in the disrupted zone.

Sand blows and other surface dislocations were photographed immediately after the 1886 earthquake (Button, 

1889), but most of these have not been relocated in the 

field for examination despite an extensive search. Many 

probably occurred in swampy ground, and the action of 

ground water and tree roots has thoroughly masked 

them. However, three of the 1886 sand blows have been 

relocated (fig. 3) (Weems and others, 1986). Trenches 

through two of them reveal ejection dikes in marine 

deposits. Fresh sand that geysered up from below during 

the earthquake fills large cracks in yellow to deep-orange 

soil at the top of the trenches. Two of the three sand 

blows are in unit Q3 and one is in unit Q2.
A34 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886 

80W 76W

36W _

34W

PLANNER BEACH 

FORMATION

CAPE FEAR 

\ ARCH

\

WACCAMAW 

FORMATION

32W

FIGURE 19. Time-stratigraphic map of generalized 

geologic units of Quaternary age in South Carolina 

and North Carolina (North Carolina and northern 

South Carolina modified from Mixon and Pilkey, 

1976; DuBar, 1971; DuBar, Johnson, and others, 

1974; and Owens, 1982). Units Q6 and Q2 and their 

correlatives, such as the Waccamaw Formation 

and Core Creek sand, respectively, are missing for

A 1-m-wide "chaotic dike" was discovered in a railroad 

embankment west of Goose Creek Reservoir, S.C. (fig. 

20) (W. L. Newell and D. C. Pro well, written commun., 

1980). The clay and sand probably were deposited in the 

backbarrier environment about 200 ka (lithofacies Q31) 

(McCartan and others, 1984). The disruption took place 

after dewatering of the clay, 3 as the material is in small, 

angular clasts and therefore did not flow, but was 

fractured. However, the disruption took place prior to 

the deposition of the well-sorted sand that unconform3 Pleistocene clay is dewatered; Holocene is not. The maximum time for 

dewatering is thus <86,000 years, the age of the youngest of the dated 

Pleistocene deposits.

over 150 km north of the Cape Fear Arch; unit Ql 

is included in unit Q2 in this map. The area outlined 

is shown in more detail in figure 2 and coincides 

with the outlined area in figure 18 at lat 33° N., 

long 80° W. Ages are discussed throughout the 

text, and generalized lithologic units are shown in 

figure 6.

ably overlies the disrupted zone, which is probably from 

unit Q2 (McCartan and others, 1984). The disruption, 

therefore, occurred between 200 and 100 ka and was a 

rapid event that may have accompanied an earthquake.

CRUSTAL MOVEMENT AFFECTING CRETACEOUS AND

CENOZOIC COASTAL PLAIN DEPOSITS BETWEEN

NEW JERSEY AND SOUTH CAROLINA

Comparison of detailed stratigraphy in New Jersey, 

the Delmarva Peninsula, North Carolina, and South 

Carolina indicates that the North American continental 

margin has not subsided uniformly during its history 

(Owens, 1983). Cretaceous and Tertiary units outline
QUATERNARY STRATIGRAPHY IN THE VICINITY OF CHARLESTON A35

D

FINE, WELL-SORJED .SAND.

MUDDY SAND

WALL OF 

J2!!CH_

THIN CLAY BED N

ZONE OF 

DISRUPTION

FLOOR OF 

DITCH

FIGURE 20. Disrupted Pleistocene unit in railroad embankment west 

of Goose Creek Reservoir, S.C. (fig. 1A). A, B, and C are successively closer views of the disruption zone; ruler is about 18 cm long. 

D is a sketch of A. Compare photographs with sketch to determine 

the nature of the features outlined by the string pinned to the 

outcrop: a clay bed that was deposited in a backbarrier tidal channel,

major long-term basins (Raritan, Salisbury, Albemarle, 

southeast Georgia) and arches (South Jersey, Fort Monroe, Cape Fear) (all but New Jersey features are shown 

in fig. 18). Neither the rate nor the direction of movement of these major structures is constant. Understanding the tectonic style of the Coastal Plain is essential to 

the correct correlation of Quaternary and older units. 

Although one or more units can be correlated between 

adjacent areas on the basis of radiometric dates, fossils, 

lithology, or a combination of these, the details of the

deeper to the south (left), incised into muddy backbarrier sand; a thin 

clay bed beveled on its southern end by the tidal channel; and the 

nearly vertical disruption zone. Mottling is due to weathering; lightcolored material at top of bank is a spoil pile, about 0.75 m high, 

overlying a fine-grained sand unit, about 0.5 m thick, that overlies 

and postdates the disruption.

stratigraphic sequence in each area are unique. Sea-level 

histories, which are based on lithologic sequences, may 

differ even in nearby areas. This clearly illustrates the 

local tectonic complication of the theoretical eustatic 

depositional patterns.

Differential movement of regional arches and basins is 

evident in the distribution of Mesozoic and Cenozoic 

sediment of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. Reversals of 

thickness (Gohn, Bybell, and others, 1978; Gohn, Christopher, and others, 1978) and the absence of certain units
A36 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

(Owens, 1983) show that these regional structures sometimes moved in the direction opposite to the general 

trend (that is, arches moving downward with respect to 

basins and adjacent basins moving at different rates).

SUMMARY

In the Charleston area, 5-25 m of marine and fluvial 

Quaternary deposits blanket Paleocene to Pliocene units 

between about 35 m altitude and the sea. There are at 

least six Quaternary lithostratigraphic units, including 

the Holocene deposits of unit Ql: unit Q6 has corals older 

than 1 Ma and backbarrier deposits, which mark approximately the position of sea level, up to 26 m; on the basis 

of reversed magnetic polarity, unit Q5 is between 1 Ma 

and 730 ka, and it has backbarrier deposits up to 23 m; 

unit Q4 is biostratigraphically correlated with a unit at 

Myrtle Beach, S.C., that contains corals about 500 ka, 

and it has backbarrier deposits up to 15 m; unit Q3 has 

corals about 200 ka and backbarrier deposits up to 11 m; 

and unit Q2 has corals about 100 ka and backbarrier 

deposits up to 8 m.

Each lithostratigraphic unit has several depositional 

lithofacies, including (1) beach deposits contained in one 

or more linear, generally well-sorted sand bodies that 

parallel the modern coast (these beaches may lie adjacent 

to older deposits at the inner edge of a bay or on the 

seaward edge of a barrier); (2) shelf and open-bay 

deposits consisting of shelly, clean to muddy sand sheets 

adjacent to and seaward of the beaches; (3) backbarrier 

deposits consisting of muddy sand bodies landward of the 

barriers; and (4) fluvial deposits consisting of sinuous, 

muddy sand belts oriented typically 45 to 90° to the 

coastline. Younger units bevel older units and lie at 

progressively lower altitudes. The resulting pattern is 

complex: "islands" of older material surrounded by 

younger intertidal deposits; younger sand bodies over 

older shelf deposits; younger fluvial facies cutting across 

older marine facies.

One characteristic used to distinguish adjacent or 

juxtaposed units of different ages is the weathering 

profile. Weathering is more distinct in older units: the 

soil profile is thicker, certain primary minerals are 

selectively dissolved, and secondary minerals become 

notable.

The oldest Pleistocene deposits, unit Q6, consist of a 

discontinuous, long, low belt of fine- to medium-grained 

quartz sand having surface altitudes up to 32 m; muddy 

sand flats extending northwest (inland) of the sand belt, 

but at slightly lower altitudes; and shelly, gritty, 

medium-grained sand extending southeast (seaward of 

the sand belt) at altitudes of 10 to 15 m beneath younger 

deposits. We interpret these lithofacies as having been

deposited in the beach (Q6b), backbarrier (Q61), and shelf 

(Q6o) environments. The biostratigraphic age of the 

fossils is judged to be early Pleistocene on the basis of 

fossils from remnants of lithofacies Q6o deposits preserved in channels beneath younger sediment and on the 

basis of fossils presumably reworked from unit Q6 and 

found at the base of some unit Q5 deposits. Radiometric 

dates on corals from the reworked material are older 

than 1 Ma. The unit is probably a correlative of the 

Waccamaw Formation of northern South Carolina and 

southern North Carolina. The weathered sand has little 

hornblende, epidote, and garnet; the clay fraction of the 

weathered sand contains abundant kaolinite; and dioctahedral vermiculite, gibbsite, and goethite are present in 

many samples.

In the area between Summerville and Pinopolis, a 

large, southward-prograded, intertidal spit system accumulated as unit Q5. It consists of a series of long, slightly 

muddy sand ridges (lithofacies Q5b) and associated 

muddy sand flats (lithofacies Q51) between 28 m and 15 m 

above sea level. Beneath these lithofacies lies a transgressive shelf deposit (lithofacies Q5o) containing abundant fossils.

In the Bethera area between 19 m and 12 m is a single 

large, low, clean quartz sand body (lithofacies Q4b) and 

associated gritty, muddy, medium-grained sand (lithofacies Q41) deposited after the Summerville spits but 

before the later Pleistocene units (units Q3 and Q2). 

Fossils are sparse in unit Q4, and radiometric dates are 

not available from the Charleston area for this unit. 

However, on the basis of its position between units Q5 

and Q3, we tentatively correlate unit Q4 with the Canepatch Formation of Myrtle Beach 100 km to the north. 

Mineralogy also suggests significant age differences 

among most lithofacies of units Q5, Q4, and Q3. The 

Canepatch Formation in Myrtle Beach has yielded several corals that have an average radiometric age of 450 

ka. Some of the deposits labeled unit Q5 at lower 

altitudes in the western part of the map area may 

actually be unit Q4.

Undifferentiated fluvial deposits of units Q4 and Q5 

(lithofacies Q4-5r) consist of well-sorted to muddy, 

medium- to coarse-grained sand with or without gravel 

or a mud matrix and are found mainly along the 

Salkehatchie-Combahee, Edisto, and Cooper Rivers. 

The presence of lithofacies Q4-5r deposits in the upper 

part of the Santee valley and their absence southeast of 

Lake Moultrie in the Santee valley suggest that the 

Santee previously occupied the present Cooper River 

course.

The older of two later Pleistocene units (unit Q3) is 

exposed as low sand ridges (lithofacies Q3b) below surface altitudes of 16 m and associated muddy sand flats 

(lithofacies Q31) below llm. Notable amounts of horn-
QUATERNARY STRATIGRAPHY IN THE VICINITY OF CHARLESTON A37

blende and epidote are preserved in the weathered part 

of the sand facies; vermiculite is poorly developed in the 

clay fraction, and shells are present near the surface. 

Shelly, fine-grained sand, muddy in places (lithofacies 

Q3o), is present discontinuously beneath lithofacies Q3b. 

Corals from two sites yielded radiometric dates of about 

200 ka, and this date and fossil faunas support correlation 

with upper Pleistocene units. Medium- to coarsegrained, poorly sorted fluvial deposits (lithofacies Q3r) 

are found in the valleys of the Edisto, Cooper, and 

Santee Rivers.

The youngest Pleistocene unit, exposed in lithofacies 

Q2b and Q21, occupies the first beach and backbarrier 

system, 11 m to 8 m in altitude, behind the Holocene 

beaches. Alignment of some unit Q2 deposits (lithofacies 

Q21) along Holocene rivers indicates reoccupation of 

older channels. Shelly, muddy sand of lithofacies Q2o is 

found widely beneath deposits of lithofacies Q21 and Q2b. 

The fluvial lithofacies (Q2r) is limited, probably by 

Holocene river erosion, to narrow terraces along the 

Santee, Stono, and Broad Rivers. Unit Q2 deposits are 

characterized by a very thin weathering profile and by 

fresh-looking shells and unweathered heavy minerals 

near the surface. Unit Q2 has a modern fauna and has 

yielded corals about 120 to 90 ka.

Holocene deposits (unit Ql) consist of well-sorted sand 

(lithofacies Qlb) in modern beaches that reach an altitude 

of 5 m; muddy sand (lithofacies Qll) in the backbarrier 

environment below 2 m; subtidal shelly, fine- to mediumgrained sand containing muddy layers (lithofacies Qlo) in 

open bays and on the shelf; poorly sorted, fine- to 

coarse-grained fluvial deposits (lithofacies Qlr) in modern river channels and flood plains; and swamp deposits 

(lithofacies Qls) consisting mainly of fine-grained sand 

and, rarely, mud and plant fragments. Holocene mud 

generally is not dewatered, unlike Pleistocene mud.

Delineation of Quaternary stratigraphic units is a 

prerequisite to determining whether or not tectonism 

has affected Quaternary sedimentation. If seismicity is a 

short-term manifestation of tectonism, inferences about 

the relationship between tectonism and the pattern of 

Quaternary deposits may help achieve the original goal of 

the Charleston Project, which was to determine the 

cause of the 1886 earthquake and the subsequent high 

level of seismicity in the area. No faults offsetting 

Quaternary sediment have yet been found in the Charleston area, but within the modern seismic zone and elsewhere in the Charleston area are structures that appear 

to affect the pattern of some Quaternary deposits. 

Regional basins and arches also have affected Quaternary sedimentation, but the relationship among these 

larger structures, the smaller ones, and seismicity is not 

yet clear.

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Calcareous Nannofossils from Pliocene 

and Pleistocene Deposits in 

South Carolina

By LAUREL M. BYBELL

STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, 

EARTHQUAKE OF 1886-NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY 

LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND BIOSTRATIGRAPHY

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-B

CONTENTS

	Page

Abstract.................................................................................................................... Bl

Introduction............................................................................................................... 1

Acknowledgments.................................................................................................. 1

Materials and methods ................................................................................................. 1

Calcareous nannofossil zonation...................................................................................... 3

Results...................................................................................................................... 5

Raysor Formation and related beds.......................................................................... 5

Goose Creek Limestone, Bear Bluff Formation, and associated beds.............................. 5

Waccamaw(?) Formation (unit Q6)............................................................................ 7

Penholoway Formation (unit Q5).............................................................................. 7

Canepatch Formation (unit Q4)................................................................................ 7

Ten Mile Hill beds (older part of unit Q3).................................................................. 8

Wando Formation (unit Q2)..................................................................................... 8

Conclusions................................................................................................................ 8

References cited ......................................................................................................... 8

ILLUSTRATIONS

[Plate 1 follows references cited]

PLATE 1. Gephyrocapsa, Coccolithus, Cyclococcolithus, Helicosphaera, Sphenolithus, 

Reticulofenestra, and Braamdosphaera.

Page

FIGURE 1. Map of South Carolina showing sample localities............................................... B2

2. Chart showing ranges of key Pliocene and Pleistocene calcareous nannofossil

taxa..................................................................................................... 4

3. Chart showing occurrences of calcareous nannofossils in South Carolina................ 6

in

STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886- 

NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND BIOSTRATIGRAPHY

CALCAREOUS NANNOFOSSILS FROM PLIOCENE AND PLEISTOCENE

DEPOSITS IN SOUTH CAROLINA

By LAUREL M. BYBELL

ABSTRACT

Marine Pliocene and Pleistocene units from the South Carolina 

Coastal Plain yield low-diversity, poorly preserved calcareous nannofossils. Because standard zonations often cannot be applied directly, we 

substituted other calcareous nannofossil horizons. Nannofossil data 

used in conjunction with magnetic polarity, uranium-disequilibriumseries dating, and planktonic foraminiferal data result in fairly precise 

ages for each lithostratigraphic unit: Wando Formation late Pleistocene, 129,000-87,000 years ago; Ten Mile Hill beds-Pleistocene, 

240,000-200,000 years ago; Canepatch Formation Pleistocene, about 

450,000 years ago; Penholoway Formation Pleistocene, 925,000- 

700,000 years ago; WaccamawC?) Formation early Pleistocene, 

1.7-1.25 million years ago; Bear Bluff Formation late Pliocene, 

3.0-1.75 million years ago; Goose Creek Limestone and associated 

beds middle Pliocene, 3.9-3.2 million years ago; and Raysor Formation and associated beds early Pliocene, 5.2-3.9 million years ago.

INTRODUCTION

Pliocene and Pleistocene sediments of the South Carolina Coastal Plain accumulated in a wide variety of 

marine to nonmarine environments. The resulting 

mosaic of sedimentary units, combined with the complexity of the existing lithostratigraphic nomenclature, often 

makes it difficult to assign a formation name to a 

particular outcrop. Calcareous nannofossils were studied 

from all the marine Pliocene and Pleistocene units in the 

Charleston area in order to define the ages of the units, 

so that some of the lithologic complexities might be 

resolved. Unfortunately, most of the many samples 

examined contained no calcareous nannofossils or contained only rare, poorly preserved specimens, and calcareous nannofossils were never abundant. This is probably the result of deposition in shallow-water environments, where the species never were abundant, or the

Manuscript approved for publication September 21, 1987.

result of postdepositional alteration. Many specimens are 

poorly preserved as a result of both dissolution and 

recrystallization. Because of the poor abundance of floras, additional samples were examined from similar units 

farther north in South Carolina. These samples frequently contained somewhat better, but never diverse, 

assemblages.

Species occurrences for all the best South Carolina 

samples are given in this paper, although not all the 

barren and extremely sparse samples are included. Individual sedimentary units sometimes could be differentiated by calcareous nannofossils, but not always. In this 

paper, sediments of similar ages are grouped together 

whenever the terminology for the units is unresolved and 

they cannot be separated paleontologically. At some 

later date, these units may be identified lithostratigraphically, but for the present, it seems best to describe 

the calcareous nannofossils at specific localities.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I want to thank Thomas M. Cronin, James P. Owens, 

and Robert E. Weems for helpful discussions regarding 

the various sedimentary units in the study area. I also 

want to thank Nancy Goodwin and Harry Dowsett for 

assistance in constructing the plate and figures and for 

taking the scanning electron micrographs. I am grateful 

to Richard Z. Poore and Robert E. Weems for their 

reviews of this paper. This work was supported by the 

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Office of Nuclear 

Research, under Agreement No. AT(49-25)-1000.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Members of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) conducted studies of South Carolina Coastal Plain sediments

Bi
B2 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

50

FIGURE 1. South Carolina sample localities discussed in text and listed in figure 3. Base from U.S. Geological Survey, 1972, scale 1:2,500,000.

from 1973 to 1984. Many samples were collected in the 

Charleston area, as well as in other parts of the State. 

Because calcareous nannofossils are found in most 

marine sediments throughout the world, samples from all 

of the Pliocene and Pleistocene marine units in South 

Carolina were processed and examined for their nannofossil content. These samples come from three general 

areas in South Carolina: near Charleston, farther north 

near Myrtle Beach, and inland from Myrtle Beach (fig. 

1). Most of the samples for this study were collected from 

outcrops, coreholes, and auger holes by Robert E. 

Weems, Thomas M. Cronin, and Lucy McCartan of the 

USGS. Each locality and its specific geographic data are 

listed by the locality number in the "Locality register" of 

Weems and McCartan (this volume). The marine sedimentary units that were examined include the Pliocene 

Raysor Formation, Givhans beds, Goose Creek Limestone, and Bear Bluff Formation and the Pleistocene 

Waccamaw Formation (unit Q6 of McCartan and others, 

this volume), Penholoway Formation (unit Q5), Canepatch Formation (unit Q4), Ten Mile Hill beds (unit Q3), 

and Wando Formation (unit Q2). Table 1 in the introduction to this volume shows these marine units, as well as 

other Neogene and Quaternary formations in the 

Charleston area.

Samples were processed as soon as possible after they 

were collected because of the high organic content of 

many of these units. If samples are allowed to remain 

wet in airtight plastic sample bags, the water rapidly 

becomes very acidic and dissolves the calcareous nannofossils. If samples could not be processed immediately, 

they were dried in an oven at 60 °C to prevent dissolution. Oven drying at this temperature appears to have no 

adverse effects on the calcareous nannofossil specimens.
CALCAREOUS NANNOFOSSILS FROM PLIOCENE AND PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS IN SOUTH CAROLINA B3

Calcareous nannofossil slides routinely were examined 

under a light microscope. Because of the poor preservation and low abundance of calcareous nannofossils, routine use of the scanning electron microscope (SEM) was 

judged to be impractical. Only a few of the better 

samples were examined by using the SEM.

CALCAREOUS NANNOFOSSIL ZONATION

Martini (1971) and Bukry (1973, 1978) presented 

detailed calcareous nannofossil zonations for Pliocene 

sediments (fig. 2), zonations that rely mainly on the 

occurrences of discoasters and ceratoliths. Unfortunately, only an occasional Discoaster brouweri, along 

with a few discoasters that were unidentifiable as a 

result of recrystallization, were encountered in this 

study; there were no ceratoliths in any of the samples. 

Only one specimen of Reticulofenestra pseudoumbilica 

was observed (pi. 1, fig. 9). Following Backman and 

Shackleton (1983) and Haq and Berggren (1978), we 

consider this species to include only large forms at least 

5 micrometers in size.

Because the standard zonations cannot be used in 

South Carolina, we substituted other horizons (fig. 2). 

The first appearance datum (FAD) of Pseudoemiliania 

lacunosa has been reported to occur well below the last 

appearance datum (LAD) of R. pseudoumbilica in some 

areas (Gartner and others, 1983; Mazzei and others, 1979; 

Steinmetz and Stradner, 1984). More commonly, the 

FAD of P. lacunosa is assumed to occur at or slightly 

above the LAD of R. pseudoumbilica (Berggren and 

others, 1985; Haq and Takayama, 1984; Percival, 1984; 

Poore and others, 1983; Rio and others, 1984). It is now 

generally agreed that the LAD of R. pseudoumbilica 

occurs at about 3.5 Mega-annum (Ma, 106 years), very 

near the Gauss-Gilbert magnetic epoch boundary (Backman and Shackleton, 1983; Berggren and others, 1985; 

Gartner and others, 1983; Haq and Takayama, 1984; Hsu 

and others, 1984). The FAD of P. lacunosa has been 

reported as old as about 3.9 Ma (Gartner and others, 

1983) or as young as 3.4 Ma (Haq and Takayama, 1984), 

depending upon whether or not an overlap is observed 

for the ranges of these two species. R. pseudoumbilica 

was found only questionably in South Carolina Pliocene 

sediments (the one scanning electron micrograph could 

be the result of contamination), so the overlap with P. 

lacunosa in this region is a moot point. For the purposes 

of this study, the FAD of P. lacunosa at 3.9 Ma is 

utilized. Cronin and others (1984) used a date of 3.4 Ma 

for the FAD of P. lacunosa in the Atlantic Coastal Plain. 

However, this was before the LAD of R. pseudoumbilica 

was moved down to 3.5 Ma as a result of redefining this 

species to include only the larger forms. In addition,

Cronin and others (1984) made the assumption that the 

ranges of these two species probably do overlap.

The LAD of all Sphenolithus species, particularly S. 

abies (pi. 1, fig. 8), occurs somewhat above the LAD of 

R. pseudoumbilica (Gartner and others, 1983; Berggren 

and others, 1985). The LAD of Discoaster brouweri 

occurs somewhere between 1.9 Ma (Berggren and others, 1985) and 1.68 Ma (Haq and Takayama, 1984). Any 

samples containing D. brouweri were assumed to be no 

younger than 1.68 Ma, as long as reworking was assumed 

not to occur.

The first appearance of Gephyrocapsa caribbeanica 

(pi. 1, fig. 4) has been placed at 1.68 Ma (Haq and 

Takayama, 1984) and 1.65 Ma (Rio and others, 1984), and 

the first appearance of G. oceanica (pi. 1, fig. 1) is at 1.65 

Ma (Haq and Takayama, 1984) or 1.62 Ma (Rio and 

others, 1984). This is very near the extinction of D. 

brouweri, and as mentioned by Haq and Takayama 

(1984), the first appearance of these two Gephyrocapsa 

species is often a good indicator of the PliocenePleistocene boundary if discoasters are sparse. Other 

small species in the genus Gephyrocapsa have been found 

well down into the Pliocene (Gartner and others, 1983; 

Rio and others, 1984; Samtleben, 1980; Akers and Koeppel, 1973), and they cannot be used to indicate this 

boundary. There is considerable confusion in the taxonomy of the small species of Gephyrocapsa other than G. 

caribbeanica. Only small species that have a definite 

crossbar are included in the genus in this study. G. 

reticulata, which lacks a crossbar, is not considered to 

belong to this genus. The light microscope cannot resolve 

individual small species that have a crossbar; a scanning 

electron microscope is essential. In the study area, G. 

caribbeanica, which under optimum conditions can be 

separated from other small species in this genus, cannot 

be differentiated by using only the light microscope 

because of poor preservation of most of the specimens 

examined. Frequently the crossbars have obvious overgrowths, in many instances almost completely filling the 

central area. Separation of G. caribbeanica is not necessary, however, because no small forms of the genus 

Gephyrocapsa were found to occur in sedimentary units 

that did not also contain G. oceanica. Due to its large 

size, G. oceanica is very easy to identify, and its FAD is 

used in this study to approximate the PliocenePleistocene boundary. G. oceanica has never been 

reported in Pliocene sediments.

For the Pleistocene units in South Carolina, Gartner's 

(1977) modification of Martini's (1971) zones can be used 

with no significant alteration (fig. 2). Emiliania huxleyi 

has not been observed to date in South Carolina, North 

Carolina, or Virginia (Cronin and others, 1984). As 

discussed in Cronin and others (1984), this species 

appears to be absent in lower Zone NN 21 in this area
B4 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

Z

o

N

E

(MARTINI,

1971;

GARTNER,

1977)

MM 21 a

NN20

NN19

18

17

16

15

14

13

12

11

NANNOFOSSIL 

HORIZON

(MODIFIED FROM 

GARTNER AND OTHERS , 

1983)

FAD dominant Emiliania huxleyi *

FAD Emiliania huxleyi

LAD Pseudoemiliania lacunosa *

LAD dominant small Gephyrocapsa

LAD Helicosphaera sellii *

LAD Cyclococcolithus macintyrei *

FAD Gephyrocapsa oceanica * 

LAD Discoaster brouweri 

LAD Discoaster pentaradiatus 

LAD Discoaster surculus

LAD Sphenolithus abies

LAD Reticulofenestra pseudoumbilica

FAD Pseudoemiliania lacunosa 

LAD Amaurolithus tricorniculatus

FAD Discoaster asymmetricus 

FAD Ceratolithus rugosus

LAD Discoaster quinqueramus

FIGURE 2. Ranges of key Pliocene and Pleistocene calcareous nannofossil taxa modified from Gartner and others, 1983. Asterisks indicate 

calcareous nannofossil horizons that were used in South Carolina. Dotted range indicates disputed occurrence interval, and heavy bar 

indicates the interval when the species was dominant. FAD, first appearance datum; LAD, last appearance datum.
CALCAREOUS NANNOFOSSILS FROM PLIOCENE AND PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS IN SOUTH CAROLINA B5

because of the shallow-water environment of deposition. 

Any sediments younger than the FAD of dominant E. 

huxleyi (upper Zone NN 21) would be expected to 

contain this species.

In summary, the useful calcareous nannofossil datums 

for the Pliocene and Pleistocene of the Atlantic Coastal 

Plain include (1) FAD of dominant Emiliania 

huxleyi 0.075 Ma, (2) LAD of Pseudoemiliania 

lacunosa OA4 to 0.47 Ma, (3) LAD of dominant small 

Gephyrocapsa 0.925 Ma, (4) LAD of Helicosphaera 

sellii 1.2 to 1.37 Ma, (5) LAD of Cyclococcolithus 

macintyrei (C. tropicus of Gartner and others, 

1983)-1.42 to 1.5 Ma, (6) FAD of Gephyrocapsa 

oceanica 1.65 to 1.85 Ma, (7) LAD of Discoaster 

brouweri 1.68 to 1.9 Ma, (8) LAD of Sphenolithus 

abies 3.2 to 3.47 Ma, and (9) FAD of Pseudoemiliania 

lacunosa 3A to 3.9 Ma.

RESULTS

The marine sedimentary units examined in the study 

area will be discussed from presumed oldest to youngest 

units. See the introduction to this volume (table 1) for a 

list of all the Pliocene and Pleistocene units in the 

Charleston, S.C., area, and see figure 3 for the occurrences of calcareous nannofossils in South Carolina.

RAYSOR FORMATION AND RELATED BEDS

These sediments cannot be differentiated by using 

calcareous nannofossils, and their exact lithologic interrelationships are unknown. Included in this category are 

Raysor Formation samples from the Charleston area 

(only auger sample PR6 from locality 65 (fig. 1) contained 

enough species to list in fig. 3), samples of unnamed 

sediments from outcrop 78TC281 along the Pee Dee 

River (locality 78) and corehole LB173 (locality 80) 

southwest of Florence, and auger samples SN12 and 

PR19 assigned to the Givhans beds (localities 63 and 64 in 

the Charleston area). Calcareous nannofossil diversity is 

uniformly low in these samples, and preservation is 

normally poor. Samples from these beds contain Cyclococcolithus macintyrei (pi. 1, figs. 3, 7) and Helicosphaera sellii (pi. 1, figs. 5, 6). Pseudoemiliania 

lacunosa has not been observed. It is possible that the 

absence of P. lacunosa may be a result of environmental 

or preservational factors. A similar situation may occur 

also in the Yorktown Formation in North Carolina and 

Virginia. P. lacunosa is present both in the basal sediments of and throughout the Yorktown at Lee Creek 

mine, Aurora, N.C.; however, it is absent from some 

lower Yorktown samples in Virginia. We do not know

whether this indicates older pre-P. lacunosa deposits in 

Virginia or just the absence of the species here due to 

shallower water conditions.

Several Reticulofenestra species occur in the Raysor 

and related beds, but they are too small to be included 

with R. pseudoumbilica. However, one R. pseudoumbilica specimen was observed by using the SEM (pi. 1, fig. 

9). This species may be sporadically, but not consistently, present in this area, or conversely, the one specimen may be a result of reworking. Solely on the basis of 

calcareous nannofossils, these units could be dated only 

as being late Miocene to early Pliocene in age. However, 

samples from corehole LB173 and outcrop 78TC281 were 

examined for planktonic foraminifers, and according to 

R.Z. Poore (oral commun., 1985), they contain Globorotalia puncticulata, which has a FAD somewhat above 

the base of the Pliocene, and Globoquadrina altispira, 

which has its LAD at 3.9 Ma (Berggren and others, 

1985). Combining the foraminiferal data with the calcareous nannofossil data would limit the age of the units 

from upper Zone NN 12 to Zone NN 15 or from about 5.2 

to 3.9 Ma in the Pliocene.

GOOSE CREEK LIMESTONE, BEAR BLUFF FORMATION, 

AND ASSOCIATED BEDS

This category includes outcrop samples NC2 and NC4 

assigned to the Goose Creek Limestone in the Charleston 

area (localities 49 and 51), outcrop samples 78TC205, 

78TC208, 78TC209, and 78TC210 assigned to the Bear 

Bluff Formation in the Myrtle Beach area (locality 79), 

and unnamed sediments from corehole LB179 (locality 

96) near Darlington and corehole LB173 (locality 80) 

southwest of Florence. These three units cannot be 

easily differentiated by using calcareous nannofossils; 

they normally contain Pseudoemiliania lacunosa, Helicosphaera sellii, Cyclococcolithus macintyrei, and rare 

Discoaster brouweri. All Gephyrocapsa species are conspicuously absent. Although preservation is never very 

good and assemblages are limited, these units contain 

somewhat better calcareous nannofossil assemblages 

than the presumably underlying Raysor Formation and 

related sediments. On the basis of calcareous nannofossil 

content, these units could range in age from 3.9 to 1.75 

Ma or Zone NN 15 to NN 18.

A preliminary study of the Goose Creek Limestone did 

not find any specimens of P. lacunosa, which explains a 

placement no younger than Zone NN 15 for this unit in 

Weems and others (1982). Since then, examination of 

additional material has confirmed the presence of P. 

lacunosa in this unit, as well as a few specimens of 

Sphenolithus abies. If the S. abies is not reworked, the
B6 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

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Formation

Nannofossil Sample Locality (lithostratigraphic Nannofossil 

number number number unit) zone Epoch

N1280

N1284

N1340

N1341

N1339

N1338

N1038

N1337

N1039

N1283B

N1320

N1045

N1343

N1047

N1044

N1043

N1042

N1041

N1342

N2505

N2504 

N2503 

N1274

N1034

N1035

N1319

N1416

N1048

N1344

N1054

N1377

N1053

N1375

N1311 

N1289

N1069

N1071

N1073

N1075

N1082

N1084

N1085

N1086

N1089 

N1090 

N4293 

N1066

N4598

N4595

N4597

MJI7

XFM4

78TC72

78TC73

78TC71

78TC68

78TC67

78TC66

78TC65

XHU1

78TC19

78TC91

78TC90

NCSC68

78TC89

78TC88

78TC87

78TC86

78TC85

ST24

MH86 

CMH9 

XSU1

NCSC70

NCSC72

78TC18

NCSC66

78TC94

78TC93

78TC210

78TC209

78TC208

78TC205

NC4 

NC2

LB179(47.5')

LB1 79(49.5')

LB179(51.5')

LB1 79(53.5')

LB173(44.5')

LB173(46.5')

LB173(47.5')

LB173(48.5')

LB173(51.5') 

LB173(52.5') 

838 

78TC281

PR6

SN12

PR19

46

73

74C

74B

74A

31 D

31 C

31 B

31A

72

75C

76H

76G

76A

76F

76E

76D

76C

76B

57

48 

23 

70

81

81

75A

75B

77B

77A

79D

79C

79B

79A

51 

49

96

96

96

96

80

80

80

80

80 

80 

90 

78

65

63

64

(Q2)

WANDO

FORMATION

" Ten Mile (Q3) N 

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(04)

CANEPATCH

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(05)

PENHOLOWAY 

FORMATION

(06)

WACCAMAW(?)

FORMATION

BEAR BLUFF

FORMATION

GOOSE CREEK 

LIMESTONE

Unnamed

sediments

Unnamed

sediments

RAYSOR FM

Givhans

beds

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NN21a

NN 19d

NN 19

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NN18

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FIGURE 3. Occurrences of calcareous nannofossils in South Carolina. Preservation: G, good; F, fair; P, poor; T, terrible. Abundance: A, abundant 

(10-100 specimens per field of view at x600); C, common (1-10 specimens per field of view at x600); F, frequent (1 specimen per 1-10 fields 

of view at xGOO); R, rare (1 specimen per 10-100 fields of view at xGOO).
CALCAREOUS NANNOFOSSILS FROM PLIOCENE AND PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS IN SOUTH CAROLINA B7

Goose Creek Limestone age is between 3.9 and 3.2 Ma or 

Zone NN 15 to mid-Zone NN 16. The unnamed sediments from corehole LB179 at 14.5 m (47.5 ft) contain the 

planktonic foraminifer Globorotalia puncticulata, which 

occurs no higher than about 3.0 Ma (R.Z. Poore, oral 

commun., 1985). This confines the age of these unnamed 

sediments to 3.9 to 3.0 Ma or from Zone NN 15 to 

mid-Zone NN 16. G. puncticulata was not found in the 

Bear Bluff sample 78TC208 (R.Z. Poore, oral commun., 

1985), which may place this formation younger than 3.0 

Ma or from 3.0 to 1.75 Ma in the late Pliocene Zones NN 

16 to NN 18.

The exact stratigraphic and lithologic relationships 

among these three units currently are unknown. It is 

probable that the unnamed sediments from inland South 

Carolina and the Goose Creek Limestone are older than 

the Bear Bluff. The stratigraphic relationship between 

the unnamed sediments and the Goose Creek is unknown 

at this time.

WACCAMAW(P) FORMATION (UNIT Q6)

The Waccamaw(?) Formation or Quaternary lithostratigraphic unit Q6 of McCartan and others (this volume) contained no calcareous nannofossils in the Charleston area. This unit is believed to correlate with the 

Waccamaw in northern South Carolina in the Myrtle 

Beach area (McCartan and others, this volume), where 

there are six fossiliferous samples. Outcrop samples 

NCSC66 and 78TC18 from locality 75 contain Gephyrocapsa oceanica, Cyclococcolithus macintyrei, Helicosphaera sellii, and Pseudoemiliania lacunosa. This indicates that these samples are from the earliest part of the 

Pleistocene, Zone NN 19a, and have an age between 1.85 

and 1.42 Ma. These samples appear to be from the lower 

part of the Waccamaw. At locality 77, outcrop sample 

78TC93 is also in Zone NN 19a. Outcrop sample 78TC94, 

which is from the same locality but is 1.4 m (4.5 ft) 

higher, does not contain C. macintyrei. However, it does 

contain H. sellii, which presumably places this sample 

within Zone NN 19b or about 1.37 to 1.2 Ma. Outcrop 

samples NCSC70 and NCSC72 from locality 81 also were 

identified as being from the upper part of the Waccamaw, and both appear to be in Zone NN 19b. The 

separation of the Waccamaw into two subzones based on 

the presence or absence of C. macintyrei is not recommended, because this may be only an artificial division of 

the unit due to preservational bias. In either case, the 

Waccamaw in the Myrtle Beach area is confined to Zone 

NN 19a or NN 19b or 1.85 to 1.2 Ma. Because this unit 

has a reversed polarity in that area (Liddicoat and 

others, 1981; McCartan and others, this volume),

the age can probably be more closely limited to 1.7 to 1.2 

Ma.

PENHOLOWAY FORMATION (UNIT Q5)

There are four fossiliferous Penholoway samples from 

four localities in the Charleston area. They are presumed 

to be equivalent to unit Q5 of McCartan and others (this 

volume). All four samples are Pleistocene in age on the 

basis of the presence of Gephyrocapsa oceanica and 

Gephyrocapsa small species. The abundance of Gephyrocapsa small species does not dominate over that of G. 

oceanica. Pseudoemiliania lacunosa was identified in 

outcrop sample XSU1 (locality 70); it was absent from 

the other three samples, ST24 (locality 57, auger sample), MH86 (locality 48, corehole sample), and CMH9 

(locality 23, auger sample). P. lacunosa is never common 

in any of the South Carolina deposits studied, and its 

absence from these three samples is believed to be a 

result of preservational bias. If we assume that sample 

XSU1, which contains P. lacunosa, is representative of 

the formation, then the Penholoway is in Zone NN 19d 

and has an age between 925 kilo-annum (ka, 103 years) 

and about 450 ka. A reversed magnetic polarity for this 

unit (McCartan and others, this volume) supports placement of the formation in Zone NN 19d, because all of the 

overlying Zone NN 20 falls in a period of normal polarity. 

One uranium-disequilibrium-series coral date for the 

Penholoway makes it older than 700 ka (Weems and 

Lemon, 1984). Combining these data gives an age of 925 

to 700 ka for the Penholoway.

CANEPATCH FORMATION (UNIT Q4)

The nine fossiliferous Canepatch samples examined 

are all from outcrops in the Myrtle Beach area: 78TC85, 

78TC86, 78TC87, 78TC88, 78TC89, NCSC68, 78TC90, 

78TC91 (all locality 76), and 78TC19 (locality 75). This 

unit is represented by unit Q4 of McCartan and others 

(this volume) in the Charleston area. Pseudoemiliania 

lacunosa and Emiliania huxleyi are absent from this 

formation. As discussed in the zonation section of this 

paper, Emiliania huxleyi has never been observed in 

South Carolina. Because it appears that this species is 

present only sparsely or is totally absent in the Atlantic 

Coastal Plain until its acme zone at 75 ka, we would not 

expect to identify this species in any sediments older 

than 75 ka. On the basis of this evidence and the fact that 

the Canepatch has normal magnetic polarity (Liddicoat 

and others, 1981; McCartan and others, this volume), as 

well as coral dates clustering about 460 ka (Szabo, 1985), 

the age of this unit can be placed in the Pleistocene at 

about 450 ka or in Zone NN 20.
B8 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

TEN MILE HILL BEDS (OLDER PART OF UNIT Q3)

There is only one fossiliferous sample from this unit; it 

is from an auger hole in the Charleston area (sample 

XHU1 from locality 72). This sample contains essentially 

the same calcareous nannofossil flora as the presumably 

underlying Canepatch Formation, which places it within 

Pleistocene Zones NN 20 to NN 21a or 450 to 75 ka. 

These two units, as well as the overlying Wando Formation, cannot be differentiated by using calcareous nannofossils. All three formations also have normal magnetic 

polarity (Liddicoat and others, 1981; McCartan and others, this volume). Coral dates for the Ten Mile Hill beds 

provide much more refinement than is possible using 

calcareous nannofossils and have placed the formation of 

this unit between 240 and 200 ka (Weems and Lemon,

1984) or more probably between 230 and 202 ka (Szabo,

1985).

WANDO FORMATION (UNIT Q2)

There are nine fossiliferous Wando Formation samples 

in the Charleston area: outcrop samples 78TC65, 

78TC66, 78TC67, 78TC68 (locality 31); outcrop samples 

78TC71, 78TC73, 78TC72 (locality 74); auger sample 

XFM4 (locality 73); and outcrop sample MJI7 (locality 

46). As for the Ten Mile Hill beds, this unit is confined to 

Pleistocene Zones NN 20 to NN 21a or from 450 to 75 ka 

on the basis of calcareous nannofossil content only, and it 

has normal polarity (Liddicoat and others, 1981; McCartan and others, this volume). However, uranium dating 

of corals within the unit places the probable age of most 

of the Wando between 129 and 87 ka (Szabo, 1985).

CONCLUSIONS

In spite of usually poor preservation, low diversity, 

and low abundance, calcareous nannofossils can be used 

to date Pliocene and Pleistocene South Carolina Coastal 

Plain marine sediments. When nannofossil data are used 

in conjunction with magnetic polarity, uranium dating, 

and planktonic foraminiferal information, fairly precise 

results are obtained for most units.

The following ages were determined for the marine 

units examined in South Carolina. The Raysor Formation and associated beds are early Pliocene in age in 

Zones NN 12-NN 15, 5.2 to 3.9 Ma. The Goose Creek 

Limestone and associated beds may span the early-late 

Pliocene boundary in Zones NN 15-NN 16, 3.9 to 3.2 Ma. 

The Bear Bluff Formation is a late Pliocene unit occurring somewhere within Zones NN 16-NN 18, 3.0 to 1.75 

Ma. The Waccamaw(?) Formation occurs in early Pleistocene Zones NN 19a and (or) NN 19b, 1.7 to 1.2 Ma. The 

Penholoway Formation is in Pleistocene Zone NN 19d,

925 to 700 ka. The Pleistocene Canepatch Formation 

occurs in Zone NN 20 or about 450 ka. The Ten Mile Hill 

beds are also of Pleistocene age in Zones NN 20-NN 21a, 

240 to 200 ka. And finally, the Wando Formation was 

deposited in the late Pleistocene in Zones NN 20-NN 21a 

or from 129 to 87 ka.

REFERENCES CITED

Akers, W.H., and Koeppel, P.E., 1973, Age of some Neogene formations, Atlantic Coastal Plains, United States and Mexico, in Smith, 

L.A., and Hardenbol, Jan, eds., Symposium on Calcareous Nannofossils: Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies and Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, 23d Annual 

Convention, Houston, Tex., 1973, Proceedings, p. 80-93.

Backman, Jan, and Shackleton, N.J., 1983, Quantitative biochronology 

of Pliocene and early Pleistocene calcareous nannofossils from the 

Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans: Marine Micropaleontology, v. 

8, no. 2, p. 141-170.

Berggren, W.A., Kent, D.V., and Van Couvering, J.A., 1985, Neogene 

geochronology and chronostratigraphy, in Snelling, N.J., ed., The 

chronology of the geological record: Geological Society of London 

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Bukry, David, 1973, Low-latitude coccolith biostratigraphic zonation, 

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 1978, Biostratigraphy of Cenozoic marine sediments by calcareous nannofossils: Micropaleontology, v. 24, no. 1, p. 44-60.

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Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 47, no. 

1-2, p. 21-51.

Gartner, Stefan, 1977, Calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphy and 

revised zonation of the Pleistocene: Marine Micropaleontology, v. 

2, no. 1, p. 1-25.

Gartner, Stefan, Chen, M.P., and Stanton, R.J., 1983, Late Neogene 

nannofossil biostratigraphy and paleoceanography of the northeastern Gulf of Mexico and adjacent areas: Marine Micropaleontology, v. 8, no. 1, p. 17-50.

Haq, B.U., and Berggren, W.A., 1978, Late Neogene calcareous 

plankton biochronology of the Rio Grande Rise (South Atlantic 

Ocean): Journal of Paleontology, v. 52, no. 6, p. 1167-1194.

Haq, B.U., and Takayama, Toshiaki, 1984, Neogene calcareous nannoplankton datum planes and their calibration to magnetostratigraphy, in Ikebe, Nobuo, and Tsuchi, Ryuichi, eds., Pacific Neogene 

datum planes; Contributions to biostratigraphy and chronology: 

Tokyo, University of Tokyo Press, p. 27-33.

Hs'ii, K.J., La Brecque, John, Percival, S.F., Wright, R.C., Gombos, 

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McKenzie, J.A., Weissert, Helmut, Karpoff, A.M., Carman, 

M.F., Jr., and Schreiber, Edward, 1984, Numerical ages of 

Cenozoic biostratigraphic datum levels Results of South Atlantic 

Leg 73 drilling: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 95, no. 

7, p. 863-876.

Liddicoat, J.C., McCartan, Lucy, Weems, R.E., and Lemon, E.M., 

Jr., 1981, Paleomagnetic investigation of Pliocene and Pleistocene 

sediments in the Charleston, South Carolina, area [abs.]: Geolog-
CALCAREOUS NANNOFOSSILS FROM PLIOCENE AND PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS IN SOUTH CAROLINA B9

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12, 29.

Martini, Erlend, 1971, Standard Tertiary and Quaternary calcareous 

nannoplankton zonation, in Farinacci, Anna, ed., Planktonic Conference, 2d, Roma, 1970, Proceedings: Roma, Edizioni Tecnoscienza, v. 2, p. 739-785.

Mazzei, Roberto, Raffi, Isabella, Rio, Domenico, Hamilton, Norman, 

and Cita, M.B., 1979, Calibration of late Neogene calcareous 

plankton datum planes with the paleomagnetic record of site 397 

and correlation with Moroccan and Mediterranean sections, in von 

Rad, Ulrich, Ryan, W.B.F., and others, Initial reports of the Deep 

Sea Drilling Project: Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, v. 47, pt. 1, p. 375-389.

Percival, S.F., Jr., 1984, Late Cretaceous to Pleistocene calcareous 

nannofossils from the South Atlantic, Deep Sea Drilling Project 

Leg 73, in Hsu, K.J., La Brecque, J.L., and others, Initial reports 

of the Deep Sea Drilling Project: Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, v. 73, p. 391^24.

Poore, R.Z., Tauxe, Lisa, Percival, S.F., Jr., La Brecque, J.L., 

Wright, Ramil, Petersen, N.P., Smith, C.C., Tucker, Peter, and 

Hsu, K.J., 1983, Late Cretaceous-Cenozoic magnetostratigraphic 

and biostratigraphic correlations of the South Atlantic Ocean: 

DSDP Leg 73: Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 42, no. 1-2, p. 127-149.

Rio, Domenico, Sprovieri, Rodolfo, and Raffi, Isabella, 1984, Calcareous plankton biostratigraphy and biochronology of the Pliocenelower Pleistocene succession of the Capo Rossello area, Sicily: 

Marine Micropaleontology, v. 9, no. 2, p. 135-180.

Samtleben, Christian, 1980, Die Evolution der CoccolithophoridenGattung Gephyrocapsa nach Befunden im Atlantik: Palaontologische Zeitschrift, v. 54, no. 1-2, p. 91-127.

Steinmetz, J.C., and Stradner, Herbert, 1984, Cenozoic calcareous 

nannofossils from Deep Sea Drilling Project Leg 75, Southeast 

Atlantic Ocean, in Hay, W.W., Sibuet, J.C., and others, Initial 

reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project: Washington, D.C., U.S. 

Government Printing Office, v. 75, pt. 2, p. 671-753.

Szabo, B.J., 1985, Uranium-series dating of fossil corals from marine 

sediments of southeastern United States Atlantic Coastal Plain: 

Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 96, no. 3, p. 398^06.

Weems, R.E., and Lemon, E.M., Jr., 1984, Geologic map of the 

Stallsville quadrangle, Dorchester and Charleston Counties, South 

Carolina: U.S. Geological Survey Geologic Quadrangle Map 

GQ-1581, scale 1:24,000.

Weems, R.E., Lemon, E.M., Jr., McCartan, Lucy, Bybell, L.M., and 

Sanders, A.E., 1982, Recognition and formalization of the Pliocene 

"Goose Creek phase" in the Charleston, South Carolina, area, in 

Stratigraphic notes, 1980-1982: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 

1529-H, p. H137-H148.

PLATE

A contact photograph of the plate in this report is available, 

at cost, from the U.S. Geological Survey Photographic Library, Federal Center,

Denver, CO 80225.
PLATE 1

FIGURE 1. Gephyrocapsa oceanica Kamptner, 1943.

Specimen (x 10,000) from auger-hole sample XHU1. 

2. Coccolithus pelagicus (Wallich, 1877) Schiller, 1930.

Specimen (x7,800) from corehole sample LB173 at a depth of 16 m (52.5 ft). 

3, 7. Cyclococcolithus macintyrei Bukry & Bramlette, 1969.

3. Distal view (x7,200) from corehole sample LB173 at a depth of 16 m (52.5 ft). 

7. Proximal view (x5,000) from corehole sample LB173 at a depth of 16 m (52.5 ft). 

4. Gephyrocapsa caribbeanica Boudreaux & Hay, 1967.

Specimen (x 10,000) from auger-hole sample XHU1. 

5, 6. Helicosphaera sellii (Bukry & Bramlette, 1969) Jafar & Martini, 1975.

5. Distal view (x4,800) from corehole sample LB173 at a depth of 16 m (52.5 ft).

6. Proximal view (x5,500) from corehole sample LB173 at a depth of 16 m (52.5 ft).

8. Sphenolithus abies Deflandre, 1954.

Specimen (x 12,000) from outcrop sample NC4.

9. Reticulofenestra pseitdomnbilica (Gartner, 1967) Gartner, 1969.

Specimen (x5,300) from corehole sample LB173 at a depth of 16 m (52.5 ft). 

10, 11. Braarudosphaera bigelowi (Gran & Braarud, 1935) Deflandre, 1947.

10. Specimen (x4,500) from corehole sample LB173 at a depth of 16 m (52.5 ft).

11. Specimen (x2,200) from corehole sample LB173 at a depth of 16 m (52.5 ft).
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367 B PLATE 1

10 11

Evolution of Neogene and Quaternary 

Marine Ostracoda, United States Atlantic 

Coastal Plain: Evolution and Speciation 

in Ostracoda, IV

By THOMAS M. CRONIN

STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, 

EARTHQUAKE OF 1886-NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY 

LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND BIOSTRATIGRAPHY

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-C

CONTENTS

Page

Abstract........................................................................... Cl

Introduction............................

Acknowledgments..............

Material and methods...............

Geologic and climatic framework 

Paleontologic data....................

Results ..................................

................................... 1

................................... 2

................................... 3

................................... 4

......................................................... 5

......................................................... 7

Species diversity ......................................................... 7

Evolutionary first appearances....................................... 17

Association of species originations and climatic change............. 18

Comparison of Coastal Plain ostracode and mollusk

patterns.................................................................. 19

Conclusions....................................................................... 20

Systematic paleontology...................................................... 21

Family Cytherellidae.................................................... 21

Genus Cytherelloidea Alexander .............................. 21

Family Bairdiidae........................................................ 21

Genus Paranesidea Haddocks.................................. 21

Family Pontocyprididae ................................................ 21

Genus Propontocypris Sylvester-Bradley................... 21

Family Paradoxostomatidae........................................... 21

Genus Paradoxostoma Fischer................................. 21

Genus Pellucistoma Coryell and Fields ..................... 21

Genus Paracytheroma Juday................................... 21

Genus Megacythere Puri......................................... 28

Family Cytheridae....................................................... 28

Genus Cytheromorpka Hirschmann........................... 28

Genus Munseyella van den Bold .............................. 28

Family Cytherideidae................................................... 28

Genus Cytheridea Bosquet...................................... 28

Genus Cyprideis Jones ........................................... 28

Genus Peratocytheridea Hazel................................. 29

Genus Perissocytheridea Stephenson......................... 29

Genus Pontocythere Dubowsky ................................ 30

Family Cushmanideidae................................................ 30

Genus Cushmanidea Blake...................................... 30

Genus Hulingsina Puri........................................... 30

Family Neocytherideidae.............................................. 31

Genus Neocytherideis Puri...................................... 31

Genus Sahnicythere Athersuch. ................................ 31

Systematic paleontolougy Continued

Family Cytheruridae.................................................... C31

Genus Cytherura Sars ............................................ 31

Genus Cytheropteron Sars....................................... 32

Genus Tetracytherura Ruggieri................................ 32

Family Loxoconchidae.................................................. 33

Genus Loxoconcha Sars .......................................... 33

Family Leptocytheridae................................................ 34

Genus Leptocythere Sars......................................... 34

Family Paracytherideidae ............................................. 34

Genus Paracytheridea G.W. Miiller .......................... 34

Family Eucytheridae.................................................... 35

Genus Eucythere Brady.......................................... 35

Family Trachyleberididae.............................................. 35

Genus Actinocythereis Puri..................................... 35

Genus Neocaudites Puri.......................................... 35

Genus Henryhowella Puri....................................... 36

Genus Murrayina Puri........................................... 36

Genus Echinocythereis Puri..................................... 36

Genus Puriana Coryell and Fields............................ 36

Genus Pseudocytheretta Cushman ............................ 37

Genus Protocytheretta Puri..................................... 37

Genus Pterygocytfiereis Blake.................................. 37

Family Hemicytheridae ................................................ 37

Genus Aurila Pokorny............................................ 37

Genus Caudites Coryell and Fields ........................... 37

Genus Hermanites Puri.......................................... 37

Genus Malzella Hazel............................................. 37

Genus Muellerina Bassiouni.................................... 38

Genus Orionina Puri.............................................. 38

Genus Palaciosa Hartmann..................................... 38

Genus Radimella Pokorny ...................................... 38

Genus Acuticythereis Edwards ................................ 38

Genus Basslerites Howe ......................................... 38

Genus Bensonocythere Hazel................................... 39

Genus Campylocythere Edwards.............................. 40

Genus Climacoidea Puri......................................... 40

Family Xestoleberididae ............................................... 40

Genus Xestoleberis Sars.......................................... 40

References cited................................................................ 40

ILLUSTRATIONS

[Plates 1-17 follow references cited]

PLATE 1. Cytheridea and Cyprideis.

2. Cytheromorpha, Munseyella, and Hulingsina.

3. Pontocythere, Pontocytherel, and Hulingsinal.

in
IV CONTENTS

4. Cytherura and Paracytheridea.

5. Tetracytherura.

6. Loxoconcha and Pellucistoma.

7. Actinocythereis.

8. Neocaudites, Pterygocythereis, and Henryhowella.

9. Murrayina, Protocytheretta, and Pseudocytheretta.

10. Malzella and Radimella.

11. Echinocythereis, Hermanites, and Puriana.

12. Muellerina.

13. Palaciosa, Caudites, Cativella, and Orionina.

14. Acuticythereis, Campylocythere, Climacoidea, and Basslerites.

15. Bensonocy there.

16. Bensonocy there.

17. Cytherura, Loxoconcha, and Paracytheridea.

	Page

FIGURE 1. Map showing ostracode marine faunal provinces, associated marine climatic zones, and major ocean currents off the Eastern

	United States................................................................................................................................................... C3

2. Graph showing species diversity of Atlantic Coastal Plain Ostracoda during Neogene and Quaternary .................................. 17

3. Graph showing number of ostracode species originations per million years for the Atlantic Coastal Plain during Neogene

	and Quaternary................................................................................................................................................. 18

TABLES

TABLE 1. Possible extrinsic events influencing ostracode evolution................................................................................................ C2

2. Ostracode taxa excluded from evolutionary computations in this study............................................................................. 6

3. Synonyms for 127 Neogene and Quaternary ostracode species from the Atlantic Coastal Plain ........................................... 8

4. Biostratigraphic ranges for 127 Neogene and Quaternary ostracode species from the Atlantic Coastal Plain........................... 14

5. Summary of ostracode evolutionary data from the Atlantic Coastal Plain.......................................................................... 17

6. Ostracode occurrence data for Neogene and Quaternary deposits of the Atlantic Coastal Plain in the Charleston, S.C., area .... 22
STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886- 

NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND BIOSTRATIGRAPHY

EVOLUTION OF NEOCENE AND QUATERNARY MARINE

OSTRACODA, UNITED STATES ATLANTIC COASTAL PLAIN:

EVOLUTION AND SPECIATION IN OSTRACODA, IV

By THOMAS M. CRONIN

ABSTRACT

The evolution of Pliocene and Pleistocene marine Ostracoda from the 

U.S. Atlantic Coastal Plain suggests a relationship between rates of 

speciation and climatic and associated oceanographic change. On the 

basis of evolutionary first appearances of 127 species endemic to the 

region between Delaware and central Florida, most ostracode species 

evolved in the early Pliocene (65 species) and the middle Pliocene (29 

species) at rates of 40.6 and 48.3 new species per million years, 

respectively. Only 23 species have evolved in the last 2.8 million years. 

Oceanographic changes related to the intensification and shifting 

position of the Gulf Stream during a period of high sea level in the early 

and middle Pliocene are believed to have been partly responsible for 

the high rate of species origination. Conversely, frequent, highamplitude glacial-interglacial cycles of the last 2.8 million years have 

had little effect on the evolution of new ostracode species. Eleven new 

species are described, and 71 are illustrated by scanning electron 

photomicrographs.

INTRODUCTION

Marine Ostracoda are abundant and well preserved in 

Atlantic Coastal Plain Neogene and Quaternary deposits. They have contributed greatly to our understanding 

the region's geologic and climatic history (Hazel, 1971a, 

b; Hazel and others, 1977; Cronin, 1981a, 1988a; Cronin 

and others, 1981). Ostracodes from the Eastern United 

States also have shown potential for helping us understand the relationship between climatic events and evolutionary processes such as speciation (Cronin, 1985). 

Changes in the Earth's climate during the last 5 million 

years (m.y.), reflected in water-temperature and sealevel changes, have had substantial effects on the zoogeManuscript approved for publication May 5, 1989.

ography of organisms living in temperate and subtropical 

regions along the Eastern United States. Consequently, 

the region provides a natural laboratory for examining 

the response of temperature-sensitive species to these 

environmental events.

This paper is part IV in a series of studies designed to 

investigate evolution and speciation in Ostracoda. The 

strategy in this research has been to examine the relationship between patterns of ostracode evolution and 

possible causes of disruption in the habitat of species 

ultimately leading to geographic isolation of populations. 

Three possible causes, summarized in table 1, are being 

studied.

One of these causes of isolation can be a tectonic event 

that can result in the formation of a land barrier. An 

example of a land barrier is the Isthmus of Panama, 

which formed 3.5 to 3.0 Mega-annum (Ma, 106 years) and 

caused the separation of ostracode populations on either 

side. This separation, in theory, might have led to 

evolutionary divergence. Cronin (1987, 1988b) and Cronin and Schmidt (1988) discuss the effects of this event on 

ostracode species evolving independently on either side 

of the isthmus since it formed.

A second possible cause of isolation occurs when 

populations are dispersed by currents from one area to 

another across a preexisting barrier (table 1). This 

process represents a fundamentally distinct process from 

the splitting of a population by the later formation of a 

barrier, such as the Isthmus of Panama. The relative 

importance of dispersalist and vicariant processes in 

explaining the distribution and diversity of organisms is 

an actively disputed topic in zoogeography. When there 

is inadequate geologic or paleontologic evidence, it is 

often difficult to determine if the present zoogeographic

Cl
C2 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SQUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886 

TABLE 1. Possible extrinsic events influencing ostracode evolution

Extrinsic event

I. Tectonism

II. Rafting by currents

III. Climate:

a. Shallow- to deep-water

transition at continental

shelf-slope boundary

b. Arctic

c. Temperate-subtropical

d. Tropical

Type of barrier

Land

Deep-water

Thermocline, 02

minimum

Thermal temperature gradient

do.

do.

Degree of isolation

Complete

High

High

Variable, low

to high

do.

do.

Example

Isthmus of

Panama

Pacific atolls;

islands

Quaternary

sea-level drops

Quaternary

glacial periods

North-south

continental

shelves

North-south

continental

shelves

Reference

Cronin, 1987; Cronin and

Schmidt, 1988; and Cronin,

1988b.

Cronin, 1988b.

Unpublished.

Cronin and Ikeya, 1987; and

Cronin, 1988c.

This paper.

Unpublished.

distribution of species reflects dispersal or vicariant 

splitting by a barrier. However, when paleontologic 

evidence is available and the tectonic history of the area 

is known, one alternative may be more likely than the 

other. In the Cenozoic, several species of shallow-water 

ostracodes were rafted across tropical regions, most 

likely on drifting marine algae (Teeter, 1973). The major 

barrier among populations isolated in this way is the 

deep-water environment, which most shallow-water species can neither inhabit nor, because they lack planktonic 

larvae, cross by means of dispersal. Passive dispersal by 

currents, sometimes over great distances, has been 

suggested in Cronin (1988b) and Weissleader and others 

(1989) for some tropical ostracode species recently discovered living on Pacific atolls.

A third possible cause of isolation is a climatic change 

that would cause sea-level and water-temperature fluctuations (table 1). Sea-level fluctuations result not only in 

shifts in shoreline position, but also in significant oscillations between shallow and deep water at the transition 

from the Outer Continental Shelf to the upper slope. In 

this transition zone, the thermocline, oxygen minimum 

zone, and lower limit of the euphotic zone form a significant faunal boundary. These last three factors vary in 

concert with drops in sea level, which reached as much as 

100 m during glacial periods.

A climatic change that causes variation in bottomwater temperature results in latitudinal shifts in the 

zoogeographic distribution of species, and this could lead 

to varying degrees of isolation among populations. Patterns of ostracode evolution are under study in climatic 

zones that correspond to marine faunal provinces existing along north-trending continental shelves (fig. 1). 

Climate affects circumpolar arctic species living in frigid 

and subfrigid zones so that they migrate south during

glacial periods and then retreat north again during 

subsequent interglacial periods (table 1) (Cronin, 1988c; 

Cronin and Ikeya, 1987). The converse situation occurs in 

low latitudes where tropical species migrate north during 

climatically warm intervals and then retreat south during cool intervals. Cronin (1985, 1987) described such a 

situation in which speciation patterns in the ostracode 

genus Puriana indicated that new species evolve when 

populations migrate north from the Caribbean to the 

Atlantic Coast region.

The present paper describes the evolution of the 

ostracode fauna inhabiting the mild-temperate to subtropical zones from Delaware to central Florida off the 

Eastern United States, zones that comprise the Virginian and Carolinian benthic marine faunal provinces of the 

western North Atlantic (fig. 1). The primary objectives 

of this paper are (1) to standardize ostracode taxonomy 

for the Neogene and Quaternary of the region, (2) to use 

these data to determine the evolutionary first appearances 

of species endemic to the region, and (3) to examine rates 

of species origination within the context of climatic and 

oceanographic events in mild-temperate and subtropical 

zones.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I want to give special thanks to J.E. Hazel (Louisiana 

State University) for helpful taxonomic comments and 

discussions of Coastal Plain ostracodes. R.M. Forester, 

R.Z. Poore, and Graham Coles provided helpful reviews 

of early drafts of this manuscript. Lucy McCartan provided samples from the Charleston, S.C., area and a 

helpful review of the stratigraphy. I also thank S.K. 

Lyon for information on the Pleistocene ostracodes, E.E.
EVOLUTION OF NEOCENE AND QUATERNARY MARINE OSTRACODA C3

«&,

\ \ CAROLINIAN / 

I \ PROVINCE J

FIGURE 1. Ostracode marine faunal provinces, associated marine climatic zones (in parentheses), and major ocean currents off the Eastern 

United States. Provinces for the Atlantic Ocean are taken from Valentine (1971) and Hazel (1970); oceanographic data are taken from Bumpus 

and Lauzier (1965).

Compton-Gooding for considerable help with the U.S. 

Geological Survey ostracode collection, and E.G. Shaw 

for scanning electron photomicroscopy. This work was 

supported in part by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Office of Nuclear Research, under Agreement 

No. AT(49-25)-1000.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

In order to study the evolution of ostracodes along the 

U.S. Atlantic Coast, data from many published Pliocene, 

Pleistocene, and Holocene ostracode studies were organized taxonomically and stratigraphically. To do this, 

several hundred ostracode samples were studied from 

the Coastal Plain collection assembled by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) during the past 25 years. Many of 

these samples came from the early ostracode studies of 

J.E. Hazel (Hazel, 1968, 1970, 1971a, b, 1975,1977, 1983; 

Hazel and Cronin, 1988). Additional material came from 

studies by Valentine (1971), Cronin (1979), Cronin and 

Hazel (1980), and Forester (1980). The majority of samples from these earlier studies came from outcrops and 

cores in Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, and northeastern South Carolina. To fill the gap for southeastern 

South Carolina, a newly acquired set of samples from the 

Charleston, S.C., area (Weems and McCartan, this volume) was studied and is described in the "Systematic 

paleontology" section below. A related study by Lyon 

(this volume) also provided information on late Pleistocene ostracodes from the Charleston area. Finally, an 

extensive collection of modern ostracodes from approximately 500 samples taken on the continental shelf and 

slope between Maine and Florida during a joint USGS 

and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution program 

between 1963 and 1970 complements the fossil material 

by providing a comprehensive picture of the modern 

ostracode fauna. The distribution data of modern species 

from these collections are given in Hazel (1970) for the 

northern region between Nova Scotia (just north of 

Maine in fig. 1) and Cape Cod, Mass., in Valentine (1971) 

and Hazel (1975) for the central region between New 

Jersey and northeastern South Carolina, and in Cronin 

(1983; unpub. data) and Lyon (this volume) for the 

southern region between South Carolina and the Florida 

Keys (just south of fig. 1).

The published literature on Neogene and Quaternary 

marine ostracodes from the Eastern United States is 

extensive, and in addition to those papers mentioned 

above, the reader is referred to the bibliography in 

Garbett and Maddocks (1979) for additional papers about 

Atlantic and Gulf Coast ostracodes. Modern and fossil 

ostracodes from backbarrier brackish-water environments also have been the subject of many papers 

(Tressler and Smith, 1948; Puri, 1960; Darby, 1965; 

Grossman, 1967; Hall, 1965; Cronin, 1979; Garbett and 

Maddocks, 1979). Every attempt has been made to make 

consistent the species-level taxonomy of the USGS collections housed in Reston, Va., with the taxonomy of
C4 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

collections elsewhere, many of which are housed in the 

U.S. National Museum (USNM) in Washington, D.C.

A standard processing technique was applied to most 

samples of Coastal Plain sediments. Approximately 

50-200 grams of sediment per sample was washed 

through U.S. standard sieves of no. 230 mesh (63 

micrometers) and no. 20 mesh (850 micrometers). When 

needed, the additives sodium carbonate (NaC03), hydrogen peroxide, varsol, or a detergent (Quaternary 0) 

were used to break down semiconsolidated sediments. In 

cases when ostracodes were rare, carapaces and disarticulated valves were concentrated by flotation using 

soap in water. After drying, the sediment was sieved 

again, and ostracode specimens were picked from each 

size fraction by using a fine brush. Specimens were 

placed on a standard micropaleontological slide and then 

sorted and identified. No standard quantity of sediment 

or number of individual ostracode specimens was picked 

because of the extreme variation in abundance; however, 

most samples contained between 200 and 300 specimens.

Specimens for most species were coated with a gold 

and palladium alloy and photographed by using a scanning electron microscope. Most specimens illustrated in 

this paper are from North and South Carolina and are 

deposited in the Department of Paleobiology, USNM.

GEOLOGIC AND CLIMATIC FRAMEWORK

The Atlantic Coastal Plain, including the emerged part 

and the submerged shelf, represents the inner edge of a 

passive continental margin that has been relatively stable during the Cenozoic. The geologic history and stratigraphy of the Atlantic margin have been studied 

intensely in the last decade, and a summary can be found 

in Poag (1985). The history of the area involves the 

formation of a series of sedimentary basins that have 

been influenced strongly by eustatic sea-level changes. 

The stratigraphic correlations among geologic formations of the emerged Atlantic Coastal Plain have been 

collated by Carter (1984), and they provide a useful 

framework for this study. In addition, Cronin and others 

(1984), by using several geochronological techniques, 

have estimated the ages and correlations of the fossiliferous marine units that yielded the ostracodes studied 

here. For the purposes of calculating rates of speciation, 

the last 10 Ma are divided here into the following nine 

intervals of time on the basis of geochronological data 

summarized in Blackwelder (1981) and in Cronin and 

others (1984) (geologic formations are given in parentheses): late Miocene, 10.0-5.0 Ma (Eastover Formation); 

early Pliocene, 5.0-3.4 Ma (Yorktown Formation, zone 

1); middle Pliocene, 3.4-2.8 Ma (Duplin Formation, 

Goose Creek Limestone; Yorktown Formation, zone 2);

late Pliocene, 2.8-2.0 Ma (Bear Bluff, Chowan River 

Formations); early Pleistocene, 2.0-0.7 Ma (Waccamaw, 

Wicomico, Penholoway, James City Formations); early 

middle Pleistocene, 0.7-0.4 Ma (Omar Formation at 

Dirickson Creek, Del., of Cronin and others, 1984; Canepatch, Talbot Formations); late middle Pleistocene, 

0.4-0.18 Ma (Flanner Beach, Pamlico Formations; Great 

Bridge Formation of Oaks and Coch, 1973); late Pleistocene, 0.18-0.07 Ma (Core Creek sand; Norfolk Formation 

of Clark and Miller, 1906; Kempsville Formation of Oaks 

and Coch, 1973; Wando, Socastee, Sinepuxent Formations); and Wisconsinan-Holocene, 0.07 Ma to present.

Several factors that are related to the regional tectonic 

setting of the study area have implications for benthic 

organisms living along the continental margin. First, 

because the continental shelf is wide, a large habitable 

area existed during periods of high sea level, but most of 

the shelf habitat for benthic organisms was eliminated 

during a typical late Pleistocene sea-level drop of 100 m. 

Second, the primary mechanism affecting paleogeography over the last 5 m.y. has been the repeated glacioeustatic sea-level changes, which were frequent and 

rapid compared with tectonic movements (Cronin, 

1981b). Climatic and sea-level oscillations that occurred 

approximately every 103 to 106 years constituted major 

abiotic events that affected the habitats of benthic 

marine organisms living on the shelf. Third, the region is 

characterized by a variety of coastal habitats found in 

lagoons, bays, and estuaries. These environments, which 

shifted back and forth across the shelf during glacioeustatic transgressive-regressive cycles provided, at 

least in theory, opportunities for varying degrees of 

isolation among populations living in shelf and marginalmarine environments.

Bottom-water temperatures are known to influence 

the broad zoogeographic distribution of ostracodes 

because the survival and (or) reproduction of many 

species are limited by temperature (Hazel, 1970). The 

following brief summary of the oceanography of the 

region (fig. 1) is taken from Bumpus and Lauzier (1965) 

and Hazel (1975). The region between Cape Cod, Mass., 

and Cape Hatteras, N.C., has been referred to as the 

mild-temperate marine climatic zone. The Virginia 

coastal current is a primary current influencing the 

oceanography of the region. It flows southward along the 

Delmarva Peninsula, southeastern Virginia, and northeastern North Carolina. The area is characterized by 

bottom-water temperatures in winter between about 4 

and 10 °C and in summer between about 20 and 26 °C 

(Hazel, 1970; Valentine, 1971). The region south of Cape 

Hatteras to Cape Canaveral, Fla., is considered to be a 

subtropical marine climatic zone having winter temperatures never below 10 °C and summer temperatures 

between about 25 and 30 °C. The oceanography of the
EVOLUTION OF NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY MARINE OSTRACODA C5

outer shelf and upper slope is dominated by the flow of 

the Gulf Stream and the underlying Carolina slope 

water. Nearshore, the Carolina coastal current flows 

northward toward Cape Hatteras, where it meets the 

southward-flowing Virginia coastal current and creates a 

region of strong isothermal convergence (Hazel, 1975).

The modern climatic conditions represent a relatively 

warm interval that is similar to interglacial periods of the 

Pleistocene. Significantly, the strength and position of 

the Gulf Stream have varied greatly during the last 5 

m.y. of climatic change. The following summary briefly 

outlines the climatic history of the region based on 

studies by Hazel (1971a), Blackwelder (1981), Riggs 

(1984), Cronin and others (1984), and Cronin (1988a). The 

most relevant climatic factors for the present paper are 

(1) the frequency of climatic oscillations, the understanding of which requires accurate geochronology, and (2) the 

intensity or amplitude of climatic oscillations that can be 

documented by extremes of cold and warmth during 

glacial and interglacial periods.

The frequency of climatic oscillations has varied during 

the last few million years. During the early Pliocene, a 

relatively cool climate existed between Virginia and 

South Carolina (Hazel, 1971a). In the middle Pliocene, 

about 3.2 Ma or slightly earlier, a significant climatic 

warming occurred in this region, and simultaneously, 

faunal provinces became more distinct as temperate 

faunas north of Cape Hatteras became differentiated 

from subtropical to tropical faunas to the south. This 

faunal dichotomy is evident in the faunal dissimilarity 

between assemblages from the contemporaneous upper 

part of the Yorktown (zone 2) and the Duplin Formations. One hypothesis proposed by Hazel (1971a) postulates that the relatively sudden influx of tropical ostracodes and other marine organisms reflects the increased 

influence of the Gulf Stream. This idea is supported by 

other evidence that the Gulf Stream intensified between 

about 3.5 and 3.0 Ma (Cronin and others, 1984; Cronin, 

1988a). The frequency of climatic oscillations during this 

extended period of warmth and high sea level is difficult 

to determine at present, and the oscillations may have 

been of an amplitude too low to detect. Recent data from 

North Carolina suggest that cyclic climatic fluctuations 

are indeed difficult to recognize by using paleontologic 

data from the early and middle Pliocene (Snyder and 

others, 1986).

The late Pliocene record between about 2.8 and 2.0 Ma 

is poorly represented by datable marine sediments in the 

Coastal Plain. This depositional hiatus signifies a substantial drop in eustatic sea level that corresponded with 

the beginning of major Pleistocene-like glaciations in the 

Northern Hemisphere (Cronin, 1988a). Shackleton and 

others (1984) provide evidence from deep-sea cores for 

glacial buildup 2.5 to 2.4 Ma.

During the early Pleistocene, another extended period 

of warm climate, similar to that in the early and middle 

Pliocene, is represented by the Waccamaw Formation in 

North and South Carolina. If climatic oscillations 

occurred during the early Pleistocene, their amplitudes 

were not great enough to be recorded in the sediments 

and faunas of the Waccamaw.

During the last several hundred thousand years, the 

climatic record has been predominated by glacialinterglacial oscillations, of which only the warm intervals, representing eustatic high stands of sea level, are 

known from the emerged Coastal Plain. A good correspondence exists between periods of high sea level, 

warm climates in the Coastal Plain (Cronin and others, 

1981; Cronin, 1983, 1988a), and the timing of warm 

periods of Milankovitch climatic cycles documented in 

deep-sea cores (Hays and others, 1976). Many interglacial deposits have been dated by using uraniumdisequilibrium-series techniques (Szabo, 1985), and 

many contain pollen assemblages indicating interglacial 

terrestrial floras.

Glacial conditions during the middle and late Pleistocene also have been determined from paleontologic evidence such as the southward shifts of arctic and subarctic 

ostracodes found in isostatically uplifted marine deposits 

in the Northeastern United States and eastern Canada 

(Brady and Crosskey, 1871; Cronin, 1981a, 1988c). Hazel 

(1968) documented cooler water faunas representing 

glacial periods in samples from submarine canyons 

between Massachusetts and North Carolina. Bernhard 

and Cronin (1982) and Cronin (1988a) also found similar 

faunas in cores off the coast of New Jersey. These data 

provide evidence that cooling during glacial periods 

caused cold-water species to migrate as much as several 

degrees of latitude south of their present range.

In summary, high-frequency, high-amplitude climatic 

oscillations characterize the Pleistocene. This mode of 

climatic change is distinct from periods of extended 

warmth in the Pliocene when oscillations, if present, 

were of relatively low amplitude.

PALEONTOLOGIC DATA

The need for paleontologic data to test evolutionary 

models has been emphasized by Vrba (1984) and Maynard Smith (1982). For example, the fossil record has 

been cited as the testing ground for comparing the Red 

Queen model of biotic diversity (Van Valen, 1973), which 

states that evolution is driven by biotic interactions, with 

the Stationary model (Stenseth and Maynard Smith, 

1984), which calls for extrinsic events as the force behind 

evolutionary trends (see Hoffman, 1984). However, 

some authors (Schopf, 1982; Levinton and others, 1986)
C6 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

TABLE 2. Ostracode taxa excluded from evolutionary computations in this study

Predominantly 

bathyal genera Rare genera Cryophilic taxa Thermophilic taxa

Argilloecia Basslerites Baffinicythere emarginata (sars, 1865)

Cytherella Bythocythere Cythere lutea (Mliller, 1785)

Henryhowella Hirschmannia Elofsonella condnna (Jones, 1857)

Jonesia Paradoxostotna Finmarchinella finmarchica (Sars, 1865)

Macrocypris Pontocythere Hemicythere villosa (Sars, 1865)

Paracypris Propontocypris Heterocyprideis fastis (Brady and Norman, 1889)

Sahnicythere Leptocythere angusta (Blake, 1933)

Sclerochilus Palmenella limicola (Norman, 1865)

Acuticythereis laevissima Edwards, 1944.

Bairdoppilata sp.

Cativella navis Coryell and Fields, 1937.

Caudites paraasymmetricus Hazel, 1983. 

Cytherelloidea umbonata Edwards, 1944. 

Hemicytherura cranekeyensis Puri, 1953.

Hermanites ascitus Hazel, 1983.

Neonesidea gerda (Benson and Coleman, 1963).

Orionina vaughani (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904).

Palaciosa minuta (Edwards, 1944).

Paranesidea sp.

Pellucistoma magniventra Edwards, 1944.

Phlyctocythere sp.

Radimella confragosa (Edwards, 1944).

Reticulocythereis sp.

Triebelina sp. 

Xestoleberis sp.

have criticized the use of the paleontologic record for 

evolutionary study because paleontologists do not deal 

with real "biological" species and because rare or stratigraphically short-ranging taxa are omitted. Other studies have been equivocal as to whether the fossil record 

could be used to test evolutionary models (Hoffman and 

Kitchell, 1984). Consequently, we should state clearly 

the exact nature and the limitations of the ostracode data 

used here.

The data used in this paper meet several prerequisites 

for evolutionary study for three main reasons. First, 

occurrences of species were determined from direct 

examination of fossil and recent populations, rather than 

compiled from the literature. This approach is preferred 

over taxonomic compilation because judgment can be 

used in selecting species to be included or excluded (see 

below). It ensures a taxonomically up-to-date set of data 

having an internal consistency that is difficult to achieve 

by using taxonomy taken from monographs. Additionally, the data have the advantage of broad geographic 

sample coverage that includes not only the immediate 

study area but also adjacent regions. Second, ostracodes 

have biological characteristics that enhance our confidence that we are dealing with real biological species. 

Their ontogeny involves growth through molting, and 

the distinction between adult individuals and juvenile 

instars can be accomplished easily by using carapace 

features. Most species reproduce sexually, and sexual 

dimorphism is expressed in the size and shape of the 

adult carapace, so that males and females can be discriminated from each other. Further, the carapace contains 

many species-specific morphologic features (such as eye 

tubercles, muscle scars, and normal pore canals) that

represent homologous reference points that are useful in 

phylogenetic analysis (Cronin, 1987). Third, a large 

percentage of the species used in this study live along the 

Atlantic Coast today, so that collections of these are 

available for comparison. Firsthand knowledge of the 

ecology, zoogeography, and morphology of a species is an 

advantage in the study of fossil populations.

An important requirement of paleontological studies of 

speciation is the need to distinguish between true evolutionary appearances and migration from other areas. To 

accomplish this objective, only well-known species indigenous to the continental shelf from the Delmarva Peninsula to Florida (fig. 1) were analyzed in the computations 

below. Species that belong to bathyal genera that live on 

the continental slope, species that were rare (one or two 

specimens in a single sample), and species that evolved in 

other climatic zones (cryophilic and thermophilic species 

from arctic and tropical climatic zones, respectively) 

were culled from the data set (see table 2). By eliminating selected species, we introduce a certain degree of 

subjectivity into the analysis, but these species are not 

numerically important constituents of shelf-ostracode 

assemblages. Further, although the study area cannot be 

considered a closed system, knowledge of ostracodes 

from its margins (the continental slope and regions to the 

north and south) increases the probability that first 

appearances of fossils in the Coastal Plain are true 

evolutionary appearances and not migrations from other 

areas. The well-studied genus Neocaudites illustrates 

this point. Tropical and subtropical in habitat, species of 

Neocaudites that occur in the study area are believed to 

have evolved there during the Pliocene; Coastal Plain 

occurrences predate first appearances in the Caribbean.
EVOLUTION OF NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY MARINE OSTRACODA C7

In such cases where phylogenetic and biogeographic 

evidence shows that a species evolved in the study area, 

that species is included in the analysis. This contrasts 

with the species that are widespread outside the study 

area (Finmarchinella finmarchica, for example, see 

Neale, 1974) and that evolved elsewhere. It is, of course, 

not possible to identify the exact location of the population giving rise to a new species, but the data generally 

allow the identification of the zoogeographic province in 

which most species evolved.

The major factor limiting the accuracy of the age of 

each evolutionary first appearance of ostracode species is 

the incomplete stratigraphic record that lacks marine 

deposits corresponding to periods of eustatic low sea 

level. Thus, to estimate the time interval during which 

each new species evolved, a range of age estimates was 

used for the geologic formation in which the species first 

occurs.

RESULTS

Table 3 lists 127 species endemic to mild-temperate 

and subtropical climatic zones of the western Atlantic 

Ocean. It also lists the names used by earlier workers to 

provide a convenient synonym chart. Table 4 shows the 

last 5 m.y. divided into distinct intervals, and it separates the regions north and south of Cape Hatteras, 

N.C., into the Virginian and Carolinian faunal provinces, 

respectively, in order to show the diachrony of stratigraphic ranges for species in the two areas. This list 

forms the basis of the computations below. In table 4, the 

biostratigraphic range is given for each species that 

evolved in the Virginian (Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras) 

and Carolinian (Cape Hatteras to Cape Canaveral) faunal 

provinces (fig. 1).

Table 5 summarizes the data in table 4 by treating the 

Eastern United States as a single region. I combined the 

Virginian and Carolinian endemic species and then subtracted species common to both. For convenience, calculated variables are labeled A through K. A is the total 

number of species for a given time interval for the entire 

region. B is the number of those species still extant, and 

C is the percent of total species extant. D is the total 

number of endemic (sensu latu) species living in mild- and 

warm-temperate and subtropical regions (Cape Cod to 

Cape Canaveral), but this excludes cold-temperate and 

tropical species, which are included in the value E. F is 

the number of endemic species (D) that are extant, and G 

is the percent of endemic species extant. His the number 

of species first appearing in the region during each time 

interval. Because migration from regions north of Cape 

Cod and south of Cape Canaveral has been eliminated as 

an explanation for the first stratigraphic occurrence of an

endemic species, the value H represents real evolutionary first appearances. / divides the evolutionary first 

appearances, H, by the duration of each time interval, /, 

to give a rate of speciation. K is the midpoint of the time 

interval used to plot the data. Because the study was 

limited to the Pliocene and Pleistocene, a late Miocene 

total for diversity was not calculated. However, examination of material from the study of Miocene ostracodes 

by Forester (1980) shows that 10 species out of the 127 

total species first appeared in the late Miocene (table 5). 

The values for the Wisconsinan-Holocene represent a 

special case because of the great number of modern 

samples available. Of the 127 total endemic species, 67 

are living on the shelf today; three of these (Finmarchinella finmarchica, Leptocythere angusta, Hemicythere emarginata) are considered to have evolved 

elsewhere. Hazel (1975) found 126 total species of modern ostracodes in 38 samples from the Virginian and 

Carolinian provinces in the Cape Hatteras region. Of this 

total, Hazel judged 76 species to be common (occurring in 

4 or more samples). From Hazel's complete list of 126 

species, I omitted the same types of species listed in 

table 2 that were omitted from the fossil data, which left 

a total of 78 species, roughly the same as Hazel's 

independently derived estimate of common species. 

Thus, about 75-80 ostracode species are considered to be 

common in the modern Virginian and Carolinian regions.

SPECIES DIVERSITY

The pattern of ostracode species diversity shown in 

figure 2 is characterized by high diversity in the early 

and middle Pliocene and the early Pleistocene (about 

90-110 species) and generally by lower diversities during 

the late Pliocene, middle and late Pleistocene, and Holocene (about 60-80 species). The pattern for endemic 

species (fig. 2B) roughly parallels that for total species 

(fig. 2A) because the number of thermophilic and cryophilic species does not change much. High diversity 

during the Pliocene reflects the species-rich faunas of the 

Yorktown and Duplin Formations. In an early study of 

Yorktown ostracodes, Hazel (1971b) found 230 species, 

80 of which occurred in 5 or more of his 46 samples. 

Although this number might appear to be anomalously 

high, Hazel's total includes ostracodes from several 

stratigraphic units subdivided here into the lower and 

upper Yorktown and the Chowan River Formations. 

These are represented by the early, middle, and late 

Pliocene and early Pleistocene categories in tables 4 and 

5. Further, Hazel's total does not exclude those species 

omitted from my analysis (table 2).
C8 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

TABLE 3. Synonyms for 127 Neogene and Quaternary ostracode 

[Names used by earlier workers are shown below. Biostratigraphic occurrence data are summarized in table 4 for nine time intervals for the Virginian and Carolinian faunal

Species name Hazel, 1971a Valentine, 1971 Hazel, 1977 Cronin, 1979

Actinocythereis captionis Hazel, 1983

A. dawsoni (Brady, 1870)

A. marylandica (Howe and Hough, 1935)

A. mundorfi Swain, 1951

A. aff. A. bahamaensis (Brady, 1868)

A. sp. B

A. dawsoni

A. cf. A. marylandica

A. mundorfi

A. aff. A. gomillionensis A. captionis

A. dawsoni A. dawsoni

 A. mundorfi

A. sp. A

Aurila laevicula Edwards, 1944 A. laevicula

Bensonocythere americana Hazel, 1967 B. americana

B. arenicola (Cushman, 1906) 

B. blackwelderi Hazel, 1983 B. spp. J and K

B. bmdyi Hazel, 1983 B. sp. R

B. americana 

B. sp. G

A. laevicula

B. bradyi

A. laevicula 

B. americana

B. calverti (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904) 

B. florencensis Cronin n. sp. 

B. gouldensis Hazel, 1983 

B. hazeli Cronin n. sp. 

B. hollyensis Cronin n. sp.

B. sp. B

B. sp. E

B. calverti

B. gouldensis 

B. sp. M

B. ricespitensis Hazel, 1983 

B. rugosa Hazel, 1983 

B. sapeloensis (Hall, 1965) 

B. trapezoidalis (Swain, 1974) 

B. valentinei Cronin n. sp.

B. sp. N 

B. sp. 0

B. sapeloensis 

B. sp. D

B. ricespitensis 

B. rugosa

B. trapezoidalis 

B. sapeloensis 

B. spp. B and 0

B. whitei (Swain, 1951) B. whitei

B. aff. B. americana Hazel, 1967 

B. aff. B. blackwelderi Hazel, 1983 

B. sp. D B. sp. DCampylocythere laeva Edwards, 1944 C. laeva

Climacoidea gigantica (Edwards, 1944) 

C. jamesensis (Hazel, 1983) Proteoconcha sp. E

C. mimica (Plusquellec and Sandberg, 1969) 

C. multipunctata (Edwards, 1944) Proteoconcha multipunctata

C. nelsonensis (Grossman, 1967) 

B. whitei B. whitei

B. sp. A 

B. sp. B 

C. laeva 

Proteoconcha gigantica 

Proteoconcha nelsonensis 

B. whitei

C. laeva 

P. gigantica

P. nelsonensis

C. tuberculata (Pun, 1960) 

Cushmanidea seminuda (Cushman, 1906) C. sp. I

Cytheridea campwallacensis Hazel, 1983 C. sp. B

C. carolinensis Hazel, 1983 C. sp. G

C. virginiensis (Malkin, 1953) C. virginiensis

Proteoconcha tuberculata 

C. seminuda 

P. tuberculata 

C. seminuda

C. campwallacensis 

C. carolinensis 

C. virginiensis 

C. sp. A

Cytheromorpha curta Edwards, 1944

C. fuscata (Brady, 1870)

C. incisa Hazel, 1983

C. macroincisa Hazel, 1983

C. sp. D

C. sp. A

C. incisa

C. macroincisa

C. curta 

C. fuscata

C. newportensis Williams, 1966 

C. suffolkensis Hazel, 1983 C. sp. C

C. warneri Howe and Spurgeon, 1935 C. warneri

Cytheropteron talquinensis Puri, 1953 C. talquinensis

C. yorktownensis (Malkin, 1953) C. yorktownensis

C. warneri newportensis C. newportensis 

 C. suffolkensis 

C. talquinensis

C. yorktownensis 
EVOLUTION OF NEOCENE AND QUATERNARY MARINE OSTRACODA C9

species from the Atlantic Coastal Plain

provinces. Data are given for 127 mild-temperate and subtropical species. See text for discussion. .species did not occur]

Cronin and Hazel, 1980 Forester, 1980 Cronin, 1981b Hazel, 1983 Lyon, this volume

A. captionis A. captionis

A. dawsoni A. dawsoni

A. marylandica A. marylandica

 A. mundorfi

A. sp. H 

A. captionis

A. laevicula A. laevicula

 B. calverti

B. aff. B. bradyi 

B. gouldensis 

B. ricespitensis 

B. rugosa 

B. sp. D 

B. whitei

B. sp. E 

B. spp. B and C 

B. sp. A 

B. sp. EE

B. sp. AA 

B. sp. R 

B. sp. B

B. sp. D

B. whitei

B. blackwelderi 

B. bradyi

B. calverti 

B. sp. PP 

B. gouldensis 

B. sp. M 

B. sp. 00

B. ricespitensis 

B. rugosa

B. trapezoidalis

B. whitei

B. sapeloensis 

B. valentinei

B. whitei

C. laeva C. laeva C. laeva

P. gigantica 

P. jamesensis 

P. mimica 

P. multipunctata

P. gigantica

P. nelsonensis

C. virginiensis C. virginiensis

P. tuberculata 

C. seminuda 

P. campwallacensis 

C. carolinensis 

C. virginiensis

P. tuberculata, 

C. seminuda

C. aff. C. virginiensis 

C. curia C. curta

C. incisa 

C. macroincisa 

C. suffolkensis 

C. warneri

C. newportensis

C.I yorktownensis 
CIO STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

TABLE 3. Synonyms for 127 Neogene and Quaternary ostracode 

[Names used by earlier workers are shown below. Biostratigraphic occurrence data are summarized in table 4 for nine time intervals for the Virginian and Carolinian faunal

Species name

Cytherura carolinensis Cronin n. sp.

C. elongata Edwards, 1944

C. fiscina Garbett and Haddocks, 1979

C. forulata Edwards, 1944

C. howei Puri, 1953

C. neusensis Cronin n. sp.

C. nucis Garbett and Maddocks, 1979

C. pseudostriata Hulings, 1966

C. reticulata Edwards, 1944

C. sablensis Benson and Coleman, 1963

C. valentini Garbett and Maddocks, 1979

C. wardensis Howe and Brown, 1935

C. sp. A

C. sp. B

Echinocythereis leecreekensis Hazel, 1983

E. planibasalis (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904)

Eucythere declivis (Norman, 1865)

E. gibba Edwards, 1944

E. triangulata Puri, 1953

Hulingsina americana (Cushman, 1906)

ff.? cylindrica (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904)

H. glabra (Hall, 1965)

H. rugipustulosa (Edwards, 1944)

H. sp. A

H. sp. B

H. sp. C

H. sp. D

Loxoconcha carolinensis Cronin n. sp.

L. edentonensis Swain, 1951

L. florencensis Cronin n. sp.

L. matagordensis Swain, 1955

L. purisubrhomboidea Edwards, 1953

L. reticularis Edwards, 1944

L. sperata Williams, 1966

L. aff. L. florencensis Cronin n. sp.

L. cf. L. impressa

L. sp. A

Malzella conradi (Howe and McGuirt, 1935)

M. evexa Hazel, 1983

M. floridana (Benson and Coleman, 1963)

M. aff. M. evexa Hazel, 1983

Muellerina bassiounii Hazel, 1983

M. blowi Hazel, 1983

Hazel, 1971a

C. howei

_

_

E. planibasalis

E. declivis

E. gibba

H. americana

_

H. rugipustulosa

_

H. ashennani

L. edentonensis

L. spp. M and H

_

L. reticularis

L. impressa

Radimella conradi

Radimella floridana

_

M. sp. D

M. sp. F

Valentine, 1971

C. forulata

C. howei

C. sp. D

C. pseudostriata

C. reticulata

C. sp. A

C. wardensis

E. sp. A

_

E. declivis

E. gibba

E. triangulata

H. sp. A

_

H. glabra

H. rugipustulosa

H. sp. B

H. americana

H. sp. D

H. sp. C

L. matagordensis

L. reticularis

L. sperata

L. aff. L. granulata

__

Aurila floridana

_

Hazel, 1977 Cronin, 1979

 

 

 

 C. forulata

 C. howei

 C. sp. B

 C. nucis

 C. pseudostriata

 C. reticulata

 C. sablensis

 C. sp. A

 

 

 

E. leecreekensis 

_ _

 

 E. gibba

 E. triangulata

 

__ __

 H. glabra

 H. rugipustulosa

 H. sp. A

 H. sp. B

 H. sp. D

 H. sp. C

 

L. edentonensis 

 

 L. matagordensis

 

 L. reticularis

 L. sperata

 L. sp.

_ _

L. sp. A 

M. conradi 

M. evexa 

 "A." floridana

__ __

M. bassiounii 

M. blowi 

M. canadensis (Brady, 1870) 

M. ohmerti Hazel, 1983

M. aff. M. canadensis 

M. sp. A

M. canadensis

M. aff. M. lienenklausi M. sp. A
EVOLUTION OF NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY MARINE OSTRACODA Cll

species from the Atlantic Coastal Plain Continued

provinces. Data are given for 127 mild-temperate and subtropical species. See text for discussion. , species did not occur]

Cronin and Hazel, 1980 Forester, 1980 Cronin, 1981b Hazel, 1983 Lyon, this volume

C. sp. HH

C. elongata 

C. sp. BB 

C. forulata 

C. howei

C. forulata

C. nucis 

C. pseudostriata 

 C. reticulata

C. sablensis 

C. nucis

E. leecreekensis 

C. sp. II

C. wardensis 

C. sp. AA

E. leecreekensis

C. valentini 

C. wardensis

E. planibasalis 

E. declivis 

E. gibba 

E. triangulata 

H. americana H. americana

H. cylindrica H. sp. CC

H. rugipustulosa H. sp. EE

 H. sp. I

H. glabra

H. rugipustulosa

H. sp. C

H. glabra

H. rugipustulosa

H. aff. H. rugipustulosa

H. aff. H. semicircularis

H. sp. N

L. edentonensis 

L. sp. B 

 H. sp. F

L. sp. R 

L. edentonensis L. edentonensis

L. spp. P and S L. sp. H

H.

L. matagordensis 

L. sp. B

L. matagordensis L. matagordensis

L. purisubrhomboidea 

L. reticularis L. reticularis

 L. florencensis

L. sp. A 

M. conradi 

M. evexa 

M. floridana

L. sp. A 

M. conradi 

"A." sp. A 

"A." floridana

L. sp. C 

M. conradi angulata 

M. evexa 

M. bassiounii M. sp. D

M. evexa (part) 

M. bassiounii 

M. blowi

M. evexa

M. ohmerti M. ohmerti
C12 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

TABLE 3. Synonyms for 127 Neogene and Quaternary ostracode 

[Names used by earlier workers are shown below. Biostratigraphic occurrence data are summarized in table 4 for nine time intervals for the Virginian and Carolinian faunal

Species name

M. petersburgensis Hazel, 1983

M. wardi Hazel, 1983 

M. aff. M. ohmerti Hazel, 1983 

Murrayina barclayi McLean, 1957 

M. macleani Swain, 1974

Hazel, 1971a Valentine, 1971

M. sp. E 

M. barclayi 

Hazel, 1977 Cronin, 1979

M. canadensis 

petersburgensis 

M. wardi 

M. barclayi 

Neocaudites angulata Hazel, 1983 

N. atlantica Cronin, 1979 

N. subimpressa (Edwards, 1944) 

N. triplistriata (Edwards, 1944) 

N. variabilis Hazel, 1983

N. sp. A

N. triplistriatus

N. atlantica

Neolophocythere subquadrata 

Grossman, 1967

Paracytheridea altila Edwards, 1944 P. altila 

P. cronini Hazel, 1983 

P. hazeli Cronin n. sp. 

P. mucra Edwards, 1944 P. mucra

N. subquadrata and 

N. sp. A 

P. altila

P. sp. A

P. edwardsi 

P. mucra

N. subquadrata 

P. altila 

P. sp. A

P. rugosa Edwards, 1944 

P. washingtonensis Puri, 1953 

Protocytheretta reticulata P. sp. D

(Edwards, 1944)

P. sahnii (Puri, 1952) 

Psetidocytheretta cf. P. burnsi (Ulrich 

and Bassler, 1904)

P. rugosa

P. aff. P. sahnii

P. cf. P. rugosa

P. aff. P. sahnii

P. edwardsi Cushman, 1906 

Pterygocythereis alophia Hazel, 1983 

P. inexpectata (Blake, 1929) P. inexpectata

Puriana carolinensis Hazel, 1983 P. sp. D

P. convoluta Teeter, 1975 

P. edwardsi 

P. sp. A P. sp. A

P. americana inexpectata P. inexpectata 

P. sp. A P. carolinensis P. sp.

 P. convoluta P. convoluta

P. floridana Puri, 1960

P. mesacostalis (Edwards, 1944)

P. rugipunctata (Ulrich and

Bassler, 1904) 

Tetracytherura choctawhatcheensis

(Puri, 1953) 

T. expanda (Hazel, 1983)

P. mesacostalis 

P. rugipunctata

P. floridana 

P. rugipunctata

M. choctawhatcheensis M. choctawhatcheensis

Microcytherura sp. A 

P. mesacostalis

P. floridana

M. choctawhatcheensis M. choctawhatcheensis 

M. expanda 

T. mccartanae Cronin n. sp. 

T. minuta (Hazel, 1983) 

T. norfolkensis (Cronin, 1979) 

T. owensi Cronin n. sp. 

T. similis (Malkin, 1953)

M. sp. 0

M. similis

M. sp. A 

M. sp. B

M. minuta 

M. similis

M. sp. A

M. norfolkensis

Thaerocythere carolinensis Hazel, 1983 

T. schmidtae (Malkin, 1953) T. schmidtae

T. carolinensis 

T. schmidtae
EVOLUTION OF NEOCENE AND QUATERNARY MARINE OSTRACODA

species from the Atlantic Coastal Plain Continued

provinces. Data are given for 127 mild-temperate and subtropical species. See text for discussion. , species did not occur]

Cronin and Hazel, 1980

M. wardi 

M. sp. B

Forester, 1980 Cronin, 1981b

 M. sp. A

 M. sp. C 

 M. sp. B

Hazel, 1983

M. canadensis petersburgensis

M. wardi

M. barclayi 

M. macleani

Lyon, this volume

N. triplistriatus 

N. variabilis

 N. angulatus

N. atlantica 

N. subimpressus N. subimpressus

 N. triplistriatus

 N. variabilis

N. atlantica

C13

P. altila 

P. edwardsi 

P. sp. A 

P. mucra

P. rugosa

P. altila

P. sp. B 

P. sp. A 

P. mucra

P. altila 

P. cronini

P. mucra 

P. rugosa

P. altila 

P. hazeli

P. rugosa

P. burnsi P. bumsi

P. cf. P. sahnii

P. carolinensis 

P. convoluta

P. mesacostalis

P. inexpectata 

P. sp. A

P. alophia 

P. inexpectata 

P. carolinensis 

P. convoluta

 P. mesacostalis P. mesacostalis 

P. rugipunctata P. rugipunctata

M. choctawhatcheensis 

M. expanda 

M. sp. C 

M. minuta

M. sp. B 

M. similis M. similis

M. sp. M

M. sp. D

M. minuta

M. sp. B 

M. similis

T. schmidtae 

M. choctawhatcheensis 

M. expanda

M. sp. R 

M. minuta

M. similis

T. carolinensis 

T. schmidtae

P. alophia

P. carolinensis

P. floridana

M. mccartanae
C14 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

TABLE 4. Biostratigraphic ranges for 127 Neogene and Qiuiternary ostracode species from the Atlantic Coastal Plain 

[Data for 127 mild-temperate and subtropical species are summarized for nine time intervals for the Virginian and Carolinian faunal provinces. , not present; X, present]

Species name

Virginian province Carolinian province

H

- *H o ~ 

2 sg

JK PM

Actinocythereis captionis Hazel, 1983

A. dawsoni (Brady, 1870)

A. marylandica (Howe and Hough, 1935)

A. mundorfi Swain, 1951

A. aff. A. bahamaensis (Brady, 1868)

Aurila laevicula Edwards, 1944 

Bensonocythere americana Hazel, 1967 

B. arenicola (Cushman, 1906) 

B. blackwelderi Hazel, 1983 

B. bradyi Hazel, 1983

B. calverti (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904) 

B. florencensis Cronin n. sp. 

B. gouldensis Hazel, 1983 

B. hazeli Cronin n. sp. 

B. hollyensis Cronin n. sp.

B. ricespitensis Hazel, 1983 

B. rugosa Hazel, 1983 

B. sapeloensis (Hall, 1965) 

B. trapezoidalis (Swain, 1974) 

B. valentinei Cronin n. sp.

B. whitei (Swain, 1951)

B. aff. B. americana Hazel, 1967

B. aff. B. blackwelderi Hazel, 1983

B. sp. D

Campylocythere laeva Edwards, 1944

Climacoidea gigantica (Edwards, 1944)

C. jamesensis (Hazel, 1983)

C. mimica (Plusquellec and Sandberg, 1969)

C. multipunctata (Edwards, 1944)

C. nelsonensis (Grossman, 1967)

C. tuberculata (Puri, 1960) 

Cushtnanidea seminuda (Cushman, 1906) 

Cytheridea campwallacensis Hazel, 1983 

C. carolinensis Hazel, 1983 

C. virginiensis (Malkin, 1953)

C. sp. A

Cytheromorpha curta Edwards, 1944

C. fuscata (Brady, 1870)

C. incisa Hazel, 1983

C. macroincisa Hazel, 1983

C. newportensis Williams, 1966 

C. suffolkensis Hazel, 1983 

C. warneri Howe and Spurgeon, 1935 

Cytheropteron talquinensis Puri, 1953 

C. yorktownensis (Malkin, 1953)

 XX XX XXX

XXX X X

XXX 

 XX X 

 XX XXX XX

 XX 

 XX X X

 XX X XXX

 X XX

 XX X X 

 X X 

 X X , 

 XX XXX XX

XX 

___ x 

 XX X 

_ _ _ _ X _ _ _ _

XX X 

XX XX 

 XXX XXX

 X XX 

___ XX X XX 

 XX X XX XX 

 XXX ___ XX XX

X

V.A. 

 XXX XXX XXX

___ XX XXX X XXX XXX

___ ___ XX 

_x xx 

 XX ___ ___ ___ ___

 XX XX XXX XX XXX XXX

 XX XXX XXX XX XXX

 XX X X 

 X X X 

 XX XX X XX XXX X X

 XXX X XX XX

 X XXX X XXX XXX

 X XXX X X

_x 

 XX 

 XX XX XX 

___ ___ XX 

 X X XX XX

___ ___ XXX 

X X X ___ ___ ___

 XX 

 XXX X XX XX

 X X _________

XXX X XX 

 XX XX XX XXX 

 XX XX XX XXX 
EVOLUTION OF NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY MARINE OSTRACODA CIS

TABLE 4. Biostratigraphic ranges for 127 Neogene and Quaternary ostracode species from the Atlantic Coastal Plain Continued 

[Data for 127 mild-temperate and subtropical species are summarized for nine time intervals for the Virginian and Carolinian faunal provinces. , not present; X, present]

Virginian province

Species name

Cytkerura carolinensis Cronin n. sp.

C. elongata Edwards, 1944

C. fiscina Garbett and Haddocks, 1979

C. forulata Edwards, 1944

C. howei Puri, 1953

C. neusensis Cronin n. sp.

C. nucis Garbett and Haddocks, 1979

C. pseudostriata Hulings, 1966

C. reticulata Edwards, 1944

C. sablensis Benson and Coleman, 1963

C. valentini Garbett and Haddocks, 1979

C. wardensis Howe and Brown, 1935

C. sp. A

C. sp. B

Echinocythereis leecreekensis Hazel, 1983

E. planibasalis (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904)

Eucythere declivis (Norman, 1865)

E. gibba Edwards, 1944

E. triangulata Puri, 1953

Hulingsina americana (Cushman, 1906)

H.I cylindrica (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904)

H. glabra (Hall, 1965)

H. rugipustulosa (Edwards, 1944)

H. sp. A

H. sp. B

H. sp. C

H. sp. D

Loxoconcha carolinensis Cronin n. sp.

L. edentonensis Swain, 1951

L. florencensis Cronin n. sp.

L. matagordensis Swain, 1955

L. purisubrhomboidea Edwards, 1953

L. reticularis Edwards, 1944

L. sperata Williams, 1966

L. aff. L. florencensis Cronin n. sp.

L. cf. L. impressa

L. sp. A

Malzella conradi (Howe and HcGuirt, 1935)

M. evexa Hazel, 1983

M. floridana (Benson and Coleman, 1963)

M. aff. M. evexa Hazel, 1983

Muellerina bassiounii Hazel, 1983

M. blowi Hazel, 1983

M. canadensis (Brady, 1870)

M. ohmerti Hazel, 1983

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C16 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

TABLE 4. Biostratigraphic ranges for 127 Neogene and Quaternary ostracode species from the Atlantic Coastal Plain Continued

[Data for 127 mild-temperate and subtropical species are summarized for nine time intervals for the Virginian and Carolinian faunal provinces. , not present; X, present]

Virginian province

Species name

M. peters burgensis Hazel, 1983 

M. wardi Hazel, 1983 

M. aff. M. ohmerti Hazel, 1983 

Murrayina barclayi McLean, 1957

M tYinrlpntii S\irtnn 1 Q7A

01

C § 

% &

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 x

 X

Y

Middle Pliocene

X 

X

X

Pliocene Late 

X 

X

Early Pleistocene 

Early-middle Pleistocene

X 

X 

 

Late-middle Pleistocene 

Late Pleistocene 

Holocene

 

 

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 X 

 X

 X

Y

§

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X 

X 

X

Carolinian province

Pliocene Late 

X 

X

Pleistocene Early 

Early-middle Pleistocene

X 

X X

Late-middle Pleistocene

Late Pleistocene

Holocene

Neocaudites angulata Hazel, 1983 

N. atlantica Cronin, 1979 

N. subimpressa (Edwards, 1944) 

N. triplistriata (Edwards, 1944) 

N. variabilis Hazel, 1983

Neolophocythere subquadrata Grossman, 1967 

Paracytheridea altila Edwards, 1944 

P. cronini Hazel, 1983 

P. hazeli Cronin n. sp. 

P. mucra Edwards, 1944

P. rugosa Edwards, 1944

P. washingtonensis Puri, 1953

Protocytheretta reticulata (Edwards, 1944)

P. sahnii (Puri, 1952)

Pseudocytheretta cf. P. burnsi (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904)

P. edwardsi Cushman, 1906 

Pterygocythereis alophia Hazel, 1983 

P. inexpectata (Blake, 1929) 

Puriana carolinensis Hazel, 1983 

P. convoluta Teeter, 1975

P. floridana Puri, 1960

P. mesacostalis (Edwards, 1944)

P. rugipunctata (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904)

Tetracytherura choctawhatcheensis (Puri, 1953)

T. expanda (Hazel, 1983)

T. mccartanae Cronin n. sp. 

T. minuta (Hazel, 1983) 

T. norfolkensis (Cronin, 1979) 

T. owensi Cronin n. sp. 

T. similis (Malkin, 1953)

Thaerocythere carolinensis Hazel, 1983 

T. schmidtae (Malkin, 1953)

 X X 

 XX 

__X 

 XX 

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 X XXX

 XX XXX XX 

 XX XX X 

___ ___ XX 

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 X XXX

XXX XX X 

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 XX XX XX

_ x _ _ _ _ _ _ _

 X XX XX

 X XX 

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 X XXX 

 XX X 

 XX XXX X X

 X XX 

 X XXX XX

 X X 

 XX 

 XX XX 

 X 

_ _ _ X X 
EVOLUTION OF NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY MARINE OSTRACODA C17

TABLE 5. Summary of ostracode evolutionary data from the Atlantic Coastal Plain

Variable Late Early Middle 

Miocene Pliocene Pliocene

Late Early 

Pliocene Pleistocene

Early Late

middle middle

Pleistocene Pleistocene

Late WisconsinanPleistocene Holocene

A. Total species

B. Number extant species

C. Percent extant species

D. Total endemic temperate 

and subtropical species

E. Total endemic coldtemperate and 

tropical species

F. Number endemic 

species extant

G. Percent endemic 

species extant

H. Evolutionary first 

appearances per 

time interval

I. (=H+J) Evolutionary first 

appearances per 

million years

/. Duration of time 

(interval), in 

millions of years

K. Midpoint of time 

interval, in 

millions of years

10

39.8

75

8

26

34.7

65

2.0 40.6

5.0 1.6

109

52

47.7

97

12

43

44.3

29

48.3 

.6

92

48

52.2

80

12

94

59

62.8

83

11

49

59.0

3.9

1.3

60

49

81.7

53

7

42

72.2

6.7

.3

63

52

82.5

55

44

80.0

6

27.3

.22

76

73

96.0

64

12

61

95.3

27.3

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67

67

100

64

100

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(10-5) (5-3.4) (3.4-2.8) (2.8-2.0) (2.0-0.7) (0.7-0.4) (0.4-0.18) (0.18-0.07) (0.07-0.0) 

7.5 4.2 3.1 2.4 1.35 .55 .29 .125 .035

PERIOD EPOCH

Late Pleistocene < 

Late middle^ 

Pleistocene / 

Early middle 

Pleistocene

Early / 

Pleistocene

Late 

Pliocene

Middle 

Pliocene

Early 

Pliocene

Late 

Miocene

O 2

=! 3

3 4

5 -

50 60 70 80 90 100 110 

NUMBER OF SPECIES

50

B

60 70 80 90 

NUMBER OF SPECIES

100 10 20 30 40 50 

NUMBER OF SPECIES

60 70

FIGURE 2. Species diversity of Atlantic Coastal Plain Ostracoda during the Neogene and Quaternary. A, Total number of species per time 

interval (duration of interval shown by vertical bar). B, Total number of endemic species per time interval. C, Total number of evolutionary 

first appearances per time interval. See text for discussion.

EVOLUTIONARY FIRST APPEARANCES

The value H in table 5 represents the number of 

evolutionary first appearances in the study area for an 

interval of time. Figure 2C shows that, of the total 127 

endemic species, 10 species evolved during the late 

Miocene, 65 during the early Pliocene, 29 during the 

middle Pliocene, and a total of 23 since the middle 

Pliocene about 2.8 Ma. Normalizing these data (7 in table

5) for the duration of each time interval (/ in table 5), I 

found that early and middle Pliocene rates of origination 

were 40.6 and 48.3 species per million years, respectively 

(fig. 3). This is equivalent to about one new species every 

20,000 to 25,000 years. Rates ranged between about 

three and nine species per million years during the 

interval between 2.8 and 0.4 Ma, which is equivalent 

to a rate of one new species every 100,000 to 300,000 

years. An intermediate rate of about 27 species per
CIS STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

PERIOD EPOCH

Late Pleistocene <

Late middle/' 

Pleistocene A 

Early middle' 

Pleistocene

Early 

Pleistocene

Late 

Pliocene

Middle 

Pliocene

Early 

Pliocene

Late 

Miocene

cc.

III o

> d

U_

O 

w 

O 4

10 20 30 

NUMBER OF SPECIES

40

FIGURE 3. Number of ostracode species originations per million years 

for the Atlantic Coastal Plain for each of eight intervals of time 

during the Neogene and Quaternary.

million years characterized the last 400,000 years, but 

these apparently high rates of species origination may be 

overestimates, reflecting the "pull of the Recent" and a 

larger number of samples for the late Pleistocene and 

Holocene.

ASSOCIATION OF SPECIES ORIGINATIONS 

AND CLIMATIC CHANGE

Vrba (1984) and Cracraft (1982) postulated a direct link 

between evolutionary patterns and climatic change. 

Indeed, case studies associating evolutionary events 

with climatic events are common (for example, see 

Brenchley, 1984). However, a simple correspondence in 

age between climatically induced environmental changes 

and an observed species diversification (or extinction) 

does not prove a direct link. In this vein, Schopf (1984) 

has urged that density-independent factors, such as 

climate, be distinguished from density-dependent factors, such as population size, in evolutionary studies. He 

stressed the need for consideration of internal genetic 

processes to explain evolutionary patterns and suggested regional climatic studies, such as this study, be 

undertaken to assess the faunal diversity and speciesarea effects.

The period of high rates of species origination shown in 

figure 3 corresponds to (1) a period of high sea level and

increasing ocean-water temperatures between 4.0 and 

3.2 Ma and (2) an intensified pulse of warm water 

between 3.2 and 2.8 Ma. This warmer water along the 

Eastern United States reflects enhanced flow of the Gulf 

Stream due to the closure of the Isthmus of Panama 

(Keigwin, 1978; Jones and Hasson, 1985). The drop in 

ostracode species originations since the early and middle 

Pliocene corresponds with a rapid drop in sea level, 

which reflects a glacioeustatic event corresponding to 

northern hemispheric glaciation. Evidence for these glaciations is discussed in Backman (1979), Shackleton and 

others (1984), and Cronin (1988a).

The observed association between ostracode diversification and local, hemispheric, and global oceanographic 

changes constitutes a working hypothesis that can be 

tested in two distinct ways. The Pliocene diversification 

can be compared, albeit qualitatively, to (1) contemporaneous ostracode patterns from other zoogeographic provinces and (2) noncontemporaneous patterns from the 

same area. There is evidence that Pliocene shallowwater ostracodes of the northeastern North Atlantic 

experienced a similar diversification. For example, Maybury and Whatley (1988) have reported 387 ostracode 

species from the Pliocene St. Erth beds of Cornwall, 

southwest England and 384 species from equivalent 

strata in northwest France. Therefore, the oceanographic effects of the intensification of the Gulf Stream 

and North Atlantic Current may have influenced ostracode rates of speciation in shallow-water environments 

on both sides of the North Atlantic. Further comparison 

between trends of shallow-water and deep-sea ostracodes is instructive. Benson and others (1984), studying 

Cenozoic ostracode generic diversity in faunas from 

deep-sea cores, identified a Pliocene event about 3.5 Ma 

when ostracode diversity was reduced greatly. They 

infer a possible link between reduced diversity and the 

closing of the Isthmus of Panama and the inception of 

northern hemispheric glaciation. Unfortunately, specieslevel data are not available for deep-sea ostracodes.

The low rate of species origination during the Pleistocene in the Atlantic Coastal Plain contrasts with the rate 

during the Pliocene and further supports the hypothesis 

that the unique oceanographic changes of the Pliocene 

caused more species to evolve then. If this were not the 

case, one would expect a similar rate of species origination throughout the last 5 m.y. and one would not expect 

a decrease during the Pleistocene. This change in rate of 

origination corresponds with the fundamental change to 

high-amplitude Milankovitch climatic cycles that 

occurred at about 100,000-, 40,000-, and 20,000-year 

periodicities during the last 2.4 m.y. and intensified 

during the last 700,000 years. Although these climatic 

cycles altered the zoogeographic distributions of the
EVOLUTION OF NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY MARINE OSTRACODA C19

temperature-sensitive species, they were not sufficient, 

for unknown reasons, to cause significant numbers of 

new species to evolve. Cronin (1985, 1987) found a similar 

pattern in a phylogenetic study of the ostracode genus 

Puriana from both the Eastern United States and the 

Caribbean.

COMPARISON OF COASTAL PLAIN OSTRACODE AND 

MOLLUSK PATTERNS

The most intensely studied marine invertebrate group 

from the Atlantic Coastal Plain is mollusks. Stanley 

(1982, 1984, 1986a, b) compiled occurrence data on mollusks, primarily from the published literature, and postulated that a regional mass extinction occurred that 

began in the late Pliocene and continued into the early 

Pleistocene. Stanley suggested (1) that as many as 65 

percent of early Pliocene mollusk species became extinct; 

(2) that extinction was selective and eliminated primarily 

tropical species, whereas species capable of living in 

nontropical areas survived; (3) that stenothermal species 

became extinct first and eurythermal species, somewhat 

later; and (4) that by comparison with Pacific Ocean 

patterns, the extinction in the Atlantic Ocean did not 

result from a drop in sea level but from the combined 

effects of global cooling and the formation of a hypothetical zone of cool-upwelling water between Florida and the 

Bahamas and the Caribbean. Although the present study 

has been concerned with species origination and not 

extinction per se, the molluscan data of Stanley are 

derived mostly from the same stratigraphic units as the 

ostracodes and a comparison is worthwhile.

The most obvious similarity in the ostracode and 

mollusk data is the diversity pattern high diversity in 

the Pliocene followed by lower diversity in the Pleistocene. Climate is assigned a strong role in influencing 

evolutionary patterns both in this paper and in Stanley's 

work on mollusks, but the interpretations of the causal 

effects of climate are distinct. When closely examined, 

however, the interpretation of the Coastal Plain molluscan record that led Stanley to propose the theory of a 

regional mass extinction has several ambiguities with 

respect to the stratigraphy, paleoclimatology, and zoogeography.

In relation to the regional stratigraphy, the age estimates given by Stanley (1986a) for several formations 

are equivocal. For example, in the discussion of the 

Waccamaw Formation of South and North Carolina and 

Caloosahatchee Formation of Florida, Stanley (1986a, p. 

20) assigned a late Pliocene age to these deposits; yet it 

is known from planktonic foraminifers and nannofossils 

(Akers, 1972; Cronin and others, 1984) that the Waccamaw and Caloosahatchee Formations are early Pleistocene in age, no older than the Olduvai event 1.8 to 1.6

Ma, near the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary. Stanley 

(1986a, p. 26) mentioned the possibility of a younger age 

for these units when he contrasted the Atlantic data with 

data from the Pacific San Diego Formation. However, he 

suggested (Stanley, 1982, p. 186) that the difference 

between a late Pliocene or early Pleistocene age matters 

little because "the crucial point for the present analysis is 

that both faunas lived before major glacial episodes and 

accompanying sea level depressions." The main thesis of 

Stanley's extinction hypothesis was that climatic cooling 

that began before the late Pliocene initiated a regional 

extinction event, and he cited ample evidence for the 

initiation of glaciation in the Northern Hemisphere. The 

Waccamaw and Caloosahatchee molluscan faunas do not 

predate the first hemispheric glaciation.

In reference to the paleoclimatic history of the Pliocene and Pleistocene outlined in the important paper by 

Shackleton and others (1984), Stanley stated (1986a, p. 

26), "Continental glaciers expanded in the Northern 

Hemisphere about 3.2 m.y. ago (Shackleton et al., 

1984)." However, two other points were emphasized by 

Shackleton and others (1984). First, they concluded that 

a major northern hemispheric glaciation began 

at 2.4 Ma when "the first glacial maximum at 2.37 Myr 

* * * represents a truly glacial interval, with an ice volume 

similar to maxima during the middle Pleistocene" (Shackleton and others, 1984, p. 622). Second, they concluded 

that the present-day North Atlantic deep water has 

existed since at least about 3.5 Ma. Although Shackleton 

and others (1984) mentioned the work of McDougall and 

Wensink (1966) documenting glaciation in Iceland at 

about 3.1 Ma, this does not necessarily constitute the 

continental glaciation invoked by Stanley as an agent of 

extinction. Shackleton and others (1984) pointed out that 

the Iceland glaciers did not reach sea level until about 2.0 

Ma, and the most significant oceanographic events occurring between 3.4 and 2.4 Ma involved an increase in 

formation of deep water in the North Atlantic (Backman, 

1979), which was related to intensification of Gulf Stream 

flow. Brunner (1979) documented a change in sedimentary regime at 3.4 Ma in the Straits of Florida, when an 

increase in winnowed sediments, turbidites, and sedimentary hiatuses in piston cores was recorded. Brunner 

attributed these events to the closing of the Isthmus of 

Panama.

The distinction between 3.2 and 2.4 Ma as the age for 

major climatic cooling is important for the extinction 

model that implies that an ice sheet and periglacial 

environment similar to those of the last glacial maximum 

about 18 kilo-annum (ka, 103 years) existed in eastern 

North America during the Pliocene. At present, little 

direct paleontologic or isotopic evidence exists for reconstructing continental climatic conditions that existed in 

the Southeastern United States at that time. Instead,
C20 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

the intensified flow of the Gulf Stream mentioned above 

actually increased warm-water influx along southeastern 

North America and was directly responsible for the 

northward migration of tropical-water species into the 

region. It may not, therefore, be justified to extrapolate 

the well-known late Wisconsinan (about 18,000 ka) glacial conditions in eastern North America to the Pliocene 

because water temperatures along the Southeastern 

United States south of the Cape Hatteras region 

remained relatively warm due to the continued flow of 

the Gulf Stream. No evidence exists in marine deposits 

for colder climates along the coast south of Cape Hatteras even during the Pleistocene (Hazel, 1968; Cronin, 

1981b, 1988a).

To support the model that climate caused a regional 

mass extinction, Stanley (1982) compared the molluscan 

record of the Eastern United States to records from 

Japan and from California. He postulated that a major 

extinction did not occur in the Japanese and Californian 

molluscan faunas because they were not subjected to 

extreme temperature changes (1982, p. 184). However, 

Neogene (Ingle, 1981) and Quaternary (Lajoie and others, 1979) climatic cycles are well documented from 

southern California. Further, the specific localities from 

Japan that were selected for their molluscan fauna 

(Stanley, 1986b, table 1) were only a small subsample of 

the Omma-Manganjian faunas that occur from Hokkaido, 

Japan, to Korea and include a heterogeneous array of 

molluscan (Chinzei, 1978) and ostracode (Cronin and 

Ikeya, 1987) assemblages. In fact, well-documented 

regional Neogene oceanographic changes come from 

studies of the Omma-Manganjian faunas in northern 

Honshu, Japan (Okada, 1979; Cronin and Ikeya, 1987), 

and there is abundant published evidence from terrestrial and marine microfossils (Heusser and Morley, 1985; 

Sancetta and Silvestri, 1986, and references therein) for 

significant climatic changes during the Pliocene and 

Pleistocene Omma-Manganjian period. Japanese and 

Californian faunas were subjected to climatic extremes, 

and thus, the discordant extinction patterns in the 

eastern and western Pacific versus the Atlantic do not 

necessarily support the interpretation that paleotemperatures were the primary influence on molluscan 

extinction.

The concept that a region of upwelling existed and 

served as a major barrier between molluscan faunas 

(Stanley, 1986a) is based on indirect evidence from the 

region between Florida and North Carolina. Riggs (1984) 

carefully documented intermittent periods of upwelling 

along the Southeastern United States in studies of 

phosphorite deposition. Rigg's most detailed documentation was the Miocene Pungo River Formation of North 

Carolina and the Hawthorn Formation of Florida and 

South Carolina. With respect to the early Pliocene

Yorktown Formation, Riggs (1984, p. 125) stated that 

the lower Yorktown represents a phosphogenic episode, 

which means that the period of upwelling predated the 

extinction event later in the Pliocene and could not have 

acted as a barrier to southward dispersal of mollusks. 

Riggs described two types of Pliocene phosphates in 

Florida, one being the Bone Valley Formation, which he 

considered to be reworked largely from the underlying 

Hawthorn Formation, and the other being a "Pliocene 

phosphate in shallow marine facies scattered through 

eastern and southern Florida," which he considered to be 

"probably primary" (Riggs, 1984, p. 126). Thus, although 

areas of upwelling certainly occurred in the region during 

parts of the Pliocene and Pleistocene, the evidence does 

not indicate unique circumstances during the late Pliocene and Pleistocene that would have formed an environmental barrier to dispersal.

How is one to interpret the change from high diversity 

during the Pliocene to lower diversity during the Pleistocene that has been recorded for both ostracodes (fig. 2) 

and mollusks? First, some of the change may be attributed simply to the southward migration of tropical 

species back to regions in the Caribbean. Second, one 

could partly explain the drop in the number of mollusk 

species as a drop in the rate of species origination, as was 

postulated above for the ostracodes. Only by distinguishing true evolutionary first and last appearances from 

migration events can one recognize an anomalously high 

rate of species origination or extinction during the Pliocene for the Southeastern United States. Interestingly, 

there was no great corresponding extinction in benthic 

Foraminifera, according to M.A. Buzas (quoted in Stanley, 1986a, p. 28), nor in ostracodes. Therefore, the role 

of climate as an agent of speciation and extinction needs 

further investigation.

CONCLUSIONS

Evolutionary patterns in Pliocene and Quaternary 

marine ostracodes from the Atlantic Coastal Plain suggest that climatic and oceanographic changes, including 

sea-level and water-temperature fluctuations, exert an 

important influence on rates of speciation. A high diversity of ostracode species (about 90-110 species) and a 

high rate of species origination (1 new species per 

20,000-25,000 years) characterized the early and middle 

Pliocene and early Pleistocene of the Atlantic Coastal 

Plain. In contrast, late Pliocene, middle and late Pleistocene, and Holocene diversity (60-80 species) and rate 

of species origination (1 new species per 100,000-300,000 

years) are lower. The difference in evolutionary patterns 

is attributed, in part, to climatic change. The early to 

middle Pliocene was characterized by high sea level and
EVOLUTION OF NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY MARINE OSTRACODA C21

sustained oceanographic change reflecting intensification 

of the Gulf Stream and gradually warmer water. If 

climatic cycles occurred, they were of low amplitude. 

Middle and late Pleistocene climatic changes were 

related primarily to high-amplitude, high-frequency 

Milankovitch climatic cycles, during which relatively few 

new ostracode species evolved.

SYSTEMATIC PALEONTOLOGY

This section emphasizes the taxonomy of ostracodes 

from South Carolina because published taxonomic studies on ostracodes from Virginia, Maryland, and North 

Carolina provide adequate description and illustration of 

northern faunas (Swain, 1974; Valentine, 1971; Cronin, 

1979; Forester, 1980; Hazel, 1983, and references 

therein). A total of 67 samples was examined from the 

Charleston, S.C., area, and locality and stratigraphic 

data for these are given in Weems and McCartan (this 

volume) and in McCartan and others (this volume). A 

total of 113 taxa was identified from these samples; 71 

species are illustrated by scanning electron photomicrographs in plates 1-17. For species not illustrated in this 

paper, a reference to a published paper is provided in this 

section. Table 6 shows ostracode presence-absence 

occurrence data arranged by geologic formation for the 

67 samples examined.

The most common genera in Pliocene and Pleistocene 

marine deposits near Charleston are Actinocythereis, 

Bensonocythere, Cytherura, Hulingsina, Muellerina, 

Paracytheridea, Climacoidea, and Tetracytherura. 

Some species are restricted in their occurrence to one or 

several geologic formations, which makes them useful for 

correlating within the region. However, the stratigraphic ranges of species in South Carolina apply only 

locally and should not be used in regions south and north.

Most ostracode assemblages from the Pliocene and 

Pleistocene of South Carolina signify an inner shelf 

environment and normal marine salinities. However, 

there are important exceptions. For example, a few 

samples of the Raysor Formation contain middle to outer 

shelf assemblages, which include Pterygocythereis inexpectata and Echinocythereis planibasalis. Samples 22 

and 23 of the Penholoway Formation and samples 48 and 

49 of the Wando Formation contain brackish-water, 

backbarrier taxa such as Cyprideis, Leptocythere, Perissocytheridea, and Cytheromorpha curia (see Lyon, 

this volume).

Specimens illustrated in plates 1-17 are deposited in 

the Department of Paleobiology, USNM in Washington, 

B.C.; the faunal slides are in the USGS ostracode 

collections in Reston, Va.

Family CYTHERELLIDAE Sars, 1866 

Genus CYTHERELLOIDEA Alexander, 1929

Remarks. Most specimens are referred to C. umbonata Edwards, 1944; however, Cytherelloidea occurs in 

very low numbers. Its occurrence typically signifies 

warm water, and C. umbonata also occurs in the Caribbean (Teeter, 1975).

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, Bear Bluff, Waccamaw, and Wando Formations, Goose Creek Limestone, 

and Ten Mile Hill beds.

Illustration. Teeter (1975), figures 23n-o.

Family BAIRDIIDAE Sars, 1888 

Genus PARANESIDEA Maddocks, 1969

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, Waccamaw, and Wando Formations and Ten Mile 

Hill beds.

Family PONTOCYPRIDIDAE G.W. Miiller, 1894 

Genus PROPONTOCYPRIS Sylvester-Bradley, 1947

Remarks. This genus is rare in most Coastal Plain 

deposits; when present, it often occurs only as juveniles. 

Valentine (1971) found P. edwardsi (Cushman, 1906) 

common in the Norfolk Formation of Virginia.

Distribution. Goose Creek Limestone.

Family PARADOXOSTOMATIDAE Brady and Norman,

1889 

Genus PARADOXOSTOMA Fischer, 1855

Remarks. This genus occurs sporadically in Coastal 

Plain deposits, but its taxonomy is poorly understood. 

The most commonly encountered species is P. delicata 

Puri, 1953.

Genus PELLUCISTOMA Coryell and Fields, 1937 

Pellucistoma magniventra Edwards, 1944

Plate 6, figure 8

Remarks. This species has a variable shape and low, 

elongate forms (such as that in plate 6, figure 8) differing 

from the typical slipper-shaped form; may be a distinct 

species.

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, Waccamaw, and 

Wando Formations and Ten Mile Hill beds.

Genus PARACYTHEROMA Juday, 1907 

Paracytheroma stephensoni (Puri, 1953)

Distribution. Duplin, Penholoway, Waccamaw, and 

Wando Formations.

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 19, figures 2, 4; 

Lyon (this volume), plate 6, figure 5.
C22 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

TABLE 6. Ostracode occurrence data for Neogene and Quaternary 

[Locality numbers: top row, numbers used in Weems and McCartan (this volume,

Species

Actinocythereis captionis 

A. dawsoni 

A. marylandica 

A. subquadrata 

Acuticythereis laevissima

Aurila laevic'ida 

Basslerites sp. 

Bensonocythere florencensis 

B. gouldensis 

B. hazeli

B. ricespitensis 

B. rugosa 

B. sapeloensis 

B. valentinei 

B. whitei

B. spp. 

Campylocythere laeva 

Climacoidea gigantica 

C. jamesensis 

C. multipunctata

C. nelsonensis 

C. tuberculata 

C. spp. 

Cushmanidea seminuda 

Cyprideis margarita

C. mexicana 

C. salebrosa 

C. spp. 

Cytherelloidea sp. 

Cytheridea virginiensis

Cytheromorpka curt a 

C. newportensis 

C. warneri 

Cytheropteron talquinensis 

C. yorktownensis

Raysor Formation 

(including "Givhans beds")

94 91 85 95 63 63 63 66 65 

123456789

x

 XX X X 

X Y

X Y Y V Y

X Y Y Y Y

V

V Y

X Y Y Y

X V

 xxxxxxxx

 X X XXXX

Bear Bluff Formation and 

Goose Creek Limestone

88 64 93 49 50 50 89 89 20 51 

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

X Y

X Y Y

X Y Y

X Y

Y

 XX X X 

X Y Y Y

X Y "V "V "V Y

X Y Y

Penholoway Formation

56 57 60 60 86 87 87 83 83 

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

X Y

X Y

x

X Y Y "V

XX XXX X 

X Y Y "V "V

 X X 

X V V

X V Y

X V

 X X X 

X Y

X Y Y Y Y Y

X V Y

X V
EVOLUTION OF NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY MARINE OSTRACODA C23

deposits of the Atlantic Coastal Plain in the Charleston, S.C., area 

fig. 2); bottom row, numbers used in this paper. , not present; X, present]

54 84 23 23 48 

29 30 31 32 33

Y^

Y^

X Y

X V

X Y

X Y Y

X Y Y

X X X

X

X Y Y

 X X X

Y Y Y

Ladson 

Formation

4 

34

X

Ten Mile 

Hill beds

29 59 44 11 

35 36 37 38

Y^

X Y

x

X

 XXX

X Y

Y Y

Y

 X 

Y

Wando Formation

31 31 31 31 60 60 60 14 14 14 92 10 30 30 30 46 46 46 78 82 21 21 43 19 19 19 69 60 13 

39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67

X Y Y Y Y

X Y Y Y Y

X V V Y Y Y Y Y

X V V

Y X

X Y Y Y Y

Y Y

X Y Y Y Y Y

XXXXX X X XX X XXXX XX 

X

X V Y Y Y Y

X YYYY YYY Y YY

X Y Y Y

X Y Y Y Y Y Y

Y Y Y

 X X X X X X X X 

Y Y

X Y Y Y Y Y Y

X V Y Y Y Y
C24 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

TABLE 6. Ostracode occurrence data for Neogene and Quaternary 

[Locality numbers: top row, numbers used in Weems and McCartan (this volume,

Species

Cytherura carolinensis 

C. elongata 

C. fiscina 

C. forulata 

C. howei

C. neusensis 

C. nucis 

C. pseudostriata 

C. reticulata 

C. wardensis

C. spp. 

Echinocythereis leecreekensis 

E. planibasalis 

Eucythere gibba 

E. triangulata

Hermanites ascitus 

Hulingsina americana 

H.t cylindrica 

H. glabra 

H. rugipustulosa

H. cf. H. sulcata 

H. sp. A 

H. sp. B 

H. sp. C 

H. spp.

Leptocythere nikraveshae 

Loxoconcha carolinensis 

L. florencensis 

L. matagordensis 

L. reticularis

L. spp. 

Malzella conradi 

M. evexa 

M. floridana 

Megacythere sp.

Raysor Formation 

(including "Givhans beds")

94 91 85 95 63 63 63 66 65 

123456789

X V

_ x _ _ _ _ _ _ _

v_

V V

X V

X V

V

V V

 XXX X XX

X V

X V V

_x x x 

__ __ __ __ __ __ __ V __

 xxxxxxxx

Bear Bluff Formation and 

Goose Creek Limestone

88 64 93 49 50 50 89 89. 20 51 

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

X A. v  A. Y Y J\. 

y^

X V

X V

V

XXX X XXX 

XXX XX X

 X XX X X 

XX X XX 

XXX XXXXX 

Penholoway Formation

56 57 60 60 86 87 87 83 83 

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

X X 

X V V V

X V

XX XXX XX

v_

X V V V

X V

X X X 

X V

Y Y

XX XXXXX 

X V

xxxxxxxx 

 X X X 

X V V

X V

X V

 X X X X
EVOLUTION OF NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY MARINE OSTRACODA C25

deposits of the Atlantic Coastal Plain in the Charleston, S.C., area Continued 

fig. 2); bottom row, numbers used in this paper. , not present; X, present]

54 84 23 23 48 

29 30 31 32 33

X V

Y Y

X X

X

X

x

X X 

X V

 X X X

X V

X V Y

X

Lad son 

Formation

4 

34

Ten Mile 

Hill beds

29 59 44 11 

35 36 37 38

Y

 ^

 X X

X V

X V

x

 XXX

Y Y

XXXX

Y Y

x

X V

Wando Formation

31 31 31 31 60 60 60 14 14 14 92 10 30 30 30 46 46 

39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55

X V

X V V V V Y V

x x

X X X X X X X X 

Y

X V Y

X Y Y Y

X Y Y Y

x

X Y

XXXXXXX XX X XX

X Y Y Y Y

 X X X X X X X

X Y Y Y Y

X Y Y Y

X Y

X v Y Y Y v

Y Y

Y Y

X V V Y Y V V

Y Y

46 78 82 21 21 43 19 19 19 69 60 13 

56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67

X XXXX XXX 

Y Y

X V

XX X X X XXX

X V Y

X XXXXX XX 

X Y V Y

X Y Y

X Y Y

X V Y Y
C26 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

TABLE 6. Ostracode occurrence data for Neogene and Quaternary

[Locality numbers: top row, numbers used in Weems and McCartan (this volume,

Species

Muellerina bassiounii 

M. ohmerti 

M. peter sburgensis 

M. ivardi 

M. spp.

Murrayina macleani 

Neocaudites atlantica 

N. subimpressa 

N. variabilis 

Orionina vaughani

Palaciosa minuta 

Paracytheridea altila 

P. hazeli 

P. rugosa 

Paracytheroma stephensoni

P. texana 

Paradoxostoma sp. 

Paranesidea sp. 

Pellucistoma magniventra 

Peratocytheridea bradyi

P. setipunctata 

P. sp. 

Perissocytheridea brachyforma 

Phlydocythere sp. 

Pontocythere spp.

Propontocypris sp. 

Protocytheretta reticulata 

P. cf. P. sahnii 

Pseudocytheretta cf. P.burnsi 

Pterygocythereis alophia

P. inexpectata 

Puriana carolinensis 

P. convoluta 

P. mesacostalis 

P. rugipunctata

Raysor Formation 

(including "Givhans beds")

94 91 85 95 63 63 63 66 65 

123456789

 XXXX XX 

 X X X 

 X XXX XX

 

_xx x x 

x

x

 X X X 

Y

 X X 

XY Y Y

X Y

X Y v v

Bear Bluff Formation and 

Goose Creek Limestone

88 64 93 49 50 50 89 89 20 51 

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

X Y

X V V Y

 X X X X 

_x x x x 

 X X X 

_x x xx 

Y

Y

x

 X X X XX

X Y Y

Y

X Y

X V Y

Penholoway Formation

56 57 60 60 86 87 87 83 83 

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

 X X X X 

X X 

XX X X X 

Y

X V

X X X 

X Y v

XX XXX XX

 X X 

XX XXX 

X X X X X 

Y

X Y Y

X Y

 X XXX X

\
EVOLUTION OF NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY MARINE OSTRACODA C27

deposits of the Atlantic Coastal Plain in the Charleston, S.C., area Continued

fig. 2); bottom row, numbers used in this paper. , not present; X, present]

54 84 23 23 48 

29 30 31 32 33

X

X

Y

X V

X X 

V V

V V V

x

X X X X

V V V

X V

X V

Ladson 

Formation

4 

34

Ten Mile 

Hill beds

29 59 44 11 

35 36 37 38

 X X

X V

V

 X X 

 XXX

X

Wando Formation

31 31 31 31 60 60 60 14 14 14 92 10 30 30 30 46 46 46 78 82 21 21 43 19 19 19 69 60 13 

39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67

X V

 X X X X X X X X X X X

X V V V V

X V V Y Y "V Y Y

Y V Y

X

X X X X X X X X 

XXXXXXX X X XXXX XXXX XXX 

X Y Y Y Y Y Y

X Y Y Y Y

X Y Y Y Y V

\

X V V V V
C28 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

TABLE 6. Ostracode occurrence data for Neogene and Quaternary 

[Locality numbers: top row, numbers used in Weems and McCartan (this volume,

Species

Radimella confragosa 

Sahnicythere spp. 

Tetracytherura 

choctawhatcheensis 

T. mccartanae 

T. minuta 

T. similis

T. spp. 

Xestoleberis sp.

Other

Raysor Formation 

(including "Givhans beds")

94 91 85 95 63 63 63 66 65 

123456789

 xxxxxxxx

Bear Bluff Formation and 

Goose Creek Limestone

88 64 93 49 50 50 89 89 20 51 

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

 XX XXXX 

V

X Y

Penholoway Formation

56 

20

X

X

57 60 60 

21 22 23

X X

X X

86 87 87 

24 25 26

 X 

XX 

XX 

83 83 

27 28

X 

 

Paracytheroma texana Garbett and Maddocks, 1979

Remarks. This species apparently migrated into the 

Charleston area from the Gulf of Mexico only during the 

last interglacial period.

Distribution, Wando Formation.

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 19, figures 3, 5, 6,

Genus MEGACYTHERE Puri, 1960

Remarks. Rare specimens resembling M. johnsoni 

Mincher occur in the Waccamaw and Wando Formations. 

The distinctive species M. repexa Garbett and Maddocks, 1979, occurs in Pleistocene deposits of the Omar 

Formation of Delaware (Cronin and others, 1984).

Family CYTHERIDAE Baird, 1850 

Genus CYTHEROMORPHA Hirschmann, 1909

Cytheromorpha curta Edwards, 1944

Remarks. This species is atypical of the genus 

Cytheromorpha, as it lacks strong sexual dimorphism.

Distribution. Common in brackish-water facies of 

the Duplin, Penholoway, Waccamaw, and Wando Formations.

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 12, figures 6-9.

Cytheromorpha newportensis Williams, 1966

Remarks. Originally described as a subspecies of C. 

warneri, this species is distinguished by its finely pitted 

surface in males, by fine pitting anteriorly and coarse 

pitting posteriorly in females, and by a smooth posteroventral depression.

Distribution. Wando Formation.

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 13, figures 5-8.

Cytheromorpha warneri Howe and Spurgeon, 1935

Plate 2, figure 1

Remarks. This species is widespread in upper Miocene and Pliocene deposits of the Atlantic Coastal Plain 

(see Swain, 1974). It is characterized by regular, 

polygonal-shaped fossae and by a lack of posteroventral 

indentation.

Distribution. Raysor and Bear Bluff Formations.

Genus MUNSEYELLA van den Bold, 1957 

Munseyella subminuta (Puri, 1953)

Plate 2, figure 2

Remarks. Munseyella is always found in very low 

numbers in the Coastal Plain.

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, and Waccamaw Formations.

Family CYTHERIDEIDAE Sars, 1925 

Genus CYTHERIDEA Bosquet, 1852

Cytheridea virginiensis (Malkin, 1953)

Plate 1, figures 1, 2

Remarks. Hazel (1983) identified three species of 

Cytheridea in the Pliocene and early Pleistocene deposits 

of central North Carolina. Only C. virginiensis reaches 

the Charleston, S.C., area.

Distribution. Raysor and Bear Bluff Formations.

Genus CYPRIDEIS Jones, 1857

Remarks. In Coastal Plain deposits Cyprideis is a 

genus of moderate diversity. At least six species occur in 

the Charleston, S.C., area, and Cronin (1986) found five 

species in the Quaternary of the Corpus Christi, Tex.,
EVOLUTION OF NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY MARINE OSTRACODA C29

deposits of the Atlantic Coastal Plain in the Charleston, S.C., area Continued 

fig. 2); bottom row, numbers used in this paper. , not present; X, present]

54 84 23 23 48 

29 30 31 32 33

Ladson 

Formation

4 

34

Y

Ten Mile 

Hill beds

29 59 44 11 

35 36 37 38

Y Y

 \r

Wando Formation

31 31 31 31 60 60 60 14 14 14 92 10 30 30 30 46 46 46 78 82 21 21 43 19 19 19 69 60 13 

39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67

X Y Y

X V V Y V V

X Y V Y

X Y Y

area. A detailed study of the genus is warrented, particularly to determine affinities with Caribbean Cyprideis.

Cyprideis curta Edwards, 1944

Plate 1, figures 3, 4

Distribution. Brackish-water facies of the Duplin, 

Waccamaw, and Wando Formations.

Cyprideis floridana Howe and Hough, 1935

Plate 1, figures 5-7

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, and Waccamaw Formations.

Cyprideis margarita Cronin, 1979

Distribution. Brackish-water facies of the Penholoway and Wando Formations.

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 1, figures 9, 10; 

plate 2, figures 7, 8; plate 3, figures 5, 6.

Cyprideis mexicana Sandberg, 1964

Distribution. Brackish-water facies of the Waccamaw and Wando Formations.

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 1, figures 1-4; plate 

3, figures 1, 2.

Cyprideis salebrosa van den Bold, 1963

Distribution. Duplin, Waccamaw, and Wando Formations.

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 1, figures 5-8; plate 

2, figures 5, 6; plate 3, figures 3, 4.

Cyprideis sp. A

Plate 1, figure 8

Remarks. One of several morphotypes of Cyprideis 

that cannot as yet be assigned to a described species.

Distribution. Penholoway and Wando Formations 

and Ten Mile Hill beds.

Genus PERATOCYTHERIDEA Hazel, 1983 

Peratocytheridea bradyi (Stephenson, 1938)

Distribution. Waccamaw and Wando Formations. 

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 2, figures 3, 4.

Peratocytheridea setipunctata (Brady, 1869)

Distribution. Duplin, Waccamaw, and Wando Formations. 

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 2, figures 1, 2.

Genus PERISSOCYTHERIDEA Stephenson, 1938

Remarks. Several species of Perissocytheridea that 

are common in the Gulf of Mexico do not reach the South 

Carolina coast in their distribution (Cronin, 1986). One 

undescribed species (Perissocytheridea sp. of Kontrovitz 

and Bitter, 1976) occurs in the Pleistocene of North 

Carolina (Cronin and others, 1981) and as far north as 

Nova Scotia in the Holocene, but it has not been found in 

South Carolina.

Perissocytheridea brachyforma Swain, 1955

Remarks. Throughout Pliocene and Pleistocene 

deposits of the Atlantic Coastal Plain, this species varies 

in the development of ridges and pits on the lateral 

surface (see illustrations in references below).

Distribution. Common in brackish-water facies of 

the Duplin, Raysor, Waccamaw, and Wando Formations.

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 4, figures 7-10; 

Cronin and Hazel (1980), figure 9g.
C30 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

Perissocytheridea subpyriformis Edwards, 1944

Remarks. This species is characterized by an 

extremely inflated posterodorsal area, a subpyriform 

shape, and an irregularly reticulated surface.

Distribution. Duplin Formation.

Illustration Cronin and Hazel (1980), figure 9e.

Genus PONTOCYTHERE Dubowsky, 1939 

Pontocythere sp. A

Plate 3, figures 1, 2 

Distribution. Canepatch and Wando Formations.

Pontocythere? sp. B

Plate 3, figure 3

Remarks. This species occurs with Pontocythere sp. 

A, but it is smaller and less arched dorsally. Not enough 

specimens were available to determine its relation to 

Pontocythere.

Distribution. Ladson and Canepatch Formations.

Pontocythere? sp. I

Plate 3, figures 4-6

Remarks. This species was referred to as Hulingsina sp. I in Cronin (1981a), but its lack of a sulcus 

and its similarity in shape and hinge to other Pontocythere species suggest that it may belong in the latter 

genus.

Distribution. Duplin and Raysor Formations.

Family CUSHMANIDEIDAE Puri, 1973 

Genus CUSHMANIDEA Blake, 1933

Cushmanidea seminuda (Cushman, 1906)

Distribution. Wando Formation.

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 5, figures 1, 3, 5, 7.

Genus HULINGSINA Puri, 1958

Remarks. Puri (1958) described Hulingsina as a 

tuberculate or coarsely pitted neocytherideid genus that 

has a subacute posterior. In a review of some ostracodes 

of the family Cytherideidae Sars, Athersuch (1982) 

placed Hulingsina in synonomy with Pontocythere 

Dubowsky, 1939. However, Hulingsina is very common 

in modern and fossil sublittoral sediments of the Atlantic 

and Gulf Coastal Plains, and its species consistently show 

the following features that distinguish it from Pontocythere. Hulingsina has a moderately to heavily ornamented surface, usually consisting of coarse pits, low 

ridges, or tubercles, the presence of an oblique, dorsomedian sulcus, a relatively thick shell, and an elongate 

shape. In contrast, Pontocythere from the Atlantic Coast 

are smooth to very faintly ribbed anteriorly, lack a 

sulcus, and are more arched dorsally. Both occur in

deposits in the Coastal Plain of South Carolina. Swain 

(1974) considered Hulingsina to be a subgenus of Pontocythere. Cushmanidea Blake, 1933, is distinguished 

from these genera by its centrally located hinge area, 

differences in hinge details (Athersuch, 1982), a lack of 

strong sexual dimorphism, and its distinctive shape, in 

which anterior and posterior ends are both evenly 

rounded. Cushmanidea occurred in only one sample in 

the Charleston area but is common in fossil and modern 

sediments from North Carolina to Massachusetts.

Hulingsina americana (Cushman, 1906)

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, Penholoway, Waccamaw, and Canepatch Formations and Goose Creek Limestone.

Illustration. Valentine (1971), plate 3, figures 11, 15, 

16 (not pi. 3, figs. 8, 12, 13, U=H. sp. A below).

Hulingsina glabra (Hall, 1965)

Distribution. Penholoway, Waccamaw, and Wando 

Formations, Goose Creek Limestone, and Ten Mile Hill 

beds.

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 6, figure 2.

Hulingsina cf. H. sulcata Puri, 1960

Distribution. Penholoway and Wando Formations 

and Ten Mile Hill beds. 

Illustration. Puri (1960), plate 2, figure 7.

Hulingsina? cylindrica (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904)

Plate 3, figures 7, 8

Remarks. Specimens from the Duplin Formation 

appear to be similar in ornament and shape to that 

illustrated by Forester (1980, pi. 2, fig. 2) from the 

Calvert Formation. The specimens from South Carolina 

also resemble Cushmanidea, hence the uncertain 

generic assignment.

Distribution. Penholoway Formation.

Hulingsina aff. H. semicircularis (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904)

Plate 2, figures 3-5

Remarks. The specimens illustrated in this paper 

from the Duplin Formation may be the same species as 

that identified as Cytherideis ashermani Ulrich and 

Bassler, 1904, by Edwards (1944). Forester (1980) discussed the taxonomy of Ulrich and Bassler's species of 

Hulingsina in detail.

Distribution. Duplin and Raysor Formations.

Hulingsina rugipustulosa (Edwards, 1944)

Plate 2, figures 6-8

Remarks. The specimens illustrated in this paper 

represent a distinct Pliocene morphotype of H. rugipus-
EVOLUTION OF NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY MARINE OSTRACODA C31

tulosa characterized by broad, low fossae and a lack of 

ridges. It was referred to as H. sp. EE in Cronin (1981a). 

However, in Pleistocene and modern sediments, ridges 

are usually absent, especially in the posterior half of the 

carapace, and tubercles are usually present (see Valentine, 1971; Cronin, 1979).

Distribution. This morphotype occurs only in the 

Duplin and Raysor Formations, but the species is found 

commonly in younger formations as well.

Hulingsina sp. A

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, and Waccamaw Formations and Goose Creek Limestone.

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 6, figures 1, 3, 5.

Hulingsina sp. C

Distribution. Penholoway, Waccamaw, and Wando 

Formations and Ten Mile Hill beds. 

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 7, figures 2, 4.

Hulingsina spp.

Remarks. Rare specimens of Hulingsina that occur 

in some formations cannot be assigned to any of the 

above species.

Family NEOCYTHERIDEIDAE Puri, 1957

Genus NEOCYTHERIDEIS Puri, 1952, and genus

SAHNICYTHERE Athersuch, 1982

Remarks. Athersuch (1982) provided a useful revision of Neocytherideis Puri, its synonym Sahnia Puri, 

1952, and Sahnicythere Athersuch, 1982. The criteria by 

which Athersuch distinguishes Neocytherideis and Sahnicythere are consistent in specimens in the western 

North Atlantic Cenozoic assemblages and are summarized as follows. Neocytherideis is larger and has short, 

widely spaced radial pore canals, a broad anterior vestibule, and no median sulcus. Sahnicythere is smaller and 

has long, sinuous radial pore canals, a narrow anterior 

vestibule, a wide inner lamella, and a distinct sulcus. In 

contrast to European species, American Sahnicythere 

specimens have a faint surface ornament (Lyon, this 

volume, pi. 8, fig. 4; Cronin, 1979, pi. 6, fig. 7), whereas 

specimens tentatively assigned to Neocytherideis have 

an evenly pitted surface (Cronin, 1979, pi. 9, fig. 8).

Distribution. These two genera occur together in 

very low numbers in the Canepatch, Ladson, and Wando 

Formations.

Family CYTHERURIDAE G.W. Miiller, 1894 

Genus CYTHERURA Sars, 1866

Cytherura carolinensis Cronin n. sp.

Plate 4, figures 3, 4

Diagnosis. Relatively thick-shelled Cytherura that 

has a large oval posteroventral depression, reticulate

ornamentation consisting of longitudinal rows of fossae, 

and a blunt caudal process. Fossae are square to subrectangular in shape, longitudinally arranged over most of 

the surface but concentrically arranged in the posteroventral depression. Fine pits visible within the fossae. 

Small anterior vestibule and posteroventral vestibule 

present. Carapace is highest in the posterior half.

Holotype.-Female left valve (pi. 4, fig. 3), USNM 

413859; length, 325 jjtm; height, 180 jjtm.

Type locality. Duplin Formation, Darlington West 

7V2-minute quadrangle, South Carolina, lat 34°19'45" N., 

long 79°58'00" W.; surface altitude, 182 ft; depth, 

38.5-48.5 ft below surface altitude.

Etymology. Named for South Carolina.

Remarks. This extinct species is distinguished from 

other Cytherura found in Coastal Plain deposits by its 

characteristic ornament and heavily calcified carapace.

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, and Penholoway Formations.

Cytherura elongata Edwards, 1944

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, Waccamaw, and Wando Formations, Goose Creek 

Limestone, and Ten Mile Hill beds.

Illustration. Garbett and Maddocks (1979), plate 5, 

figure 2.

Cytherura fiscina Garbett and Maddocks, 1979

Remarks. Some specimens are difficult to distinguish from the closely related C. forulata.

Distribution. Ten Mile Hill beds and Wando Formation.

Illustration. Garbett and Maddocks (1979), plate 5, 

figures 7-10.

Cytherura forulata Edwards, 1944

Distribution. Duplin, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, and 

Wando Formations and Ten Mile Hill beds. 

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 8, figures 1-3.

Cytherura howei Puri, 1953

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, and Waccamaw Formations and Ten Mile Hill beds. 

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 14, figure 7.

Cytherura neusensis Cronin n. sp.

Plate 17, figures 1-4

Diagnosis. Cytherura characterized by a subovate 

shape, convex dorsum in females, longitudinal rows of 

fossae that grade into smaller pits posteriorly in males, a 

posterior caudal process, and strong sexual dimorphism. 

Females are subovate and higher than males. Males have 

a swollen posterior, so the fossae become faint and the
C32 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

pits within the reticulum, more prominent. Sometimes 

the swollen area appears to be smooth. The eye spot is 

prominent.

Holotype.-Female left valve (pi. 17, fig. 1), USNM 

413963; length, 435 p,m; height, 225 p,m.

Type locality. Wando Formation, Wadmalaw Island 

7V2-minute quadrangle, South Carolina, lat 32°39'30" N., 

Iong80°10'15" W.; surface altitude, 15 ft; depth, 10-15 ft 

below surface altitude.

Etymology. Named for Neuse River, N.C., where 

this species was found in abundance in Pleistocene deposits (species B of Cronin, 1979).

Remarks. Differs from C. elongata in the position 

and shape of the caudal process, the overall carapace 

shape, and the presence of pitting in the fossae.

Distribution. Penholoway, Waccamaw, Canepatch, 

and Wando Formations and Ten Mile Hill beds.

Cytherura nucis Garbett and Maddocks, 1979

Distribution. Penholoway and Wando Formations. 

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 10, figures 3-5; 

Lyon (this volume), plate 10, figure 3.

Cytherura pseudostriata Hulings, 1966

Distribution. Penholoway and Wando Formations 

and Ten Mile Hill beds. 

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 9, figure 6.

Cytherura reticulata Edwards, 1944

Distribution. Duplin, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, Waccamaw, and Wando Formations and Ten Mile Hill beds. 

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 8, figures 5, 6.

Cytherura wardensis Howe and Brown, 1935

Plate 4, figure 1

Remarks. Specimens from the Waccamaw (species C 

of Cronin, 1981a) have more subdued reticulation than 

those described by Howe and Brown (in Howe and 

others, 1935) from the Area Zone of the Choctawhatchee 

Formation of Florida.

Distribution. Penholoway and Waccamaw Formations.

Cytherura cf. C. radialirata Swain, 1955

Plate 4, figure 2

Remarks. Specimens from the Canepatch Formation 

resemble this species from the Gulf of Mexico in size, 

shape, and the distinctive pattern of ornament; however, 

the distribution of fossae in C. radialirata is more 

concentric posteriorly.

Distribution. Canepatch and Wando Formations.

Cytherura spp.

Remarks. Cytherura is represented by other rare 

species in the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains, such as C. 

sablensis Benson and Coleman, 1963 (see Cronin, 1979), 

and C. aff. C. swaini van den Bold, 1963 (see Lyon, this 

volume). In some cases, these occurrences represent 

brief northward migrations from southern Florida, the 

Gulf of Mexico, or the Caribbean.

Genus CYTHEROPTERON Sars, 1866 

Cytheropteron talquinensis Puri, 1953

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, and Waccamaw Formations and Goose Creek Limestone.

Illustration. Puri (1953), plate 5, figures 5-7.

Cytheropteron yorktownensis (Malkin, 1953)

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, and Waccamaw Formations and Goose Creek Limestone.

Illustration. Swain (1974), plate 3, figures 9-15.

Genus TETRACYTHERURA Ruggieri, 1952 

Tetracytherura choctawhatcheensis (Puri, 1953)

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, Bear Bluff, Waccamaw, Canepatch, Ladson, and Wando Formations and 

Goose Creek Limestone.

Illustration. Cronin and Hazel (1980), figure 7c; 

Hazel (1983), plate 29, figure 3.

Tetracytherura expanda (Hazel, 1983)

Distribution. Waccamaw and Canepatch Formations.

Illustration. Cronin and Hazel (1980), figure 7f; 

Hazel (1983), plate 30, figures 1-3.

Tetracytherura minuta (Hazel, 1983)

Plate 5, figure 7

Remarks. This species is smaller and more convex 

dorsally than T. norfolkensis (Cronin, 1979), and female 

specimens from the two species are difficult to distinguish from one another.

Distribution. Duplin and Bear Bluff Formations.

Tetracytherura norfolkensis (Cronin, 1979)

Remarks. This species probably descended from T. 

minuta. Males of T. norfolkensis characteristically are 

rectangular in shape. T. norfolkensis was found only in 

the Canepatch Formation in South Carolina, but it is 

more common in Pleistocene deposits of North Carolina 

and Virginia.
EVOLUTION OF NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY MARINE OSTRACODA C33

Distribution. Canepatch Formation. 

Illustration. Crorim (1979), plate 10, figures 8-10.

Tetracytherura similis (Malkin, 1953)

Plate 5, figures 3, 4

Remarks. T. similis shows great variability in size, 

but all specimens are finely and evenly pitted and have 

very faint to absent reticulum.

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, and Waccamaw Formations.

Tetracytherura owensi Cronin n. sp.

Plate 5, figures 1, 2, 8

Diagnosis. Tetracytherura that has a thick subquadrate carapace and angular margins; females highest in 

posterior half near posterodorsal margin. Large, evenly 

spaced, deep pits on the surface. Carapace has strong 

sexual dimorphism; females have faint vertical sulcus; 

both sexes have a conspicuous indentation at the anterior 

margin.

Holotype.- Female left valve (pi. 5, fig. 1), USNM 

413865; length, 665 (Am; height, 290 jam.

Type locality. Bear Bluff Formation, Conway 7V2- 

minute quadrangle, South Carolina, lat 33°50' N., long 

79°00' W.; surface altitude, 50 ft; depth, 63-68 ft below 

surface altitude.

Etymology. Named for J.P. Owens (USGS), who 

provided material from South Carolina.

Remarks. Specimens of T. owensi are consistently 

more coarsely pitted than T. similis. The specimens 

illustrated in this paper have fewer and smaller pits than 

the specimens illustrated in Cronin and Hazel (1980, fig. 

7b) from the Waccamaw Formation.

Distribution. Bear Bluff and Waccamaw Formations.

Tetracytherura mccartanae Cronin n. sp.

Plate 5, figures 5, 6

Diagnosis. Small Tetracytherura characterized by a 

subovate shape, gently rounded margins, and surface 

ornament that consists of a mesh of very faint polygonal 

fossae. Evenly spaced, fine pitting within the polygons. 

Males taper significantly toward the posterior end.

Holotype.- Female left valve (pi. 5, fig. 5), USNM 

413870; length, 560 (Am; height, 260 |xm.

Type locality. Ten Mile Hill beds, Beaufort ll/zminute quadrangle, South Carolina, lat 32°25'30" N., 

long 80°44'00" W.; surface altitude, 15 ft; depth, 10 ft 

below surface altitude.

Etymology. Named for Lucy McCartan (USGS), 

who mapped the Quaternary geology of the Charleston 

area.

Remarks. This species is larger, is more ovate, and 

has larger pits than T. minuta (Hazel, 1983). It differs

from T. similis in that its pitting is not as dense as in T. 

similis and its margins are rounded, not sharp.

Distribution. Waccamaw, Canepatch, and Wando 

Formations and Ten Mile Hill beds.

Family LOXOCONCHIDAE Sars, 1925 

Genus LOXOCONCHA Sars, 1866

Loxoconcha edentonensis Swain, 1951

Remarks. Some specimens of this species have weak 

longitudinal ridges; others, a more reticulating pattern. 

There is gradation between the two morphotypes.

Distribution. Bear Bluff, Waccamaw, and Canepatch 

Formations.

Illustration. Cronin and Hazel (1980), figure 9d; 

Hazel (1983), plate 24, figures 2, 4.

Loxoconcha matagordensis Swain, 1955

Distribution. Common especially in brackish-water 

facies of the Penholoway, Waccamaw, Canepatch, and 

Wando Formations.

Illustration. Cronin and Hazel (1980), figure 9c.

Loxoconcha purisubrhomboidea Edwards, 1953

Plate 6, figure 1

Distribution. Duplin, Bear Bluff, and Waccamaw 

Formations and Goose Creek Limestone.

Loxoconcha reticularis Edwards, 1944

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, Bear Bluff, Waccamaw, Wando, and Canepatch Formations and Ten Mile 

Hill beds.

Illustration. Lyon (this volume), plate 2, figure 1.

Loxoconcha sp. A

Plate 6, figure 2

Remarks. This small, finely pitted form has a 

straight dorsal margin and evenly spaced pitting on its 

surface. It has a different shape from L. purisubrhomboidea and lacks an eye spot.

Distribution. Duplin Formation.

Loxoconcha florencensis Cronin n. sp.

Plate 6, figures 3 5

Diagnosis. Loxoconcha that has a smooth to coarsely 

pitted surface, often forming concentric patterns, a sharp 

posterodorsal angle, and a straight dorsal margin. A 

straight posterodorsal region leads to a pointed posterior. Female specimens are usually convex along the 

ventral margin.
C34 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

Holotype.-Female left valve (pi. 6, fig. 3), USNM 

413875; length, 690 ujn; height, 380 ujn.

Type locality. Duplin Formation, Florence East 15- 

minute quadrangle, South Carolina, lat 34°01' N., long 

79°41' W.; surface altitude, 90 ft; depth, 38.5-48.5 ft 

below surface altitude.

Etymology. Named for its type locality near Florence, S.C.

Remarks. This species differs from other Coastal 

Plain Loxoconcha in its concentric pitting and subquadrate shape. It is relatively large for the genus Loxoconcha.

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, and Bear Bluff Formations and Goose Creek Limestone.

Loxoconcha carolinensis Cronin n. sp.

Plate 6, figures 6, 7; plate 17, figure 5

Diagnosis. Loxoconcha characterized by its small 

size, coarsely pitted surface, and thick murae. Surface 

has very few large pits compared to most Loxoconcha, 

and this species also has compressed peripheries at 

anterior and posterior ends.

Holotype.-Female left valve (pi. 6, fig. 6), USNM 

413878; length, 390 ujn; height, 260 ujn.

Type locality. Duplin Formation, Florence East 15- 

minute quadrangle, South Carolina, lat 34°01' N., long 

79°41' W.; surface altitude, 90 ft; depth, 38.5-48.5 ft 

below surface altitude.

Etymology. Named for South Carolina.

Remarks. This species is somewhat similar to Loxoconcha sp. B of Cronin (1983), a modern bathyal species 

off the coast of Florida, but differs in its more rounded 

outline and less compressed periphery.

Distribution. Raysor and Duplin Formations.

Family LEPTOCYTHERIDAE Hanai, 1957 

Genus LEPTOCYTHERE Sars, 1925

Leptocythere nikraveshae Morales, 1966

Remarks. Small Leptocythere occur commonly in 

brackish-water facies of Quaternary deposits of the 

Coastal Plain and show great variation in surface ornament. Cronin (1979) illustrates late Pleistocene specimens showing morphotypes gradational from finely pitted to rugose, probably representing variations that 

result from environmental factors, such as fluctuating 

salinity and water temperature.

Distribution. Canepatch and Wando Formations and 

Ten Mile Hill beds.

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 14, figures 1-6.

Family PARACYTHERIDEIDAE Puri, 1957 

Genus PARACYTHERIDEA G.W. Muller, 1894

Paracytheridea altila Edwards, 1944

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, Penholoway, Waccamaw, Canepatch, and Wando Formations and Ten Mile 

Hill beds.

Illustration. Cronin and Hazel (1980), figure 8f; 

Hazel (1983), plate 28, figure 4.

Paracytheridea cronini Hazel, 1983

Plate 4, figure 6

Distribution. Duplin, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, Waccamaw, and Canepatch Formations.

Paracytheridea mucra Edwards, 1944

Plate 4, figure 5

Remarks. Although previously believed extinct 

since the early Pleistocene, P. mucra occurs in deposits 

dated about 200 ka in central North Carolina (Cronin and 

others, 1981).

Distribution. Duplin, Bear Bluff, and Waccamaw 

Formations.

Paracytheridea rugosa Edwards, 1944

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, and Waccamaw Formations and Goose Creek Limestone.

Illustration. Cronin and Hazel (1980), figure 8b.

Paracytheridea hazeli Cronin n. sp.

Plate 4, figures 7, 8; plate 17, figure 6

Diagnosis. Paracytheridea that has a pointed posterior and prominent longitudinal ridges and tubercles in 

posterior region. The ventral longitudinal ridge can be 

bladelike but not as long or pointed as in P. rugosa 

Edwards. One posteroventral tubercle always projects 

beyond margin behind ventral ridge. Three ridges converge anteriorly from the subcentral tubercle, from just 

above the tubercle, and from the eye region.

Holotype. -Female left valve (pi. 4, fig. 8), USNM 

413864; length, 570 ujn; height, 315 ujn.

Type locality. Ten Mile Hill beds, Beaufort 7V2- 

minute quadrangle, South Carolina, lat 32°25'30" N., 

long 80°44'00" W.; surface altitude, 15 ft; depth, 10 ft 

below surface altitude.

Etymology. Named for J.E. Hazel (Louisiana State 

University), who first recognized this species.

Remarks. This species occurs in low numbers in 

modern sediments along the Atlantic Coast (referred to 

Paracytheridea sp. A by Valentine, 1971) and in Pleistocene deposits. The complex of short ridges and tuber-
EVOLUTION OF NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY MARINE OSTRACODA C35

cles in the posterior region is developed to different 

degrees in different populations.

Distribution. Canepatch and Wando Formations and 

Ten Mile Hill beds.

Family EUCYTHERIDAE Puri, 1953 

Genus EUCYTHERE Brady, 1868

Eucythere gibba Edwards, 1944

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, and Waccamaw Formations and Ten Mile Hill beds. 

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 15, figure 7.

Eucythere triangulata Puri, 1953

Distribution. Bear Bluff, Penholoway, Waccamaw, 

and Wando Formations, Goose Creek Limestone, and 

Ten Mile Hill beds.

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 15, figure 8.

Family TRACHYLEBERIDIDAE Sylvester-Bradley, 1948 

Subfamily TRACHYLEBERIDINAE

Sylvester-Bradley, 1948 

Genus ACTINOCYTHEREIS Puri, 1960

Actinocythereis captionis Hazel, 1983

Plate 7, figures 5, 6

Remarks. This is one of the more common species in 

the Atlantic Coastal Plain, where it is abundant in 

nearshore deposits.

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, Waccamaw, Wando, and Socastee Formations, 

Goose Creek Limestone, and Ten Mile Hill beds.

Illustration. Hazel (1983), plate 8, figures 1, 2, 4.

Actinocythereis dawsoni (Brady, 1870)

Plate 7, figures 1, 2

Remarks. Specimens from the Pliocene deposits of 

South Carolina have a more rounded anterodorsal ridge 

than those illustrated by Hazel (1977, 1983) from the 

Yorktown Formation.

Distribution. Duplin and Raysor Formations.

Actinocythereis marylandica (Howe and Hough, 1935)

Plate 7, figures 3, 4

Remarks. Forester (1980) stated that A. marylandica (Howe and Hough) was larger and more robust than 

A. exanthemata (Ulrich and Bassler) and that the two 

species differed in the positioning of the surface spines. 

The Raysor material more closely resembles A. marylandica in its very large size. The degree of variability in 

the spines precludes separation of A. marylandica from 

A. exanthemata on the basis of this characteristic.

Distribution. Raysor and Bear Bluff Formations.

Actinocythereis aff. A. bahamaensis (Brady, 1868)

Plate 7, figures 7, 8

Remarks. This distinctive species has circularly 

shaped bullate spines over much of its surface and a 

series of four bullate spines occurring along the anterodorsal margin, in contrast to the ridge found in most 

other species. It most closely resembles A. bahamaensis, which is larger and has a smoother surface containing 

fewer spines.

Distribution. Raysor and Duplin Formations.

Actinocythereis cf. A. subquadrata Puri, 1960

Remarks. A few distinct specimens resembling this 

species were found at a single locality in lower Pleistocene deposits believed to represent the Penholoway 

Formation near Charleston, S.C. If correct, this occurrence signifies a brief northward migration from the 

Florida region during a warm, early Pleistocene interval.

Genus NEOCAUDITES Puri, 1960 

Neocaudites angulata Hazel, 1983

Plate 8, figure 3

Remarks. This species is similar to N. atlantica 

Cronin, 1979, but it has much stronger ridges, a less 

compressed carapace, and prominent lateral, posterodorsal, and posteroventral projections at the ends of longitudinal ridges.

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, and Waccamaw Formations.

Neocaudites atlantica Cronin, 1979

Distribution. Canepatch, Socastee, and Wando Formations. 

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 16, figures 4-7.

Neocaudites subimpressa (Edwards, 1944)

Plate 8, figures 1, 2, 4

Remarks. The species Neocaudites scottae Teeter, 

1975, strongly resembles Edwards' species.

Distribution. Duplin, Penholoway, and Waccamaw 

Formations.

Neocaudites triplistriata (Edwards, 1944)

Remarks. This species lives off Florida today, but its 

range does not extend as far north as the South Carolina 

coast.

Distribution. Duplin, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, and 

Waccamaw Formations.

Illustration. Hazel (1983), plate 6, figure 1.
C36 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

Neocaudites variabilis Hazel, 1983

Plate 8, figure 5

Remarks. Neocaudites pulchra Teeter, 1975, differs 

from N. variabilis only slightly in the posteroventral 

area and in details of the surface reticulation.

Distribution. Penholoway and Waccamaw Formations.

Genus HENRYHOWELLA Puri, 1957 

Henryhowella cf. H. evax (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904)

Plate 8, figures 7, 8

Remarks. This species is extremely variable in morphology and requires detailed study to understand the 

taxonomic relationships between deep- and shallowwater populations.

Distribution. Duplin and Raysor Formations.

Genus MURRAYINA Puri, 1953 

Murrayina barclayi McLean, 1957

Plate 9, figure 3

Remarks. This species is restricted to lower Pliocene 

deposits of South Carolina, but it occurs in slightly 

younger deposits in North Carolina (Hazel, 1983).

Distribution. Raysor Formation.

Murrayina macleani Swain, 1974

Plate 9, figures 1, 2

Remarks. This species is restricted to lower Pliocene 

deposits of South Carolina, but it occurs in slightly 

younger deposits in North Carolina (Hazel, 1983).

Distribution. Raysor Formation.

Genus ECHINOCYTHEREIS Puri, 1953 

Echinocythereis leecreekensis Hazel, 1983

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, Waccamaw, and Wando Formations, Goose Creek 

Limestone, and Ten Mile Hill beds.

Illustration. Hazel (1983), plate 36, figures 1-3; plate 

38, figure 3.

Echinocythereis planibasalis (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904)

Plate 11, figures 1, 2 

Distribution. Raysor and Bear Bluff Formations.

Genus PURIANA Coryell and Fields, 1937

Remarks. A detailed evolutionary and taxonomic 

study of Puriana can be found in Cronin (1987).

Puriana carolinensis Hazel, 1983

Plate 11, figure 8

Remarks. This species is extremely common in the 

Coastal Plain deposits that represent warm-water conditions. In these deposits, specimens typically have thick 

but distinctly separated carinae. Pliocene and early 

Pleistocene forms are considered conspecific with the 

form discussed by Hazel (1983, p. Ill) as an undescribed 

species and illustrated as Puriana sp. A by Cronin and 

Hazel (1980, fig. 4a). This latter form, which ranges from 

the middle Pleistocene to the Holocene, has a variably 

smooth surface in which the carinae are joined, especially 

in the middle of the valve surface. The similarity in size, 

shape, and primary pattern of carinae suggests that 

these species are conspecific and are ecophenotypic varients of the same species. Water temperature probably 

partly affects the secretion of the test in Puriana, so that 

narrow carinae are formed in warm waters and thick 

carinae, in cool waters (Cronin, 1987).

Distribution. Carinate form: Duplin, Raysor, Bear 

Bluff, Penholoway, and Waccamaw Formations and 

Goose Creek Limestone. Smooth form: Canepatch, 

Wando, Ladson, and Socastee Formations.

Puriana convoluta Teeter, 1975

Remarks. Coastal Plain species are larger than those 

from the type area off the coast of Belize and are larger 

than those from other modern Caribbean environments 

as well.

Distribution. Duplin, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, Canepatch(?), and Waccamaw Formations.

Illustration. Cronin and Hazel (1980), figure 4d.

Puriana floridana Puri, 1960

Remarks. This species is variable in surface ornament, as specimens from warmer water deposits are 

more spinose and specimens from cooler water deposits 

are more smooth.

Distribution. Waccamaw, Canepatch, Wando(?), and 

Socastee Formations.

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 16, figure 10.

Puriana mesacostalis (Edwards, 1944)

Plate 11, figures 5, 6

Remarks. The form illustrated in plate 11, figure 5, 

has narrow ridges and a smooth surface and is typical of 

the Bear Bluff and Duplin Formations, whereas the one 

shown in plate 11, figure 6, has stronger ridges and is 

typical of the Penholoway and Waccamaw Formations.
EVOLUTION OF NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY MARINE OSTRACODA C37

Distribution, Duplin, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, Waccamaw, and Wando Formations.

Puriana rugipunctata (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904)

Plate 11, figure 7

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, and Canepatch Formations.

Subfamily CYTHERETTINAE Triebel, 1950 

Genus PSEUDOCYTHERETTA Cushman, 1906

Pseudocytheretta cf. P. burns! (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904)

Plate 9, figures 5-7

Remarks. Raysor Formation specimens have more 

prominent eye spots compared to specimens from the 

Yorktown, Calvert, and Choptank Formations (Forester, 1980; Hazel, 1983). Swain (1974) referred to very 

similar specimens as P. burnsi.

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, and Bear Bluff Formations and Goose Creek Limestone.

Pseudocytheretta edwardsi Cushman, 1906

Plate 9, figure 8

Distribution. Raysor, Penholoway, and Wando Formations.

Genus PROTOCYTHERETTA Puri, 1958 

Protocytheretta reticulata (Edwards, 1944)

Plate 9, figure 4

Remarks. These specimens resemble P. karlana 

(Howe and Pyeatt, 1935) illustrated by Puri (1958) from 

the Chipola and Shoal River Formations of Florida, and 

it is possible that the two forms are conspecific.

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, and Waccamaw Formations.

Subfamily PTERYGOCYTHEREIDINAE Puri, 1957 

Genus PTERYGOCYTHEREIS Blake, 1933

Pterygocythereis alophia Hazel, 1983

Distribution. Duplin, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, Waccamaw, Canepatch, Wando, and Socastee Formations. 

Illustration. Hazel (1983), plate 7, figures 3, 4.

Pterygocythereis inexpectata (Blake, 1929)

Plate 8, figure 6

Remarks. This species occurs with Echinocythereis 

planibasalis, Henryhowella, and Murrayina in a typical 

early Pliocene assemblage in the Raysor Formation, but 

none of these occurs in younger sediments in this region.

Distribution. Raysor Formation.

Family HEMICYTHERIDAE Puri, 1953

Subfamily HEMICYTHERINAE Puri, 1953

Genus AURILA Pokorny, 1955

Aurila laevicula Edwards, 1944

Distribution. Duplin, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, Waccamaw, Wando, Canepatch, and Socastee Formations. 

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 15, figures 1-4.

Genus CAUDITES Coryell and Fields, 1937 

Caudites paraasymmetricus Hazel, 1983

Plate 13, figures 5, 6

Remarks. Hazel (1983) described C. paraasymmetricus from the early Pleistocene of North Carolina and 

Florida. He noted that it differed from C. asymmetricus 

Pokorny, 1970, from the Galapagos Islands because C. 

paraasymmetricus has a longer ventral carina and a 

more centrally located caudal process. The two forms are 

closely related and signify faunal interchange before the 

formation of the Isthmus of Panama.

Distribution. Penholoway and Waccamaw Formations.

Genus HERMANITES Puri, 1955 

Hermanites ascitus Hazel, 1983

Plate 11, figures 3, 4

Remarks. This species is very rare in Coastal Plain 

deposits and shows significant variability in the development of pitting between the longitudinal ridges.

Distribution. Duplin and Raysor Formations and 

Goose Creek Limestone.

Genus MALZELLA Hazel, 1983 

Malzella conradi (Howe and McGuirt, 1935)

Plate 10, figures 1, 2

Distribution. Raysor, Bear Bluff, and Duplin Formations and Goose Creek Limestone.

Malzella evexa Hazel, 1983

Plate 10, figures 3, 4

Distribution. Penholoway, Waccamaw, and Canepatch Formations.

Malzella floridana (Benson and Coleman, 1963)

Plate 10, figure 5

Distribution. Canepatch, Wando, and Socastee Formations and Ten Mile Hill beds.
C38 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

Genus MUELLERINA Bassiouni, 1965 

Muellerina bassiounii Hazel, 1983

Plate 12, figures 7, 8

Remarks. This species is relatively small for the 

genus and has two characteristic vertical ridges in the 

posterior region.

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, and Waccamaw Formations.

Muellerina ohmerti Hazel, 1983

Plate 12, figures 1, 2

Remarks. Specimens from South Carolina are concave dorsally and have a very prominent eye spot.

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, Bear Bluff, Waccamaw, Canepatch, Wando, and Socastee Formations and 

Goose Creek Limestone.

Muellerina aff. M. ohmerti Hazel, 1983

Plate 12, figures 3, 4, 9

Remarks. This species is characterized by three 

well-developed longitudinal ridges in the posterodorsal 

region, the most dorsal of which forms the dorsal margin. 

These ridges are curved in females (pi. 12, fig. 3) and 

straight in males (pi. 12, fig. 4). A nearly vertical ridge 

connects the posterior end of these two ridges with a 

well-developed ventral longitudinal ridge. This species is 

closely related to M. ohmerti, but it differs in having a 

less prominent eye spot, in having much stronger ridges, 

and in the detail of the surface pitting.

Distribution. Bear Bluff and Waccamaw Formations.

Muellerina wardi Hazel, 1983

Plate 12, figures 5, 6, 10

Remarks. This species is larger and has a straighter 

dorsum than M. bassiounii.

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, and Waccamaw Formations and Goose Creek Limestone.

Muellerina petersburgensis Hazel, 1983

Remarks. This form is considered here to be a distinct species from M. canadensis Brady.

Distribution. Raysor Formation and Goose Creek 

Limestone.

Illustration. Hazel (1983), plate 16, figure 2; plate 

18, figures 1, 3.

Genus ORIONINA Puri, 1953 

Orionina vaughani (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904)

Plate 13, figure 8

Remarks. Cronin and Schmidt (1988) compared specimens from the Coastal Plain with specimens of 0. 

pseudovaughani Swain from the Pacific Coast off Central America and concluded that these two forms were 

conspecific, as originally implied by Swain and others 

(1964) in their initial study of ostracodes of the Gulf of 

California. The distinction between 0. vaughani and 0. 

serrulata van den Bold, two species distinguished only in 

some populations on the basis of the number of radial 

pore canals (van den Bold, 1963), is also minor, and 

Cronin and Schmidt (1988) consider these two forms 

probably to be conspecific as well.

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, and Canepatch Formations and Goose Creek Limestone.

Genus PAL AGIOS A Hartmann, 1959 

Palaciosa minuta (Edwards, 1944)

Plate 13, figures 1-4

Distribution. Duplin, Penholoway, and Waccamaw 

Formations.

Genus RADIMELLA Pokorny, 1968 

Radimella confragosa (Edwards, 1944)

Plate 10, figures 6-8

Distribution. Duplin, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, Waccamaw, and Canepatch(?) Formations and Goose Creek 

Limestone.

Subfamily CAMPYLOCYTHERINAE Puri, 1960 

Genus ACUTICYTHEREIS Edwards, 1944

Acuticythereis laevissima Edwards, 1944

Plate 14, figures 1, 2

Remarks. The specimen in plate 14, figure 2, is 

assigned tentatively to the species, but it differs from the 

typical form in having more rounded margins.

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, Bear Bluff, and Penholoway Formations and Goose Creek Limestone.

Genus BASSLERITES Howe, 1937 

Basslerites cf. B. miocenica Howe, 1937

Plate 14, figure 8

Remarks. Basslerites is very rare in Coastal Plain 

sediments, perhaps because it prefers an outer shelfupper slope environment.

Distribution. Raysor, Penholoway, and Canepatch 

Formations.
EVOLUTION OF NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY MARINE OSTRACODA C39

Genus BENSONOCYTHERE Hazel, 1967

Remarks. Bensonocythere is a diverse genus that 

occurs frequently in temperate and subtropical climatic 

zones along the Atlantic Coastal Plain (Hazel, 1983). The 

size, shape, primary surface ornament, and distribution 

of normal pores are characteristics used to distinguish 

the species.

Bensonocythere florencensis Cronin n. sp.

Plate 15, figures 3, 4; plate 16, figure 4

Diagnosis. Bensonocythere characterized by a large, 

thick carapace, a subrectangular shape, and broad ridges 

that form a distinctive surface pattern. The surface 

ridges are always very wide and rounded, and the 

surface is never reticulated or pitted.

Holotype.- Female left valve (pi. 15, fig. 3), USNM 

413949; length, 770 jxm; height, 415 jxm.

Type locality. Duplin Formation, Florence East 15- 

minute quadrangle, South Carolina, lat 34°01' N., long 

79°41' W.; surface altitude, 90 ft; depth, 38.5-48.5 ft 

below surface altitude.

Etymology. Named for Florence, S.C.

Remarks. This large species has very broad ridges 

and lacks the numerous fossae of many other Bensonocythere. It differs from B. rugosa in having parallel 

dorsal and ventral margins, whereas B. rugosa is concave along the dorsal margin. B. florencensis also has 

thicker ridges than B. mgosa and differs in the pattern of 

ridges anteriorly and posteroventrally.

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, and Bear Bluff Formations and Goose Creek Limestone.

Bensonocythere gouldensis Hazel, 1983

Plate 15, figures 1, 2

Remarks. This species exhibits variation in the size 

of the fossae and the thickness of the muri for both the 

material studied here and that studied from the Yorktown Formation by Hazel (1983).

Distribution. Duplin, Raysor, Bear Bluff, and Waccamaw Formations.

Bensonocythere hazeli Cronin n. sp.

Plate 16, figures 5, 6

Diagnosis. Bensonocythere that has an anterior margin truncated dorsally and a sharply rounded ventral 

surface. The surface has very broad ridges oriented 

vertically posterodorsally, obliquely anterodorsally.

Holotype.-Female right valve (pi. 16, fig. 6), USNM 

413960; length, 590 jxm; height, 295 |jim.

Type locality. Ten Mile Hill beds, Beaufort 7V2- 

minute quadrangle, South Carolina, lat 32°25'30" N.,

long 80°44'00" W.; surface altitude, 15 ft; depth, 10 ft 

below surface altitude.

Etymology. Named for J.E. Hazel (Louisiana State 

University), who described the genus Bensonocythere.

Remarks. B. hazeli differs from B. rugosa in its 

straight dorsal margin, less prominent anterior marginal 

rim, and wider ridges.

Distribution. Penholoway, Canepatch, and Wando 

Formations and Ten Mile Hill beds.

Bensonocythere hollyensis Cronin n. sp.

Plate 15, figures 5 8

Diagnosis. Rectangular Bensonocythere characterized by an even pattern of circular to polygonal fossae 

and no apparent longitudinal or vertical ridges. The walls 

of the fossae are of even thickness throughout the 

surface.

Holotype.-Female left valve (pi. 15, fig. 7), USNM 

413953; length, 660 jxm; height, 305 |jim.

Type locality. Penholoway Formation, Mount Holly 

7V2-minute quadrangle, South Carolina, lat 33°04'30" N., 

long 80°06'15" W.; surface altitude, 83 ft; depth, 32-34 ft 

below surface altitude.

Etymology. Named for Mount Holly, S.C.

Remarks. This species has thinner fossae walls and a 

more rounded posterior than B. ricespitensis Hazel, 

1983. Some forms of B. hollyensis are similar, but differ 

mainly in the finer ornament, straight dorsal margin, and 

less heavily calcified shell of B. ricespitensis.

Distribution. Duplin, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, Waccamaw, and Canepatch Formations.

Bensonocythere ricespitensis Hazel, 1983

Plate 16, figure 3

Distribution. Bear Bluff, Penholoway, and Waccamaw Formations.

Bensonocythere rugosa Hazel, 1983

Plate 16, figure 1 

Distribution. Duplin and Waccamaw Formations.

Bensonocythere sapeloensis (Hall, 1965)

Distribution. Penholoway, Canepatch, Socastee, and 

Wando Formations.

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 18, figure 1.

Bensonocythere valentine! Cronin n. sp.

Plate 16, figures 7, 8

Diagnosis. Bensonocythere characterized by both an 

evenly rounded anterior and posterior, as well as by a 

surface showing a regular pattern of ovate to subcircular
C40 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

fossae, most of which are approximately the same sizeand form a pattern that has no longitudinal or vertical 

ridges.

Holotype.-Female right valve (pi. 16, fig. 8), USNM 

413962; length, 590 fxm; height, 300 fxm.

Type locality. Wando Formation, Wadmalaw Island 

7V2-minute quadrangle, South Carolina, lat 32°39'30" N., 

long 80°10'15" W.; surface altitude, 15 ft; depth, 10-15 ft 

below surface altitude.

Etymology.-Named for P.C. Valentine (USGS), who 

first illustrated this species (Valentine, 1971, pi. 1, figs. 

28, 29).

Remarks. B. valentinei has a distinctive shape and a 

regular pattern of surface ornament. The fossae are 

larger and more ovate than those in B. americana Hazel, 

1967.

Distribution. Penholoway, Canepatch, and Wando 

Formations and Ten Mile Hill beds.

Bensonocythere whitei (Swain, 1951)

Plate 16, figure 2

Distribution. Old form: Duplin, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, and Waccamaw Formations and Goose Creek Limestone. Young form: Canepatch and Wando Formations.

Genus CAMPYLOCYTHERE Edwards, 1944 

Campylocythere laeva Edwards, 1944

Plate 14, figures 3-5

Remarks. The illustrated specimens show the wide 

range of variability in surface ornament that characterizes this species.

Distribution. Duplin, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, Waccamaw, Canepatch, and Wando Formations, Goose 

Creek Limestone, and Ten Mile Hill beds.

Genus CLIMACOIDEA Puri 1956

Subgenus PROTEOCONCHA Plusquellec and

Sandberg, 1969

Climacoidea (Proteoconcha) gigantica (Edwards, 1944)

Plate 14, figure 7

Distribution. Duplin, Penholoway, Waccamaw, Canepatch, and Wando Formations, Goose Creek Limestone, 

and Ten Mile Hill beds.

Climacoidea (Proteoconcha) jamesensis (Hazel, 1983)

Plate 14, figure 6

Remarks. Pitting occurs only rarely on the posterior 

half of the surface.

Distribution. Raysor and Penholoway Formations 

and Goose Creek Limestone.

Climacoidea (Proteoconcha) multipunctata (Edwards, 1944)

Distribution. Duplin, Bear Bluff, Penholoway, Waccamaw, and Wando Formations and Goose Creek Limestone.

Illustration. Plusquellec and Sandberg (1969), plate 

2, figures 1-11; plate 5, figure 9; plate 6, figures 12, 13; 

plate 8, figure 5; plate 9, figures 6, 12-16.

Climacoidea (Proteoconcha) nelsonensis (Grossman, 1967)

Remarks. Some reticulated specimens of this species 

can be confused with specimens of P. multipunctata.

Distribution. Penholoway and Wando Formations 

and Ten Mile Hill beds.

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 17, figure 1.

Climacoidea (Proteoconcha) tuberculata (Puri, 1960)

Distribution. Bear Bluff, Penholoway, Waccamaw, 

and Wando Formations and Ten Mile Hill beds. 

Illustration. Cronin (1979), plate 18, figure 10.

Family XESTOLEBERIDIDAE Sars, 1928 

Genus XESTOLEBERIS Sars, 1866

Remarks. Xestoleberis occurs occasionally in low 

numbers in Coastal Plain deposits, especially in deposits 

that formed during relatively warm early Pleistocene 

climates.

Other taxa 

Phlyctocythere sp.

Remarks. This species is very rare in Coastal Plain 

deposits and modern shelf sediments. 

Distribution. Ten Mile Hill beds.

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PLATES 1-17

USNM, U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C. 

Contact photographs of plates 1-17 are available,

at cost, from the U.S. Geological Survey Photographic Library, Federal Center,

Denver, CO 80225.
PLATE 1

FIGURES 1, 2. Cytheridea virginiensis (Malkin, 1953) (p. C28).

1. Left valve female, sample 4, Raysor, USNM 413833, xlOO.

2. Right valve male, sample 4, Raysor, USNM 413834, x94. 

3, 4. Cyprideis curia Edwards, 1944 (p. C29).

3. Left valve female, Waccamaw, USNM 413835, x86.

4. Left valve female, internal view, Duplin, USNM 413836, x86. 

5-7. Cyprideis floridana Howe and Hough, 1935 (p. C29).

5. Left valve female, Waccamaw, USNM 413837, x86.

6. Right valve male, internal view, Waccamaw, USNM 413838, x86.

7. Right valve male, Waccamaw, USNM 413839, x78. 

8. Cyprideis sp. A (p. C29).

Left valve female, sample 32, Penholoway, USNM 413840, x78.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-C PLATE 1

CYTHER1DEA AND CYPRIDEIS
PLATE 2

FIGURE 1. Cytheromorpha warneri Howe and Spurgeon, 1935 (p. C28).

Left valve female, Raysor, USNM 413841, xlOO. 

2. Munseyella submimda (Puri, 1953) (p. C28).

Left valve carapace, lateral view, Raysor, USNM 413842, x220. 

3-5. Hulitigsina aff. H. semicircularis (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904) (p. C30).

3. Left valve female, Duplin, USNM 413843, xllO.

4. Left valve male, Duplin, USNM 413844, xlOO.

5. Left valve female, internal view, Duplin, USNM 413845, xlOO. 

6-8. Hulitigsina rugipustulosa (Edwards, 1944) (p. C30).

6. Left valve female, Raysor, USNM 413846, xlOO.

7. Right valve male, internal view, Raysor, USNM 413847, xlOO.

8. Right valve male, Raysor, USNM 413848, xlOO.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-C PLATE 2

CYTHEROMORPHA, MUNSEYELLA, AND HULINGSINA
PLATE 3

FIGURES 1, 2. Pontocythere sp. A (p. C30).

1. Left valve female, Canepatch, USNM 413849, x!30.

2. Right valve female, inteiTial view, Canepatch, USNM 413850, x!30. 

3. Pontocytherel sp. B (p. C30).

Left valve female?, Canepatch, USNM 413851, x!60. 

4-6. Pontocytherel sp. I (p. C30).

4. Left valve female, Raysor, USNM 413852, xlOO.

5. Right valve male, inteiTial view, Raysoi^ USNM 413853, xlOO.

6. Right valve male, Duplin, USNM 413854, xlOO. 

7, 8. Hidingsinal cylindrica (Ulrich and Basslei^ 1904) (p. C30).

7. Left valve female, Duplin, USNM 413855, xllO.

8. Left valve female, Duplin, USNM 413856, x94.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-C PLATE 3

PONTOCYTHERE, PONTOCYTHERE?, AND HULINGSINA?
PLATE 4

FIGURE 1. Cytherura wardensis Howe and Brown, 1935 (p. C32).

Left valve female, Waccamaw, USNM 413857, x!50. 

2. Cytherura cf. C. radialirata Swain, 1955 (p. C32).

Left valve male, Canepatch, USNM 413858, x 150. 

3, 4. Cytherura carolinensis Cronin n. sp. (p. C31).

3. Left valve female, Duplin, USNM 413859, x240, holotype.

4. Right valve female, internal view, Duplin, USNM 413860, x200.

5. Paracytheridea mucra Edwards, 1944 (p. C34).

Left valve female, Bear Bluff, USNM 413861, xlOO.

6. Paracytheridea cronini Hazel, 1983 (p. C34).

Left valve male, Duplin, USNM 413862, xl30. 

Paracytheridea hazeli Cronin n. sp. (p. C34).

7. Right valve male, sample 38, Ten Mile Hill beds, USNM 413863, xlOO.

8. Left valve female, sample 38, Ten Mile Hill beds, USNM 413864, xlOO, holotype.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-C PLATE 4

CYTHERURA AND PARACYTHERIDEA
PLATE 5

FIGURES 1, 2, 8. Tetmcytherura owensi Cronin n. sp. (p. C33).

1. Left valve female, Bear Bluff, USNM 413865, x!20, holotype.

2. Left valve male, Bear Bluff, USNM 413866, x!20. 

8. Right valve male, internal view, Bear Bluff, USNM 413867, x!20. 

3, 4. Tetracytherura similis (Malkin, 1953) (p. C33).

3. Right valve female, Waccamaw, USNM 413868, x!60.

4. Right valve male, Waccamaw, USNM 413869, x!60. 

5, 6. Tetracytherura mccartanae Cronin n. sp. (p. C33).

5. Left valve female, sample 38, Ten Mile Hill beds, USNM 413870, x!60, holotype.

6. Left valve male, sample 38, Ten Mile Hill beds, USNM 413871, x!60. 

7. Tetracytherura minuta (Hazel, 1983) (p. C32).

Left valve female, Duplin, USNM 413872, x!80.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-C PLATE 5

TETRACYTHERURA
PLATE 6

FIGURE 1. Loxoconcha purisubrhomboidea Edwards, 1953 (p. C33). 

Left valve female, Waccamaw, USNM 413873, x 150. 

2. Loxoconcha sp. A (p. C33).

Left valve female, Duplin, USNM 413874, x 150. 

3-5. Loxoconcha florencensis Cronin n. sp. (p. C33).

3. Left valve female, Duplin, USNM 413875, x!20, holotype.

4. Left valve male, Duplin, USNM 413876, x 120.

5. Left valve female, Duplin, USNM 413877, x!20. 

6, 7. Loxoconcha carolinensis Cronin n. sp. (p. C34).

6. Left valve female, Duplin, USNM 413878, x!80, holotype.

7. Left valve male carapace, lateral view, Duplin, USNM 413879, x!80. 

8. Pellucistoma magniventra Edwards, 1944 (p. C21). 

Right valve male, Raysor, USNM 413880, x 130.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-C PLATE 6

LOXOCONCHA AND PELLUCISTOMA
PLATE 7

FIGURES 1, 2. Actinocythereis dawsoni (Brady, 1870) (p. C35).

1. Left valve female, Raysor, USNM 413881, x86.

2. Left valve male, Raysor, USNM 413882, x86. 

3, 4. Actinocythereis marylandica (Howe and Hough, 1935) (p. C35).

3. Left valve female, Raysor, USNM 413883, x72.

4. Left valve male, Raysor, USNM 413884, x72. 

5, 6. Actinocythereis captionis Hazel, 1983 (p. C35).

5. Left valve female, Raysor, USNM 413885, xlOO.

6. Left valve male, Raysor, USNM 413886, xlOO. 

Actinocythereis aff. A. bahamaensis (Brady, 1868) (p. C35).

7. Left valve female, Raysor, USNM 413887, x94.

8. Left valve male, Raysor, USNM 413888, xlOO.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-C PLATE 7

ACTINOCYTHEREIS
PLATE 8

FIGURES 1, 2, 4. Neocaudites subimpressa (Edwards, 1944) (p. C35).

1. Left valve female, Waccamaw, USNM 413889, x!20.

2. Left valve male, Waccamaw, USNM 413890, xHO. 

4. Right valve male, internal view, Waccamaw, USNM 413891, x!20. 

3. Neocaudites angulata Hazel, 1983 (p. C35).

Left valve female, sample 3, Raysor, USNM 413892, x!20.

5. Neocaudites variabilis Hazel, 1983 (p. C36).

Left valve female, sample 24, Penholoway, USNM 413893, x!20.

6. Pterygocythereis inexpectata (Blake, 1929) (p. C37).

Left valve male, sample 4, Raysor, USNM 413894, x78. 

7, 8. Hem^yhowella cf. H. evax (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904) (p. C36).

7. Left valve male, Raysor, USNM 413895, x94.

8. Right valve juvenile, Raysor, USNM 413896, xlOO.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-C PLATE

NEOCAUDITES, PTERYGOCYTHEREIS, AND HENRYHOWELLA
PLATE 9

FIGURES 1, 2. Murrayina macleani Swain, 1974 (p. C36).

1. Left valve female, Raysor, USNM 413897, x94.

2. Left valve male, Raysor, USNM 413898, x86.

3. Murrayitw barclayi McLean, 1957 (p. C36).

Left valve male?, Raysor, USNM 413899, xllO.

4. Protocytheretta reticulata (Edwards, 1944) (p. C37).

Right valve female, sample 4, Raysor, USNM 413900, x72. 

5-7. Pseudocytheretta cf. P. burnsi (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904) (p. C37).

5. Left valve female, sample 4, Raysor, USNM 413901, x72.

6. Right valve male, sample 4, Raysor, USNM 413902, x72.

7. Right valve male, internal view, sample 4, Raysor, USNM 413903, x72. 

8. Pseudocytheretta edwardsi Cushman, 1906 (p. C37).

Left valve female, Miocene-Pliocene, Marthas Vineyard, Mass., USNM 413904, x72.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-C PLATE 9

MURRAYINA, PROTOCYTHERETTA, AND PSEUDOCYTHERETTA
PLATE 10

FIGURES 1, 2. Malzella conradi (Howe and McGuirt, 1935) (p. C37).

1. Left valve female, sample 4, Raysor, USNM 413905, x!30.

2. Left valve male, sample 4, Raysor, USNM 413906, x!50. 

3, 4. Malzella evexa Hazel, 1983 (p. C37).

3. Left valve female, Waccamaw, USNM 413907, xllO.

4. Left valve male, Waccamaw, USNM 413908, x!20. 

5. Malzella floridana (Benson and Coleman, 1963) (p. C37).

Left valve female, sample 38, Ten Mile Hill beds, USNM 413909, xllO. 

6-8. Radimella confragosa (Edwards, 1944) (p. C38).

6. Left valve female, Waccamaw, USNM 413910, x!50.

7. Left valve female, internal view, Waccamaw, USNM 413911, x!30.

8. Right valve female juvenile, Waccamaw, USNM 413912, x!60.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-C PLATE

MALZELLA AND RADIMELLA
PLATE 11

FIGURES 1, 2. Echinocythereis planibasalis (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904) (p. C36).

1. Left valve female, Raysor, USNM 413913, x86.

2. Left valve male, Raysor, USNM 413914, x86. 

3, 4. Hermanites ascitus Hazel, 1983 (p. C37).

3. Left valve female, Raysor, USNM 413915, x!50.

4. Right valve female, Raysor, USNM 413916, x!30. 

5, 6. Puriana mesacostalis (Edwards, 1944) (p. C36)

5. Left valve male, Bear Bluff, USNM 413917, x!20.

6. Right valve female, sample 24, Penholoway, USNM 413918, x!20.

7. Puriana rugipunctata (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904) (p. C37).

Left valve female, sample 3, Raysor, USNM 413919, x!20.

8. Purmna carolinensis Hazel, 1983 (p. C36).

Left valve female, sample 21, Penholoway, USNM 413920, x!20.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-C PLATE 11

ECHINOCYTHEREIS, HERMANITES, AND PURIANA
PLATE 12

FIGURES 1, 2. Mtiellerina ohmerti Hazel, 1983 (p. C38).

1. Left valve female, Raysor, USNM 413921, x!30.

2. Right valve male, Raysor, USNM 413922, x!30. 

3, 4, 9. Miiellerina aff. M. ohmerti Hazel, 1983 (p. C38).

3. Left valve female, Waccamaw, USNM 413923, xllO.

4. Left valve male, Waccamaw, USNM 413924, xllO. 

9. Left valve female, internal view, Waccamaw, USNM 413925, xllO. 

5, 6, 10. Muellerina wardi Hazel, 1983 (p. C38).

5. Left valve female, Waccamaw, USNM 413926, xllO.

6. Left valve male, Waccamaw, USNM 413927, xllO. 

10. Right valve female, internal view, Waccamaw, USNM 413928, xllO.

7. Muellerina bassiounii Hazel, 1983 (p. C38).

Left valve female, Waccamaw, USNM 413929, x!50.

8. Miiellerina cf. M. bassioimii Hazel, 1983 (p. C38).

Left valve male, Raysor, USNM 413930, x!50.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-C PLATE 12

MUELLERINA
PLATE 13

FIGURES 1^. Palaciosa minuta (Edwards, 1944) (p. C38).

1. Left valve female, sample 20, Penholoway, USNM 413931, x!60.

2. Right valve female, Waccamaw, USNM 413932, x!60.

3. Left valve male?, Waccamaw, USNM 413933, x!60.

4. Right valve female, internal view, Waccamaw, USNM 413934, x 160. 

5, 6. Caudites paraasymmetricus Hazel, 1983 (p. C37).

5. Left valve female, Waccamaw, USNM 413935, x!30.

6. Right valve male?, Waccamaw, USNM 413936, x!30.

7. Cativella navis Coryell and Fields, 1937.

Left valve female, Raysor, USNM 413937, x!20.

8. Orionina vaughani (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904) (p. C38).

Left valve female, sample 3, Raysor, USNM 413938, x!30.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-C PLATE 13

PALACIOSA, CAUDITES, CATIVELLA, AND ORIONINA
PLATE 14

FIGURES 1, 2. Acuticythereis laevissima Edwards, 1944 (p. C38).

1. Left valve female, Raysor, USNM 413939, x78.

2. Left valve female, internal view, Duplin, USNM 413940, x78. 

3-5. Campylocythew laeva Edwards, 1944 (p. C40).

3. Right valve female, Waccamaw, USNM 413941, x86.

4. Right valve male, Waccamaw, USNM 413942, x86.

5. Right valve female, Waccamaw, USNM 413943, x86.

6. Climacoidea (Proteoconcho) jamesensis (Hazel, 1983) (p. C40). 

Left valve female?, Raysor, USNM 413944, x86.

7. Climacoidea (Proteocotwha) gigantica (Edwards, 1944) (p. C40).

Left valve female, sample 24, Penholoway, USNM 413945, x86.

8. Basslerites cf. B. miocenica Howe, 1937 (p. C38).

Left valve female, Raysor, USNM 413946, x!20.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-C PLATE 14

ACUTICYTHEREIS, CAMPYLOCYTHERE, PROTEOCONCHA, AND BASSLERITES
PLATE 15

FIGURES 1, 2. Bensonocythere gouldensis Hazel, 1983 (p. C39).

1. Left valve female, Duplin, USNM 413947, xllO.

2. Left valve male, Raysor, USNM 413948, xlOO. 

3, 4. Bensonocythere florencensis Cronin n. sp. (p. C39).

3. Left valve female, Duplin, USNM 413949, x94, holotype.

4. Left valve male, Duplin, USNM 413950, xlOO. 

5-8. Bensonocythere hollyensis Cronin n. sp. (p. C39).

5. Left valve female, Duplin, USNM 413951, x!20.

6. Left valve male, Duplin, USNM 413952, x!20.

7. Left valve female, sample 29, Penholoway, USNM 413953, xlOO, holotype.

8. Left valve male, sample 20, Penholoway, USNM 413954, xlOO.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-C PLATE 15

BENSONOCYTHERE
PLATE 16

FIGURE 1. Bensonocythere rugosa Hazel, 1983 (p. C39).

Left valve female, Waccamaw, USNM 413955, xllO.

2. Bensonocythere whitei (Swain, 1951) (p. C40).

Left valve female, Waccamaw, USNM 413956, xlOO.

3. Bensonocythere ricespitensis Hazel, 1983 (p. C39).

Right valve female, Waccamaw, USNM 413957, xllO.

4. Bensonocythere florencensis Cronin n. sp. (p. C39).

Right valve female, Duplin, USNM 413958, x94. 

5, 6. Bensonocythere hazeli Cronin n. sp. (p. C39).

5. Right valve male, sample 38, Ten Mile Hill beds, USNM 413959, xllO.

6. Right valve female, sample 38, Ten Mile Hill beds, USNM 413960, xllO, holotype. 

Bensonocythere valentinei Cronin n. sp. (p. C39).

7. Left valve male, sample 59, Wando, USNM 413961, xllO.

8. Right valve female, sample 43, Wando, USNM 413962, xllO, holotype.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-C PLATE 16

BENSONOCYTHERE
PLATE 17

FIGURES 1^4. Cytherura neusensis Cronin n. sp. (p. C31).

1. Left valve female, sample 23, Penholoway, USNM 413963, x!20, holotype.

2. Right valve male, sample 23, Penholoway, USNM 413964, x!20.

3. Left valve male, sample 23, Penholoway, USNM 413965, x!20.

4. Right valve male, internal view, sample 23, Penholoway, USNM 413966, x!20.

5. Loxoconcha carolinensis Cronin n. sp. (p. C34).

Right valve female carapace, lateral view, Raysor, USNM 413967, x!80.

6. Paracytheridea hazeli Cronin n. sp. (p. C34).

Right valve female, sample 38, Ten Mile Hill beds, USNM 413968, xlOO.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-C PLATE 17

CYTHERURA, LOXOCONCHA, AND PARACYTHERIDEA

Biostratigraphic and Paleoenvironmental 

Interpretations from Late Pleistocene 

Ostracoda, Charleston, South Carolina

By SHARON KING LYON

STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, 

EARTHQUAKE OF 1886-NEOCENE AND QUATERNARY 

LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND BIOSTRATIGRAPHY

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-D

CONTENTS

	Page

Abstract............................................................................ Dl

Introduction....................................................................... 1

Purpose ...................................................................... 1

Study area................................................................... 1

Stratigraphic setting..................................................... 2

Previous ostracode studies ............................................. 2

Techniques.................................................................. 3

Acknowledgments......................................................... 4

Pleistocene ostracode biostratigraphy..................................... 4

Biofacies analysis................................................................ 6

The relationship between Pleistocene and Holocene species

distribution............................................................... 9

Discussion......................................................................... 12

Biostratigraphic interpretation........................................ 12

Ecostratigraphy........................................................... 14

Amino-acid ratios and uranium-disequilibrium-series dates .. 14

Conclusions........................................................................ 15

Systematic paleontology....................................................... 15

Family Bairdiidae......................................................... 15

Genus Neonesidea Haddocks .................................... 15

Genus Bairdoppilata Coryell, Sample, and Jennings..... 17

Family Pontocyprididae................................................. 18

Genus Propontocypris Sylvester-Bradley.................... 18

Family Loxoconchidae................................................... 18

Genus Loxoconcha Sars ........................................... 18

Genus Cytheromorpha Hirschmann............................ 19

Family Leptocytheridae................................................. 20

Genus Leptocythere Sars.......................................... 20

Family Hemicytheridae ................................................. 20

Genus Campylocythere Edwards............................... 20

Genus Proteoconcha Plusquellec and Sandberg............ 20

Genus Bensonocythere Hazel.................................... 23

Genus Malzella Hazel.............................................. 25

Genus Aurila Pokorny............................................. 25

	Page

Systematic paleontology Continued

Family Hemicytheridae Continued

Genus Muellerina Bassiouni..................................... D25

Family Trachyleberididae............................................... 26

Genus Puriana Coryell and Fields............................. 26

Genus Echinocythereis Puri...................................... 27

Genus Neocaudites Puri........................................... 28

Genus Actmocythereis Puri...................................... 29

Family Cytherettidae.................................................... 29

Genus Protocytheretta Puri ...................................... 29

Family Paradoxostomatidae............................................ 30

Genus Paradoxostoma Fischer.................................. 30

Genus Paracytheroma Juday.................................... 30

Genus Pellucistoma Coryell and Fields ...................... 31

Family Cytherideidae.................................................... 31

Genus Peratocytheridea Hazel .................................. 31

Genus Cyprideis Jones ............................................ 33

Genus Perissocythendea Stephenson.......................... 34

Genus Eucythere Brady........................................... 34

Family Cushmanideidae................................................. 34

Genus Cushm,anidea Blake....................................... 34

Genus Hulingsina Puri............................................ 35

Family Neocytherideidae ............................................... 38

Genus Sahnicythere Athersuch ................................. 38

Family Cytheruridae..................................................... 39

Genus Cytherura Sars ............................................. 39

Genus Tetracytherura Miiller.................................... 42

Family Paracytherideidae .............................................. 42

Genus Paracytheridea Miiller ................................... 42

Family Brachycytheridae............................................... 44

Genus Pterygocythereis Blake................................... 44

Family Cytherellidae..................................................... 44

Genus Cytherelloidea Alexander ............................... 44

References cited................................................................. 45

ILLUSTRATIONS

	[Plates 1-11 follow references cited]

Plate 1. Neonesidea, Bairdoppilata, and Propontocypris.

2. Loxoconcha, Cytheromorpha, Campylocythere, Leptocythere, and Muellerina.

3. Proteoconcha.

4. Bensonocythere.

5. Malzella, Aurila, Puriana, Echinocythereis, and Neocaudites.

6. Actmocythereis, Protocytheretta, Paradoxostoma, Paracytheroma, Pellucistoma, and Perissocytheridea.

7. Peratocytheridea and Cyprideis.

8. Eucythere, Cushm,anidea, Sahnicythere, Tetracytherura, and Hulingsina.

9. Hulingsina.

Ill
IV CONTENTS

10. Cytherura.

11. Cytherura, Paracytheridea, Pterygocythereis, and CythereUoidea.

Page

FIGURE 1. Sketch map of the Atlantic Coastal Plain in the vicinity of Charleston, S.C., showing generalized geology in the study

area and auger-hole locations........................................................................................................................ D3

2. Sketch map of the continental shelf, continental slope, and Blake Plateau between Charleston, S.C., and the Florida

Keys showing sample number and location of each ocean-bottom sample used for Holocene ostracode data................ 4

3. Stratigraphic columns constructed from auger-hole logs and samples of Pleistocene deposits in the Charleston, S.C., area

showing lithologies, biofacies, ages, and amino-acid ratios ................................................................................. 6

4. Chart showing occurrences of late Pleistocene ostracode species found in the Charleston, S.C., area and interpreted

biofacies of each sample ............................................................................................................................... 8

5. Chart showing depth ranges for Holocene ostracode species found also in South Carolina inner sublittoral Pleistocene

deposits .................................................................................................................................................... 10

6. Map showing ostracode study areas along the East Coast of the United States........................................................... 11

7. Chart showing geographic range, faunal province, climatic zone, and temperature range of Holocene ostracode species

that also occur in the upper Pleistocene deposits of the Charleston, S.C., area ..................................................... 13

8. Summary chart of the distribution of ostracode species common to both the upper Pleistocene deposits of Charleston, 

S.C., and the Holocene continental shelf deposits off the Southeastern United States within the Carolinian and 

Caribbean faunal provinces........................................................................................................................... 16

9-25. Sketch maps showing distribution of ostracode species in bottom sediments between Charleston, S.C., and the Florida 

Keys:

9. Loxoconcha reticularis and Cytheromorpha neivportensis ............................................................................ 19

10. Campylocythere laeva............................................................................................................................ 21

11. Proteoconcha gigantica, Proteoconcha tuberculata, and Proteoconcha nelsonensis. .......................................... 22

12. Bensonocythere whitei and Bensonocythere hazeli...... ................................................................................. 24

13. Aurila laevicula and Muellerina ohmerti... ............................................................................................... 26

14. Puriana carolinensis and Puriana floridana ............................................................................................. 27

15. Echinocythereis sp., Neocaudites atlantica, and Actinocythereis captionis ..................................................... 28

16. Pellucistoma magniventra.. .................................................................................................................... 31

17. Peratocytheridea bradyi and Eucythere triangulata.................................................................................... 32

18. Hulingsina rugipustulosa and Hulingsina glabra.. ..................................................................................... 36

19. Hulingsina aff. H. glabra, Hulingsina aff. H. rugipustulosa, and Hulingsina aff. H. semicircularis.................. 37

20. Hulingsina americana and Sahnicythere sp. ............................................................................................. 38

21. Cytheruraforulata................................................................................................................................ 39

22. Cytherura wardensis and Cytherura valentini ........................................................................................... 40

23. Cytherura pseudostnata and Cytherura aff'. C. pseudostriata. ...................................................................... 41

24. Paracytheridea altila and Paracytheridea hazeli........................................................................................ 43

25. Pterygocythereis alophia ........................................................................................................................ 45

TABLES

Page

TABLE 1. Location of auger holes near Charleston, S.C........................................................................................................ D2

2. Depositional environments, paleodepth ranges, and diagnostic ostracode taxa of late Pleistocene biofacies for the southern

Atlantic Coastal Plain ................................................................................................................................... 7
STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886- 

NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND BIOSTRATIGRAPHY

BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL

INTERPRETATIONS FROM LATE PLEISTOCENE OSTRACODA,

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA

By SHARON KING LYON*

ABSTRACT

Pleistocene ostracode assemblages from 16 auger holes in the vicinity 

of Charleston, S.C., are used here as biostratigraphic and paleoenvironmental indicators. Ostracode taxa representing the early Pleistocene Puriana convoluta Assemblage Zone were found in two auger 

holes. Taxa from the late Pleistocene Bensonocythere sapeloensis 

Assemblage Zone represent three separate transgressive-regressive 

events. Three biofacies are recognized in the study area: oyster-bank 

and open-sound backbarrier biofacies and inner sublittoral marine 

biofacies. Comparison of the late Pleistocene inner sublittoral marine 

assemblages with species distributions from Holocene assemblages 

shows that a majority of late Pleistocene species are still extant. 

Although some late Pleistocene species presently extend into the Nova 

Scotian, Virginian, and (or) Caribbean faunal provinces, all but one are 

living currently within the subtropical Carolinian faunal province. This 

distribution is interpreted to indicate a late Pleistocene subtropical 

paleoclimate similar to the climate found in the area today. On the basis 

of ecostratigraphy, uranium-disequilibrium-series coral dates, and 

amino-acid ratios on mollusks, the three transgressive-regressive 

events are dated at approximately 120,000, 94,000, and 72,000 years 

ago.

INTRODUCTION

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study is threefold: (1) to describe 

late Pleistocene Ostracoda from the Charleston, S.C., 

area, (2) to determine paleoenvironments by using Pleistocene ostracodes in biofacies analysis and in comparisons of fossil marine assemblages to modern marine 

assemblages, and (3) to use biofacies changes and ostracode assemblage zones as biostratigraphic markers in

Manuscript approved for publication November 1, 1988.

1 PEER Consultants, 1160 Rockville Pike, Suite 202, Rockville, MD 20852.

order to date the marine sediments in the study area. 

Further, these data were integrated with parallel studies 

involving uranium-disequilibrium-series dating of corals 

and amino-acid-ratio dating of mollusks.

STUDY AREA

The study area is located in the Atlantic Coastal Plain 

physiographic province of Eastern North America (fig. 

1). Samples of Pleistocene sediments were taken from 

auger holes drilled in three TVs-minute quadrangles, 

Johns Island, Charleston, and Fort Moultrie, near 

Charleston, S.C., and material from 16 of these holes was 

selected for micropaleontological analysis (table 1).

Micropaleontological analyses were made on 35 samples from 16 power-auger holes in the Charleston area. 

These samples were taken from stratigraphic intervals 

that contained calcareous material. Of these 16 powerauger holes, 11 were bored into the part of the Wando 

Formation (McCartan and others, 1980) that underlies 

the Pamlico-Princess Anne terrace (Colquhoun, 1974). 

The 11 holes are designated as C5, C7, C9, CIO, Cll, 

C17, C21, C22, C23, C24, and JI18 (fig. 1). Four holes 

were drilled into the Wando Formation underlying the 

Silver Bluff terrace (Colquhoun, 1974); these holes are 

designated as C14, FM1, FM2, and FM3 (fig. 1). One 

hole, FM4, was drilled on the modern coastal barrier (fig. 

1). All auger holes were drilled through the entire 

Pleistocene sequence and into the underlying Tertiary 

strata.

Ocean-bottom samples of Holocene marine sediments 

also were studied for ostracodes. These samples were 

collected from the continental shelf, continental slope, 

and Blake Plateau between the latitudes of Charleston

Dl
D2 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

TABLE I. Location of auger holes near Charleston, S.C. (see also fig. 1)

[Letters in front of auger-hole number indicate the TVWiinute quadrangle in which the holes 

are located: C, Charleston; FM, Fort Moultrie; and JI, Johns Island. Latitude and longitude 

are approximate]

Auger hole Latitude (north) Longitude (west)

C5 ..............

C7 ..............

C9 ..............

CIO.............

Cll.............

C14...... .......

C17.............

C21 .............

C22 .............

C23 .............

C24 .............

FM1............

FM2 ............

FM3 ............

FM4 ............

JI18 ............

.......... 32°47'00"

.......... 32°47'00"

.......... 32°50'00"

.......... 32°50'00"

.......... 32°48'30"

.......... 32°45'30"

.......... 32°48'00"

.......... 32°51'30"

.......... 32°51'30"

.......... 32°52'00"

.......... 32°52'30"

.......... 32°47'30"

.......... 32°50'00"

.......... 32°46'00"

.......... 32°45'30"

.......... 32°47'00"

79°53'00"

79°58'30"

79°56'30"

79°53'45"

79°53'45"

79°53'30"

79°59'30"

79°55'30"

79°54'00"

79°53'30"

79°54'30"

70°51'00"

79°49'00"

79°51'00"

79°51'30"

80°01'00"

(lat 32°49'30" N., long 79°14'24" W.) and the Florida 

Keys (lat 24°10'00" N., long 81°22'00" W.) (fig. 2) 

between 1963 and 1970 by the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS) and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution 

(Hathaway, 1971). In that work, 55 samples were taken 

in water depths ranging from 9 to 1,097 m.

STRATIGRAPHIC SETTING

In the Charleston area, there are at least 11 Neogene 

and Quaternary lithostratigraphic units. For more 

detailed discussions about the Quaternary units, see the 

introduction to this volume, McCartan and others (this 

volume), and McCartan and others (1984).

The Quaternary sequence in the Charleston area 

unconformably overlies either the Parkers Ferry Formation of the Cooper Group, a pale-greenish-gray limestone 

(Gohn and others, 1977); the Ashley Formation of the 

Cooper Group, a yellowish-gray to olive-brown impure 

limestone (Gohn and others, 1977); the Chandler Bridge 

Formation, a light-gray quartz-phosphate sand (Sanders 

and others, 1982); the Goose Creek Limestone, a paleyellow limestone (Weems and others, 1982); or a unit of 

uncertain correlation that is a dark-green drab noncalcareous clay to sand (McCartan and others, 1984; McCartan and others, this volume). The Parkers Ferry Formation is Eocene (Hazel and others, 1977), the Ashley 

Formation is Oligocene (Hazel and others, 1977), the 

Chandler Bridge Formation is Oligocene (Sanders and 

others, 1982), the Goose Creek Limestone is Pliocene

(Weems and others, 1982), and the uncorrelated unit is 

early or middle Miocene in age (L.E. Edwards, USGS, 

oral commun., 1982).

PREVIOUS OSTRACODE STUDIES

In the identification of Pleistocene ostracode species, 

studies of Neogene ostracodes have to be considered as 

well. This is because many of the Pleistocene species 

range upward from the Miocene and Pliocene and were 

described originally from Neogene deposits. Edwards 

(1944) described ostracode taxa from the Duplin Formation in North Carolina, now considered Pliocene in age 

(DuBar and others, 1974). Pooser (1965) used ostracodes 

as biostratigraphic markers for Tertiary strata from 

wells in South Carolina. Miocene ostracodes from Florida 

were studied by Puri (1953c). Ostracode assemblage 

zones for the Yorktown Formation of Virginia and North 

Carolina have been delineated by Hazel (1971), and these 

ostracodes have been compared to ostracodes from the 

Pliocene and Pleistocene Croatan Formation (Hazel, 

1983). Swain (1974) identified ostracodes from the Yorktown and Duplin Formations of Virginia and North 

Carolina. Malkin (1953) studied Miocene ostracodes from 

New Jersey, Maryland, and Virginia. Pliocene and early 

Pleistocene ostracodes of the Atlantic seaboard are discussed further by Cronin (this volume).

Pleistocene ostracodes from North and South Carolina 

have been identified by Hazel (1977), Cronin and Hazel 

(1980), and Cronin (1979, 1980). Valentine (1971) compared Pleistocene ostracodes from Virginia with Holocene ostracodes from the mid-Atlantic shelf. Ostracodes 

from the lower Pleistocene Waccamaw Formation of 

North and South Carolina were identified by Swain 

(1968). Kontrovitz (1978) studied Pleistocene ostracodes 

from south Florida, Hall (1965) studied late Pleistocene 

ostracodes from Sapelo Island, Ga., and Cronin (1986) 

identified Quaternary ostracodes from the South Texas 

Gulf Coast.

Most species found in South Carolina Pleistocene sediments are living presently off the east coast of North 

America and in the Gulf of Mexico. Studies of modern 

faunas that were helpful in species identification include 

Benda and Puri (1962), Benson and Coleman (1963), van 

den Bold (1971, 1977), Cushman (1906), Darby (1965), 

Garbett and Maddocks (1979), Grossman (1967), Hazel 

(1975), Hulings (1958, 1959, 1967), Keyser (1975), Kontrovitz (1976), Maddocks (1969), Morales (1966), Puri 

(1960), Puri and Hulings (1957), Teeter (1975), and 

Williams (1966). Previous studies that were especially 

helpful in determining the geographic distribution of 

modern taxa include Cronin (1979), Hazel (1970b, 1975), 

Hulings (1967), and Valentine (1971).
33°00

BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL INTERPRETATIONS LATE PLEISTOCENE OSTRACODA

SOW

32°45'

]

I

] 5

5

I 

10

10 MILES 

I

15 KILOMETERS

FIGURE 1. Atlantic Coastal Plain in the vicinity of Charleston, S.C., showing generalized geology in the study area and auger-hole locations. 

Letter in front of auger-hole number indicates the 7V2-minute quadrangle in which the auger hole is located (C, Charleston; FM, Fort 

Moultrie; and JI, Johns Island). Terraces are taken from Colquhoun (1974); generalized geology is taken from McCartan and others (1984).

Four papers have been published on the Pleistocene 

ostracode biostratigraphy of South Carolina. Hazel 

(1977) reviewed his ostracode assemblage zones for the 

Pliocene and established an assemblage zone for the 

lower Pleistocene Waccamaw Formation. Cronin and 

Hazel (1980) and Cronin (1980) composed an ostracode 

range chart for Pliocene to late Pleistocene species from 

North and South Carolina. Cronin (1981) summarized 

data from the three previous publications and defined 

assemblage zones within the Pleistocene.

TECHNIQUES

Figured ostracode specimens were attached to scanning electron microscope sample stubs and were coated 

with gold-palladium alloy. The specimens were then 

photographed by using a JEOL, JSM-35C scanning 

electron microscope at the USGS, Reston, Va. Settings 

of 10 kilovolts (kV) and 100 microamperes (|oA) were 

used. Photographs were taken by using Polaroid 665 

positive/negative film.
D4 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

FIGURE 2. Continental shelf, continental slope, and Blake Plateau between Charleston, S.C., and the Florida Keys showing the sample number 

and location of each ocean-bottom sample used for Holocene ostracode data. Depth contours are in meters.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank Thomas M. Cronin, USGS, for his help in 

defining this project, checking ostracode identifications, 

and critically reviewing the text of this paper. Gregory 

S. Gohn, USGS, originally suggested that this project be 

undertaken. Robert E. Weems, USGS, and Earl M. 

Lemon, Jr., assisted me in the field and provided their 

interpretation of the lithologic data. Lucy McCartan, 

USGS, provided information on the Pleistocene stratigraphy of the study area. Joseph St. Jean, Jr., the late 

Walter H. Wheeler, and Joseph G. Carter of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, N.C., reviewed the 

manuscript. Dr. Wheeler offered suggestions on stratigraphic problems, and Dr. St. Jean also checked the 

ostracode identifications. Effie G. Shaw, USGS, assisted 

with scanning electron microscope (SEM) and darkroom 

procedures for the production of the plates. Stratigraphic

studies and related investigations by the USGS near 

Charleston, S.C., were supported by the U.S. Nuclear 

Regulatory Commission, Office of Nuclear Research, 

under Agreement No. AT(49-25)-1000.

PLEISTOCENE OSTRACODE 

BIOSTRATIGRAPHY

The ostracode biostratigraphy of Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits from North and South Carolina has been 

studied previously by Pooser (1965), Hazel (1971, 1977), 

Cronin and Hazel (1980), and Cronin (1980, 1981). Hazel 

(1971, 1977) defined assemblage zones for Pliocene and 

lower Pleistocene deposits from Virginia to southern 

Florida. The lower Pleistocene Waccamaw Formation of 

Dall (1892) has a characteristic ostracode fauna that has 

been defined as the upper Puriana mesacostalis Assem-
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL INTERPRETATIONS LATE PLEISTOCENE OSTRACODA D5

blage Zone (Hazel, 1977). Although Cronin and Hazel 

(1980) listed the ostracode taxa of the middle Pleistocene 

Canepatch Formation on a range chart, they did not 

propose a formal assemblage zonation. Cronin (1979) 

illustrated late Pleistocene ostracodes both from the 

Socastee Formation of DuBar and others (1974) and from 

deposits underlying the Princess Anne and Silver Bluff 

terraces of Colquhoun (1974) (equals the Wando Formation of McCartan and others, 1980).

Cronin (1980, 1981) summarized the early, middle, and 

late Pleistocene occurrences of ostracodes and defined 

three assemblage zones. The absolute age assignments of 

these zones are based on independent absolute age data 

and are subject to refinement. Cronin's (1979) Puriana 

convoluta Assemblage Zone is equivalent to the upper 

Puriana mesacostalis Assemblage Zone of Hazel (1977) 

and is characterized by the extinct forms of Puriana 

mesacostalis (Edwards, 1944) and at least eight extinct 

species: Puriana carolinensis Hazel, 1983; Neocaudites 

variabilis Hazel, 1983; Bensonocythere sp. (=Bensonocythere sp. A, Cronin and Hazel, 1980, p. B17, fig. 

5d); Tetracytherura sp. (=Microcytherura sp. B, Cronin 

and Hazel, 1980, p. B21, fig. 7b); Muellerina bassiounii 

Hazel, 1983; Muellerina sp. (=Muellerina sp. B, Cronin 

and Hazel, 1980, p. B19, fig. 6b); Malzella evexa Hazel, 

1983; and Tetracytherura sp. (=Microcytherura sp. D, 

Cronin and Hazel, 1980, p. B21, fig. 7e). Cronin (1981) 

places the top of the Puriana convoluta Assemblage 

Zone at approximately 700 kilo-annum (ka, 103 years).

Cronin's (1981) Neocaudites atlantica Assemblage 

Zone is diagnostic of the middle Pleistocene Canepatch 

Formation of DuBar and others (1974). Five species that 

are present in older deposits became extinct after the 

Canepatch transgression: Muellerina wardi Hazel, 1983; 

Orionina vaughani (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904); 

Radimella confragosa (Edwards, 1944); Paracytheridea 

cronini Hazel, 1983; and Loxoconcha edentonensis 

Swain, 1951. Six extant species appear for the first time 

during Canepatch time in this region: Puriana floridana 

Puri, 1960; Paracytheridea hazeli Cronin, this volume 

(=Paracytheridea sp. A, Cronin and Hazel, 1980, p. B23, 

fig. 8e); Puriana carolinensis Hazel, 1983 (=Puriana 

sp. A, Cronin and Hazel, 1980, p. B15, fig. 4a); Malzella 

floridana (Benson and Coleman, 1963); Neocaudites 

atlantica Cronin, 1979; and Bensonocythere hazeli Cronin, this volume (=Bensonocythere sp. A, Cronin, 1979, 

p. 148, pi. 18, fig. 3). Thus, the Neocaudites atlantica 

Assemblage Zone can be recognized by the overlap of 

these extinct and extant species. Cronin (1981) estimated 

the top of this assemblage zone to be at 300 ka, which 

places the Canepatch Formation in the middle Pleistocene. Several corals from the Canepatch Formation have 

dates of about 450 ka (B.J. Szabo in McCartan and 

others, 1982) and support Cronin's estimate.

The late Pleistocene ostracodes of the Socastee Formation of DuBar and others (1974) are grouped into the 

Bensonocythere sapeloensis Assemblage Zone (Cronin, 

1981). In addition to the six extant species listed above 

for the Neocaudites atlantica Assemblage Zone, nine 

other Holocene species typify the Bensonocythere sapeloensis Assemblage Zone: Cytherura sablensis (Benson 

and Coleman, 1963); Cytherura nucis Garbett and Maddocks, 1979; Paracytheroma texana Garbett and Maddocks, 1979; Cytheromorpha fuscata (Brady, 1869a); 

Cyprideis margarita Cronin, 1979; Cytherura valentini 

Garbett and Maddocks, 1979; Neolophocythere subquadrata Grossman, 1967; Pontocythere sp. (=Pontocythere sp. A, Cronin, 1979, p. 143, pi. 5, figs. 2, 4); and 

Tetracytherura norfolkensis Cronin, 1979. All these species are probably living today, although Cytherura 

sablensis, Cytherura nucis, and Paracytheroma texana 

are found today only in the Gulf of Mexico, and Cyprideis 

margarita is rarely found in the Holocene. Cronin (1981) 

considers the Bensonocythere sapeloensis Assemblage 

Zone to represent the late Pleistocene from 300 to 10 ka.

The ostracode faunas near the bottom of auger holes 

C21 and C24 (figs. 1, 3) are quite distinct from faunas 

found in holes drilled to the south. Diagnostic species 

from holes C21 and C24 include Muellerina bassiounii 

Hazel, 1983; Orionina vaughani (Ulrich and Bassler, 

1904); Puri,ana carolinensis Hazel, 1983; Malzella evexa 

Hazel, 1983; Muellerina wardi Hazel, 1983; Neocaudites 

variabilis Hazel, 1983; and Bensonocythere whitei 

(Swain, 1951). The concurrent ranges of these species 

overlap in the Puriana convoluta Assemblage Zone of 

Cronin (1981). Therefore, it can be concluded that the 

age of these samples is early Pleistocene (approximately 

1.8 to 0.7 Mega-annum (Ma, 106 years)) and that they 

represent a buried outlier of lower Pleistocene sediments 

beneath upper Pleistocene deposits. Ostracodes from 

nearby auger holes C22 and C23 belong to the oysterbank biofacies, rather than the inner sublittoral biofacies 

of holes C21 and C24, and thus are not characteristic of a 

particular assemblage zone. From regional mapping, the 

deposits containing these ostracodes correlate with 

upper Pleistocene deposits to the southwest and northeast (R.E. Weems, oral commun., 1983).

Auger holes drilled farther south in the Wando Formation, C5, C7, C9, CIO, Cll, C14, and JI18 (figs. 1, 3), 

yield ostracode assemblages that are similar to one 

another but differ in several respects from the assemblages in holes C21, C22, C23, and C24. The fauna in the 

southern holes is composed predominantly of extant 

species whose ranges overlap in the late Pleistocene 

Bensonocythere sapeloensis Assemblage Zone of Cronin 

(1981). Species that are diagnostic of this assemblage 

zone and are found in the southern holes listed above are 

Puriana floridana Puri, 1960; Paracytheridea hazeli
D6 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

Ostracode sample

Inner sublittoral C biofacies

EXPLANATION

B Inner sublittoral B biofacies 

BB Backbarrier biofacies 

OS Open-sound biofacies 

OB Oyster-bank biofacies 

SL Modern mean sea level 

AA Amino-acid ratio 

~^~^-' Unconformity

FEET 

20-i

SL

METERS

FEET 

30

20-- 

10-- 

SL-

-20--

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C17

C21

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r

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early Pleistocene

r ,-

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AA0.25

BB

Goose Creek

OB Cooper _ _

 10

Cooper 

All unlabeled assemblages are late Pleistocene in age

Cooper

-SL

 5

- 15

FIGURE 3. Stratigraphic columns constructed from auger-hole logs and samples of Pleistocene deposits in the Charleston, S.C., area. 

Lithologies, biofacies, ages, and amino-acid ratios are shown. Auger-hole locations are shown in figure 1.

Cronin, this volume (=Paracytheridea sp. A, Cronin and 

Hazel, 1980, p. B23, fig. 8e); Puriana carolinensis 

Hazel, 1983 (=Puriana sp. A, Cronin and Hazel, 1980, p. 

B15, fig. 4a); Neocaudites atlantica Cronin, 1979; Bensonocy'there valentinei Cronin, this volume (=Bensonocythere sp. B, Cronin, 1979, p. 149, pi. 18, fig. 5); 

Cytherura nucis Garbett and Haddocks, 1979; Cyprideis 

margarita Cronin, 1979; and Cytherura valentini Garbett and Haddocks, 1979. In addition, Cronin (1979) 

illustrates many other species that are common in upper 

Pleistocene deposits in the Carolinas and that also occur 

in these holes. Thus, the Pamlico-Princess Anne terrace 

part of the Wando Formation is late Pleistocene in age in 

the vicinity of Charleston, S.C., and south of auger holes 

C21 and C22 (fig. 1).

Distinguishing late Pleistocene assemblages from Holocene assemblages is difficult because most species still

live off the coast today. Cytherura nucis Garbett and 

Haddocks, 1979, which is known in Holocene sediments 

only from Texas bays and lagoons, is an exception. Auger 

hole FH2 (figs. 1, 3) is in an area surrounded by Holocene 

lagoonal sediments. However, a late Pleistocene date for 

the samples taken from this core is substantiated by the 

abundance of Cytherura nucis at a depth of 2.1 m below 

modern mean sea level. Auger hole FH3, situated 

directly behind the modern barrier, and auger hole FH4 

(figs. 1, 3), located on the modern barrier, are both in 

areas of Holocene sedimentation. These samples contain 

ostracode faunas that could be either late Pleistocene or 

Holocene in age.

BIOFACIES ANALYSIS

The term "biofacies" has been defined in various ways 

by different authors. Buzas (1970) defines a biofacies as
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL INTERPRETATIONS LATE PLEISTOCENE OSTRACODA D7

"the zonation of multispecies assemblages living in a 

specified area." Therefore, many different biofacies may 

be defined within one community. Raup and Stanley 

(1971) define a biofacies as "fossils which show lateral 

changes in aspect." By Raup and Stanley's definition, 

groups of samples that constitute biofacies can be distinguished from one another by the presence of certain 

species in the samples. Biofacies may change vertically in 

a stratigraphic section, as well as laterally, and thus, 

biofacies have thickness. Therefore, biofacies, like lithofacies, should be mappable units (Hazel, 1975).

The method of Q-mode principal coordinates analysis 

has been used successfully to delineate biofacies (Hazel, 

1970a, 1975; Cronin, 1979, 1980, 1981). Cronin (1979) 

used this method to determine five biofacies of late 

Pleistocene ostracodes for the southern Atlantic Coastal 

Plain. These are lagoonal, oyster-bank, estuarine, opensound, and inner sublittoral biofacies (table 2). The first 

four biofacies all occur behind a seaward barrier in 

fluctuating, brackish-water, backbarrier systems. Few 

species can tolerate these brackish conditions, and thus, 

species diversity is low in all of these biofacies. In 

contrast, the inner sublittoral biofacies occurs in the open 

ocean, and species diversity is much greater. Cronin's 

(1979) biofacies can be applied to the ostracode assemblages found within this study area.

A total of 62 species of Ostracoda are recognized in the 

upper Pleistocene deposits of the Charleston area (fig. 4). 

Two of the backbarrier biofacies, the oyster-bank and the 

open-sound biofacies, are represented. Oyster banks are 

scattered throughout lagoons but are most common in 

peripheral areas, and many of the same species are found 

in both the oyster-bank and lagoonal biofacies. Cyprideis 

mexicana Sandberg, 1964, Perissocytheridea brachyforma Swain, 1955, and Loxoconcha matagordensis 

Swain, 1955, are found in both biofacies, although they 

vary in abundance. For example, C. mexicana is abundant in oyster-bank assemblages and is less common in 

lagoonal assemblages, and the dominant lagoonal species, L. matagordensis, can also be found in very low 

numbers in oyster-bank assemblages (table 2). Salinities 

in both oyster banks and lagoons range from 15 to 30 

parts per thousand; salinities in open sounds range from 

15 to 35 parts per thousand, where the lower part of the 

range reflects proximity to an estuary or river mouth 

(Cronin, 1979).

The inner sublittoral marine biofacies that is represented in the study area has a more diverse fauna, 

including Peratocytheridea bradyi (Stephenson, 1938), 

Hulingsina rugipustulosa (Edwards, 1944), and Proteoconcha gigantica (Edwards, 1944) as common species 

(table 2). Along the Atlantic Coastal Plain, the inner 

sublittoral environment occurs, by definition, seaward of 

a barrier and is characterized by normal marine salinities

TABLE 2. Depositional environments, paleodepth ranges, and diagnostic 

ostracode taxa of late Pleistocene biofacies for the southern Atlantic Coastal 

Plain

[Modified from Cronin, 1980]

Depositional 

environment

Estimated 

depth 

range

(in 

meters)

Diagnostic ostracodes

(in order of 

decreasing abundance)

Brackish-water 

Lagoonal.....

Oyster-bank. 

Estuarine... 

Open-sound.

Marine 

Inner sublittoral A.

1-3 Loxoconcha matagordensis 

Cyprideis mexicana 

Perissocytheridea brachyforma 

Cytheromorpha newportensis

2-4 Cyprideis mexicana

Loxoconcha matagordensis 

Perissocytheridea brachyforma

1-5 Cyprideis salebrosa 

Cytheromorpha curta 

Cytheromorpha fuscata

2-5 Peratocytheridea setipunctata 

Proteoconcha nelsonensis

vportensis 

losa

5-25 Peratocytheridea bradyi 

Hulingsina rugipustulosa 

Proteoconcha gigantica 

Cytherura aff. C. elongata

Inner sublittoral B. 5-20

Inner sublittoral C. 2-8

Peratocytheridea bradyi 

Hulingsina rugipustulosa 

Proteoconcha gigantica 

Cytherura aff. C. elongata 

(Containing as much as 10

percent brackish-water

species)

Peratocytheridea bradyi 

Hulingsina rugipustulosa 

Proteoconcha gigantica 

Cytherura aff. C. elongata 

(Containing 10-50 percent 

brackish-water species)

of 34-36 parts per thousand (Cronin, 1979). Holocene 

occurrence data from both the literature and the Holocene assemblages studied here were plotted to infer the 

ranges in water depth for the Pleistocene inner sublittoral species (fig. 5). None of the Holocene samples was 

taken at a depth less than 9 m; therefore, data for 

shallower depths are not given. The overlap of the depth 

ranges of the Holocene species suggests a paleodepth of 

less than 20 m for all Pleistocene inner sublittoral samples in this study. Cronin (1980), using the percentage of 

backbarrier species washed into the inner sublittoral 

environment from adjacent backbarrier environments, 

has more closely estimated the paleodepth (table 2). 

Because backbarrier ostracode species seldom are found 

today on the Atlantic Continental Shelf (Cronin, 1979), a
D8 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

Biofacies

(taken from Cronin, 1979)

Inner sublittoral C

Open-sound to inner sublittoral C

Inner sublittoral C

Inner sublittoral C

Inner sublittoral C

nner sublittoral C

nner sublittoral C

nner sublittoral C

nner sublittoral C

nner sublittoral C

nner sublittoral C

Open-sound to inner sublittoral C 

Open-sound to inner sublittoral C

Inner sublittoral C

Inner sublittoral C

Oyster-bank 

Oyster-bank to inner sublittoral C

Backbarrier bay

Inner sublittoral C

Oyster-bank

Inner sublittoral B

GRAND TOTAL

_!

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34

224

180

109

140

431

348

311

311

284

94

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174 

217

49

83

224 

62

265

151

118

80

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FIGURE 4. Occurrences of late Pleistocene ostracode species found in the Charleston, S.C., area and interpreted biofacies of each sample. For 

more information on each biofacies, see table 2. Lowercase "j" indicates juvenile forms; , not present.

high percentage of backbarrier species in any given 

sample indicates its close association with a backbarrier 

environment. Therefore, the high percentage of backbarrier species in most of the Pleistocene inner sublittoral

samples (between 10 and 50 percent in most samples) 

indicates that deposition was very near shore, probably 

in no more than 2-8 m of water (inner sublittoral C, table 

2; B is rare; A is never found).
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL INTERPRETATIONS LATE PLEISTOCENE OSTRACODA D9

bradyi Peratocythertdea Pelluclttoma magniventra Paracytheroma ttephentoni

 4 

92 

35 1 1

18

200 2 1 

106 1 1 

100 2 2 

120 

125 2 3 

34 1 1

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 2,1j 3 2j 3j 1 1 5 1 5 9 19 4 3 1 17 1 

1 1j 2j 1 2j 1 5 2 1j 7 30 15 1 1 1 19 4 

1 2,1j 19j 2 1 3j 2 2 2 2 28 5 16 11,1j 1 221 

 1 4j 2j 6j 4 15 5 1 1 1 1 

 1j 1 1j 1 1j 1 2,2j 9 15 1 2 1 

 1j 1 1j 1 1 4 4 1 

 1 ____ 1 j__ 3j_____ 3 6 ___________ 

 18j 2 2j 3 1 _____ 

 5 1j 4j 1,2j 6 4 16 5 1j 1,2j 2 1 

1 2 2 1j 7j 1 10J 4 8 5 1 2 1,2j 5 l.lj 2 1

 34 1 ______ i __ 4 2 

_6 1 1 70 15 41 4 

 1 2 

Auger-hole number 

and depth, in meters 

eboveor 

below SM level

CIO 

C10 

CIO 

CIO 

C10 

CIO 

CIO 

CIO

JI18 

JI18 

JI18 

JI18 

JI18 

JI18

C7 

C7 

C7

C17 

C17 

C17

C14

C5

C11 

C11

C9 

C9

FM1

FM2

FM3 

FM3

FM4 

FM4

1.5 

0.3 

- 0.3 

- 4.0 

- 5.3 

- 6.1 

- 8.9 

-10.1

1.2 

0.0 

- 1.2 

- 2.4 

- 3.7 

- 4.3

- 4.3 

- 5.8 

- 7.6

1.2 

- 1.5 

- 4.0

- 6.4

- 6.7

- 3.7 

- 4.3

- 4.0 

- 8.9

- 0.6

- 2.1

- 5.2 

- 7.6

- 8.2 

- 8.9

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PLEISTOCENE 

AND HOLOCENE SPECIES DISTRIBUTION

The Atlantic Continental Shelf of the United States 

has been subdivided by several authors into faunal 

provinces and climatic zones on the basis of different 

groups of benthic organisms (see review by Hazel, 

1970b). Faunal provinces are established according to

the geographic distribution of assemblages of marine 

organisms, and climatic zones are inferred from these 

provinces. Factors that influence the distribution of 

these organisms include annual range of water temperature, substrate composition, rate of sediment influx, 

water depth, and salinity. Ostracodes of the continental 

shelf are temperature-sensitive organisms; their species 

distribution is influenced not only by winter and summer 

temperatures that affect their survival, but by winter
DIG STUDIES EELATED TO THE CHAELESTON, SOUTH CAEOLINA, EAETHQUAKE OF 1886

iii=8 ii

5iiiiii||iffii||ii|^&|i|||i i§"« g ll««lllli^il"S«l§8|llil:

Q. 

O> 

T3

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100 ' \( V V \1 1 ' ' V '' 1 

FIGURE 5. Depth ranges for Holocene ostracode species that are found also in South Carolina inner 

sublittoral Pleistocene deposits. Number of Holocene samples used for each depth determination 

is in parentheses.
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL INTERPRETATIONS LATE PLEISTOCENE OSTRACODA Dll

and summer temperatures that affect their reproduction 

as well.

This study of ostracode zoogeography follows the 

faunal-province classification of Hazel (1970b). From 

north to south, six marine faunal provinces and climatic 

zones have been established along the east coast of North 

America: Arctic (frigid), Labrador (subfrigid), Nova 

Scotian (cold temperate), Virginian (mild temperate), 

Carolinian (subtropical), and Caribbean (tropical). Some 

authors (Dana, 1853; Hedgpeth, 1957; and Stephenson 

and Stephenson, 1954) recognize a separate warmtemperate climatic zone within the Virginian faunal 

province. Valentine (1971) doubts that the latter climatic 

zone occurs today, although he found evidence that it 

existed during the late Pleistocene in the Virginia area. 

Climatic zones are based by most authors not on temperature but, rather, on the distribution of organisms, 

because the boundaries of climatic zones have been 

defined for convenience as equivalent to those of the 

faunal provinces. As water temperature is one of the 

major factors controlling the distribution of organisms of 

the continental shelf (Hazel, 1970b), water-temperature 

ranges are reflected in the established climatic zones. 

Ocean-bottom temperatures in the Virginian faunal 

province range from 0 to 17.5 °C in February and from 

17.5 to 25 °C in August. In contrast, bottom temperatures in the Carolinian faunal province vary between 10 

and 20 °C in February and between 25 and 30 °C in 

August, while bottom temperatures on the south Florida 

shelf fluctuate between 17.5 and 25 °C in February and 

between about 25 and 32.5 °C in August (Walford and 

Wicklund, 1968). In addition, many climatic-zone boundaries reflect regions of strong isothermal convergence 

(Walford and Wicklund, 1968).

The Pleistocene samples in this study are located 

within the modern Carolinian faunal province (Cape 

Hatteras, N.C., south to Cape Canaveral, Fla.; fig. 6). 

The ocean-bottom temperatures at Charleston, S.C., are 

known to range from 10 to 15 °C in February and from 

27.5 to 30 °C in August (Walford and Wicklund, 1968).

The distribution of Holocene ostracodes along the east 

coast of North America has been studied in detail. The 

distribution from the southern part of the Nova Scotian 

faunal province (Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada, south to 

Cape Cod, Mass.) to the northern part of the Virginian 

faunal province (Cape Cod south to Cape Hatteras, N.C.) 

has been determined by Hazel (1970b) (fig. 6). Valentine 

(1971) has studied the Holocene ostracode distribution 

from the southern Virginian and northern Carolinian 

faunal provinces. Ostracodes from Cape Hatteras, N.C., 

to Jupiter Inlet, Fla., have been identified by Hulings 

(1967). In addition, van den Bold (1977) has reported on 

the modern distribution of ostracodes in the Gulf of 

Mexico and the Caribbean region. He defined a "transiEXPLANATION 

Faunal province: 

Nova Scotian (cold temperate) 

Virginian (mild temperate) 

Carolinian (subtropical) 

Caribbean (tropical)

300 MILES

100 200 300 400 KILOMETERS

FIGURE 6. Ostracode study areas along the East Coast of the United 

States. Holocene study areas offshore include those of (1) Hazel 

(1970b), (2) Valentine (1971) and Hazel (1975), and (3) Lyon (this 

paper). The Pleistocene study area onshore of Lyon (this paper) is 

also shown (4). Depth contours are in meters.

tion zone" between the two regions, a zone encompassing 

the shallow carbonate platforms of Yucatan, Cuba, Florida, and the Bahamas.
D12 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

Because the Holocene ostracode distribution within 

the Carolinian and Caribbean faunal provinces is important for paleoclimatic interpretation of the Pleistocene 

assemblages, further study of this area was undertaken. 

I studied 55 Holocene samples from South Carolina to the 

Florida Keys in order to ascertain the ostracode distribution. This work concentrated primarily on the clasticshelf assemblages between South Carolina and Florida 

because of their marked similarity to the Charleston 

Pleistocene assemblages. In contrast, samples from the 

carbonate shelf off southern Florida, the continental 

slope, and the Blake Plateau yielded taxa that are wholly 

different from the Pleistocene assemblages at Charleston. Of the 62 ostracode species found in the upper 

Pleistocene deposits of South Carolina, 44 are still living 

off the east coast of North America (fig. 7); most of the 

others are still alive in other areas. A study of the 

present distribution, and thus the climatic ranges, of the 

44 species locally extant was undertaken in order to infer 

the Pleistocene paleoclimate of the Charleston area.

Within the Holocene ostracode assemblages, articulated, finely ornamented ostracode valves are common, 

and some chitinous parts are preserved. Juvenile and 

adult forms, as well as carapaces and valves of the same 

species, occur together. This evidence shows that little 

postmortem transport has occurred (Kontrovitz and 

Nicolich, 1979).

The distribution of the ostracode species common to 

both the late Pleistocene of the Charleston area and the 

Holocene continental shelf off the Southeastern United 

States within the Carolinian and Caribbean faunal provinces is summarized in figure 8. Individual maps showing 

the distribution of the species in the bottom sediments of 

these two faunal provinces are given in taxonomic order 

in the "Systematic paleontology" section.

Of the 44 species found in both the upper Pleistocene 

deposits of the Charleston area and the Holocene deposits on the continental shelf, 43 species are living presently in the Carolinian faunal province (fig. 7). Of these 

species, 39 extend north into the Virginian faunal province as well, and 2 of these, Muellerina ohmerti Hazel, 

1983, and Propontocypris edwardsi (Cushman, 1906), 

extend even farther north into the Nova Scotian faunal 

province today. Only 1 of the 39 species living in the 

Virginian faunal province, Cushmanidea seminuda 

(Cushman, 1906), does not extend today south of Cape 

Hatteras into the Carolinian faunal province. To the 

south of Cape Canaveral, 27 of the species are found also 

in the Caribbean faunal province. Although no distinct 

faunal break occurs at Cape Canaveral, a break seems to 

be indicated farther south at approximately lat 27°00'00" 

N. This break appears primarily to reflect a change from 

a clastic to a carbonate regime (Hathaway, 1972).

Several of the late Pleistocene species in the Charleston area are characteristic of the Gulf of Mexico. Twelve 

species have been reported by Garbett and Haddocks 

(1979) as living in Texas bays. Benson and Coleman 

(1963) have identified Neonesidea gerda (Benson and 

Coleman, 1963), Campylocythere laeva Edwards, 1944, 

and Pellucistoma magniventra Edwards, 1944, in the 

eastern Gulf of Mexico. And nine of the late Pleistocene 

species from Charleston are still living today along the 

west coast of Florida (Puri, 1960).

A Pleistocene paleoclimate much like the climate found 

in the Carolinian faunal province today can be interpreted from the distribution of modern shelf species 

common to both the upper Pleistocene deposits of 

Charleston and the Holocene deposits of the continental 

shelf. Therefore, it appears likely that a subtropical 

paleoclimate existed in the Charleston area during the 

periods in the late Pleistocene when ostracode-bearing 

sediments were deposited. The ocean-bottom temperatures then probably ranged from 10 to 15 °C in the winter 

and from 27.5 to 30 °C in the summer, and they must 

have occurred during interglacial intervals.

DISCUSSION

BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC INTERPRETATION

One method of dating Pleistocene marine sediments is 

by the use of ostracode assemblage zones to distinguish 

among early, middle, and late Pleistocene deposits (Cronin, 1980). Two assemblage zones are recognizable 

among the ostracode assemblages in the Charleston 

area. The first is the Puriana convoluta Assemblage 

Zone of Cronin (1981), which is found in two auger holes 

(C21 and C24) north of Charleston and indicates that a 

sedimentary depositional event occurred somewhere 

between 1.8 and 0.7 Ma during the early Pleistocene. 

These deposits are the approximate age equivalent of the 

Waccamaw Formation of Dall (1892) and are overlain 

unconformably by deposits whose age could not be 

determined by biostratigraphic analysis. However, the 

lateral relationships of the overlying deposits indicate 

that they correlate with fossiliferous upper Pleistocene 

beds to the southeast (R.E. Weems, USGS, oral commun., 1981).

The second recognizable assemblage zone is the Bensonocythere sapeloensis Assemblage Zone of Cronin 

(1981), which is found in all the remaining auger holes

FIGURE 7. Geographic range, faunal province, climatic zone, and ^. 

temperature range of Holocene ostracode species that also occur 

in the upper Pleistocene deposits of the Charleston, S.C., area. 

Arrow indicates a species range that extends farther north or 

south, but extent is unknown.
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL INTERPRETATIONS LATE PLEISTOCENE OSTRACODA D13

(north) Latitude 

o

O _

o

0)_

o

00

CO

o

r*. co~

o

CD

CO

o 

If)

CO

0co~

CO

CO

o

CM

CO

J_co~

b

CO

0)_

Q

00

CM

o

r*.

CM

o

CD 

CM

Faunal province

Z

_i

Z

(5

DC

>

Z

5

Z

o

QC

O

Z

111

CO

CO

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D14 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

landward of the modern barrier. This zone was deposited 

between 300 and 10 ka during the late Pleistocene, when 

three separate transgressive-regressive sedimentary 

events took place according to ecostratigraphy and age 

dating.

ECOSTRATIGRAPHY

The ostracode assemblages in the study area are 

considered to be untransported death assemblages on 

the basis of the presence of many unworn, articulated 

specimens and the abundance of juveniles. Changes 

through time in the species within a local group result in 

biofacies changes within sedimentary deposits. These 

biofacies changes reflect significant changes in environmental processes, such as sediment deposition, water 

depth, and salinity changes. Although they do not reflect 

major evolutionary events, they denote significant environmental fluctuations. Therefore, ecostratigraphy, the 

study and classification of stratified rocks according to 

their environment of deposition (Hedberg, 1958), provides an approach that may be used to delineate separate 

depositional events, regardless of evolutionary change in 

the constituent fauna.

Biofacies changes can be seen in auger holes in the late 

Pleistocene sediments around Charleston. For example, 

the vertical biofacies change seen in the auger hole CIO 

(fig. 3) reflects an apparent transgressive-regressivetransgressive sequence. Inner sublittoral ostracodes are 

found between 6.1 and 8.9 m below modern mean sea 

level in the basal, fine-grained, shelly sand of a first high 

stand of sea level. A change in the ostracodes begins at 

6.1 m below modern mean sea level from ostracodes 

characteristic of an inner sublittoral biofacies to those 

characteristic of an open-sound biofacies. The change is 

complete at 5.3 m below modern mean sea level. At this 

point the environment became slightly restricted and the 

salinity was lower, although the lithology remained the 

same. Above this unit (ostracode sample at 4 m below 

modern mean sea level) is a shelly clay unit containing 

wood and grass fragments, which in turn is overlain by 

the oyster-bank biofacies (ostracode sample at 0.3 m 

below modern mean sea level). The environment of this 

facies was very restricted, the water was brackish, and 

the dominant sediment was a dark-blue, shelly clay. 

Above the oyster-bank biofacies, the sediment grades 

from gray, shelly clay to yellow, fine-grained, shelly sand 

of a second high stand of sea level; here, inner sublittoral 

assemblages (ostracode sample at 1.5 m above modern 

mean sea level) are again apparent. An unconformity is 

inferred at about modern sea level.

Ostracode assemblages found in the samples from 

auger hole FM2 (figs. 1, 3) belong to the same assemblage zone as the ostracodes from auger holes in the

Wando Formation. However, the assemblages from 

auger hole FM2 most resemble assemblages found today 

in Texas bays, rather than the inner sublittoral assemblages found today in the Atlantic Ocean. The large 

numbers of Pellucistoma magniventra Edwards, 1944, 

Cytherum nucis Garbett and Haddocks, 1979, Leptocythere nikraveshae Morales, 1966, and Paradoxostoma 

delicata Puri, 1953c (fig. 4), indicate a slightly warmer 

climate during the deposition of these sediments than 

during the deposition of other late Pleistocene sediments 

in the study area (Garbett and Haddocks, 1979). Thus, 

using an ecostratigraphic approach, these sediments can 

be shown to have been deposited probably during a third 

high stand of sea level, when a different mixture of 

ostracode species lived in slightly warmer climatic conditions than those existing during the previous two late 

Pleistocene transgressions.

AMINO-ACID RATIOS AND URANIUM-DISEQUILIBRIUMSERIES DATES

In addition to biostratigraphy and ecostratigraphy, 

amino-acid ratios from mollusks and the uraniumdisequilibrium-series dating of corals can be used to date 

depositional events. Amino-acid (alloisoleucine:isoleucine) ratios have been determined from the mollusk 

Mulinia lateralis (Say) for late Pleistocene samples in 

the Charleston study area (Corrado and others, 1986). 

Valves of this small mollusk, found below the unconformity within the Pleistocene section of auger hole CIO, yield 

an amino-acid ratio of 0.42 (fig. 3). Above this unconformity, an amino-acid ratio of 0.35 was obtained. An average 

amino-acid ratio of 0.42 also has been found in M. 

lateralis shells within Pleistocene deposits at the Mark 

Clark pit, a sand pit near auger hole C7 (fig. 1). A 

uranium-disequilibrium-series date derived from a coral, 

Astrangia sp., found within Pleistocene deposits in the 

pit, indicates an age of 120±6 ka (Cronin and others, 

1981; Szabo, 1985). Because of the equivalence of aminoacid ratios for mollusks in the Mark Clark pit and in 

auger hole CIO below the unconformity, the age of the 

lower CIO sediments is considered to be 120±6 ka.

Uranium-disequilibrium-series ratios from corals 

found in Pleistocene deposits from two auger holes near 

Mt. Pleasant, S.C. (fig. 1), indicate an age of 94±6 ka and 

96 ±6 ka (Cronin and others, 1981; McCartan and others, 

1982; Szabo, 1985). The Pleistocene deposits near Mt. 

Pleasant may be traced lithologically to auger hole CIO, 

where they correlate with the section above the unconformity (R.E. Weems and E.M. Lemon, Jr., USGS, oral 

commun., 1981). Amino-acid ratios from mollusks at Mt. 

Pleasant average approximately 0.35 and match ratios 

determined for the upper part of the section of auger hole
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL INTERPRETATIONS LATE PLEISTOCENE OSTRACODA D15

CIO as well (Corrado and others, 1986). Therefore, the 

age of the upper part of the section can be estimated at 

approximately 94 ±6 ka.

An amino-acid ratio of approximately 0.25 has been 

determined from mollusks in auger hole FM2, which 

suggests an age of approximately 70 ka (Corrado and 

others, 1986) if the previous amino-acid ratios and 

uranium-disequilibrium-series coral dates are used as 

guidelines. Corals from the Norfolk Formation in Virginia and North Carolina have been dated from 75 to 72 

ka as well (Cronin and others, 1981; Szabo, 1985). These 

deposits may be approximately equivalent in age to those 

in auger hole FM2.

In summary, ostracode ecostratigraphy indicates that 

three separate high stands of sea level (transgressiveregressive events) are represented in the upper Pleistocene deposits in the vicinity of Charleston. The sediments in the vicinity of, and within, auger hole CIO were 

deposited during the two older events, which occurred at 

approximately 120 ka and 94 ka. The sediments in auger 

hole FM2 may have been deposited during a third 

transgressive event at approximately 72 ka. Further 

uranium-disequilibrium-series dating of this latest 

marine unit in the Charleston area is required, however, before a firm age is established. Nonetheless, all 

of these events can be recognized by using ostracode 

ecostratigraphy.

CONCLUSIONS

Pleistocene Coastal Plain sediments can be correlated 

and dated by multiple methods. On the basis of biostratigraphy, ostracode assemblage zones alone serve to 

distinguish only early, middle, and late Pleistocene deposition. Taxa representing the early Pleistocene Puriana 

convoluta Assemblage Zone are found near the bottom of 

two auger holes in the Charleston area. All other marine 

sediments in the study area near Charleston, S.C., 

contain taxa diagnostic of the late Pleistocene Bensonocythere sapeloensis Assemblage Zone.

On the basis of biofacies analysis and a Holocene 

distribution study, many of the late Pleistocene inner 

sublittoral marine ostracode species are still living off the 

east coast of North America in the Nova Scotian, Virginian, Carolinian, and Caribbean marine zoogeographic 

faunal provinces, as well as in the Gulf of Mexico. 

Although these modern ostracode species are distributed 

in the four faunal provinces east of North America, all 

but one species coexist in the Carolinian faunal province. 

This distribution indicates a subtropical paleoclimate for 

the study area in the late Pleistocene.

On the basis of the ecostratigraphy, uraniumdisequilibrium-series dating of corals, and amino-acid 

ratios from mollusks, three separate depositional events

can be recognized within the late Pleistocene ostracode 

assemblage zone in deposits in South Carolina. The 

events, dated at approximately 120, 94, and 72 ka, reflect 

high stands of sea level. These events must have 

occurred during warm climatic (interglacial) intervals, 

because the ostracode assemblages studied here are not 

compatible with a cold climate regime.

SYSTEMATIC PALEONTOLOGY

The classification used in this study is modified from 

the "Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology" (Benson 

and others, 1961). I depart from this classification in 

recognizing the families Paracytherideidae Puri, 1957, 

Cushmanideidae Puri, 1973, and Neocytherideidae Puri, 

1957, and the subfamilies Hemicytherinae Puri, 1953b, 

and Trachyleberidinae Sylvester-Bradley, 1948. Following Hartmann and Puri (1974), I place the genera Cushmanidea and Hidingsina in the family Cushmanideidae 

and the genus Sahnicythere in the family Neocytherideidae. Also, I place the genus Campylocythere Edwards, 

1944, in the family Hemicytheridae Puri, 1953b, as 

outlined by Hazel (1967). In addition, the following 

genera are recognized: Neonesidea Haddocks, 1969; 

Muellerina Bassiouni, 1965; Bensonocythere Hazel, 

1967; Proteoconcha Plusquellec and Sandberg, 1969; 

Neocaudites Puri, 1960; Sahnicythere Athersuch, 1982; 

Malzella Hazel, 1983; Peratocytheridea Hazel, 1983; and 

Tetracytherura Miiller, 1894. The criteria of Van 

Morkhoven (1962) were used as guidelines for classification below the subordinal level.

Synonomies are abbreviated and list only the name 

changes of which the author is certain. References for 

names of genus level and above, including type species of 

genera, are not listed in the bibliography but may be 

found in King (1981). No new names are proposed. 

Pleistocene occurrence data for each species are given in 

figure 4. Holocene distribution data for each species are 

summarized in figure 8. The following abundance scale is 

used: less than 10 percent, rare; 10-50 percent, common; 

and greater than 50 percent, abundant.

Figured specimens have been deposited in the U.S. 

National Museum (USNM), Washington, B.C. Additional specimens are kept at the University of North 

Carolina at Chapel Hill, N.C. Faunal slides are stored at 

the USGS, Reston, Va.

Order PODOCOPIDA Miiller, 1894 

Suborder PODOCOPINA Sars, 1866

Superfamily BAIRDIACEA Sars, 1888 

Family BAIRDIIDAE Sars, 1888

Genus NEONESIDEA Maddocks, 1969

Neonesidea Maddocks, 1969.

Type species. Triebelina schulzi Hartmann, 1962.
D16 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

Sample 

number

Latitude 

(north)

Longitude 

(west)

1476

1478

1771

1674

1759

2296

1484

1755

1489

1704

1746

2290

1492

1701

1496

1499

2412

1734

1507

1715

1513

1689

1521

1525

1725

1528

1530

1537

1532

1543

1633

1547

1630

1550

1620

1611

1555

1557

1601

1562

1566

1593

1568

1569

1585

1572

1580

1575

1576

2389

2384

2372

2365

2352

2359

32°49'18" 

32°38'30" 

32°09'42" 

32°27'36" 

32°04'54" 

32°15'42" 

32°09'36" 

31°49'54" 

31°41'00" 

31°30'48" 

31°00'00"

31° 20 '24" 

31°00'12" 

30°50'06" 

30°39'36" 

30°31 '00" 

30°20'24" 

29°59'00" 

29°50'18" 

29°39'30" 

29°09'24" 

29°00'00" 

28°50'00" 

29°20'24" 

28°39'48" 

28°29'30" 

28°10'18" 

28°20'18" 

27°49'30" 

28°10'24" 

27°29'30" 

28°02'12" 

27°09'54" 

27°10'00" 

26°22'30" 

26°21 '06" 

25°59'54" 

25°38'24" 

25°29'30" 

24°54'00" 

24°50'12" 

24°42'12" 

24°37'36" 

24°24'18" 

24°29'18" 

24°10'00" 

24°25'06" 

24°20'06" 

31°23'00" 

30°54'30" 

30°01 '00" 

28°16'00" 

29°16'00" 

28°14'30"

79°14'24" 

79°29'24" 

79°00'42" 

79°58'48" 

79°38'18" 

80°27'00" 

80°16'06" 

79°45'24" 

80°45'00" 

80°30'00" 

79°44'30" 

81°03'54" 

81-01'00" 

80°29'30" 

81°13'24" 

81°13'42" 

SOW'00" 

79°44'00" 

81°02'18" 

80°15'30" 

SrOO'OO" 

80°44'06" 

80°39'00" 

80°29'30" 

80°01'18" 

80°14'30" 

80°23'06" 

80°28'36" 

80°09'36" 

80°10'48" 

79°48'54" 

80°08'24" 

79°31 '06" 

80°07'00" 

80°00'00" 

79°53'30" 

80°03'12" 

80°05'00" 

79°50'00" 

80°03'30" 

80°26'30" 

80°09'30" 

80°45'30" 

80°56'00" 

80°52'00" 

81°27'42" 

81°22'00" 

82°00'06" 

81°55'18" 

78°40'00" 

78°43'00" 

79°00'00" 

78°45'24" 

77°35'18" 

77°14'48"

 

FIGURE 8. Summary of the distribution of ostracode species common to both the upper 

Pleistocene deposits of Charleston, S.C., and the Holocene continental shelf deposits off the 

Southeastern United States within the Carolinian and Caribbean faunal provinces.
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL INTERPRETATIONS LATE PLEISTOCENE OSTRACODA D17

Remarks. This genus was defined by Haddocks 

(1969) in the establishment of a new classification for the 

Bairdiidae. She restricted Bairdia McCoy, 1844, to 

forms from the upper Paleozoic that are closely comparable to its Carboniferous type species Bairdia curia 

McCoy, 1844. The other closely allied Paleozoic species 

are listed in Haddocks (1969, p. 1). Neonesidea Maddocks, 1969, is characterized by a smooth or finely 

punctate, thin carapace, which is elongately subtriangular in outline, and has a finely serrate hinge bar, a muscle 

scar pattern consisting of wedge-shaped scars in four 

zigzag rows, no denticles or few on the anterior right 

valve, a smooth anterior left valve margin, and a denticulate posterior margin. It is closely related to Paranesidea Haddocks, 1969, which has a coarsely punctate, 

robust, rotund carapace, a smooth hinge bar, subcircular 

muscle scars arranged in a tight spiral pattern, frilled 

right valve margins, and denticulate left valve margins. 

Triebelina van den Bold, 1946, has a very robust, 

coarsely punctate, nodose, or ridged carapace, which is 

subquadrate in lateral outline, and it has a smooth hinge 

bar, irregular oblong muscle scars arranged in four 

diagonal rows, and stout spines along the margins of both 

valves.

Neonesidea gerda (Benson and Coleman, 1963)

Plate 1, figure 1 

Bairdia gerda Benson and Coleman, 1963, p. 19, pi. 1, figs. 14-16, text

Neonesidea gerda (Benson and Coleman). Haddocks, 1969, p. 24, fig. 7.

Description. Carapace pyriform in lateral view; dorsal margin gently arched anterodorsally, strongly arched 

posterodorsally, and converging with ventral margin, 

forming a pointed posterior; ventral margin straight; 

anterior bluntly rounded; surface smooth, but has minute 

scattered pores; hinge adont.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.63 mm; height, 

0.38 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316437.

Remarks. Neonesidea gerda (Benson and Coleman) 

may be distinguished from Neonesidea crosskeiana 

(Brady, 1866) by its subequal valves and by its faceted 

dorsum.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found off the East Coast of the 

United States between lat 24°59'00" N. and lat 

28°17'24" N.; abundant at depths less than 15 m; salinity 

range 34.86 to 39.92 parts per thousand; substrate predominantly fine-grained calcareous fragments (Benson 

and Coleman, 1963, p. 20).

Genus BAIRDOPPILATA Coryell, Sample, and Jennings,

1935

Bairdoppilata Coryell, Sample, and Jennings, 1935.

Type species. Bairdoppilata martyni Coryell, Sample, and Jennings, 1935.

Remarks. This genus is characterized by a thin, 

smooth, or finely punctate carapace (subhexagonal in 

lateral outline), a smooth hinge bar, oblong muscle scars 

arranged in a loose spiral, a smooth or frilled right valve 

margin, and a frilled or denticulate left valve margin. 

Glyptobairdia Stephenson, 1946, is distinguished from 

Bairdoppilata by a very robust, punctate carapace, 

which is also subhexagonal in lateral outline, a serrate 

hinge bar, subquadrate muscle scars in three horizontal 

rows, and stout spines on both valve margins. Triebelina 

van den Bold, 1946, is similar to Bairdoppilata, but the 

former may be distinguished by the characteristics listed 

previously.

Bairdoppilata sp.

Plate 1, figures 2, 3

Description. Carapace rounded pyriform in lateral 

view; dorsal margin arched, ventral margin slightly 

concave; posterior obliquely rounded and denticulate, 

anterior bluntly rounded and denticulate; smooth surface 

containing minute pores; hinge characterized by smooth 

bar and fine auxiliary dentition.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.56 mm; height, 

0.32 mm.

Figured specimens.-USNM. 316438, USNM 316439.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Bairdoppilata sp.

Plate 1, figures 4, 5

Description. Carapace subhexagonal in lateral view; 

dorsal margin arched, highest anterior to center, anterodorsal angle flatly sloping, posterior margin slightly 

concave; anterior rounded and frilled, posterior sharply 

produced and slightly frilled; smooth surface containing 

minute pores; hinge characterized by smooth bar and 

auxiliary dentition.

Dimensions. Eight valve: length, 0.69 mm; height, 

0.37 mm.

Figured specimens.-USNM 316440, USNM 316441.

Remarks. This form may be distinguished from the 

previously described Bairdoppilata sp. by its sloping 

anterodorsal margin and its produced posterior.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.
D18 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

Superfamily CYPRIDACEA Baird, 1845

Family PONTOCYPRIDIDAE Miiller, 1894

Genus PROPONTOCYPRIS Sylvester-Bradley, 1947

Propontocypris Sylvester-Bradley, 1947.

Type species. Pontocypris trigonella Sars, 1866.

Remarks. Propontocypris differs from Pontocypri.s 

Sars, 1866, in that the former's left valve is higher than 

the right, and it lacks posteroventral margin spines on 

the right valve. Propontocypris is characterized by a 

cluster of five muscle scars, whereas Pontocypns is 

characterized by a few elongate scars.

Propontocypris edwardsi (Cushman, 1906)

Plate 1, figure 6

Pontocypris edwardsi Cushman, 1906, p. 368, pi. 30, figs. 26-34. 

Propontocypris edwardsi (Cushman). Valentine, 1971, p. D8, pi. 4, 

figs. 42, 47.

Description. Carapace small and subtriangular in 

lateral view; dorsal margin highly arched (highest in 

center), ventral margin concave centrally; anterior 

bluntly rounded, posterior pointed; surface smooth; 

hinge adont.

Dimensions. Right valve: length, 0.54 mm; height, 

0.25 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316442.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found off the Eastern United 

States between lat 32°59'00" N. and lat 41°55'00" N. at 

17-87 m depth.

Superfamily CYTHERACEA Baird, 1850

Family LOXOCONCHIDAE Sars, 1925

Genus LOXOCONCHA Sars, 1866

Loxoconcha Sars, 1866. 

Normania Brady, 1866. 

Loxoleberis Sars, 1866.

Type species. Cythere rhomboidea Fischer, 1855.

Remarks. This genus differs from Loxoconchella 

Triebel, 1954, in its more complex hinge and its nonbranching marginal pore canals. Phlyctocythere Keij, 

1958, unlike Loxoconcha, is smooth, is very thin shelled, 

and has a nondifferentiated hinge. Van Morkhoven 

(1963, p. 388) has suggested that a revision of this genus 

may result in a division into several subgenera or even 

separate genera.

Loxoconcha reticularis Edwards, 1944

Plate 2, figure 1 

Loxoconcha reticularis Edwards, 1944, p. 527, pi. 88, figs. 26, 27.

Description. Carapace subovate in lateral view; dorsal margin straight to slightly sinuate, ventral margin 

convex; anterior and posterior rounded, having marginal 

flattened keels; large, oval pits arranged concentrically, 

forming almost a reticulate surface; hinge gongylodont.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.46 mm; height, 

0.29 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316456.

Remarks. This species may be distinguished from 

Loxoconcha jacksonensis Howe and Chambers, 1935, by 

its reticulate carapace.

Stratigraphic range. Late Miocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found off the Eastern United 

States between lat 24°25'06" N. and lat 35°29'00" N. 

(fig. 9) at 12-460 m depth.

Loxoconcha matagordensis Swain, 1955

Plate 2, figure 2

Loxoconcha matagordensis Swain, 1955, p. 629, pi. 63, figs. 9a, b, pi. 

64, figs, la, b, text figs. 7a, b, 36b, 39.

Description. Carapace subrhomboidal in lateral 

view; dorsal margin straight to slightly convex, ventral 

margin sinuous, concave anterior to center; sloped 

anterodorsally, anterior rounded and extended, posterior broadly rounded with bordering keel, concavity 

posterodorsally producing what appears to be a caudal 

process; eye tubercle visible anterodorsally; posterodorsal tubercle distinct; surface ornamented by tiny pits 

arranged concentrically and vaguely reticulate anteriorly 

and posteriorly; hinge gongylodont.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.49 mm; height, 

0.33 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316457.

Remarks. This species may be distinguished from 

Loxoconcha purisubrhomboidea Edwards, 1953 (in Puri, 

1953a), by its reticulation along the anterior and posterior margins. It differs from Loxoconcha postdorsoalata 

Puri, 1960, in that the latter is much more elongate and 

more coarsely reticulate.

Stratigraphic range. Pliocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral and oyster-bank 

biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Along the Atlantic Coast from 

North Carolina to New Jersey; also found in Texas bays 

crawling on plants in silty substrates (Garbett and Maddocks, 1979, p. 875).

Loxoconcha cf. L. florencensis Cronin, this volume

Plate 2, figure 3

Description. Carapace subovate in lateral view; dorsal margin slightly convex, ventral margin highly convex
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL INTERPRETATIONS LATE PLEISTOCENE OSTRACODA D19

L F OF 

MEXICO

FIGURE 9. Distribution of Loxoconcha reticularis Edwards, 1944 (solid squares), and Cytheromorpha 

newportensis Williams, 1966 (solid triangles). In the Holocene study area, L. reticularis (pi. 2, fig. 1) occurs 

on the continental shelf and slope between South Carolina and the Florida Keys, and C. newportensis (pi. 

2, fig. 5) occurs on the shallow continental shelf off Cape Canaveral, Fla., and central Florida. Depth 

contours are in meters.

and slopes posteroventrally; anterior rounded, posterior 

blunt; entire margin surrounded by a low keel; surface 

smooth centrally, but has rows of tiny pits posteriorly 

and ridges and pits anteriorly paralleling margin; hinge 

gongylodont.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.59 mm; height, 

0.38 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316458.

Remarks. This form may be distinguished from 

Loxoconcha edentonensis Swain, 1951, by its lack of 

strong ridges across the carapace.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Genus CYTHEROMORPHA Hirschmann, 1909

Cytheromorpha Hirschmann, 1909.

Type species. Cythere fuscata Brady, 1869a. 

Remarks. This genus differs from Leptocythere Sars,

1922-28, in its gongylodont hinge and its unbranched 

pore canals.

Cytheromorpha curta Edwards, 1944

Plate 2, figure 4 

Cytheromorpha curta Edwards, 1944, p. 516, pi. 86, figs. 19-22.

Description. Carapace minute, short, and compressed in lateral view; dorsal and ventral margins 

straight; rounded anteriorly, bluntly rounded posteriorly; surface pitted; eye spot distinct; hinge has narrow 

bar and U-shaped teeth and sockets.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.32 mm; height, 

0.21 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316459.

Remarks. This species is much shorter than both 

Cytheromorpha fuscata (Brady, 1869a) and Cytheromorpha newportensis Williams, 1966, and it lacks the strong 

sexual dimorphism of these two species.

Stratigraphic range. Pliocene-late Pleistocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral, oyster-bank, and 

open-sound biofacies.
D20 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

Cytheromorpha newportensis Williams, 1966

Plate 2, figure 5

Cytheromorpha warneri newportensis Williams, 1966, p. 17, figs. 1, 6,

lla-c. 

Cytheromorpha newportensis Williams. Cronin, 1979, p. 142, pi. 13,

figs. 5-8.

Description. Carapace subrectangular in lateral 

view; anterior and posterior rounded; ventral and dorsal 

margins subparallel and straight; sulcus indistinct; 

smooth, low anterior and anteroventral keel; surface 

reticulate, but has a small, smooth, subtriangular posteroventral area; hinge gongylodont.

Dimensions. Right valve: length, 0.55 mm; height, 

0.25 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316460.

Remarks. This species is distinguished from Cytheromorpha warneri Howe and Spurgeon, 1935 (in Howe and 

others, 1935), by its delicate reticulate network and 

sulcus. It is distinguished from Cytheromorpha warneri 

okaloosaensis Howe and Chambers, 1935, by its smooth 

posteroventral area.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found off the Eastern United 

States between lat 27°09'54" N. and lat 36°20'00" N. 

(fig. 9) at 17-36 m depth.

Family LEPTOCYTHERIDAE Hanai, 1957 

Genus LEPTOCYTHERE Sars, 1922-28

Leptocythere Sars, 1922-28.

Type species. Cythere pellucida Baird, 1850.

Remarks. This genus resembles Cytheromorpha 

Hirschmann, 1909, in shape and ornament but differs in 

its amphidont hinge and its branching pore canals.

Leptocythere nikraveshae Morales, 1966

Plate 2, figure 7 

Leptocythere nikraveshae Morales, 1966, p. 62, pi. 5, figs. 2a, b.

Description. Carapace elongate in lateral view; dorsal margin slightly arched, ventral margin concave centrally; anterior rounded, posterior bluntly rounded; subacute posterodorsally; surface finely reticulate along the 

margins, but becomes coarser centrally; one deep, central sulcus present; posteroventral depression distinct; 

inner lamella narrow; hinge amphidont.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.45 mm; height, 

0.23 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316462.

Remarks. This species is distinguished by its small 

size, reticulate surface, single sulcus, and posteroventral 

depression.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies; common in backbarrier biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found in Laguna de Terminos, 

Canipeche, Mexico.

Family HEMICYTHERIDAE Puri, 1953b

Subfamily CAMPYLOCYTHERINAE Puri, 1960

Genus CAMPYLOCYTHERE Edwards, 1944

Campylocythere Edwards, 1944. 

Acuticythereis Edwards, 1944 (part).

Type species. Campylocythere laeva Edwards, 1944.

Remarks. Hazel (1967, p. 26) places this genus in the 

Hemicytheridae instead of the Leguminocythereididae 

because of the presence of two frontal scars, its sievetype normal pores, and its shape. Malkin (1953, p. 784) 

and Swain (1955, p. 636) regard Acuticythereis Edwards, 

1944, as a synonym of Campylocythere Edwards, 1944. 

However, Plusquellec and Sandberg (1969, p. 445) consider only part of the original description of Acuticythereis to be in synonomy with Campylocythere and, 

therefore, uphold Acuticythereis as a valid genus.

Campylocythere laeva Edwards, 1944

Plate 2, figure 6

Campylocythere laeva Edwards, 1944, p. 515, pi. 86, figs. 8-14. 

Campylocythere laeva posteropunctata Edwards, 1944, p. 515, pi. 86, 

figs. 15, 16 (see also Plusquellec and Sandberg, 1969, p. 443).

Description. Carapace elongate in lateral view; dorsal margin slightly arched, ventral margin straight; 

anterior rounded, posterior bluntly rounded in males and 

rounded in females; surface smooth to pitted and containing numerous normal pores; inner lamella well developed; anterior vestibule deep; hinge holamphidont.

Dimensions. Right valve: length, 0.73 mm; height, 

0.31 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316461.

Stratigraphic range. Late Miocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found off the Eastern United 

States between lat 32°59'00" N. and lat 41°55'00" N. 

(fig. 10) at 9-181 m depth. Restricted to sand substrates 

(Hulings and Puri, 1964, p. 321).

Genus PROTEOCONCHA Plusquellec and Sandberg, 1969

Proteoconcha Plusquellec and Sandberg, 1969.

Type species. Proteoconcha nelsonensis (Grossman, 

1967).

Remarks. Proteoconcha Plusquellec and Sandberg, 

1969, is very similar to Acuticythereis Edwards sensu 

stricto, 1944, and Campylocythere Edwards, 1944. All 

three genera exhibit an amphidont hinge and four paral-
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL INTERPRETATIONS LATE PLEISTOCENE OSTRACODA D21

<£ 

T

IF OF 

MEXICO

0 50 100 MILES <§>

FIGURE 10. Distribution of Campylocythere laeva Edwards, 1944 (solid squares). This species (pi. 2, fig. 6) 

occurs in the Holocene study area on the shallow and deep continental shelf between Charleston, S.C., and 

southern Florida. Depth contours are in meters.

lei, elongate adductor scars. Proteoconcha may be 

smooth, pitted, or reticulate, and it displays pronounced 

sexual dimorphism, the males being lower, less broad, 

and more pointed posteriorly. Its inner lamella is not as 

wide as that of Acuticythereis and Campylocythere. 

Proteoconcha has half as many normal pore canals as 

Acuticythereis, although they are scattered over the 

entire carapace. In contrast, Acuticythereis is smooth to 

finely pitted and has the greatest number of normal pore 

canals. It has a wider fused zone than Campylocythere 

and also displays sexual dimorphism, as does Proteoconcha. Campylocythere is smooth to finely pitted and 

possesses the fewest number of normal pores, which 

have a relatively large diameter. Plusquellec and Sandberg (1969, p. 427^480) discuss these genera further.

Proteoconcha gigantica (Edwards, 1944)

Plate 3, figures 1, 2

Basslerites giganticus Edwards, 1944, p. 521, pi. 87, figs. 19-23. 

Proteoconcha gigantica (Edwards). Plusquellec and Sandberg, 1969, p.

455, pi. 4, figs. 1, 2, pi. 5, fig. 3, pi. 7, figs. 2, 3, 8, pi. 10, fig. 32,

text figs. 2c, 3f, 4, 10.

Description. Carapace large and elongate to subquadrate in lateral view; dorsal margin nearly straight 

and slightly arched anteriorly, ventral margin nearly

straight; anterior obliquely rounded, posterior margin 

rounded or slightly pointed in right valve and rounded in 

left valve; left valve larger than right valve; females 

more bulbous than males; surface smooth, but has minute 

pits restricted to ventral margin in some specimens and 

covering carapace in others; anterior vestibule wide; 

hinge holamphidont.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.80 mm; height, 

0.38 mm; right valve: length, 0.74 mm; height, 0.37 mm.

Figured specimens. -USNM 316450, USNM 316451.

Remarks. This species may be distinguished from 

Proteoconcha mimica Plusquellec and Sandberg, 1969, 

by its minute pits and its larger size. It differs from 

Proteoconcha redbayensis (Puri, 1953c), as Proteoconcha gigantica is larger and also has a wider anterior 

vestibule.

Stratigraphic range. Middle Miocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Common to rare in inner sublittoral biofacies; rare in oyster-bank and open-sound biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found off the Eastern United 

States between lat 28°29'30" N. and lat 39°21'00" N. 

(fig. 11) at 9-24 m depth.

Proteoconcha tuberculata (Puri, 1960)

Plate 3, figures 3, 4 

Acuticythereis tuberculata Puri, 1960, p. 129, text figs. 16, 17.
D22 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

L F OF 

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FIGURE 11. Distribution of Proteoconcha gigantica (Edwards, 1944) (solid squares), Proteoconcha tuberculata 

(Puri, 1960) (open squares), and Proteoconcha nelsonensis (Grossman, 1967) (open circles). In the Holocene 

study area, P. gigantica (pi. 3, figs. 1, 2) and P. tuberculata (pi. 3, figs. 3, 4) occur on the shallow continental 

shelf between South Carolina and central Florida, and P. nelsonensis (pi. 3, figs. 5-7) occurs on the shallow 

continental shelf off central Florida. Depth contours are in meters.

Proteoconcha tuberculata (Puri). Plusquellec and Sandberg, 1969, p. 

464, pi. 3, figs. 7-10, pi. 5, fig. 10, pi. 7, figs. 9, 10, pi. 8, fig. 12, 

pi. 10, figs. 2a-f, text figs. 2j, k, 4, 14.

Description. Carapace elongate in lateral view; dorsal margin highest one-third back from anterior, sloped 

posteriorly, ventral margin slightly concave centrally; 

anterior rounded, posterior subtriangular; females more 

inflated than males; surface smooth or has minute pits; 

inner lamella well developed; anterior vestibule wide; 

hinge holamphidont.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.61 mm; height, 

0.29 mm; right valve: length, 0.62 mm; height, 0.27 mm.

Figured specimens. -USNM 316452, USNM 316453.

Remarks. The specimens in this study lack the short, 

clear tubercles that Puri's (1960) specimens exhibit. 

However, Plusquellec and Sandberg (1969, p. 468) note 

that the tubercles are a weathering phenomenon 

observed in numerous species. This species may be 

distinguished from Proteoconcha gigantica (Edwards, 

1944) by its smaller size and more elongate carapace. It 

differs from Proteoconcha multipunctata (Edwards, 

1944) and from Proteoconcha concinnoidea (Swain, 1955)

in its lack of reticulation. Proteoconcha edwardsi 

Plusquellec and Sandberg, 1969, is smaller than this 

species and has a subdued diamond-shaped ornamentation as well.

Stratigraphic range. Late Miocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Common in open-sound biofacies; common 

to rare in inner sublittoral biofacies; rare in oyster-bank 

biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found off the Eastern United 

States between lat 27°49'30" N. and lat 38°50W N. 

(fig. 11) at 12-24 m depth.

Proteoconcha nelsonensis (Grossman, 1967)

Plate 3, figures 5-7

Acuticythereis nelsonensis Grossman, 1967, p. 72, pi. 12, fig. 4, pi. 17,

figs. 6, 8, 9. 

Proteoconcha proteus Plusquellec and Sandberg, 1969, p. 450, pi. 1,

figs. 1-18, pi. 3, figs. 5, 6, pi. 5, fig. 4, pi. 6, figs. 1-7, 17-19, pi.

7, fig. 7, pi. 8, figs. 1, 3, 4, 6, 9, 11, pi. 10, figs, la-h, text figs.

1, 21, m, 4, 7 (see also Hazel, 1983). 

Proteoconcha nelsonensis (Grossman). Valentine, 1971, p. D20, pi. 4,

figs. 50, 55.
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL INTERPRETATIONS LATE PLEISTOCENE OSTRACODA D23

Description. Carapace ovate, elongate in lateral 

view; dorsal margin slightly arched, ventral margin 

straight in left valves and slightly concave in right 

valves; anterior obliquely rounded, posterior more 

sharply rounded; ornamentation highly variable, ranging 

from smooth to finely or coarsely pitted only in the 

posterior region to finely or coarsely pitted overall to 

reticulate overall; inner lamella wide and mostly fused; 

hinge holamphidont.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.51 mm; height, 

0.27 mm.

Figured specimens. -USNM 316454, USNM 316455, 

USNM 316506.

Remarks. Proteoconcha nelsonensis may be distinguished from Proteoconcha multipunctata (Edwards, 

1944) by its smaller, shorter carapace and its more 

rounded posterior margin. Proteoconcha nelsonensis is 

smaller than Proteoconcha tuberculata (Puri, 1960), its 

valves are less elongate, and its radial pore canals are 

distributed unevenly.

Stratigraphic range. Late Miocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found in the Gulf of Mexico 

from Texas to Florida and along the Atlantic Coast north 

to Delaware (fig. 11) at 12-36 m depth. Rare to common 

in lower bay biofacies of Texas bays (Garbett and Maddocks, 1979, p. 914).

Genus BENSONOCYTHERE Hazel, 1967

Bensonocythere Hazel, 1967.

Type species. Leguminocythereis whitei Swain, 

1951.

Remarks. This genus differs from Leguminocythereis Howe and Law, 1936, in its more quadrate 

shape and its weakly developed hinge. It differs from 

Triginglymus Blake, 1950, in its weaker hinge and lack 

of an ocular sinus.

Bensonocythere whitei (Swain, 1951)

Plate 4, figure 1

Leguminocythereis whitei Swain, 1951, p. 43, pi. 3, figs. 14, 16-18, pi.

4, fig. 1. 

Triginglymus whitei (Swain). Pooser, 1965, p. 36, pi. 15, figs. 2, 5, 6,

8, 9. 

Bensonocythere whitei (Swain). Hazel, 1967, p. 27, pi. 5, figs. 2, 3,

8-10, pi. 10, figs. 1^8, pi. 11, figs. 1, 2.

Description. Carapace quadrate in lateral view; dorsal margin nearly straight, ventral margin slightly sinuous; anterior and posterior margins rounded; sexual 

dimorphism strong, females being larger and more quadrate; two ridges surround free margin and form a deep

anterior furrow; surface coarsely reticulate with 

extremely deep pits; inner lamella wide; hinge modified 

lophodont.

Dimensions. For female, right valve: length, 0.65 

mm; height, 0.36 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316478.

Remarks. This species differs from Bensonocythere 

sapeloensis (Hall, 1965) and Bensonocythere americana 

Hazel, 1967, in its deep reticulation and deep anterior 

furrow.

Stratigraphic range. Early Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found off the Eastern United 

States between lat 27°09'54" N. and lat 36°09'00" N. 

(fig. 12) at 12-181 m depth.

Bensonocythere sapeloensis (Hall, 1965)

Plate 4, figures 2, 3

Triginglymus sapeloensis Hall, 1965, p. 37, pi. 9, figs. 20-27. 

Bensonocythere sapeloensis (Hall). Valentine, 1971, p. D19, pi. 1, figs. 

1, 6, 11, 12.

Description. Carapace elongate in lateral view; dorsal and ventral margins straight; anterior rounded, but 

has blunt marginal spines, posterior sloped dorsally and 

rounded to slightly denticulate below; surface ornamented by large, shallow pits; small, smooth subcentral 

area; anterior ridge and the ridge slightly behind the 

center are particularly prominent; inner lamella wide, 

lacking vestibules; hinge lophodont.

Dimensions. For male, right valve: length, 0.52 mm; 

height, 0.24 mm; for female, right valve: length, 0.58 

mm; height, 0.29 mm.

Figured specimens.-USNM 316479, USNM 316480.

Remarks. This species may be distinguished from 

Bensonocythere whitei (Swain, 1951) by its shallower 

ridge and pit pattern and its smaller size. It differs from 

Bensonocythere americana Hazel, 1967, by its elongate 

shape and lack of vestibules.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral and oyster-bank 

biofacies.

Modem occurrence. Found off the East Coast of 

the United States between lat 31°25'00" N. and lat 

35°29'00" N.

Bensonocythere valentinei Cronin, this volume

Plate 4, figures 4, 5

Bensonocythere cf. B. sapeloensis (Hall, 1965). Valentine, 1971, p.

D19, pi. 1, figs. 28, 29.

Bensonocythere sp. B, Cronin, 1979, p. 149, pi. 18, fig. 5. 

Bensonocythere sp. D, Cronin and Hazel, 1980, p. B16, fig. 5f. 

Bensonocythere valentinei Cronin, this volume, p. C39, pi. 16,

figs. 7, 8.
D24 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

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FIGURE 12. Distribution of Bensonocythere whitei (Swain, 1951) (solid squares) and Bensonocythere hazeli 

Cronin, this volume (solid triangles). In the Holocene study area, B. whitei (pi. 4, fig. 1) occurs on the 

shallow to deep continental shelf between Charleston, S.C., and central Florida, and B. hazeli (pi. 4, figs. 

6, 7) occurs on the shallow continental shelf off South Carolina and central Florida. Depth contours are in 

meters.

Description. Carapace subquadrate in lateral view; 

dorsal and ventral margins straight; anterior obliquely 

rounded, posterior rounded in females and obliquely 

rounded in males; sexual dimorphism strong, females 

being wider and more quadrate; surface ornamented by 

large, shallow, circular pits and thick ridges; deep furrow 

of connected pits parallels posterior margin; central area 

smooth; inner lamella wide with small anterior vestibule.

Dimensions. For male, left valve: length, 0.51 mm; 

height, 0.25 mm; for female, left valve: length, 0.55 mm; 

height, 0.29 mm.

Figured specimens.-US~NM 316481, USNM 316482.

Remarks. This form may be distinguished from Bensonocythere americana Hazel, 1967, by its larger, more 

circular pits and its deep furrow along the posterior 

margin.

Stratigraphic range. Middle Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found off the East Coast of the 

United States between lat 32°59'00" N. and lat 36°20'00" N.

Bensonocythere hazeli Cronin, this volume

Plate 4, figures 6, 7

Bensonocythere sp. E, Valentine, 1971, p. D19, pi. 1, figs. 4, 9, 15, 20. 

Bensonocythere sp. A, Cronin, 1979, p. 148, pi. 18, fig. 3. 

Bensonocythere sp. C, Cronin and Hazel, 1980, p. B17, fig. 5e. 

Bensonocythere hazeli Cronin, this volume, p. C39, pi. 16, 

figs. 5, 6.

Description. Carapace large, subquadrate to elongate in lateral view; dorsal and ventral margins straight; 

anterior obliquely rounded, posterior rounded in females 

and sloped dorsally and rounded below in males; sexual 

dimorphism strong, females being larger and more quadrate; surface ornamented by deep pits and strong, narrow, mostly vertical ridges; two ridges parallel posterior 

margin, creating deep furrow; two strong posterodorsal 

ridges form characteristic slanted furrow; small subcentral region smooth; inner lamella wide anteriorly with 

narrow vestibule; hinge lophodont.
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL INTERPRETATIONS LATE PLEISTOCENE OSTRACODA D25

Dimensions. For male, right valve: length, 0.55 mm; 

height, 0.24 mm; for female, left valve: length, 0.55 mm; 

height, 0.30 mm.

Figured specimens. -USNM 316483, USNM 316484.

Remarks. This form may be distinguished from Bensonocythere rugosa Hazel, 1983, by its straighter dorsal 

margin and thinner ribbing.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral and open-sound 

biofacies.

Modem occurrence. Found off the East Coast of the 

United States between lat 28°10'18" N. and lat 36°20'00" 

N. (fig. 12) at 15-19 m depth.

Subfamily HEMICYTHERINAE Puri, 1953b 

Genus MALZELLA Hazel, 1983

Malzella Hazel, 1983.

Type species. Malzella evexa Hazel, 1983.

Remarks. This genus differs from Aurila Pokorny, 

1955, by its more ribbed and coarsely pitted surface. 

Malzella consistently exhibits a denticulate caudal process, which is variable in Aurila.

Malzella evexa Hazel, 1983

Plate 5, figure 1

Malzella evexa Hazel nomen nudum. Hazel, 1977, figs. 3, 6d, table 1. 

Malzella evexa Hazel nomen nudum. Cronin and Hazel, 1980, fig. 4g. 

Malzella evexa Hazel, 1983, p. 105, pi. 14, fig. 3, pi. 15, figs. 1^3, 5.

Description. Carapace almond shaped in lateral 

view; dorsal margin arched, ventral margin rounded; 

anterior rounded, posterior pointed; surface coarsely 

reticulate, having high ridges and large, circular to 

elliptical pits that coalesce in places; strong ridge parallels the periphery of the carapace; eye tubercle prominent; hinge holamphidont.

Dimensions. Right valve: length, 0.55 mm; height, 

0.35 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316464.

Remarks. Only juveniles were found. This form may 

be distinguished from Malzella floridana (Benson and 

Coleman, 1963) by its lack of a strong ventrolateral keel. 

Hazel (1983, p. 105) lists a complete synonomy for this 

species.

Stratigraphic range. Pliocene-late Pleistocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Genus AURILA Pokorny, 1955

Aurila Pokorny, 1955.

Type species. Aurila punctata (Munster, 1830). 

Remarks. This genus is characterized by its rounded 

caudal process and its shallow surface pitting.

Aurila laevicula (Edwards, 1944)

Plate 5, figure 2

Hemicythere laevicula Edwards, 1944, p. 518, pi. 86, figs. 27-30. 

Aurila laevicula (Edwards). Hazel, 1967, p. 23.

Description. Carapace small and almond shaped in 

lateral view; dorsal margin arched, ventral margin concave one-third distance back from anterior; anterior 

rounded; posterior of right valve concave above middle 

and pointed below; posterior of left valve blunt; surface 

finely pitted centrally, becoming medium reticulate 

around margins; hinge holamphidont.

Dimensions. Right valve: length, 0.52 mm; height, 

0.30 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316465.

Remarks. This species may be distinguished from 

Aurila amygdala (Stephenson, 1944) by its finer surface 

pitting and its more elongate shape.

Stratigraphic range. Pliocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modem occurrence. Found off the Eastern United 

States between lat 24°25'06" N. and lat 35°09'00" N. 

(fig. 13) at 17-307 m depth.

Genus MUELLERINA Bassiouni, 1965

Muellerina Bassiouni, 1965.

Type species. Cythere latimarginata Speyer, 1863.

Remarks. This genus resembles Urocythereis Ruggieri, 1950, in its shape and hingement but differs in its 

finer ornament and its smaller carapace, which is less 

produced posteroventrally. Also, Muellerina displays 

two frontal muscle scars, whereas Urocythereis displays 

three.

Muellerina ohmerti Hazel, 1983

Plate 2, figure 8

Muellerina ohmerti Hazel, 1983, p. 107, pi. 16, fig. 3; Cronin, 1979, p. 

147, pi. 17, fig. 3.

Description. Carapace subquadrate in lateral view; 

dorsal margin sloped posteriorly, highest just in front of 

center, ventral margin nearly straight; anterior rounded, 

posterior rounded dorsally and denticulate below; surface reticulate; strong ridges parallel anterior, causing 

deep furrow; eye spot distinct, subcentral tubercle large; 

normal pores scattered over carapace; hinge modified 

amphidont.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.53 mm; height, 

0.25 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316463.

Remarks. This form differs from Muellerina lienenklausi (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904) in its lack of two 

prominent posterior ridges.
D26 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

L F OF 

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FIGURE 13. Distribution of Aurila laevicula (Edwards, 1944) (solid squares) and Muellerina ohmerti Hazel, 

1983 (solid triangles). In the Holocene study area, A. laevicula (pi. 5, fig. 2) occurs on the shallow and deep 

continental shelf and on the continental slope between South Carolina and the Florida Keys, and M. ohmerti 

(pi. 2, fig. 8) occurs on the deep continental shelf and continental slope off southern Florida and the Florida 

Keys. Depth contours are in meters.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral and open-sound 

biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found off the Eastern United 

States between lat 24°20'06" N. and lat 44°41'00" N. 

(fig. 13) at 74^307 m depth.

Family TRACHYLEBERIDIDAE Sylvester-Bradley, 1948 

Subfamily TRACHYLEBERIDINAE Sylvester-Bradley,

1948 

Genus PURIANA Coryell and Fields, 1937

Favella Coryell and Fields, 1937, preoccupied by Favella Jorgensen,

1925 (Protozoa). 

Puriana Coryell and Fields, in Puri, 1953a.

Type species. Favella puella Coryell and Fields, 

1937.

Remarks. The type species of this genus may be 

synonymous with Puriana rugipunctata (Ulrich and 

Bassler, 1904).

Puriana carolinensis Hazel, 1983

Plate 5, figure 4

Puriana carolinensis Hazel nomen nudum. Hazel, 1977, p. 376, figs.

3, 8b. 

Puriana carolinensis Hazel nomen nudum. Cronin and Hazel, 1980, p.

B15, fig. 4b. 

Puriana carolinensis Hazel, 1983, p. 111-112, pi. 27, figs. 1, 3, 4.

Description. Carapace subquadrate in lateral view; 

dorsal margin straight, ventral margin slightly concave; 

anterior rounded, posterior rounded above and denticulate below; surface nearly smooth, but has a few rounded 

pits; ridge parallels anterior margin; median groove 

present; posterior slightly inflated; inner lamella wide; 

hinge modified lophodont.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.53 mm; height, 

0.27 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316477.

Remarks. This form represents a cool-water morphotype of Puriana carolinensis Hazel, 1983.
D27

FIGURE 14. Distribution of Puriana carolinensis Hazel, 1983 (open triangles), and Puriana floridana Puri, 

1960 (solid squares). In the Holocene study area, P. carolinensis (pi. 5, fig. 4) occurs on the shallow 

continental shelf between South Carolina and central Florida, and P. flcnndana (pi. 5, fig. 3) occurs on the 

shallow and deep continental shelf and continental slope between Charleston, S.C., and the Florida Keys. 

Depth contours are in meters.

Stratigraphic range. Pliocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found off the Eastern United 

States between lat 28°10'18" N. and lat 35°20'00" N. 

(fig. 14) at 11-24 m depth.

Puriana floridana Puri, 1960

Plate 5, figure 3

Puriana floridana Puri, 1960, p. 127, pi. 1, figs. 7, 8, text figs. 20, 21.

Description. Carapace subquadrate in lateral view; 

dorsal margin straight, ventral margin nearly straight; 

anterior rounded, posterior coarsely denticulate; surface 

tuberculate; tubercles arranged in a T-shaped ridge; 

ventral ridge well developed; inner lamella wide; radial 

pore canals numerous; hinge holamphidont.

Dimensions. Right valve: length, 0.61 mm; height, 

0.31 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316476.

Remarks. This species may be distinguished from 

Puriana rugipunctata (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904) and 

Puriana convoluta Teeter, 1975, by its lack of convoluted ridges along the posterodorsal margin. After this 

paper was completed, this species was recognized as an 

extant morphotype of Puriana mesacostalis (Edwards, 

1944) (Cronin, 1987). Therefore, the modern occurrence 

map includes both this species and the more spinose 

Puriana floridana.

Stratigraphic range. Pliocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral, open-sound, and 

oyster-bank biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found off the East Coast of the 

United States between lat 24°24'18" N. and lat 

37°05'00" N. (fig. 14) at 12-216 m depth.

Genus ECHINOCYTHEREIS Puri, 1953c

Echinocythereis Puri, 1953c.

Type species. Cythereis garretti Ho we and McGuirt, 

1935, in Howe and others, 1935.

Remarks. This genus is similar to Henryhowella 

Puri, 1957, but differs in that it lacks a V-shaped frontal 

scar and the broad longitudinal plications that are in the 

posterior of the latter.
D28 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

L F OF 

MEXICO

FIGURE 15. Distribution of Echinocythereis sp. (solid squares), Neocaudites atlantica Cronin, 1979 (solid 

triangles), and Actinocythereis captionis Hazel, 1983 (open squares). In the Holocene study area, E. sp. (pi. 

5, fig. 5) occurs on the deep continental shelf and continental slope between Charleston, S.C., and the 

Florida Keys, and N. atlantica (pi. 5, fig. 6) and A. captionis (pi. 6, fig. 1) occur on the shallow continental 

shelf off central Florida. Depth contours are in meters.

Echinocythereis sp.

?Echinocythereis sp. A, Cronin, 1979, p. 147, pi. 17, fig. 10. 

?Echinocythereis leecreekensis Hazel, 1983, p. 106, pi. 36, figs. 1-3, pi. 

38, fig. 3.

Description. Carapace subtriangular in lateral view; 

dorsal and ventral margins straight, forming an obtuse 

angle; anterior and posterior rounded; surface covered 

by rounded tubercles arranged vaguely in rows; margins 

spinose; hinge amphidont.

Dimensions. Left valve, juvenile: length, 0.48 mm; 

height, 0.32 mm.

F^g^lred specimen. USNM 316475.

Remarks. Only juveniles of this form were found.

Stratigraphic range. Middle Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found off the Eastern United 

States between lat 24°29'18" N. and lat 39°09'42" N. 

(fig. 15) at 35-347 m depth.

Genus NEOCAUDITES Puri, 1960

Neocaudites Puri, 1960.

Type species. Neocafiidites nevianii Puri, 1960.

Remarks. This genus may be distinguished from 

Ca^ldites Coryell and Fields, 1937, by its thin shell and 

elongate shape. In contrast, the carapace in Ca^ldites 

also shows an anterior thickened rim and additional 

longitudinal and dorsal ridges (Puri, 1960, p. 127).

Neocaudites atlantica Cronin, 1979

Plate 5, figure 6 

Neocaudites atlantica Cronin, 1979, p. 147, pi. 16, figs. 4-7.

Description. Carapace large and subrectangular in 

lateral view; dorsal margin nearly straight, but has a 

small hinge ear, ventral margin straight; anterior 

rounded and denticulate, posterior subrounded and denticulate posteroventrally; surface ornamented by three 

strong longitudinal ridges (median, ventral, and dorsal)
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL INTERPRETATIONS LATE PLEISTOCENE OSTRACODA D29

and pits flanking the ridges; the median and dorsal ridges 

converge posteriorly; hinge holamphidont.

Dimensions. Right valve: length, 0.67 mm; height, 

0.34 mm.

Figured sped men. USNM 316474.

Remarks. This species differs from Neocaudites nevianii Puri, 1960, in lacking anterior convergence of the 

median and ventral ridges and in the presence of pits. It 

differs from Neocaudites triplistriatus (Edwards, 1944) 

in the presence of pits and its much larger size.

Stratigraphic range. Middle Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Common to rare in oyster-bank biofacies; 

rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modern, occurrence. Found off the Eastern United 

States between lat 27°09'54" N. and lat 33°41'00" N. 

(fig. 15) at 12-36 m depth.

Genus ACTINOCYTHEREIS Puri, 1953b

Actinocythereis Puri, 1953b.

Type species. Cy there exanthemata Ulrich and 

Bassler, 1904.

Remarks. The ridged ornamentation of this genus 

resembles that of Costa Neviani, 1928, but differs in that 

the ridges of this genus are broken up into spines.

Actinocythereis captionis Hazel, 1983

Plate 6, figure 1

Actinocythereis captionis Hazel nomen nudum. Hazel, 1977, figs. 3, 8c,

table 1.

Actinocythereis sp. A, Cronin, 1979, p. 146, pi. 16, figs. 1, 2. 

Actinocythereis captionis Hazel nomen nudum. Cronin and Hazel,

1980, figs. 6g, h. 

Actinocythereis captionis Hazel, 1983, p. 103, pi. 8, figs. 1, 2, 4.

Description. Carapace large and subrectangular in 

lateral view; dorsal and ventral margins straight and 

coarsely denticulate; anterior and posterior margins 

rounded, having robust but less coarse denticules than 

those on the dorsal and ventral margins; surface has 

three longitudinal ridges broken into spines and a short 

vertical posterodorsal ridge of five spines; anterodorsal 

ridge smooth; subcentral tubercle of well-defined spines; 

large hyaline eye tubercle; smooth ridge extends from 

eye tubercle and parallels anterior margin; hinge holamphidont.

Dimensions. Right valve: length, 0.63 mm; height, 

0.33 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316471.

Remarks. This species may be distinguished from 

Actinocythereis gomillionensis (Howe and Ellis, 1935) 

(in Howe and others, 1935) by its lack of fine pustules 

between the spines and its smooth anterodorsal ridge. It

differs from Actinocythereis vandenboldi Kontrovitz, 

1976, and Actinocythereis triangularis Morales, 1966, in 

its subrectangular shape.

Stratigraphic range. Pliocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found off the East Coast of the 

United States between Cape Cod and Florida (Hazel, 

1983) (fig. 15).

Family CYTHERETTIDAE Triebel, 1952 

Genus PROTOCYTHERETTA Puri, 1958b

Paracytheretta Puri, 1952; Swain, 1955. 

Protocytheretta Puri, 1958b.

Type species. Cy there danaiana Brady, 1869b.

Remarks. Protocytheretta Puri, 1958b, may be distinguished from Cytheretta Miiller, 1894, by its three 

longitudinal surface ribs. Paracytheretta Triebel, 1941, 

displays a rounded posterior process that is lacking in 

other Cytherettidae. Paracytheretta possesses a paramphidont hinge, whereas that in Protocytheretta is holamphidont. See Puri (1958b, p. 183-189) for a complete 

discussion of these genera.

Protocytheretta cf. P. sahnii (Puri, 1952)

Plate 6, figure 2

Protocytheretta cf. P. sahnii (Puri). Valentine, 1971, p. D20, pi. 2, 

figs. 43, 47.

Description. Carapace large and elongate, ovate in 

lateral view; valves thick; left valve strongly overlaps 

right valve; dorsal margin straight, ventral margin concave centrally; anterior rounded, posterior acutely 

rounded; distinct notch on either side of dorsal margin; 

surface ornamented by three strong longitudinal ridges 

having depressions between them; ventral surface covered by slender longitudinal ribs; inner lamella very 

wide; hinge holamphidont.

Dimensions. Right valve: length, 0.98 mm; height, 

0.55 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316473.

Remarks. This form may be distinguished from Protocytheretta karlana (Howe and Pyeatt, 1935) (in Howe 

and others, 1935) and from Protocytheretta daniana 

(Brady, 1869b) by its lack of reticulation. This form is 

distinguished from Protocytheretta sahnii (Puri, 1952) 

by its dorsal longitudinal ridge, which disappears posteriorly rather than bending sharply downward as in the 

holotype.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Common to rare in inner sublittoral 

biofacies.
D30 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

Modern, occurrence. Found off the East Coast of the 

United States in the Virginian and Carolinian faunal 

provinces.

Family PARADOXOSTOMATIDAE Brady and Norman,

1889 

Subfamily PARADOXOSTOMATINAE Brady and Norman,

1889 

Genus PARADOXOSTOMA Fischer, 1855

Paradoxostoma Fischer, 1855.

Type species. Paradoxostoma dispar Fischer, 1855.

Remarks. This genus is characterized by a blunt 

caudal process, lophodont hinge, and three or four adductor muscle scars.

Paradoxostoma delicata Puri, 1953c

Plate 6, figure 3

Paradoxostomad) delicata Puri, 1953c, p. 288, pi. 15, fig. 3, text fig.

12f. 

Paradoxostoma delicata Puri. Valentine, 1971, p. D20, pi. 4, fig. 4.

Description. Carapace small and subtriangular in 

lateral view; dorsal margin slopes downward anteriorly, 

ventral margin sinuous and concave anteroventrally; 

anterior produced, posterior broadly rounded; surface 

smooth, containing a few small normal pores; inner 

lamella wide, having numerous marginal pore canals; 

hinge lophodont.

Dimensions. Right valve: length, 0.42 mm; height, 

0.20 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316466.

Remarks. This species may be distinguished from 

Paradoxostoma robusta Puri, 1953c, and Paradoxostoma elongata Puri, 1953c, by its small size and its 

compact shape.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies and in 

backbarrier biofacies.

Modem occurrence. Found off the East Coast of the 

United States between lat 32°59'00" N. and lat 

39°09'00" N.

Paradoxostoma sp.

Plate 6, figure 4 

Paradoxostoma sp. A, Cronin, 1979, p. 149, pi. 6, '. 6.

Description. Carapace subtriangular in lateral view; 

dorsal margin arched, ventral margin concave just forward of center; anterior produced and rounded, posterior 

obliquely rounded; surface smooth, but containing scattered, minute normal pores; inner lamella wide, having a 

well-developed anterior vestibule; hinge lophodont.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.64 mm; height, 

0.29 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316467.

Remarks. This form may be distinguished from Paradoxostoma delicata Puri, 1953c (see above), by its more 

elongate shape. It differs from Paradoxostoma robusta 

Puri, 1953c, in its rounded posterior.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Subfamily CYTHEROMATINAE Elofson, 1939 

Genus PARACYTHEROMA Juday, 1907

Paracytheroma Juday, 1907.

Type species. Paracytheroma pedrensis Juday, 1907.

Remarks. The original description of this genus is 

concerned almost entirely with soft-part anatomy. Study 

of the carapaces of paradoxostomatids reveals that Paracytheroma Juday, 1907, has a hinge showing distinctly 

developed terminal teeth, whereas Cytheroma Miiller, 

1894, has a more specialized hinge, approaching a pentodont type. Also, Cytheroma has a prominent frontal 

scar, whereas that of Paracytheroma is faint (McKenzie, 

1969, p. 52).

Paracytheroma stephensoni (Puri, 1953c)

Plate 6, figure 5

Microcythere stephensoni Puri, 1953c, p. 291, pi. 16, figs. 11, 12, text

figs. 12g, h.

Megacythere stephensoni (Puri). Puri, 1960, p. 122. 

Paracytheroma stephensoni (Puri). Keyser, 1976, p. 65, pi. 2, figs.

15-17.

Description. Carapace small and elongate in lateral 

view; dorsal margin straight, ventral margin slightly 

concave anteroventrally; anterior rounded, posterior 

subangular and arched posterodorsally; surface smooth; 

inner lamella wide with numerous marginal pore canals; 

anterior vestibule wide; hinge lophodont.

Dimensions. Right valve: length, 0.53 mm; height, 

0.28 mm.

Figured specimen.-USNM. 316468.

Remarks. This species may be distinguished from 

Paracytheroma texana Garbett and Maddocks, 1979, by 

its gently sloped posterodorsal margin.

Stratigraphic range. Late Miocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in oyster-bank and inner sublittoral 

biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found in estuarine and nearshore environments throughout the Gulf of Mexico and 

off the East Coast of the United States, at least as far 

north as Sapelo Island, Ga. (Garbett and Maddocks, 

1979, p. 871). Teeter (1975, p. 484) also has reported this 

species as far south as Belize.
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL INTERPRETATIONS LATE PLEISTOCENE OSTRACODA D31

IF OF 

M £ X / C O

0 50 100 MILES

J ' f

0 50 100 150 KILOMETERS

X \

FIGURE 16. Distribution of Pellucistoma magniventra Edwards, 1944 (solid squares). This species (pi. 6, fig. 

6) occurs in the Holocene study area on the shallow continental shelf between South Carolina and central 

Florida. Depth contours are in meters.

Genus PELLUCISTOMA Coryell and Fields, 1937

Pellucistoma Coryell and Fields, 1937.

Type species. Pellucistoma howei Coryell and 

Fields, 1937.

Remarks. This genus is distinguished by its prominent caudal process, widely spaced radial pores, and 

merodont hinge.

Pellucistoma magniventra Edwards, 1944

Plate 6, figure 6 

Pelhicistoma magniventra Edwards, 1944, p. 528, pi. 88, figs. 33-35.

Description. Carapace small and elongate in lateral 

view; dorsal margin convex anteriorly, abruptly concave 

posterior to the caudal process and highest centrally; 

ventral margin strongly sinuous and concave anteroventrally; anterior bluntly rounded, posterior extended by a 

caudal process; surface smooth; inner lamella wide with 

widely spaced, frequently bifurcating radial and false 

radial pore canals; anterior vestibule narrow; hinge merodont.

Dimensions. Right valve: length, 0.50 mm; height, 

0.27 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316469.

Remarks. This species is distinguished from Pellucistoma howei Coryell and Fields, 1937, by its narrow 

anterior vestibule, its larger size, and its "slipper" shape.

Stratigraphic range. Miocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Rare in lower bay biofacies in 

Texas bays; reported from Mexico to Florida and up the 

Atlantic Coast at least as far north as North Carolina (lat 

35°29'00" N.) (Garbett and Haddocks, 1979, p. 870) (fig. 

16). Abundant at depths between 7 and 10 m; salinity 

35.01-39.92 parts per thousand (Benson and Coleman, 

1963, p. 42).

Family CYTHERIDEIDAE Sars, 1925

Subfamily CYTHERIDEINAE Sars, 1925

Genus PERATOCYTHERIDEA Hazel, 1983

Peratocytheridea Hazel, 1977 (nomen nudum). 

Peratocytheridea Hazel, 1983.

Type species. Cytheridea setipunctata Brady, 1869b.

Remarks. This genus may be distinguished from 

Haplocytheridea by its wide, more rounded posterior 

and its posteriorly concave ventral margin.
D32 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

L F OF 

MEXICO

«&,

FIGURE 17. Distribution of Peratocytheridea bradyi (Stephenson, 1938) (solid squares) and Eucythere 

triangulata Puri, 1953c (open circle). In the Holocene study area, P. bradyi (pi. 7, fig. 2) occurs on the 

shallow continental shelf between South Carolina and southern Florida, and E. triangulata (pi. 8, fig. 1) 

was found at one locality on the shallow shelf off South Carolina. Depth contours are in meters.

Peratocytheridea bradyi (Stephenson, 1938)

Plate 7, figure 2

Cytheridea (Haplocytheridea) bradyi Stephenson, 1938, p. 129, pi. 23,

fig. 22, pi. 24, figs. 5, 6, text fig. 10. 

Haplocytheridea bradyi (Stephenson). Swain, 1955, p. 618, pi. 59, figs.

12a, b. 

"Haplocytheridea" bradyi (Stephenson). Garbett and Haddocks, 1979,

p. 898, pi. 11, figs. 3-6. 

Peratocytheridea bradyi (Stephenson). Hazel, 1983, p. 101.

Description. Carapace elongate and ovate in lateral 

view; dorsal margin arched, highest point being slightly 

anterior to middle, ventral margin straight; anterior 

rounded, posterior narrowly rounded; left valve smaller 

than right valve; surface has moderately deep, circular 

pits at irregular intervals; hinge holomerodont and 

reversed.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.74 mm; height, 

0.57 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316444.

Remarks. Reversal of valve size and hinge structure 

occurs in this species, as well as in other species within 

the genus. This species is similar to Haplocytheridea

proboscidiala Edwards, 1944, which also displays valve 

and hinge reversal, but displays a much stronger hinge.

Stratigraphic range. Pliocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Common in inner sublittoral biofacies; 

rare in oyster-bank biofacies; rare to common in opensound biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found off the Eastern United 

States between lat 26°21'06" N. and lat 39WOO" N. 

(fig. 17) at 9-72 m depth.

Peratocytheridea setipunctata (Brady, 1869b)

Plate 7, figure 1

Cytheridea setipunctata Brady, 1869b, p. 124, pi. 14, figs. 15, 16. 

Haplocytheridea setipunctata (Brady). Grossman, 1967, p. 64, pi. 11,

figs. 4, 7, pi. 16, figs. 13-18. 

"Haplocytheridea" setipunctata (Brady). Garbett and Haddocks, 1979,

p. 901-902, pi. 11, figs. 7-10. 

Peratocytheridea setipunctata (Brady). Hazel, 1983, p. 101, pi. 4, fig. 4.

Description. Carapace large and ovate in lateral 

view; dorsal margin arched, highest point being slightly 

anterior to middle, ventral margin slightly convex; anterior broadly rounded, posterior bluntly rounded; left 

valve larger than right valve; surface dotted with large,
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL INTERPRETATIONS LATE PLEISTOCENE OSTRACODA D33

circular to oval pits at irregular intervals; hinge holomerodont and reversed.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.94 mm; height, 

0.56 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316443.

Remarks. This species may be distinguished from 

Peratocytheridea bradyi (Stephenson, 1938) by its larger 

size and more ovate shape. It differs from Haplocytheridea gigantea Benson and Coleman, 1963, in its 

hinge reversal and its lack of denticles at the anteroventral margin.

Stratigraphic range. Pliocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Abundant to common in open-sound biofacies; common to rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found from the Chesapeake 

Bay (fig. 6) to Mexico, Puerto Rico, and the Bahamas, 

primarily in estuaries and lagoons (Hazel, 1983). Most 

abundant in sandy substrates (Cronin, 1979, p. 129).

Genus CYPRI DEIS Jones, 1857

Cyprideis Jones, 1857. 

Anomocytheridea Stephenson, 1938. 

Anomocythere Sohn, 1951.

Type species. Candona torosa Jones, 1857. 

Remarks. Cyprideis species are important markers 

for the correlation of Cenozoic brackish-water deposits.

Cyprideis salebrosa van den Bold, 1963

Plate 7, figure 3

Cyprideis salebrosa van den Bold, 1963, p. 377, pi. 7, figs. 9a-d, pi. 11, 

figs. la-c.

Description. Carapace large and quadrate in lateral 

view; dorsal margin arched, ventral margin slightly 

concave anteroventrally; anterior rounded, posterior 

blunt; coarsely punctate surface having an obscure submedian sulcus; hinge entomodont.

Dimensions. Right valve: length, 1.10 mm; height, 

0.62 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316445.

Remarks. Cyprideis salebrosa van den Bold, 1963, 

may be distinguished from Cyprideis margarita Cronin, 

1979, and from Cyprideis mexicana Sandberg, 1964, by 

its large size and its coarsely punctate surface.

Stratigraphic range. Miocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in oyster-bank biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Common, to abundant in Texas 

bays, where it thrives in areas where water bodies mix; 

found along the entire U.S. Gulf Coast and in the 

Caribbean, as well as off the coasts of New York, New 

Jersey, Brazil, and Argentina (Garbett and Maddocks, 

1979, p. 902).

Cyprideis mexicana Sandberg, 1964

Plate 7, figures 4, 5

Cyprideis mexicana Sandberg, 1964, v. 12, p. 125, pi. 10, figs. 1, 2, pi. 

11, figs. 11-14, pi. 12, figs. 1-5, pi. 17, fig. 1, pi. 22, figs. 2, 

9a, b.

Description. Carapace subrectangular in lateral 

view; anterior rounded, posterior bluntly rounded; ventral margin straight, dorsal margin slightly arched; inner 

lamella narrow; surface slightly pitted and has a shallow 

sulcus; rounded mandibular muscle scar; hinge entomodont.

Dimensions. Right valve: length, 0.75 mm; height, 

0.40 mm.

Figured specimens.-USNM 316446, USNM 316447.

Remarks. Cyprideis 'mexicana may be distinguished 

from Cyprideis margarita Cronin, 1979, by its slightly 

pitted surface and its rounded mandibular muscle scar. It 

differs from Cyprideis salebrosa van den Bold, 1963, in 

its smaller size and its rounded mandibular muscle scar.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Abundant to common in oyster-bank biofacies; common in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modern, occurrence. Found off Veracruz and Campeche, Mexico, in lower salinity, brackish-water environments (Sandberg, 1964).

Cyprideis margarita Cronin, 1979

Plate 7, figures 6, 7

Cyprideis margarita Cronin, 1979, p. 142, pi. 1, figs. 9, 10, pi. 2, figs. 7, 

8, pi. 3, figs. 5, 6.

Description. Carapace ovate-subtriangular to ovateelongate in lateral view; anterior rounded, posterior 

sloping; surface smooth and has an indistinct, very 

narrow sulcus; narrow inner lamella; elongated mandibular muscle scar; hinge entomodont.

Dimensions. Right valve: length, 0.57 mm; height, 

0.30 mm.

Figured specimens. USNM 316448, USNM 316449.

Remarks. Cyprideis margarita may be distinguished from Cyprideis Shrewsburyensis Kontrovitz and 

Bitter, 1976, by its smaller size, smooth carapace, and 

more elongate mandibular muscle scar. It is distinguished from Cyprideis stephensoni Sandberg, 1964, and 

from Cyprideis mexicana Sandberg, 1964 (see above), 

by its smooth carapace and more elongate mandibular 

muscle scar.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in oyster-bank and inner sublittoral 

biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Known only from the Eastern 

United States off the coasts of South Carolina and 

Georgia (Cronin, 1979, p. 143).
D34 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

Genus PERISSOCYTHERIDEA Stephenson, 1938

Perissocytheridea Stephenson, 1938. 

lllyocythere Me, 1939.

Type species. Cytheridea matsoni Stephenson, 1935.

Remarks. Van Morkhoven (1963, p. 108) placed Ilyocythere Klie, 1939, questionably in synonomy with 

Perissocytheridea Stephenson, 1938, because the type 

material was unavailable to him for study.

Perissocytheridea brachyforma Swain, 1955

Plate 6, figure 7

Perissocytheridea bmchyfonna Swain, 1955, p. 619, pi. 61, figs. 1, 2, 5, 

text figs. 33a, 39, 6a-c.

Description. Carapace subquadrate in lateral view; 

dorsal margin sinuous in right valve, straight in left; 

ventral margin slightly convex in right valve, straight in 

left; anterior rounded, posterior produced into a caudal 

process; left valve larger than right valve; anterocentral 

sulcus deep; surface ornamented by four sinuous, longitudinal ridges, two of which rim the periphery and two of 

which are particularly visible posteriorly; inner lamella 

wide; hinge antimerodont.

Dimensions. Right valve: length, 0.53 mm; height, 

0.28 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316502.

Remarks. This species may be distinguished from 

Perissocytheridea rugata Swain, 1955, by its lack of 

coarse reticulation, and it may be distinguished from 

Perissocytheridea excavata Swain, 1955, by its larger 

size and weaker longitudinal ridges.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in oyster-bank and inner sublittoral 

biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found in brackish-water environments of the U.S. Gulf Coast and in tidal bays of 

Delaware (Garbett and Haddocks, 1979, p. 894), where 

they forage through very fine sand (Krutak, 1972, p. 

158).

Subfamily EUCYTHERINAE Puri, 1953c 

Genus EUCYTHERE Brady, 1868a

Cytheropsis Sars, 1866, preoccupied by Cytheropsis McCoy, 1849. 

Eucythere Brady, 1868a.

Type species. Cythere declivis Norman, 1865.

Eucythere triangulata Puri, 1953c

Plate 8, figure 1 

Eucythere triangulata Puri, 1953c, p. 300, pi. 16, figs. 7, 8, text fig.

Description. Carapace subtriangular in lateral view; 

dorsal margin arched, ventral margin concave centrally; 

anterior broadly rounded, posterior narrowly rounded; 

surface ornamented by rugae and faint reticulate pattern; inner lamella wide; hinge lophodont.

Dimensions. Right valve: length, 0.68 mm; height, 

0.29 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316486.

Remarks. This species may be distinguished from 

Eucythere chickasawhayensis Howe, 1936, by its 

rounded posterior and its lack of strong reticulation. It 

differs from Eucythere gibba Edwards, 1944, in its 

smaller size, its more elongate shape, and its lack of 

ventral swelling.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral and oyster-bank 

biofacies.

Modem, occurrence. Found off the East Coast of the 

United States between lat 32°15'42" N. and lat 

35°21'00" N. (fig. 17) at approximately 11 m depth.

Eucythere declivis (Norman, 1865)

Plate 8, figure 2

Cythere declivis Norman, 1865, p. 16, pi. 5, figs. 9-12. 

Eucythere declivis (Norman). Brady, 1868a, p. 429.

Description. Carapace subtriangular in lateral view; 

dorsal margin arched, ventral margin straight and 

slightly inflated; anterior broadly rounded, posterior 

pointed; surface has a very faint reticulate pattern 

around anterior and posterior margins; surface slightly 

pitted; hinge lophodont.

Dimensions. Right valve: length, 0.50 mm; height, 

0.23 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316485.

Remarks. This species differs from Eucythere triangulata Puri, 1953c, in its smaller size and faintly reticulate margins. It differs from Eucythere gibba Edwards, 

1944, in its smaller size and more elongate shape.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modern occ'urrence. Found off the East Coast of the 

United States between lat 32°43'00" N. and lat 

39°09'00" N.

Family CUSHMANIDEIDAE Puri, 1973 

Genus CUSHMANIDEA Blake, 1933

Cytherideis Jones, 1857 (part). 

ISacculus Neviani, 1928. 

Cushmanidea Blake, 1933. 

Pontocythere Dubowsky, 1939. 

Hemicytherideis Ruggieri, 1952.

Type species. Cytheridea seminuda Cushman, 1906.
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL INTERPRETATIONS LATE PLEISTOCENE OSTRACODA D35

Remarks. Puri (1958a, p. 171-173) offers a complete 

discussion of this genus and its synonomy. This genus is 

characterized by its elongate carapace, nondenticulate 

hinge, and valves that are articulated by three pairs of 

flanges.

Cushmanidea seminuda (Cushman, 1906)

Plate 8, figure 3

Cytheridea seminuda Cushman, 1906, p. 374, pi. 33, figs. 62-64, pi. 34,

figs. 76, 77. 

Cushmanidea seminuda (Cushman). Blake, 1933, p. 233.

Description. Carapace large and elongate in lateral 

view; dorsal margin arched, ventral margin concave; 

anterior and posterior rounded; smooth in dorsal region, 

pitted elsewhere, pits becoming arranged into rows 

paralleling the anterior and ventral margins; faintly 

raised ridges occur between rows of pits; hinge lophodont.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.98 mm; height, 

0.36 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316491.

Remarks. This species may be distinguished from 

Cushmanidea elongata (Brady, 1868a) by its pitted 

carapace.

Stratigraphic range. Pliocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found along the gulf coast of 

Texas and Florida, as well as along the Atlantic Coast 

north to Woods Hole, Mass. (Garbett and Maddocks, 

1979, p. 903). Not found in this study south of the 

Virginian faunal province.

Genus HULINGSINA Puri, 1958a

Hulingsina Puri, 1958a.

Type species. Hulingsina tuberculata Puri, 1958a.

Remarks. This genus is similar to Cushmanidea 

Blake, 1933, but may be distinguished from it by its 

heavier shell, its stronger selvage development, and its 

oblique posterior margin, which is subacute.

Hulingsina rugipustulosa (Edwards, 1944)

Plate 9, figures 1, 2

Cytherideis rugipustulosa Edwards, 1944, p. 514, pi. 86, figs. 5-7. 

Pontocythere rugipustulosa (Edwards). Swain, 1968, p. 9, pi. 1, fig. 10. 

Hulingsina rugipustulosa (Edwards). Valentine, 1971, p. D19, pi. 3,

figs. 17, 18, 21, 22, 25, 26, 29, 30. 

Pontocythere (Hulingsina) rugipustulosa (Edwards). Swain, 1974, p.

17, pi. 1, fig. 18, pi. 2, figs. 4-7. 

Hulingsina rugipustulosa (Edwards). Cronin, 1979, p. 144, pi. 5, figs.

6, 8, pi. 7, figs. 5, 7.

Description. Carapace elongate in lateral view; dorsal margin slightly convex, ventral margin centrally

concave; anterior rounded, posterior narrowly rounded; 

posterodorsal sulcus distinct and comma shaped; surface 

ornamented by low ridges paralleling margins; in some 

specimens, ridges bear short, rounded pustules, and in 

others, surface is pitted; hinge lophodont.

Dimensions. Right valve: length, 0.57 mm; height, 

0.26 mm; left valve: length, 0.67 mm; height, 0.28 mm.

Figured specimens. - USNM 316493, USNM 316494.

Remarks. Cronin (1979, p. 144) noted two ecophenotypes of this species, the pustulose variety, which is 

more common in warmer subtropical waters, and the 

pitted variety, which is more common in mild-temperate 

waters. Hulingsina I'ugipustulosa may be distinguished 

from Hulingsina ashermani (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904) 

by its slightly convex dorsal margin and, in some specimens, by its pustulose surface.

Stratigraphic range. Late Miocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Common to rare in inner sublittoral, 

oyster-bank, and open-sound biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Common in the subtropical Carolinian faunal province (11-17 m) (fig. 18). However, only 

the nonpustulose form occurs north of Cape Hatteras 

(Forester, 1980, p. 7) in the Virginian faunal province.

Hulingsina glabra (Hall, 1965)

Plate 9, figure 3

Cushmanidea glabra Hall, 1965, p. 40, pi. 14, figs. 9-21. 

Hulingsina glabra (Hall). Valentine, 1971, p. D19, pi. 3, fig. 3.

Description. Carapace elongate in lateral view; dorsal margin convex, ventral margin slightly concave; 

anterior rounded, posterior bluntly rounded; surface 

smooth, having faint anterior ridges; inner lamella wide; 

hinge lophodont.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.57 mm; height, 

0.25 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316495.

Remarks. This species may be distinguished from 

other species of Hulingsina by its blunt posterior margin.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral and oyster-bank 

biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found off the East Coast of the 

United States between lat 27°09'54" N. and lat 

35°21'00" N. (fig. 18) at 11-36 m depth.

Hulingsina sp.

Plate 9, figure 4 

Hulingsina sp. C, Valentine, 1971, p. D19, pi. 3, figs. 19, 20, 23, 24.

Description. Carapace elongate in lateral view; dorsal margin arched (highest centrally), ventral margin 

slightly concave centrally; anterior obliquely rounded,
D36 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

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FIGURE 18. Distribution of Hulingsina rugipustulosa (Edwards, 1944) (solid squares) (pi. 9, figs. 1, 2) and 

Hulingsina glabra (Hall, 1965) (solid triangles) (pi. 9, fig. 3). These species occur in the Holocene study 

area on the shallow continental shelf between South Carolina and central Florida. Depth contours are in 

meters.

posterior sloped steeply upward and narrowly rounded 

below; surface smooth, but has many minute normal 

pores; weak ridges parallel anterior margin; hinge lophodont.

Dimensions. Right valve: length, 0.64 mm; height, 

0.28 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316496.

Remarks. This form may be distinguished from Hulingsina glabra (Hall, 1965) by its arched dorsal margin.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found off the East Coast of the 

United States between lat 32°43'00" N. and lat 

39°21'00" N.

Hulingsina aff. H. glabra (Hall, 1965)

Plate 9, figure 5

Description. Carapace elongate in lateral view; dorsal margin slightly arched (highest in the center), ventral 

margin slightly concave; anterior and posterior narrowly 

rounded; surface mostly smooth, but has faint ridges 

paralleling anterior margin and scattered normal pits; 

sulcus distinct; hinge lophodont.

Dimensions. Right valve: length, 0.74 mm; height, 

0.27 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316497.

Remarks. This form may be distinguished from Hulingsina glabra (Hall, 1965) by its narrowly rounded 

posterior margin.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found off the Eastern United 

States between lat 27°09'54" N. and lat 32°15'42" N. 

(fig. 19) at 11-36 m depth.

Hulingsina aff. H. rugipustulosa (Edwards, 1944)

Plate 9, figure 6

Hulingsina sp. B, Valentine, 1971, p. D19, pi. 3, figs. 4, 5. 

Hulingsina sp. A, Cronin, 1979, p. 144, pi. 6, figs. 1, 3, 5.

Description. Carapace small and elongate in lateral 

view; dorsal margin uniformly arched from anterior to 

posterior, ventral margin concave anterior to middle; 

anterior rounded, posterior bluntly rounded; surface 

ornamented by rugae, which form parallel ridges anteriorly; normal pores abundant; hinge lophodont.
IF OF 

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FIGURE 19. Distribution of Hulingsina aff. H. glabra (Hall, 1965) (solid diamonds) (pi. 9, fig. 5), Hulingsina 

aff. H. rugipustulosa (Edwards, 1944) (solid squares) (pi. 9, fig. 6), and Hulingsina aff. H. semicircularis 

(Ulrich and Bassler, 1904) (open triangle) (pi. 8, fig. 6). In the Holocene study area, Hulingsina aff. H. 

glabra occurs on the shallow continental shelf between South Carolina and central Florida; Hulingsina aff. 

H. rugipustulosa is distributed between the shallow continental shelf off South Carolina and the shallow to 

deep continental shelf and continental slope off southern Florida; and Hulingsina aff. H. semicircularis 

occurs at one locality on the shallow continental shelf off Georgia, Depth contours are in meters.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.46 mm; height, 

0.25 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316498.

Remarks. This form may be distinguished from Hulingsina rugipustulosa (Edwards, 1944) by its smaller 

size, the presence of rugae, and its nonpustulose surface.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Common to rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modern occun-ence. Found off the Eastern United 

States between lat 26°22'30" N. and lat 37°59'00" N. 

(fig. 19) at 11-307 m depth.

Hulingsina aff. H. semicircularis (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904)

Plate 8, figure 6 

Htdingsina sp. B, Cronin, 1979, p. 144, pi. 7, figs. 1, 3.

Description. Carapace elongate in lateral view; dorsal margin uniformly convex, ventral margin slightly 

concave; anterior rounded, posterior narrowly rounded;

surface ornamented by shallow, circular pits that become 

aligned ventrally; hinge lophodont.

Dimensions. Right valve: length, 0.83 mm; height, 

0.33 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316504.

Remarks. This form may be distinguished from Hulingsina semicircularis (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904), from 

Hulingsina americana (Cushman, 1906) (see below), and 

from Hulingsina ashermani (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904) 

by its shallow pitting.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Common to rare in inner sublittoral biofacies; rare in oyster-bank biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found off the Eastern United 

States between lat 31°31'12" N. and lat 39°21'00" N. 

(fig. 19) at around 9 m depth.

Hulingsina americana (Cushman, 1906)

Plate 8, figure 7

Cytheridea americana Cushman, 1906, p. 375, pi. 33, fig. 67, pi. 34, 

figs. 68-75.
D38 STUDIES BELATED TO THE CHAKLESTON, SOUTH CAEOLINA, EAETHQUAKE OF 1886

^ "& ^c & «& "4-0

FIGURE 20. Distribution ofHulingsina americana (Cushman, 1906) (solid squares) and Sahnicythere sp. (solid 

triangles). In the Holocene study area, H. americana (pi. 8, fig. 7) occurs on the shallow continental shelf 

between South Carolina and central Florida, and S. sp. (pi. 8, fig. 4) was found at two localities on the 

shallow continental shelf off Georgia and South Carolina. Depth contours are in meters.

Hulingsina americana (Cushman). Puri, 1958a, p. 173, pi. 1, figs. 6-10.

Description. Carapace large and elongate in lateral 

view; dorsal margin slightly convex, ventral margin 

slightly concave; anterior and posterior rounded; posterodorsal margin curved; surface ornamented entirely by 

large pits; inner lamella well developed; hinge lophodont.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 1.00 mm; height, 

0.40 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316503.

Remarks. Hulingsina americana (Cushman, 1906) 

may be distinguished from Hulingsina ashermani 

(Ulrich and Bassler, 1904) by its lack of a sulcus and its 

curved posterodorsal margin.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Distributed off the Eastern 

United States between Cape Cod, Mass., and central 

Florida (lat 27°09'54" N.) (fig. 20) at 11-77 m depth.

Family NEOCYTHERIDEIDAE Puri, 1957 

Genus SAHNICYTHERE Athersuch, 1982

Sahnicythere Athersuch, 1982.

Type species. Sahnicythere retroflexa (Klie, 1936).

Remarks. Athersuch (1982) reviewed the genera in 

the family Cytherideidae and placed Sahnicythere in the 

family Neocytherideidae. Sahnicythere may be distinguished from Neocytherideis by its smaller size, narrow 

anterior vestibule, long radial pore canals, wide inner 

lamella, and median sulcus.

Sahnicythere sp.

Plate 8, figure 4

Sahnia sp. Hall, 1965, p. 44, pi. 3, figs. 1-9. 

Sahnia sp. A, Cronin, 1979, p. 143, pi. 6, fig. 7.

Description. Carapace very elongate in lateral view; 

dorsal margin slightly convex, ventral margin nearly 

straight; posterior rounded, anterior narrowly rounded; 

carapace tapers to anterior; surface nearly smooth, but 

has faint ridges subparallel to margins and scattered, 

small normal pores; inner lamella having many marginal 

pore canals anteriorly; hinge lophodont.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.57 mm; height, 

0.20 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316492.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL INTERPRETATIONS LATE PLEISTOCENE OSTRACODA D39

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FIGURE 21. Distribution of Cytherura forulata Edwards, 1944 (solid squares). This species (pi. 10, fig. 1) 

occurs in the Holocene study area on the shallow to deep continental shelf and continental slope between 

South Carolina and the Florida Keys. Depth contours are in meters.

Modern occui-rence. Found off the Eastern United 

States between lat 30°50'06" N. and lat 32°15'42" N. 

(fig. 20) at 11-15 m depth.

Family CYTHERURIDAE Miiller, 1894 

Genus CYTHERURA Sars, 1866

Cytherura Sars, 1866.

Type species. Cythere gibba Miiller, 1785.

Cytherura forulata Edwards, 1944

Plate 10, figure 1 

Cytherura.forulata Edwards, 1944, p. 526, pi. 88, figs. 17-20.

Description. Carapace small and elongate in lateral 

view; dorsal margin straight, ventral margin slightly 

concave anteroventrally; anterior rounded, posterior has 

a very short caudal process; posterior slightly higher 

than anterior; surface ornamented by low, thin, delicate 

longitudinal ribs having faint crossbars at irregular intervals; Y-shaped posterior radial pore canals; hinge entomodont.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.49 mm; height, 

0.26 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316507.

Remarks. Cytherura forulata Edwards, 1944, may 

be distinguished from Cytherura fiscina Garbett and 

Maddocks, 1979, by its short caudal process, straighter 

dorsal margin, and Y-shaped posterior radial pore 

canals.

Stratigraphic range. Pliocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Common to rare in inner sublittoral biofacies; rare in oyster-bank biofacies.

Modern occun-ence. Found off the East Coast of the 

United States between lat 24°42'12" N. and lat 

36°20'00" N. (fig. 21) at 9-307 m depth. Also found in 

Florida mangroves (Keyser, 1975, p. 489) and in San 

Antonio Bay, Tex. (Swain, 1955, p. 628). Abundant in 

sand and mud mixtures (Hulings and Puri, 1964, p. 336).

Cytherura wardensis Howe and Brown, 1935

Plate 10, figure 2

Cytherura wardensis Howe and Brown, 1935, in Howe and others, 

1935, p. 36, pi. 1, figs. 23, 27, pi. 4, fig. 19.

Description. Carapace subquadrate in lateral view; 

dorsal margin straight, parallel with ventral margin, and 

sloped anterodorsally; anterior bluntly rounded, caudal 

process developed posterodorsally; eye tubercle distinct; 

surface strongly reticulate; hinge entomodont.
D40 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

f SOUTH ,

/ CAEOLINA|

IF OF 

MEXICO

FIGURE 22. Distribution of Cytherura wardensis Howe and Brown, 1935 (solid squares) (pi. 10, fig. 2), and 

Cythemra valentini Garbett and Maddocks, 1979 (solid circles) (pi. 10, figs. 5, 6). In the Holocene study 

area, these species occur on the shallow continental shelf between South Carolina and central Florida. 

Depth contours are in meters.

Dimensions. Right valve: length, 0.44 mm; height, 

0.21 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316508.

Remarks. This species may be distinguished from 

Cytherura pseudostriata Hulings, 1966, by its strong, 

reticulate ornamentation and its weaker crossribs.

Stratigraphic range. Miocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral and oyster-bank 

biofacies.

Modern, occurrence. Found off the East Coast of the 

United States between lat 28°20'18" N. and lat 

36°20'00" N. (fig. 22) at 11-36 m depth. Abundant in 

sand and mud mixtures associated with marine grasses 

(Hulings and Puri, 1964, p. 336).

Cytherura nucis Garbett and Maddocks, 1979

Plate 10, figure 3

Cytherura nucis Garbett and Maddocks, 1979, p. 884, pi. 6, figs. 1-6, 

text fig. 36.

Description. Carapace small and subquadrate in lateral view; dorsal margin straight, ventral margin concave in front of center; sloped anterodorsally; anterior 

rounded, posterior has centrally located caudal process;

males reticulate, females reticulate to smooth; surface 

covered by abundant, medium-sized pores; eye tubercle 

visible; hinge entomodont.

Dimensions. Right valve: length, 0.32 mm; height, 

0.18mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316509.

Remarks. All specimens found in this study are 

smaller than the holotype and appear smooth under a 

binocular microscope, although SEM photographs show 

the faint, characteristic reticulate pattern. Garbett and 

Maddocks (1979, p. 885) note that smooth females were 

shown with the SEM to have faint reticulation.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Common in backbarrier biofacies; rare in 

inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Rare to common in upper bay 

and midbay biofacies of Texas bays (Garbett and Maddocks, 1979, p. 885).

Cytherura aff. C. swaini van den Bold, 1963

Plate 10, figure 4

Description. Carapace minute and elongate in lateral 

view; dorsal margin straight (sloping anterodorsally), 

ventral margin sinuate; anterior rounded, posterior pro-
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FIGURE 23. Distribution of Cytkerura pseudostriata Hulings, 1966 (solid squares) (pi. 10, fig. 7), and 

Cythemra aff. C. pseiidostriata Hulings, 1966 (solid triangles) (pi. 10, fig. 8). In the Holocene study area, 

these species occur on the shallow to deep continental shelf between Charleston, S.C., and central Florida. 

Depth contours are in meters.

duced into a long caudal process; surface ornamented by 

longitudinal ridges, four of which are prominent, and by 

numerous, medium-sized, prominent pits between the 

ridges; hinge entomodont.

Dimensions. Right valve: length, 0.36 mm; height, 

0.16 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316510.

Remarks. The specimens found in this study differ 

from the holotype of Cythemra swaini van den Bold, 

1963 (p. 395, pi. 9, figs. 4a, b), in that they possess pits, 

rather than transverse ridges, between the longitudinal 

ridges.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene.

Biofacies. Rare in backbarrier biofacies.

Cytherura pseudostriata Hulings, 1966

Plate 10, figure 7 

Cytherura pseiidostriata Hulings, 1966, p. 52, fig. 7d.

Description. Carapace subquadrate in lateral view; 

dorsal margin straight, ventral margin sinuous; anterior 

rounded, caudal process extends posterodorsally; surface 

ornamented by 8-10 longitudinal ribs and faint crossribs, 

crossribs becoming more distinct in posterior region;

dorsal and ventral ribs join anteriorly; eye tubercle 

prominent; hinge entomodont.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.45 mm; height, 

0.26 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316513.

Remarks. This species may be distinguished from 

Cytherura aff. C. pseudostriata Hulings, 1966 (see 

below), by its anterior rib arrangement, where the dorsal 

and ventral ribs join.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found off the Eastern United 

States between lat 27°39'40" N. and lat 36°09'00" N. 

(fig. 23) at 11-181 m depth.

Cytherura aff. C. pseudostriata Hulings, 1966

Plate 10, figure 8

Description. Carapace subquadrate in lateral view; 

dorsal and ventral margins straight; anterior rounded, 

caudal process extends posterodorsally; surface ornamented by 8-10 faint longitudinal ribs; dorsal and ventral 

ribs do not join anteriorly; eye tubercle prominent; hinge 

entomodont.
D42 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

Dimensions. Right valve: length, 0.50 mm; height, 

0.27 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316505.

Remarks. This form may be distinguished from 

Cytherura pseudostriata Hillings, 1966, by its lack of 

crossribs and its anterior rib arrangement, in which the 

dorsal and ventral ribs do not join.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in oyster-bank and inner sublittoral 

biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found off the Eastern United 

States between lat 27°09'54" N. and lat 32°09'42" N. 

(fig. 23) at 15-181 m depth.

Cytherura valentini Garbett and Maddocks, 1979

Plate 10, figures 5, 6

Cytherura valentini Garbett and Maddocks, 1979, p. 890, pi. 8, figs. 

1-6, text fig. 39.

Description. Carapace small, males elongate and 

subrectangular in lateral view, females subquadrate in 

lateral view; dorsal margin straight, paralleling ventral 

margin; anterodorsum sloped in females, rounded in 

males; anterior rounded, caudal process extends posterodorsally; surface strongly reticulate and faintly pitted 

and has two particularly heavy ventral ridges; eye tubercle prominent; hinge entomodont.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.43 mm; height, 

0.22 mm; right valve: length, 0.41 mm; height, 0.21 mm.

Figured specimens. -USNM 316511, USNM 316512.

Remarks. This species is distinguished by its rectangular shape, its strong reticulation, and its two heavy 

ventral ridges.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral and oyster-bank 

biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found in lower bay biofacies of 

Texas bays and found between lat 27°09'54" N. and lat 

38°40'00" N. off eastern North America (fig. 22) at 11-36 

m depth.

Cytherura aff. C. elongata Edwards, 1944

Plate 11, figures 1, 2

Cytherura sp. D, Valentine, 1971, p. D19, pi. 2, figs. 17, 18, 

Cytherura sp. B, Cronin, 1979, p. 144, pi. 9, figs. 1-5.

3, 24.

Description. Carapace small, males elongate in lateral view, females subquadrate in lateral view; dorsal 

margin straight, paralleling ventral margin; anterodorsum sloped in females, straight in males; anterior 

rounded, posterior produced by a rounded central caudal 

process; surface ornamented by longitudinal ribs and 

well-developed crossribs centrally, grading into pitted

surfaces anteriorly and posteriorly; posterior inflated; 

normal pores abundant; eye tubercle distinct; hinge 

entomodont.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.48 mm; height, 

0.23 mm.

Figured specimens.-USNM. 316499, USNM 316500.

Remarks. This form may be distinguished from 

Cythemra elongata Edwards, 1944, by its lack of ventral 

swelling and its pitted surface. It may be distinguished 

from Cytherura reticulata Edwards, 1944, by its heavier 

ornamentation.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Common to rare in inner sublittoral and 

oyster-bank biofacies; rare in open-sound biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found off the East Coast of the 

United States between lat 33°10'00" N. and lat 

39°00'00" N.

Genus TETRACYTHERURA Miiller, 1894

Tetracytherura Miiller, 1894.

Type species. Cytheridea angulosa Seguenza, 1880. 

Tetracytherura mccartanae Cronin, this volume

Plate 8, figure 5

Microcytherura sp. A, Valentine, 1971, p. D19, pi. 4, figs. 13, 14, 19,

20.

Microcytherura sp. C, Cronin and Hazel, 1980, p. B20, fig. 7a. 

Tetracytherura mccartanae Cronin, this volume, p. C33, pi. 5,

figs. 5, 6.

Description. Carapace trapezoidal to elongate in lateral view; dorsal and ventral margins nearly straight; 

anterior rounded, posterior obliquely rounded; surface 

faintly reticulate and covered by abundant minute pits; 

hinge merodont.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.46 mm; height, 

0.24 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM. 316501.

Remarks. This form may be distinguished from Tetracytherura norfolkensis (Cronin, 1979) by its weaker 

reticulation and its abundant pits. It differs from Tetracytherura choctawhatcheensis (Puri, 1953c) in its more 

gently sloped posterior margin and its weaker reticulation.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modem occurrence. Found off the East Coast of the 

United States between lat 32°59'00" N. and lat 

39°21'00" N.

Family PARACYTHERIDEIDAE Puri, 1957 

Genus PARACYTHERIDEA Miiller, 1894

Paracytheridea Miiller, 1894.

Type species. Paracytheridea depressa Mtiller, 1894.
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL INTERPRETATIONS LATE PLEISTOCENE OSTRACODA D43

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FIGURE 24. Distribution of Paracytheridea altila Edwards, 1944 (solid squares), and Paracytheridea hazeli 

Cronin, this volume (solid triangles). In the Holocene study area, P. altila (pi. 11, figs. 3, 4) occurs on the 

shallow to deep continental shelf between Charleston, S.C., and the Florida Keys, and P. hazeli (pi. 11, fig. 

6) occurs on the shallow to deep continental shelf between South Carolina and central Florida. Depth 

contours are in meters.

Remarks. The type species may be synonymous with 

Paracytheridea bovettensis (Seguenza, 1880), although 

Van Morkhoven (1963, p. 379) questions this synonymy.

Paracytheridea altila Edwards, 1944

Plate 11, figures 3, 4 

Paracytheridea altila Edwards, 1944, p. 512, pi. 85, figs. 20, 21.

Description. Carapace elongate, quadrate in lateral 

view, and alate; dorsal margin straight, ventral margin 

straight with alar process directed posteriorly; anterior 

rounded, posterior extended by a pointed subdorsal 

caudal process; carapace posterodorsally inflated, especially in females; surface ornamented by two longitudinal 

ribs, which are more highly developed in males than 

females, one rib forming a ventral ridge and the other 

crossing the carapace centrally; subvertical sulcus distinct; surface covered by a reticulate pit pattern; large 

eye tubercle distinct anterodorsally behind a shallow 

depression; hinge paleomerodont.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.59 mm; height, 

0.29 mm.

Figured specimens. -USNM 316488, USNM 316489.

Remarks. This species may be distinguished from 

Paracytheridea chipolensis Howe and Stephenson, 1935 

(in Howe and others, 1935), by its lack of a strong spine 

at the posterior end of the alar process and by its strong 

dorsal node and medial depression. This species is very 

similar to Paracytheridea vandenboldi Puri, 1953a, but 

differs from that species in its stronger alae and distinct 

subvertical sulcus.

Stratigraphic range. Late Miocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral and oyster-bank 

biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found off the Eastern United 

States between lat 24°29'18" N. and lat 35°21'00" N. 

(fig. 24) at 11-181 m depth.

Paracytheridea rugosa Edwards, 1944

Plate 11, figure 5 

Paracytheridea rugosa Edwards. Cronin, 1979, p. 146, pi. 4, fig. 5.

Description. Carapace elongate, quadrate in lateral 

view, and highly alate; dorsal margin straight, ventral 

margin straight with pointed alar process posteriorly; 

anterior rounded, posterior extended by a sharp caudal
D44 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

process; surface ornamented by three irregular ribs, of 

which the dorsal rib dies out anteriorly, the ventral rib 

extends to a sharp spine posteroventrally, and the central rib bifurcates anteriorly, one branch joining the 

ventral rib and the other reaching to the posterocardinal 

angle; posterior region has a weak, irregular reticulate 

pattern; hinge paleomerodont.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.50 mm; height, 

0.26 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316487.

Remarks. This form differs from Paracytheridea 

rugosa Edwards, 1944, as it lacks the latter's distinctive 

triangular ridge arrangement from anterior to middle. It 

may be distinguished from Paracytheridea altila 

Edwards, 1944 (see above), by its stronger, more pointed 

alar process, its lack of posterodorsal inflation, and its 

lack of strong reticulation. It differs from Paracytheridea chipolensis Howe and Stephenson, 1935 (in 

Howe and others, 1935), by its lack of strong reticulation 

and its lack of posterodorsal inflation.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Paracytheridea hazeli Cronin, this volume

Plate 11, figure 6

Paracytheridea sp. A, Cronin, 1979, p. 146, pi. 4, fig. 6. 

Paracytheridea hazeli Cronin, this volume, p. C34, pi. 4, figs. 7, 8, pi. 

17, fig. 6.

Description. Carapace elongate in lateral view; dorsal margin convex (anteriorly arched), ventral margin 

straight; dorsal and ventral margins taper posteriorly; 

anterior rounded, posterior pointed; surface ornamented 

by many irregular, longitudinal ribs, of which two prominent ribs cross the carapace and coalesce anteriorly; 

strong ridge present that parallels the dorsal margin; 

small alar process posteroventrally; surface appears 

"wrinkled"; hinge paleomerodont.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.45 mm; height, 

0.25 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316490.

Remarks. This form may be distinguished from 

Paracytheridea tschoppi van den Bold, 1946, by its lack 

of swelling in front of the posterior cardinal angle and its 

smaller posteroventral alar process.

Stratigraphic range. Middle Pleistocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found off the Eastern United 

States between lat 27°09'54" N. and lat 35°09'00" N. 

(fig. 24) at 11-77 m depth.

Family BRACHYCYTHERIDAE Puri, 1953c 

Genus PTERYGOCYTHEREIS Blake, 1933

Fimbria Neviani, 1928, preoccupied by Fimbfia Bohadsch 1761 (Mollusca), Rosso 1826 (Tunicata).

Pterygocythereis Blake, 1933. 

Diogmopteron Hill, 1954. 

Alatacythere Murray and Hussey, 1942.

Type species. Cythereis jonesii Baird, 1850. 

Remarks. This genus is characterized by strong, 

pointed alae and a bladelike dorsal ridge.

Pterygocythereis alophia Hazel, 1983

Plate 11, figure 7

Ptei-ygocythereis sp. A, Cronin, 1979, p. 147 (oral commun., 1981). 

s alophia Hazel, 1983, p. 104, pi. 7, figs. 2, 4.

Description. Carapace large and subquadrate; dorsal 

and ventral margins straight; anterior rounded, posterior sloped downward and pointed; margins denticulate, 

and posterior denticles are larger and fewer than along 

anterior and ventral margins; a denticulate ala extends 

posteroventrally; dorsal ridge pointed; surface smooth; 

inner lamella narrow; hinge holamphidont.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.88 mm; height, 

0.41 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316472.

Remarks. This species differs from Pterygocythereis 

americana (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904) in its lack of a 

fluted dorsal crest and in its denticulate, rather than 

spinose, ala. It may be distinguished from Pterygocythereis comuta (Roemer, 1838) by its smooth surface. 

It differs from Pterygocythereis miocenica van den Bold, 

1967, in its smaller size, its less sloping dorsal margin, 

and its denticulate ala.

Stratigraphic range. Pliocene-Holocene.

Biofacies. Rare in inner sublittoral biofacies.

Modern occurrence. Found off the East Coast of the 

United States between lat 24°25'06" N. and lat 

36°09'00" N. (fig. 25) at 17-181 m depth.

Suborder PLATYCOPINA Sars, 1866

Family CYTHERELLIDAE Sars, 1866

Genus CYTHERELLOIDEA Alexander, 1929

Cytherelloidea Alexander, 1929.

Type species. Cy there (Cytherelld) williamsoniana 

Jones, 1849.

Remarks. This genus differs from Cytherella Jones, 

1849, in its ornamented carapace and, for females, its two 

posterior, internal brood cavities.

Cytherelloidea sp.

Plate 11, figure 8

Description. Carapace subrectangular in lateral 

view; dorsal and ventral margins slightly concave in 

center; anterior broadly rounded, posterior rounded; 

surface smooth, except for scattered normal pores and a
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL INTERPRETATIONS LATE PLEISTOCENE OSTRACODA D45

L F OF 

MEXICO

FIGURE 25. Distribution of Pterygocythereis alophia Hazel, 1983 (solid squares). This species (pi. 11, fig. 7) 

occurs in the Holocene study area on the shallow to deep continental shelf between Charleston, S.C., and 

the Florida Keys. Depth contours are in meters.

large, circular, central depression; a faint ridge parallels 

posterior margin; in females, internal brood cavity shallow; hinge has a groove in the right valve and a flange in 

the left valve.

Dimensions. Left valve: length, 0.61 mm; height, 

0.33 mm.

Figured specimen. USNM 316470.

Remarks. This form may be distinguished from 

Cytherelloidea sarsi Puri, 1960, Cytherelloidea umbonata Edwards, 1944, and Cytherelloidea cavernosa 

(Brady, 1868b) by its nonreticulate, smooth surface, its 

absence of longitudinal ridges, and its relatively large, 

circular, central depression.

Stratigraphic range. Late Pleistocene.

Biofacies. ~Rsire in inner sublittoral biofacies.

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Miocene deposits of Maryland: Maryland Geological Survey, Miocene text, p. 98-130.

Valentine, P.C., 1971 [1972], Climatic implication of a late Pleistocene 

ostracode assemblage from southeastern Virginia, in Contributions to paleontology: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 

683-D, 28 p.

Van Morkhoven, F.P.C.M., 1962, Post-Palaeozoic Ostracoda-Their 

morphology, taxonomy, and economic use, v. 1, General: Amsterdam, Elsevier Publishing Co., 204 p.

 1963, Post-Palaeozoic Ostracoda Their morphology, taxonomy, and economic use, v. 2, Generic descriptions: Amsterdam, 

Elsevier Publishing Co., 478 p.

Walford, L.A., and Wicklund, R.I., 1968, Monthly sea temperature 

structure from the Florida Keys to Cape Cod: American Geographical Society Serial Atlas of the Marine Environment, Folio 15.

Weems, R.E., Lemon, E.M., Jr., McCartan, Lucy, Bybell, L.M., and 

Sanders, A.E., 1982, Recognition and formalization of the Pliocene 

"Goose Creek phase" in the Charleston, South Carolina, area, in 

Stratigraphic notes, 1980-1982: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 

1529-H, p. H137-H148.

Williams, R.B., 1966, Recent marine podocopid Ostracoda of Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island: Kansas University Paleontological 

Contributions Paper 11, 36 p.
PLATES 1-11

USNM, U.S. National Museum, Washington, B.C. 

Contact photographs of plates 1-11 are available,

at cost, from the U.S. Geological Survey Photographic Libraiy, Federal Center,

Denver, CO 80225.
PLATE 1

FIGURE 1. Neonesidea gerda (Benson and Coleman, 1963) (p. D17).

Lateral view, left valve (x!50), USNM 316437, from auger hole C17 at 4.0 m below sea level. 

2, 3. Bairdoppilata sp. (p. D17).

2. Lateral view, left valve (x!30), USNM 316438, from auger hole JI18 at 1.2 m below sea level.

3. Internal view, left valve (x!50), USNM 316439, from auger hole C17 at 1.5 m below sea level. 

4, 5. Bairdoppilata sp. (p. D17).

4. Lateral view, right valve (x!20), USNM 316440, from auger hole FM4 at 8.9 m below sea level.

5. Internal view, right valve (x!20), USNM 316441, from auger hole C17 at 1.5 m below sea level. 

6. Propontocypris edwardsi (Cushman, 1906) (p. D18).

Lateral view, right valve (x!50), USNM 316442, from auger hole JI18 at 2.4 m below sea level.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-D PLATE 1

NEONESIDEA, BAIRDOPPILATA, AND PROPONTOCYPRIS
PLATE 2

FIGURE 1. Loxoconcha reticularis Edwards, 1944 (p. D18).

Lateral view, left valve (x!60), USNM 316456, from auger hole JI18 at 1.2 m above sea level.

2. Loxoconcha matagordensis Swain, 1955 (p. D18).

Lateral view, left valve (x!50), USNM 316457, from auger hole CIO at 8.9 m below sea level.

3. Loxoconcha cf. L. florencensis Cronin, this volume (p. D18).

Lateral view, left valve (x!20), USNM 316458, from auger hole C7 at 7.6 m below sea level.

4. Cytheromorpha curta Edwards, 1944 (p. D19).

Lateral view, left valve, juvenile (x!80), USNM 316459, from auger hole FM2 at 2.1 m below sea level.

5. Cytheromorpha newportensis Williams, 1966 (p. D20).

Lateral view, right valve (x!30), USNM 316460, from auger hole JI18 at 1.2 m above sea level.

6. Campylocythere laeva Edwards, 1944 (p. D20).

Lateral view, left valve, female? (xlOO), USNM 316461, from auger hole JI18 at sea level.

7. Leptocythere nikraveshae Morales, 1966 (p. D20).

Lateral view, left valve (x!50), USNM 316462, from auger hole FM2 at 2.1 m below sea level.

8. Muellerina ohmerti Hazel, 1983 (p. D25).

Lateral view, left valve (x!30), USNM 316463, from auger hole C7 at 7.6 m below sea level.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-D PLATE 2

LOXOCONCHA, CYTHEROMORPHA, CAMPYLOCYTHERE, LEPTOCYTHERE, AND MUELLERINA
PLATE 3

FIGURES 1, 2. Proteoconcha gigantica (Edwards, 1944) (p. D21).

1. Lateral view, right valve (xl20), USNM 316450, from auger hole CIO at 6.1 m below sea level.

2. Internal view, left valve (x94), USNM 316451, from auger hole CIO at 6.1 m below sea level. 

3, 4. Proteoconcha tuberculata (Puri, 1960) (p. D21).

3. Lateral view, left valve (xl30), USNM 316452, from auger hole CIO at 5.3 m below sea level.

4. Internal view, right valve (x!30), USNM 316453, from auger hole CIO at 5.3 m below sea level. 

5-7. Proteoconcha nelsonensis (Grossman, 1967) (p. D22).

5. Lateral view, left valve (x!50), USNM 316455, from auger hole JI18 at 1.2 m above sea level.

6. Lateral view, right valve (X130), USNM 316506, from auger hole JI18 at 1.2 m above sea level.

7. Lateral view, left valve (x!50), USNM 316454, from auger hole CIO at 5.3 m below sea level.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-D PLATE 3

PROTEOCONCHA
PLATE 4

FIGURE 1. Bensonocythere whitei (Swain, 1951) (p. D23).

Lateral view, right valve, female (xl30), USNM 316478, from auger hole CIO at 1.5 m above sea level. 

2, 3. Bensonocythere sapeloensis (Hall, 1965) (p. D23).

2. Lateral view, right valve, female (x!20), USNM 316479, from auger hole JI18 at sea level.

3. Lateral view, right valve, male (x!50), USNM 316480, from auger hole JI18 at sea level. 

4, 5. Bensonocythere valentinei Cronin, this volume (p. D23).

4. Lateral view, left valve, female (x!30), USNM 316481, from auger hole JI18 at sea level.

5. Lateral view, left valve, male (xl50), USNM 316482, from auger hole JI18 at sea level. 

6, 7. Bensonocythere hazeli Cronin, this volume (p. D24).

6. Lateral view, right valve, male (x!60), USNM 316483, from auger hole CIO at 5.3 m below sea level.

7. Lateral view, left valve, female (x!50), USNM 316484, from auger hole CIO at 5.3 m below sea level.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-D PLATE 4

BENSONOCYTHERE
PLATE 5

FIGURE 1. Malzella evexa Hazel, 1983 (p. D25).

Lateral view, right valve, juvenile (xl50), USNM 316464, from auger hole C17 at 1.5 m below sea level.

2. Aurila laevicula (Edwards, 1944) (p. D25).

Lateral view, right valve (x!60), USNM 316465, from auger hole JI18 at sea level.

3. Puriana floridana Puri, 1960 (p. D27).

Lateral view, right valve (x!30), USNM 316476, from auger hole JI18 at 1.2 m below sea level.

4. Puriana carolinensis Hazel, 1983 (p. D26).

Lateral view, right valve (x!50), USNM 316477, from auger hole JI18 at 1.2 m below sea level.

5. Echinocythereis sp. (p. D28).

Lateral view, left valve, juvenile (x!30), USNM 316475, from auger hole C7 at 7.6 m below sea level.

6. Neocaudites atlantica Cronin, 1979 (p. D28).

Lateral view, right valve, female (xllO), USNM 316474, from auger hole Cll at 3.7 m below sea level.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-D PLATE 5

MALZELLA, AURILA, PURIANA, ECHINOCYTHEREIS, AND NEOCAUDITES
PLATE 6

FIGURE 1. Actinocythereis captionis Hazel, 1983 (p. D29).

Lateral view, left valve (xllO), USNM 316471, from auger hole C17 at 1.5 m below sea level.

2. Pi-otocytheretta cf. P. sahnii (Pun, 1952) (p. D29).

Lateral view, right valve (x86), USNM 316473, from auger hole C17 at 1.5 m below sea level.

3. Paradoxostoma delicata Puri, 1953c (p. D30).

Lateral view, right valve (x!50), USNM 316466, from auger hole FM2 at 2.1 m below sea level.

4. Paradoxostoma sp. (p. D30).

Lateral view, left valve (x!30), USNM 316467, from auger hole JI18 at sea level.

5. Paracytheroma stephensoni (Puri, 1953c) (p. D30).

Lateral view, right valve (x!20), USNM 316468, from auger hole C17 at 4.0 m below sea level.

6. Pellucistoma magniventra Edwards, 1944 (p. D31).

Lateral view, right valve (xllO). USNM 316469, from auger hole JIlS at 2.4 m below sea level.

7. Perissocytheridea bmehyforma Swain, 1955 (p. D34).

Lateral view, right valve (x!20), USNM 316502, from auger hole CIO at 0.3 m below sea level.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-D PLATE 6

ACTINOCYTHEREIS, PROTOCYTHERETTA, PARADOXOSTOMA, PARACYTHEROMA, 

PELLUCISTOMA, AND PERISSOCYTHERIDEA
PLATE 7

FIGURE 1. Peratocytheridea setipunctata (Brady, 1869b) (p. D32).

Lateral view, left valve (x86), USNM 316443, from auger hole CIO at 5.3 m below sea level.

2. Peratocytheridea bradyi (Stephenson, 1938) (p. D31).

Lateral view, left valve (xlOO), USNM 316444, from auger hole CIO at 6.1 m below sea level.

3. Cyprideis salebrosa van den Bold, 1963 (p. D33).

Lateral view, right valve (x78), USNM 316445, from auger hole Cll at 4.3 m below sea level. 

4, 5. Cyprideis mexicana Sandberg, 1964 (p. D33).

4. Lateral view, right valve (x94), USNM 316446, from auger hole CIO at 0.3 m above sea level.

5. Internal view, right valve (x94), USNM 316447, from auger hole CIO at 0.3 m above sea level. 

6, 7. Cyprideis margarita Cronin, 1979 (p. D33).

6. Lateral view, right valve (x!20), USNM 316448, from auger hole CIO at 0.3 m above sea level.

7. Internal view, right valve (xlOO), USNM 316449, from auger hole CIO at 0.3 m above sea level.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-D PLATE 7

PERATOCYTHERIDEA AND CYPRIDEIS
PLATE 8

FIGURE 1. Eucythere triangulata Puri, 1953c (p. D34).

Lateral view, right valve (x!20), USNM 316486, from auger hole JI18 at 2.4 m below sea level.

2. Eucythere declivis (Norman, 1865) (p. D34).

Lateral view, right valve (x!50), USNM 316485, from auger hole CIO at 5.3 m below sea level.

3. Cushmanidea seminuda (Cushman, 1906) (p. D35).

Lateral view, left valve (x94), USNM 316491, from auger hole FM3 at 5.2 m below sea level.

4. Sahnicythere sp. (p. D38).

Lateral view, left valve (x!30), USNM 316492, from auger hole JI18 at sea level.

5. Tetracythemra mccartanae Cronin, this volume (p. D42).

Lateral view, left valve (x!50), USNM 316501, from auger hole CIO at 5.3 m below sea level.

6. Hulingsina aff. H. semicircularis (Ulrich and Bassler, 1904) (p. D37).

Lateral view, right valve (x94), USNM 316504, from auger hole JI18 at sea level.

7. Hulingsina americana (Cushman, 1906) (p. D37).

Lateral view, left valve (x86), USNM 316503, from auger hole FM3 at 5.2 m below sea level.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-D PLATE

EUCYTHERE, CUSHMANIDEA, SAHNICYTHERE, TETRACYTHERURA, AND HULINGSINA
PLATE 9

FIGURES 1, 2. Hulingsina rugipusttdosa (Edwards, 1944) (p. D35).

1. Lateral view, left valve (x!30), USNM 316493, from auger hole C7 at 4.3 m below sea level.

2. Lateral view, right valve (x!50), USNM 316494, from auger hole CIO at 6.1 m below sea level.

3. Hulingsina glabra (Hall, 1965) (p. D35).

Lateral view, left valve (x!30), USNM 316495, from auger hole C7 at 7.6 m below sea level.

4. Hulingsina sp. (p. D35).

Lateral view, right valve (x!20), USNM 316496, from auger hole JI18 at sea level.

5. Hulingsina aff. H. glabra (Hall, 1965) (p. D36).

Lateral view, right valve (xllO), USNM 316497, from auger hole JI18 at 1.2 m below sea level.

6. Hulingsina aff. H. rugipustulosa (Edwards, 1944) (p. D36).

Lateral view, right valve (x!60), USNM 316498, from auger hole CIO at 8.9 m below sea level.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-D PLATE

HULINGSINA
PLATE 10

FIGURE 1. Cytherura forulata Edwards, 1944 (p. D39).

Lateral view, left valve (xl60), USNM 316507, from auger hole JI18 at 2.4 m below sea level.

2. Cytherura wardensis Howe and Brown, 1935 (p. D39).

Lateral view, right valve, male (x!60), USNM 316508, from auger hole C7 at 4.3 m below sea level.

3. Cytherura nucis Garbett and Maddocks, 1979 (p. D40).

Lateral view, right valve (x220), USNM 316509, from auger hole FM2 at 2.1 m below sea level.

4. Cytherura aff. C. swaini van den Bold, 1963 (p. D40).

Lateral view, right valve (x220), USNM 316510, from auger hole FM2 at 2.1 m below sea level. 

5, 6. Cytherum valentini Garbett and Maddocks, 1979 (p. D42).

5. Lateral view, left valve, female (x!60), USNM 316512, from auger hole C7 at 4.3 m below sea level.

6. Lateral view, right valve, female (x!60), USNM 316511, from auger hole JI18 at 2.4 m below sea level.

7. Cytherura pseudostriata Hulings, 1966 (p. D41).

Lateral view, left valve, female? (x!50), USNM 316513, from auger hole FM4 at 8.9 m below sea level.

8. Cytherura aff. C. pseudostriata Hulings, 1966 (p. D41).

Lateral view, right valve (x!50), USNM 316505, from auger hole C7 at 4.3 m below sea level.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-D PLATE 10

CYTHERURA
PLATE 11

FIGURES 1, 2. Cytherura aff. C. elongata Edwards, 1944 (p. D42).

1. Lateral view, left valve, male (x!60), USNM 316500, from auger hole C5 at 6.7 m below sea level.

2. Lateral view, right valve, female (x!60), USNM 316499, from auger hole CIO at 0.3 m above sea level. 

3, 4. Paracytheridea altila Edwards, 1944 (p. D43).

3. Lateral view, left valve, female (x!30), USNM 316488, from auger hole JI18 at 1.2 m above sea level.

4. Lateral view, left valve, male (x!20), USNM 316489, from auger hole C7 at 5.8 m below sea level.

5. Paracytheridea rugosa Edwards, 1944 (p. D43).

Lateral view, left valve (x!50), USNM 316487, from auger hole JI18 at 2.4 m below sea level.

6. Paracytheridea hazeli Cronin, this volume (p. D44).

Lateral view, left valve (x!50), USNM 316490, from auger hole JI18 at 1.2 m above sea level.

7. Pterygocythereis alophia Hazel, 1983 (p. D44).

Lateral view, right valve (x!20), USNM 316472, from auger hole JI18 at sea level.

8. Cytherelloidea sp. (p. D44).

Lateral view, left valve (x!50), USNM 316470, from auger hole C7 at 7.6 m below sea level.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-D PLATE 11

CYTHERURA, PARACYTHERIDEA , PTERYGOCYTHEREIS, AND CYTHERELLOIDEA

Neogene and Pleistocene Dinocysts of the 

Charleston, South Carolina, Region

By LUCY E. EDWARDS

STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, 

EARTHQUAKE OF 1886-NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY 

LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND BIOSTRATIGRAPHY

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-E

CONTENTS

	Page 

Abstract ..................................................................................................................... El

Introduction................................................................................................................ 1

Acknowledgments................................................................................................... 2

Method of study........................................................................................................... 2

Results....................................................................................................................... 2

Chandler Bridge Formation...................................................................................... 2

Edisto Formation................................................................................................... 2

Marks Head Formation .......................................................................................... 4

Coosawhatchie Formation........................................................................................ 5

Penholoway Formation (unit Q5)............................................................................... 5

Canepatch(?) Formation (unit Q4).............................................................................. 9

Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 9

References cited........................................................................................................... 9

ILLUSTRATIONS

[Plates 1-3 follow references cited]

PLATE 1. Deflandrea, Chiropteridium, Membranophoridium, Pentadinium, Emslandia, 

Wetzeliella, Batiacasphaera, Reticulatosphaera, Dapsilidinium, and 

Homotryblium.

2. Hystrichokolpoma, Palaeocystodinium, Lingulodinium, Pentadinium, and 

Lejeunecysta.

3. Trinovantedinium, Polysphaeridium, Systematophora, T-uberculodinhim, 

Spiniferites, Sumatradinium, Impagidinium, Labyrinthodinium, 

Nematosphaeropsis, and Selenopemphix.

Page

FIGURE 1. Chart showing formal and informal dinocyst zonations that include Miocene

material................................................................................................ E3

2. Index map of South Carolina showing counties and locations of samples used in

study................................................................................................... 4

3. Chart showing distribution and ranges of dinocysts recovered from samples

in the Charleston, S.C., region................................................................. 6

4. Chart showing distribution and ranges of dinocysts recovered from samples

in the Beaufort, S.C., region.................................................................... 8

TABLE

Page

TABLE 1. Locality information for samples from the Charleston, S.C., region that

contain dinocysts.................................................................................... E5

STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886- 

NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND BIOSTRATIGRAPHY

NEOGENE AND PLEISTOCENE DINOCYSTS OF THE CHARLESTON,

SOUTH CAROLINA, REGION

By LUCY E. EDWARDS

ABSTRACT

The distribution and ranges of dinoflagellate cysts were recorded for 

17 samples from the Charleston and Beaufort, S.C., areas in order to 

examine the biostratigraphic potential of the dinocysts. The emphasis 

of the study is placed on the Miocene formations: Edisto, Marks Head, 

and Coosawhatchie. However, the study also includes one sample each 

from the Oligocene Chandler Bridge Formation and the Pleistocene 

Penholoway and Canepatch(?) Formations. The observed dinocyst 

ranges are given for the Charleston and Beaufort areas, and biostratigraphically important forms are illustrated.

Dinocyst preservation varies from poor to good, and species diversity often varies correspondingly. The Oligocene assemblage is dominated by Homotryblium plectilum. Potentially useful dinocyst datums 

in the Miocene include the highest occurrences of Membmnophoridium 

aspinatum and vermicular forms of Pentadinium laticinctum and the 

lowest occurrences of Batiacasphaera sphaerica, Pentadinium sp. I, 

and Labyrinthodinium truncatum. Pleistocene assemblages contain 

few dinocysts relative to the amount of pollen but are dominated by 

Spiniferites spp.

Dinocysts offer considerable promise for biostratigraphic correlation 

within the Miocene deposits of the Coastal Plain of South Carolina, and 

some correlations can be made between the present study and previously published dinocyst zonation schemes. However, no single zonation is applicable.

INTRODUCTION

Dinoflagellates are unicellular algae that may inhabit 

marine, fresh, or brackish water. The life cycle of some 

dinoflagellates includes an encysted stage, the dinocyst, 

that is composed of an organic wall. As part of the 

Charleston Project, the Miocene formations in the area 

were examined for dinocysts. A small number of older 

and younger samples also were included in the study.

Relatively few detailed stratigraphic studies have 

been made of Miocene dinoflagellate cysts. Maier (1959)

Manuscript approved for publication May 20, 1988.

and Gerlach (1961) documented the occurrences of 

selected dinocysts in Germany, and these occurrences 

included Miocene material. Habib (1971) reported the 

occurrences of dinoflagellates across the MiocenePliocene boundary in northern Italy. Later, Habib (1972) 

included Miocene dinoflagellate cysts in his report on the 

Mesozoic and Cenozoic deposits off the coast of Southeastern North America. Williams (1975) and Williams 

and Brideaux (1975) included Miocene, as well as older 

and younger, dinoflagellate material in their studies of 

the Grand Banks and Scotian Shelf. In his later work, 

Williams (1977) presented a zonation of the Triassic to 

Pliocene that included three zones in the Miocene. 

Manum (1976) studied the Tertiary dinocysts from the 

Norwegian-Greenland Sea sediments and devised a provisional zonation. Stover (1977) documented the recovery of dinocysts from the Oligocene to early Miocene 

deposits off the shore of South Carolina (Blake Plateau), 

and he divided the section into four informal intervals. 

Costa and Downie (1979) reported on the Cenozoic 

dinocysts from the North Atlantic Ocean (Rockall Plateau) and established nine informal partial-range zones. 

Harland (1979) erected a different, tentative fourfold 

informal zonation for the Neogene and Quaternary units 

of the Bay of Biscay. Piasecki (1980) set up four formal 

biozones based on the successive first occurrences of 

dinoflagellates from the Miocene deposits of Denmark. 

Parts of these formal and informal dinocyst zonations are 

summarized in figure 1, which focuses on the Miocene.

Because there is no widely accepted dinoflagellate 

zonation for the Neogene and Quaternary and because 

very little is known of the dinoflagellates of this age in 

the Eastern United States, the present study was undertaken. The purpose of it was to record the distribution 

and ranges of dinocysts in the Charleston and Beaufort 

areas of South Carolina and Georgia and to examine the

El
E2 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

biostratigraphic potential of dinocysts. The study is 

based on the recovery of dinocysts from 17 reconnaissance samples of both outcrop and auger-hole material. 

The observed dinocyst ranges are reported and important taxa are illustrated, but no formal or informal 

zonation is introduced.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Field work and sampling for this study were performed by E.M. Lemon, Jr., Lucy McCartan, and R.E. 

Weems, all of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). 

Lithologic descriptions are by R.E. Weems, and locality 

compilation is by C.M. Crampsey (USGS). I thank R.E. 

Weems and T.M. Cronin (USGS) and B.L. Whitney and 

R.J. Witmer (both of Union Oil Co., Brea, Calif.) for 

helpful comments.

METHOD OF STUDY

Material for this study comes from 17 localities, as 

shown in figure 2. With the exception of sample R2373, 

which comes from a construction-site excavation, all 

samples are from auger holes. Detailed locality information, including depth of the sample in the auger hole and 

its altitude relative to mean sea level, is given in table 1. 

A total of 13 samples (fig. 3) are from the Charleston area 

and represent the Chandler Bridge (Oligocene), Edisto 

and Marks Head (Miocene), and Penholoway (Pleistocene) Formations. Four samples (fig. 4) are from the 

Beaufort area and are from the Marks Head and Coosawhatchie (Miocene) and Canepatch(?) (Pleistocene) Formations. Lithostratigraphic details and details on age 

assignments are given in McCartan (this volume), 

McCartan and others (this volume), and Weems and 

McCartan (this volume).

Samples were treated with hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids, oxidized with nitric acid, separated by 

floating in heavy liquid (ZnCl2), and stained with Bismark brown. All samples were observed by using light 

microscope using Nomarski interference contrast. Three 

samples also were examined by using the scanning 

electron microscope (SEM). All processed and bulk 

material is part of the USGS paleobotanical collection in 

Reston, Va. Slide coordinates are given in plates 1-3 for 

the mechanical stage on Olympus microscope 201526; 

microscope slides are held by a specially milled metal 

insert.

RESULTS

CHANDLER BRIDGE FORMATION

Although the Oligocene is mostly outside the scope of 

the present study, a single sample was examined from

the youngest Oligocene unit in the area, the Chandler 

Bridge Formation in Berkeley County, S.C. (R2793) 

(table 1, fig. 3). Here, the Chandler Bridge is a sand that 

is medium grained, dark greenish gray, and silty and 

contains abundant sand-sized phosphate. The dinocyst 

preservation is good, the flora is diverse, and the assemblage is dominated by Homotryblium plectilum Drugg & 

Loeblich. Forms such as Deflandrea sp. cf. D. heterophlycta Deflandre & Cookson (pi. 1, fig. 1), Wetzeliella symmetrica Weiler (pi. 1, fig. 8), and Samlandia 

chlamydophora Eisenack are found here, but not in 

younger samples. Other forms present include Membranophoridium aspinatum Gerlach (pi. 1, fig. 4), Batiacasphaera hirsuta Stover, Emslandia spiridoides 

(Benedek) Benedek & Sarjeant, Tuberculodinium vancampoae (Rossignol) Wall, vermicular forms ofPentadinium laticinctum Gerlach, and Chiropteridium spp.

The Chandler Bridge flora indicates assignment to 

Williams' (1977) Chiropteridium dispersum-Samlandia 

chlamydophora Zone (fig. 1). Williams equated this zone 

with the Oligocene. Although Williams recognized two 

subzones within this zone, these subzones cannot be 

recognized in the South Carolina material of this study.

The Chandler Bridge falls within Stover's (1977) Pentadininm Interval, in the Oligocene part, below the 

lowest occurrence of Batiacasphaera sphaerica Stover. 

It should be noted that E. spiridoides and T. vancampoae were not found by Stover until the Miocene part of 

his Pentadinium Interval. Costa and Downie (1979), 

however, show the lowest occurrence of E. spiridoides in 

the late Eocene and the lowest occurrence of T. vancampoae in their late Oligocene Zone Vila.

EDISTO FORMATION

Two samples (R2794 and R2795) are from sediments 

assigned to the Miocene Edisto Formation in the 

Charleston area. Both samples are calcarenites that are 

fine grained and white to pale brown and contain shell 

fragments. The preservation of dinocysts is good, but the 

species diversity is lower than in the underlying Chandler Bridge. Sample R2794 appears to be older than 

R2795 because it contains Pentadinium laticinctum having vermicular surface ornament (pi. 1, figs. 5, 6) and 

Membranophoridium aspinatum, but it lacks Batiacasphaera spJiaerica. This lower sample also contains abundant sand-sized phosphate (R.E. Weems, written commun., 1984). Both samples contain specimens of 

Pentadinium sp. cf. P. laticinctum granulatum Gocht, 

abundant Chiropteridium spp. (pi. 1, figs. 2, 3), Homotryblium plectilum, and Homotryblium vallum Stover 

(pi. 1, fig. 14).

The Edisto Formation falls within Williams' (1977) 

Cordosphaeridium cantharellum Zone, which he
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Cannosphaeropsis sp. A)

Assemblage

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Pentadinium

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Assemblage

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Assemblage 

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Hystrichosphaeropsis obscuraDapsilidinium 

pastielsii

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Lejeunecysta 

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Manum, 1976

NorwegianGreenland Sea

Williams, 1977

Europe and 

North America

Stover, 1977

Offshore Eastern

United States

Costa and Downie, 

1979

North Atlantic Ocean

Harland, 197

Bay of Biscay

FIGURE 1. Formal and informal dinocyst zonations that include Miocene material. Correlations to series are as given by the original authors, da

Correlations among the various zonations are, therefore, somewhat imprecise. Vertical lines indicate section that is not present or th
E4 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

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FIGURE 2. Index map of South Carolina showing counties and the locations of samples used in this study. Base from U.S. Geological Survey,

1972, scale 1:2,500,000.

equated with the lower Miocene. Sample R2794 falls 

within Stover's (1977) Pentadinium Interval, and sample R2795, which is above the highest occurrence of M. 

aspinatum, is within his Tuberculodinium Interval.

MARKS HEAD FORMATION

A total of 11 samples were collected from the Marks 

Head Formation 9 samples from the Charleston area 

and 2 from the Beaufort area. As noted in the introduction to this volume, there are two lithofacies within the 

Marks Head: one is phosphatic quartz sand, and the 

other is cheese-textured clay. Eight of the samples 

(R2172B, R2172C, R2172D, R2798, R2799, R2971, 

R3066, and R3067, figs. 3 and 4) come from the sand

lithofacies of the Marks Head, which is fine grained, 

sometimes silty, and brownish to grayish olive. Preservation of the dinocysts varies from poor to good, and 

species diversity varies correspondingly. Several of the 

samples from this lithofacies are dominated by Hystrichokolpoma ngaudiae Deflandre & Cookson (pi. 2, fig. 

1). Three of the samples are from the clay lithofacies, a 

dense, brownish- to grayish-olive clay. Again, preservation varies from poor to good, and species diversity 

varies accordingly. No single species appears to dominate the clay facies.

Important species in the Marks Head include Pentadinium sp. cf. P. laticinctum granulatum, which has 

high septa and varying surface ornamentation (dotted 

surface texture, pi. 2, figs. 11-14; rough surface texture,
NEOGENE AND PLEISTOCENE DINOCYSTS OF THE CHARLESTON REGION E5

TABLE 1. Locality information for samples p'om the Charleston, S.C., region that contain dinocysts 

[All samples are from auger holes except sample R2373, which is from a construction-site excavation. Altitude is given relative to mean sea level]

Paleobotanical Field 

number number

R2172A

R2172B

R2172C

R2172D

R2373

R2793

R2794

R2795

R2797

R2798

R2799

R2800

R2971

R3053

R3054

R3066

R3067

CH-14

CH-5

RA-3

FM-5

SU-1

PR-5

CC-6

CC-1

CH-32

FM-16

FM-17

FM-24

CC-3

C83-9

C83-19

C83-1

C83-12

Depth, 

in m

12-17

12-16

15-18

18-21

6

9-10

6-7

13

10

9

15

11-12

10

14

20

20

Altitude, 

in m

- 9 to -14

-10 to -15

- 3 to - 6

-16 to -20

+ 15

+ 19

+ 8

+ 9

-10

- 8

- 6

-13

+ 4

- 7

-13

-18

-18

State

Q r^

S

(~\ 

, v^.

S

(~\ 

 v^.

Q r^

S

(~\ 

. v^.

Q r^

S

(~\ 

. v^. Q r^

S

(~\ 

. v^. Q r^

S

(~\ 

. v^. Q r^

S.C.

s.c.

Ga.

S.C.

s.c.

County

Charleston

Charleston

Charleston

Charleston

Berkeley

Berkeley

Dorchester

Dorchester

Charleston

Charleston

Charleston

Charleston

Dorchester

Beaufort

Chatham

Beaufort

Beaufort

Quadrangle

Charleston Ifo'

Charleston lllz'

Ravenel l^z'

Fort Moultrie 1^/z'

Summerville 7l/z'

Pringletown 7l/2'

Clubhouse Crossroads I1/?!

Clubhouse Crossroads I1/*'

Charleston 7lk'

Fort Moultrie 7lh'

Fort Moultrie 7^/2'

Fort Moultrie 7^2'

Clubhouse Crossroads I1/*'

Green Pond 15'

Tybee Island North 7fo'

Fripps Inlet 7*/2'

Parris Island ll/2'

Latitude

32°45'10"

32°47'17"

32°45'28"

32°45'59"

33°02'09"

33°14'31"

32°58'23"

32°59'31"

32°45'06"

32°46'41"

32°48'44"

32°49'42"

32°56'48"

32°31'43"

32°01'17"

32°20'33"

32°18'38"

N.

N.

N.

N.

N.

N.

N.

N.

N.

N.

N.

N.

N.

N.

N.

N.

N.

Longitude

79°53'59"

79°53'05"

80°14'37"

79°49'04"

80°08'40"

80°19'34"

80°19'32"

80°16'17"

79°55'56"

79°51'45"

79°49'04"

79°48'05"

80°17'31"

80°44'53"

80°50'40"

80°27'46"

80°40'41"

W.

W.

w.

w.

w.

w.

w.

w.

w.

w.

w.

w.

w.

w.

w.

w.

w.

pi. 2, figs. 9, 10), Polysphaendium zoharyi (Rossignol) 

Bujaketal. (pi. 3, fig. 2), Homotrybliumplectilum (pi. 1, 

fig. 13), and Batiacasphaera sphaerica (pi. 1, figs. 9, 10). 

A small, distinctive new form, Pentadinium sp. I (pi. 2, 

figs. 4-6, 8), is restricted to the Marks Head in this 

study. It is interesting to note that, although H. plectilum is present in most of the Marks Head samples from 

the Charleston area, it is absent in the Beaufort area 

samples. In both areas, P. zoharyi is present in all Marks 

Head samples that lack H. plectilum. Williams (1977, p. 

1275-1276) suggested that both species are subtropical to 

tropical forms. Although some workers have used the 

highest occurrence of H. plectilum as a biostratigraphic 

datum, its disappearance is more likely to have paleoecological significance.

The Marks Head flora falls' within Williams' (1977) 

Cordosphaeridium cantharellum Zone. Sumatradininm 

hispidum (Drugg) Lentin & Williams (pi. 3, fig. 6) has its 

lowest occurrence in this zone. Williams (1977) noted that 

Reticulatosphaera actinocoronata (Benedek) Bujak & 

Matsuoka (pi. 1, fig. 11; junior synonyms are Cannosphaeropsis sp. A of Williams and Brideaux, 1975, and 

Impletosphaeridium sp. I of Manum, 1976) also has its 

lowest appearance in this zone, although Manum (1976) 

and Costa and Downie (1979) reported this species' first 

occurrence within the Oligocene. The Marks Head flora 

falls within Stover's (1977) Tuberculodinium Interval; 

the top of this interval is, however, undefined.

COOSAWHATCHIE FORMATION

A single sample (R3053) comes from the Coosawhatchie Formation in the Beaufort area and is from a 

silty, grayish-olive clay. Preservation is fair; the assemblage is dominated by Spiniferites pseudofurcatus 

(Klumpp) Sarjeant. This sample contains specimens of 

Labyrinthodinium truncation Piasecki (pi. 3, figs. 9, 

10), Reticulatosphaera actinocoronata, Batiacasphaera 

sphaerica, Spiniferites mirabilis (Rossignol) Sarjeant, 

and other species as shown in figure 4.

According to Piasecki (1980), L. truncatum is 

restricted to the middle Miocene. The presence of L. 

truncatum below the first occurrence of Impagidinium 

aquaeductum (Piasecki) Lentin & Williams places the 

Coosawhatchie sample within Piasecki's L. truncatum 

Zone. Manum (1976), however, has the first occurrence 

of L. truncatum (as Cordosphaeridium sp. II) at the 

same level as I. aquaeductum (as Leptodinium sp. V) at 

the base of his Zone la. More samples would be needed to 

determine whether the absences of species such as 

Pentadinium laticinctum, Palaeocystodinium golzowense Alberti, and I. aquaeductum in the Coosawhatchie are real and are of biostratigraphic significance.

PENHOLOWAY FORMATION (UNIT Q5)

A single sample (R2373) comes from the Pleistocene 

Penholoway Formation northwest of Charleston and is
E6 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

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FIGURE 3. Distribution and ranges of dinocysts recovered from 

samples in the Charleston, S.C., region. Series and formation 

assignments are from McCartan (this volume), McCartan and 

others (this volume), and Weems and McCartan (this volume). The 

subdivision of each series is informal. Within the Marks Head

Formation, open circles represent taxa that occur in one-third or 

fewer of the samples; solid circles indicate taxa found in greater 

than one-third of the samples. Figure gives plate and figure 

references for illustrated species.
NEOGENE AND PLEISTOCENE DINOCYSTS OF THE CHARLESTON REGION E7

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FIGURE 3. Continued.
E8 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

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FIGURE 4. Distribution and ranges of dinocysts recovered from samples in the Beaufort, S.C., region. Series and formation assignments are 

from McCartan (this volume), McCartan and others (this volume), and Weems and McCartan (this volume). The subdivision of each series 

is informal. Figure gives plate and figure references for illustrated species.
NEOGENE AND PLEISTOCENE DINOCYSTS OF THE CHARLESTON REGION E9

presumed to be equivalent to lithostratigraphic unit Q5 

of McCartan and others (this volume). The sample consists of gray, laminated clay, and pollen is much more 

abundant than the dinocysts. The preservation of 

dinocysts is fair, and the assemblage is dominated by 

several species of Spiniferites. Other forms found are 

given in figure 3.

Selenopemphix quanta (Bradford) Matsuoka (pi. 3, 

fig. 12) first appears in the uppermost part of Harland's 

(1979) Zone III; thus, the Penholoway correlates with his 

uppermost Zone III or his Zone IV. Harland's figure 1 

places this interval in the Pleistocene, correlative to the 

nannofossil zone NN 19.

CANEPATCH(P) FORMATION (UNIT Q4)

One sample (R3054) is questionably from the Canepatch Formation southwest of Beaufort in a deposit 

represented by unit Q4 of McCartan and others (this 

volume). The lithology is sand that is very fine, silty, 

micaceous, shelly, and grayish olive. The preservation of 

dinocysts is fair, and only a few nondiagnostic dinocysts 

were encountered (see fig. 4). The assemblage is dominated by gymnosperm pollen.

CONCLUSIONS

This reconnaissance study indicates that dinoflagellate 

cysts offer considerable promise for biostratigraphic 

correlation within the Miocene deposits of the Coastal 

Plain of South Carolina. Potentially useful dinocyst 

datums include the highest occurrence of Membranophoridium aspinatum, the highest occurrence of vermicular forms of Pentadinium laticinctum, the lowest 

occurrence of BatiacaspJiaera sphaerica, and the lowest 

occurrence of Pentadinium sp. I. Labyrmthodinium 

truncatum, a middle Miocene marker in Denmark, is also 

found in the middle Miocene Coosawhatchie Formation 

in South Carolina. Some correlations can be made with 

difficulty between the present study and previously 

published formal and informal dinocyst zonations. However, no single zonation is applicable.

REFERENCES CITED

Costa, L.I., and Downie, Charles, 1979, Cenozoic dinocyst stratigraphy of sites 403 to 406 (Rockall Plateau), IPOD, Leg 48, in 

Montadert, L.D., Roberts, D.G., and others, Initial reports of the 

Deep Sea Drilling Project: Washington, D.C., U.S. Government 

Printing Office, v. 48, p. 513-529.

Gerlach, Ellen, 1961, Mikrofossilien aus dem Oligozan und Miozan 

Nordwestdeutschlands, unter besonderer Berucksichtigung der 

Hystrichospharen und Dinoflagellaten: Neues Jahrbuch fur Geologie und Palaontologie Abhandlungen, v. 112, no. 2, p. 143-226, 

pis. 25-29.

Habib, Daniel, 1971, Dinoflagellate stratigraphy across the MiocenePliocene boundaiy, Tabiano stratotype section, in Farinacci, 

Anna, ed., Planktonic Conference, 2d, Roma, 1970, Proceedings: 

Roma, Edizioni Tecnoscienza, v. 1, p. 591-598.

 1972, Dinoflagellate stratigraphy Leg 11, Deep Sea Drilling 

Project, in Hollister, C.D., Ewing, J.J., and others, Initial reports 

of the Deep Sea Drilling Project: Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, v. 11, p. 367-425.

Harland, Rex, 1979, Dinoflagellate biostratigraphy of Neogene and 

Quaternary sediments at holes 400/400A in the Bay of Biscay 

(Deep Sea Drilling Project Leg 48), in Montadert, L.D., Roberts, 

D.G., and others, Initial reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project: 

Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, v. 48, 

p. 531-545.

Maier, Dorothea, 1959, Planktonuntersuchungen in tertiaren und quartaren marinen Sedimenten: Ein Beitrag zur Systematik, Stratigraphie und Okologie der Coccolithophorideen, Dinoflagellaten und 

Hystrichosphaerideen vom Oligozan bis zum Pleistozan: Neues 

Jahrbuch fur Geologie und Palaontologie Abhandlungen, v. 107, 

no. 3, p. 278-340, pis. 27-33.

Manum, S.B., 1976, Dinocysts in Tertiary Norwegian-Greenland Sea 

sediments (Deep Sea Drilling Project Leg 38), with observations 

on palynomorphs and palynodebris in relation to environment, in 

Talwani, Manik, Udintsev, Gleb, and others, Initial reports of the 

Deep Sea Drilling Project: Washington, D.C., U.S. Government 

Printing Office, v. 38, p. 897-919.

Piasecki, Stefan, 1980, Dinoflagellate cyst stratigraphy of the Miocene 

Hodde and Gram Formations, Denmark: Geological Society of 

Denmark Bulletin, v. 29, no. 1-2, p. 53-76, pis. 1-6.

Stover, L.E., 1977, Oligocene and early Miocene dinoflagellates from 

Atlantic Corehole 5/5B, Blake Plateau, in Cenozoic palynology, v. 

1 of Contributions of stratigraphic palynology (with emphasis on 

North America): American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists Contributions Series 5A, p. 66-89, pis. 1-3.

Williams, G.L., 1975, Dinoflagellate and spore stratigraphy of the 

Mesozoic-Cenozoic, offshore eastern Canada, in Pelletier, B.R., 

ed., Regional geology, v. 2 of Offshore geology of eastern Canada: 

A collective study: Geological Survey of Canada Paper 74-30, v. 2, 

p. 107-161.

 1977, Dinocysts, their classification, biostratigraphy and palaeoecology, in Ramsay, A.T.S., ed., Oceanic micropalaeontology: 

London, Academic Press, v. 2, p. 1231-1325.

Williams, G.L., and Brideaux, W.W., 1975, Palynologic analyses of 

upper Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks of the Grand Banks, Atlantic 

continental margin: Geological Survey of Canada Bulletin 236, 

p. 1-163.

PLATES 1-3

Contact photographs of plates 1-3 are available,

at cost, from the U.S. Geological Survey Photographic Library, Federal Center,

Denver, CO 80225.
PLATE 1

FIGURE 1. Deflandrea sp. cf. D. heterophlycta Deflandre & Cookson, 1955.

Oblique ventral view (x660), sample R2793, from Chandler Bridge Formation (Oligocene), Berkeley County, S.C. Note 

small raised bumps on periphragm and larger bumps on endophragm, where periphragm is broken at apex. Scanning electron micrograph (SEM).

2. Chiropteridium lobospinosum (Gocht, 1956) Gocht, 1960.

Ventral view of optical section (x475), R2794, slide 2, from Edisto Formation (Miocene), Dorchester County, S.C. Slide 

coordinates: 27.3, 106.4.

3. Chiropteridium dispersum Gocht, 1960.

Ventral view of optical section (x475), R2795, slide 2, from Edisto Formation (Miocene), Dorchester County, S.C. 18.0, 

79.9.

4. MembranopJioridium aspinatum Gerlach, 1961.

Dorsal view (x660), R2793, from Chandler Bridge Formation (Oligocene), Berkeley County, S.C. SEM. 

5, 6. Pentadinium laticinctum Gerlach, 1961 (vermicular surface ornament).

Oblique apical views of apex and optical section (x475), R2794, slide 2, from Edisto Formation (Miocene), Dorchester 

County, S.C. Compare this surface texture with that in plate 2, figures 9-14. Note lack of parasutural features, 

except at cingular and sulcal regions. 30.0, 82.5.

7. Emslandia spiridoides (Benedek, 1972) Benedek & Sarjeant, 1981.

Right lateral view of right lateral surface (x475), R2800, slide 2, from Marks Head Formation (Miocene), Charleston 

County, S.C. Note distinctive surface texture. 33.8, 87.7.

8. Wetzeliella symmetrica Weiler, 1956.

Dorsal view of optical section (x475), R2793, slide 2, from Chandler Bridge Formation (Oligocene), Berkeley County,

S.C. Note that the archeopyle is soleiform. 26.4, 91.6. 

9, 10. Batiacasphaera sphaerica Stover, 1977.

9. Apical view of apex(?) (x720), R2798, slide 2, from Marks Head Formation (Miocene), Charleston County, S.C. 28.2, 

108.3.

10. Orientation uncertain (x 1,200), R2800, from Marks Head Formation (Miocene), Charleston County, S.C. SEM.

11. Reticulatosphaera actinocoronata (Benedek, 1972) Bujak & Matsuoka, 1986.

Orientation uncertain (x475), R3066, slide 2, from Marks Head Formation (Miocene), Beaufort County, S.C. 29.2, 85.6.

12. Dapsilidinium pseudocolligerum (Stover, 1977) Bujak et al., 1980.

Orientation uncertain (x475), R2172B, slide 1, from Marks Head Formation (Miocene), Charleston County, S.C. Note 

amorphous material adhering to and obscuring the specimen. This is typical of samples that are poorly preserved in 

the Charleston area. 16.9, 79.0.

13. Homotryblium plectilum Drugg & Loeblich, 1967.

Interior view of hypocyst (x475), R2797, slide 2, from Marks Head Formation (Miocene), Charleston County, S.C. 31.9, 

92.8.

14. Homotryblium vallum Stover, 1977.

Interior view of hypocyst (x475), R2794, slide 2, from Edisto Formation (Miocene), Dorchester County, S.C. 20.7, 97.8.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-E PLATE 1

DEFLANDREA, CHIROPTERJDJUM, MEMBRANOPHOR1DWM, PENTADINIUM, EMSLANDIA, WETZELJELLA, 

BATIACASPHAERA, RETICULATOSPHAERA, DAPSILIDINIUM, AND HOMOTRYBLIUM
PLATE 2

FIGURE 1. Hystrichokolpoma rigaudiae Deflandre & Cookson, 1955.

Dorsal view of dorsal surface (x440), R2172C, slide 1, from Marks Head Formation (Miocene), Charleston County, S.C. 

17.2, 99.0.

2. Palaeocystodinium golzowense Alberti, 1961.

Ventrolateral view of dorsolateral surface (x475), R3067, slide 2, from Marks Head Formation (Miocene), Beaufort County, 

S.C. 26.1, 111.0.

3. Lingulodinium machaerophorum (Deflandre & Cookson, 1955) Wall, 1967.

Ventral view of ventral surface (x475), R2172D, slide 1, from Marks Head Formation (Miocene), Charleston County, S.C.

This specimen shows the 5P archeopyle; specimens having 3P and (tAtP) archeopyles are also present. 20.2, 93.6. 

4-6, 8. Pentadinium sp. I.

4-6. Ventral views (x580) of ventral surface, optical section, and dorsal surface are shown in figures 4-6, respectively.

R2798, slide 2, from Marks Head Formation (Miocene), Charleston County, S.C. 32.0, 90.3. 

8. Dorsal view (xl,100), R2799, from Marks Head Formation (Miocene), Charleston County, S.C. SEM. 

7. Lejeunecysta sp.

Ventral view of ventral surface (x475), R2172D, slide 1, from Marks Head Formation (Miocene), Charleston County, S.C.

33.2, 95.7. 

9-14. Pentadinium sp. cf. P. laticinctum granulatum Gocht, 1969.

9, 10. Ventral view (x600), R2800, from Marks Head Formation (Miocene), Charleston County, S.C. Note rough surface

texture. Stereopair, SEM. 

11. Left lateral view (x720), R2800, from Marks Head Formation (Miocene), Charleston County, S.C. Note the "dotted"

surface texture. SEM.

12-14. Dorsal views (x475) of dorsal surface, optical section, and ventral surface are shown in figures 12-14, respectively. 

R2800, slide 2, from Marks Head Formation (Miocene), Charleston County, S.C. This particular specimen has 

"dotted" surface texture. Using light microscopy, it becomes difficult to distinguish between the end-member 

textures that are shown in SEM in figures 9-11 above. 37.0, 89.8.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-E PLATE 2

12 13 14

HYSTRICHOKOLPOMA, PALAEOCYSTODINIUM, LINGULODINIUM, PENTADINIUM, AND LEJEUNECYSTA
PLATE 3

FIGURE 1. Trinovantedinium capitatum Reid, 1977.

Ventral view of dorsal surface (x440), R2800, slide 2, from Marks Head Formation (Miocene), Charleston County, S.C. 22.0, 

85.6.

2. Polysphaeridium zoharyi (Rossignol, 1962) Bujak et al., 1980.

Antapical view focused on paracingulum (x475), R3067, slide 2, from Marks Head Formation (Miocene), Beaufort County, 

S.C. 22.8, 85.2.

3. Systematophoraplacacantha (Deflandre & Cookson, 1955) Davey et al., 1969.

Oblique antapical view of antapex (x475), R2800, slide 2, from Marks Head Formation (Miocene), Charleston County, S.C. 

36.2, 79.2.

4. Tuberculodinium vancampoae (Rossignol, 1962) Wall, 1967.

Antapical view of antapex (x475), R2172C, slide 1, from Marks Head Formation (Miocene), Charleston County, S.C. 32.0, 

105.8.

5. Spiniferites mirabilis (Rossignol, 1963) Sarjeant, 1970.

Ventral view of optical section (x475), R2800, slide 2, from Marks Head Formation (Miocene), Charleston County, 

S.C. 26.5, 95.7.

6. Sumatradinium hispidum (Drugg, 1970) Lentin & Williams, 1976.

Ventral view of ventral surface (x475), R2799, slide 2, from Marks Head Formation (Miocene), Charleston County,

S.C. 20.5, 92.8. 

7, 8. Impagidinium sphaericum (Wall, 1967) Lentin & Williams, 1981.

Dorsal views of dorsal surface and ventral surface (x720), R2373, slide 2, from Penholoway Formation (Pleistocene),

Berkeley County, S.C. 26.9, 98.8. 

9, 10. Labyrinthodinium tnmcatum Piasecki, 1980.

Antapical views of antapex and optical section (x720), R3053, slide 1, from Coosawhatchie Formation (Miocene), Beaufort 

County, S.C. 18.9, 94.9.

11. Nematosphaeropsis labyrinthea (Ostenfeld, 1903) Reid, 1974.

Left lateral(?) view of optical section (x660), R2373, slide 2, from Penholoway Formation (Pleistocene), Berkeley County, 

S.C. 28.2, 98.7.

12. Selenopemphix quanta (Bradford, 1977) Matsuoka, 1985.

Apical view at midfocus (x475), R2373, slide 2, from Penholoway Formation (Pleistocene), Berkeley County, S.C. 36.6, 

86.8.

13. Spiniferites bentorii (Rossignol, 1964) Wall & Dale, 1970.

Dorsolateral view of dorsolateral surface (x660), R2373, slide 2, from Penholoway Formation (Pleistocene), Berkeley 

County, S.C. 25.1, 81.5.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SI 'RVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-E PLATE 3

8 12

TRINOVANTEDINIUM, POLYSPHAERIDIUM, SYSTEMATOPHORA, TUBERCULODINIUM, SPINIFERITES, 

SUMATRADINIUM, IMPAGIDINIUM, LABYRINTHODINIUM, NEMATOSPHAEROPSIS,

AND SELENOPEMPHIX

Mollusks from the Edisto Formation 

(Lower Miocene) of South Carolina

By LAUCK W. WARD and BLAKE W. BLACKWELDER

STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, 

EARTHQUAKE OF 1886-NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY 

LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND BIOSTRATIGRAPHY

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-F

CONTENTS

	Page

Abstract............................................................................ Fl

Introduction....................................................................... 1

Acknowledgments......................................................... 1

Setting and preservation...................................................... 1

Paleoecology and biostratigraphy .......................................... 2

Systematic paleontology....................................................... 3

Family Glycymerididae.................................................. 3

Genus Glycymeris Da Costa..................................... 3

Family Pectinidae......................................................... 3

Genus"Pecten" ....................................................... 3

Family Plicatulidae ....................................................... 4

Genus Plicatula Lamarck ........................................ 4

Family Ostreidae.......................................................... 4

Genus Hyotissa Stenzel........................................... 4

Family Carditidae......................................................... 4

Genus Glyptoactis Stewart....................................... 4

Family Mactridae ......................................................... 4

Genus Mactrom,eris (?) Conrad.................................. 4

	Page

Systematic paleontology Continued

Family Veneridae......................................................... F5

Genus Mercenaries Schumacher................................. 5

Family Corbulidae ........................................................ 5

Genus Bicorbula Fischer.......................................... 5

Family Turritellidae...................................................... 5

Genus Turritella Lamarck........................................ 5

Family Vermetidae....................................................... 5

Genus Serpulorbis Sassi........................................... 5

Family Calyptraeidae.................................................... 5

Genus Calyptraea Lamarck...................................... 5

Family Cypraeidae........................................................ 6

Genus Cypraea Linne.............................................. 6

Family Muricidae.......................................................... 6

Genus Chicoreus Montfort........................................ 6

Family Volutidae.......................................................... 6

Genus Scaphella Swainson ....................................... 6

References cited................................................................. 6

ILLUSTRATIONS

[Plates 1-2 follow references cited]

PLATE 1. "Pecten," Glyptoactis, Hyotissa, and Glycymeris.

2. Mercenaria, Plicatula, Cypraea, Bicorbula, Chicoreus (Phyllonotus), Calyptraea, Mactromeris (?), Turritella, 

Serpulorbis, and Scaphella.

FIGURE 1. Map of Charleston, S.C., and vicinity showing position of Givhans Ferry, Dorchester County, and Ponpon, Charleston 

County..................................................................................................................................................

Page

F2

TABLE

TABLE 1. List of species collected from float of the Edisto Formation at Ponpon, S.C., showing additional occurrences of these 

species in the Tampa Limestone, Belgrade Formation, and Old Church Formation .........................................

Page

F3

in

STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886- 

NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND BIOSTRATIGRAPHY

MOLLUSKS FROM THE EDISTO FORMATION (LOWER MIOCENE) OF

SOUTH CAROLINA

By LAUCK W. WARD 1 and BLAKE W. BLACKWELDER2

ABSTRACT

The lower Miocene Edisto Formation in South Carolina is correlated 

with the Tampa Limestone in southern Florida, with the Belgrade 

Formation in North Carolina, and with the Old Church Formation in 

Virginia on the basis of their contained molluscan assemblages. The 

genera present in the Edisto are indicative of a subtropical or tropical 

marine climate and water depths of approximately 10-30 meters. In 

these deposits is the last known appearance of the genus Glyptoactis on 

the Atlantic Coastal Plain.

INTRODUCTION

The Edisto Formation (lower Miocene) crops out along 

the Edisto River near Givhans Ferry, Dorchester County, S.C. (type locality, Ward and others, 1979) (see fig. 

1). These deposits also have been encountered in the 

subsurface downriver from Givhans Ferry. One such 

occurrence, found in the shallow excavations at the 

northeast corner of the intersection of the U.S. Route 17 

bridge and the Edisto River at Ponpon, Charleston 

County, S.C. (see fig. 1), yielded an assemblage of 

mollusks that was sampled from spoil piles. Because the 

lower Miocene deposits in the Eastern United States are 

thin and discontinuous, paleontologic data are generally 

lacking on deposits of that age. The mollusks present in 

the Edisto Formation provide an important record of the 

early Miocene assemblages from the middle Atlantic 

Coastal Plain.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to thank C.M. Mason of Morehead 

State University, J.R. DuBar of the Texas Geological

Manuscript approved for publication September 27, 1988.

1 U.S. Geological Survey.

2 Tenneco, Houston, TX 77001.

Survey, and G.S. Gohn of the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS) for providing locality information. D.T. Dockery III (Mississippi Geological Survey) commented on 

the taxonomy, and J.E. Hazel (Louisiana State University) and N.F. Sohl (USGS) provided assistance in all 

phases of this study. R.E. Weems (USGS) reviewed the 

manuscript.

SETTING AND PRESERVATION

The Edisto Formation was restricted by Ward and 

others (1979) to lower Miocene deposits that occur along 

the Edisto River in South Carolina. The Edisto Formation, as originally mapped by Sloan (1908), included beds 

of Oligocene and Pliocene age that have no relationship to 

the Edisto at its type locality. Along the Edisto River, 

the Edisto Formation unconformably overlies the Ashley 

Formation (upper Oligocene) of the Cooper Group and is, 

in turn, unconformably overlain by the upper Pliocene 

Raysor Formation (of Blackwelder and Ward, 1979). The 

Edisto is present in South Carolina largely as thin 

erosional remnants on the top of the Cooper. The Edisto 

pinches out northeast of the Edisto River and is absent in 

the northern part of South Carolina. The upper surface of 

the Edisto was bored by mollusks during a period of 

submarine erosion, probably during the Pliocene. Southwest of the Edisto River area, the formation apparently 

persists as a thin erosional remnant; however, it is 

absent in southern South Carolina in the vicinity of 

Beaufort County (80 km southwest of Charleston, S.C.), 

where Eocene beds are near the surface.

The mollusk specimens used in this study were collected from float that was dredged to make shallow ponds 

at Ponpon. The ponds lie on indurated, calcareous, 

quartz sandstone of the Edisto Formation. Sometime

Fl
F2 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

B E R>K EL-EX

Gsbbrn

Hollywood

Adams Run

INTRACOASTAL WATERWAY

FIGURE 1. Charleston, S.C., and vicinity showing position of Givhans Ferry, Dorchester County (solid dot), and Ponpon, 

Charleston County (solid square). Base from U.S. Geological Survey, 1970, 1:500,000-scale State base map.

after this unit was lithified, aragonitic mollusks were 

dissolved by leaching, which left only molds. The upper 

surface of this sandstone subsequently was exposed as a 

submarine outcrop. Some of the exposed molds were 

occupied by polychaetes and were filled with their fecal 

pellets and other detrital material. Some of the fecal 

pellets that filled a mold and subsequently were lithified 

are visible in plate 1, figure 7. The upper Pliocene 

deposits that rest on the irregular, bored surface of the 

Edisto Formation at Givhans Ferry are evidence that the 

submarine exposure took place during, and possibly 

before, Pliocene time. The polychaete? fecal pellets that 

filled the molds subsequently were dolomitized, as were 

the molds, and weathering of the upper surface of the 

Edisto has freed many of the dolomitic casts from the 

enclosing matrix. The dolomite is a drab brown color due 

to the presence of clay and other impurities. The original

color of the enclosing rock matrix appears, from some 

apparently fresh fragments, to be light gray.

PALEOECOLOGY AND BIOSTRATIGRAPHY

Table 1 is a list of the taxa collected from float of the 

Edisto Formation from dug ponds near the U.S. Route 17 

bridge and the Edisto River at Ponpon, S.C. Occurrences of these taxa in the Tampa Limestone of southern 

Florida, Belgrade Formation of North Carolina, and Old 

Church Formation (of Ward, 1985) of Virginia are noted. 

The presence of subtropical and tropical genera, such as 

Chicoreus and Serpulorbis, indicates that water temperatures were at least as warm as today on the shelf off 

South Carolina. In addition, the following genera found 

in the Edisto Formation are subtropical to tropical 

genera that live presently off the Atlantic Coast of the
MOLLUSKS FROM THE EDISTO FORMATION (LOWER MIOCENE) OF SOUTH CAROLINA F3

TABLE I. List of species collected from float of the Edisto Formation near the 

intersection of the U.S. Route 17 bridge and the Edisto River at Ponpon, 

S.C., showing additional occurrences of these species in the Tampa Limestone, Belgrade Formation, and Old Church Formation

Tampa Belgrade Old Church 

Edisto Formation mollusks Limestone Formation Formation

Glycymeris anteparilis Kellum,

1926......................... X 

"Pecten" crocus (Cooke, 1919) .. X X 

"Pecten" sp. .................... 

Plicatula sp..................... X X

Hyotissa antiguensis (Brown,

1914)......................... X 

Glyptoactis nodifera (Kellum,

1926)........'................. X 

Mactromeris (?) sp.............. 

Mercenaria gardnerae (Kellum,

1926)......................... X X

Bicorbula idonea (Conrad, 1833) XX 

Tumtella pagodaeformis

Heilprin, 1887 ............... X 

Serpulorbis ballistae Dall, 1892. X 

Calyptraea trochiformis

Lamarck, 1804............... XXX

Cypraea sp. .................... 

Chicoreus (Phyllonotus) davisi

(Richards, 1943) ............. X 

Scaphella sp. ................... 

United States: Plicatula, Glycymeris, Cypraea, and 

Calyptraea. Several of the Edisto species also occur 

in the Tampa Limestone, which was deposited under 

tropical conditions. The species Hyotissa antiguensis 

(Brown, 1914) and "Pecten" crocus (Cooke, 1919) were 

far-ranging Caribbean forms, as was Serpulorbis.

Today, large specimens of Glycymeris are typical of 

shallow-marine environments on the present continental 

shelf of the United States. The presence of other shallowmarine genera in the Edisto, such as Mercenaria, indicates that this unit probably formed on the inner part of 

the shallow shelf at depths between 10 and 30 m.

The species "Pecten" crocus (Cooke, 1919) is a useful 

guide fossil for regional correlation of the Edisto and its 

stratigraphic equivalents. This taxon occurs in deposits 

in the Caribbean, in the Tampa Limestone in Florida, 

and in the Haywood Landing Member of the Belgrade 

Formation in North Carolina. Therefore, on the basis of 

the presence of "Pecten" crocus, as well as the presence 

of Glycymeris anteparilis Kellum, 1926, the Edisto can 

be correlated with the Belgrade Formation in North 

Carolina. Mercenaria gardnerae (Kellum, 1926) occurs in 

the Edisto Formation, the Belgrade Formation, and the 

Old Church Formation (of Ward, 1985) in Virginia. The 

Tampa, Belgrade, and Edisto Formations have been 

considered to be early Miocene in age (Ward and others,

1979). However, there is some controversy over the 

placement of the Oligocene-Miocene boundary on the 

Atlantic Coast, and it is possible that these deposits are 

of very late Oligocene (Chattian) age. The same equivocal age assignment is indicated for the correlative Old 

Church Formation in Virginia (Ward, 1985).

SYSTEMATIC PALEONTOLOGY

Class BIVALVIA 

Subclass PTERIOMORPHIA

Order ARCOIDA

Superfamily LIMOPSACEA

Family GLYCYMERIDIDAE

Genus GLYCYMERIS Da Costa, 1778

Glycymeris anteparilis Kellum, 1926

Plate 1, figures 7, 8

Glycymeris anteparilis Kellum, 1926, p. 35, pi. VIII, figs. 4-6; 

Richards, 1943, p. 519; Bird, 1965, p. 38-39, pi. 5, figs, la, b, 2.

The type specimen of Glycymeris anteparilis is from 

the Haywood Landing Member of the Belgrade Formation in Onslow County, N.C. Glycymeris anteparilis 

apparently gave rise to the species Glycymeris parilis 

(Conrad, 1843a), which is present in the lower middle 

Miocene part of the Calvert Formation in Maryland. 

Glycymeris anteparilis differs from G. parilis in having 

more elongate hinge teeth, a more pronounced umbonal 

area, a more convex shell, and a more curved and more 

elongate hinge line. Also, G. parilis has weaker internal 

marginal crenulations and a thinner shell. Glycymeris 

anteparilis is common in the Edisto Formation at Ponpon, S.C.

Order PTERIOIDA

Suborder PTERIINA 

Superfamily PECTINACEA

Family PECTINIDAE

Subfamily CHLAMYDINAE

Genus "PECTEN"

"Pecten" crocus (Cooke, 1919)

Plate 1, figure 2

Pecten crocus Cooke, 1919, p. 135, pi. 9, figs. 2a, b, pi. 11, fig. 9(?). 

Chlamys (Chlamys) crocus Cooke. Tucker, 1934, p. 614, pi. 25, fig. 3;

Mansfield, 1937, p. 205-206, pi. 13, fig. 3; Rowland, 1936, p.

1006, pi. 6, figs. 9, 11; Mansfield, 1937, p. 205, pi. 13, fig. 3.

The type specimen is from Crocus Bay, Anguilla, West 

Indies. This species is a guide fossil to lower Miocene 

deposits in the Southeastern United States. The species 

is rather common in lower Miocene deposits in Florida 

(Tampa Limestone), in South Carolina (Edisto Formation), and in North Carolina (Haywood Landing Member
F4 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

of the Belgrade Formation). The taxon's prominent 

scales, its higher than long dimensions, and its tendency 

to develop a small riblet between the primary ribs make 

its identification certain.

"Pecten" sp.

Plate 1, figure 1

This taxon has a distinctive sculptured pattern that 

consists of very fine, raised, concentric lamellae on the 

ribs. It is similar to "Pecten" vaughani Cooke, 1919, and 

it may be that species, but comparative material is scant. 

Broken specimens also come from the Edisto Formation 

type locality at Givhans Ferry, S.C.

Family PLICATULIDAE 

Genus PLICATULA Lamarck, 1801

Plicatula sp.

Plate 2, figure 2

Plicatula densata Cooke, 1919, p. 145, pi. 1, figs. 12a, b (not Plicatula

densata of Conrad, 1843a, 1845). 

Plicatula densata Kellum, 1926, p. 36 (not Plicatula densata of

Conrad, 1843a, 1845). 

Plicatula densata Richards, 1943, p. 519, pi. 84, fig. 5 (not Plicatula

densata of Conrad, 1843a, 1845). 

Plicatula densata Richards, 1950, p. 77, fig. 67e (not Plicatula densata

of Conrad, 1843a, 1845). 

Plicatula sp. Ward, 1985, pi. 6, figs. 14, 15.

This taxon has been assigned repeatedly to Plicatula 

densata Conrad, 1843a, but it differs in its more numerous, smaller ribs and in its prominent scales, which are 

formed where growth lamellae intersect the ribs. This 

produces broad, raised scales that, in many specimens, 

are hyote in form. This scaling pattern can be found in 

specimens of Plicatula guppyi Woodring, 1925, but that 

species has fewer ribs. Because the specimens from the 

Edisto Formation are all broken, we hesitate to name 

this distinct species. This taxon is present in the Edisto 

Formation, and fragments in the Ashley Formation of 

the Cooper Group may also belong to the species. It is 

present in the Haywood Landing Member of the Belgrade Formation in North Carolina and the Old Church 

Formation in Virginia (Ward, 1985) as well.

Suborder OSTREINA 

Superfamily OSTREACEA

Family OSTREIDAE 

Genus HYOTISSA Stenzel, 1971

Hyotissa antiguensis (Brown, 1914)

Plate 1, figures 5, 6

Ostrea antiguensis Brown, 1914, pi. XIX, fig. 7, pi. XX, figs. 5, 6; 

Cooke, 1919, p. 128, pi. 6, figs. 1, 2.

Hyotissa antiguensis is used here as the name of this 

taxon, even though many workers have referred to this 

species as Ostrea haitensis Sowerby, 1849. The original 

description of Ostrea haitensis is vague, and there is no 

figure. The earliest description of a taxon that can be 

identified with Edisto specimens is Brown's (1914) 

description of Ostrea antiguensis. Brown stated that 0. 

antiguensis has about five ridges separated from two 

other ridges by a broad fold. This description and 

Brown's figures agree well with specimens from the 

Edisto. Hyotissa antiguensis is, therefore, used as the 

specific name for these lower Miocene oysters, which 

were named for specimens from the island of Antigua, 

West Indies, in the Carribean. The species is extremely 

abundant in the Edisto Formation at Givhans State 

Park, S.C., although most of the exposure at that locality 

is now obscured. The species also is common in the 

Tampa Limestone and in stratigraphically equivalent 

formations in Florida. Specimens of a similar, if not 

identical, species occur in "zone" 10 (of Shattuck, 1904) of 

the Calvert Formation (lower middle Miocene) in Maryland.

Subclass HETERODONTA

Order VENEROIDA 

Superfamily CARDITACEA

Family CARDITIDAE

Subfamily CARDITESINAE

Genus GLYPTOACTIS Stewart, 1930

Glyptoactis nodifera (Kellum, 1926)

Plate 1, figures 3, 4

Venericardia nodifera Kellum, 1926, p. 36-37, pi. IX, figs. 1-3;

Mansfield, 1937, p. 236; Richards, 1943, p. 520; Richards, 1950,

figs. 66d, e (p. 76). 

Venericardia (Glyptoactis) nodifera nodifera Kellum. Heaslip, 1968, p.

111-112, pi. 27, figs. 5a-c, 6.

The type specimen of Glyptoactis nodifera is from the 

Belgrade Formation near Silverdale, Onslow County, 

N.C. This is the highest known stratigraphic occurrence 

of this genus on the Atlantic Coastal Plain.

Superfamily MACTRACEA

Family MACTRIDAE 

Genus MACTROMERIS (?) Conrad, 1868

Mactromeris (?) sp.

Plate 2, figure 8

This small specimen is very close morphologically to 

Mactromeris polynyma (Stimpson, 1860) from the Holocene off the northeast coast of North America. The 

single specimen is an internal mold, so that definite 

generic or specific placement is difficult. The specimen is 

also similar in form to the species found in Miocene and
MOLLUSKS FROM THE EDISTO FORMATION (LOWER MIOCENE) OF SOUTH CAROLINA F5

Pliocene deposits known as Spisula (Hemimactra) 

delumbis (Conrad, 1832) (see Glenn, 1904).

Superfamily VENERACEA

Family VENERIDAE

Subfamily CHIONINAE

Genus MERCENARIA Schumacher, 1817

Mercenaria gardnerae (Kellum, 1926)

Plate 2, figure 1

Venus gardnerae Kellum, 1926, p. 37, pi. 9, figs. 8, 9; Richards, 1943, 

p. 522; Richards, 1948, p. 5, pi. 4, fig. 25; Richards, 1950, fig. 

65c; Ward, 1985, pi. 6, fig. 8.

Mercenaria gardnerae (Kellum, 1926) has pronounced, 

raised, concentric sculpture over the entire exterior 

surface of the disk. It is variable in form because, within 

a single population, the length of some specimens is 

nearly equal to the height, whereas other specimens are 

more elongate. The taxon makes its first known appearance in the upper part of the River Bend Formation 

(upper Oligocene, Chickasawhayan Stage) in North 

Carolina. That occurrence is also the first known for the 

genus Mercenaria on the Atlantic Coastal Plain. Mercenaria gardnerae is also found in the Haywood Landing 

Member of the Belgrade Formation of early Miocene age 

in North Carolina and the Old Church Formation of 

latest Oligocene and early Miocene age in Virginia. 

Venus halidona Dall, 1915, from the Tampa Limestone 

in Florida, is similar to M. gardnerae and may be closely 

related. Venus capax Conrad, 1843b, 1845, found in 

[New] Kent County, Va., may be the same species as M. 

gardnerae, but the specific locality from which it came is 

unknown, and only the type is available for comparison. 

We suspect that Mercenaria capax (Conrad, 1843b) 

came from the unit now known as the Old Church 

Formation (Ward, 1985). If true, that name may take 

priority over M. gardnerae.

Order MYOIDA

Suborder MYINA

Superfamily MYACEA

Family CORBULIDAE

Subfamily CORBULININAE

Genus BICORBULA Fischer, 1887

Bicorbula idonea (Conrad, 1833)

Plate 2, figures 4, 5

Corbula idonea Conrad, 1833, p. 341; Conrad, 1938, p. 6-7, pi. X, fig. 

6; Richards, 1943, p. 522, pi. 84, figs. 13, 14.

This species ranges through the entire Miocene. Its 

first known appearance is in the Haywood Landing 

Member of the Belgrade Formation, the Edisto Formation, and the Old Church Formation (all lower Miocene). 

It is common in the Calvert and Choptank Formations in

Maryland but is rare in the St. Marys Formation in 

Maryland and in the Claremont Manor Member of the 

Eastover Formation in Virginia.

Class GASTROPODA 

Order MESOGASTROPODA 

Superfamily CERITHIACEA

Family TURRITELLIDAE 

Genus TURRITELLA Lamarck, 1799

Turritella pagodaeformis Heilprin, 1887

Plate 2, figure 9

Turritella pagodaeformis Heilprin, 1887, p. 112, pi. 8, fig. 52. 

Turritella tampae var. pagodaeformis Heilprin. Dall, 1892, p. 310, pi. 

17, fig. 9; Dall, 1915, p. 98, pi. 14, fig. 8.

Specimens from the Edisto Formation in South Carolina compare quite favorably with Ball's (1892) specimens 

of this species and with a suite of specimens of this 

species in collections at the U.S. National Museum. The 

figured specimen appears to have been flattened slightly 

during compaction and diagenesis and, therefore, 

appears a little broader than the specimen was originally. 

Also, the spiral bands bounding the sutures are not as 

raised as in Heilprin's (1887) figured specimen. The type 

specimen is from the Tampa Limestone, Tampa Bay, 

Fla.

Family VERMETIDAE 

Genus SERPULORBIS Sassi, 1827

Serpulorbis ballistae Dall, 1892

Plate 2, figures 10, 11

Serpulorbis (granifera var.?) ballistae Dall, 1892, p. 304, pi. 22, fig. 21. 

Serpulorbis ballistae Dall, 1915, p. 95, pi. 14, fig. 4.

The type specimen, which consists of only the early 

growth stages, is from the Tampa Limestone, Tampa 

Bay, Fla. The specimens from the Edisto Formation are 

much larger in size than the type specimen, but the 

exterior sculpture patterns are very similar. Woodring 

(1959, p. 161, pi. 29, fig. 13) illustrated a morphologically 

similar species and stated that this form was widespread 

in the Caribbean during the early Miocene.

Superfamily CALYPTRAEACEA 

Family CALYPTRAEIDAE

Subfamily Calyptraeinae 

Genus CALYPTRAEA Lamarck, 1799

Calyptraea trochiformis Lamarck, 1804

Plate 2, figure 7

Calyptraea trochiformis Lamarck, 1804, p. 385; Kellum, 1926, p. 39; 

Richards, 1943, p. 523, pi. 86, figs. 6, 7.

Calyptraea is a common taxon in Tertiary Atlantic 

Coastal Plain deposits. It is, therefore, of little strati-
F6 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

graphic value. A closely related species, Calyptraea 

aperta (Solander), occurs throughout the Miocene in 

Maryland. Calyptraea trochiformis is common in the 

Tampa Limestone in southern Florida and the River 

Bend and Belgrade Formations in North Carolina, and it 

is present in the Old Church Formation in Virginia.

Superfamily CYPRAEACEA

Family CYPRAEIDAE 

Genus CYPRAEA Linne, 1758

Cypraea sp.

Plate 2, figure 3

Cypraea is known from the Edisto Formation only as 

internal molds that are not specifically determinable. The 

presence of the genus indicates subtropical to tropical, 

marine conditions.

Order NEOGASTROPODA 

Suborder STENOGLOSSA 

Superfamily MURICACEA

Family MURICIDAE

Subfamily MURICINAE

Genus CHICOREUS Montfort, 1810

Subgenus PHYLLONOTUS Swainson, 1833

Chicoreus (Phyllonotus) davisi (Richards, 1943)

Plate 2, figure 6

Murex davisi Richards, 1943, p. 524, pi. 85, figs. 1, 2; Richards, 1950,

p. 77, fig. 67j. 

Chicoreus (Phyllonotus) davisi (Richards). Yokes, 1967, p. 140, pi. 2,

figs. 2a, b.

The type specimen is from the Belgrade Formation 

near Silverdale, N.C. The presence of this genus indicates subtropical to tropical conditions on the Atlantic 

Continental Shelf as far north as North Carolina.

Superfamily VOLUTACEA

Family VOLUTIDAE

Subfamily SCAPHELLINAE

Genus SCAPHELLA Swainson, 1832

Scaphella sp.

Plate 2, figure 12

This specimen of Scaphella is much more slender than 

specimens of Scaphella stromboidella Kellum, 1926, and 

it lacks the shoulder of that species. The material from 

the Edisto Formation consists only of steinkerns, but it is 

evident that the taxon is related to the Scaphella mutabilis (Conrad) lineage.

REFERENCES CITED

Bird, S.O., 1965, Upper Tertiary Arcacea of the mid-Atlantic Coastal 

Plain: Palaeontographica Americana, v. 5, no. 34, 62 p.

Blackwelder, B.W., and Ward, L.W., 1979, Stratigraphic revision of 

the Pliocene deposits of North and South Carolina: South Carolina 

Geological Survey Geologic Notes, v. 23, no. 1, p. 33^19.

Brown, A.P., 1914, Notes on the geology of the Island of Antigua: 

Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Proceedings, v. 

LXV, pt. Ill, p. 584-616.

Conrad, T.A., 1833, On some new fossil and recent shells of the United 

States: American Journal of Science, v. 23, art. XVII, p. 339-346.

 1838, Fossils of the Tertiary formations of the United States: 

Philadelphia, Judah Dobson, 86 p.

 1843a, Descriptions of a new genus, and of twenty-nine new 

Miocene, and one Eocene, fossil shells of the United States: 

Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Proceedings, v. 1, p. 

305-311.

 1843b, Descriptions of nineteen species of Tertiary fossils of 

Virginia and North Carolina: Academy of Natural Sciences of 

Philadelphia, Proceedings, v. 1, p. 323-329.

 1845, Fossils of the Miocene formation of the United States,

[no. 3]: Philadelphia, Judah Dobson, p. 57-80.

Cooke, C.W., 1919, Tertiary mollusks from the Leeward Islands and 

Cuba: Carnegie Institute of Washington Publication 291, p. 

103-156.

Ball, W.H., 1892, Contributions to the Tertiary fauna of Florida, with 

especial reference to the Miocene silex-beds of Tampa and the 

Pliocene beds of the Caloosahatchie River: Wagner Free Institute 

of Science of Philadelphia, Transactions, v. 3, pt. 2, p. 201^73.

 1915, A monograph of the molluscan fauna of the Orthaulax 

pugnax zone of the Oligocene of Tampa, Florida: U.S. National 

Museum Bulletin 90, 173 p.

Glenn, L.C., 1904, Pelecypoda: Maryland Geological Survey Miocene 

[Volumes], v. 1, p. 274^01.

Heaslip, W.G., 1968, Cenozoic evolution of the alticostate venericards 

in Gulf and east coastal North America: Palaeontographica Americana, v. 6, no. 39, p. 55-135.

Heilprin, Angelo, 1887, Explorations on the west coast of Florida and 

in the Okeechobee wilderness: Wagner Free Institute of Science of 

Philadelphia, Transactions, v. 1, 134 p.

Kellum, L.B., 1926, Paleontology and stratigraphy of the Castle Hayne 

and Trent marls in North Carolina: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 143, 56 p.

Lamarck, J.P.B.A., 1804, Memoires sur les fossiles des environs de 

Paris: Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Annales, v. 5, pt. 1, 

p. 383-391.

Mansfield, W.C., 1937, Mollusks of the Tampa and Suwannee Limestones of Florida: Florida Geological Survey Bulletin 15, 334 p.

Richards, H.G., 1943, Additions to the fauna of the Trent marl of North 

Carolina: Journal of Paleontology, v. 17, no. 5, p. 518-526.

 1948, Tertiary invertebrate fossils from newly discovered localities in North and South Carolina, Pt. I: Academy of Natural 

Sciences of Philadelphia Notulae Naturae 207, 11 p. 

-1950, Geology of the Coastal Plain of North Carolina: American

Philosophical Society Transactions, new series, v. 40, pt. 1, 83 p.

Rowland, H.I., 1936, The Atlantic and Gulf Coast Tertiary Pectinidae 

of the United States II: American Midland Naturalist, v. 17, no. 

6, p. 985-1017.

Shattuck, G.B., 1904, Geological and paleontological relations, with a 

review of earlier investigations: Maryland Geological Survey Miocene [Volumes], v. 1, p. xxxiii-cxxxvii.

Sloan, Earle, 1908, Catalogue of the mineral localities of South Carolina: South Carolina Geological Survey, ser. IV, Bulletin 2, 505 p.
MOLLUSKS FROM THE EDISTO FORMATION (LOWER MIOCENE) OF SOUTH CAROLINA F7

[reprinted in 1958 by the South Carolina Division of Geology and in 

1979 by the South Carolina Geological Survey].

Tucker, H.I., 1934, Some Atlantic Coast Tertiary Pectinidae: American Midland Naturalist, v. XV, no. 5, p. 612-621.

Yokes, E.H., 1967, Cenozoic Muricidae of the western Atlantic region- 

 Part III, Chicoreus (Phyllonotus): Tulane Studies in Geology, 

v. 5, no. 3, p. 133-166.

Ward, L.W., 1985 [1986], Stratigraphy and characteristic mollusks of 

the Pamunkey Group (lower Tertiary) and the Old Church Formation of the Chesapeake Group, Virginia Coastal Plain: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1346, 78 p.

Ward, L.W., Blackwelder, B.W., Gohn, G.S., and Poore, R.Z., 1979, 

Stratigraphic revision of Eocene, Oligocene, and lower Miocene 

formations of South Carolina: South Carolina Geological Survey 

Geologic Notes, v. 23, no. 1, p. 2-32.

Woodring, W.P., 1959, Geology and paleontology of Canal Zone and 

adjoining parts of Panama: U.S. Geological Survey Professional 

Paper 306-B, p. B147-B239.

PLATES 1-2

USNM, U.S. National Museum, Washington, B.C.

Contact photographs of plates 1-2 are available,

at cost, from the U.S. Geological Survey Photographic Library, Federal Center,

Denver, CO 80225.
PLATE 1

FIGURE 1. "Pecten" sp. (p. F4).

Right valve of an immature specimen, USNM 379659. Length, 20.0 mm; height, 20.3 mm. 

2. "Pecten" crocus (Cooke, 1919) (p. F3).

Right valve of an immature specimen, USNM 379660. Length, 23.1 mm; height, 27.5 mm. 

3, 4. Glyptoactis nodifera (Kellum, 1926) (p. F4).

3. Left valve, USNM 379661. Length, 52.5 mm; height, 43.0 mm.

4. Right valve, USNM 379662. Length, 44.8 mm; height, 59.9 mm. 

5, 6. Hyotissa antiguensis (Brown, 1914) (p. F4).

5. Left valve, USNM 379663. Length, 74.3 mm; height, 85.6 mm.

6. Right valve, USNM 379664. Length, 78.6 mm; height, 92.9 mm. 

7, 8. Glycymeris anteparilis Kellum, 1926 (p. F3).

7. Left valve, USNM 379665. Length, 43.2 mm; height, 43.3 mm.

8. Left valve, USNM 379666. Length, 39.7 mm; height, 38.0 mm.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-F PLATE 1

"PECTEN," GLYPTOACTIS, HYOTISSA, AND GLYCYMERIS
PLATE 2

FIGURE 1. Mercenaria gardneme (Kellum, 1926) (p. F5).

Right valve, USNM 379667. Length, 54.0 mm; height, 45.6 mm.

2. Plicatula sp. (p. F4).

Left valve of an incomplete specimen, USNM 379668. Length of fragment, 30 mm.

3. Cypraea sp. (p. F6).

Apertural view of steinkern, USNM 379669. Height, 25.9 mm. 

4, 5. Bicorbula idonea (Conrad, 1833) (p. F5).

4. Right valve, USNM 379670. Length, 20.0 mm; height, 19.7 mm.

5. Right valve, USNM 379671. Length, 17.8 mm; height, 14.6 mm.

6. Chicoreus (Phyllonotus) davisi (Richards, 1943) (p. F6). 

Dorsal view, USNM 379672. Height, 58.0 mm.

7. Calyptraea trochiformis Lamarck, 1804 (p. F5).

Dorsal view of an incomplete specimen, USNM 379673. Maximum length of specimen as viewed, 41.7 mm.

8. Mactromeris (?) sp. (p. F4).

Internal mold of a left valve, USNM 379674. Length, 38.2 mm; height, 27.3 mm.

9. Turritella pagodaeform.is Heilprin, 1887 (p. F5).

Dorsal view of an incomplete specimen, USNM 379675. Length, 31.5 mm. 

10, 11. Serpulorbis ballistae Dall, 1892 (p. F5).

10. Fragment of a large specimen, USNM 379676. Length, 40.9 mm.

11. Fragment of a large specimen, USNM 379677. Length, 67.5 mm. 

12. Scaphella sp. (p. F6).

Apertural view of a broken specimen, USNM 379678. Height, 39.0 mm.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-F PLATE 2

MERCENARIA, PLICATULA, CYPRAEA, BICORBULA, CHICOREUS (PHYLLONOTUS), 

CALYPTRAEA, MACTROMERIS (?), TURRITELLA, SERPULORBIS, AND SCAPHELLA

A Summary of Selected Stratigraphic 

Occurrences of Neogene and Quaternary 

Invertebrate Faunas and Microfloras in 

the Charleston, South Carolina, Area

By R.E. WEEMS and LUCY McCARTAN

STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, 

EARTHQUAKE OF 1886-NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY 

LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND BIOSTRATIGRAPHY

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1367-G

CONTENTS

Abstract..................................................................................................................... Gl

Introduction................................................................................................................ 1

Acknowledgments................................................................................................... 2

Stratigraphic occurrence of fossils as a function of deposition and diagenesis .......................... 2

Distribution of fossils by group....................................................................................... 3

Diatoms................................................................................................................ 3

Foraminifers.......................................................................................................... 3

Mollusks............................................................................................................... 5

Sporomorphs......................................................................................................... 9

Summary.................................................................................................................... 10

Locality register........................................................................................................... 10

References cited........................................................................................................... 15

ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE 1. Chart showing Quaternary geologic units present in South Carolina and Neogene 

and Quaternary geologic units present at the ground surface throughout 

the area.............................................................................................. G2

2. Generalized map of Quaternary geology of the Charleston, S.C., area showing

fossil localities discussed in this report..................................................... 4

TABLES

TABLE 1. Environment of deposition and postdepositional diagenetic factors that influence 

preservation of fossils in Neogene and Quaternary geologic units in the 

Charleston, S.C., area.......................................................................... G3

2-4. Summaries of selected stratigraphic occurrences in the Charleston, S.C., 

area of:

2. Miocene and Quaternary fossil diatoms............................................... 6

3. Neogene and Pleistocene fossil foraminifers ........................................ 8

4. Pliocene and Pleistocene fossil mollusks.............................................. 20

5. Summary of occurrences of stratigraphically significant species of mollusks in

Pliocene and Pleistocene geologic units in the Charleston, S.C., area ........... 9

6. Summary of selected stratigraphic occurrences of Miocene and Pleistocene fossil

sporomorphs in the Charleston, S.C., area............................................... 28

STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886- 

NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND BIOSTRATIGRAPHY

A SUMMARY OF SELECTED STRATIGRAPHIC OCCURRENCES OF

NEOCENE AND QUATERNARY INVERTEBRATE FAUNAS AND 

MICROFLORAS IN THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, AREA

By R.E. WEEMS and LUCY MCCARTAN

ABSTRACT

The stratigraphic occurrences are summarized for selected invertebrate faunas and microfloras, specifically diatoms, foraminifers, mollusks, and sporomorphs, from the lower Coastal Plain deposits of South 

Carolina. The fossil collections reported on here, made during the U.S. 

Geological Survey study of the Charleston 1886 earthquake, provide a 

much better basis for biostratigraphy and for paleoecology than do the 

less extensive and less carefully cataloged older collections. Because 

the occurrences of richly fossiliferous deposits are related strongly to 

both the conditions of deposition and diagenesis of the sediments, the 

abundance and preservation of each fossil group vary widely from 

geologic unit to geologic unit.

INTRODUCTION

This paper presents a summary of the stratigraphic 

occurrences of Neogene and Quaternary invertebrate 

faunas and microfloras in the Charleston, S.C., area that 

are not discussed in more detail in preceding chapters 

(see other chapters in this volume by Bybell, Cronin, 

Lyon, Edwards, and Ward and Blackwelder). This summary was achieved by integrating unpublished paleontologic reports of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) that 

were produced during the years 1973-84 with the late 

Cenozoic lithostratigraphy of the Charleston area that 

evolved over the same years during the USGS study of 

the Charleston 1886 earthquake. The fossil data presented in this chapter and other chapters in this volume 

aided significantly in dating lithostratigraphic units in 

the Charleston area, as well as in interpreting the 

environments of deposition and the facies relationships of 

the units (McCartan and others, this volume; McCartan 

and others, 1984; Weems and Lemon, 1984a, b).

Manuscript approved for publication August 22, 1988.

The area around Charleston, S.C., has been known for 

a long time to yield fossils of Tertiary and Quaternary 

age. As early as the 1820's, Vanuxem (1829) recognized 

the existence of Tertiary and Pleistocene beds in the 

Charleston area by their fossil faunas. Papers by Conrad 

(1832), Ruffm (1843), Lyell (1845), Tuomey (1848), Tuomey and Holmes (1857), Holmes (1860), and Pugh (1905) 

steadily expanded knowledge of the species and, through 

biostratigraphic correlation, ascertained the approximate ages of fossils from the Charleston area. For the 

most part, however, the lithostratigraphic framework of 

the deposits containing the fossils remained incompletely 

understood because the few richly fossiliferous outcrops 

are too widely separated. In addition, many of the middle 

to upper Tertiary and lower Pleistocene units are found 

preserved only in small, local patches located between 

upper Oligocene and upper Pleistocene beds. However, 

during this century, auger drilling, coring, and examination of ditches dug during urban expansion, combined 

with correlation of some Charleston-area fossils with 

those from deep sea cores and an increased knowledge of 

Coastal Plain sections to the north and south, have 

permitted the synthesis of a new upper Cenozoic lithostratigraphic section for the Charleston area. This synthesis, presented in figure 1, has been erected from a 

large body of work, principally Sloan (1908), Cooke 

(1936), Malde (1959), DuBar (1971), Colquhoun (1974), 

Gohn and others (1977), Hazel and others (1977), Ward 

and others (1979), Blackwelder and Ward (1979), McCartan and others (1980, 1982, 1984, and this volume), 

Sanders and others (1982), Weems and others (1982), and 

Weems and Lemon (1984a, b).

Fossil localities in the Charleston area are given in the 

"Locality register" section and are plotted in a generalGl
G2 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

Symbols for 

Age 1 correlative

Quaternary units

8-0 ka Qh, Ql

130-70 ka Qw, Q2

240-200 ka Qtm, Q3

450-400 ka Ql, Q4

1.25? Ma-730 ka QP , Q5

1.67-1.25? Ma Qww, Q6

Geologic units 

Modern beach and marsh

Series System 

Holocene

Wando Formation

Ten Mile Hill beds, Socastee Formation 

Ladson Formation, Canepatch Formation

Penholoway Formation 

Waccamaw(?) Formation

Pleistocene

QUATERNARY

Bear Bluff Formation, Goose Creek Limestonel

Givhans beds, Raysor Formation J Pliocene

Coosawhatchie Formation

Marks Head Formation

Edisto Formation

Miocene

NEOGENE

l-Based on uranium-disequilibrium-series coral age estimates (Szabo, 1985; McCartan and others, 1980, 1982; 

Cronin and others, 1981) and 14C dates (McCartan and others, this volume), magnetostratigraphy (Liddicoat and 

others, 1981), and calcareous nannofossils (Gartner and others, 1983).

FIGURE 1. Quaternary geologic units present in South Carolina and Neogene and Quaternary geologic units present 

at the ground surface throughout the area. All the units and symbols listed on one line are probably wholly or 

largely correlative. Units Q1-Q6 are informal stratigraphic designations used in McCartan and others (1984) and 

in McCartan and others (this volume). Abbreviations: ka, kilo-annum (103 years); Ma, Mega-annum (106 years).

ized map (fig. 2) that shows the surficial geology of the 

Charleston area (modified from McCartan and others, 

this volume). These fossil localities are referred to in the 

tables and in other chapters in this volume by Bybell and 

by Cronin.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The compilation of fossil occurrences and the interpretations of age and depositional environment are based 

almost entirely on extensive paleontologic reports prepared for the Charleston Project between 1973 and 1984 

by T.A. Ager (Pliocene and Quaternary sporomorphs), 

G.W. Andrews (diatoms), B.W. Blackwelder (Pliocene 

and Quaternary mollusks), L.M. Bybell (calcareous nannofossils), N.O. Frederiksen (Miocene and Pliocene 

sporomorphs), T.G. Gibson (foraminifers), R.Z. Poore 

(foraminifers), and L.W. Ward (Miocene and Pliocene 

mollusks). This work was supported by the U.S. Nuclear 

Regulatory Commission, Office of Nuclear Research, 

under Agreement No. AT(49-25)-1000.

STRATIGRAPHIC OCCURRENCE OF FOSSILS AS

A FUNCTION OF DEPOSITION AND

DIAGENESIS

In any local stratigraphic setting, the conditions of 

deposition and diagenesis strongly bias the content of the

fossil record. To help put these depositional and diagenetic biases into perspective, the stratigraphic units of 

the Charleston area are shown in table 1 in the context of 

their environments of deposition and the diagenetic 

alterations and cementation that they have undergone 

since deposition.

An example of strong depositional control can be 

shown by the Pleistocene Ladson Formation, which in 

the Charleston area includes mostly fluvial to estuarine 

facies and, therefore, lacks diagnostic fossils, which are 

mainly shelf taxa. Conversely, both the older Pleistocene 

Penholoway Formation and the younger Pleistocene Ten 

Mile Hill beds and Wando Formation have relatively rich 

molluscan faunas because their shelf facies are preserved.

An example of diagenetic bias is provided by the 

Pliocene Goose Creek Limestone. In this highly calcareous unit, aragonite has been entirely removed by leaching and only calcite remains. As a result, only calcitic 

mollusks have been recorded in our faunal lists. Although 

aragonitic forms are seen occasionally in the form of 

poorly preserved molds and casts, they have not been 

studied yet in detail, except possibly in Malde (1959). In 

contrast, the older Pliocene Raysor Formation still contains well-preserved aragonitic shells (Blackwelder, 

1967; Blackwelder and Ward, 1979), as leaching has been 

slight. Thus, the much more extensive faunal list of the
STRATIGRAPHIC OCCURRENCES NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY INVERTEBRATE FAUNAS AND MICROFLORAS G3

TABLE 1. Environment of deposition and postdepositional diagenetic factors that influence preservation of fossils in Neogene and Quaternary geologic units in

the Charleston, S.C., area 

[Abbreviations: Environment of deposition: X, present; , not present. Diagenetic effects: 0, none; S, slight; E, extensive; P, pervasive; ?, questionable]

Diagenesis

Environment of deposition

Unit

Holocene ......................

Wando Formation .............

Ten Mile Hill beds .............

Ladson Formation ............

Penholoway Formation ........

Waccamaw(?) Formation. ......

Bear Bluff Formation ..........

Goose Creek Limestone. .......

Givhans beds ..................

Raysor Formation ............

Coosawhatchie Formation .....

Marks Head Formation ........

Edisto Formation .............

1Unit symbol

. Ql

Q2

Q3

. Q4

Q5

Q6

.2 °>

3 

U.

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X

Estuarine

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X

Backbarrier

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X

? 

?

Shoreface

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X

Shallow shelf

X 

X 

X

X

X 

X 

X 

X

X 

X

Alteration

_o 

tj 

£.

o

U

S 

S 

S 

E 

E 

E 

E 

E 

E 

E 

P 

P 

P

Oxidation

S 

S 

E 

E 

E 

P 

S 

S 

S 

S 

S 

S 

S

2Recrystallization

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

?

E 

E 

E

S 

S 

E 

E

Leaching

0 

S 

E 

E 

E 

P 

E 

E 

E 

S 

E 

E 

E

Phosphatization

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

S 

S E3

Cementation

Silicification

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

S 

0 

0

Calcification

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

S 

S 

S 

0 

0 

0 

E

Dolomitization

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

S 

E

1 As in McCartan and others, 1984, and in McCartan and others, this volume.

2 Principally aragpnite to calcite.

3 Includes blocks of phosphate rock reworked into Pleistocene units; remnants in places are only slightly phosphatized.

Raysor, compared to that of the Goose Creek, does not 

necessarily reflect an equally large difference in the 

original content of the molluscan faunas.

DISTRIBUTION OF FOSSILS BY GROUP

DIATOMS

Only one occurrence of diatoms has been reported in 

the Charleston area in sediments older than Pleistocene 

(table 2). This sample is from the Miocene Coosawhatchie 

Formation (fig. 1) and is similar to other Coosawhatchie 

samples from southern South Carolina (Abbott and 

Andrews, 1979; Abbott, 1978). The lack of diatoms in 

other Neogene samples may be due partly to spotty 

collecting, but a number of samples were examined from 

the Miocene Marks Head Formation, and none of them 

was found to contain diatoms. This is consistent with 

Abbott and Huddlestun's (1980) observation that silicious microfossils have been leached from the Marks 

Head.

All of the diatomaceous samples of Quaternary age 

come from the middle to upper Pleistocene Ten Mile Hill 

beds and Wando Formation and from Holocene beds. 

These deposits are too young to be dated biostratigraphically by diatoms. Only three possibly extinct diatom 

species were observed, Actinoptychus australis, Coscinodiscus kurzii, and Rhaphoneis angularis, and the 

ranges of these taxa are too imperfectly known to make 

them useful as biostratigraphic markers. The diatoms do, 

however, provide information on the paleoecology of 

these deposits. All of the assemblages studied were 

dominated by shallow-marine diatom taxa, and Paralia 

sulcata (a common shallow-shelf diatom in both fossil and 

modern marine sediments) occurred in varying degrees 

of abundance in all samples. There are a few freshwater 

diatoms in some of the samples, but they suggest little 

more than the influence of occasional freshwater runoff 

from the nearby land. Thus, the environment of deposition of these beds can be characterized as a predominantly shallow-marine environment plus occasional 

brackish episodes that were caused by an inflow of 

freshwater.

FORAMINIFERS

Foraminifers are found in the Neogene Edisto Formation and Goose Creek Limestone and in the middle to 

upper Pleistocene Ten Mile Hill beds and Wando Formation (table 3, fig. 1). In all cases, the faunas are sparse 

and poorly preserved. The foraminifers reported here
G4 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886
STRATIGRAPHIC OCCURRENCES NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY INVERTEBRATE FAUNAS AND MICROFLORAS G5

from the Goose Creek Limestone are mostly benthonic 

taxa and reveal little about the age of that unit. The 

Edisto, however, has yielded Globigerinoides trilobus, 

which definitely places that unit above the OligoceneMiocene boundary (R.Z. Poore, written commun., 1983). 

The late Pleistocene units yielded mainly very shallow 

shelf benthonic taxa.

MOLLUSKS

Mollusks were among the first fossils reported from 

the Charleston area (for example, Drayton, 1802, p. 7), 

and they have been a favorite subject of both paleontologists and stratigraphers over the years (Conrad, 1832; 

Tuomey and Holmes, 1857; Pugh, 1905; Cooke, 1936; 

Richards, 1936, 1943; Malde, 1959; Blackwelder, 1967, 

1981; Colquhoun and others, 1968; DuBar, 1971; Campbell and others, 1975; Blackwelder and Ward, 1979; Ward 

and others, 1979). Locally, mollusks are a major lithic 

component of the Miocene Edisto Formation and the 

Pliocene Givhans beds, Bear Bluff Formation, and Goose 

Creek Limestone (table 4, fig. 1). In all of these units, 

mollusks once were much more numerous, but they have 

been leached out extensively, so that, in many places, 

only molds and casts remain. No mollusks have been 

recovered yet from the lower Pleistocene Waccamaw(?) 

Formation in the Charleston area, presumably because 

they have been dissolved. In many places, the Pliocene 

Raysor Formation is composed dominantly of mollusk 

shells, as are the marine facies of the Pleistocene Penholoway Formation, Ten Mile Hill beds, and Wando 

Formation. Locally, the Wando may be so shelly that it 

can be called a coquina.

The molluscan faunas of the Tertiary units are distinctive (Ward and others, 1979; Blackwelder, 1981; Ward 

and Blackwelder, this volume), but the molluscan biostratigraphy of the Pleistocene is in need of further 

refinement. Blackwelder (1981) proposed a threefold

FIGURE 2. Quaternary geology of the Charleston, S.C., area 

(modified from McCartan and others, this volume) showing 

fossil localities discussed in this report. See the "Locality 

register" section for details of localities within the map area and 

localities outside the map area. Geologic units: Qh, Holocene 

deposits (lithostratigraphic unit Ql of McCartan and others, 

1984, and of McCartan and others, this volume); Qw, Wando 

Formation (Q2); Qtm, Ten Mile Hill beds (Q3); Ql, Ladson 

Formation (Q4); Qp, Penholoway Formation (Q5); and Qww, 

Waccamaw(?) Formation (Q6). Units are associated correctly 

with fossils in tables 2-4 and 6; apparent discrepancies between 

the units given in the tables and those shown here are due to the 

generalized nature of this map or to the presence of subsurface 

formations that do not extend to the ground surface. Table in 

the figure gives the grid coordinates for each locality within the 

map area and a dash for each locality outside the map area.

molluscan biostratigraphic subdivision of the South 

Carolina Pleistocene that was based principally on the 

first appearances of Lunarca ovalis and Cunearca brasiliana. The first appearance of L. ovalis was between 

1.4 and 0.45 Mega-annum (Ma, 106 years), and the first 

appearance of C. brasiliana was between 0.45 and 0.13 

Ma. The absence of L. ovalis in the Penholoway (table 5) 

suggests that it probably appeared in this region after 

1.0 Ma, and the absence of C. brasiliana in the Ten Mile 

Hill beds suggests that this fossil appeared in the region 

after 0.2 Ma. However, because the depositional environments of the Penholoway and Ten Mile Hill beds were 

not fully marine, it is possible that Lunarca was not 

present locally due to fluctuating and (or) low salinities. 

Thus, caution is advised in accepting these revised 

age-range estimates until more open-marine facies of the 

Penholoway and Ten Mile Hill beds can be found and 

sampled.

Besides C. brasiliana, a number of other species are so 

far known only as fossils from the Wando Formation 

(table 5). It is possible that, like C. brasiliana, some of 

these may also prove to be index fossils for the Sangamon 

interglacial interval of 130-70 kilo-annum (ka, 103 years), 

but more open-marine collections are needed from the 

Ten Mile Hill beds to verify that these species were not 

already present during the interglacial interval of 

240-200 ka.

More convincing cases for the local absence of species 

can be made for the pectinid Amusium mortoni and the 

gastropod Ecphora quadricostata. A. mortoni is well 

documented from the Raysor Formation (Blackwelder, 

1967) and the Goose Creek Limestone (Weems and 

others, 1982) (table 5) but is not present at numerous 

localities and in numerous drill holes in the Penholoway 

Formation, even though other pectinids do occur there. 

Therefore, in the Charleston region, the presence of A. 

mortoni probably indicates that a unit is pre-Penholoway 

in age. This fossil is listed as a Waccamaw species (fig. 1) 

in the Myrtle Beach region of northern South Carolina 

(DuBar, 1971), but beds in the Charleston region that are 

presumed to be equivalent to the Waccamaw have not 

yet yielded mollusks of any sort. However, many other 

species considered to be typical of the Waccamaw (such 

as Carditamera arata, Anadara aequicostata, and Noetia limuld) do persist into the Penholoway (table 4). 

Therefore, it appears possible that a unique molluscan 

faunal assemblage will be defined eventually for the 

Penholoway that is intermediate in character between 

the assemblages of the lower Pleistocene Waccamaw 

Formation and the middle Pleistocene Canepatch Formation of the Myrtle Beach area. Similarly, the distinctive snail Ecphora quadricostata is known from the 

Raysor Formation (table 5) at Cross quarry, about 60 km 

(40 mi) north-northwest of Charleston, and from the
G6 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

TABLE 2. Summary of selected stratigraphic occurrences of Miocene and Quaternary fossil diatoms in the Charleston, S.C., area

[47, locality number (see "Locality register" section); (S2), sample designation; X, positive identification; , not identified at this locality]

MIOCENE PLEISTOCENE HOLOCENE

Q2

Coosawhatchie 

Formation

Ten Mile 

Hill beds Wando Formation

47 33 40 40 

(S2) (S3)

39 26

Qi

37 12 12 

(S3) (S3) (S6)

Diatom

Achnanthes sp............................................. 

Achnanthes brevipes Agardh .............................. 

Actinocyclus aff. A. tenellus (Brebisson) Andrews ........ 

Actinocyclus ellipticus var. javanica Grunow ............. X

Actinocyclus octonarius Ehrenberg ....................... 

Actinocyclus sp............................................ 

Actinoptychus australis (Grunow) Andrews ............... 

Actinoptychus senarius (Ehrenberg) Ehrenberg........... 

Actinoptychus splendens (Shadbolt) Ralfs ................. 

Actinoptychus virginicus (Grunow) Andrews .............. X

Amphora sp. .............................................. 

Anaulus mediterraneus Grunow........................... 

Aulacodiscus argus (Ehrenberg) Schmidt ................. 

Auliscus caelatus var. strigillata Schmidt................. 

Auliscus reticulatus Greville .............................. 

Auliscus sp. ............................................... 

Biddulphia sp.............................................. 

Biddulphia mobilensis Bailey.............................. 

Biddulphia rhombus (Ehrenberg) W. Smith............... 

Caloneis westii (W. Smith) Hendey........................ 

Cocconeis placentula Ehrenberg........................... 

Cocconeis placentula var. euglypta (Ehrenberg) Cleve .... 

Cocconeis sp. .............................................. 

Coscinodiscus biangulatus Schmidt........................ X

Coscinodiscus granulosus Grunow......................... 

Coscinodiscus kurzii Grunow.............................. 

Coscinodiscus radiatus Ehrenberg ........................ 

Coscinodiscus subtilis Ehrenberg ......................... 

Cyclotella kutzingiana var. planetophora Fricke .......... 

Cyclotella striata var. ambigua Grunow................... 

Cyclotella stylorum Brightwell............................ 

Cymatogonia amblyoceros (Ehrenberg) Hanna ............ X

Cymatosira lorenziana Grunow ........................... 

Delphineis angustata (Pantocsek) Andrews................ X

Delphineis biseriata (Grunow) Andrews ................... X

Delphineis novaecaesaraea (Kain & Schultze) Andrews.... X

Delphineis penelliptica Andrews .......................... X

Delphineis surirella (Ehrenberg) Andrews ................ 

Denticula sp. .............................................. 

Diploneis gruendleri (Schmidt) Cleve...................... 

Diploneis ovalis (Hilse) Cleve ............................. 

Diploneis smithi (Brebisson) Cleve ........................ 

Diploneis weissflogi (Schmidt) Cleve ...................... 

Diploneis sp. .............................................. 

Eupodiscus radiatus Bailey ............................... 

Frustulia sp. .............................................. 

X X 

X

- - X - - -

- X 

X X

X 

X

- X

X -

X -

X X

- X

- - - - - X

- - X

- X -

- X -

- X -

-XX

XXX 

X - -

- - X

- - X

XX X

XXX 

X - -

X 

X

- X

X X

X X

- - - - - X

XX- - - -

X - - - - -

- X

X -

X 

X 

X

X 

X 

X

- X

- X

- X 

X -

X 

X 

X

X

X 

X

X 

X 

X

- X - - - -

X

X 

X

___ x-- --

X 

X

X 

X

X 

X

X 

X
STRATIGRAPHIC OCCURRENCES NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY INVERTEBRATE FAUNAS AND MICROFLORAS G7 

TABLE 2. Summary of selected stratigraphic occurrences of Miocene and Quaternary fossil diatoms in the Charleston,S.C., area Continued

MIOCENE PLEISTOCENE HOLOCENE

Q2

Coosawhatchie 

Formation

Ten Mile 

Hill beds Wando Formation

47 33 40 40

(S2) (S3)

39 26 37 

(S3)

Qi

12 12 

(S3) (S6)

Diatom

Grammatophora marina (Lyngbye) Kiitzing ............ 

Lithodesmium undulatum Ehrenberg................... 

Melosira sp.............................................. 

Navicula amphibola Cleve .............................. 

Navicula clavata Gregory............................... 

Navicula aff. N. cuspidata Kiitzing ..................... 

Navicula gothlandica Grunow........................... 

Navicula aff. N. hennedyi W. Smith .................... 

Navicula lyra Ehrenberg ............................... 

Navicula lyroides Hendey............................... 

Navicula aff. N. maculosa Donkin ...................... 

Navicula aff. N. marina Ralfs .......................... 

Navicula pennata Schmidt.............................. 

Navicula praetexta Ehrenberg .......................... 

Navicula sp. ............................................ 

Nitzschia granulata Grunow ............................ 

Nitzschia panduriformis Gregory ....................... 

Opephora manna (Gregory) Petit....................... 

Opephora martyi Heribaud.............................. 

Opephora pacifica (Grunow) Petit....................... 

Paralia sulcata (Ehrenberg) Cleve...................... 

Pinn ularia, sp. .......................................... 

Plagiogramma staurophorum (Gregory) Heiberg ....... 

Plagiogramma sp........................................ 

Pleurosigma salinarum Grunow ........................ 

Podsira stelliger (Bailey) Mann.......................... 

Psammodiscus nitidus (Gregory) Round & Mann ....... 

Rhaphoneis amphiceros Ehrenberg ..................... 

Rhaphoneis angularis Lohman.......................... 

Rhaphoneis belgica Grunow............................. 

Rhaphoneis lancettula Grunow.......................... X

Rhaphoneis rhombica (Grunow) Andrews ............... 

Rhopalodia gibba (Ehrenberg) 0. Muller................ 

Rhopalodia gibberula (Ehrenberg) 0. Muller............ 

Stauroneis salina W. Smith............................. 

Stauroneis sp............................................ 

Surirella aff. S. patella Ehrenberg...................... 

Surirella, sp.............................................. 

Synedra affinis var. fasciculata (Kiitzing) Grunow ...... 

Terpsinoe americana (Bailey) Ralfs ..................... 

Thalassionema nitzschioides Grunow.................... 

Thalassiosira eccentrica (Ehrenberg) Cleve ............. 

Thalassiosira leptopus (Grunow) Hasle & Fryxell....... 

Thalassiosira sp......................................... 

Triceratium favus Ehrenberg ........................... 

Triceratium reticulum Ehrenberg....................... 

- - - - - X

X X

X

X

X 

X

X 

X

X

X

- X -

- X -

XXX 

-XX

X 

X

X 

X 

X

-XX

X - 

X X

X

- X

X

X -

- X

- - X

- - X

X

X

X 

X

X 

X

X 

X

X 

X

X

X 

X

X

X 

X 

X

X

X 

X

X 

X 

X

X 

X

-XX

- - X

- - X

- - X

X 

X

X

X 

X

- X

X 

X

X 

X

X

X 

X

X 

X

X 

X 

X

X 

X

X 

X

X 

X

X 

X

X

X 

X

X X

- X 

X

- X

- X

X X

- X

X

X X
G8 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

TABLE 3. 

[61. locality number (see "Locality register" section); (S7). sample designation; X. positive identification; , not identified at this locality; C, contaminated samplej

MIOCENE PLIOCENE PLEISTOCENE

Edisto 

Formation

Goose Creek 

Limestone

Ten Mile 

Hill beds Wando Formation

61 20

(S7)

34 40

(S3)

6 6

(S4) (S8)

8

Foraminifer

; (d'Orbigny).........................

n&%Mn Cushman and Ponton .........

ocn'de HfaZis (Cushman) .................

sp. ...........................................

sp. .......................................

;')KZ c masa d'Orbigny .........................

.szs (Cushman and Ponton) .....

sp. ...................................

(Walker and Jacob) ................

n. sp. ........................................

aff. jorA:80);6)Z8:s (f%6o^6Mg;8 (Cushman and 

Applin) ..............................................

sp. .........................................

sp. ...........................................

(Cushman) .......................

Cushman ........................

Terguem......................

: Cole ...............................

Copeland .......................

po6!/mnw%(d'0rbigny).....................

sp. .........................................

pmM?;ta (Fichtel and Moll) .................

sp. .........................................

Cushman .......................

Mes d'Orbigny .......................

zpen»a cf. G. obesa (Bolli) ........................

j)mg6ttMo2'dfs Blow (sensu lato) ...........

cf. G. c 2j)groe)ts{8 Bolli ....................

sp. ........................................

d'Orbigny .......................

(Reuss) .......................

(d'Orbigny) .......................

fs Le Roy. ........................

'ca (Cushman) ....................

Williamson .........................

Berry ..............................

) sp. ..........................................

muersa d'Orbigny ..........................

sp. ..........................................

d'Orbigny ..............

inn6......................

a (Reuss) ............................

Cushman ..........................

sp. ...........................................

d'Orbigny .......................

fs (Cushman) ......................

gpn»a Cushman and Kleinpell .......

X

X 

X 

X

X

 

X

X

X

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X -

 X

X 

 X

 

 X

 

 X

X 

 

X 

 X

 

X X

X 

X

X 

X

X X

 

X 

 X

X X X X

- X

- X

- X - -

- - X -

- - - X

XX--

- X - -

- - - X

X

- X - -

- - X X

- X - -

- X - -

- X - -

- X - -

- - - X

- X - -

X 

X
STRATIGRAPHIC OCCURRENCES NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY INVERTEBRATE FAUNAS AND MICROFLORAS G9

TABLE 5. Summary of occurrences of stratigraf)hicalh ugnifi(ant species of mollusks in Pliocene and Pleistocene geologic units in the Charleston, S.C., area 

[Data are derived from table 4, except for Raysor Formation taxa, which are from Blackwelder (1967); X, positive identification; ?, questionable identification; , not identified in this formation]

PLIOCENE PLEISTOCENE

Lower LIpper Lower L'pper

Q-4

Raysor 

Formation

Goose Creek 

Limestone

Penholoway 

Formation

Ladson 

Formation

Ten Mile 

Hill beds

Wando 

Formation

Mollusk

Chesapecten madisonius (Say) ........................ X

Ecphora qnadricostata (Say).......................... X

Mercenaria rileyi (Conrad)............................ X

Amusium mortoni (Ravenel).......................... X

Ostrea raveneliana Tuomey and Holmes .............. X

Ostrea sculpturata Conrad ............................ X

Carolmapecten eboreus (Conrad)...................... X

Lucinisca cribraria (Say) ............................. 

Pecten hemicyclica Ravenel........................... 

Anadara aequicostata (Conrad)....................... 

Bellucina waccamawensis (Ball)...................... 

Carolmapecten solarioides (Heilprin) ................. 

Corbula scutata Gardner.............................. 

Steivartia fioridana (Conrad).......................... 

Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin)........................ 

Anadara transversa (Say)............................. 

Caryocorbula contracta (Say) ......................... 

Crassinella lumdata (Conrad) ........................ 

Gemma gemma (Totten) .............................. 

Ilyanassa obsoleta (Say) .............................. 

Terebra dislocata (Say)................................ 

Nassarius acutus (Say) ............................... 

Pleuromeris tridentata (Say).......................... 

Seila adamsii (H.C. Lea) ............................. 

Tellina agilis Stimpson ............................... 

Terebra concava Say .................................. 

Bellucina amiantus (Ball)............................. 

Anomia simplex d'Orbigny............................ 

Chione cancellata (Linne)............................. 

Lunarca ovalis (Bruguiere) ........................... 

Sinum perspectivum (Say)............................ 

Chione grus (Holmes)................................. 

Chione intapurpurea (Conrad)........................ 

Cnnearca brasiliana (Lamarck)....................... 

Donax variabilis Say.................................. 

Ervilia concentrica (Holmes).......................... 

Mitrella lunata (Say) ................................. 

Parvilucina multilineata (Tuomey and Holmes) ...... 

X 

X

X 

X 

X 

X

X

X 

X 

X 

X 

X

X 

X 

X 

X

X 

X 

X 

X 

X

X X

X 

X 

X 

X 

X

X

X

X 

X 

X 

X 

X

X 

X 

X 

X 

X

X 

X 

X 

X 

X

X 

X 

X 

X 

X

X 

X 

X

equivalent Givhans beds (fig. 1) at Givhans Ferry on the 

Edisto River, about 50 km (30 mi) northwest of Charleston. However, it has not been found at any of the 

younger Goose Creek localities or as fragments in any 

of the auger holes penetrating the Goose Creek in the 

Charleston area; therefore, it is presumed to have 

become extinct by that time (late Pliocene).

SPOROMORPHS

Pollen and spore assemblages from Pleistocene 

Coastal Plain units of the Charleston area are quite 

similar to assemblages of middle to late Holocene age 

from the southern Atlantic Coastal Plain (table 6; Holocene occurrences not shown). These assemblages gener-
G10 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

ally include a mixture of warm-temperate, deciduous, 

broadleaf tree and shrub types (for example, Quercus, 

Carya, Liquidambar, Ulmus, Nyssa, Fagus, and Castanea) and evergreens (for example, Pinus, Ilex, and 

Ericaceae). Assemblages of pollen types such as these 

are likely to have been derived from forest communities 

within the broad category of the oak-pine forest type, the 

type that covers vast areas of the southern Atlantic 

Coastal Plain today. A few samples we studied contain 

pollen types that suggest a specialized habitat, as, for 

example, the abundance of Taxodimn-like species, which 

are often found in combination with Nyssa, Quercus, and 

other taxa that also can tolerate wet conditions. Therefore, these taxa suggest a swamp-forest habitat similar 

to numerous bald cypress swamps that are scattered 

throughout the Coastal Plains of the Carolinas and 

Georgia and adjacent States today.

Pollen of herbaceous plants is common within many 

Pleistocene-age samples from the Atlantic Coastal Plain. 

In some samples, both the relative abundance of total 

herb pollen and the diversity of herb pollen types suggest 

a rich herb flora in the vegetation. Common herb pollens 

include several types of Compositae, Gramineae, 

Chenopodiaceae-Amaranthaceae, Cyperaceae, and others. Further, diverse herb assemblages are a useful 

indicator of a Pleistocene age for pollen samples from the 

geologic units studied thus far in the Charleston area 

(table 6). Many herbaceous taxa do not appear in the 

fossil record until Oligocene or Miocene time or later, and 

even then, herbs are generally poorly represented in the 

pre-Quaternary pollen record. Comparison of presentday pollen assemblages with present-day vegetation 

types suggests that herbaceous plants are often poorly 

represented in the pollen rain in heavily forested regions 

of the Southeastern United States. Where herb pollen is 

abundant, it often indicates an area of open vegetation, 

such as a meadow, freshwater marsh, or salt marsh. 

These areas are the most likely environments for 

Pleistocene-age pollen assemblages containing abundant 

herb pollen, and these habitats would have been most 

widespread close to the migrating coastline.

The general similarity of pollen assemblages within the 

Pleistocene units from the Coastal Plain near Charleston 

suggests long-term vegetational stability in the region. 

This apparent continuity may not reflect the true vegetational history of the region, but it may reflect instead 

the nature of the depositional record from which the 

pollen samples were obtained. The Pleistocene units 

sampled were deposited during high sea levels that 

generally coincided with warm interglacial intervals. 

During the intervening full-glacial intervals of the Pleistocene, sea level dropped, the regional climate became 

cooler and generally drier, and erosional processes 

appear to have predominated over depositional processes

in the Coastal Plain. Under full-glacial conditions, deposition and preservation are much less likely for the 

contemporaneous regional pollen record. From scattered 

localities in the Southeastern United States, we now 

know that during the last full-glacial interval (the Wisconsinan) significant vegetation changes occurred in the 

region (see Watts, 1970, 1983; Whitehead, 1973). Vegetation assumed a more boreal character in much of the 

Southeast, as Picea (spruce), Pin us (pines, probably 

including jack pine), Alnus (alder), and Bettda (birch) 

replaced the species-rich oak-pine forests adapted to 

interglacial climates. Thus, it is very likely that such 

major changes in climate throughout the Pleistocene 

influenced the vegetation of the Coastal Plain at the 

latitude of Charleston, S.C. If the pollen record in the 

Charleston area were complete, it would probably show 

several changes in the pollen type from warmer interglacial intervals to cooler full-glacial intervals throughout 

the Pleistocene. Instead, the preservation of predominantly interglacial deposits in the Charleston area gives 

the pollen record the appearance of long-term stability 

and probably is not an accurate portrayal of the actual 

history during the Pleistocene.

Most pollen taxa in the two samples from the Marks 

Head Formation (table 6) are long-ranging forms typical 

of Oligocene and late Tertiary deposits of the Atlantic 

Coastal Plain. However, the presence of Momipites 

spackmanianns (Traverse, 1955) Nichols, 1973 (see Frederiksen, 1984) in both samples suggests that this deposit 

is Miocene rather than Pliocene in age (N.O. Frederiksen, written commun., 1984).

SUMMARY

The biostratigraphic summary presented in this chapter is complementary to other chapters in this volume by 

Bybell, Cronin, Lyon, Edwards, and Ward and Blackwelder. Together the chapters provide a wealth of fossil 

occurrences and other data, and they assess the value of 

the data as a basis for dating the lithostratigraphic units 

in which the fossils are found. Because the geologic 

record of the Charleston area is fragmentary, we 

weighed depositional and diagenetic factors and tried to 

remove the natural biases within the fossil assemblages 

as we reconstructed the geologic history of the area.

We foresee the main use of this chapter as a source 

reference on which future biostratigraphic studies will be 

partly based. The next and final section, a locality 

register, is, therefore, a necessary part of the text.

LOCALITY REGISTER

The fossils discussed in this volume were obtained 

from either surface exposures or drill holes. The following list contains descriptions of all the fossil localities that 

appear in tables 2-4 and table 6. Most localities are
STRATIGRAPHIC OCCURRENCES NEOCENE AND QUATERNARY INVERTEBRATE FAUNAS AND MICROFLORAS Gil

shown in figure 2, but locality numbers marked * indicate 

South Carolina samples outside the map area. A few sites 

are not located precisely. All sites at which ostracodes 

were found are indicated by +, and for these, CN# is a 

locality number of T.M. Cronin (USGS). The ostracode 

localities that have CN#'s in this locality register are 

also referred to in Cronin's chapter (this volume), but 

other selected ostracode sites in this locality list are not 

specifically referred to by Cronin. LB samples are from 

J.P. Owens (USGS). Other sample designations for individual samples, such as A, A A, and SI, are given in 

appropriate fossil tables (2-4, 6), as well as in the locality 

register. All quadrangles are 7V2-minute quadrangles, 

unless noted otherwise. Altitude, as used in this report, 

refers to distance above or below sea level. Altitudes are 

given for most samples, as well as for the ground surface 

of drill-hole locations.

Locality register for Neogene and Quaternary fossil localities in South Carolina

1. AH-MC-1: 0.6 km (0.4 mi) north of Ebenezer Church 

along U.S. Route 17A; 3.7 km (2.2 mi) north of 

southern quadrangle border, 5.4 km (3.2 mi) west of 

eastern quadrangle border, Moncks Corner quadrangle, Berkeley County, S.C.; sample altitude=14 m (46 

ft). See location in H2 grid block in figure 2.

2. AH-8-76: Along State route 38 8.2 km (4.9 mi) north of 

the junction with U.S. Route 17; 4.7 km (2.8 mi) south 

of northern quadrangle border, 1.8 km (1.1 mi) west 

of eastern quadrangle border, Jacksonboro quadrangle, Charleston County, S.C.; surface altitude=5.5 m 

(18 ft), sample altitude =-0.5 m ( 1 ft). E5 in figure 

2.

3. Moncks Corner (Whitesville) sand pit (A, B, C): On 

east side of U.S. Route 17A 0.6 km (0.4 mi) south of 

the junction of U.S. Route 17A and Pinopolis Road; 2.7 

km (1.6 mi) north of southern quadrangle border, 5.4 

km (3.2 mi) west of eastern quadrangle border, 

Moncks Corner quadrangle, Berkeley County, S.C.; 

sample altitudes: A (CMC-2) and B (BBH-20-76) 

= 18.5 m (60 ft), C (MC-75-LW-16)=15 m (50 ft). H2 

in figure 2.

+4. BE-8 (CN#34): 0.4 km (0.2 mi) southwest of Alligator 

Bridge; 1.7 km (1.0 mi) north of southern quadrangle 

border, 1.3 km (0.8 mi) east of western quadrangle 

border, Bethera quadrangle, Berkeley County, S.C.; 

surface altitude = 9 m (30 ft), sample altitude = -3.5m 

to -4.5 m (-11 ft to -14 ft). J2 in figure 2.

5. BE-10-(A, B): 3.2 km (1.9 mi) west of eastern quadrangle border, 3.7 km (2.2 mi) south of northern 

quadrangle border, Bethera quadrangle, Berkeley 

County, S.C.; surface altitude=18 m (59 ft), sample 

altitudes: A (R2776A)=15 m (49 ft), B (R2776B) = 11.5 

m (37 ft). J2 in figure 2.

6. CA-1-(S1-S5, S8): At south end of Wambaw Swamp 

(northwest of Bulls Bay) at end of small road about 

1.6 km (1.0 mi) north of its intersection with U.S. 

Route 17; 5.8 km (3.5 mi) north of southern quadrangle

Locality register Continued

border, 2.7 km (1.6 mi) east of western quadrangle 

border, Awendaw quadrangle, Charleston County, 

S.C.; surface altitude=5 m (17 ft), sample altitudes: 

Sl = -2 m (-6 ft), S2=-3.5 m (-11 ft), S3=-4.5 m 

(-15 ft), S4=-7 m (-23 ft), S5=-8 m (-26 ft), 

S8=-11.5 m (-38 ft). L3 in figure 2.

7. CA-2: In arm of Wambaw Swamp (northwest of Bulls 

Bay) in raised roadway across swamp; 2.9 km (1.7 mi) 

south of northern quadrangle border, 1.1 km (0.7 mi) 

east of western quadrangle border, Awendaw quadrangle, Charleston County, S.C.; surface altitude=5 

m (17 ft), sample altitude=sea level. L3 in figure 2.

8. CA-3: Wambaw Swamp (northwest of Bulls Bay) at 

end of road on low peninsula projecting eastward into 

swamp; 4.2 km (2.5 mi) south of northern quadrangle 

border, 2.4 km (1.4 mi) east of western quadrangle 

border, Awendaw quadrangle, Charleston County, 

S.C.; surface altitude=6.5 m (22 ft), sample 

altitude=1 m (4 ft). L3 in figure 2.

9. CA-4: Wambaw Swamp (northwest of Bulls Bay) at 

bend in small road at edge of swamp; 5.0 km (3.0 mi) 

south of northern quadrangle border, 4.2 km (2.5 mi) 

east of western quadrangle border, Awendaw quadrangle, Charleston County, S.C.; surface altitude=8 

m (27 ft), sample altitude=+3 m to -4 m (+10 ft to

-13ft). L3 in figure 2.

+ 10. CBL-1 (CN#50): On Jenkins Island at bend in State 

Route 278; 3.4 km (2.0 mi) south of northern quadrangle border, 2.5 km (1.5 mi) west of eastern quadrangle 

border, Bluffton quadrangle, Beaufort County, S.C.; 

surface altitude=3.5 m (12 ft), fossils from 1 m to

-10 m (-4 ft to -33 ft). BIO in figure 2.

+ 11. CBT-3 (CN#38): About 4 km (2.4 mi) west-southwest 

of Beaufort, 1.5 km (0.9 mi) southwest of New Hope 

Church at major bend in paved road; 5.3 km (3.2 mi) 

north of southern quadrangle border, 1.8 km (1.1 mi) 

east of western quadrangle border, Beaufort quadrangle, Beaufort County, S.C.; surface altitude=4.5 

m (15 ft), sample altitude = -3 m (-10 ft). C8 in figure 

2.

12. CF-1-(S3, S6): Marina on west side of road between 

Mount Pleasant and Sullivans Island; 2.6 km (1.6 mi) 

north of southern quadrangle border, 2.9 km (1.7 mi) 

east of western quadrangle border, Fort Moultrie 

quadrangle, Charleston County, S.C.; surface altitude=2.5 m (8 ft), sample altitudes: S3 (6590)=-2 m 

(-7 ft), S6 (6591)=-8 m (-27 ft). J5 in figure 2.

+ 13. CF-2 (CN#67): West end of Yenning pit; 5.3 km (3.2 

mi) south of northern quadrangle border, 4.7 km (2.8 

mi) east of western quadrangle border, Fort Moultrie 

quadrangle, Charleston County, S.C.; top of pit=5 m 

(17 ft), top of auger hole=3 m (10 ft), fossils present 

from +2.5 m to -3.5 m (+8 ft to -11 ft) altitude. J5 

in figure 2.

+ 14. CFR-1 (CN#46-48): 2.5 km (1.5 mi) south of U.S. 

Route 21 at Frogmore at paved road junction near 

Bethel Church; 0.2 km (0.1 mi) north of southern
G12 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

Locality register Continued

quadrangle border, 4.5 km (2.7 mi) east of western 

quadrangle border, Frogmore quadrangle, Beaufort 

County, S.C.; surface altitude=7.5 m (25 ft), fossils 

from -2 m to -15 m (-7 ft to -50 ft) altitude. D8 in 

figure 2.

15. CG-1: About 8 km (4.8 mi) south of Maryville on U.S. 

Route 17; 5.0 km (3.0 mi) north of southern quadrangle border, 2.6 km (1.6 mi) east of western quadrangle 

border, Georgetown South quadrangle, Georgetown 

County, S.C.; surface altitude=10.5 m (35 ft), fossils 

from +4.5 m to -1 m (+15 ft to -4 ft) altitude. Nl in 

figure 2.

16. CGP-1: North of the Coosaw River and west of the 

Combahee River on east side of road about 0.5 km 

(0.3 mi) south of major bend in road; 9.0 km (5.4 mi) 

north of southern quadrangle border, 0.8 km (0.5 mi) 

east of western quadrangle border, Green Pond 15- 

minute quadrangle, Beaufort County, S.C.; surface 

altitude=6 m (20 ft), shells between -1m and -2.5 m 

(-3 ft to -8 ft) altitude. C7 in figure 2.

17. CH-3: 1.6 km (1.0 mi) south of Old Joe along State 

Route 41; 4.5 km (2.7 mi) north of southern quadrangle border, 5.5 km (3.3 mi) west of eastern quadrangle 

border, Huger quadrangle, Berkeley County, S.C.; 

surface altitude=12 m (40 ft), sample altitude = 1 m 

to 11 m (-4 ft to 36 ft). J3 in figure 2.

18. CH-14: Fort Johnson Marine Biological Station; 0.3 km 

(0.2 mi) north of southern quadrangle border, 2.1 km 

(1.3 mi) west of eastern quadrangle border, Charleston quadrangle, Charleston County, S.C.; surface 

altitude=2.5 m (9 ft), sample altitude = -9 m to -14 m 

(-30 ft to -46 ft). 15 in figure 2.

+ 19. CHAS-100 (CN#62-64): South of the intersection of 

interstate 26 and the Seaboard Coastline Railroad; 1.1 

km (0.7 mi) south of northern quadrangle border, 0.2 

km (0.1 mi) east of western quadrangle border, 

Charleston quadrangle, Charleston County, S.C.; 

surface altitude=7 m (23 ft), sample altitude=2 m to 

2.5 m (6 ft to 8 ft). 15 in figure 2.

+20. CK-2-(S5-S7) (CN#18): At POMFLANT Naval 

Weapons Station west of Back River; 0.8 km (0.5 mi) 

north of southern quadrangle border, 4.0 km (2.4 mi) 

east of western quadrangle border, Kittredge quadrangle, Berkeley County, S.C.; surface altitude=10m 

(32 ft), sample altitudes: S5=l m (2 ft), S6=sea level, 

S7=-l m (-2 ft). 13 in figure 2.

+21. CM-1 (CN#59, 60): U.S. Department of Agriculture 

Work Center compound 550 m (1,805 ft) south of U.S. 

Route 17A on road to McClellanville; 3.7 km (2.2 mi) 

south of northern quadrangle border, 2.9 km (1.7 mi) 

east of western quadrangle border, McClellanville 

quadrangle, Charleston County, S.C.; surface altitude =3.5 m (11 ft), sample altitude =-2 m (-7 ft). 

M3 in figure 2.

+22. CMC-17-A: On U.S. Route 17A 0.8 km (0.5 mi) south 

of intersection with State Route 165; 0.5 km (0.3 mi) 

north of southern quadrangle border, 5 km (3 mi) east

Locality register Continued

of western quadrangle border, Summerville quadrangle, Dorchester County, S.C.; surface altitude=22 m 

(72 ft), sample altitude between 11 m and 13.5 m (37 

ft and 45 ft). G3 in figure 2.

+23. CMH-9 (CN#31, 32): Beside small ridge 0.7 km (0.4 

mi) northeast of U.S. Route 176; 2.7 km (1.6 mi) south 

of northern quadrangle border, 0.8 km (0.5 mi) east of 

western quadrangle border, Mount Holly quadrangle, 

Berkeley County, S.C.; surface altitude=27.5 m (90 

ft), sample altitude = 15 m (50 ft). H3 in figure 2.

24. CNC-6-D4: POMFLANT Naval Weapons Station 0.5 

km (0.3 mi) south of Red Bank Road; 4.9 km (2.9 mi) 

south of northern quadrangle border, 4.5 km (2.7 mi) 

east of western quadrangle border, North Charleston 

quadrangle, Berkeley County, S.C.; surface altitude=10 m (32 ft), sample altitude= -0.5 m (-1 ft). 14 

in figure 2.

25. CNC-18: At fork in dirt road (located at 40-ft contour 

line) 1.2 km (0.7 mi) east of Yellow House Creek and 

0.9 km (0.5 mi) southwest of St. Johns Church; 4.6 km 

(2.8 mi) north of southern quadrangle border, 2.9 km 

(1.7 mi) west of eastern quadrangle border, North 

Charleston quadrangle, Berkeley County, S.C.; surface altitude=12 m (40 ft), sample altitude =-3 m 

(-10ft). 14 in figure 2.

26. COE-8: Beside State Route 84 0.75 km (0.5 mi) south of 

intersection with U.S. Route 17A at gate to logging 

road; 7.0 km (4.2 mi) south of northern quadrangle 

border, 4.3 km (2.6 mi) east of western quadrangle 

border, Clubhouse Crossroads quadrangle, Dorchester County, S.C.; surface altitude=7.5 m (25 ft), 

sample altitude=3.5 m (11 ft); sample no. is 6585. F4 

in figure 2.

27. COE-13: Along Westvaco timber road west of State 

Route 165; 5.0 km (3.0 mi) north of southern quadrangle border, 0.2 km (0.1 mi) west of eastern quadrangle border, Clubhouse Crossroads quadrangle, 

Dorchester County, S.C.; surface altitude=6.5 m (21 

ft), sample altitude=2 m to 2.5 m (7 ft to 8 ft). F4 in 

figure 2.

28. CP1-D-(A, B): Northwest of Gillisonville off State 

Route 278 on small road to Beaverdam Church; 8.9 

km (5.3 mi) north of southern quadrangle border, 0.6 

km (0.4 mi) west of eastern quadrangle border, Pineland 15-minute quadrangle, Jasper County, S.C.; 

surface altitude=24.5 m (80 ft), sample altitudes: 

A=13 m (43 ft), B=-l m (-3 ft). A6 in figure 2.

+29. CS-2 (CN#35): 5.0 km (3.0 mi) north of North Santee 

beside U.S. Route 17; 1.7 km (1.0 mi) south of 

northern quadrangle border, 0.2 km (0.1 mi) west of 

eastern quadrangle border, Santee quadrangle, 

Georgetown County, S.C.; surface altitude=10 m (32 

ft), sample altitude=sea level. M2 in figure 2.

+30. EI-2 (CN#51-53): 1 km (0.6 mi) east of Mt. Olive 

Church at intersection of small road to north and 

State Route 174; 4.8 km (2.9 mi) south of northern 

quadrangle border, 3.5 km (2.1 mi) east of western
STRATIGRAPHIC OCCURRENCES NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY INVERTEBRATE FAUNAS AND MICROFLORAS G13

Locality register Continued

quadrangle border, Edisto Island quadrangle, 

Charleston County, S.C.; surface altitude=4.5 m (15 

ft), fossils from +1 m to -12 m (+2 ft to -40 ft). F7 

in figure 2.

+31. EI-3-(A, B, C, D) (CN#39-42): On Scanawah Island at 

bluff cut by meander in Bailey Creek; 6.6 km (4.0 mi) 

north of southern quadrangle border, 1.3 km (0.8 mi) 

east of western quadrangle border, Edisto Island 

quadrangle, Charleston County, S.C.; sample altitudes: (A) (78TC65)=sea level, (B) (78TC66)=0.3 m (1 

ft), (C) (78TC67)=0.6 m (2 ft), (D) (78TC68)=1 m (3 

ft). F7 in figure 2.

32. FM-26: At Porcher Bluff; 1.4 km (0.8 mi) west of 

eastern quadrangle border, 1.8 km (1.1 mi) south of 

northern quadrangle border, Fort Moultrie quadrangle, Charleston County, S.C.; surface altitude=2.5 m 

(8 ft), sample altitude= -2.5 m (-9 ft). J5 in figure 2.

33. GF-1: 1.8 km (1.1 mi) south of Dorchester County line; 

6.0 km (3.6 mi) south of northern quadrangle border, 

0.2 km (0.1 mi) west of eastern quadrangle border, 

Osborn quadrangle, Charleston County, S.C.; surface 

altitude=11.5 m (38 ft), sample altitude=l m (2 ft); 

sample no. is 6588. F5 in figure 2.

+34. GF-9: Along crest of Cainhoy barrier; 3.5 km (2.1 mi) 

north of southern quadrangle border, 1.6 km (1.0 mi) 

west of eastern quadrangle border, Osborn quadrangle, Charleston County, S.C.; surface altitude=14.5 

m (48 ft), sample altitude^ -0.5 m to -1.5 m (-1 ft to 

-5 ft). F5 in figure 2.

35. GP-3: 2 km (1.2 mi) southeast of Clubhouse Crossroads; 1.1 km (0.7 mi) north of southern quadrangle 

border, 5.4 km (3.2 mi) west of eastern quadrangle 

border, Clubhouse Crossroads quadrangle, Dorchester County, S.C.; surface altitude=3.5 m to 4.5 m 

(12 ft to 14 ft), sample altitude=sea level to 1 m (sea 

level to 2 ft). F4 in figure 2.

36. GP-7: 5.6 km (3.4 mi) northeast of Clubhouse Crossroads; 6.4 km (3.8 mi) north of southern quadrangle 

border, 2.7 km (1.6 mi) west of eastern quadrangle 

border, Clubhouse Crossroads quadrangle, Dorchester County, S.C.; surface altitude=6.5 m (22 ft), 

sample altitude=1 m to 2 m (3 ft to 6 ft). F4 in figure 

2.

37. GS-17-(S2, S3): 6.2 km (3.7 mi) south of northern 

quadrangle border, 3.9 km (2.3 mi) west of eastern 

quadrangle border, Osborn quadrangle, Charleston 

County, S.C.; surface altitude=4.5 m (14 ft), sample 

altitudes: S2=-0.5 m to -1 m (-1 ft to -3 ft), S3 

(6589)= -1.5 m to -2 m (-5 ft to -7 ft). F5 in figure 

2.

38. GS-24-(Sl, S2, S3): In Caw Caw Swamp; 3.8 km (2.3 

mi) north of southern quadrangle border, 4.2 km (2.5 

mi) west of eastern quadrangle border, Osborn quadrangle, Charleston County, S.C.; surface altitude=3 

m (10 ft), sample altitudes: Sl = 1.5 m to 2 m (5 ft to 7 

ft), S2=-0.5mto -1m (-1ft to -3ft), S3=-3.5m 

to -4.5 m (-11 ft to -14 ft). F5 in figure 2.

Locality register Continued

39. GS-26: Caw Caw Swamp, 0.4 km (0.2 mi) north of 

bench mark 13 on west side of State Route 165; 6.0 km 

(3.6 mi) north of southern quadrangle border, 1.9 km 

(1.1 mi) west of eastern quadrangle border, Osborn 

quadrangle, Charleston County, S.C.; surface altitude=4.5 m (14 ft), sample altitude=l m (3 ft); sample 

no. is 6584. F5 in figure 2.

+40. GS-29-(S2, S3): 1.9 km (1.1 mi) north of southern 

quadrangle border, 4.1 km (2.5 mi) east of western 

quadrangle border, Osborn quadrangle, Charleston 

County, S.C.; surface altitude=4 m (13 ft), sample 

altitudes: S2 (6586)=0.5 m (1 ft), S3 (6587)=-! m to 

-1.5 m (-3 ft to -5 ft). F5 in figure 2. 

+ *41. H-275: Near the Ida Bell dug pond; Bayboro quadrangle, Horry County, S.C.; surface altitude=29 m (95 

ft), sample altitude=sea level.

42. JI-43-(I, J): Excavation; 0.2 km (0.1 mi) south of 

northern quadrangle border, 4.3 km (2.6 mi) east of 

western quadrangle border, Johns Island quadrangle, 

Charleston County, S.C.; surface altitude=4 m (13 

ft), sample altitudes are both about 2 m to 2.5 m (7 ft 

to 8 ft) from different parts of the excavation. H5 in 

figure 2.

+43. JOI-3 (CN#61): Abandoned railroad right of way 0.8 

km (0.5 mi) south of U.S. Route 17 and 1.5 km (0.9 mi) 

southwest of junction of U.S. Route 17 and State 

Route 7; 3.7 km (2.2 mi) north of southern quadrangle 

border, 4.2 km (2.5 mi) west of eastern quadrangle 

border, Johns Island quadrangle, Charleston County, 

S.C.; surface altitude=1.5 m (5 ft), sample altitude is 

between sea level and -6m (sea level and -19 ft). H5 

in figure 2.

+44. JOI-104 (CN#37): Near Dorchester Road overpass 

across Seaboard Coastline Railroad; 2.1 km (1.3 mi) 

south of northern quadrangle border, 2.3 km (1.4 mi) 

west of eastern quadrangle border, Johns Island 

quadrangle, Charleston County, S.C.; surface altitude=10 m (33 ft), sample altitude=4.5 m (15 ft). H5 

in figure 2.

45. KI-2-(Sl-S5): On Kiawah Island beside Ocean Drive; 

3.3 km (2.0 mi) south of northern quadrangle border, 

1.3 km (0.8 mi) east of western quadrangle border, 

Kiawah Island quadrangle, Charleston County, S.C.; 

surface altitude =1.5 m (5 ft), sample altitudes: 

Sl=-4 m (-13 ft), S2=-6.5 m (-22 ft), S3=-10 m 

(-32 ft), S4= -11 m (-36 ft), S5= -17 m (-55 ft). H7 

in figure 2.

+46. M^TI-7 (CN#54-56): Borrow pit for Mark Clark 

Expressway; 5.8 km (3.5 mi) south of northern quadrangle border, 2.6 km (1.6 mi) west of eastern quadrangle border, Johns Island quadrangle, Charleston 

County, S.C.; surface altitude=3.5 m (12 ft), sample 

altitudes: CN#54=-0.3 m (-1 ft), CN#55=0.3 m (1 

ft), CN#56=1 m (3 ft). H5 in figure 2. 

47. M-C-83-9: West side of U.S. Route 21 0.5 km (0.3 mi) 

south of road to Seabrook; 3.0 km (1.8 mi) north of 

southern quadrangle border, 0.2 km (0.1 mi) east of
G14 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

Locality register Continued

western quadrangle border, Green Pond 15-minute 

quadrangle, Beaufort County, S.C.; surface altitude=3.5 m (12 ft), sample altitude=-6.5 m to -8 m 

(-21 ft to -26 ft); sample no. is R7098. C7 in figure 2.

+48. MH-86 (CN#33): Bessinger's pond; 3.1 km (1.9 mi) 

north of southern quadrangle border, 0.9 km (0.5 mi) 

east of western quadrangle border, Mount Holly 

quadrangle, Berkeley County, S.C.; surface altitude =15 m (49 ft), sample altitude=8 m to 11.5 m (27 

ft to 37 ft). H3 in figure 2.

+49. NC-2 (CN#13): Bluff near Yeamans Hall on Goose 

Creek, type section of Goose Creek Limestone; 5.8 

km (3.5 mi) north of southern quadrangle border, 1.3 

km (0.8 mi) east of western quadrangle border, North 

Charleston quadrangle, Berkeley County, S.C.; sample altitude=sea level. 14 in figure 2.

+50. NC-3-(A, B, C) (CN#14, 15): From construction pit at 

General Electric Company plant at Bushy Park; 1.8 

km (1.1 mi) south of northern quadrangle border, 5.0 

km (3.0 mi) west of eastern quadrangle border, North 

Charleston quadrangle, Berkeley County, S.C.; surface altitude=3.5 m (12 ft), sample altitudes: A=2 m 

(7 ft), B = 1.8 m (6 ft), C=1.5 m (5 ft). 14 in figure 2.

+51. NC-4 (CN#19): Bluff along east bank of Clouter Creek 

0.6 km (0.4 mi) west of Mary Ann Church; 1.6 km (1.0 

mi) north of southern quadrangle border, 5.7 km (3.4 

mi) west of eastern quadrangle border, North 

Charleston quadrangle, Berkeley County, S.C.; sample altitude=sea level. 14 in figure 2. 

52. RA-3:0.3 km (0.2 mi) south-southwest of Ravenel train 

station; 0.5 km (0.3 mi) east of western quadrangle 

border, 1.4 km (0.8 mi) north of southern quadrangle 

border, Ravenel quadrangle, Charleston County, 

S.C.; surface altitude =11.5 m (37 ft), sample 

altitude=-3.5 m to -6.5 m (-11 ft to -21 ft). G5 in 

figure 2.

+53. RO-1: Near northeast shore of North Edisto River 

about 0.5 km (0.3 mi) upstream from mouth of 

Bohicket Creek and across the river from Point of 

Pines; Rockville quadrangle, Charleston County, 

S.C.; sample altitude approximately 1.5 m ( 5 ft). 

G7 in figure 2.

+54. SMB-2 (near CN#29): Southwest side of U.S. Route 

176 2.1 km (1.3 mi) north of the intersection of U.S. 

Route 176 and U.S. Route 17A; 5.0 km (3.0 mi) south 

of northern quadrangle border, 1.7 km (1.0 mi) east of 

western quadrangle border, Mount Holly quadrangle, 

Berkeley County, S.C.; surface altitude=25 m (82 ft), 

sample altitude=14.5 m to 16 m (47 ft to 52 ft). H3 in 

figure 2.

55. ST-15-(4A, 4AA, 4AB): Borrow pit east of Creekside 

Trailer Park; 3.4 km (2.0 mi) south of northern 

quadrangle border, 5.4 km (3.2 mi) east of western 

quadrangle border, Stallsville quadrangle, Dorchester County, S.C.; surface altitude=16 m (53 ft), 

sample altitudes: 4A (R1957A) and 4AA (R1957B)

Locality register Continued

=9.5 m (31 ft), 4AB (R1957C)=7 m (23 ft). G4 in 

figure 2.

+56. ST-17 (CN#20): 1.8 km (1.1 mi) south of northern 

quadrangle border, 1.7 km (1.0 mi) west of eastern 

quadrangle border, Stalls ville quadrangle, Charleston County, S.C.; surface altitude=19 m (62 ft), 

sample altitude=11.5 m (37 ft). G4 in figure 2.

+57. ST-24 (CN#21): 1.5 km (0.9 mi) south of northern 

quadrangle border, 0.2 km (0.1 mi) west of eastern 

quadrangle border, Stallsville quadrangle, Dorchester County, S.C.; surface altitude=15 m (49 ft), 

sample altitude=10.5 m (35 ft). G4 in figure 2. 

58. ST-47: 3.0 km (1.8 mi) south of northern quadrangle 

border, 2.4 km (1.4 mi) east of western quadrangle 

border, Stallsville quadrangle, Dorchester County, 

S.C.; surface altitude=20 m (65 ft), sample 

altitude=11.5 m (37 ft). G4 in figure 2.

+59. ST-76 (CN#36): 1.6 km (1.0 mi) north of southern 

quadrangle border, 0.1 km (0.1 mi) west of eastern 

quadrangle border, Stallsville quadrangle, Charleston County, S.C.; surface altitude=14.5 m (48 ft), 

sample altitude=3.5 m (12 ft). G4 in figure 2.

+60. WAD-100-(A, B) (CN#22, 23, 43, 44, 45, 65, 66): At 

Wadmalaw Island Post Office; 3.6 km (2.2 mi) north of 

southern quadrangle border, 4.3 km (2.6 mi) west of 

eastern quadrangle border, Wadmalaw Island quadrangle, Charleston County, S.C.; surface altitude=4.5 m (14 ft), sample altitudes: A=l m to -9 m 

(4 ft to -29 ft), B = -11.5 m to -12.5 m (-38 ft to -41 

ft). G6 in figure 2.

61. X-CC-6: 3.0 km (1.8 mi) south of northern quadrangle 

border, 3.5 km (2.1 mi) east of western quadrangle 

border, Clubhouse Crossroads quadrangle, Dorchester County, S.C.; surface altitude = 18.5 m (60 ft), 

sample altitude=8.5 m (28 ft); sample no. is R2794. F4 

in figure 2.

62. X-FM-23: 1.8 km (1.1 mi) south of northern quadrangle border, 1.8 km (1.1 mi) west of eastern quadrangle 

border, Fort Moultrie quadrangle, Charleston County, S.C.; surface altitude=2.5 m (9 ft), sample altitude 

= 1 m (3 ft); sample no. is R2777. J5 in figure 2.

+63. X-SN-(7, 12, 17) (CN#5-7): About 5.6 km (3.4 mi) east 

of western quadrangle border, 5.9 km (3.5 mi) south 

of northern quadrangle border, Summerville Northwest quadrangle, Berkeley County, S.C.; three locations within 1-km radius at nearly the same altitude: 

surface altitude=18.5 m to 20 m (60 ft to 65 ft), sample 

altitude=15 m to 17 m (50 ft to 55 ft). G2 in figure 2.

+64. X-PR-19 (CN#11): 1.7 km (1.0 mi) east of western 

quadrangle border, 1.8 km (1.1 mi) north of southern 

quadrangle border, Pringletown quadrangle, Berkeley County, S.C.; surface altitude=25 m (82 ft), 

sample altitude=17 m (56 ft). F2 in figure 2.

+65. X-PR-6 (CN#9): 0.5 km (0.3 mi) east of western 

quadrangle border, 0.9 km (0.5 mi) north of southern 

sample altitude=17.5 m (58 ft). F2 in figure 2.
STRATIGRAPHIC OCCURRENCES NEOCENE AND QUATERNARY INVERTEBRATE FAUNAS AND MICROFLORAS G15

Locality register Continued

quadrangle border, Pringletown quadrangle, Berkeley County, S.C.; surface altitude=28.5 m (94 ft), 

+66. X-SN-19 (CN#8): 0.9 km (0.5 mi) east of western 

quadrangle border, 1.4 km (0.8 mi) north of southern 

quadrangle border, Summerville Northwest quadrangle, Berkeley County, S.C.; surface altitude=21 m 

(69 ft), sample altitude = 15 m (49 ft). G2 in figure 2.

67. X-CJ-1: 6.9 km (4.1 mi) south of northern quadrangle 

border, 2.9 km (1.7 mi) east of western quadrangle 

border, James Island quadrangle, Charleston County, S.C.; surface altitude=1.5 m (5 ft), sample 

altitude=-12 m (-39 ft). 16 in figure 2.

68. X-CH-12: One block northwest of intersection of 

McMillan Avenue and Meeting Road on northeast 

side of Meeting Street Road; 1.9 km (1.1 mi) south of 

northern quadrangle border, 1.3 km (0.8 mi) east of 

western quadrangle border, Charleston quadrangle, 

Charleston County, S.C.; surface altitude = 10 m (33 

ft), sample altitude=2.5 m to 3 m (8 ft to 10 ft). 15 in 

figure 2.

69. X-CNC-15-(S3, S4, S5): At Pine Plantation; 6.4 km 

(3.8 mi) north of southern quadrangle border, 1.8 km 

(1.1 mi) west of eastern quadrangle border, North 

Charleston quadrangle, Berkeley County, S.C.; surface altitude=6 m (20 ft), sample altitudes: S3= 2 m 

(-7 ft), S4=-2.5 m (-8 ft), S5=-3.5 m (-12 m). 14 

in figure 2.

70. X-SU-1: In excavation pit beside access road northeast 

of interstate 26 and southeast of U.S. Route 17A; 3.8 

km (2.3 mi) north of southern quadrangle border, 1.7 

km (1.0 mi) west of eastern quadrangle border, Summerville quadrangle, Berkeley County, S.C.; surface 

altitude = 18.5 m (60 ft), sample altitude=14.5 m to 15 

m (47 ft to 49 ft). G3 in figure 2.

71. X-CC-9: 0.2 km (0.1 mi) south of radio tower; 0.2 km 

(0.1 mi) south of northern quadrangle border, 1.8 km 

(1.1 mi) west of eastern quadrangle border, Clubhouse Crossroads quadrangle, Dorchester County, 

S.C.; surface altitude = 16 m (52 ft), sample altitude=9 

m (30 ft); sample no. is R2795. F4 in figure 2.

72. X-Hu-1: In Francis Marion National Forest; 4.3 km 

(2.6 mi) north of southern quadrangle border, 5.6 km 

(3.4 mi) west of eastern quadrangle border, Huger 

quadrangle, Berkeley County, S.C.; surface altitude =12 m (40 ft), sample altitude=1 m to 4.5 m (4 ft 

to 15 ft). J3 in figure 2.

73. X-FM-4: Near west end of Fort Moultrie, Sullivans 

Island; 1.0 km (0.6 mi) north of southern quadrangle 

border, 1.5 km (0.9 mi) east of western quadrangle 

border, Fort Moultrie quadrangle, Charleston County, S.C.; surface altitude=1.5 m (5 ft), sample altitude^ 10.5 m to -11 m (-35 ft to -36 ft). J5 in 

figure 2.

74. X-Simmons Bluff (A, B, C): South end of Yonges 

Island in Wadmalaw Sound; 6.9 km (4.1 mi) south of 

northern quadrangle border, 2.0 km (1.2 mi) east of

Locality register Continued

western quadrangle border, Wadmalaw Island quadrangle, Charleston County, S.C.; sample altitudes: 

(A) (78TC71) = sea level, (B) (78TC73)=0.3 m (1 ft), 

(C) (78TC72)=0.6 m (2 ft). G6 in figure 2.

*75. Windy Hill Airport (A, B, C): Intracoastal Waterway 

near Myrtle Beach, S.C.; sample altitudes: (A) 

(78TC18) and (B) (NCSC 66)=1 m (3 ft), (C) 

(78TC19)=1.5m(5ft).

*76. Locality WA-20 of DuBar (1971) (A-H): Intracoastal 

Waterway near Myrtle Beach, S.C.; sample altitudes: 

(A) (NCSC 68)=1 m (3.5 ft), (B) (78TC85)=0.5 m (1 

ft), (C) (78TC86) = 1 m (3.5 ft), (D) (78TC87)=1.5 m 

(4.5 ft), (E) (78TC88)=2 m (7 ft), (F) (78TC89)=2.5 m 

(9 ft), (G) (78TC90)=3.5 m (11 ft), (H) (78TC91)=4 m 

(13 ft).

*77. Cedar Grove pit (A, B): 1.6 km (1.0 mi) south of Little 

River, S.C., on east side of U.S. Route 17; samplealtitudes: (A) (78TC93) = 1 m (2.5 ft), (B) (78TC94)=2.5 m 

(8 ft).

+ *78. (CN#57): West branch of Pee Dee River 0.4 km (0.2 

mi) upstream from railroad bridge (Godfrey Ferry 

Bridge); Johnsonville 15-minute quadrangle, S.C.; 

sample altitude=0.5 m (2 ft).

*79. Parkers Landing (A, B, C, D): Waccamaw River, S.C.; 

sample altitudes: (A) (78TC205)=2 m (7 ft), (B) 

(78TC208)=2.5 m (8 ft), (C) (78TC209)=3 m (9.5 ft), 

(D) (78TC210)=3.5 m (11.5 ft).

*80. LB173-(S1-S5): Sumter County, S.C., southwest corner of Florence 2° sheet; surface altitude=41 m (134 

ft), sample altitudes: (Sl)=27.5 m (90 ft), (S2)=26.5 m 

(87ft), (S3)=26m (85 ft), (S4)=25.5m(83ft), (S5)=25 

m (82 ft).

*81. WA-19 of DuBar (1971): Intracoastal Waterway near 

Myrtle Beach, S.C.

+82. CBT-1 (CN#58): 0.6 km (0.4 mi) west of U.S. Route 

21; 5.2 km (3.1 mi) south of northern quadrangle 

border, 0.9 km (0.5 mi) east of western quadrangle 

border, Beaufort quadrangle, Beaufort County, S.C.; 

surface altitude=5.5 m (18 ft), sample altitude = -8 m 

(-27 ft). C8 in figure 2.

+83. CMH-6 (CN#27, 28): 1.5 km (0.9 mi) south-southwest 

of Ridge Church; 0.8 km (0.5 mi) east of western 

quadrangle border, 3.2 km (1.9 mi) north of southern 

quadrangle border, Mount Holly quadrangle, Berkeley County, S.C.; surface altitude=15 m (49 ft), 

sample altitudes: CN#27=11.5 m (37 ft), CN#28=8 

m (27 ft). H3 in figure 2.

+84. CMH-7 (CN#30): 0.9 km (0.5 mi) south of Ridge 

Church; 1.2 km (0.7 mi) east of western quadrangle 

border, 3.6 km (2.2 mi) north of southern quadrangle 

border, Mount Holly quadrangle, Berkeley County, 

S.C.; surface altitude=15 m (50 ft), sample altitude =7.5 m (25 ft). H3 in figure 2.

+85. CRVNW-1 (CN#3): East edge of Dorchester; 0.4 km 

(0.2 mi) west of eastern quadrangle border, 0.75 km 

(0.5 mi) north of southern quadrangle border,
G16 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

Locality register Continued

Harleyville quadrangle, Dorchester County, S.C.; 

surface altitude=33.5 m (110 ft), sample altitude=19.5 m (64 ft). E2 in figure 2.

+86. CSV-1 (CN#24): 6.3 km (3.8 mi) north-northeast of 

intersection of interstate 26 and U.S. Route 17A; 1.1 

km (0.7 mi) west of eastern quadrangle border, 1.2 

km (0.7 mi) south of northern quadrangle border, 

Summerville quadrangle, Dorchester County, S.C.; 

surface altitude=26 m (85 ft), sample altitude=14 m 

(46 ft). G3 in figure 2.

+87. CSV-2 (CN#25, 26): 2.7 km (1.6 mi) southwest of 

Summerville on U.S. Route 17A; 4.3 km (2.6 mi) east 

of western quadrangle border, 0.3 km (0.2 mi) north 

of southern quadrangle border, Summerville quadrangle, Dorchester County, S.C.; surface altitude=23 

m (75 ft), sample altitudes: CN#25=13.5 m (45 ft), 

CN#26=13 m (42 ft). G3 in figure 2.

+88. CW-1 (CN#10): 13.5 km (8.1 mi) northeast of Walterboro at Sidney; 6.3 km (3.8 mi) west of eastern 

quadrangle border, 0.2 km (0.1 mi) south of northern 

quadrangle border, Walterboro 15-minute quadrangle, Colleton County, S.C.; surface altitude=30.5 m 

(100 ft), sample altitude=15.5 m (51 ft). D4 in figure 

2.

+89. CNC-20 (CN#16, 17): On Yeamans Hall Golf Course; 

1.7 km (1.0 mi) east of western quadrangle border, 5.9 

km (3.5 mi) north of southern quadrangle border, 

North Charleston quadrangle, Charleston County, 

S.C.; surface altitude=5 m (16 ft), sample altitudes: 

CN#16=-1.5 m (-5 ft), CN#17=-2.5 m (-8 ft). 14 

in figure 2.

*90. N4293: Locality of Sloan (1908) at "838 Muldrow Place, 

5 miles S. 45° E. of Mayesville, 0.5 miles north of 

Brick Church" at edge of swamp, Sumter County, 

S.C.; surface altitude=41 m (134 ft), sample altitude=33.5 m to 37 m (110 ft to 122 ft).

+91. (CN#2): Sloan's (1908) locality 336 on west side of 

Edisto River, "Smiles S. 25° W. of St. George, Vtmile 

southeast of Raysor Bridge"; sample altitude=23 m 

(75 ft). C3 in figure 2.

+92. (CN#49): At Doe Point 4.3 km (2.6 mi) north-northeast 

of Frogmore; 6.0 km (3.6 mi) west of eastern quadrangle border, 6.2 km (3.7 mi) north of southern 

quadrangle border, center of Frogmore quadrangle, 

Beaufort County, S.C.; surface altitude=3 m (10 ft), 

sample altitude=-3 m (-10 ft). D8 in figure 2.

+93. (CN#12): East edge of Smoaks; 5.3 km (3.2 mi) west of 

eastern quadrangle border, 10.2 km (6.1 mi) north of 

southern quadrangle border, Lodge 15-minute quadrangle, Colleton County, S.C.; surface altitude=35 m 

(115 ft), sample altitude=28 m (92 ft). B3 in figure 2. 

+*94. (CN#1): Tearcoat Branch 8.8 km (5.3 mi) southeast of 

Sumter on county road 255, immediately south of 

bridge; Mayesville 15-minute quadrangle; surface 

altitude=38 m (125 ft), sample altitude=28 m (92 ft). 

+*95. CP-1 (CN#4): Northwest of Gillisonville off State 

Route 278 on small road to Beaverdam Church; Pine

Locality register Continued

land 15-minute quadrangle, Jasper County, S.C.; 

surface altitude=24 m (79 ft), sample altitude=13 m 

(43 ft).

+ *96. LB179: 7.0 km (4.2 mi) west-northwest of Darlington, 

S.C.; surface altitude=55.5 m (182 ft), sample altitude=16 m (52 ft).

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diatoms from the Hawthorn Formation within the Ridgeland 

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Abbott, W.H., and Huddlestun, P.F., 1980, The Miocene of South 

Carolina, in DuBar, J.R., DuBar, S.S., Ward, L.W., and Blackwelder, B.W., Cenozoic biostratigraphy of the Carolina outer 

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southeastern geology, v. 1 [Guidebook] Geological Society of 

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 1981, Late Cenozoic stages and molluscan zones of the U.S. 

middle Atlantic Coastal Plain: Journal of Paleontology, v. 55, no. 5 

supp., p. 1-34.

Blackwelder, B.W., and Ward, L.W., 1979, Stratigraphic revision of 

the Pliocene deposits of North and South Carolina: South Carolina 

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Campbell, L.D., Campbell, S.C., Colquhoun, D.J., and Ernissee, J.J., 

1975, Plio-Pleistocene faunas of the central Carolina Coastal Plain: 

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Colquhoun, D.J., 1974, Cyclic surficial stratigraphic units of the middle 

and lower Coastal Plains, central South Carolina, in Oaks, R.Q., 

Jr., and DuBar, J.R., eds., Post-Miocene stratigraphy central and 

southern Atlantic Coastal Plain: Logan, Utah, Utah State University Press, p. 179-190.

Colquhoun, D.J., Herrick, S.M., and Richards, H.G., 1968, A fossil 

assemblage from the Wicomico Formation in Berkeley County, 

South Carolina: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 79, p. 

1211-1219.

Conrad, T.A., 1832, Fossil shells of the Tertiary formations of North 

America: Philadelphia, 1832-35, 121 p. [republished by G.D. 

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Cooke, C.W., 1936, Geology of the Coastal Plain of South Carolina: 

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 867, 196 p.

Cronin, T.M., Szabo, B.J., Ager, T.A., Hazel, J.E., and Owens, J.P., 

1981, Quaternary climates and sea levels of the U.S. Atlantic 

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Drayton, John, 1802, A view of South Carolina, as respects her natural 

and civil concerns: Charleston, S.C., W.P. Young, 252 p.

DuBar, J.R., 1971, Neogene stratigraphy of the lower Coastal Plain of 

the Carolinas: Atlantic Coastal Plain Geological Association, 12th 

Annual Field Conference, Myrtle Beach, S.C., 1971 [Guidebook], 

128 p.

Frederiksen, N.O., 1984, Stratigraphic, paleoclimatic, and paleobiogeographic significance of Tertiary sporomorphs from Massachusetts: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1308, 25 p.
STRATIGRAPHIC OCCURRENCES NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY INVERTEBRATE FAUNAS AND MICROFLORAS G17

Gartner, Stefan, Chen, M.P., and Stanton, R.J., 1983, Late Neogene 

nannofossil biostratigraphy and paleoceanography of the northeastern Gulf of Mexico and adjacent areas: Marine Micropaleontology, v. 8, p. 17-50.

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Hazel, J.E., Bybell, L.M., Christopher, R.A., Frederiksen, N.O., 

May, F.E., McLean, D.M., Poore, R.Z., Smith, C.C., Sohl, N.F., 

Valentine, P.C., and Witmer, R.J., 1977, Biostratigraphy of the 

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621-631.

TABLES 4 AND 6
G20 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

TABLE 4. Summary of selected stratigraphic occurrences of Pliocene 

[49, locality number (see "Locality register" section); (C), sample designation; X, positive

PLIOCENE

Goose Creek Penholoway Formation2 Ladson 

Limestone 1 Formation

Ten Mile Hill beds

49 54 3 60 42 42 58 

___________(C) (B) (I) (J)_______

17 25 34 59 40 

(S3)

Mollusk

Pelecypod

Abra aequalis (Say)......................... 

Aligena striata H.C. Lea ................... 

Amusium mortoni (Ravenel) ............... X

Anadara aequicostata (Conrad)............. 

Anadara transversa (Say) .................. 

Anadara cf. A. transversa (Say)............ 

Anadara sp. ................................ 

Anomia simplex d'Orbigny ................. 

Anomia sp. ................................. 

Argopecten sp............................... X

Atrina sp. .................................. 

Barbatia sp. ................................ 

Bellucina amiantus (Ball) .................. 

Bellucina waccamaivensis (Ball)............ 

B. cf. B. waccamawensis (Ball)............. 

Bellucina sp. ............................... 

Brachiodontes sp............................ 

Callucina keenae Chavan................... 

Carditamera arata (Conrad)................ 

Carditamera cf. C. arata (Conrad).......... 

Carolinapecten eboreus (Conrad)............ ?

Carolinapecten solarioides (Heilprin) ....... 

Caryocorbula conradi (Gardner)............ 

Caryocorbula contracta (Say)............... 

Caryocorbula dietziana (C.B. Adams) ...... 

Caryocorbula sp. ........................... 

Chama congregata Conrad.................. 

Chama emmonsi Nicol...................... 

Chama sp................................... 

Chione cancellata (Linne)................... 

Chione grus (Holmes)....................... 

Chione intapurpurea (Conrad).............. 

Corbula scutata Gardner.................... 

C orb-ilia sp. ................................. 

Crassinella lunulata (Conrad).............. 

Crassinella sp............................... 

Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin).............. 

Crassostrea sp. ............................. X

Cumingia tellinoides (Conrad).............. 

Cunearca brasiliana (Lamarck)............. 

Cyrtopleura costata (Linne)................. 

Cyrtopleura sp.............................. 

Dinocardium robustum (Solander).......... 

Dinocardium sp............................. 

Diplodonta cf. D. acclinis (Conrad)......... 

Divaricella quadrisulcata d'Orbigny........ 

Divaricella sp............................... 

Donax fossor Say........................... 

X X - X X

- - X - -

X - - - -

X 

XX---

- - X - 

- - - - X

- X - - -

X - - - - 

X - - - -

---XX

- - X - X

- X - - -

- - - X -

- - X - -

- X - - -

X - X - -

X - - X ?

- X - - -

X - - - -

- X - - -

- X - - -

X - -

X 

X

X

X

- X

- X

- - - - X

X X - X X

- - - - X

- - X - -

- - - - X

- - - - X

? ? ? ? _

X -

X
STRATIGRAPHIC OCCURRENCES NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY INVERTEBRATE FAUNAS AND MICROFLORAS G21

and Pleistocene fossil mollusks in the Charleston, S.C., area 

identification; ?, questionable identification; , not identified at this locality]

__________ PLEISTOCENE ___________________________________________________________ 

_______________________________________ Q2 _______________________________________

Wando Formation

Lower member Upper 

member

Undivided3

6 7 8 9 15 19 29 44 13 10 11 14 16 67 21 30 45 60 

(Sl-3) (A)

-X-X-X-- X ___X---X-

--XXXX-X 

X------- 

X ____X-XXX 

- _________

X-XX-X-- X---X---X

----X-X-X

---XXXX- 

__X-----

----XX-X 

__X-----

_ ? _ x - - - -

X

-

X

-

-

_ 

X

X--?-XX?X 

_________

______X-X
G22 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

TABLE 4. Summary of selected stratigraphic occurrences of Pliocene 

[49, locality number (see "Locality register" section); (C), sample designation; X,

PLIOCENE

Q4

Goose Creek Penholoway Formation' 

Limestone 1

Ladson 

Formation

Ten Mile Hill beds

49 54 3 60 42 42 58

(C) (B) (I) (J)_______

17 25 34 59 40 

(S3)

Mollusk

Pelecypod

Donax texasianus Phillippi ................. 

Donax vanabilis Say ....................... 

Donax sp.................................... 

Dosinia sp. ................................. 

Ensis sp. ................................... 

Ervilia concentrica (Holmes) ............... 

Ervilia lata Ball............................ 

Ervilia sp................................... 

Gemma gemma (Totten).................... 

Gemma sp. ................................. 

Glycymeris americana (DeFrance).......... 

Glycymeris cf. G. americana (DeFrance) ... 

Glycymeris pectinata (Gmelin).............. 

Hemimactra solidissima (Dillwyn).......... 

Lunarca ovalis (Bruguiere)................. 

Lucinisca cribraria (Say) ................... X

Macrocallista sp. ........................... 

Mercenaria rileyi (Conrad) ................. X

Mercenaria cf. M. rileyi (Conrad)........... X

Mercenaria sp............................... 

Mulinia lateralis (Say) ..................... 

Mulinia sp.................................. 

Mysella cf. M. planulata (Stimpson)........ 

Mysella sp. ................................. 

Naeromya sp................................ 

Noetia limula (Conrad)..................... 

Noetia ponderosa (Say)..................... 

Noetia sp.................................... 

Nucula proxima Say........................ 

Nucula sp................................... 

Nuculana acuta (Conrad)................... 

Nuculana concentrica (Say) ................ 

Nuculana sp. ............................... 

Ostrea raveneliana Tuomey and Holmes.... X

Ostrea sculpturata Conrad.................. X

Ostrea sp.................................... 

Pandora sp. ................................ 

Parvilucina multilineata (Tuomey and

Holmes) ............................... 

Pecten hemicyclica Ravenel................. X

Petricola sp................................. 

Pitar sp..................................... 

Pleuromeris tridentata (Say)................ 

Pleuromeris cf. P. decemcostata Conrad.... 

Plicatula gibbosa Lamarck.................. 

Plicatula marginata Say.................... 

Plicatula sp................................. X

Pteromeris perplana (Conrad) .............. 

Raeta canaliculata (Say).................... 

X X - - -

X X X - -

- - X - -

- X - X -

 X 

X - X X X

X - - - - 

- X - - -

X 

XX-

- - - X

- X - - -

X X X - -

X X - - X

X - - - X 

X - X X X

X

X - - - -

X - - - -

X -

- - X

- X -

XXX

- X -

- X -

- X -

- X

X X - - -

- - - - X
STRATIGRAPHIC OCCURRENCES NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY INVERTEBRATE FAUNAS AND MICROFLORAS G23

and Pleistocene fossil mollusks in the Charleston, S.C., area Continued

positive identification; ?, questionable identification; , not identified at this locality]

PLEISTOCENE

Q2

Wando Formation

Lower member LTpper 

member

Undivided3

6 7 

(Sl-3)

9 15 19 29 44 13 10 11 14 16 67 21 30 45 60

(A)

_ _ x - - - - -

--XXX-- X

X----X- X

_______ x

--XX-XX X

- - - X - X - X

----- X

- - - X X -

- ? - - X -

----XX

- X - - X X

X

-XXX XXX X

-X--X-

__x---

--XXXX

X--X--X- X 

XXXXXXXX X

X---X-X7X 

XXX?XXXXX

x-x-----

- ? - X - X - X X

--XX--XX X

- - X X X 

X X X X X

X

X X X X X X------XX

X ----XX-XX

X - - - - 

- - X - -

X

- - - - X

X - - - -

- - - X -

- - - - X
G24 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

TABLE 4. Summary of selected stratigraphic occurrences of Pliocene 

[49, locality number (see "Locality register" section); (C), sample designation; X,

PLIOCENE

Q5 Q4 _____Q3

Goose Creek Penholoway Formation" Ladson Ten Mile Hill beds 

Limestone 1 Formation

49 54 3 60 42 42 58 17 25 34 59 40 

___ (C) (B) (I) (J)_________________________(S3)

Mollusk

Pelecypod

Raeta cuneata .............................. 

Raeta plicatella (Lamarck).................. 

Raeta sp. ................................... X X 

Rangia clathrodonta (Conrad) .............. X X 

Semele bellastriata (Conrad)................ X 

Semele proficua (Pulteney) ................. X

Spisula sp................................... X X X 

Stewartiaflondana (Conrad) ............... X X X 

Strigilla mirabilis (Phillippi)................ 

Tagelus sp. ................................. 

Tellina agilis Stimpson..................... X 

Tellina alternata Say....................... 

Tellina sybaritica Ball...................... 

Tmchycardium sp. ......................... ____ X ____ ____ 

Gastropod

Acteocina canaliculata (Say)................ X X 

Acteocina candei (d'Orbigny) ............... X X 

Acteocina sp. ............................... X X

Anachis avara (Say)........................ 

Anachis lafresnayi (Fischer and Bernard!).. _____ _ _ x 

Anachis obesa (C.B. Adams)................ _____ _ _ x 

Anachis sp.................................. 

Busycon carica (Gmelin).................... 

Busycon sp.................................. X 

Busycotypus canaliculatum (Linne) ........ 

Crepidula aculeata (Gmelin)................ 

Crepidulafornicata (Linne)................. X X 

Crepidula sp. ............................... 

Cyclostremiscus pentagonus (Gabb)......... X 

Diastoma varium (Pfeiffer)................. 

Diodora sp. ................................. X

Epitonium humphreysii (Kiener)........... 

Epitonium cf. E. Humphrey sii (Kiener)..... _____ _ _____

Epitonium multistriatum (Say)............. 

Eupleura caudata (Say) .................... 

Eupleura sp................................. 

Ilyanassa obsoleta (Say).................... X X X

Kurtziella atrostyla (Tryon) ................ 

Kivrtziella cf. K. atrostyla (Tryon).......... 

Kurtziella cerina Kurtz and Stimpson ...... _____ _ _____

Kurtziella sp................................ 

Littorina sp. ................................ X X X X 

Lunatia sp. ................................. 

Marginella apicina Menke.................. X 

Marginella sp............................... X X X 

Melanella conoidea Kurtz and Stimpson.... _____ _ _____

Mitrella lunata (Say) ....................... 

Nassarius acutus (Say)..................... X 
STRATIGRAPHIC OCCURRENCES NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY INVERTEBRATE FAUNAS AND MICROFLORAS G25

and Pleistocene fossil mollusks in the Charleston, S.C., area Continued

positive identification; ?, questionable identification; , not identified at this locality]

__________PLEISTOCENE___________________________________________________________

_____________________________Q2_____________________________

Wando Formation

Lower member Upper 

member

Undivided3

6 7 8 9 15 19 29 44 13 10 11 14 16 67 21 30 45 60 

(Sl-3) (A)

X - - - - 

- X - - -

X

---- ? __XX

---X--X- X

X ______ ? -X

xx-xxx-x

---xx-x-

---X-X--

X 

X

X 

X

---XX--- -

-----X-X X

-xxx-xxxx

________x

________x

________x

 \r -\r

XX-XX--- X

- - - - X

- - - - X

X X X ? X

- - X - -

- - - - X

-XX-X

---XX X 

X XX-XXXXX

X------X
G26 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

TABLE 4. Summary of selected stratigraphic occurrences of Pliocene and

[49, locality number (see "Locality register" section); (C), sample designation; X,

PLIOCENE

Goose Creek Penholoway Formation2 Ladson Ten Mile Hill beds 

Limestone 1 Formation

49 58 17 25 34 59 40 

(S3)

Mollusk

Pelecypod

Nassarius concensus (Ravenel) . 

Nassarius trivittatus (Say).......

Nassarius cf. AT", vibex (Say).....

Odostomia impressa Say.........

Oliva sayana Ravenel ...........

Oliva sp..........................

Olivella floralia Duclos ..........

Olivella mutica (Say) ............

Olivella sp. ......................

Polinices duplicatus (Say).......

Polinices sp......................

Prunum sp.......................

Pyramidella crenulata (Holmes). 

Pyramidella sp. .................

Seila adamsii (H.C. Lea)........

Sinum perspectwum (Say).......

Strombus cf. S. alatus Gmelin ... 

Tectonatica sp....................

Terebra concava Say.............

Terebra dislocata (Say) ..........

Terebra sp. ......................

Triphora sp. .....................

Turbonilla interrupta (Totten)... 

Turbonilla sp. ...................

Urosalpinx sp....................

Vitrinella sp. ....................

- - - - X

-XXXX - X - X 

X X - - -

X - - - -

- - - - X

X

X

?

- - X

- - X

- - X

X

X - 

X -

- - X

X - - - - 

---XX

- - - - X

XX--- 

---XX

X

?

- X - - -

1 See also Malde (1959, p. 31-32, samples D189-T-14, D191-T, D192-T, D291-T, 27, and D203-T).

2 See also Colquhoun and others (1968) and DuBar (1971, p. 112-115, column A).

3 Probably upper member of the Wando Formation.
STRATIGRAPHIC OCCURRENCES NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY INVERTEBRATE FAUNAS AND MICROFLORAS G27

Pleistocene fossil mollusks in the Charleston, S.C., area Continued

positive identification; ?, questionable identification; , not identified at this locality]

__________PLEISTOCENE_________________________________________________

Q2 

Wando Formation

Lower member Upper 

member

Undivided3

6 7 8 9 15 19 29 44 13 10 11 14 16 67 21 30 45 60 

(Sl-3) (A)

X ---X--XXX

X 

X

----XXX- X

XX------

X

----X---X

----XXXXX

---XXX--X

---X---X - X - - X - -

--xxxx-

---xxxx

- - X ? - - X

X

X 

X

----x-xxx

--X-XX--X
G28 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

TABLE 6. Summary of selected stratigraphic occurrences of Miocene and 

[52, locality number (see "Locality register" section); (A), sample designation; X, positive identification; ?, questionable identification;

MIOCENE

Marks Head 

Formation

52 18 1

Q5

Penholoway 

Formation

3 3

(A) (B)

Q4 Q3

Ladson Ten Mile 

Formation Hill beds

55 55 5 5 20 22 24 27 33 40

(A) (AA) (B) (A) (S5) (S6) (S3)

Sporomorph

Families and higher level taxa

ftf A vio rtov/il Q/"»OQd ^Q^

r~"* Q Y~*V*1 4Y^1 1 Q/"»dQO ^^l^

Chenopodiaceae-Amaranthaceae 

type(H)...................... - X

Compositae (H) 

Liguliflorae .................. 

Tubuliflorae .................. 

Cyperaceae (H) ................. 

Ericaceae (S) ................... 

TT1 *! Vio r»r*o t~> fTT^

Gramineae (H) .................. 

Liliaceae (H) .................... 

IX/TAT**! r*/"**! r* {^\^\

Myricaceae (S) .................. 

Onagraceae (H) ................. 

Palmae (cf. Sabal) (T). .......... - -

Umbelliferae(H)................ - -

Fern spores (SP) 

Monolete ................... 

Trilete ..................... - -

X

X 

X

X

-

X

X 

X

X X 

X X

X X

X -

- X

X X 

X X

XXX- XXXXXX

---- 

XXX- 

- X X - X - 

___X-X

---- XX-X-X

-XXX X----X

XX-- ______ 

____ _ _ x - - -

~Y- -*7-

---- XXXXXX 

____ _ _ _ _ x -

Genus and species

/\f*nw -V3 / r) V") / 'W7 fi^\

Alnus sp. (S) ................... 

Ambrosia sp. (H) ............... 

Artemisia sp. (H) ............... 

Betula sp. (T). .................. - -

Carya sp. (T) ................... X X

Castanea sp. (T) ................ 

Catalpa sp. (T) ................. 

Cephalanthus sp. (S) ........... 

Clethrasp. (S). ................. - -

Cornus sp. (S) .................. 

Corylus sp. (T) ................. 

Cyrilla-Cliftonia sp. (S, T) ..... 

cf. Diospyros sp. (T) ............ 

Fagus sp. (T) ................... 

Fraxinus sp. (T) ................ 

Gordonia sp. (S) ................ 

Ilex sp. (S) ..................... 

Isoetes sp. (SP) ................. 

Ti/filnw Q 'Yi-^nwn (i^\

Juglans sp. (T) ................. 

Juniperus type (T) ............. 

Lemna SP. (H) .................. 

X 

X

X 

X

X

X

-

X X

- X 

X X

X X 

X X

 

- X

X - 

X -

 

--X- 

"V 

XXXX-X

"V "V "V

"V "V

X-X- XXXXXX

XXXX XXXXXX 

____ ____x-

____ x - - - - -

XXX- X-XX-X 

--X- __X--X 

____ _ x - - - -

___X -XX---

___X X--X--
STRATIGRAPHIC OCCURRENCES NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY INVERTEBRATE FAUNAS AND MICROFLORAS G29

Pleistocene fossil sporomorphs in the Charleston, S.C., area

 , not identified at this locality; *, possibly reworked; (H), herb; (S), shrub; (SP), spore; (T), tree; (U), unknown; (V), vine]

PLEISTOCENE

Q2

Wando Formation

Lower member

6 9 

(S5)

36 32 2

Undivided

35 37 37 38 38 38 

(S3) (S2) (SI) (S2) (S3)

45 45 45 45 45

(SI) (S2) (S3) (S4) (S5)

X X

X - 

X -

- X 

- X

X X

X X

X 

- X

X X

- X 

X X

X 

X

X

X -----

X X X X X X

X X X - - - 

- X - - X X

- - - X - X 

- X X - X X 

- X - - - - 

X X X X X X

- - X - - -

X X X X X

- X - X X

- - X - - 

X - - X -

- - X X X

X X 

X X

X X 

- X 

X X

X

X 

X

- - - X - -

- X X X X X 

- X - X - X

X X X X X 

- - - - X

X - 

- X

- X 

X X

X X

X - 

X

X X

X X

- X 

X X

X X 

- X

X X 

X 

X

- X

X 

X

X 

X

X 

X

X

X - - X X - 

- - - X X X

- - X - X -

X - X - X X

X X X X - X 

----- X 

- - - - X -

- - X - - -

- - X - - -

X X - - - X

X - X X X X

X X X X X 

X X X X X

X X X X X

- X X X X 

- - - - X

_____

- X X - X

X - - X X 

______x----

- X - - X

__________ x
G30 STUDIES RELATED TO THE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, EARTHQUAKE OF 1886

TABLE 6. Summary of selected stratigraphic occurrences of Miocene and

[52, locality number (see "Locality register" section); (A), sample designation; X, positive identification; ?, questionable identification;

MIOCENE

Marks Head 

Formation

52 18 1

Q5 Q4 Q3

Penholoway Ladson Ten Mile 

Formation Formation Hill beds

3 3 55 55 5 5 20 22 24 27 33

(A) (B) (A) (AA) (B) (A) (S5) (S6)

40

(S3)

Sporomorph

Genus and species

Liliacidites sp. (T) .............. X 

Liquidambar sp. (T) ............ 

Lycopodium sp. (SP) ........... 

Lygodium type (SP) ............ 

Momipites spackmanianus (T) . X X 

Myrica type (S). ................ 

Myriophyllum sp. (H) .......... 

Nuphar sp. (H) ................. 

Nyssa sp. (T) ................... 

Nymphaea sp. (H) .............. 

Osmimda sp. (SP) .............. 

Ostrya type (T) ................. - 

Persicaria type (H) ............. 

Picea sp. (T). ................... - -

Pinus sp. (T) ................... 

Pinus (haploxylon type) (T) . . . . X X

P//7//7W97Q Sin CT~)

Potamogeton type (H) .......... 

Pterocarya sp. (T) .............. 

Quercus sp. (T) ................. X X

Rhoipites sp. (U) ............... X 

Rhus sp. (S) .................... 

Sagittaria sp. (H)..... .......... 

Salix sp. (S, T) ................. - -

Selaginella sp. (SP). ............ 

Sparganium type (H). .......... 

Sphagnum sp. (SP) ............. 

Taxodiaceaepollenites hiatus (T) X X 

Taxodiaceae-CupressaceaeTaxaceae type (T) ............ 

Tax odium type (T) ............. 

Thalictmm sp. (H) ............. 

Tilia sp. (T) .................... - -

Tsuga sp. (T) ................... - -

Typha sp. (H) .................. Ulmipollenites undulosus (T). . . X 

Ulmus sp. (undifferentiated) (T). 

Vitis sp. (V) .................... - -

X

X

X 

X

X

X

XX XXX- XXXXX

X- _ X - - -----

X? X-X-XXXXX

XX __XX XXXXX 

X- ____ _ _ x - - 

__ ___x _____

XX XXXX XXXXX

_ _ _ * _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

XX XXXX XXXXX

__ _ x - - _____ 

__ ____ x - - - - 

__ ____ _ x - - -

_x ____ _____

__ __x- _____

_x ____ _ _ x - -

_x x--- _____

__ __x- _ _ X - - 

-- XXX- X-X-X

XX 

x_ ____ 

XXXX ____X

_____

X

X

X

X

X 

X

X

?

X 

X

X
STRATIGRAPHIC OCCURRENCES NEOGENE AND QUATERNARY INVERTEBRATE FAUNAS AND MICROFLORAS G31

Pleistocene fossil sporomorphs in the Charleston, S.C., area Continued

 , not identified at this locality; *, possibly reworked; (H), herb; (S), shrub; (SP), spore; (T), tree; (U), unknown; (V), vine]

PLEISTOCENE ___________________________________________________________

Q2

Wando Formation

Lower member Undivided

6 9 36 32 2 35 37 37 38 38 38 45 45 45 45 45 

(S5) (S3) (S2) (SI) (S2) (S3) (SI) (S2) (S3) (S4) (S5)

X X XX X-XX-XXXXXX

X-X---X----XXX

- X X X

-X

__

-X

XXXXXXXXXXXX

X------XX---

__XX--X--XXX 

-----XX----- 

_______x----

XXXX-XXXXXXX

X 

X 

X

X 

X

X X X X 

X

- - - - X

X X XXXXXXXXXXXXXX

X -

X XXX--X--------

X XX-X-----XX--X

x x

X -

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Water-Supply Reports and Maps For (State)," may be purchased by 

mail and over the counter in paperback booklet form only.

"Price and Availability List of U.S. Geological Survey Publications," issued annually, is available free of charge in paperback 

booklet form only.

Selected copies of a monthly catalog "New Publications of the 

U.S. Geological Survey" are available free of charge by mail or may 

be obtained over the counter in paperback booklet form only. Those 

wishing a free subscription to the monthly catalog "New Publications of 

the U.S. Geological Survey" should write to the U.S. Geological 

Survey, 582 National Center, Reston, VA 22092.

Note. Prices of Government publications listed in older catalogs, announcements, and publications may be incorrect. Therefore, 

the prices charged may differ from the prices in catalogs, announcements, and publications.