RICHARD S. WILLIAMS, JR .. and WILLIAM D. CARTER. EDITORS 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Cooperating Organizations : 

U.S. Department of the Interior: 

Geological Survey 

Bureau of Land Management 

Bureau of Reclamation 

Bureau of Mines 

Fish and Wildlife Service 

National Park Service 

University of Tennessee 

Environmental Research Institute of Michigan 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 

The American University 

PROFESSIONAL 

Jet Propulsion Laboratory (California Institute of Technology) 

University of Minnesota 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

University of Alabama 

California State University 

Wyoming Geological Survey 

Cover photography of the Earth taken from Apollo (72-HC-928) courtesy of 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

PAPER 

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. WASHINGTON 

929 

1976 
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

THOMAS S. KLEPPE, SECRETARY 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

V. E. McKELVEY, DIRECTOR 

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, 

U.S. Government Printing Office 

Washington, D.C. 20402-$13 (paper cover) 

Stock Number 024-001-02757-7 

Catalog Number I 19.16:929 

Library of Congress catalog-card No. 75-3745 1 
FOREWORD 

The launch, on july 23, 1972, of the first Earth Resources Technology 

Satellite (ERTS-1) by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

and the subsequent launch of ERTS-2 (landsat-2) on january 22, 

1975, were major steps forward in extending man's ability to inventory the 

Earth's resources and to evaluate objectively his impact upon the 

environment. 

The ERTS spacecraft represent the first step in merging space and 

remote-sensing technologies into a system for inventorying and managing 

the Earth's resources. This development is a good example of applying the 

scientific and technological methodology gained from the Nation's space 

program to the solution of global environmental, natural-resource, food, and 

energy problems. Evidence in hand strongly suggests that the ERTS spacecraft are central to one of the largest and most significant earth-science experiments ever undertaken. 

Examples presented in this book demonstrate ERTS' vast potential for 

inventorying resources, monitoring environmental conditions, and measuring changes. Such information is essential for the full evaluation of the 

Federal lands and determining their future use, as well as for improved planning of overall land use throughout the United States and the world. 

More than being merely another scientific experiment, this undertaking 

is a multinational, multidisciplinary experiment on a global scale. Approximately 100 nations are participating, and it is believed that the program will 

contribute materially to achievement of an objective basis for setting interrelated resource, environmental, and social priorities for much of the world. 

Data from U.S. Earth resources survey satellites are of help to all nations 

in coping with natural resource and environmental problems. This is so 

because we have only rudimentary knowledge of our resources. Even more 

limited is our knowledge of the effect of development and consumption of 

these resources on the long-term future of our planet. Thus, we are restricted 

in our ability to make the decisions necessary for the wisest possible utilization and conservation of the resources upon which we depend for our very 

existence. 

Ill 
The Government of the United States hopes and believes that by working together with other nations we will be able to develop cooperative programs in remote sensing. The development of these programs will allow the 

diffusion of knowledge gained from remote sensor technology, such as 

ERTS, by making data available and providing for the education and training 

of technicians in this field, and also through the user assistance necessary to 

convert imagery, photographs, and other data into useful information for 

resource inventory and survey purposes. Typical repetitive information already available relates to such disciplines as geology, hydrology, geography, 

cartography, agriculture and rangeland management, forestry, and land use 

mapping and planning. 

Original electronic signals of data acquired with ERTS are being converted by NASA to photographic-type images, that in turn are being processed at the EROS Data Center, Sioux Falls, South Dakota. The Center, thus, 

is a key installation serving as an international repository for processing, 

interpreting, and disseminating thousands of images per year of a wide 

variety of land and water features of the world. These images are being provided to all users, domestic and foreign, at nominal cost. The data are particularly useful for those who are involved in urban and suburban planning, 

zoning, construction, and similar activities, as they provide unique tools in 

helping to arrive at wise land- and water-use decisions. 

A number of formal scientific experiments have been completed or are 

in progress within the Department of the Interior that have demonstrated 

contributions from space technology to resource assessments. Ten bureaus 

of the Department have roles in the ERTS project: the Bureaus of Indian 

Affairs, land Management, Mines, Outdoor Recreation, and Reclamation 

and the Fish and Wildlife Service, the Bonneville Power Administration, the 

National Park Service, Office of Trust Territories, and the Geological Survey. 

Nearly all of these participating bureaus are represented in the many 

papers included in this book. I encourage you, whether you be a scientist, 

resource manager, educator, or layman from the United States or from another country, to review these examples of this exciting and totally new 

technology which has been developed for the benefit of all the world's 

peoples. I think that you will agree with me that we have made a fine start 

in the effective and beneficial use of "space" for all mankind. 

IV 

V. E. McKelvey, 

Director, U.S. Geological Survey 
Discovery, or the possibility of it, is that which 

whets, stimulates, and hopefully satisfies the 

cravings of scientists, inventors, and explorers. 

The hope of discovery pushed Ericson and Columbus 

west across the Atlantic against the odds that their 

frail crafts would perish by storm or "fall off the edge 

of the Earth." The desire for discovery encouraged 

lewis and Clark, Powell, Hayden, and others to explore our western plains, mountains, river canyons, 

and mineral and water resources against the many 

odds of traversing unknown areas. lt. Maury, working 

against tradition and inertia in the U.S. Navy, laboriously compiled the many bits of wind, current, and 

sea-state information contained in the logs of sailing 

ship captains to chart the ocean currents and winds. 

Such audacious, and to some, revolutionary, discoveries also inspired man to learn to fly and eventually 

project himself into space. 

At this time, man has already landed on and begun 

exploration of the Moon. During the progress of the 

Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs, our astronauts began to carry cameras and took many photographs of the Earth from space. These photographs 

immediately interested earth-bound scientists involved in important projects of mapping the geology, 

hydrology, agriculture, and other environmental phenomena of the Earth. 

The NASA Earth Resources Survey Program was 

born in 1964 as a handful of scientists representing a 

few scientific disciplines from major U.S. Government 

agencies. The program gradually grew to include scientists from all earth-resource disciplines in industry, 

university, and state organizations. Through cooperative information exchange and training, scientists from 

all over the world became interested and involved. 

These scientists studied various types of remotely 

sensed data from aircraft and spacecraft to develop 

PREFACE 

specifications for an Earth Resources Technology 

Satellite (ERTS-1 ). Six hundred proposals were submitted to NASA to analyze ERTS-1 data. More than 

320 experiments, representing multidisciplinary and 

multinational interests, were selected to give the first 

satellite as broad a test as possible. Of the 81 experiments submitted to NASA by scientists of the various 

bureaus within the U.S. Department of the Interior, 45 

were ultimately selected and made. 

In our capacity as research scientists within the 

EROS Program, it was our responsibility to not only 

carry out our own ERTS investigations in Iceland and 

South America, respectively, but to coordinate, review, and document, for the U.S. Geological Survey 

and NASA, the U.S. Department of the Interior results 

of the ERTS experiment. As experimental findings 

flowed through our hands from Interior scientists to 

NASA, it became increasingly clear that these results 

would be of interest to earth scientists throughout the 

world, especially those in developing nations, who 

are just beginning to explore potential applications of 

satellite data. 

While the results presented herein are but a small 

sampling of the work currently in progress around the 

world, we believe that they are representative of the 

capabilities that are fast becoming available to earth 

scientists and resource managers, not only in the U.S. 

Department of the Interior but in other domestic and 

foreign organizations as well. We hope that this publication will inspire others to similar investigations and 

that universities and high schools will find this book 

helpful in their earth-science curricula. To aid in this 

objective the EROS Program has available for purchase 35-mm slides of selected ERTS images printed in 

this book and, of course, all the original image data 

as well. Slide set E-1-30-35 may be purchased from 

the EROS Data Center, Sioux Falls, South Dakota 

v 
57198. We also hope that the book will help national 

decisionmakers, as well as taxpayers, realize the value 

of expenditures, past and future, that are made for 

programs such as ERTS. 

In nearly every respect ERTS-1 is an exceptional 

and unique satellite and may very well represent the 

most important accomplishment yet of our space program in terms of benefits to our Nation, to other nations, and hence to all people of the world. ERTS, like 

its equally inexpensive sister satellites, the civilian 

weather satellites (NOAA and Nimbus), was designed 

so that its data would serve a large number of users 

within the United States and throughout the world. 

For the first time in the history of the U.S. space program, with the exception of some civilian meteorological-satellite data, data acquired from an unmanned orbiting spacecraft are being made available to 

all, inexpensively, and on an unrestricted basis. The 

source of information for this national and international distribution is the EROS Data Center in Sioux 

Falls, South Dakota. 

As you review the examples of the applications of 

ERTS imagery in this book and the excellent collection 

of ERTS images in the NASA Special Publication compiled by Short, Lowman, Freden, and Finch, Mission 

to Earth: Landsat Views the World,* it is hard to believe that only 100 years ago man's view of his world 

was generally limited to what he could see from a 

sailing vessel, from horseback, or afoot. Because of 

ERTS, anyone can now sit down at a microfilm projection console and view nearly all the land areas of the 

world; one can even order specific images from the 

EROS Data Center for more comprehensive analysis. 

For the first time in history the entire world is at 

everyone's fingertips; for many parts of the world, in 

particular North America (because of complete coverage afforded by several ERTS receiving stations in the 

United States and Canada), the changing face of our 

planet, whether the changes are caused by natural 

forces or by man's often disruptive forces, is available for analysis on an 18-day cycle. 

The availability of ERTS data could not have come 

at a more propitious time for both the advanced 

and the developing countries of the world because 

of the pressure to manage natural resources and because of man's capacity to modify the face of the 

planet. To monitor dynamic phenomena (natural 

vegetation, crops, glaciers, snow cover), to monitor 

some of man's environmental impact (strip mining, 

*Short, N. M., Lowman, P. D., Freden, S. C., and Finch, W. 

A., 1976, Mission to Earth: Landsat Views the World: NASA SP360 (in press). 

VI 

reservoirs, irrigation, pollution), and to help other 

countries wisely develop their natural resources, the 

continuous acquisition of ERTS imagery has become a 

necessity. Four countries, Brazil,. ~anada,. ltal~, and 

the United States, have ERTS rece1vmg stat1on~ m o~­

eration. Four additional ERTS receiving stat1ons, m 

Canada, Chile, Iran, and za·ire, have been ~esign~d, 

but construction is not yet complete. Australia, lnd1a, 

japan, Norway, and Upper Volta are all seriously considering building receiving stations. . 

The United States has pioneered in the creat1on of 

a technology which offers us and other nations _a 

method by which all may more wisel~ ~se the1r 

natural resources. Our small planet has hm1ted supplies of resources which we must learn to manage and 

conserve for future generations. Through careful observation and planning this can be done-if t~ols 

such as ERTS and those designed for future satell1tes 

are developed and used to the maximum benefit of 

all mankind. ERTS-1 then truly is a new window on 

our planet. Our challenge now is to _use this new 

knowledge in an effective way and to mtegr~te such 

information into more traditional information systems. 

We should also ,Jike to mention the foresight of 

Dr. William T. Pecora, Director, U. S. Geological Survey, 1965-71, and Undersecretary of the Interior, 

1971-72. As first Director of the Earth Resources 

Observation Systems Program of the Department of 

the Interior (1966-72) he firmly believed that "by 

going to space we can learn more abo~t the. Ea~h." 

His scientific integrity and jovial enthus1asm msp1red 

us all to work toward the success of the Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS-1 ). Unfortunately, 

he died on july 19, 1972, 4 days prior to the launch 

of ERTS-1, and consequently never saw the realization of this long-sought goal. We think that he would 

have been pleased that the results contained in this 

book confirmed his forecast manyfold. 

We wish to take this opportunity to acknowledge 

the response and efforts of the contributing authors. 

We also wish to acknowledge the efforts of Mary Ann 

Milosavich who coordinated the assembly of the book 

and typed its text; Susan Moorlag who coordinated 

the graphic materials; the many people of the U.S. 

Geological Survey who edited the text and prepared 

the final illustrations; and Priscilla Woll, who reviewed and proofread the manuscript as well as provided guidance in formation of the book. 

Richard S. Williams, Jr. 

William D. Carter 
ERTS-1, A NEW WINDOW ON OUR PLANET 

Foreword, by V. E. McKelvey ----------------------------------- Ill 

Preface, by Richard S. Williams, Jr., and William D. Carter, editors __ v 

Conversion table and list of symbols and abbreviations ------------ XIX 

Introduction, by john M. DeNoyer, U.S. Geological Survey ---------- 1 

ERT5-1 MSS false-color composites, by Charles F. Withington, 

U.S. Geological Survey ----------------------------------- 3 

FIGURE 1. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the upper Chesapeake Bay area __ 4 

2. ERTS-1 image of the upper Chesapeake Bay area, band 4 -------- 5 

3. ERTS-1 image of the upper Chesapeake Bay area, band 5 -------- 5 

4. ERTS-1 image of the upper Chesapeake Bay area, band 6 -------- 5 

5. ERTS-1 image of the upper Chesapeake Bay area, band 7 -------- 5 

6. The electromagnetic spectrum and ERTS-1 sensor relationships ___ 6 

Chapter 1. Applications to Cartography 

Introduction, by Alden P. Colvocoresses, U.S. Geological Survey 12 

FIGURE 7. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Denver, Colorado, area in 

winter --------------------------------------------------- 14 8. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Denver, Colorado, area in 

summer ------------------------------------------------- 15 

Space Oblique Mercator projection ---------------------------- 17 

ERTS images of southeastern Pennsylvania, showing the thin-cloud 

penetration capability of band 7 as compared to band 5 ------- 18 

Comparison of maps and ERTS-1 image of Lake Balkash, U.S.S.R. __ 19 

Thematic extraction of open water, upper Chesapeake Bay area __ 20 

9. 

10. 

11. 

12. 

13. Thematic extraction of infrared-reflective vegetation, upper Chesapeake Bay area ------------------------------------------- 20 14. Space imagery applied to aeronautical charting, jebel Uweinat area, 

Libya, Sudan, and United Arab Republic ---------------------- 21 

15. Comparison of nautical chart and ERTS image of Collier Bay, Australia 22 

ERTS nominal scenes, by james W. Schoonmaker, Jr., and Robert B. 

McEwen, U.S. Geological Survey -------------------------- 23 

FIGURE 16. Bisector format of ERTS images at 45° lat ---------------------- 24 

17. ERTS nominal scenes of Florida ------------------------------- 24 

18. Gridded color composite ERTS-1 image of the upper Chesapeake 

Bay ---------------------------------------------------- 25 

Orthoimage mosaic of New jersey, by Winston Sibert and Fitzhugh T. 

Clark, U.S. Geological Survey ----------------------------- 26 

FIGURE 19. Color composite ERTS-1 orthoimage mosaic of New Jersey ------- 27 

Satellite image maps of the State of Arizona and of Phoenix, by joseph 

T. Pilonero, U.S. Geological Survey ----------------------- 29 

FIGURE 20. ERTS-1 image map of Arizona -------------------------------- 30 

21. ERTS-1 image map of Phoenix, Arizona ------------------------ 31 

VII 
Digital color mosaic of parts of Wyoming and Montana, by Grover Torbert, Bureau of Land Management, and C. J. Robinove, U.S. 

Geological Survey --------------------------------------

FIGURE 22. Computer-processed color composite ERTS-1 mosaic of parts of 

Wyoming and Montana -----------------------------------

Geodetic control in polar regions for accurate mapping with ERTS 

imagery, by William R. MacDonald, U.S. Geological Survey ___ _ 

FIGURE 23. Image and map of the McMurdo Sound region, Antarctica ------

Antarctic cartography, by William R. MacDonald, U.S. Geological Survey ---------------------------------------------------

FIGURE 24. Topographic maps and ERTS-1 image mosaic of Drygalski Ice 

Tongue, Victoria Land coast area --------------------------

25. Topographic maps and ERTS-1 image mosaic of Cape Adare, Victoria Land coast area ------------------------------------ 26. Sketch map and ERTS-1 image mosaic of Thwaites Iceberg Tongue, 

Antarctica ----------------------------------------------- 27. Map of McMurdo Sound region compared with ERTS-1 image 

mosaic -------------------------------------------------- 28. Australian map of the Lambert Glacier area of Antarctica compared 

with an ERTS-1 image mosaic -----------------------------

Cadastral boundaries on ERTS-1 images, by Grover Torbert, Bureau of 

Land Management, and William R. Hemphill, U.S. Geological 

Survey ------------------------------------------------

FIGURE 29. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Sheridan, Wyoming, area __ 

30. Computer-processed combination of part of the Sheridan ERTS-1 

image and cadastral survey delineation of township, range, and 

References 

section boundaries --------------------------------------- 31. Standard U.S. Geological Survey map of the Sheridan area of Wyoming ---------------------------------------------------

Chapter 2. Applications to Geology and Geophysics 

32 

33 

34 

34 

37 

38 

39 

40 

41 

42 

44 

45 

46 

46 

47 

Introduction, by William A. Fischer, U.S. Geological Survey _________ 48 

Geologic analysis of the Santa Lucia Range, California, by Donald C. 

Ross, U.S. Geological Survey -------------------------~--- 50 

FIGURE 32. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Salinas Valley and Santa 

lucia Range, California ---------------------------------- 51 

33. ERTS-1 image showing interpretation of photolineaments in the 

northern Santa Lucia Range, California --------------------- 52 

An interpretation of the Jordan Rift Valley, by G. F. Brown and A. C. 

Huffman, U.S. Geological Survey ---------------------------- 53 

FIGURE 34. Map of the Red Sea area showing location of tectonic-plate rotation poles ------------------------------------------- 54 

35. Color composite ERTS-1 image mosaic of the jordan Rift Valley_ 55 

Geological structure in the western Brooks Range area, by Ernest H. 

Lathram, U.S. Geological Survey----------------------------- 56 

FIGURE 36. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the western Brooks Range area, 

Alaska -------------------------------------------------- 57 

37. Annotated ERTS-1 image of the western Brooks Range area, 

Alaska, showing geologic features and place names ----------- 58 

VIII 
Geological evaluation of north-central Arizona, by Donald P. Elston, 

U.S. Geological Survey ---------------------------------- 59 

FIGURE 38. Color composite ERTS-1 image of north-central Arizona ------ 60 

39. Computer processed four-band color composite ERTS-1 image of 

north-central Arizona ------------------------------------- 61 

40. Geologic map of north-central Arizona ------------------------ 6i 

41. Geologic map of north-central Arizona compiled on an ERTS-1 

image base ---------------------------------------------- 65 42. Fault and lineament map of north-central Arizona compiled on an 

ERTS-1 image base --------------------------------------- 66 

Glacial geology and soils in the Midwestern United States, by Roger 

B. Morrison, U.S. Geological Survey ----------------------- 67 

FIGURE 43. Color composite ERTS-1 image of part of Iowa, west of Des 

~oines ------------------------------------------------- 68 44. ERTS-1 image, band 7, with interpretation of soil types --------- 70 

45. Mosaic of ERTS-1 images, band 7, of west-central Illinois with 

interpretation of soil types -------------------------------- 71 

Enhancement of topographic features by snow cover, by Roger B. Morrison, U.S. Geological Survey ----------------------------- 72 

FIGURE 46. Color composite ERTS-1 image of western Nebraska showing 

snow-enhanced topographic details ----------------------- 73 

47. Geologic terrane map compiled on ERTS-1 image, band 5 ------ 74 

48. ERTS-1 image of western Nebraska in summer showing relative 

lack of topographic detail --------------------------------- 75 

Hydrogeology of closed basins and deserts of South America, by 

George E. Stoertz and William D. Carter, U.S. Geological Survey 76 

FIGURE 49. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Salar de Coipasa region 

of Bolivia and Chile ------------------------------------ 78 

50. Geologic and hydrologic interpretation and explanations of features identified in the Salar de Coipasa region ---------------- 79 

51. Index map of salar revisions --------------------------------- 80 

52. Example of outlines of several salars revised by ERTS data ------- 80 

Sand seas of the world, by Edwin D. McKee and Carol S. Breed, U.S. 

Geological Survey --------------------------------------- 81 

FIGURE 53. Index map of the sand seas of Africa, Asia, Australia, and North 

America ------------------------------------------------- 82 

54. Color composite ERTS-1 image mosaic of the southwest United 

States desert and the Gran Desierto de Sonora in ~exico ----- 83 

55. Color composite ERTS-1 image showing parallel-straight or linear 

dunes in the Kalahari Desert, of South Africa ----------------- 84 

Color composite ERTS-1 image showing parallel-wavy or crescentic 

dunes (a megabarchan desert) in Saudi Arabia ---------------- 85 

Color composite ERTS-1 image showing star or radial megadunes 

in Algeria ----------------------------------------------- 86 

56. 

57. 

58. Color composite ERTS-1 image showing parabolic dunes in 

the Rajasthan Desert of India ----------------------------- 87 

59. Color composite ERTS-1 image showing flat sheets and stringer 

dunes in South-West Africa ------------------------------- 88 

Detection of hydrothermal sulfide deposits, Saindak area, western 

Pakistan, by Robert G. Schmidt, U.S. Geological Survey _______ 89 

FIGURE 60. Digitally enhanced false-color composite ERTS-1 image of the 

Saindak area of western Pakistan -------------------------- 90 

61. Annotated ERTS-1 image showing location of significant geologic 

features of the Saindak area of Pakistan --------------------- 91 

Structural geology and mineral-resources inventory of the Andes Mountains, South America, by William D. Carter, U.S. Geological Survey _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 92 

FIGURE 62. ERTS-1 image mosaic of the La Paz area, Bolivia, Peru, and Chile 94 

63. Image linear map of the La Paz area -------------------------- 96 

64. Relative confidence map of the La Paz area -------------------- 97 

65. ~etallogenic map of the La Paz area -------------------------- 98 

66. Seismic-hazard map of the La Paz area ----------------------- 98 

IX 
Clues to geologic structure possibly indicating oil and gas sources, by 

Ernest H. Lathram, U.S. Geological Survey ------------------ 99 

FIGURE 67. Color composite ERTS-1 image of foothills and coastal plains 

near Umiat, Alaska ------------------------------------- 100 

68. ERTS-1 image of the Umiat area, Alaska, showing structural features and lineation of lakes ------------------------------- 101 

Discrimination of rock types and detection of hydrothermally altered 

areas in south-central Nevada, by Lawrence C. Rowan and 

Pamela H. Wetlaufer, U.S. Geological Survey, and A. F. H. 

Goetz, jet Propulsion Laboratory -------------------------- 102 

FIGURE 69. Stretched-ratio color composite ERTS-1 image of south-central 

Nevada made from computer compatible tapes ------------ 103 

70. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the. south-central Nevada area 

made from computer compatible tapes -------------------- 104 

71. Conventional color composite ERTS-1 image of the entire southcentral Nevada area -------------------------------------- 105 

New method for monitoring global volcanic activity, by Peter L. Ward 

and jerry P. Eaton, U.S. Geological Survey __________________ 106 

FIGURE 72. Map showing instrument sites of the prototype volcano-surveillance 

system ------------------------------------------------- 107 

73. Data collection platform, Mount Baker, Washington ------------ 108 

74. Graph of seismic activity recorded by a data collection platform 

at Volcan Fuego, Guatemala ------------------------------- 108 

Dynamic environmental phenomena in southwestern Iceland, by Richard S. Williams, Jr., U.S. Geological Survey ----------------- 109 

FIGURE 75. Color composite ERTS-1 image mosaic of west-central and 

southwestern Iceland ------------------------------------ 110 

76. Map of part of west-central and southwestern Iceland ----------- 112 

Active faults in the Los Angeles-Ventura area of southern California, by 

Russell H. Campbell, U.S. Geological Survey---------------- 113 

FIGURE 77. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the greater Los Angeles area 

of southern California especially made to enhance geologic 

features ------------------------------------------------- 114 78. Annotated ERTS-1 image of the greater Los Angeles area, of southern California showing location of major and minor faults ----- 115 

Environmental geology of the central Gulf of Alaska coast, by Austin 

Post, U.S. Geological Survey ------------------------------ 117 

FIGURE 79. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the central Gulf of Alaska 

coast -------------------------------------------------- 118 

Debris avalanches at Mount Baker Volcano, Washington, by David 

Frank, U.S. Geological Survey ---------------------------- 120 

FIGURE 80. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Mount Baker area, Washington ------------------------------------------------- 121 81. Enlargement of a part of the Mount Baker image, showing the area 

of debris avalanches -------------------------------------- 122 

Structural features related to earthquakes in Managua, Nicaragua, and 

Cordoba, Mexico, by William D. Carter, U.S. Geological Survey, 

and jack N. Rinker, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers___________ 123 

FIGURE 82. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Managua area, Nicaragua_ 124 

83. Map of earthquake area, Nicaragua, plotted on ERTS-1 image ___ 125 

References 126 

X 
Chapter 3. Applications to Water Resources 

Introduction, by Morris Deutsch, U.S. Geological Survey ------------ 129 

Water resources in the Delaware River basin, by Richard W. Paulson, 

U.S. Geological Survey ---------------------------------- 132 

FIGURE 84. Data collection platform sites, Delaware River basin, plotted on 

ERTS-1 image mosaic ------------------------------------ 133 

Hydrology of the Wind River basin and adjacent areas of Wyoming, by 

Lynn M. Shown and j. Robert Owen, U.S. Geological Survey __ 134 

FIGURE 85. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Wind River basin and adjacent areas, Wyoming ----------------------------------- 135 

Improving estimates of streamflow characteristics, by Este F. Hollyday 

and Edward j. Pluhowski, U.S. Geological Survey ------------ 136 

FIGURE 86. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Delmarva Peninsula area__ 137 

87. Flow diagram of technique for improving estimates of streamflow characteristics -------------------------------------- 138 

Monitoring water resources in Qom Playa, west-central Iran, by Daniel 

B. Krinsley, U.S. Geological Survey ------------------------ 139 

FIGURE 88. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Qom Playa area of westcentral Iran on Sept. 22, 1972 ----------------------------- 140 

89. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Qom Playa area of westcentral Iran on May 14, 1973 ------------------------------ 141 

90. Comparison of the climatic data from Qom with the lake area 

and volume at Qom Playa, from Sept. 4, 1972, to May 14, 1973__ 142 

Lake fluctuations in the Shiraz and Neriz Playas of Iran, by Daniel B. 

Krinsley, U.S. Geological Survey -------------------------- 143 

FIGURE 91. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Shiraz and Neriz Playas, 

Iran, on Sept. 20, 1972 ---------------------------------- 144 

92. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Shiraz and Neriz Playas, 

Iran, on Mar. 1, 1973 ----------------------------------- 146 

93. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Shiraz and Neriz Playas, Iran, 

on Aug. 28, 1973 ---------------------------------------- 147 

94. Diagram showing lake fluctuations at Shiraz and Neriz Playas, 

1972-73 ------------------------------------------------ 148 95. A comparison of the climatic data from Neriz with the lake areas 

and volumes at Shiraz and Neriz Playas, for the period Sept. 

2, 1972, to Aug. 28, 1973 --------------------------------- 149 

Ecological model in Florida, by Aaron L. Higer, A. Eugene Coker, and 

Edwin H. Cordes, U.S. Geological Survey ------------------- 150 

FIGURE 96. Color composite ERTS-1 image mosaic of the State of Florida ___ 151 

97. Wildlife ecological model, Shark River Slough, Florid<:~ ----------- 152 

98. Data collection platform, Everglades National Park, south Florida -- 152 

99. Surface-water storage model, Shark River Slough, Florida -------- 152 

100. Wood storks nesting --------------------------------------- 152 

Turbidity in Lake Superior, by Michael Sydor, University of Minnesota_ 153 

FIGURE 101. Correlation of intensity from band 5 of ERTS-1 image with turbidHy -------------------------------------------------- 153 

102. Density-sliced image using color to show turbidity ----------- 153 

103. Harbor and lake image density levels identified by corresponding 

turbidity levels on ERTS-1 image --------------------------- 154 

104. Computer printout of image-density levels from computer compatible tapes -------------------------------------------- 154 

105. Index of map of Lake Superior study area ---------------------- 154 

106. Part of ERTS-1 image showing the Lake Superior study area ------ 155 

107. Graph showing variation in MSS band signals ------------------ 155 

XI 
Dynamics of suspended-sediment plumes, by Edward J. Pluhowski, U.S. 

157 Geological Survey --------------------------------------

FIGURE 108. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Lake Ontario-Niagara 

River area, on Sept. 3, 1973 -----------------------------:- 156 

109. Part of an ERTS-1 image showing sediment plumes in Lake Ontarro 

on Apr. 12, 1973 ----------------------------------------- 157 

110. Part of an ERTS-1 image showing sediment plumes in Lake Ontario 

on Apr. 29, 1973 ----------------------------------------- 157 

111. Part of an ERTS-1 image made on Sept. 3, 1973, enlarged and color 

enhanced by Stanford University's ESIAC console, showing the 

Niagara River plume -------------------------------------- 158 

Water-management model of the Florida Everglades, by Aaron L. Higer, 

Edwin H. Cordes, and A. Eugene Coker, U.S. Geological Survey_ 159 

FIGURE 112. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Everglades National Park 

area of Florida ------------------------------------------ 160 

113. Annotated ERTS-1 image showing water-management conservation 

areas in the Everglades National Park area of Florida --------- 161 

114. Determination of surface-water storage in Conservation Area No. 1 161 

115. Electronically processed part of ERTS-1 image of Conservation 

Area No. 1 --------------------------------------------- 161 

Suspended sediment in Great Slave Lake, Northwest Territories, 

Can~da, by _D~>nal~ R. Wiesnet, National Oceanic and Atmosphenc Adm~n1strat1on ----------------------------------- 162 

FIGURE 116. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Great Slave Lake area, 

Northwest Territories, Canada ----------------------------- 163 

Discovery and significance of the Beech Grove lineament of Tennessee, 

by G. K. Moore and Este F. Hollyday, U.S. Geological Survey __ 164 

FIGURE 117. Color composite ERTS-1 image of central Tennessee on Oct. 17, 

1972, showing location of the Beech Grove lineament _________ 165 

118. Index map showing the location of the Beech Grove lineament __ 166 

119. Color composite ERTS-1 image of central Tennessee on Dec. 28, 

1972 ---------------------------------------------------- 167 

Western Lake Superior ice, by Michael Sydor, University of Minnesota- 169 

FIGURE 120. 

121. 

122. 

123. 

124. 

Color composite ERTS-1 image of western Lake Superior showing typical ice pack -------------------------------------- D~nsity-sli~ed ERTS-1 image using color to identify areas of intense 

1ce pack1ng ---------------------------------------------- Graph showing albedo, western Lake Superior -------------------

Graph showing ice growth, Duluth-Superior harbor -------------

Graph showing estimate of volume of ice cover that is highly 

packed, western Lake Superior ---------------------------

170 

171 

171 

172 

172 

Measuring snow-covered area to predict reservoir inflow, by Robert 

M. Krimmel and Mark F. Meier, U.S. Geological Survey _______ 173 

FIGURE 125 Color composite ERTS-1 image mosaic of the Puget Sound region, Washington ---------------------------------------- 174 

126. Index map of Cascade Mountains drainage basins -------------- 174 

127. Graph showing percentage of drainage basin area covered by snow 175 

Mapping snow extent in the Sierra Nevada of California, by Donald R. 

Wie~net an~ ~avi~ F. McGinnis, National Oceanic and Atmosphenc Adm1n1strat1on ----------------------------------- 176 

FIGURE 128. Composite of parts of three different ERTS-1 images (band 4) 

showing retreat of snowpack at three stages during the spring 

of 1973 ------------------------------------------------- 177 

Surging and nonsurging glaciers in the Pamir Mountains, U.S.S.R., by 

Robert M. Krimmel, Austin Post, and Mark F. Meier, U.S. Geological Survey ------------------------------------------ 178 

FIGURE 129. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Pamir Mountains, U.S.S.R. 179 

XII 
Measuring the motion of the Lowell and Tweedsmuir surging glaciers 

of British Columbia, Canada, by Austin Post, Mark F. Meier, 

and Lawrence R. Mayo, U.S. Geological Survey -------------- 180 

FIGURE 130. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the lowell Glacier and Tweedsmuir Glacier areas of British Columbia, Canada ------------- 181 

131. Annotated ERTS-1 image of the lowell and Tweedsmuir Glaciers, 

British Columbia, Canada -------------------------------- 182 

132. Graph showing velocity of movement of the Tweedsmuir Glacier in 

1973 --------------------------------------------------- 183 133. Maps showing displacement vectors and changes in medial 

moraines of the lowell Glacier, 1954-73 ------------------- 184 

Monitoring the motion of surging glaciers in the Mount McKinley 

massif, Alaska, by Mark F. Meier, U.S. Geological Survey _____ 185 

FIGl.iRE 134. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Mount McKinley area, 

Alaska -------------------------------------------------- 186 135. Annotated enlargement of ERTS-1 image of the Mount McKinley 

area, Alaska --------------------------------------------- 187 

Vatnajokull icecap, Iceland, by Richard S. Williams, Jr .. U.S. Geological Survey __ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ __ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ ___ ___ _ 188 

FIGURE 136. Annotated enlargement of 'ERTS-1 image of the Vatnajokull area, 

Iceland, in the winter ----------------------------------- 189 

137. Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the Vatnajokull area 

Iceland, in the summer ----------------------------------- 191 

138. Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the Vatnajokull area, 

Iceland, in the fall -------------------------------------- 192 

139. Sketch map of the Vatnajokull area of Iceland ----------------- 193 

Glaciology in Antarctica, by William R. MacDonald, U.S. Geological Survey _ _ ___ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ ___ ___ __ __ 194 

FIGURE 140. Enlargement of ERTS-1 image of Erebus Ice Tongue, Antarctica__ 194 

141. ERTS-1 image of Ronne Ice Shelf, Antarctica ------------------ 194 

142. Sketch map of the li.itzow-Holm Bay area of Antarctica compiled 

from ERTS imagery ---------------------------------------- 195 

Monitoring flood inundation, by Roger B. Morrison and P. Gary White, 

U.S. Geological Survey ---------------------------------- 196 

FIGURE 143. 

144. 

145. 

146. 

147. 

148. 

149. 

150. 

151. 

152. 

153. 

154. 

155. 

Annotated ERT5-1 image showing confluence of the Mississippi 

and Ohio Rivers in preflood condition on Nov. 24, 1972 -------

Annotated ERTS-1 image showing confluence of the Mississippi and 

Ohio Rivers in flood on May 5, 1973 ----------------------- Annotated ERTS-1 image showing confluence of the Mississippi and 

Ohio Rivers as rivers retreat to normal stage on june 10, 1973 __ _ 

Annotated ERTS-1 image of the St. louis area, Missouri, showing 

preflood conditions of the Missouri, Mississippi, and Illinois 

Rivers on Aug. 28, 1972 ----------------------------------- ERTS-1 image showing flood swollen rivers in the St. louis area 

on Mar. 31, 1973 ---------------------------------------- Preflood color composite ERTS-1 image of Gila River Valley, Arizona, on Aug. 22, 1972 ----------------------------------- Color composite ERTS-1 image shows dramatic increase in the 

San Carlos lake and soil erosion areas upstream that resulted 

from the flood of Oct. 21, 1972 --------------------------- Preflood ERTS-1 image (band 7) of the Gila River Valley, Arizona, 

on Aug. 22, 1972 ----------------------------------------- Postflood ERTS-1 image (band 7) of the Gila River Valley, Arizona, 

on Nov. 2, 1972 ----------------------------------------- Preflood ERTS-1 image (band 5) of the Gila River Valley, Arizona, 

on Aug. 22, 1972 ---------------------------------------- Postflood ERTS-1 image (band 5) of the Gila River Valley, Arizona, 

on Nov. 2, 1972 ----------------------------------------- Preflood ERTS-1 image of southwestern Iowa on Aug. 14, 1972 ---

Annotated ERTS-1 image mosaic showin~Z the West and East Nishnabotna Rivers in flood on Sept. 19, 1972 ------------------

197 

199 

200 

201 

202 

203 

204 

205 

205 

206 

206 

207 

208 

XIII 
Optical processing of ERTS data for determining extent of the 1973 Mississippi River flood, by Morris Deutsch, U.S. Geological Survey_ 209 

FIGURE 156. Preflood and flood ERTS-1 image mosaics of the central Mississippi valley, 1972-73, compared with optically combined 

temporal color composite image mosaic to show areas of flooding ---------------------------------------------------- 211 157. Temporal color composite of preflood October ERTS-1 image and 

postflood March and May ERTS-1 images of the St. Louis area__ 212 

Monitoring cloud-seeding conditions in the San Juan Mountains of 

Colorado, by Archie M. Kahan, Bureau of Reclamation -------- 214 

FIGURE 158. Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the San Juan Mountain region, Colorado, showing location of data collection platforms -------------------------------------------------- 215 

159. Wolf Creek Pass data collection platform --------------------- 216 

TABLE 1. Samples of Project Skywater DCS platform data ------------------ 216 

Hydrology of arid and semiarid areas, by j. Robert Owen and Lynn 

M. Shown, U.S. Geological Survey ------------------------- 217 

160. Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the northern Colorado 

· Plateau ------------------------------------------------- 218 

References --------------------------------------------------- 220 

Chapter 4. Applications to Land-Use Mapping and Planning 

Introduction, by James R. Anderson, U.S. Geological Survey ---------

Land use in northeast Colorado, by Larry D. Cast, Bureau of Reclamation ---------------------------------------------------

FIGURE 161. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the South Platte River valley, Colorado ------------------------------------------- 162. Annotated ERTS-1 image of the South Platte River valley showing 

irrigated lands, grasslands, and dryland farming areas --------

Thematic mapping of forested and cultivated land in Alabama, by Gary 

W. North, U.S. Geological Survey, and Neal G. Lineback, University of Alabama -------------------------------------- FIGURE 163. Color composite ERTS-1 image mosaic of the State of Alabama __ 

Monitoring change in land use over large regions, by John L. Place, 

U.S. Geological Survey -----------------------------------

FIGURE 164. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Phoenix area, Arizona __ _ 

165. Land-use map of the Phoenix area, 1970, with changes detected by 

ERTS through April 1973 ---------------------------------- 166. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Phoenix area, Arizona, on 

Oct. 16, 1972 --------------------------------------------

Computer-aided mapping of land use, by Richard Ellefsen, California 

State University, and Leonard Gaydos and james R. Wray, U.S. 

Geological Survey -------~-----------------------------­

FIGURE 167. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the San Francisco Bay area, 

California ----------------------------------------------- 168. Enlarged aerial photograph-map pair of Hayward, California -----

169. Part of a computer-classified land-use map of the San Francisco 

170. M::,y ~~~~~h~t~g.:-a-ph~--t;~--;~j~~g;~-;~t~--~f-~~~~~-~~;.;-p~~it; ERTS-1 images, and computer-classified land-use map of a small 

area near Phoenix, Arizona ------------------------------- 171. Color composite ERTS-1 image of Phoenix, Arizona, on Oct. 16, 

1972 --------------------------------------------------- 172. Color composite ERTS-1 image of Phoenix, Arizona, on May 2, 

1973 ---------------------------------------------------

References ---------------------------------------------------

XIV 

223 

225 

226 

227 

228 

229 

230 

231 

232 

233 

234 

235 

237 

238 

239 

240 

241 

242 
Chapter 5. Applications to Agriculture, Forestry, and Rangeland 

Management 

Introduction, by Grover Torbert, Bureau of land Management ------- 243 

Monitoring forest-fire burn areas in Alaska, by Grover Torbert, Bureau 

of land Management ------------------------------------ 244 

FIGURE 173. Annotated color composite ERT5-1 image of a forest fire in northern Alaska ---------------------------------------------- 245 

Detection of short-term changes in vegetation of southern Arizona, by 

Raymond M. Turner, U.S. Geological Survey ---------------- 246 

FIGURE 174. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Tucson area, Arizona____ 247 

175. Thematic extraction of relatively dense vegetation from ERTS-1 

images by ratioing (late summer, winter, and spring) -------- 248 

Monitoring ephemeral livestock-forage production, by R. Gordon 

Bentley, Jr., Bureau of land Management ------------------ 249 

FIGURE 176. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Phoenix area, Arizona__ 250 

177. Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the Phoenix area, 

Arizona, showing perennial and ephemeral vegetation and production ------------------------------------------------- 251 

References 252 

Chapter 6. Applications to Environmental Monitoring 

Introduction, by C. F. Withington, U.S. Geological Survey ___________ 253 

Changes in landscape due to strip mining, by John B. Rehder, University of Tennessee ------------------------------------ 254 

FIGURE 178. Changes in the landscape created by strip mining on the Cumberland Plateau, Tennessee, Apr. 18 through Oct. 15, 1972, from 

aerial photography and ERTS-1 imagery -------------------- 255 

179. Strip mines on the Cumberland Plateau from enlargement of ERTS1 image acquired on Oct. 15, 1972 ------------------------- 256 

180. Strip mines on the Cumberland Plateau from NASA high-altitude 

aerial photography acquired on Apr. 18, 1972 --------------- 257 

Oil-well fire on ERTS-1 images, by C. F. Withington, U.S. Geological 

Survey, and Roy M. Breckenridge, Wyoming Geological Survey --------------------------------------------------- 258 

FIGURE 181. Smoke plume from wildcat oil-well fire, Converse County, Wyoming, on ERTS-1 image, Dec. 20, 1973 --------------------- 259 

182. Enlargements of three ERTS-1 images showing comparison of 

reflectance of smoke plume ------------------------------ 260 

Air pollution from the Ohio River and Monongahela River valleys, by 

Fred R. Brown and Fred S. Karn, U.S. Bureau of Mines -----·----- 261 

FIGURE 183. Color composite ERTS-1 image of smoke plumes from powergenerating plants in the Ohio River and Monongahela River 

valleys -------------------------------------------------- 262 184. Index map of the Ohio River and Monongahela River valleys ---- 26J 

185. Enlargement of part of image of the Beverly, Ohio, area showing 

smoke plumes on different MSS bands on Jan. 12, 1973 -------- 264 

186. Enlarged parts of four ERTS-1 images showing steam plumes from 

coke ovens near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, November 1972 

through March 1973 ------------------------------------ 265 

A lake Michigan 11Whiting," by Alan E. Strong, National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration ------------------------------ 266 

FIGURE 187. Color composite ERTS-1 image mosaic of Lake Michigan ------ 267 

188. Nonconventional color composite ERTS-1 image mosaic of Lake 

Michigan to emphasize "whiting" phenomenon -------------- 268 

189. ERTS-1 image mosaic of band 4 images of Lake Michigan _____ 269 

XV 
Algal blooms in Utah lake, by Alan E. Strong, National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration ------------------------------ 270 

FIGURE 190. Color composite ERTS-1 image of algal blooms in Utah lake --- 271 

191. Comparison of a part of ERTS-1 image, showing algal blooms in 

Utah lake on bands 4, 5, 6, and 7 -------------------------- 272 

Wetland classification and mapping along the south Atlantic coast, by 

Virginia Carter, U.S. Geological Survey, and Richard R. Anderson and john W. McGinness, Jr., The American University ____ 273 

FIGURE 192. Enlargement of part of band 7 ERTS-1 image of the Charleston area, South Carolina -------------------------------- 274 

193. Wetland map of the Charleston, lake Moultrie, and Cooper River 

area, South Carolina ------------------------------------- 274 

194. ERTS-1 image of the Charleston area, South Carolina, showing wetland vegetation on Oct. 12, 1972 -------------------------- 275 

195. ERTS-1 image of the Charleston area, South Carolina, showing wetland vegetation on Mar. 23, 1973 -------------------------- 276 

Coastal wetland mapping in the central Atlantic region, by Virginia 

Carte~, U.S. ~eol~gical Survey, and Richard R. Anderson, The 

Amencan Umvers1ty ------------------------------------ 277 

FIGURE 196. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the lower Chesapeake Bay -- 278 

197. Enlargement of band 7 ERTS-1 image of the Chincoteague Bay 

salt-marsh complex --------------------------------------- 279 

198. Wetland map of the Chincoteague Bay salt-marsh complex ------ 279 

Computer mapping of coastal wetlands, by Virginia Carter, U.S. Geological Survey -------------------------------------------- 280 

FIGURE 199. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Chincoteague Bay area of 

the Virginia Eastern Shore on Aug. 30, 1973 ----------------- 281 

200. Computer-processed wetland map of the Chincoteague Bay saltmarsh complex ------------------------------------------ 282 

Tidal effects in coastal wetlands, by Virginia Carter, U.S. Geological 

Survey, and Richard R. Anderson, The American University ____ 283 

FIGURE 201. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Georgia-South Carolina coast 

and band 7 ERTS-1 image of Port Royal Sound, South Carolina, 

on June 3, 1973, at high tide ------------------------------ 284 

202. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Georgia-South Carolina coast 

and band 7 ERTS-1 image of Port Royal Sound, on Apr. 28, 

1973, at low tide ---------------------------------------- 285 

Wetland mapping in a large tidal brackish-water marsh in Chesapeake 

Bay, by Virginia Carter, U.S. Geological Survey, john W. McGinness, Jr., and Richard R. Anderson, The American University 286 

FIGURE 203. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Delmarva Peninsula and 

band 7 ERTS-1 image of Nanticoke Marsh on Oct. 10, 1972 ___ 287 

204. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Delmarva Peninsula and 

band 7 ERTS-1 image of Nanticoke Marsh on july 7, 1973 ---- 288 

205. Wetland map of Nanticoke Marsh compiled from ERTS images --- 289 

Environmental assessment of remote areas of Colombia, South America, by William D. Carter, U.S. Geological Survey ----------- 290 

FIGURE 206. Color composite ERTS-1 image of southeastern Colombia, South 

America ------------------------------------------------ 291 

207. A portion of U.S. Air Force Operational Navigation Chart (ONC l 

26) of southeastern Colombia ----------------------------- 292 

Man's impact upon wetlands, by Virginia Carter, U.S. Geological Surve~, an9 linda Alsid and Richard R. Anderson, The American Umvers1ty _____ __ _ __ _ __ _______ ___ __ ___ ___ ___ _ __ ________ 293 

FIGURE 208. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the New jersey-Delaware 

coastal wetlands ----------------------------------------- 294 

209. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Georgia coastal wetlands near 

Savannah ----------------------------------------------- 295 

XVI 
Selection of a road alinement through the Great Kavir in Iran, by 

Daniel B. Krinsley, U.S. Geological Survey ------------------ 296 

FIGURE 210. Index map of Iran showing location of the Great Kavir -------- 297 

211. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Great Kavir in its driest 

period on Sept. 20, 1972 --------------------------------- 298 

212. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Great Kavir in its wettest 

period on May 12, 1973 ---------------------------------- 299 

Tornado tracks, by Este F. Hollyday, U.S. Geological Survey, and james 

G. Cook, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers --------------------- 300 

FIGURE 213. Color composite ERTS-1 image of tornado tracks in the William 

B. Bankhead National Forest near Guin, Alabama ------------ 301 

References --------------------------------------------------- 302 

Chapter 7. Applications to Conservation 

Introduction, by Richard D. Curnow, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 303 

Archaeological analysis of imagery of Chaco Canyon region, New 

Mexico, by Thomas R. Lyons and james I. Ebert, National Park 

Service, and Robert K. Hitchcock, University of New Mexico___ 304 

FIGURE 214. Index map showing location of the Chaco Canyon National Monument, New Mexico -------------------------------------- 305 

215. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Chaco Canyon National 

Monument, New Mexico -------------------------------- 306 

Cape Cod and the Cape Cod National Seashore of Massachusetts, by 

Richard S. Williams, Jr., U.S. Geological Survey ------------- 307 

FIGURE 216. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Cape Cod area of Massachusetts _________________________________ ------- ___ __ __ 308 

217. Part of the Boston sheet of the International Map of the World 

showing the same area as figure 216 ----------------------- 309 

Land-use planning in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, Montana, 

and Idaho, by Harry W. Smedes, U.S. Geological Survey ______ 310 

FIGURE 218. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Yellowstone National Park 

and vicinity on Nov. 23, 1972 ---------------------------- 311 

219. Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Yellowstone National Park 

and vicinity on Aug. 7, 1972 ------------------------------- 313 

220. High-altitude color aerial photomosaic of the Yellowstone National 

Park ---------------------------------------------------- 314 221. Computer-processed terrain map of the Yellowstone National Park 

made from computer compatible tapes --------------------- 315 

The Great Dismal Swamp of Virginia and North Carolina, by Virginia 

Carter, U.S. Geological Survey --------------------------- 316 

FIGURE 222. 

223. 

224. 

225. 

226. 

227. 

228. 

Map of the Great Dismal Swamp study area, Virginia-North Carol ina ______________________________________________ --

Enlargement of part of color composite ERTS-1 image showing the 

Great Dismal Swamp ------------------------------------- Color composite ERTS-1 image of northern Pamlico Sound and the 

Great Dismal Swamp with partial snow cover on Feb. 13, 1973 __ 

Color digital display of the Great Dismal Swamp in simulated false- color infrared ___________________________________________ _ 

Thematic extraction of Atlantic white-cedar, Great Dismal Swamp __ 

Thematic extraction of surface water below deciduous trees, 

Great Dismal Swamp ------------------------------------- Thematic extraction of drier deciduous areas, Great Dismal Swamp 

317 

317 

319 

320 

320 

320 

320 

XVII 
Monitoring breeding habitat of migratory waterfowl, by David S. Gilmer and A. T. Klett, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and Edgar 

A. Work, Environmental Research Institute of Michigan _______ 321 

TABLE 2. Part of a computer printout for the july 7, 1973, ERT5-1 image (fig. 

230) showing size-frequency distribution of surface water and location and size of water bodies --------------------------------- 322 

FIGURE 229. Index map showing coverage provided by three ERTS images in 

a primary waterfowl-breeding area in North Dakota --------- 323 

230. Color composite ERTS-1 image showing waterfowl-habitat study 

area near Jamestown, North Dakota ------------------------ 324 

References _ ____ ___ ___ __ _ ___ __ __ _ __ _ _ ____ _ __ ___ _ ___ ___ ________ 325 

Chapter 8. Applications to Oceanography 

Introduction, by William j. Campbell, U.S. Geological Survey -------- 326 

Mapping surface current flow in turbid nearshore waters of the northeast Pacific, by Paul R. Carlson, U.S. Geological Survey _______ 328 

FIGURE 231. Winter ERTS-1 image of turbid-water plumes along the northern 

California coast on jan. 6, 1973 --------------------------- 329 

232. Spring ERTS-1 image of turbid-water plumes along the northern 

California coast on Apr. 24, 1973 -------------------------- 329 

Detection of turbidity dynamics in Tampa Bay, Florida, by A. Eugene 

Coker, Aaron l. Higer, and Carl R. Goodwin, U.S. Geological 

Survey ------------------------------------------------ 330 

FIGURE 233. Color composite ERTS-1 RBV image of the Tampa Bay area of 

Florida ------------------------------------------------- 331 

234. Oblique aerial photograph of shell-dredging operations and turbidity plume -------------------------------------------- 332 

235. Sketch map showing turbidity in Tampa Bay ___ ---------------- 332 

236. Velocity-vector grid of turbidity in Tampa Bay ------------------ 332 

237. Black and white photograph of RBV bands enchanced by a coloradditive viewer and sketch map of turbidity plume ----------- 333 

Movement of turbid-water masses along the Texas coast, by Ralph E. 

Hunter, U.S. Geological Survey --------------------------- 334 

FIGURE 238. Turbidity patterns in the Gulf of Mexico and Galveston Bay on annotated ERTS-1 image ----------------------------------- 335 

239. Turbidity patterns along the Texas coast between Galveston and 

Pass Cavallo on annotated ERTS-1 image -------------------- 336 

Tracking ice floes by sequential ERTS imagery, by William J. Campbell, U.S. Geological Survey ------------------------------ 337 

FIGURE 240. Ice floes in eastern Beaufort Sea in the Arctic on ERTS-1 image 

of Aug. 19, 1972 ---------------------------------------- 338 

241. Map showing trajectories of two ice floes --------------------- 339 

Ice lead and polynya dynamics, by William j. Campbell, U.S. Geological Survey --------------------------------------------- 340 

FIGURE 242. ERTS-1 image of the ice cover in the central Beaufort Sea on 

Apr. 5, 1973 ------------------------------------------- 341 

243. ERTS-1 image of the ice cover in the central Beaufort Sea on Apr. 

6, 1973 ------------------------------------------------- 342 

Seasonal metamorphosis of sea ice, by William j. Campbell, U.S. Geological Survey ------------------------------------------ 343 

FIGURE 244. ERTS-1 image mosaic of large ice floes in the eastern Beaufort 

Sea on June 16, 1973, before onset of the summer melt -------- 344 

245. ERTS-1 image mosaic of large ice floes in the eastern Beaufort Sea 

17 days later -------------------------------------------- 345 

XVIII 
Dynamics of arctic ice-shear zones, by William J. Campbell, U.S. Geological Survey ------------------------------------------ 346 

FIGURE 246. ERTS-1 image of northwest coast of Banks Island Northwest Territories, Canada, on Apr. 10, 1973 -------------------------- 347 

247. ERTS-1 image of northwest coast of Banks Island, Northwest Territories, Canada, 24 hours later ---------------------------- 348 

248. ERTS-1 image of northwest coast of Banks Island, Northwest Territories, Canada, 17 days after figure 247 was imaged --------- 349 

Morphology of Beaufort Sea ice, by William j. Campbell, U.S. Geological Survey --------------------------------------------- 350 

FIGURE 249. ERTS-1 image mosaic of eastern Beaufort Sea on Aug. 22, 1972 -- 351 

250. ERTS-1 image mosaic of western Beaufort Sea on Aug. 22, 1972__ 353 

251. ERTS-1 image mosaic of eastern Beaufort Sea area on Sept. 8, 1972 354 

252. Polar projection map of the North Pole from Nimbus-5 ESMR data_ 355 

Flooding of sea ice by the rivers of northern Alaska, by Peter W. Barnes 

and Erk Reimnitz, U.S. Geological Survey ------------------- 356 

FIGURE 253. ERTS-1 image showing an area of river flooding on sea ice near 

Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, on May 24, _1973 --------------------- 357 

254. ERTS-1 image showing an area of river flooding on sea ice near 

Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, on May 26, 1973 --------------------- 358 

255. ERTS-1 image showing an area of river flooding on sea ice near 

Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, on May 27, 1973 --------------------- 359 

Influence of sea ice on sedimentary processes off northern Alaska, 

by Erk Reimnitz and Peter W. Barnes, U.S. Geological Survey___ 360 

FIGURE 256. Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the Prudhoe Bay area, 

Alaska, on june 14, 1973 -------------------------------- 361 

References 362 

CONVERSION TABLE IBM ______ International Business Machines. 

1 board foot measure=144 cubic inches. 

1 centimeter=0.39 inch. 

1 hectare=2.47 acres. 

1 kilogram=2.2 pounds. 

1 kilometer=0.62 mile. 

1 liter per second=0.04 cubic foot per second. 

1 meter=3.28 feet. 

1 micrometer=0.00004 inch. 

1 microradian=0.057 degree. 

1 millimeter=0.04 inch. 

1 nautical mile=1.15 statute miles. 

ABBREVIATIONS 

A --------Angstrom (=nanometer). 

AIDJEX ___ Arctic Ice Dynamics joint Experiment. C ________ celsius. 

em -------centimeter. 

CCT ______ computer compatible tape. m3 _______ cubic meter. 

m3 /s ______ cubic meters per second. 

DCP ------data collection platform. 

DCS ------data collection system. 

EROS -----Earth Resources Observation Systems. 

ERTS -----Earth Resources Technology Satellite. 

ESIAC ____ electronic satellite image analysis console. 

ESMR ----- elec:tronically scanning microwave radiometer. 

fbm ------foot: board measure. g-cal _____ gram-calorie 

G.m.t. ____ Greenwich mean time. 

ha -------hectare. h ________ hour. 

IMW _____ International Map of the World. 

JTU ------Jackson turbidity units. 

K --------kelvin. 

kg -------kilogram. 

km -------kilometer. 

km/h -----kilometers per hour. 

kn -------knots. 

kWh ------kilowatt hour. 

lat _______ latitude. 

1/s _______ liters per second. 

long _____ longitude. 

m --------meter. 

m/s ------meters per second. 

p.m -------micrometer. 

p.rad ------microradian. 

mg/1 _____ milligrams per liter. mm ______ millimeter. 

min ------minute. 

mo -------month. 

MSS ______ multispectral scanner. 

NASA ____ National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 

NOAA ____ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 

nmi ______ nautical miles. 

pixel _____ picture element of ERTS-1 image (unit of area 

measurement: 79mX56m) 

PDP ______ Programmable Digital Processor. 

RBV ______ return beam vidicon. 

rms ______ root mean square. s ________ second 

km2 ______ square kilometer. 

t _________ tonne (103 kg). 

UTM _____ Universal Transverse Mercator. 

VHRR ____ very high resolution radiometer. 

yr _______ year. 

XIX 

ERTS-1, A NEW WINDOW ON OUR PLANET 

Richard S. Williams, Jr., and William D. Carter, Editors 

INTRODUCTION 

By John M. DeNoyer, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

An objective of the ERTS Program is to obtain one-time imaging of the 

land areas of the world; the ERTS-1 spacecraft has accomplished 

approximately 80 percent of this task. 

The data base acquired by ERTS-1 is also a documentation of environmental conditions for the entire North Ame-rican continent. This documentation will be of critical importance and will form a baseline for the recognition 

of environmental changes that may occur in the future. The capability to 

make continued comparable observations will be necessary to use effectively 

and wisely this baseline of information. An objective, factual data base will 

be essential to both developers and environmentalists as large-scale resource 

production is pursued. 

The ERTS spacecraft is providing a data base that is used by many 

scientific disciplines. The fact that a common data base is useful to so many 

is a significant accomplishment in itself, establishing interdisciplinary communications and evolving multidisciplinary programs. The advantages of 

newly established channels of scientific communication may well be as important as many of the benefits to individual disciplines. 

The entire North American continent has been imaged at least once during 

the ERTS-1 experiment; many parts of North America have been imaged 

several times. This repetitive coverage has provided a data base used in 

examining changes that occur from natural and manmade causes and has 

opened a new field for documenting and understanding changes that occur on 

the surface of the Earth. No longer is it assumed that a one-time picture 

accurately describes the surface phenomena. Optimum times for observing 

different phenomena vary seasonally. For exa1nple, the total extent of forests 

can be mapped during the summer. Separation of deciduous trees and evergreens can be more easily accomplished using both summer and winter 

imagery. The relation of vegetation to soil moisture, soil type, and underlying 

geology is also more apparent by seasonal observations. Topographic features 

are made more apparent by thin snow cover or water-saturated soil. Observing 

these changing conditions at any one. location will require a number of years, 

if not decades, for data acquisition. The optimum interpretation often requires 

observation under different conditions (for example, low Sun angle of illumi1 
2 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

nation) even though the phenomena being observed (such as topography) 

may be relatively static. 

The ERTS spacecraft is in a near-polar orbit; it travels around the Earth 

every 103 min and can image selected portions of the Earth on each orbit. The 

satellite has capability for international data acquisition, and international 

interest in the initial ERTS investigations was in fact high. An even larger 

number of proposals for follow-up international investigations has been 

submitted. International training courses and workshops in the use of ERTS 

data have been conducted during the past few years, and plans call for a 

continuation of these training programs. Some nations have made major 

investments to be able to utilize ERTS data effectively. Canada and Brazil 

have constructed data-reception and data-processing facilities that are being 

used directly with ERTS, and other nations are actively negotiating with 

NASA to create similar capabilities. 

Data from ERTS can be interpreted through analysis of photographictype images or through highly sophisticated automatic information-extraction 

procedures. Every gradation between these two extremes of sophistication in 

analytical methods can be found in the data utilization program. This range 

of techniques opens the door for wide and extensive benefits to be obtained by 

a large segment of the world's population. 

All data received and processed frmn ERTS are available to anyone 

throughout the world. Several data formats are available to match user's 

needs, but the investigator can do additional processing to meet his specific 

needs. The contributions included in this professional paper illustrate a 

number of applications of ERTS data. Several additional studies are also 

being conducted. Technical reports on the NASA -sponsored ERTS investigations can be obtained through the Department of Commerce, National Technical Information Service (NTIS), Springfield, Virginia 22151. Summaries 

of results are published on a weekly basis. Topics of interest can be identified 

from these summaries, and brief interim or comprehensive final reports can 

be obtained from NTIS. A number of scientific symposia and other meetings 

have been convened since the launch of ERTS-1. 

The ERTS-1 spacecraft and ground processing system have been an 

_ outstanding technological success, a good example of the application of space 

technology to the solution of man's problems on Earth. 
ERTS-1 MSS FALSE-COLOR COMPOSITES 

By Charles F. Withington, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

F

alse-color or color-infrared composite pictures are made from multispectral 

imagery taken by NASA's ERTS-1 from an altitude of 915 km. Such a 

picture is the one of the upper Chesapeake Bay area (fig. 1). The scale 

of an 18.5- X 18.5-cm image (9- X 9-in. print) is 1:1,000,000; each image encompasse8 an area of 34,000 km2 • The four black and white ERTS MSS images 

(1figs. 2-5) are in four different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum (fig. 6): 

the green band (designated band 4 on ERTS imagery) approximately 0.5-0.6 

p.m; the red band (band 5) approximately 0.6-0.7 p.m; and 2 bands in the 

near-infrared range, band 6, 0. 7-0.8 p.m and band 7, 0.8-1.1 p.m. The two infrared bands measure the reflectance of the Sun's rays off the surfftce of the Earth 

outside the range of light sensitivity of the human eye. One of the best reflecting materials is chlorophyll; generally speaking, the healthier the vegetation, 

the brighter the reflectance. False-color imagery is made by projecting the 

different bands through the proper filters and combining them. Red is assigned to the near-infrared, thus vegetation appears red; the healthier the 

vegetation, the redder the image. Water absorbs the Sun's rays, so clear water 

appears black on infrared. However, silt in water reflects the Sun's rays and 

appears light blue on the image. Buildings and roads of cities also appear in 

bluish-gray hues. 

In the image of the upper Chesapeake Bay area (fig. 1), taken Oct. 11, 

1972, the predominant feature is Chesapeake Bay extending from north to 

south near the eastern edge of the image. The Delmarva Peninsula is east of 

the bay. Baltimore, Md., is near the top center; Washington, D.C., is just left 

of the center of the image. The vigorous vegetation of urban open spaces can 

be easily seen, such as the Mall and Hains Point in Washington. 

Urban areas stand out plainly; notice the growth patterns radiating out 

from the larger cities. Urban and suburban growth can be measured and 

monitored with subsequent ERTS images, providing valuable information for 

regional and transportation planners. 

Notice that part of the course of the Potomac River (center part of image) 

is light blue. This is the silt that resulted from a storm that traveled northward 

up the coast on October 5-7 and dumped more than 25 mm of rain on the 

headwaters of this river. Tidal action has restricted the dispersion of sediment 

in the estuary of this river. 

The bare ground (white). seen east of Chesapeake Bay are fields from 

which crops have been harvested. The redder tone in the far upper right is a 

3 
'J 

~ 

3 

3 

3 

a 

N 

0 

3 

9 

0 

0 

w 

0 

7 

8 

0 

0 

~ 

0 

3 

8 

3 

0 

4 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

lloJ077-30 w077-00 1 

I IOCT72 C N38 -5a/W076 -a8 N N38 -52/W076-a3 MSS 

10 0 

10 0 

.w076·30 1 loJ076-001 

0 SUN EL38 AZ1a9 191- I I 1a-N- I -N-D-2L NASA ERTS E- 1080 - 92- ~ 01 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 

10 20 

20 30 MILES 

30 Kl LOM ETERS 

FIGURE 1.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the upper Chesapeake Bay area made by combining bands 4, 5, and 7 

(1 080-15192). 

loJ 

0 

-, 

5 

3 

0 

N 

0 

3 

9 

0 

0 

N 

0 

3 

B 

3 

0 
FIGURE 2.-ERTS-1 image of the upper Chesapeake Bay area, showing reflectance in the 0.5- to 0.6-0 m (green) range of the spectrum (1080-

15192, band 4). 

FIGURE 4.-ERTS-1 image of the upper Chesapeake Bay area, showing reflectance in the 0.7- to 0.8-11m (near-infrared) range of the spectrum 

(1080-15192, band 6). 

MSS False-Color Composites 5 

FIGURE 3.-ERTS-1 image of the upper Chesapeake Bay area, showing reflectance in the 0.6- to 0.7-0 m (red) range of the spectrum (1080-15192, 

band 5). 

FIGURE 5.-ERTS-1 image of the upper Chesapeake Bay area, showing reflectance in the 0.8- to 1.1-0 m (near-infrared) range of the spectrum 

(1 080-15192, band 7). 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

I' II 

10 0 

10 

I 

20 

I I I 30 40 

30 40 50 MILES 

I I I I 

50 KILOMETERS 
6 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

RBV Band Band Band 

1 2 3 

MSS Band Band Band Band 

4 5 6 7 

' .4 " .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0 / /• 1.1 .u m 

20 10 

" / " / " / ' / " / ' / " / " / '\. Frequency (cycles/sec)/ 

Scanners with filtered 

photomultipliers; 

image orthicons and 

cameras with filtered 

infrared film >2900 nm 

' / 

1016 "" 1d4 / 

Cameras with 

infrared sensitive 

film; solid-state 

detectors in 

scanners and 

radiometers 

Microwave 

receivers in scanners 

and radiometers 

FIGURE 6.-The electromagnetic spectrum and ERTS-1 sensor relationships. (Modified from Parker, D. C., and Wolff, M. F., 1965, 

Remote sensing; International Science and Technology, july.) 

poorly drained area where the fields are small, the land less fertile, and the 

forested area more extensive. 

Geologic structures show up particularly well. The elongate forested areas 

in the upper left of the picture, for instance, are the Blue Ridge Mountains. 

Lineaments can be seen throughout the area, especially the northeast-trending 

lineaments north of Baltimore and the north-trending lineament parallel to 

the upper right edge of the image. 

The following list is a guide to the image information at the bottom of 

all original ERTS images. Enlargements and specially processed ERTS 

images may not include such image data, however. 

Description of annotation at margins of an ERTS image 

110CT72-Day, month, and year of image exposure. 

C N38-54/W076-48-Geometric extensions of spacecraft yaw attitude ax1s 

to Earth's surface: 

C-Format center, latitude/longitnde, degrees-minutes. 

N N38-52/W076-43-Intersection with Earth's surface of a line from the 

satellite perpendicular to Earth ellipsoid : 

N-N adir, latitude/longitude, degrees-minutes. 

MSS 457D-Sensor used (MSS-l\InltispPctral Scanner, RBV-Return Beam 

Vidicon): 

Band or bands, in this case a color composite of bands 4, 5, and 7. 

D-Direct. 

R-Recorded type of transmission. 
MSS False-Color Composites 7 

SUN EL38 AZ149-Sun angles specified at time of MSS midpoint or RBV 

time of exposure to nearest degree : 

EL-Elevation. 

AZ-Azimuth. 

191-Spacecraft heading, including yaw (toward image annotation). 

1114-0rbit revolution number since time of launch. 

N-U.S. ground recording station: 

N-Greenbelt, Md. 

A-Alaska. 

G-Goldstone, Calif. 

1-Image size: 

1-100 nmi X 100 nmi. 

2-50 nmi X 50 nmi. 

3-25 nmi X 25 nmi. 

N-Image processing procedure: 

N-Normal. 

A-Abnormal. 

D-Orbit ephemeris data : 

D-Definitive. 

P-Predicted. 

2-Mode of MSS signal processing before transmission from satellite: 

1-Linear. 

2-Compressed. 

L-Gain: 

L-Low gain. 

H-High gain. 

NASA/ERTS-Agency and project identifier. 

E-1080-15192-Frame identification number. 

E-Encoded project identifier. 

1-ERTS mission ( 1--ERTS-A, 2-ERTS-B; after 999 days, numbers 

change to 5 and 6, respectively). 

080-Day number relative to launch at time of observation. 

15-Hour at time of observation (G.m.t.). 

19-Minute at time of observation ( G.m.t.). 

2-Seconds at time of observation ( G.m.t.) rounded off to the nearest 10 s. 

4/5/7-Band number: 

RBV: 1(0.475-0.575 ,um), 2(0.580-0.680 ,urn), 3(0.630-0.830 ,urn) 

MSS: 4 (0.5-0.6 ,um), 5 (0.6-0.7 ,urn), 6 (0.7-0.8 ,urn), 7 (0.8-1.1 ,urn) 

Color composite: 4/5/7 

01-Regeneration number 

Tic marks and numbers around margins of the ERTS image refer to an 

approximate latitude and longitude (degrees and minutes) grid for the image. 

Note: The original MSS or RBV ERTS image is created on photographic 

film from an electron beam recorder at a scale of 1: 3,360,000. 

Negative or positive transparencies or prints (black and white or 

false-color) are available at this scale or at standard enlargement 

scales of 1 :1,000,000; 1 :500,000; 1 :250,000 from the EROS Data 

Center, Sioux Falls, S. Dak. 57198. Computer compatible tapes 

(CCT's) of every ERTS image are also available from the EROS 

Data Center. 

As an example of how the satellite images the surface of the Earth on 

successive orbits, the dates and orbit numbers for ERTS-1 frmn ...:-\.ug. 3, 1974, 

to ,Jan. 11, 1975, over the conterminous United States and from Apr. 17, 1974, 

to Aug. 20, 1974, over Alaska and Hawaii are shown on the following pages. 
ERTS-1 COVERAGE C 

DATE 8/8 an 8/6 8/5 8/4 8/3 8/20 8/19 8/18 8/ 17 8/ 16 8/ 15 8/ 14 8 /13 8/12 8 /11 8/ 10 8/9 8/8 8/7 8/ 6 8/5 

ORBIT NO. 10403 10389 10375 10361 10347 10333 10570 10556 10542 10528 10514 10500 10486 10472 10458 10444 10430 10416 10402 10388 10374 10360 

8/26 8/25 8/24 8/23 8/22 8/21 9/7 9/6 9/5 9/4 9/3 9/2 9/1 8/ 3 1 8/30 8/29 8/28 8/ 27 8/26 8/25 8/24 8/23 

10654 10640 10626 10612 10598 10584 10821 10807 10793 10779 10765 10751 10737 10723 10709 10695 10681 10667 10653 10639 10625 10611 

9 /13 9/ 12 9/11 9/10 9/9 9/8 9/25 9/24 9/23 9/22 9/2 1 9/20 9/ 19 9 /18 9/ 17 9 / 16 9/ 15 9/ 14 9 /13 9/ 12 9/ 11 9/ 10 

10905 10891 10877 10863 10849 10835 11072 11058 11044 11030 11016 11002 10988 10974 10960 10946 10932 10918 10904 10890 10876 10862 

9/31 9/30 9/29 9/ 28 9/ 27 9/26 10/12 10/11 10/10 10/9 10/8 10/7 10/6 10/5 10/4 10/3 10/2 10/ 1 9/31 9/30 9/29 9/ 28 

11156 11142 11128 11114 11100 11086 11323 11309 11295 11281 11267 112 53 11239 11225 I 1211 111 97 11183 11169 1 I 155 I 114 t 11127 11113 

10/18 10/17 10/16 10/15 10/14 10/13 10/3 0 10/29 10/28 10/27 10/26 10/25 10/24 10/ 23 10/ 22 10/ 21 10/20 10/ 19 10/ 18 10/ 17 10/16 10/ 15 

11407 11393 11379 11365 11351 11337 11574 11560 11546 11532 11518 11504 11490 11 4 76 11 462 11448 11434 11420 11406 11392 11378 11364 

11 / 6 11 /5 11/ 4 11 /3 11 / 2 11/1 11 / 18 11 / 17 11/16 11 / 15 11 / 14 11 / 13 11 / 12 11 / 11 11 / 10 11 / 9 11 / 8 11/7 11 / 6 11 /5 11 /4 11/ 3 

11658 11644 11630 11616 11602 11588 11825 11811 11797 11783 11769 11 755 11 741 11727 11 713 11699 11685 11671 11657 11643 11629 1161 5 

11 /24 11 /23 11/22 11 / 21 11/20 11 / 19 12/6 12/5 12/4 12/3 12/2 12/ 1 11 / 30 11 /29 11/28 11 / 27 11 / 26 11 / 25 11 / 24 11/ 23 11 / 22 11 / 21 

11909 11895 11881 11867 11853 11839 12076 12062 12048 12034 12020 12006 11992 11978 11 964 11950 11936 11 922 11908 1 1894 11880 I 1866 

12 /12 12/ 11 12/10 12/9 12/8 12/7 12/24 12/23 12/22 12/21 12/20 12/19 12 /18 12 / 17 12 / 16 12/15 12/14 12 /13 12 /12 12111 12 / 10 12/ 9 

12160 12146 12132 12118 12104 12090 12327 12313 12299 12285 12271 12257 12243 12229 12215 12201 12187 12173 12159 12145 12131 1211 7 

12 /30 12/29 12/28 12/27 12/2 6 12/25 1/1 1 1/1 0 1/9 1/8 1/7 1/ 6 1/ 5 1/4 1/3 1/ 2 1/ 1 12/31 12/30 12/ 29 12/28 12127 

12411 12397 12383 12369 12355 12341 12578 12564 12550 12536 12522 12508 12 894 12480 12466 12452 12438 12424 124 10 12396 12382 12368 

NOTE: ORBIT TRACKS REPRESENT NOMINAL LOCATIONS BASED ON DATA USERS HANDBOOK TABLES. PERIODIC ORBIT DRIFT AND ADJUSTMENTS CAUSE SHIFTS OF UP TO 37 KILOMETERS. FOR MORE 

LOCATIONAL ACCURACY ON A GIVEN DATE, CONTACT ERTS USER SERVICES AT THE NASA GODDARD 

SPACE FLIGHT CENTER , GREENBELT. MARYLAND 
~E UN ITED STATES 

92o 90° 88° 86° 84° 82° 80° 78° 76° 74° 720 70° 68° 

Bay 

1974 

B/4 B/3 B/20 B/19 B/ 1B B/17 B/ 16 8/15 B/ 14 8/13 B/12 B/ 11 B/10 B/9 BIB B/7 B/6 B/5 B/4 B/3 B/20 AUGUST 

10346 1 0332 1 0569 1 0555 1054 I 10527 10513 10499 104B5 10471 10457 10443 10429 10415 10401 103B7 10373 10359 1034 5 1033 1 1056B 

B/22 B/21 9/7 9/ 6 9/5 9/4 9/ 3 9/2 9 /1 B/31 B/30 B/29 B/2B B/27 B/26 B/25 B/24 B/23 B/22 B/21 9/7 AUGUST/SEPTEMBER 

10597 1 05B3 1 OB20 1 OB06 10792 1 077B 10764 10750 10736 10722 1070B 10694 106BO 10666 10652 1063B 10624 106 10 10596 1 05B2 10B1 9 

9/9 9/B 9 /25 9/24 9/23 9/22 9/21 9/20 9/19 9/IB 9/ 17 9/ 16 9/1 5 9 /14 9/ 13 9/ 12 9/1 1 9/10 9/9 9/B 9/25 SEPTEMBER 

1084B 10B34 11071 11057 11043 11029 11015 11001 1 09B7 10973 10959 10945 10931 10917 109 03 10BB9 10B7 5 10B61 10847 10833 11070 

9/27 9/26 10/12 10/ 11 10/10 10/ 9 10/B 10/7 10/6 10/5 10/4 10/3 10/2 10/1 9/31 9/ 30 9/29 10!2B 9/27 9/26 10/12 SEPTEMBER OCTOBER 

11099 11 OB5 11322 1130B 11294 112BO 11266 11252 11238 11224 11 210 11196 111B2 1116B 11154 11 140 111 26 111 12 1109B 11084 1132 1 

10/ 14 10/ 13 10/30 10/29 1 0/2B 10/27 10/26 10/25 10/ 24 10/23 10/22 10/2 1 10/20 10/19 10/1B 10/17 10/16 10/1 5 10/14 10/ 13 10/3 0 OCTOBER 

11350 11 336 11573 11559 1154511531 11517 11503 114B9 11475 11 461 11447 11433 114 19 11405 1139 1 11377 11363 11349 11335 11572 

11/ 2 11 / 1 11 / 1B 11 / 17 11 / 16 11/15 11 / 14 11 / 13 11 / 12 11 / 11 11/ 10 11 /9 11 /B 11/7 11 / 6 11 / 5 11/4 11/3 11/2 11/ 1 11 / 1B NOVEMBER 

11601 115B7 11B24 11810 1179 6 11782 1176B 11754 11 74 0 11726 11712 1169B 11684 11670 11656 11642 1162B 11614 11600 11 5B6 11B23 

11 / 20 11 / 19 12/ 6 12/ 5 12/4 12/ 3 12/2 12/1 11 /30 11 / 29 11/2B 11/ 27 11/ 26 11 / 25 11 / 24 11/ 23 11/ 22 11 / 2 1 11/20 11 / 19 12/6 NOVEMBER/ DECEMBER 

11B52 11B3B 12075 12061 12047 12033 12019 12005 11991 11977 11963 11949 11935 11921 11907 11B93 11 B79 11B65 11851 11B37 12074 

12/ B 12/ 7 12/24 12/ 23 12/22 12/ 21 12/ 20 12/19 12 /1B 12/ 17 12/16 12115 12/ 14 12 /13 12/12 12 / 11 12/1 0 12/9 12/B 12/7 12/24 DECEMBER 

12103 120B9 12326 12312 1229B 12284 12270 12256 12242 1222B 12214 12200 121B6 12172 12 15B 12 144 12 130 1211 6 12 102 120BB 12325 

12/26 12 /25 1/11 1/10 1/9 1/B 1/7 1/6 1/5 1/ 4 1/ 3 1/2 1/ 1 12/31 12/3 0 12/29 12/2B 12/ 27 12/26 12/25 1/ 11 DECEMBER /JANUAR Y 

12B54 1234 0 12577 12563 1254 9 12535 12521 12507 12493 12479 12465 1245 1 12437 12423 12409 12395 123B1 12367 12353 12339 12 576 

(8/74) 

GENERA L ELECTRIC C O MPANY, 

S PA C E DIVISION PO BO X 8 5 55 , 

PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA 

191 01 
DATE 

ORBIT 

NUMBER 

160" 

.; .. .... 

sl1o 

9149 

sl2a 

9400 

•I" 

9651 

1lz1 

10153 

•I• 

10404 

4/30 

9011 

sll• 

9262 

a/s 

9513 

ol23 

9764 

7111 

10Cl15 

1lz• 

102.66 

•116 

10517 

8884 

•I• 

9135 

slz7 

9386 

•114 

9637 

1l z 

9888 

1lzo 

10139 

•/7 

10390 

o/zo 

0997 

•117 

92.48 

o/4 

.... 

o/z2 

9750 

158" 

41zs 

8983 

silo 

9234 

•I• 

9485 

•lzl 

9736 

719 

10001 9987 

1lz• 

tOZSZ 10Z38 

•115 •114 10503 10489 

8870 

•I• 

912.1 

slzo 

9372 

•113 

9623 

711 

9874 

71·· 

IOIZS 

•I• 

10376 

8969 8955 

slls sl l• 

9220 

ol2 

9471 

92.06 

•II 

9457 

ol2o ol1o 972.2. 

718 

9973 

9708 

7/7 

.... 1l2o 1lzs 102.2.4 10210 

•113 a/12 10475 10461 

8856 

sl7 

9907 

slzs 

9356 

•I~> 

9609 

•l •o 9860 

71 ·· 

10111 

•I• 

10362 

1974 

APRIL 

MAY 

MAY 

JUNE 

JUNE/ JULY 

JULY 

AUGUST 

8941 8927 8913 8899 8885 8871 

sl 1• sl 12 sl u slto •I • •I • 9192 9178 9164 9150 9136 9122 

sl31 •l•o slz• slzs sl27 sl2o 

9443 9429 9415 9401 9387 9373 

•I 1• •I 11 •I 10 •I,. .; .. •I 13 

9694 9680 9666 9652. 9638 96l4 

9945 9931 9917 9903 9889 9875 

176" 172" 168" 

4119 4l 1s o/11 •I• s/> sl z 

8857 8843 8829 9066 9052 9038 

•I• si s sl2z sl 2t slzo 

9108 9094 9060 9317 9303 9Z89 

slzs siZ4 sl 23 •I• •I• o/7 

9359 9345 9331 9568 9354 95-40 

ol1z ol11 o/10 ol21 olzo olzs 9610 9596 9582. 9819 9805 9791 

ol•o ol 2o ol 2a 1l 1s 7114 7113 

9861 9847 9833 10070 10056 10042 

10196 10182 10168 10154 10140 10126 10112 10098 10084 10321 10307 10293 

al11 •l1o •I• •I• •17 •I• •I• •I • .;. al2o •l 1• sl 1s 

t0447 10433 104t9 104os t039t t03n 10363 t0349 1033s 10572 •ossa 10544 

164" 

NOTE: ORBIT TRACKS REPRESENT NOMINAL LOCATIONS BASED ON DATA USERS HANDBOOK TABLES. PERIODIC ORBIT DRIFT AND ADJUSTMENTS CAUSE SI-; IFTS OF UP TO 37 KILOMETERS. FOR MORE 

LOCATIONAL ACCURACY ON A GIVEN DATE, CONTACT ERTS USER SERVICES AT THE NASA GODDARD 

SPACE FLIGHT CENTER, GREENBELT, MARYLAND 

ERTS-1 COVERAGE 

160" 156" 152" 148" 
ASKA AND HAWAII 

124• 120° 116. 

60° 

56° 

52. 

1974 

sl1 ,,!Jo •l zo </za •l z1 </zs •l zs .ju <123 •lzz </z1 •l zo •l 1o •l 1s •l 11 •I • sl > sl z sl1 </•o </zo APRIL/MAY 

90Z4 9010 8996 8982. 8968 8954 8940 8926 8912 8898 8884 8870 8856 8842 8828 9065 9051 9037 90Z3 9009 8995 

sl1• sl1s sl11 sl1• sl 1s sl1• sl l3 sl 1z slu sl 1o •I • sl• sl 1 sl• sis slzz sl z1 sl zo sl 1• sl1a sl11 MAY 

9275 9261 92A7 92.33 9219 92.05 9191 9177 9163 9149 9135 9121 9107 9093 9079 9316 9302 9U8 9274 92.60 9246 

o/• o/s o/• •/> •lz o/1 sl 31 sl 30 sl z• sl za slz1 slz• slzs siZ< sl23 •I• •I• •l1 o/• o/s •I• MAY/JUNE 

9526 95 tz 9498 9484 9470 9456 9442 g4zs 9414 g4oo 9386 937Z. 9358 9344 9330 9567 9553 9539 gszs 9511 9497 

•I" o/23 slzz slz1 slzo sl 1o sl1a sl11 sl1• sl 1s .;,. o/13 sl1z •lu sl1o slz1 sl z• slzs slu o/23 o/u JUNE 

f¥771 9763 9749 9735 9721 9707 9693 9679 9665 9651 9637 9623 9609 9595 9581 9818 9804 9790 9776 9762 9748 

1l1z 1lu 1l 1o 1l o 1lo 1l 1 1l• 1l s 1l • 1l > 1lz 1l1 •l•o slz• •I•• 1l1s 1l1< 1l13 1I1Z 1lu 1l•o JUNE/JULY 

10028 10014 10000 9986 9972 9958 9944 9930 9916 9902 9888 9874 9860 9846 9832 10069 10055 10041 10027 10013 9999 

1l3o 1lz• 1lzo 1l z1 1lzs 1l zs 1lz• 1l 23 1l zz 1l z1 1l zo 1l1o 1l 1o 1l11 1l 1s •l z •l 1 71 31 1l3o 1lzo 1lz• JULY/ AUGUST 

10279 10265 10251 10237 102.23 102.09 10195 10181 10167 10153 10139 1012.5 10111 10097 10083 1032.0 10306 10292. 10278 102.64 10250 

•l11 al 1• sl 1s •I " •l 1• sl1z sl u al1o •I• •I• al1 •I• •Is •I• •I • sl zo el 1o sl 1s sl 11 o/1• el1s 10530 10516 10502 10488 10474 10460 10446 10432 10418 10404 10390 t03; ti 10362 10348 10334 101571 1Cl557 10543 10529 10515 10501 

AUGUST 

(4/74) 

GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY, 

SPACE DIVISION PO BOX 8555, 

PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA 

19101 
CHAPTER 1. 

APPLICATIONS TO CARTOGRAPHY 

INTRODUCTION 

By Alden P. Colvocoresses, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

C artography is defined for use in this chapter as planimetric mapping of 

the surface of the Earth to conform to a specified standard of map 

accuracy. Uncontrolled mosaics and other image renditions which are 

not related to precise position on the Earth's surface are excluded from this 

chapter. 

Man's efforts to map the Earth date from prebiblical tirnes, and prodigious efforts have been expended on the task ever since. Even so, many areas 

have never been adequately mapped, and to complicate matters, man and 

nature are rapidly changing that which we try to rnap. ERTS alone cannot solve all the problems because maps of a tremendous variety of scales 

and formats are required. Nevertheless, it can continually provide imagery 

of the entire globe, except for small areas around each pole, in a form that 

mapmakers can readily use. 

When ERTS-1 was first designed, mapping was not one of the primary 

applications intended. The cartographers as a group were highly skeptical 

of a scanner such as the MSS as an image producer and therefore looked 

to the REV's, which included 81 reseau marks per camera, as their only 

hope for suitable source data from ERTS. As the REV's were turned off 

shortly after launch because of a switching malfunction, the cartographers 

had to make a choice-either use MSS imagery in their experiments or give 

up. They chose the first alternative and soon found that scanner imagery, 

when properly processed, has the following truly amazing cartographic characteristics ( Colvocoresses, 1973a) : 

1. Long life and global corve1·age.-About a full year was needed to complete 

cloud-free imaging of the Fnited States even though the MSS was 

turned on for nearly every pass. ERTS-1 promises to survive for more 

than 3 yr and is thus providing repetitive imaging of the United States. 

ERTS has been used only selectively in foreign areas because of the need 

to tape-record the data and play it back when in range of a ground 

station. If an adequate number of ground stations are installed, the 

system could comprehensively cover virtually all the land and shallow 

sea areas of the Earth, as it has so :far done for the United States. 

12 
1. Applications to Cartography 13 

Repetitive imaging provides some unexpected bonuses for the cartographer. Seasonal mapping is a distinct possibility, and information 

as a function of season is significant. For example, winter snow-covered 

scenes often delineate topography and cultural features, such as roads 

and urban areas, with a clarity well beyond that of summer imagery. 

The two images of Denver (fibrs. 7 and 8) are a good example. The summer image, however, is required to map the surface water, vegetation, 

and also certain phases of land use. By comparison of both images, the 

distinction between the forests (dark in the winter scene) and the mountain grasslands (red on the summer scene but white on the winter 

scene) is clearly indicated. Floods are seasonal phenomena of importance 

to the cartographer because he should portray areas subject to inundation. The areal extent of leafy (infrared-reflective)- vegetation is another 

important feature that can be mapped seaso:naliy with ERTS imagery 

and that indicates droughts and other conditions associated with general plant vigor as well as the extent of agricultural crops. 

2. Near-real time.-The advantage of electronic transmission in near-real 

time is obvious even though the capability of-realizing the advantages 

has not been fully developed. For example, a cartographic product was 

produced within 2 weeks after image acquisition by ERTS, and there 

is no reason why the time cannot be reduced to a few days in special 

applications. 

3. Orthogonality.-The field of view of the ERTS MSS extends only 5.76° 

from the nominal vertical. This near-orthogonality of imagery limits 

compilation to topographic (contour) maps but simplifies small-scale 

planimetric mapping and revision. Because topography changes little, 

maintaining up-to-date planimetry is the major mapping problem once 

an area has been topographically mapped. A map consisting of little 

more than a multispectral image precisely referenced to the figure of 

the Earth is probably the most effective method of portraying up-todate planimetry. ERTS imagery is ideal for small-scale image mapping 

for two reasons. First, external errors such as relief displacement are so 

small that the image can be used directly, except in some areas of extreme relief, without going through the complex transformation provided by an analytical plotter or an orthophotoprinter. Second, the 

narrow field of view means that the entire scene is being imaged with 

a nearly constant vertical aspect and thus provides uniform spectral response from similar objects throughout the scene. 

4. Suitability fm' planimet-ric mapping.-It is hard for a photogrammetrist 

to accept the proposition that an optical-mechanical scanner can generate 

imagery that has the geometric fidelity characteristic of a frame camera. 

However, the l\ISS is indeed generating data that, as corrected by 

NASA, are printed out in a form containing relative spatial errors on 

the order of 50- to 100-m rms, indicating a system of high internal 

geometric fidelity as the scanner spot size (instantaneous field of view) 

is 79 m. The 50-m rms error equals about 15 ftlll at the original MSS 

imagery scale of 1:3,369,000, approaching the figure expected of a calibrated mapping camera. Although the internal geometric accuracy of 

the MSS may not be as great as that of a good mapping camera, the 

accuracy it does have, when coupled with the external advantage of 

the continuous near-orthographic view, results in two-dimensional 

(planimetric) mapping of geometric precision which may well exceed 

that obtainable from camera systems under like conditions. Accuracy of 
,. 

I 

! 

I 

14 ERTS-1 , A New Window on Our Planet 

Wl85·381 Wl85·1i!91 

IW I96-Ii!9 Wl85-30 1 II JIW73 C Nq(!J· I 9/1.1 I 85-82 N NqEJ- 08/W I 0'11-57 I1SS ::. 

10 0 

10 0 

IJIIMI-Ii!9 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 

10 20 

20 

30 KILOMETERS 

IWJ&q-38 

., 

.... 

'· ~ ' 

~ .. ''?'' ,. 

~ t: ··~ ~r.;- !';, .;:'h .+'; 

30 MILES 

FIGURE ?.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the Denver, Colo., area in winter (1172-17135). 

WJ&q-li!QJ 

.~ 

. ' 

' ' I 

N 

" II 

" 3 

" 

N 

e 

4 

e 

e 

e 

w 

I 

e 

4 

e 

e 

N 

e 

3 

9 

j 

e 
N 

~ I 

I 

IWI01H!IB lol lliiS-39 1 

loiii!IS-991 

IBJt.L73 C ~-21/lolllil5·17 N ~-IS/Iolllil5·97 MSS 

10 0 

10 0 

1. Applications to Cartography 15 

Wllil5·991 loll et4· 3BI 

7 "'f,Vb_se RZt J'f1\e~-G-I·N·D-~ 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 

10 20 

20 30 MILES 

30 Kl LOM ETERS 

FIGURE B.-Annotated color composite ERTS- 1 image of the Denver, Colo., area in summer (1352-17134). 

I 

e 

I 
16 ERT5-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

various MSS modes and products are indicated in the following tabulation: 

Mode and Form 

Raw, referenced to lat/long indicators ---------- Referenced to ground control: 

Best fit to UTM projection --------------- UTM grid fitted to single-band image ------ UTM grid fitted to single-band mosaic 

of 2 and 4 images -------------------- UTM grid fitted to multiband (colored) 

single scene (lithographed) ------------- UTM grid fitted to multiband (colored) 

mosaic of 2 and 4 images (lithographed) __ 

Precision processed to UTM projection ____ _ 

1 Based on the single products so far produced. 

Error Range 

(rms) 

1-8 km 

150-350 m 

50-100 m 

100-150 m 

1 150 m 

1 240 m 

125-150 m 

5. Suitability for automation.-Frame cameras and vidicon imagers record 

discrete scenes on a plane. Each photograph or image frame has its 

own geometric characteristics (projection) ,·and, unless extensive analytical adjustments are n1ade, images in adjacent photographs will not form 

a continuous map . ... r\. scanner such as the MSS can produce a basically 

continuous image on a mathematically definable map projection of 

negligible distortion (fig. 9) (Colvocoresses, 1974a). Thus a means is 

established for relating image positions to the figure of the Earth continuously and, within the lin~itations of the corrections, rigorously. This 

characteristic provides the potential for development of an automated 

image-mapping system by either analog or digital techniques with a significant decrease in requireme,nts :for ground control and processing. 

The automation aspect is further enhanced by the fact that ERTS-1 

repeats its imaging with considerable precision. Subject to visibility, 

the same nominal Earth scene (see article by Schoonmaker, p. 23) 

is covered every 18 days as long as ERTS is properly operating. Thus 

a worldwide map series defined by the nominal ERTS scene is established. The age-old mapping problem of fitting together source materials of different forms and epochs is thus eliminated as far as the 

individual scene map is concerned: an ERTS scene covers over 34,000 

km 2 of the Earth. 

6. Radiomet,Pic fidelity.-The ERTS signals, particularly those of the MSS, 

are in effect those of a focusing radiometer recording radiated energy 

with a range and precision well beyond the capability of any current 

fihn system. As ERTS records four wavelength bands, the images can 

be combined to provide a respom;e optimized for particular scenes or 

sizable objects. Film ca1neras can record up to three bai}.ds on one film 

in color or color infrared, but altering the combination for a particular 

scene or object is complex and imprecise. The separate-band characteristic of ERTS is particularly important for mapping objects or areas 

that have unique spectral responses or that are imaged under unusual 

conditions ol' illumination. The charting of underwater features and 

the depiction of polar conditions are examples that require this high 

degree of radiometric fidelity and versatility. The Sun-synchronous 

aspect of ERTS, which means that imaging at any given latitude occurs at the same time of day, further enhances the utility of the spectral 

response. 
1. Applications to Cartography 17 

SCANNER SATELLITE 

I 1 

v 

SPACE OBLIQUE MERCATOR PROJECTION 

Images the earth ftom N 82° to S 82• every 18 days 

MOTIONS INVOLVED 

Scanner sweep 

Satellite orbit 

Earth rotation 

Orbit precession 

FIGURE 9.-Space oblique Mercator projection. 

7. Extension into the nem·-infrm·ed ·wavelengths.-Available aerial films can 

record up to a wavelength between 0.8 to 0.9 plll, which is about the 

same limit as for band 6. Band 7, at 0.8 to 1.1 p.m, has opened a window 

for remote sensing which operational film systems do not have. The band 

is enormously powerful and has demonstrated the following unique 

capabilities: 

a. Effective penetration of thin clouds and contrails under certain 

conditions (fig. 10). 

b. Definition of the water/ land interface with high precision, enabling 

detection and identification of circular water bodies as small as 200 m 

in diameter and linear water bodies of only 20- to 50-m width. Under 

suitable conditions, where gently sloping areas of known elevations 

exist, the water stage can be determined to a small fraction of a meter. 

This capability is particularly remarkable when one considers that the 

instantaneous field of view of the MSS is 79 m. 

c. Superior delineation of vegetation, largely because of the differential sensitivity of band 7 to vegetation types. 

d. Superior definition of natural features. Many scientists are selecting band 7 as the best single band for depicting the Earth's physiography. 

e. In some cases cultural features are best defined on band 7-for 

example, the pattern of major streets in western U.S. cities as so far 

recorded by ERTS. 

The U.S. Geological Survey, through the EROS Program, has conducted 

six NASA-approved and NASA-funded ERTS cartographic experiments, as 

follows ( Colvocoresses, 1972; Colvocoresses and McEwen, 1973): 

1. Photomapping of the United States. 

2. Map revision. 

3. Basic thematic mapping. 

4. Polar region mapping. 

5. Mapping from orbital data. 

6. Overall cartographic application. 
18 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

Results from these SIX experiments are only now being realized. The 

most significant are : 

1. Preparation of prototype image maps at ~eales ranging from 1:250,000 

to 1: 1,000,000 and in a wide variety of formats and modes. 

2. Duplication and public sale of prototype image-format and State base 

maps in color at 1:500,000. The image-format maps meet the horizontal 

requirement of the National Map Accuracy Standards (Colvocoresses, 

1973b). 

3. Selective revision of feature~ on small-scale line map~ and the delineation of areas that require revision from other source material. Figure 11 

shows the relationship of the ERTS image to small-scale line maps and 

il)dicates where revision is needed. 

4. Defuonstration of the thematic-extraction suitability of ERTS imagery. 

Figures 12 and 13 illustrate this application to open water and 

infrared-reflective vegetation, respectively. 

5. Preparation of prototype image maps of Antarctica. 

6. Demonstration of the potential application of ERTS-type Imagery to 

aeronautical and nautical charting (figs. 14 and 15). 

7. Geometric analysis of RBV and MSS imagery that indicates capability 

of 1 : 250,000-scale monochromatic image mapping at National Map Accuracy Standards under proper conditions. 

1116-15192 

Visible spectrum Near infrared 

MSS band 5 (0.6-0. 7 Jt m) MSS band 7 (0.8-1.1 ~tm) 

SE Pennsylvania, November 16, 1972 

I I 

10 0 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 20 30 

I 1 I I I I I 

40 50 MILES 

I 

10 20 30 40 50 KILOMETERS 

1116- 15192 

FIGURE 10.-ERTS images of southeastern Pennsylvania, showing the thin-cloud penetration capability of band 7 as compared 

to band 5 (1116-15192). 
Ed . 3-AMS, 1954 

10 

I I I 

10 

0 

I 

0 

I 

10 

ERTS. 1972 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 20 30 40 

I I I I 

I I I 20 30 40 50 KILOMETERS 

50 MILES 

I 

Ed . 4-AMS, 1964 

FIGURE 11 .-Comparison of maps and ERTS-1 image of Lake Balkash, U.S.S.R. (1049-05260). 
20 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

8. Defined improvements in MSS processing, which 

further improve the accuracy of ERTS images. 

9. Definition of a map projection and processing procedures that will permit the cartographic processing of ERTS imagery in a matter of days using 

automated procedures. 

In summary, from the mapping viewpoint, ERTS 

has exceeded expectations. For the first time in history, 

cartographers have the source material from which 

image maps of small scale can be produced efficiently 

and accurately. Moreover, ERTS has introdueed a 

revolutionary concept, automated mapping of the 

Earth (Col vocoresses, 197 4b) . 

) 

~) 

I .'_..- ... 

. -';t, . :::. 

APPROXI MATE SCALE 

I ' 10 0 

10 20 30 MILES 

I I I 1

1 I 

10 20 30 KILO METERS 

FIGURE 12.-Thematic extraction of open water, upper Chesapeake Bay area (1080-15192, band 7). 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 0 

I i' • I 10 0 

10 20 30 MILES 

I I I II I 

10 20 30 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 13.-Thematic extraction of infrared-reflective vegetation, upper Chesapeake Bay area (1 080-15192, band 7). 
\ 

\ 

\ 

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I 

I 

/ 

\" 

.111 4708 

,. N !UW(!_.. J 

""' 0 

25• E 

dunes 

/ 

/// I r I 

_..------- I I -

// ' _)~;1(-.--

__ --...---~1 / I --~-- ,., I I I 

I I I 

J I I 

//I I 

!'/ ) I 

I I I 

I r' I 

I I ) 

I ( 

I

I .1 .• 9,. 'l duMS 

ONC J-5 {Standard Publication Edition 2 

10 

I I I 

J 1 I 

10 

0 

I I I I 

0 

{NASA Photograph) 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 

I 

10 

I 

I 

20 

20 30 MILES 

I 

I I 

30 KILOMETERS 

25• E 

'• dune1 ":1141 / 

/ 

"' / 

" / 2211 . / 

i' 

ONC J-5 Using NASA photography) 

FIGURE 14.-Space imagery applied to aeronautical charting, Jebel 'Uweinat area, Libya, Sudan, and United Arab Republic (A$-9-23-3533) (modified from Stine, 1971). 
ERTS IMAGE 

10 0 

I I'' I 10 0 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 20 30 40 MILES 

I I I 

I I I 

10 20 30 40 KILOMETERS 

124 ° 

Nautical Chart 

Mercator Projection 

FIGURE 15.-Comparison of nautical chart and ERTS image of Collier Bay, Australia (1020-01143). 

125• E 
ERTS NOMINAL SCENES 

By James W. Schoonmaker, Jr., and Robert B. McEwen, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

E

RTS has the capacity for repetitive imaging which 

permits the definition of bisector- or nominalscene formats, a unique image-indexing system 

for that part of the Earth imaged by the satellite. The 

bisector- or nominal-scene format is defined from the 

geodetic coordinates of the nominal center of each 

ERTS-1 image. Each scene is formed by lines drawn 

midway between the nominal centers, which are fixed 

as a function of ideal repeating orbits. No overlap 

exists between the nominal scenes, and therefore no 

an1biguity exists about what scene covers what area. 

Additionally, as long as the actual image centers are 

within ± 13 km of nominal, each frame will image 

an entire bisector scene, even at the Equator where 

image overlap is minimal. Figure 16 shows the relationship between bisector scenes and typical ERTS-1 

images. 

If a ± 13-kn1 specification were enforced, the actual 

centers of repeated images obtained over a nominal 

center might vary, but the image area of 185 X 185 

km would be sufficiently large to always cover the 

nominal scene with some overlap. The difference between nominal and actual centers is due to two components, orbital drift and attitude (tilt) variations of 

the satellite. Orbital drift is currently permitted up 

to 37 km ( ±16.5 km from nominal) before correction. 

The present attitude specifications are ±0.7 on the 

roll and pitch axes, which projects to ± 11.3 km frmn 

a 925-km orbit. Thus, achieving the ± 13-km tolerance 

will require some combined improvement in specifications of attitude and orbital drift, and such improvement is understood to be within the capabilities of 

the ERTS system. 

The U.S. Geological Survey has programs to compute the geodetic latitude and longitude of the four 

corner points of all nominal scenes worldwide. The 

program uses the NASA nominal centers as input. This 

computer program also generates a unique identification code for each bisector scene based upon the geodetic coordinates of its center. Each code number is 

composed of 11 alphanumeric characters; 1 to 5 designate the center latitude, 6 to 11 the center longitude. The first character of each group is a letter, N 

or S for latitude and E or W for longitude, and the 

remaining characters are numerals designating degrees 

and minutes. For example, the upper Chesapeake Bay 

bisector scene, the center coordinates of which are lat 

38°49'N., and long 76°49'W. would be encoded 

N3849W07649. The identification codes are easily 

readable and computer con1patible; a complete listing 

of them for the conterminous United States has been 

prepared. 

Several index sheets with bisector-scene corners and 

identification codes that overlay standard U.S. base 

maps have been computer-plotted. The first is a plot 

of the conterminous lTnited ··States at a 1:5,000,000 

scale on the Albers equal-area projection. A digital 

data file of State and national boundaries was used 

to plot these features simultaneously. This scale and 

projection were chosen because the base map is utilized 

for a variety of purposes, including the mapping of 

State and county boundaries, large-scale mapping 

status, and area coverage of 1:250,000 maps. A second 

index sheet of Florida, compatible with the "National 

Atlas" sheet ( 1: 2,000,000, Albers equal area), also has 

been plotted. Figure 17 illustrates the nominal scenes 

of Florida at a reduced scale. The Appalachian area 

of the United States at 1:2,500,000 scale has also been 

plotted with state boundaries, and the Caribbean Sea 

area has been plotted at 1: 5,000,000. It is possible to 

computer-plot overlays of any part of the world on 

any scale map projection that has been mathematically 

defined and digitized. The next planned step is to determine the different base maps of the world that 

are suitable for such portrayal. 

Nominal ERTS-1 scenes and identification codes 

have been used for indexing purposes on the upper 

Chesapeake Bay satellite in1age (fig. 18). It is expected that future satellite images will also employ 

the nominal-scene format and identification code. This 

simple computer-compatible system has potential as 

an indexing tool for the enormous quantities of data 

and images produced from ERTS-1. 

23 
24 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

FIGURE 16 (right}.-Bisector format of ERTS images 

at 45° lat. 

FIGURE 17 (below).-ERTS nominal scenes of Florida. 

50 

I 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

0 50 

P I ' 11 I I I I I 

lOOMILES 

I 

50 0 50 100 KILOMETERS 

Scene Center 
U. lfi'ED STATES 

OEPAJlTMENT Of THE I ITEIUOR 

GOOLOGJCAL S JlVEY 

• 

... 

.. 

-

.... 

., 

OJ R 

""'"" Pt<r;ml.wl pub!i.b<di I>< tb< II. ~i.;ol s-q "" ~wi \ 

""' at OO.<I """"""'""' .uuJ, Sf.'"'-' Mo>Jni><miro 

lnt>otf'IWJo,. lft~mJ:-...I;ah.hntli .kn..- lmil~ b:lilJr: ltc:~lltwnt 

t "'"""'..:t...;r~o~...J~ &.U"r>l!>.u..~~~'-f '- ~~r.t;, ~'-'"'\'115 

UPPER CHESAPEAKE BAY 

.. .. - • .. 

.. 

,..,.. .. 

ASA ERTS-1 SATEWTE GRIODED IMAGE 

~.I.T( H ')"' "' • 

..,..,.. _ .... , .... ... ... I 

,. ,. 

•• 38' 

. ,. 

,.. 

- ,.. ,.. 75" 

~ r.xotdN , ·uh MW.l'{"ntnl: ' :lnl'llrf I ISS) (II'\ 

N\SA ERTS-l ~llltt-...00: tll.t. tl19 un r o.lt..(}..t il.t•r.! 

IS!\Sa ~oc- £ l~l)I<J!. l:Jmto) Jl~ •)0() km I' W mt• 

Area .H <XlO- k:m~ ' H 000 mi.:_) 

K«.onkd l>lmlolluncousb 1n ~rttt ''{"Ct. tr~l bm.b 

W. }"lfti:CJ .n M:ln:tN ~- b b)ll.,•u 

tbod4-0.')~0..6rni.(~c e lb.nd'J -G.6to0.. ~r e lbnd'-0.- to0.S.ftU4.rornctt't ~.nfr.u'N ) • 

&no! .. _O.S to t.t mK"fOI'l!Ctn" ' mtut,-d t • 

creurt\.~ ..m:&!- · obunw....J ~ ERTh ~ ",n ~ .Ut«.-n:nl 

~ uf Si'lt.lW (\)\"', ll:gc'UJUt. h\~('1\\, ..~r~J t.~~~b-' " .ln;'J ~ 

~H•H.rul.INto~uSN:~f"'Mr.,._ 

1'fw NOC• ...... ~e «rof lit F"J!"It~ ot "'tJNktioai li-J..IUI't"o 

irJ; rdit110n. tv. tb.t gnJ. j.. O linut\.•J. to be-- I'W mrtC'T' 

21Joru>.ft'tet l 'ni:>.eb.l.l T u.n.wa-< ~kr--.Ul>t J:_nJ • .t•lfk ts 

19r Xooh AmrttC"»t lbturn. 

UPPER CHESAPEAKE llA Y SATELLITE GRIDDED IA t~E 

FIGURE 18.-Gridded color composite ERTS-1 image of the upper Chesapeake Bay (1080-15192). 
ORTHOIMAGE MOSAIC OF NEW JERSEY 

By Winston Sibert and Fitzhugh T. Clark, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

One of the more striking products of the EUTS systen1 is the false-color 

image produced by printing the various bands in different colors. This 

printing is facilitated by the inherent registry between the different 

bands. A natural expansion of this capability has been the production of color 

mosaics of areas of substantial size. Such a mosaic (fig. 96, p. 151) was prepared by the classic method of producing paper prints and joining them on a 

base board with the best possible fit, the difference being in this case that the 

prints were in color. The individual sensors for each of the four spectral 

bands of the ERTS MSS are accurately alined so that the four black and 

white images, one for 'each band, will all register accurately. Each band is 

produced by a digital-to-analog conversion of the basic data, which is then 

recorded on film by an electron beam recorder. The satellite orbital altitude 

combined with the narrow field of view eliminates the need for rectification. 

Moreover, measurements have shown that the bulk-processed ERTS imagery 

has excellent geometric fidelity. 

The satellite in1age mosaic of New Jersey (fig. 19) exceeds the National 

Map Accuracy Standards for planimetric maps at a scale of 1:5,000,000. The 

unique process used in making this mosaic is the combination of a common 

lithographic technique of double printing one or more halftone images on a 

single sheet of film, giving tone matching, and the image-n1atching and 

ground-control techniques of classical mosaicing. The New Jersey mosaic is 

made of parts of three ERTS images and has two join lines. 

Because the density range of film is greater than that of paper, every 

copying operation results in resolution degradation. Therefore, film mosaics 

of each spectral band were used to prepare the lithographic plates. This minimized the loss of spatial detaii and maximized the information in the final 

printed product. 

Four plates were used : a black plate containing the grid and all border 

information and the three color plates-one for band 4 printed in yellow, one 

for band 5 printed in magenta, and one for band 7 printed in cyan. 

Band 5 was selected as the master plate because of the greater ease of 

identification and measurement of the ground control points of known locations which ensures geometric accuracy. All 12 frames (three images of four 

bands each) were enlarged to final scale of 1 : 500,000, as positives, with careful 

attention given to obtaining a uniform tone match. A contact negative was 

made of the center image, and the north and south images were processed to 

26 
UNITED STATES 

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

1. Applications to Cartography 27 

NEW JERSEY 

'"==---t"' .. 

'0- U." •• u I CKOI.OGICAI. IUINl"I', -UlOI<, ¥1-'"IA UOil, P•oec I I H 

.. ,00_,,.. .. -·-.. ~,_ ............ _ .. --... -. -· .... ·-···- ...... ,_... ....... ,_ ... ,. ..... ~-··-·-"'-"' " 

NASA ERTS-1 

SATELLITE IMAGE MOSAIC 

r 

A 

::;i!"'1--+-------,- l ~ 

tH . !DJ 

~ 

v 

u 

T 

NEW JERSEY SATELLITE IMAGE MOSAIC 

FIGURE 19.-Color composite ERTS-1 orthoimage mosaic of New jersey (part of 1079-15124, 1079-15131, and 

part of 1079-15133). 
28 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

maintain the same tone in the 10 percent overlap parts of the images, allowing a very accurate spatial junction between images. This use of a positivenegative combination permits accurate registration, because a perfectly registered pair appears as an even gray tone on a light table and misregistrations 

of 0.01 mm are readily apparent. 

The three images registered by this process were secured to a Mylar base 

sheet and were pin registered. Pin registration consists of punching holes 

through the multiple sheets so that when a pin is inserted into the holes the 

sheets are forced into the correct relative positions. This process insures that, 

in the creation of photon1osaics and in all subsequent printing operations, true 

image relationships are preserved. 

Two photographic masks were prepared and pin registered to the master 

base sheet. One mask outlined the area of the center image to be printed and 

obscured the north and south images. The other mask covered the center image 

and permitted the exposure of the north and south images. The dimensions of 

the windows in the masks w~re accurately controlled to permit slight double 

printing at the join lines between images, thus obscuring the join lines. 

The master negatives were secured to their respective masks while both 

the negatives and masks were pin registered to the base sheet. The two assemblies (center image and mask and north and south images and mask) were 

then sequentially printed on a single piece of film using pin registration. This 

process yielded a master mosaic of band 5 of the entire State. 

The images for bands 4 and 7 were image registered to this master mosaic, 

pin registered to the photomasks, and then were double printed on single 

sheets of film, giving three mosaics, one for each band, with the entire State ' 

in perfect registry. These master transparencies were halftoned and lithographed by normal techniques. 

Identifiable control points of known position were measured on the band 

5 n1aster transparency, and a UTM grid was computed to yield a best fit to the 

identified ground control points. This grid was incorporated in the black 

printing plate and was overprinted on the color images in the normal lithographic four-color sequence, thereby ensuring accurate tone inforn1ation and 

dimensional control. The result of this hybrid process is a color lithographic 

mosaic that exceeds the National Map Accuracy Standards when referenced 

to the grid. 

This was the first time that this process was applied to ERTS imagery. A 

mosaic of the State of Florida has recently been prepared using this technique 

and contains parts of at ]east 17 ERTS images. 
SATELLITE IMAGE MAPS 

OF THE STATE OF ARIZONA 

AND OF PHOENIX 

By Joseph T. Pilonero, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

T

he Arizona satellite image map (fig. 20) is a Lambert conformal conic 

projection at 1:1,000,000 scale. It is the first black and white State map 

of ERTS imagery precisely related to the figure of the Earth (the geoid) 

and is presently for public sale at scales of 1 :1,000,000 and 1:500,000. 

The entire map comprises the 24 ERTS images that are diagra~ed and 

listed at the bottom of the sheet. The imagery is from band 6, wholly in the 

near-infrared. The original photographic source product for the map consisted of third-generation film positives, 18.5 X 18.5 em at 1 :1,000,000. 

Photographic processing of individual scenes entailed making intermediate contact negatives from the film positives on a LogEtronic printer, then 

making X 2 enlarged prints at 1:500,000 on stable paper. The scale was 

established by reference to the recently compiled 1 : 500,000-scale Arizona 

State base (line) map. 

In mosaicing, individual prints were trimmed inside the borders, and the 

join edges were feathered to insure smooth, nearly imperceptible joins. The 

joins were made mostly along streams and dry washes. 

A wax adhesive was used for mounting the prints to the mosaic board, 

and a stable copy of the Arizona State base map was used to maintain positional accuracy. Compliance with the horizontal requirmnent of the National 

Map Accuracy Standards, as determined from fitting a U'l'M grid, has been 

achieved for the 1:1,000,000 mosaic but not for the 1:500,000 mosaic. 

The Phoenix satellite image map (fig. 21) is a photoimage map produced from ERTS-1 imagery. The map scale of 1:250,000 is at present the 

largest scale at which the current photographic imagery from ERTS-type 

satellites is aesthetically acceptable. 

The map is a mosaic of five images from band 6 enlarged to 1:1,000,000 

and furnished as third -generation film positives. A LogEtronic printer was 

used to make intermediate contact negatives, and stable-paper prints enlarged to 1 :250,000 were used for the actual mosaicing. In this specific case 

the map meets the horizontal requirement of the National Map Accuracy 

Standards, as determined from the UTM grid. 

29 
30 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

UNITED STATES 

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

~EOLOGICAL SURVEY 

0 

··:··~ 

!'"' • • :i .,. ' . ' ! 

2: : . . ·i ~ -:....._: .• j 

FIGURE 20.-ERTS-1 image map of Arizona. 

tr:AU I. I,CIIIII,IIOO ,_ ... _ .. ,,0_ 

.... .. ,. .. - ·r· 

..... -.. eru.sorou>o.oc ......... otNYt~t. _ _ ..., RUTDfl, ., __ -

--.. 

··----·-·--- ·----·"--· ...... -----·-..... 

---

NASA ERTS-1 

SATELLITE IMAGE MAP 

ARIZONA SATELLITE IMIIGE MAl" 

11172-11173 
USrfi!:D t;TAT'IS 

J) ~PAR'niEl<o"T OY Tlllr: 1/IITKRIOR 

GOOLOG\CAL Sllti\'IIY 

PHOt::"HX 

1. Applications to Cartography 31 

~1 lt-1 

1::156.000-8CAUSlRII!S 

8An:u.rn&ii4AGI MAP 

FIGURE 21 .-ERTS-1 image map of Phoenix, Ariz. 
DIGITAL COLOR MOSAIC 

OF PARTS OF 

WYOMING AND MONTANA 

By Grover Torbert, Bureau of Land Management, 

and C. j. Robinove, U.S. Geological Survey 

A digital precision processed mosaic (fig. 22) of eight ERTS images, 

taken on July 30 and 31, 1973, was produced by IBM for the Bureau 

of Land Management. The mosaic depicts parts of eastern Wyoming 

and eastern Montana where some coal strip mines now exist and where extensive coal stripping is expected in the future. The area includes part of the 

northern Great Plains in Montana and the Fort Peck Reservoir along the 

Missouri River. To the south is the Yellowstone River, and to the south of 

that river is the Powder River Basin where a large reserve of mineable coal 

exists. The Bighorn Basin of Wyoming, bounded by the Bighorn Mountains 

to the east, is well portrayed in the mosaic; areas of extremely high reflectance are desert, and the irrigated crop land along the river valleys shows in 

dark contrast. At the southern end of the mosaic is the vVind River Basin, 

including the Riverton irrigation project. 

Digital processing pro~ides corrected images having a geometric accuracy 

of approximately one pixel, and, by controlling the images with geodetic 

control points, the resulting images can be made to meet the National Map 

Accuracy Standards. Ralph Bernstein (1974) of IBM::, who produced the 

mosaic, states that the computer can combine the input images without 

picture-element overlap or space, geometric corrections can be applied to 

correct the images so that the fit in the overlapped regions is nearly perfect, 

and nonlinear intensity corrections can be made to the image to provide 

radion1etric matching between images. The original mosaic, as supplied by 

IBM, is at a scale of 1 : 1,000,000. and contains the UTM grid. 

Processing and mosaicing of ERTS images in this form provide a 

highly usable base map for terrain and water studies, greatly aid in the 

multispectral classification of terrain features, and also aid in detecting such 

temporal changes in the terrain as those produced by strip mining and by 

strip-mine rehabilitation. 

32 

FIGURE 22.-Annotated computer-processed color composite ERTS-1 mosaic of parts of Wyoming and Mon- .,.. 

tana (1372-17225, 1372-17231, 1372-17234, 1372-17240, 1373-17283, 1373-17290, 1373-17292, and 

1373-17295). 
API'ROXIMATE SCALE 

10 0 10 20 30 40 MILES 

l-,' I I I I J t I I I I 10 0 10 20 30 40 KILOMETERS 
GEODETIC CONTROL IN POLAR REGIONS FOR 

ACCURATE MAPPING WITH ERTS IMAGERY 

By William R. MacDonald, U.S. Geological Survey 

FIGURE 23.-McMurdo Sound region, Antarctica. Image at right shows locations of geodetic control stations used to 

construct the fitted grid for the satellite image at the left (1174-19433, band 7). 

UNITED STATES 

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

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B

ecause geodetic control in the polar regions is very limited and extremely 

expensive and difficult to establish, it was necessary to find an economical 

means of acquiring the amount of control needed to maintain the integrity of ERTS cartographic products. 

In Antarctica the U.S. Geological Survey investigated the practicality of 

using recently developed Doppler positioning and navigation systems for 

establishing the much-needed control. The mode tested was the single-point 

positioning method, which consists of a receiver tracking a satellite pass and 

computing the position from the Doppler shift and the satellite ephemeris. 

The experiments proved that Doppler-equi'pped polar-orbiting satellites can 

be used as surveying tools and that mapping control can be obtained under 

Antarctic field conditions. 

As a result of the Doppler positioning experiments, it is now possible to 

make maximum cartographic use of El~TS imagery in polar regions by 

deploying specially equipped teams of topographic engineers to establish 

ERTS ground control. 

Positions obtained during the Doppler positioning experiments were used 

along with existing control to fit a grid to a single image (fig. 23) of the 

McMurdo Sound region, Antarctica. 

FIGURE 23.-Continued. 

EXPLANATION 

Geodetic control 

(Standard surveying methods) 

&, 

Geodetic control 

(Derived from Doppler satellite data) 

35 
36 ERT5-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

The technique of converting an ERTS image into a cartographic product 

by following the grid rather than the image rectification appears to be the 

most practical and cost-effective way of relating polar ERTS-image data to 

the Earth's surface. Normally the procedure is to modify the photoimage 

through tilt analysis and rectification to fit a grid. \Vhen applying these procedures to ERTS imagery, however, geometry is improved, but too much 

detail (resolution) is lost during the photographic processes. Four steps are 

required to fit a grid to an ERTS image: 

1. Identification of discrete image points for which coordinates are known. 

2 ..... 1\..ccurate measurement of the x andy values of these control points on the 

image scene. 

3. Determination of the transformation parameters to relate one system to 

the other, and computation of the intersection of the grid lines in an 

image coordinate system, warping the grid to fit the intage. 

4. Plotting the grid on an overlay keyed to the image. 

The accuracy of image identification of the control points is the primary 

element that determines the accuracy of the grid fit. In the 1nid-latitudes, 

where large-scale accurate maps are available, good results can be obtained 

by using images of timber corners, fence lines, centers of bridges over 

streams, pipe and powerline crossings, and so on, as control points. In these 

areas, in most cases, the grid can be fitted to the image so that the image 

product meets the National Map Accuracy Standards at scales of 1:500,000 

and smaller. In the poorly mapped polar regions, especially in Antarctica 

for which good maps and where control are scarce, there is less certainty in 

the selection of points used in the gridding process. Therefore, the resulting 

grid fit may not meet the National l\tiap Accuracy Standards, which require 

that 90 percent of all well-defined planimetric detail fall within 0.5 mm of 

correct map position at 1: 500,000 scale. 

The grid fit to the McMurdo Sound image (fig. 23) using 13 triangulation points gave rms error of 183 m, or only about 10 m over accuracy standards. However, if discrete points had been preselected on the imagery and if 

the ground positions for these points had been established by the Doppler 

field techniques previously described, it is reasonable to believe that the 

National Map Accuracy Standards could be met at 1 :500,000 scale and smaller. 
ANTARCTIC CARTOGRAPHY 

By William R. MacDonald, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

F

or the preparation of maps in support of the U.S . .Antarctic Research 

Program, the United States has obtained aerial photography over an 

area of about 3,250,000 km2 • This effort has taken many years and has 

cost many millions of dollars. ERTS-1 now provides the capability of producing a single image covering an area of about 34,000 kin2 ( 185 by 185 km) . 

.About 100 ERTS images would cover the same area now covered by more 

than 100,000 aerial photographs . 

.An important current objective is the compilation of 1:1,000,000 image 

mosaics of the coastal areas of western .Antarctica and, eventually, of all the 

coastal areas of .Antarctica. These image mosaic products will enable the 

U.S. Geological Survey to build a historical record which, when compared 

against existing maps and sequential ERTS coverage, will show changes in 

size, shape, and position of such features as ice shelves, glaciers, and ice 

tongues. 

Further investigations have proved that ERTS imagery can be used effectively for planimetric revision of small-scale maps, and this technique is 

being applied to six 1: 250,000 topographic n1aps of the area of the Victoria 

Land strip mosaic. The coastline shown on the images was carefully compared with existing maps, and several major changes in coastal features were 

discovered. The comparison showed that the new satellite imagery can greatly facilitate accurate planimetric revision of the existing maps (figs. 24, 25). 

Figure 26 illustrates the application of ERTS imagery for evaluating 

and revising published maps. The bottom part is a composite of two 

1: 500,000 sketch maps compiled from conventional aerial photographs taken 

during the austral summer of 1965-66. The top part is a Inosaic of parts of 

seven MSS images. The area shown is about 117,000 km2• The two triangles 

represent geodetic positions used to fit the imagery mosaic to the map base . 

.A single ERTS image covers the san1e area as 1,320 photographs at a scale of 

1:40,000. When comparing the two parts of figure 26, note the change in the 

configuration of the coast, as indicated by numbers 1, 3, and 4, and in the 

position of Burke Island, number 2 . .Also note the change in size and position 

of the Thwaites Iceberg Tongue, number 5. Its area has increased from 

44,200 km2 (map) to 71,500 km2 (image), and the position has shifted about 

8km. 

Because of the logistical requirements and the extrmnely high cost of 

taking photographs with conventional aircraft at altitudes high enough for 

efficient 1:1,000,000 mapping, efforts before the launching of ERTS-1 were 

directed primarily toward mapping the coastal and n1om1tain areas at 

1:250,000. ERTS imagery does, however, meet the need for 1:1,000,000 planimetric mapping. To cover an IMW map area, cartographers will only have 

to assemble 15 to 20 ERTS images rather than 12,000 conventional photo37 
38 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

graphs. Production cost will decrease as production rate increases. The user 

will have at his disposal a visual representation of vast areas that have never 

been mapped. Moreover, he will not have to wait years before the image maps 

are available as he would for conventional planimetric or topographic maps. 

Comparisons of image mosaics with the USGS-compiled McMurdo Sound 

region, IMW sheet ST 57-60 (fig. 27), and with the Australian-compiled 

IMW sheet, SS 40--42 (fig. 28), clearly demonstrate the application. Revisions 

and additions indicated for the two IMW sheets are readily apparent. The 

most obvious addition is the large block of previously unmapped geographical features revealed by the ERTS imagery. Noteworthy revisions include 

correcting the positions of the Ross Ice Shelf front (about 6.4 km north) and 

Franklin Island (7.2 km south). The position of Franklin Island has been in 

APPROXI MATE SCALE 

10 0 10 20 30 40 MILES 

I I I I I I I I' I I I I 10 0 10 20 30 40 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 24.-Drygalski Ice Tongue, Victoria Land coast area of Antarctica. At left is a mosaic of three 

1:250,000 U.S. Geological Survey topographic maps compiled from source data, 1955-64. Annotated 

revisions are based on the ERTS-1 image mosaic shown at right. Significant changes are : A, Harbord 

Glacier; B, Drygalski Ice Tongue; and C, fast ice (1128-20290, 1128-20293, 1163-20224, 1163-20230, 

and 1177-20001; all band 7). 
1. Applications to Cartography 39 

contention :for many years and has been continually reported to be wrong by 

ships. 

ERTS imagery promises to be highly cost effective and o:f great scientific 

benefit to research on Antarctica, the most remote region on Earth. As a 

cartographic tool, ERTS offers the most practical means available to obtain 

cloud-free imagery of the millions of square kilometers o:f the continent still 

unmapped and to monitor coastal glaciological :features (Southard and MacDonald, 1973) . 

In summary, these experiments underway with ERTS-1 imagery o:f 

Antarctica have already demonstrated the :feasibility o:f (1) planimetric revision of available small-scale maps, (2) detection o:f gross changes in the 

northern limits o:f the three largest ice shelves in the world, (3) monitoring 

coastal glaciers, and ( 4) exposing hitherto unknown geographic :features. 

N 

l APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 0 10 20 30 40 MILES 

I I I I I I I I I I I I I 10 0 10 20 30 40 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 25.-Cape Adare, Victoria Land coast area of Antarctica. At left is a mosaic of three 1:250,000 U.S. Geological Survey topographic maps from source data, 1961 -64. Annotated revisions are based on the ERTS-1 image 

mosaic shown at right. Significant changes are: C, boundary of fast ice and bay ice has changed, and D, shape 

of Honeycomb and Ironside Glaciers has changed, and their tongues have advanced about 3.2 km (1128-20275, 

1128-20281, and 1128-20284; all band 7). 
40 ERT5-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

10 0 10 20 30 40 50MILES 

I I I I I I I I I ' I I I I I 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 26.-Thwaites Iceberg Tongue, Amundsen Sea area of Antarctica. Comparison of the annotated mosaic of ERT5-1 image 

mosaic (top) and the corresponding sketch map (below) shows significant changes of the coastline and position changes of map 

features made by using ERTS imagery. Geodetic control points are shown at A and B (1137-14265, 1137-14271, 1157-14374, 

1157-14380, 1157-14383, 1160-14551, and 1160-14554; all band 7). 
50 

1. Applications to Cartography 41 

l 

164• E 168° E 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

0 

I I I I 

0 

I 

50 

50 

I 

I 

100 MILES 

I 

100 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 27.-McMurdo Sound region of Antarctica, 1 :1,000,000 map (IMW Series, ST 57-60) compared with annotated 

ERTS-1 image mosaic. With the aid of the mosaic, newly discovered mountains, other land features, and coastline corrections will be added to a new U.S. Geological Survey 1 :1,000,000-scale manuscript map before it is published 

(1128-20290, 1128-20293, 1143-20124, 1151-19151, 1154-19322, 1163-20230, 1165-18520, 1165-18523, 1174-19431, 

1174-19433, 1177-20001, 1191-19383, and 1194-19555; all band 7). 
42 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

72° s 

74° s 

, _ 

76•S - 60• E 

:.. f 

50 

I 

APPROXI MATE SCALE 

0 

I I I I I I I I I 

50 0 

I 

50 

50 

I 

I 

100 MILES 

I 

100 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 28.-Australian 1:1,000,000 map (IMW Series, 55 40-42) of the Lambert Glacier area of Antarctica compared with an annotated ERTS- 1 image mosaic. With the aid of the mosaic, existing source maps can be analyzed and evaluated. The imagery 

reveals previously unknown mountains and other significant land feat ures that ca n be added to a revision of this map (1"145-

03101, 1148-03261, 1148-03263, 1148-03270, 1168-03374, 1168-03381, 1196-02521, 1196-02523, and 1196-02530; all 

band 7). 
1. Applications to Cartography 43 

If we are to have a better understanding of the way the polar regions 

affect man, particularly in assessing the potential resources of Antarctica, 

there is an immediate need to know what's there and where. Space technology 

offers a new method for producing small-scale imagery products of remote 

regions that is substantially cheaper and quicker than production by conventional means. The reasons for this are : 

Advantages of ERTS synoptic coverage: 

1. Current, complete, and repetitive imaging. 

2. First-look imagery of unmapped areas. 

3. Weather conditions not dominant. 

4. Fewer exposures and greater areal coverage per image. 

5. Reduced compilation cost for small-scale products (for example, 

1 :1,000,000). 

6. Single scene and synoptic views. 

Special uses and benefits: 

1. Source for medium- and small-scale orthoimage products. 

2. Source for medium- and small-scale planimetric-map revision. 

3. Source for orthoimage mqsaics. 

4. Time-lapse sequence of images for thematic mapping: coastal change 

detection, sea-ice studies, ice-movement studies, and so forth. 

5. Planning document. 

6. Visual navigational aids (near-real time) . 
CADASTRAL BOUNDARIES 

ON ERTS IMAGES 

By Grover Torbert, Bureau of land Management, 

and William R. Hemphill, U.S. Geological Survey 

T

he ERTS-1 CCT's permit combining a part of the image of the Sheridan 

area of Wyoming (fig. 29) with a cadastral-survey delineation of township, range, and section boundaries. The combination of image and 

cadastral rnap (fig. 30) shows 939 km2 of Sheridan and Big Horn Counties in 

Wyoming and :Montana, respectively. Standard U.S. Geological Survey quadrangle maps of the area are shown in figure 31 for comparison. 

The cadastral data, together with four selected ground control points 

recognized in the ERTS image, were digitized from written descriptions and 

existing maps and combined with the ERTS-1 CCT in a PDP 11/45 computer. The combination of image and cadastral delineation was printed with 

a Calcomp plotter ~1odel 728 flatbed. The gray scale of each pixel is represented by varying the amount of ink distributed to each dot. Cadastral boundaries, roads, and streams are represented by plotting one-third the normal 

pixel area. 

The Tongue River flows eastward and northward in the central and 

northeastern parts of the image map, respectively. The foothills of the Bighorn }\fountains can be seen in the southwest corner. Dark-toned circular patterns in the west-central part are radial irrigation systems. 

This image n1ap was produced by Computer Research Corp., Arvada, 

Colo., for the Bureau of Land Management to use for recording changes in 

land ownership and land use on a pictorial base. Such a base can be used to 

relate land ownership to seasonal change in grassland areas as a guide to the 

release or withdrawal of grazing leases on public lands administered by the 

bureau. The image map will also facilitate interaction with a computerimplemented land-information system that is being designed. The bureau is 

especially interested in this area because of the marked increase in coal strip 

mining that has occurred since 1972. 

44 
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a 

a 

5 

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a 

4 

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1. Applications to Cartography 45 

Wl 06-30 1 IN0a6-00 IWI06-00 IW105-30 

Wla7-aal Wla6-3al WlaS-aa l Wla5-3al 22AUG72 C N45-a6/W ia6-a5 N N45-a7/Wia6-al MSS 5 D SUN ELas AZI38 192-aa iB-G- I-N-D-2L NASA ERTS E- la3a-17233- a1 

10 

I 0 

I I I I I I I 11 

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APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 

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20 30 MILES 

I I I 

30 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 29.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the Sheridan area of Wyoming (1030-17233). 

~ 

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FIGURE 30.-Computer-processed combination of part of the Sheridan 

ERTS-1 image and the cadastral survey delineation of township, 

range, and section boundaries (part of 1030- 17233, band 4). 

I 6000 

30,000 

I I 8000 METERS 

40 ,000 FEET 

I 

FIGURE 31 .-Standard U.S. Geological Survey map of the Sheridan area 

of Wyoming from published ?1/2 -min quadrangle maps: Ranchester, 

Monarch, Wolf, and Hultz Draw. 

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1. Applications to Cartography 47 

REFERENCES 

Bernstein, Ralph, 1974, Digital image correction and information extraction 

[abs.]: lnternat. Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment, 9th, 

Ann Arbor, Mich., 1974, Proc., v. 2, p. 851-852. 

Colvocoresses, A. P., 1972, Cartographic applications of ERTS imagery: NASA 

Goddard Space Flight Center, Earth Resources Technology Satellite 

Symposium, Sept. 1972, Proc., p. 88-94. 

---1973a, Unique characteristics of ERTS: NASA Goddard Space Flight 

Center, Symposium on Significant Results Obtained from the Earth 

Resources Technology Satellite-1, 2d, New Carrollton, Md., Mar. 1973, 

Proc., v. 1, sec. B, p. 1523-1525. 

---1973b, The ERTS image format as the basis for a map series: Am. Soc. 

Photogrammetry, Symposium on Management and Utilization of Remote 

Sensing Data, Sioux Falls, S. Oak., 1973, Proc., p. 142-143. 

---1974a, Space Oblique Mercator: Photogramm. Eng., v. 40, no. 8, 

p. 921-926. 

---1974b, Towards an operational ERTS-Requirements for implementing cartographic applications of an operational ERTS-type satellite: 

NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Symposium on the Earth Resources 

Technology Satellite-1, 3d, Washington, D.C., Dec. 1973, Proc., v. 1, 

sec. A, p. 539-546. 

Colvocoresses, A. P., and McEwen, R. B., 1973, Progress in cartography, EROS 

Program: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Symposium on Significant Results Obtained from the Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1, 

2d, New Carrollton, Md., Mar. 1973, Proc., v. 1, sec. B, p. 887-898. 

Southard, R. P., and MacDonald, W. R., 1973, The cartographic and scientific application of ERTS-1 imagery in polar regions [abs.]: COSPAR 

Plenary Mtg., 17th, Konstanz, Germany, 1973, Program Abs., p. 70. 

Stein, G. E., 1971, Portrayal of earth features with NASA photography, in 

American Congress on Surveying and 1'v1apping, Papers from the 1971 

ASP-ACSM Fall Convention * * *:Washington, D.C., Am. Cong. Surveying and Mapping, p. 308-314. [Sample chart areas, NASA photos, and 

revised samples are available under separate cover from: Aeronautical 

Chart and Information Center, Cartography Division, 2d and Arsenal 

Sts., St. Louis, Mo. 63118.] 
CHAPTER 2. 

APPLICATIONS TO GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS 

INTRODUCTION 

By William A. Fischer, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

G cologie knowledge is essential for determining the optimum use of our 

land. This know ledge provides an understanding of geologic hazardssuch as landslides, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and land subsidence 

-as well as the engineering properties of soils and rocks. In addition, such 

knowledge aids in pinpointing potential sources of minerals and fuels. ERTS 

has permitted geologists to rapidly expand their geologic knowledge by 

revealing features that were never before recognized and that are worthy of 

investigative priority. Furthermore, ERTS has provided geologists and other 

scientists throughout the ·world "'ith a common set of data, so that comnlunication in the profession is vastly improved and progress toward geologic 

understanding is accelerated. 

This chapter is one of the largest in this book and reflects geologists' long 

history of using aerial photography and their seemingly inherent desire to 

always view the study area from the "highest hill." The broad involvement of 

geologists and their willingness to contribute to this work are testimony to the 

geologic values inherent in the EHTS data. 

Papers in this chapter primarily deal with the use of imagery, but the use 

of the EHTS data collection system to collect information from ground sensors located in remote areas is also described. Collectively, the papers present 

a cross section of preliminary results gleaned from satellite data. 

Although EHTS was designed for a variety of scientific purposes, a 

series of geologic hypotheses that 'vere advanced played a major role in 

determining the final design criteria. These hypotheses vvere : 

1. That large features (including glacial features, faults and other lineanlents, and volcanic features) are present on the surface of the Earth 

that, because of their size and subtle. expression, had gone unrecognized 

in conventional ground and aerial surveys but that can be seen on images 

having sufficient areal coverage and spectral uniformity. 

2. That color or multispectral images properly recorded and processed to 

preserve color uniformity would be useful in 1napping distributions of 

rock types and alteration products. 

3. That some environmental features are only intennittently visible depending on angle of illnminatiton and on snow, water, or vegetation distributions. 

48 
2. Applications to Geology and Geophysics 49 

4. That some geologic processes, such as sedimentation and glacial motion, 

could be better understood if viewed in a ""time-lapse" nwde. 

The need to test these hypotheses was a significant factor in the decisions 

that led to adoption of the repetitive, time-uniform, 1nultispectral character 

and narrow-angle field of view of the ERTS system. 

All the papers in this chapter support one or n10re of these hypotheses. 

Most present results that have relatively short-term economic significance in 

that they provide information that ·will add to the efficiency of exploration for 

minerals, fuels, and ground water. Some, such as Brown and Huffman's study 

of the Jordan Rift Valley ( p. 53) , have immediate scientific impact but are of 

longer range econmnic significance. ~lost papers in the section deal with the 

mapping of large previously unkno\vn geologic structures-principally lineaments and faults-that may constitute geologic hazards or that may control 

localization of 1nineral deposits, suspected folds that may be oil bearing, and 

glacial features that may be sources of large quantities of ground water. 

~{orrison's paper (p. 72) on the enhanced visibility of snow-covered terrain features provides good examples of geologic features that are only intermittently visible. Further documentation of the advantages of the multispectral approach to viewing the Earth is given by Schmidt, who discusses the 

detection of hydrothermal sulfide deposits in the Saindak area of western 

Pakistan (p. 89) and by Stoertz and Carter (p. 76) in citing the conclusion 

of Dr. Brockmann of Bolivia that color adds 40 to 50 pereent more to the 

geologic information that ean be interpreted from a given ERTS image. Full 

use of the multispectral qualities of ERTS~ however, requires that the interpretations be made using the digital magnetie tapes ( CCT~s) of the data 

instead of the analog images. These tapes preserve the spectral qualities of the 

data to a larger extent than do photographs and permit the various bands to 

be cmnpared or ratioed, as in the case of the study by Rowan, "'Vetlaufer, and 

Goetz (p. 102). 

The artieles dealing with foreign areas indicate the tremendous amount of 

geologie information that is being derived from the relatively straightforward 

use of ERTS data to improve the world cartographic base maps; Stoertz and 

Carter (p. 76) point out that of 150 sa1ars (salt-enerusted-basins) in parts of 

Chile, Bolivia, ~\..rgentina, and Peru, 20 were unmapped before ERTS. 

The new classification system for the desert sand seas developed by ~fel{ee 

and Breed (p. 81) is illustrative of tlw value of nniform global coverage; the; 

long-range value of their work for improving geologic eommunication and 

education will be great. 

The deployment of seismic-event counters and other sensors on 15 volcanoes, the suecessful re1ay of measurements via the ERTS satellite, and the 

receipt of "telltale" warning signals from Volcan Fuego in Guatemala 5 days 

before eruption clearly demonstrate the technological and economic feasibility 

of building a global volcano-surveillanee system (see "\Y arcl and Eaton, p. 106). 

I believe that the reports in this chapter demonstrate that geologists, 

having tested ERTS as a new working tooL have not found it wanting. 
GEOLOGIC ANALYSIS OF 

THE SANTA LUCIA RANGE, 

CALIFORNIA 

By Donald C. Ross, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Geologic interpretation of the granitic and metamorphic basement of the 

Santa Lucia Range is hindered by structural con1plexity, dense vegetation cover, and a lack of distinctive mappable units. Evidence for faulting is common and widespread, but the distinction of through-going zones that 

may distinguish major n1ovement from local minor faults is difficult to make. 

A northwest-trending group of lineaments is visible on 1: 1,000,000 ER'fS 

imagery of the area (figs. 32 and 33). Most of the better displayed lineaments 

are unusually straight segments of stream courses that combine to form relatively continuous linear features tens of kilometers long. Many of these 

straight stream courses have been interpreted and mapped as faults by earlier 

workers. 

Interpretation of orbital imagery (fig. 33) takes into account most of the 

previously mapped fault segments and suggests an overall simpler and more 

continuous pattern of faulting than earlier published interpretations of this 

basement block (Jennings and Strand, 1958). 'fhe interpretation points to an 

anastamosing fault syste1n that cuts completely through the Santa Lucia 

Range basement block. Other evidence suggests that the easternmost faults 

of this system do not noticeably disturb the basement (displacements are on 

the order of a few thousand feet), whereas the westernn1ost "solid -line" fault 

juxtaposes some very different rocks and may reflect a major basement offset. 

The relatively continuous nearly 50-km lineament at A, which may reflect 

this fault, certainly supports the hypothesis that this is a major basement 

break. 

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52 ERTS-1 , A New Window on Our Planet 

DASHED LINES Other faults in basement black 

oomo LINES Outline of granitic and metamorphic 

basement 

: .. ··. · .. ·:;.:....--....... ··. ' : -. _( ~ ...... ..._--··: 

-...... 

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FIGURE 33.-ERTS-1 image showing interpretation of photolineam ents in the north ern Santa Lucia Range, Calif. (1002-18140). Letter 

A indicates continuous 50-km lineament. 
AN INTERPRETATION OF 

THE JORDAN RIFT VALLEY 

By G. F. Brown and A. C. Huffman, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Among the more discernible features on ERTS imagery are the large 

linear features associated with faulting along rift valleys. Of these the 

opening of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden have received widespread 

attention (Girdler, 1962; Le Pichon and Heirtzler, 1968 ; and 1\Icl{enzie and 

others, 1970). Following Euler's fixed-axis theorem for the nature of plate 

movement (that is, that relative n1ovement of any segment of the globe with 

regard to another segment requires rotation around a pole through the center 

of a sphere) , the openings of the Red Sea and the Gulf of ..._L\._den (fig. 34, R and 

A, respectively) require at least two poles. Also, as seems likely, Gulf spreading began earlier along transform faults with meridional shearing along the 

Red Sea rift. lTsing azimuths to transform faults and fault-plane solutions 

from first-motion studies, Girdler (1972) has postulated the location of two 

poles of rotation. For the Gulf of Aden (Arabian-Somalian plates) he favors 

1IcKenzie's position of lat 26°30'~.; long 21 °30'E., and for the Red Sea 

(Arabian-Nubian plates) he favors a location at lat 31 °30'N.; long 23°00'E. 

(fig. 34). 

The ,J orclan Rift Valley is a striking example of the large linear features, 

and, if Girdler's pole locations and two periods of rapid separative movement 

are accepted, we would expect to see a difference in bearing of the Jordan rift 

north of its junction with the Reel Sea. Examination of the latest geologic 

maps of the Levant does show a bearing of aboi1t N. 10° E. for the earlier 

opening, swinging to a meridional trend toward Lebanon frmn the pole of 

lat 26°30'N.; long 21 °30'E., where a fault zone appears to swing into the 

Mediterranean Sea between Beirut and Tyre; an examination of a mosaic of 

ERTS images (fig. 35) confirms this bearing. Indeed, the European geologic 

map (von Gaertner and "\Valther, 1971) shows the northeast-trending Carmel 

fault (Freund, 1970, fig. 1) extending into the :Mediterranean Sea at Haifa, 

some kilometers farther south, which fits a rotation around the southernmost 

pole even better. As would be expected, the older fault zone is n1ore obscure, 

even though the lineament is well-defined on the ERTS imagery. Inspection 

of this feature along the Beirut-Tyre road in southern Lebanon reveals extensive disturbance that approaches a crushed-zone appearance. North of Beirut, 

the younger, more pronounced faults trend north-northeast, in keeping with a 

pole location farther north than the location of the Gulf of Aden pole. Earlier 

53 
54 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

locations by ~fcKenzie and others (1970) at lat 36°30'N.; long l8°00'E., west 

of Greece in the Mediterranean Sea, fit the bearing of the faults north of 

Beirut as well as the transverse fault between ~1asirah Island and Oman in 

the southeastern shore of the Arabian Peninsula. Thus, in this example, ERTS 

imagery tends to clarify and confirn1 one interpretation for the history of the 

Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. 

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figure 34.-Map of the Red Sea area showing location of tectonic-plate rotation poles. 
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GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE IN 

THE WESTERN BROOKS RANGE AREA 

By Ernest H. Lathram, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Despite several seasons of exploration by private cmnpanies and by the 

r.s. Geological Survey, the ubiquitous tundra cover and the paucity of 

outcrops along the shallow streams and rivers in the lowland area of 

the Ipewik and Kukpuk Rivers have prevented recognition of the distribution 

of structural elements. Examination of conventional aerial photographs has 

revealed little additional data. This ERTS image (fig. 36), however, displays 

a startlingly clear and detailed representation of the area (Lathram, 1973). 

The image shows clearly the complexity of structure in the lowland and the 

pronounced difference between the structural pattern in this area and that in 

the areas of strata of comparable age (to the north and east) and of older 

strata in the mountains (to the south and east) (fig. 37). The change to greater 

structural complexity in the lowlands may be due to oroclinal bending around 

an axis trending northwest through the lowlands (Tailleur and Brosge, 1970) 

or, more probably, due to the superimposition of a younger belt of eastdirected thrust faults in the western part of the area upon an older belt of 

north -directed thrust faults in the Brooks Range (Grantz and others, 1970). 

Recognition of the structural complexity and determination of its cause are 

critically important in determining the potential for petroleum accumulations 

at depth in the area (Lathram and others, 1973). 

56 
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2. Applications to Geology and Geophysics 57 

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58 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

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FIGURE 37.-Annotated ERTS-1 image of the western Brooks Range area of Alaska, showing geologic features and place names 

(1 009-22090, band 7). 
GEOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF 

NORTH-CENTRAL ARIZONA 

By Donald P. Elston, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

High-quality ERTS-1 images of north-central Arizona, computer processed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, .Calif., to enhance 

detail and enlarged to approximately 1:200,000, were analyzed monoscopically and stereoscopically for their geologic information (Goetz and 

others, 1973). Figure !18 is a standard ERTS ~iSS color composite image, and 

figure 39 is a computer-enhanced nonconventional color composite image of 

north-central Arizona. The ERTS project test site in north-central Arizona 

includes areas that have been mapped in detail at 1:48,000 and 1:62,500. A 

large part of the area, however, has only been mapped in reconnaissance at 

1:375,000 for the geologic map of Arizona that was published at 1:500,000 

(Wilson and others, 1969). A north-central part of the A.rizona geologic map 

is shown in figure 40. 

lJse of the ERTS images, principally bands 6 and 7, improves the distribution of several of the geologic units shown on the State geologic map; 

units shown in figure 41 and the accompanying explanation were discriminated 

using both the images and detailed geologic 1naps. The product is a regional 

geologic map referenced to a near-orthographic image base. Geologic detail, of 

course, is less than that of large-scale standard geologic quadrangle maps, but 

it is greater in areas that only have been mapped in reconnaissance. It is especially useful to plot geology on an orthographic image base because relations 

of geologic units to physiographic, vegetational, and structural characteristics 

of the terrain can be evaluated from a single display. Transfer of the planimetric geology to a topographic base allows complementary analysis using 

standard techniques. 

Basalt of late Tertiary age crops out in 1nuch of the area, and for the most 

part it was readily discriminated on the ERTS images. Within an area mapped as basalt on the State geologic map, a light-colored area that proved to be 

highly tuffaceous was recognized and mapped. Quaternary and Tertiary sediments also were recognized and mapped on the ERTS images, and details of 

their distribution were better than on the State geologic map. Fine details of 

the stratigraphy in gray to white Paleozoic rocks (sandstone and limestone) 

could not be resolved, however, although the red sandstone of the Supai Formation of Permian and Pennsylvanian age was identified on false-color images. 

All Paleozoic rocks therefore were mapped as one unit; thus, at least for 

Paleozoic rocks, the State geologic map is far superior. In contrast, more Pre59 
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60 ERTS-1 , A New Window on Our Planet 

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FIGURE 38.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of north-central Arizona ("1337-17325). 

FIGURE 39.-Computer-processed four-band color composite ERTS-1 image of north-central Arizona. This image has under- II> 

gone a nonlinear (gaussian) computer contrast stretch at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif. Color units and 

tone boundaries correlate with stratigraphic and vegetation units. Bronze, mountain and plateau vegetation (mainly Ponderosa 

pine); yellowish orange, vegetation along stream courses (mainly cottonwood and sycamore trees); greenish tan in north-central 

part of scene, red beds (red brown) of Supai Formation of Pennsylvanian and Permian age; greenish blue, basaltic flows of late 

Tertiary (Miocene and Pliocene) age; creamy white, lake beds (siltstone and marl) of late Tertiary Verde Formation (enlargement 

of oart of 1337-17325, fig. 38). 

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62 ERTS-1 , A New Window on Our Planet 

FIGURE 40.-Geologic map of north-central Arizona (from Wilson and others, 1969). 
2. Applications to Geology and Geophysics 63 

cambrian units could he identified in the ERTS images than are shown on the 

State geologic map, apparently because of the structural grain and, locally, 

color; for the older rocks, therefore, the ERTS photogeologic map is an improvement over the State map. ERTS images at approximately 1:200,000 combined with conventional photogeologic and field geologic techniques can thus 

lead to more efficient reconnaissance geologic mapping and improved reconnaissance maps. 

The most striking geologic advantage of the ERTS images is their synoptic view of fracture and lineament patterns that occur in basement rocks and 

in surficial deposits that mask the bedrock and basement. Faults and lineaments in north-central Arizona are shown in figure 41. The faults are from 

published maps. The traces of some faults were less clear than the traces of 

nearby linear features. Faults are shown as heavy lines on figure 41 rnerely to 

differentiate them from the lineaments. 

The north "'Central Arizona site lies within the Colorado Plateau province, 

and only comparatively simple high-angle normal or gravity faults displace 

the Tertiary and Paleozoic rocks. Thus, where Precambrian rocks are exposed, 

the structure that is seen is principally of Precambrian age. The dominant 

Precan1brian lineament systems trend north, northeast, and east, with northand northeast-trending systems strongly developed. Northwest-trending faults 

and lineaments, which mainly reflect much later structural adjustments that 

occurred during the Tertiary. are mostly subdued compared to the other 

systems. 

A comparison of the geologic and lineament maps shows that the Precambrian structural grain clearly has been imparted to the overlying Phanerozoic rocks and that the Precambrian lineament systems apparently have been 

sites of renewed structural adjustments. The north-trending Oak Creek fault 

in the northeast (fig. 42) can be seen at the surface to displace only Paleozoic 

and Tertiary rocks. It very likely reflects a north-trending fracture system in 

the basement, one that appears en echelon to the Precambrian Shylock fault 

zone in the south-central part of the map area. Northeast-trending lineament 

systems also occur in Tertiary and Paleozoic rocks on the Colorado Plateau. 

Near 'Villiams, Ariz. (near lat 3t) 015'N.; long 112°12''V.), eruptive centers of 

the upper Tertiary San Francisco volcanic field are localized along some of 

these lineaments. The. northeast-trending lineaments presun1ably reflect an 

underlying northeast-trending Precambrian fracture system along which renewed structural adjustments occurred; they are siinilar in trend to the Chaparral and Spud faults and associated northeast-trending lineaments in Precambrian terrane in the southern part of the map area. 

A n1yriad of fractures and lineaments occur in well-exposed Paleozoic 

strata in the Sedona area, west of the Oak Creek fault. Northwest-trending 

fractures in the Sedona area were believed to be dominant until mapping with 

ERTS images revealed the existence of strongly developed east- and northeasttrending lineaments, the existence of which appears to have been responsible 

for the development of an erosional embayment in the margin of the Colorado 

Plateau here. Fracture systems and linearnents in the Sedona area are currently being n1apped in detail using NASA high-altitude-aircraft photographs, 

supplemented by field mapping, to provide data for a comparative evaluation 

of similar data from images obtained from still higher altitudes and orbit 

(Skylab and ERTS). Lineaments that have been plotted from ERTS images, 

and those to be plotted from Skylab images, will be compared to the detailed 

geologic map. 
64 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

The geologic 'York in the Sedona area has the practical objective of defining areas structurally favorable for the localization of ground-,vater resources 

in an area having a burgeoning population. Anticipated targets for future 

exploration for ground water are places where ancient concealed karst (limestone cavern) ground in the Redwall Limestone of :Mississippian age is intersected by through-going fracture systems at structurally favorable elevations. 

EXPLANATION FOR FIGURES 41 AND 42 

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS METAMORPHIC ROCKS 

f{ G & Gravel and alluvium 

Sandstone and lake beds VOLCANIC ROCKS 

Sandstone 

Sandstone and limestone, 

undivided 

I p£ms I 

Quartzite 

Tvb, basalt 

Tvt, tuff 

IGNEOUS ROCKS 

Metasedimentary and metavolcanic 

rocks and schist 

Contact 

Dashed where approximately located; 

short dashed where indefinite 

FAULT AND LINEAMENT MAP 

----------····· 

Fault 

From published geologic maps. Bar and ball on downthrown 

side. Dashed where approximately located; dotted where concealed 

Lineament 

Long traces reflect strongly devewped trends, some of which are 

inj'erred to be faults. Intermediate and short dashed lines 

reflect degree of traceability of individual lineaments; dots 

reflect an alinement of one or more vague linear features 

I p£qd I p£g I 

Quartz diorite 

and granite 

B 

Rhyolite 

I p£gb I 

Gabbro 
2. Applications to Geology and Geophysics 65 

FIGURE 41.-Geologic map of north-central Arizona compiled on an ERTS-1 image base (part of 1337-17325, band 6). Data are from 

published and unpublished sources. 
66 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

FIGURE 42.-Fault and lineament map of north-central Arizona compiled on an ERTS-1 image base (part of 1337-17325, band 6). 

Faults from published information; lineaments interpreted from ERTS images. Explanation is on page 64. 
GLACIAL GEOLOGY AND SOILS IN 

THE MIDWESTERN UNITED STATES 

By R~ger B. Morrison, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

I nterpretation of geology and soils from ERTS i1nages is especially difficult 

in the glaciated ~Iidwestern United States because of low relief, lush vegetative cover during the growing season, and frequently clouds, haze, and 

sn1og. A few images, however, taken under just the right conditions yield, by 

means of subtle variations in tone, a remarkable amount of infor1nation on 

macroscale geologic and physiographic features that have little topographic 

expression (:Morrison and Hallberg, 1973). 

The best time of year for getting images showing the differences between 

surficial deposits and soils in the ~Iidwest, caused mainly by variations in soil 

moisture, is middle to late spring after the croplands have been newly plowed 

and while soil moisture still is high and while the cropland, pasture, and 

woodland a.reas still are relatively bare of foliage (fig. 43). 

Figure 44, the eastern half of figure 43, shows a large part of Iowa west 

of Des ~1oines that is nearly all cultivated, mainly in grains. Gallery forests 

along streams are the chief natural vegetation. The image was taken on May 

10, 1973, when the fields were either newly plowed or in young crops and 

when soil moisture remained relatively high; thus the darker tones registered 

in band 7 represent relatively nwist soils, and the lighter tones, drier soils. 

Subtle variations in tone register the types of glacial and other surficial deposits and landforms on which the soils have developed. Drainage patterns 

provide considerable information on the relative ages and types of glacial 

deposits and on the trends of both young and ancient end nwraines. Combined with data fron1 geologic, soil, and topographic maps, this image reveals 

useful information about surficial deposits and soils. 

Two principal units are obvious: (1) a relatively dark toned plain, the 

Wisconsinan till plain, in the northern half of the scene, and (2) a lighter 

toned, more dissected plain, the Kansan till plain, in the southern half of the 

scene. Clayey \Visconsinan till was deposited by a late-glacial ice lobe that 

reached as far as Des Moines about 14,000 yr ago, after the last period of 

active loess deposition had ended; consequently, its soils are n1oderately poorly 

drained and appear dark toned in this image. The narrow light-toned irregular ribbons that traverse the \Visconsinan till plain in the image are welldrained sandy-gravelly glacial outwash and alluviun1 along strea1n valleys. An 

inner dark zone along some larger streams in the image represents poorly 

drained bottomland soils. 

The Kansan till plain has a mostly lighter tone in the image because widespread loess deposition has resulted in better-drained soils. llere the strea1ns 

are more deeply incised and more numerous than in the \Visconsinan till plain, 

67 
68 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

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FIGURE 43.-Color composite ERTS-1 image of part of Iowa west of Des Moines (1291-16335). 
2. Applications to Geology and Geophysics 69 

and the main ones have cut deeply into bedrock. Fr01n stream alignments, two 

divisions of this area can be distinguished: a zone (2al, 2a2) of arcuate drainage immediately south of and parallel to the Bemis Inoraine and, farther 

south, a zone ( 2b) characterized by more deeply incised streams that radiate 

outward normal to the zone of arcuate drainage and the Bemis moraine. In 

the northern zone, the interstream divides commonly are tabular; they are 

widest in unit .2a2. About five principal divides can be identified. The parallelism of the streams to the Bemis moraine suggests that their alinement, before 

their entrenchment into bedrock, may have been controlled by a series of middle Pleistocene end moraines and/or ice-marginal streams. The till beneath 

the present tabular divides may represent relics of these ancient moraines that 

were previously unrecognized. Supporting thiR hypothesis is the fact that the 

stream valleys cut across the boundaries of formations having considerable 

differences in rock type and resistance to erosion and are also transverse to a 

buried preglacial valley. 

In the southernmost zone (unit 2b), the streams run transverse to those 

to the north and show little or no control by former moraines. Because the 

drainage network is denser and the streams are more deeply incised than in 

the northern zone, probably a longer time has elapsed since this area was 

glaciated. 

Figure 45 is another example of the usefulness of spring ERTS infrared 

imagery for mapping and analysis of glacial landforms, deposits, and soils in 

the l\1idwest. This region, in west-central Illinois, is almost entirely cultivated, and the natural vegetation generally is confined to the steeper slopes 

and stream borders. The variations in tone are caused mainly by differences in 

permeability and moisture content of the soils, which in turn are related to 

the surficial deposits on which the soils have developed. 

On the mosaic, the Wisconsinan till plain is mainly dark toned (moist 

soils), and the Illinoian till plain is dominantly light toned (dry soils). On 

the Wisconsinan till plain, various end moraines are easy to distinguish froin 

glaciolacustrine plains and ground moraine. On the Illinoian till plain, end 

moraines generally cannot be distinguished from ground moraines because 

here all the moraines are older and have been considerably modified by weathering, erosion, and loessial cover. An exception is the Buffalo Hart moraine 

(unit 2a) , of late Illinoian age, that is intermediate in age and tone between 

the main Illinoian till plain (unit 2b) and the vVisconsinan units; this 

moraine also has light-toned mottles caused by hills of well-drained sand and 

gravel (kames) large enough to be detected on the image. 

Images also facilitate mapping soil associations for both agronomic and 

engineering applications. Comparison of ERTS-interpreted maps, such as 

figure 45, with soil association maps of Illinois shows that the boundaries between certain soil associations stand out much more clearly on the ERTS 

images than on conventional aerial photographs and permit rapid yet highly 

accurate soil mapping over large regions. A striking example is the ribbonlike areas of well-drained soils the light tones of which contrast conspicuously 

with the prevailing dark tones of the Wisconsinan till plain. Although limited 

in areal extent, these soils are very important; they commonly overlie sandygravelly outwash deposits, locally of commercial quality, that are shallow 

aquifers and significant in places for domestic and municipal water supplies. 

They tend, however, to be droughty, of moderate to low agricultural productivity, and undesirable sites for sanitary landfills unless the fill is sealed 

off from the aquifer. 
70 ERTS-1 , A New Window on Our Planet 

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FIGURE 44.-Annotated ERTS-1 image 1291-16335, band 7 (fig. 43), with interpretation of soil types. 

FIGURE 45 (next page).- Mosaic of ERTS- 1 images 1322-16051 and 1322-16054, band 7, west-central Illinois with interpretation .,. 

of soil types. 
2. Applications to Geology and Geophysics 71 11187 -011 1 

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ENHANCEMENT OF 

TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES 

BY SNOW COVER 

By Roger B. Morrison, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Winter ERTS images of snow-covered areas are 

the most favorable for showing topographic 

detail, particularly in regions of low to moderate relief. A continuous snow cover masks out the distracting tone differences caused by variations in soils, 

rocks, and vegetative cover. Also, the low Sun-elevation 

angle, which is characteristic of winter images, results 

in shadowing and emphasis of even minor topographic 

features. 

Although the snow cover masks all spectral information about soils, rocks, and most types of vegetation, 

some deductions about soils and rock materials can be 

made from the landform and land-use characteristics. 

For example, one knows that sand dunes are composed 

of eolian sand and that valley bottom lands are underlain by young alluvial soils. 

A good example of the enhancement of an image of 

a snow-covered region of low to n10derate relief is 

shown in figure 46. This image of western Nebraska is 

representative of the semiarid central Great Plains. 

The maximum local relief is about 400 m. The bedrock 

units are nearly flat lying weakly consolidated silt, 

sand, clay, and some gravel and shale, capped in places 

by resistant limestone and carbonate-cemented sandstone that produce plateaulike uplands. The bedrock is 

commonly covered by a veneer of unconsolidated eolian 

sand and alluvium, but it is well exposed in various escarpments, bluffs, and dissected areas. This image was 

taken on Jan. 28, 1973, after widespread snowstorms 

and when the Sun-elevation angle was 24°. Note the 

fine details of gully patterns in the various escarpments 

and the dune morphology in the Sand Hills. Images of 

this area without snow cover show much less topographic detail. 

Using this winter image alone, without information 

from images taken at other seasons and without any 

field data, three kinds of terrain can be identified : ( 1) 

dune fields (part of the Sand Hills of Nebraska), (2) 

valley bottom lands (flood plains and low terraces 

along several rivers), and (3) bedrock escarpments and 

surfaces of several types, some having thin veneers of 

surficial deposits (fig. 47). The dune fields can be divided into three subunits on the basis of dune morphology, degree of blowout development and (or) dune 

stabilization, and the abundance and pattern of crop-

] ands. The valley bottom lands are evident from their 

topographic position, land uses, and lack of relief. 

Four classes of bedrock surfaces can be distinguished 

from their topographic position, local relief, including 

depth and closeness of stream dissection, and field 

abundance and field patterns. 

Figure 48 illustrates the relativ~ly poor topographic 

detail discernible in summer images. This band 5 

image, taken Aug. 19, 1972, covers part of the same 

area shown in figure 46. 

In areas of high relief or of coniferous forest, snow 

cover provides less enhancement of topographic detail. 

l\Iuch detail is lost in the shadowed parts of mountains and canyons and on slopes that are more or less 

perpendicular to the Sun's rays. The dark foliage of 

dense coniferous forests obscures the ground, snowcovered or not, the year around. Deciduous forests are 

less of an impediment because the leafless trees in winter do not entirely obscure the snow-covered ground. 

Description of geologic terrane-map symbols used in figure 47 (p. 74) 

la ---------High transverse sand dunes, closely spaced, with 

subparallel alinement; probably many active 

dunes; many interdune lakes and ponds. 

(Clearly inferred from dune forms.) 

lb ----------Transverse and upsiloidal/longitudinal dunes 

with numerous blowouts; irregular alinement; 

probably many active dunes; interdune lakes 

and ponds more numerous than in la. (Clearly inferred from topographic form.) 

lc __________ Poorly developed and/or eroded low dunes and 

cover sands; mostly stabilized; few interdune 

lakes and ponds; moderately thick to thin 

veneer of unconsolidated sand over bedrock. 

(Inferred from subdued dune morphology and 

variable field density.) 

2 -----------Valley bottom lands. Flood plains and low ter- races along main streams. (Inferred from topographic position.) 

3a ----------Low-lying erosion surfaces commonly between 

units 2 and 3b, sloping gently toward main 

72 

streams; low dissection and local relief; probably widespread thin veneer of unconsolidated 

alluvium and local eolian sand and/or loess. 

(Deduced from topographic position, local relief, and field patterns.) 

3b __________ Escarpments, bluffs, and hills without significant 

surficial deposits; highly dissected, commonly grading into "badlands." (Inferred from 

topographic detail.) 

3c __________ Upland plains with few streams and shallow dissection; low relief; probably extensively veneered by loamy soils. (Deduced from topographic detail and generally dense field pattern.) 

3d ----------Upland plains underlain by resistant caprock; 

few streams, shallow dissection, and low relief; probably patchy veneer of sand or loamy 

soil. (Inferred from topographic detail and 

less dense field patterns than in 3c.) 
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2. Applications to Geology and Geophysics 73 

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FIGURE 46.-Color composite ERTS-1 image of western Nebraska showing snow-enhanced topographic details (1189-17075). 

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74 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

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FIGURE 47.-Geologic terrane map compiled on ERTS-1 image 1189-17075 (fig. 46). Explanation of symbols is on page 72. 
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2. Applications to Geology and Geophysics 75 

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APPROXIMATE SCALE 

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FIGURE 48.-ERTS-1 image of western Nebraska in summer showing relative lack of topographic detail (1027-17070, band 5). 

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HYDROGEOLOGY OF CLOSED BASINS 

AND DESERTS OF SOUTH AMERICA 

By George E. Stoertz and William D. Carter, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

E

RTS images, obtained from July 30 to Oct. 30, 

1972, of the central Andes, A.tacama Desert, and 

Altiplano have been analyzed for hydrologic and 

geologic data. The study area includes southwest 

Bolivia, northwest Argentina, southeast Peru, and 

northern Chile, extending from lat 16°30' S. to 27°30' 

S. and from long 66°30' \V. to 70°30' W. Synoptic 

seasonal conditions revealed by ERTS for the first 

time, and delineated in this study, include midwinter 

and early spring snowpack on the main range of the 

Andes from lat 21 °00' S. to 25°20' S. and seasonal 

floodwaters on the floors of closed drainage basins 

throughout the study area. Permanent features mapped 

at 1: 1,000,000 from ERTS imagery include salars 

(salt-encrusted playas) , drainage basins, volcanic craters, calderas, conjectural faults, major structural 

trends, and the approximate extent of the ancient 

Lake Minchin. 

Experience has shown that color composite images 

provide 40 to 50 percent more environmental information than black and white images of the same scene. 

This was the conclusion of Dr. Carlos Brockmann and 

his associates of the Geological Survey of Bolivia 

( Geobol) after they made detailed studies of the stratigraphy, structural geology, hydrology and drainage 

basins, relative permeability, and geomorphology in 

the area. 

The ERTS-1 false-color composite image shown in 

figure 49, taken on Aug. 2, 1972, is the first prepared 

for this region of the Andes, and it dramatically dis· 

plays the rugged terrain. Being largely composed of 

exposed bedrock and soil, the terrain pictured is dominantly pale green. The Sa.lar de Coipasa is in the right; 

the distribution of water (black to pale blue) and salt 

76 

(white) is obvious. Part of the Salar de Uyuni is in 

the lower right corner. The Altiplano comprises the 

plains ~rea to the north and is studded on the west by 

many volcanic cones. Some are lightly dusted with 

ephemeral snow, whereas others appear to have wellestablished snowcaps. Faint patches of vegetation appear as small spots of pinkish orange, and most are 

natural vegetation near springs, but some patches may 

be farm plots and grazing areas frequented by indigenous Indians and llan1as. Linear features near the 

crest of the vVestern Cordillera (lower left) are part 

of the major copper belt-for which the Andes are 

famous-extending from Chile in the south into Peru 

to the north. 

lVIaps compiled largely from ERTS images and completed in manuscript form (Stoertz and Carter, 1973) 

(figs. 50, 51, 52) show the following: 

1. Of 150 salars, 86 were found to be in agreement 

with existing published and unpublished maps, 

32 were modified by the ERTS data, 20 were 

revealed solely by ERTS, 7 were not identified on 

ERTS images but were retained frmn other 

sources and were unverified, and 5 were in small 

deflation basins (figs. 51, 52). 

2. Of 184 closed drainage basins, 58 were classed as 

largely reliable and verified by ERTS, 69 were 

largely reliable but unverified, 10 were fairly reliable and modified by the ERTS data, and 47 

were still unreliable or doubtful. 

3. Of an experimental evaluation of part of a published geologic map (1: 1,000,000) covering 9,300 

km2 , 40 percent appeared to be essentially in 

agreement with boundaries visible on ERTS 

images, 35 percent appeared subject to improve-
ment by boundary adjustments, and 25 percent 

was estimated to be subject to significant revision 

with the aid of ERTS imagery. 

4. Of 681 volcanoes or craters, including 9 active volcanoes, the position of 1 was corrected from 

ERTS data. 

5. Of 15 calderas, 5 were mapped solely from ERTS 

images. 

6. 2,160 km of previously mapped faults were recognized on ERTS images, plus 225 km were mapped solely from ERTS data, the latter consisting 

of conjectural extensions of known faults and 

realinements of mapped faults. 

7. Major structural trends associated with the prominent bend in the Andean fold system, chiefly in 

Bolivia and Argentina, were identified. 

8. Of 9,840 km2 of early spring (October 30) snowpack on the main range of the Andes, 6,215 km2 

was in interior drainage basins of Chile, 1,295 in 

Bolivia, 1,035 in Argentina, and 1,295 in the 

external drainage basin of the Rio Loa. 

9. Of 88 lakes or seasonal floodwaters in midwinter 

• 

* 

., .. , .. 

2. Applications to Geology and Geophysics 77 

EXPLANATION FOR FIGURE 50 

International boundary 

Settle,n,ent of Sabaya, approximate (not visible on ERTS 

image) 

Inactive volcanoes verij'ied approximately correct as 

previously mapped (only principal volcanoes are shown) 

Inactive volcano moved eastward about 3.2 kilometers from 

position previously mapped 

Active volcanoes, the northern one shown s. 2 kilometers east of 

position previously mapped 

Portion of caldera ve?"ijied correct as previously mapped 

(near left edqe) 

Portion of caldera wwdifiedfrom ERTS imagery (near Uift 

edqe) 

·' ) Caldera mapped solely from ERTS imagery (near left edqe) 

-..::_···/ Principal faults visible on ERTS image, shown approximately 

---...._ as previously mapped {6 faults tre-ndinq NW a-nd NE) 

and early spring (August-October), 29 were simi- ............ . Faults in.ferred or wwdified from ERTS imagery {3 faults 

tre-ndinq northwest) lar to lakes on existing maps, 23 were modified by 

ERTS, and 36 were mapped solely from ERTS. 

A special study of the relation between seasonal 

floodwaters in the high Andes and drainage-basin characteristics revealed that, where more than 0.3 percent 

of a drainage basin was covered by water during 

August-October, the basin generally was found to meet 

the following criteria : ( 1) mean elevation of 4,050 m 

or higher, (2) mean elevation of drainage divides, 

4,350 m or higher, and (3) snowpack covering more 

------

--··· 

Major lineaments in the Andean fold belt (limited to 

northeast corner) 

Zone of lead-2inc a-nd copper mineralization (from published 

sources) 

Zone of sitver mineralization (from published sources) 

Surface jloodinq in Lago de Coipasa, August 2, 1972 

(elevation approximately S680 meters) 

Deep water 

Shallow water 

than 10 percent of the basin on October 30. Of 36 -·· ··· ··· ··· Very shallow water a-nd surface moisture 

drainage basins for which October snow-cover data 

were available from ERTS data, 16 basins met all three 

criteria. These 16 basins included every one of the 13 

extensive lakes or floodwaters seen on ERTS images at 

that season and in the special study area, extensive 

Lakes approximately as previously mapped (4 are shown) 

Lakes or seasonal floodwaters signifu;antly different from, 

or not delineated on, available maps (17 are shown) 

....-----..__ Salar margins verijoed approximately correct as previously 

mapped 

being defined as exceeding 0.3 percent of basin area. ,----,_ Salo.r margins wwd:if'iedfrom ERTSimagery 

These conclusions will assist in future water-resources --- Rivers verified approximately correct as previously mapped 

appraisal and prediction. .----- River wwdiftedfrom ERTS imagery (southwest corner) No single source of data previously has permitted 

identification of all these features, and observation of ~ Stra-nd line of ancient Lake Minchin, approximately as delineated on previous maps synoptic snow cover and surface water was not possible before ERTS. The satellite thus provides an in- ~ ........... ~ ........ Probable stra-nd lim of Lake Minchin, as in.ferredfrom 

ERTS imagery 

valuable source and type of data for Earth resources 

surveys and development in this large and relatively 

undeveloped area. 

Notes: Coordinates shown in margin are as shown on ERTS image 

but are not in agreement with coordinates on published 

maps 

Image 10 : NASA ERTS E-1010-14035-4/5/7 
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FIGURE 49.-Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Salar de Coi pas a region of Bolivia and Chile (101 0-14035). 

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••• . . ..... ":'J'o. ' ..... . 

··· ...... :~' ··· , ··, ' 

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. : ; ! ': .·. , ,..; .. Salar de Coipasa · .=~ ... ' 

FIGURE 50.-Geologic and hydrologic interpretation and explanation of features identified in the Salar de Coipasa region as derived from ERTS-1 image 1010-14035, band 5 (fig. 49). Explanation is on page 77. 
80 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

FIGURE 51.-lndex map of salar revisions with area of figure 52 

outlined. From sheet 14 of "The World," 1:5,000,000, published by the Defense Mapping Topographic Command, 1973, 

series 1106, edition 4; original map compiled and drawn 

by the American Geographical Society. 

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28 

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Onginal map compiled and drawn by the American Geographical Society of New 

York. Broadway at 156 St .• N.Y. 

Copyright by the American Geographical Society of New York. 

Prepared and published by the Defense Mapping Agency 

Topographic Center, Washington , D. C. 

FIGURE 52.-Example of outlines of several salars revised 

by ERTS data. 

ERTS 

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T

his investigation is a global study of desert sand 

seas and illustrates the use and value of ERTS 

imagery for this purpose ( l\fcl(ee and Breed, 

1974). The study consists of the identification, description, and measurement of characteristic forms and 

structures within the world's principal sand bodies. 

This work will facilitate the determination of world 

distribution of the various dune types and their classification. In addition, the basic forms of sand deposits, 

analyzed together with data derived from field observations, make it possible to determine the processes responsible for each dune type. · 

The advantages of employing ERTS images in this 

study are readily apparent. Because all images have 

the sa1ne scale, direct comparisons of widely separated 

areas are possible. Further, the relations of the sand 

areas to their surrounding features are easy to recognize, and major lineations or other patterns in the sand 

areas are clearly defined. Finally, mosaics made from 

combinations of images make excellent map bases on 

which to superimpose many kinds of data. 

For purposes of this study, 15 desert or semi desert 

areas, all of them in the Eastern I-Iemisphere, were 

initially selected (fig. 53). Subsequently some of these 

study areas were combined and others were reduced in 

size in order to eliminate nonsandy areas and to consolidate n1osaics for greater efficiency in handling data. 

A few relatively small areas located in the Western 

I-Iemisphere (fig. 53, inset) were later included in the 

study primarily because they were easily accessible. 

These small areas were chosen because they can be 

checked readily by aerial photography, and, for most 

of them, field notes are available for interpreting the 

origin of the morphology. 

The methods used in this investigation have gradualSAND SEAS OF THE WORLD 

By Edwin D. McKee and CarolS. Breed, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

ly evolved from experience in employing the various 

types of ERTS imagery as they have become available. 

Initially, only small black and white negatives were 

received, and they were scarcely adequate for careful 

analysis. 1Vith the availability of relatively large prints 

and their enhancement by photoprocessing methods, 

both through printing techniques and differences in 

paper, considerable improvement was ma.de. Being able 

to compare prints from the green, red, and near-infrared bands was another major advance, for it facilitated 

the recognition of water, vegetation, and other associated features bordering sand bodies. Finally, when 

false-color images became available (fig. 54), the discernment of sand through its characteristic yellow 

color placed the study of sand bodies through the interpretation of ERTS images on a high level of accuracy. 

A principal aim of this study is to develop an objective classification system of the major types of eolian sand deposits (~IcKee and others, 1973). Although 

a final proposal is as yet far from ready, a preliminary 

classification, based on dune forms seen on the ERTS 

imagery thus far examined, recognizes the following 

five basic types: ( 1) parallel straight or linear, ( 2) 

parallel wavy or crescentic, ( 3) star or radial, ( 4) 

parabolic or U-shaped, and ( 5) sheets or stringers. 

J..>arallel-straight or linear dune complexes are defined as sand bodies in which the length is 1nuch greater than the width, slip faces or steep avalanche surfaces occur on both sides, and the ratio of dune area to 

interdune area is roughly 1: 1. Examples of such linear 

complexes are conspicuous on ERTS images of the 

Simpson Desert of Australia, the Kalahari Desert of 

South Africa (fig. 55) , the E1npty Quarter of Saudi 

Arabia, and the Sahara of North Africa. Variants of 

the linear form are the feather type in Saudi Arabia 

81 
82 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

and the wicle-intradune type in the Sahara. 

Parallel-wavy or crescentic clune complexes consist 

of nearly parallel rows of cuspate segments, as represented in the ICara Kum Desert of the U.S.S.R. and in 

the Nebraska Sand 1-Iills of the "\Vestern United States. 

Variants of the simple basic type are referred to as the 

fish -scale type of the Great Eastern Erg of Algeria, the 

giant-crescent or megabarchan type of Saudi Arabia 

(fig. 56), the bnlbous, warty type of the Gobi Desert in 

China, and the chevron or basket-weave type of the 

Takla ~1akan Desert in China. 

Star or radial megadunes commonly attain great 

height and include a few to many arms that project 

out from a centra 1 cone in various directions. The basic 

type, resembling a giant pinwheel, is scattered at randonl in parts of the Great Eastern Erg of Algeria. In 

other parts of Algeria (fig. 57) and in the Gran Desierto de Sonora in l\iexico (fig. 54), chains of star dunes 

are characteristic, whereas in the Empty Quarter of 

Saudi Arabia there are star dunes of graduated sizes, 

from small to very large. 

Parabolic dunes that typically develop U-shapes with 

arms drawn out on the sides are common in areas where 

vegetation or moisture, or both, tend to anchor the 

arms while the center is blown out and its sand 1noves 

forward. Good examples of these dunes are in the 

Rajasthan Desert of India (fig. 58) and at White 

Sands, N. l\fex. 

In some sand seas, definite geomorphic forms fail to 

develop, and the sand accumulates in flat sheets, as 

near Lima, Peru. Elsewhere it may form stringers extending downwind without appreciable relief, for example, as in South-West Africa (fig. 59). 

go·w 

NORTH AMERICA 

TROPIC ~ OF CANCER 

---~g~~~O_R ____ _ 

EXPLANATION 

Location of figures 

55 thru 59 

Arid and extremely arid 

desert regions (after 

Meigs, 1951) 

ffi ERTS-1 test sites within 

16 the seas of Africa, Asia, 

• Australia, and North America 

FIGURE 53.-lndex map of the sand seas of Africa, Asia, Australia, and North America. 
KEYS TO SAND-MOVING WINDS 

Wind rose arms point upwind 

Length proportional to occurrence of given speed 

Group from given direction as percentage of all observations 

5.5 mm arm length equals 10% occurrence 

K1 D Winds 17-21 kn • Winds > 21 kn 

K2 D Winds 11-21 kn • Winds > 21 kn 

K3 D Winds 4-21 kn • Winds > 21 kn 

K4 D Percent occurrence by 

direction only-no speed data 

2. Applications to Geology and Geophysics 

GENERALIZED WIND ROSE 

High energy winds 

A'Moderate energy winds 

& Percentage calm 

/Period of observations 

JULY 

.......-Time of observations 

MORNING (if available) 

K1_.-Key number 

83 

FIGURE 54.-Color composite ERTS-1 image mosaic of the southwest United States desert and the Gran Desierto de Sonora in 

Mexico. ERTS-1 images 1178-17495, 1.160-17503, 1178-17504, 1159-17445, 1159-17451, 1176-17385, 1176-17391, and 

1230-17400. 
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FIGURE 55.-Color composite ERTS-1 image showing parallel-straight or linear dunes in the Kalahari Desert of South Africa (1308-

08104). 

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FIGURE 56.-Color composite ERTS-1 image showing parallel-wavy or crescentic dunes (a megabarchan desert) in Saudi Arabia (1183-

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FIGURE 57.-Color composite ERTS-1 image showing star or radial megadunes in Algeria (1111-09442). 

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E070-001 E070-301 

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FIGURE 58.-Color composite ERTS-1 image showing parabolic dunes in the Rajasthan Desert of India (1173-05211). 

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FIGURE 59.-Color composite ERTS-1 image showing flat sheets and stringer dunes in South-West Africa (1109-08054). 

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DETECTION OF HYDROTHERMAL SULFIDE DEPOSITS, 

SAINDAK AREA, WESTERN PAKISTAN 

By Robert G. Schmidt, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

T he digitally enhanced false-color composite of an ERTS-1 image dated 

Nov. 25, 1972, (fig. 60) shows the known porphyry copper deposit at 

Saindak, in western Pakistan, and several sites chosen for further prospecting on the basis of information from this image and known geologic data 

(Ahmed and others, 1972; Schmidt, 1973). 

Porphyry copper deposits are large bodies of weakly mineralized rock 

generally containing n1inerals associated with hydrothermal alteration. Zones 

containing different alteration minerals tend to be concentric outward from a 

core and commonly include large volumes of pyrite-bearing rock. Under optimum conditions, the topographic forms and surface-coloration anomalies 

of light-toned anomalies related to the weathering of these deposits are so 

large and distinctive that they can be recognized on ERTS-1 images. 

At Saindak a group of small copper-bearing porphyritic quartz diorite 

stocks surrounded by zones of hydrothermal-alteration minerals cut northward across the entire folded lower Tertiary stratigraphic section. The stocks 

have undergone intense sericitic alteration and contain copper sulfides. The 

stocks are enclosed in a pyrite-rich envelope that is in turn surrounded by a 

hard dark-appearing zone of propylitic alteration. The sulfide-rich zone, including the porphyry stocks, has been eroded out to form a valley that appears 

light toned on the image (fig. 61, A). The zone of propylitic alteration forms 

a symmetrical rim of hills more rugged than the surrounding region and 

appears darker in tone ( 8) . Together these features are several kilometers 

across and form a visible target on the image that is n1uch larger than the 

actual exposed area of n1ineralized rock. Both the central valley and dark rim 

are displaced left laterally by a major east-trending fault (C). 

The region around the Saindak deposit is a geologically favorable area 

for deposits of the porphyry copper type, and it was studied for evidence of 

other deposits by using composite images and photogeologic maps and field 

mineral-reconnaissance data. Three sites on this image, not formerly regarded 

as potential prospects for large sulfide deposits, were identified ( D, E, and F), 

and one former prospect (G) was reevaluated. These four sites are recommended for field examination. All are areas of known intrusive stocks. At site 

D, a small rugged area near the intrusive may be due to propylitic alteration. 

Dark-appearing hilly areas surround central cores having a light tone and low 

topographic form at sites E, F, and G, and skarn-type hematite or magnetite 

bodies have been reported from the vicinity of E, F, and G. Unfortunately, because windblown sand is abundant in the central cores of these three sites, the 

image does not show absolutely that the bedrock there has a light tone, although the combinations of colors and bands were chosen in this and other 

composites to enhance the difference. 

89 
90 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

Evaluation of the techniques used here will be possible after field checks 

have been made of the sites suggested, but positive identification of any porphyry-type deposit must be followed by extensive evaluation before it can be 

known whether the deposit is exploitable. 

10 0 

10 0 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 

10 20 

20 30 MILES 

30 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 60.-Digitally enhanced false-color composite ERTS-1 image of the Saindak area of western Pakistan, prepared by IBM Corp., 

Gaithersburg, Md., using band 4 (blue light), band 5 (green I ight), and band 7 (red light) (1125- 05545). 
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2. Applications to Geology and Geophysics 91 

NB29-3BI IEB62-30 EB63-BBI 

E062-001 E062-301 7 R SUN EL34 AZI5B 190-1736-A-1-N-D-IL NASA ERTS E-1125-05545-7 Bl 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 

I 

10 

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20 

20 30 MILES 

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FIGURE 61.-Annotated ERT5-1 image showing location of significant geologic features of the Saindak area of Pakistan (1125-

05545, band 7). 

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STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND 

MINERAL-RESOURCES INVENTORY OF 

THE ANDES MOUNTAINS, SOUTH AMERICA 

By William D. Carter, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

The evaluation of the use of ERTS-1 images as a tool for improving knowledge of the structural geology and mineral resources of the Andes is a 

cooperative project with geologists of South American resource agencies. The program is based on the idea that exchange of interpretive results 

between scientists will raise the level of confidence in interpretation and nnprove the use of these new data acquired by remote sensing. The objective is to 

establish models and procedures that will ultimately lead to mapping of the 

entire Andean chain-and eventually the South American continent--on a 

comn10n base and with standard procedures. Hopefully this work will provide 

new information for the "Tectonic and ~:Ietallogenic Maps of South America" 

and will define new areas for 1nineral exploration. 

Of 12 areas proposed for study under this experiment, the first area for 

which an ERTS image collection was most complete was that of the La Paz 

region. A mosaic of 22 images covering an area of 275,000 km2 between lat 16° 

and 20° S. and long 66° and 72° ,V. was compiled at a scale of 1:1,000,000 by 

the U.S. Geological Survey (fig. 62). Band 6 images of reflectance in the nearinfrared region (0.7-0.8 Jill!) were selected for the mosaic. Copies were then 

sent to cooperating investigators in Bolivia, Chile, and Peru for evaluation 

and interpretation. 

Four map overlays of the La Paz orthoimage mosaic have thus far been 

prepared that provide a preliminary understanding of the region. The first 

was an image linear map (fig. 63) in which all natural linear features, generally greater than 10 km in length, have been identified. Those lineations, believed to be mostly fractures and faults, are indicated by long dashed lines; 

lineations related to bedding planes of strata are indicated by short dashed 

lines. Volcanic cones, craters, and calderas are also depicted to place them in 

the regional tectonic framework. The completed interpretation was then 

compared to existing published maps and to the interpretive products made 

by other cooperating investigators. This comparison resulted in a "relative 

confidence map" (fig. 64) on which linear features noted on published maps 

92 
2. Applications to Geology and Geophysics 93 

were indicated in red and those noted on ERTS imagery by two or more interpreters in green. Coincidence of the preliminary plotting of linear features 

from ERTS imagery to the other sources was high. 

A rnetallogenic map was made by combining published information from 

Peru, Bolivia, and Chile at a common scale of 1: 1,000,000. Fron1 this and the 

image linear rnap, a revised metallogenic map for the area was drafted (fig. 

65). This product is now being evaluated by the cooperating investigators. 

A fourth map of related interest is a seismic-hazard n1ap (fig. 66) that 

shows the location of epicenters of earthquakes occurring between 1963 and 

1973 and having a Richter magnitude of 5 or greater. These data were acquired from the World 1Vide Seismic Net, and the epicenters are believed to 

be accurate within 25 to 50 km. Although the relationships between linear features shown on the image linear map and the areas of high seisrnic hazard are 

not necessarily direct, one may infer that some of the surficial structures indi~ 

cated on the image linear map are connected to deep-seated seismically active 

structures. The relationship of volcanic activity to the moven1ent of ore-forming fluids remains an interesting geological problem. 

Whereas much remains to be done in this program, the following conclusions can be stated : 

1. ERTS-1 images, because of their synoptic view of large areas, consistent 

Sun angle, and internal gemnetry, are ideal for mapping geologic structures in large remote areas of the world. 

2. The flexibility provided by several multispectral bands produces useable 

data for both arid plains and humid jungles as well as intermediate 

regions. Bands 6 and 7, providing near-infrared reflectance information, 

are considered the best for most geologic information because water 

bodies and soil moisture are depicted so clearly and the effects of vegetative cover are reduced. 

3. Color composite images, although the number available of South America 

still is very low, have been found to increase geologic interpretability by 

40 percent (Brockmann, 1974). This fact provides strong support for 

constructing future mosaics in color. 
NASA (ERTS- 1) LA PAZ 1.0 

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COVERAGE DIAGRAM 1121-14211-6 (Nov. 21. ·1972) 72" NAMES DIAGRAM 66" A. 

B. 1192-14152-6 (Jan. 31, 1973) 16" 16" 

C. 1245-14100-6 (Mar. 25, 1973) Lago de Titicaca 

D. 1100-14034-6 (Oct. 31, 1972) o La Paz 

E. 1153-13581-6 (Dec. 23, 1972) ,· F. 1100-14041-6 (Oct. 31, 1972) PERU r· G. 1247-14220-6 (Mar. 27, 1973) 

H. 1246-14161:...6 (Mar. 26, 1973) \ 1245-14103-6 (Mar. 25. 1973) _.;, J. 1010-14033-6(Aug.2, 1972) ~ ·. BOLIVIA K. 1153-13583-6(Dec.23. 197~ i : L. 1134-13525-6 (Dec. 4, 1972) --- \ M. 1246-14164-6 (Mar. 26, 1973) \ ~ Lagod• N. 1245-14105-6 (Mar. 25. 1973) i. Poopo 

0. 1244-14051-6 (Mar. 24, 1973) OCEAN p 1243-13592-6 (Mar. 23. 1973) ' .. ) 

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R. 1245-14112-6 (Mar. 25, 1973) { s. 1244-14053-6 (Mar. 24, 1973) 20° T. 1243-13595-6 (Mar. 23, 1973) 20" 

u. 1134-13534-6 (Dec. 4, 1972) 72" 66° 

.FIGURE 62.-ERTS-1 image mosaic of the La Paz area of Bolivia, Peru, and Chile. 
FIGURE 63.-lmage linear map of the La Paz area. 
18. PACIFIC 

OCEAN 

EXPLANATION 

19. 

0 50 MILES 

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FIGURE 64.--Relative confidence map of the La Paz area. 
98 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

OCEAN 

C Copper 

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19" • Tungsten 

SB Antimony 

• Lead, Zinc, Silver 

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FIGURE 65.-Metallogenic map of the La Paz area. 

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CLUES TO GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE 

POSSIBLY INDICATING 

OIL AND GAS SOURCES 

By Ernest H. lathram, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

An ERTS image of northern Alaska (fig. 67) taken only 4 days after the n launch of the satellite shows a part of the foothills and coastal plains 

near Umiat, Alaska. Umiat was the major staging area for the Navy 

Department's exploration of Petroleum Reserve No. 4 in 1945-52 and is the 

site of a medium-sized oilfield discovered during that work. The image represents the near-infrared light reflected from Earth at the time of the overflight, 

and, because water absorbs infrared light, lakes and streams appear black in 

sharp contrast to land areas. The clear view of the distribution of lakes in the 

coastal plain over this large area provided information on the geologic structure not heretofore recognized (Fischer and Lath ram, 1973) . 

Lakes in the coastal plain are known to be predominantly elongate, their 

long axes parallel and trending about N. 9° W. In figure 68, an additional 

strong east-trending regional lineation, not previously recognized on aerial 

photographs or in field study, is seen in linear interlake areas, alinement of 

some lakes, and elongation of some others. The trend of this lineation is 

parallel to the trend of deflections in contours of the magnetic and gravity 

fields in the area and is parallel to westerly deflections in the northwest ends 

of northwest-trending folds mapped to the south. In addition, the alinement 

of many small lakes forms a large and small ellipse superimposed on the 

regional lineation. Sparse seismic profiles show both periodic reversals in dip 

and a regional arching in shallow strata beneath the lineated area. These data 

suggest that concealed structures may exist in this area that may have concentrations of gas in shallow strata and of oil in deeper strata at or near basement. 

Study of additional ERTS images shows that the observed lineation is 

prominent in the coastal plain from the Ikpikpuk River east to the Canning 

River and that this lineation may be useful as a guide to petroleum exploration 

throughout this area. The lineated area includes the sites of Prudhoe Bay and 

other recently discovered oilfields. 

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2. Applications to Geology and Geophysics 101 

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FIGURE 68.-ERTS-1 image of the Umiat area of Alaska showing structural features and lineation of lakes (1004-21395, band 7). 
DISCRIMINATION OF ROCK TYPES AND 

DETECTION OF HYDROTHERMALLY ALTERED AREAS 

IN SOUTH-CENTRAL NEVADA 

By Lawrence C. Rowan and Pamela H. Wetlaufer, U.S. Geological Survey, 

and A. F. H. Goetz, Jet Propulsion Laboratory 

Acombination of digital computer processing and 

color compositing of ERTS MSS images has 

been used to detect and map hydrothermally 

altered areas and to discriminate most major rock 

types in south -central Nevada (Rowan and others, 

197 4). The technique is based on enhancement of subtle 

visible and near-infrared reflectivity differences associated with variations in bulk composition. MSS spectral bands are ratioed, pixel by pixel, by a computer 

and are subsequently contrast stretched to enhance the 

spectral differences. These stretched-ratio values are 

used to produce a new black and white image that 

shows the subtle spectral reflectivity differences and 

concurrently minimizes radiance variations due to 

albedo and topography. Additional enhancement is 

achieved by preparing color composites of two or more 

stretched-ratio images. Color variations seen in these 

stretched-ratio color composites represent spectral reflectance differences (fig. 69). 

The choice of MSS bands for ratioing depends on 

the spectral reflectance properties of the surface materials to be discriminated. For south-central Nevada, 

the most effective stretched-ratio color composite for 

discriminating between altered and unaltered areas and 

between the regional rock units was prepared using the 

following color and stretched-ratio image combination: 

blue for MSS 4/5; yellow for MSS 5/6; and magenta 

for MSS 6/7. In this composite (fig. 69), mafic rocks, 

mainly basalt and andesite (A), are white, whereas felsic extrusive and intrusive rocks are pink (8). The 

felsic rocks are especially notable because they have a 

large intrinsic albedo range, which commonly prevents 

their discrimination from mafic rocks in other types of 

images and photographs. 

Vegetation in the composite is orange, the darker 

hues representing denser vegetation. Although rock 

type is generally masked by the denser vegetation, 

some discrimination is possible among the flows and 

102 

tuffs on Pahute Mesa (C) where the vegetation cover is 

less dense (light orange). Playas and the two mining 

dumps on the western border of the Goldfield mining 

district (D) are blue. Clouds (pink-brown) and cloud 

shadows (white) can be identified with the aid of the 

standard color composite image in figure 70. 

Altered areas on figure 69 are represented by green 

(U) to dark-green (E) and brown (F) to red-brown 

(G) patterns in the color-ratio composite. Except for 

two areas ( H and I) , the green areas represent hydrothermally altered, commonly limonitic rock. The darkgreen, brown, and red-brown patterns are less prevalent. Dark-green areas are limonitic and limonitefree altered rocks. Areas that are brown in the colorratio composite have been studied in less detail, but 

they appear to be predominantly light-colored hydrothermally altered volcanic rocks. The red-brown pattern represents limonite-free, silica-rich, light-colored 

volcanic rocks that have conspicuous alteration in two 

areas and questionable alteration in two other areas. 

Altered outcrops mapped from the stretched-ratio 

color composite show a pronounced coincidence with 

known mining areas. In the Goldfield mining district 

(fig. 69, D), the most productive district in the study 

area, the degree of agreement between the green patterns and the previously mapped alteration zone is 

very striking. These altered areas are not apparent on 

the individual MSS images, color-infrared composite 

(fig. 71), or on color photographs obtained from Skylab. Therefore, the technique used in this study appears 

to have important applications in mineral-resources 

exploration and regional geologic mapping. Future research should focus on refinement of this technique, 

especially on defining more clearly the relationships 

between visible and near-infrared spectral reflectivity 

and mineralogical composition and on testing the technique in a variety of geologic settings and environmental conditions. 
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FIGURE 69.-Stretched-ratio color composite ERTS-1 image of south-central Nevada made from computer compatible tapes (part of 1072-18001 ). 
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FIGURE 70.-Color composite ERTS-1 image of the south-central Nevada area made from computer compatible tapes (part 

of 1072-18001). 
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2. Applications to Geology and Geophysics 105 

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FIGURE 71.-Conventional color composite ERT5-1 image of the entire south-central Nevada area (1072-18001). 

i 

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NEW METHOD FOR MONITORING 

GLOBAL VOLCANIC ACTIVITY 

By Peter L. Ward and Jerry P. Eaton, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

T

he ERTS data collection system (DCS) makes it feasible for the first 

time to monitor the level of activity at widely separated volcanoes and to 

relay these data rapidly to one central office for analysis (Ward and 

others, 1974). This capability opens a new era in volcanology, and the hundreds of normally quiescent but potentially dangerous volcanoes near populated regions around the world can now be economically and reliably ·monitored daily to warn when any one volcano is becoming active again. Before 

ERTS was launched, only a few volcanoes in the world were monitored continuously because of the high cost of building and staffing volcano observatories. Yet it is known from data collected in this century that while visible 

signs of pending eruptions may occur only minutes to days in advance, invisible but measurable signs may be detected days, weeks, months, and even 

years before a major eruption. Although the prediction of specific eruptions 

is still an evasive goal, early warning of a reawakening of a quiescent volcano is now a distinct possibility. 

A prototype global volcano-surveillance system was established as part of 

the ERTS program. In cooperation with local scientists, instruments have been 

installed on 15 volcanoes in Alaska, Hawaii, Washington, California, Iceland, 

Guatemala, El Salvador, and Nicaragua at the sites shown in figure 72 (Ward 

and others, 1974). Data from these low-powered instruments in each of these 

many remote locations are being relayed 6 to 10 times daily through the satellite to the ground tracking stations at Goldstone, Calif., and Goddard Space 

Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md. The data are processed at Goddard and then 

relayed within 90 min by teletype to the National Center for Earthquake Research in Menlo Park, Calif. 

The sensors include 19 seismic-event counters, which count four different 

sizes of earthquakes, and six biaxial borehole tiltmeters, which measure ground 

tilt with a resolution of 1 p.rad. Only seismic and tilt data are collected because these have been shown in the past to indicate most reliably the level of 

volcano activity at many different volcanoes. Furthermore these parameters 

can be measured relatively easily with new instrumentation. A fourth-generation seismic-event counter was especially developed for this project. This instrument compresses seismic data gathered at the rate of about 2 million digital bits per 12 h to the 64 bits that can be economically relayed through a 

satellite. This compression is not easy, and some data are lost. For the pur106 
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2. Applications to Geology and Geophysics 107 

SANTIAGUITO e / 

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FUEGO/ 

PACAYA 

SAN CRISTOBAL 110· go· 

FIGURE 72.-Map showing instrument sites of the prototype volcano-surveillance system. 

poses of this project, however, the main data desired are simply the number 

of events of different sizes. These numbers typically change by orders of magnitude before eruptions. The criteria adopted for detecting events are ( 1) 

that 10 peaks of the full-wave rectified seismic signal must be above a given 

threshold in 1.2 sand (2) that there must have been no peak above this threshold in the previous 15 s. The second criterion effectively inhibits the counter 

during periods of high ground noise caused by wind, harmonic tremor, people, 

and so on. The time that a channel is inhibited is counted separately and indicates the relative level of ground noise. The number of earthquakes greater 

than four different amplitudes and the noise counts for each channel are relay~d through the satellite. A typical installation is shown in figure 73. A 

tiltmeter is also used in this project. The bottom of the pipe, which is about 

5 em in diameter, contains a precise electrically monitored bubble level that 

has been adapted for this use from a defense application. The pipe is placed in 

a 1.3- to 3-m hole in rock or, more typically, sandy soil or ash. The output of 

the electronic equipment shown connects directly to the satellite transmitter. 

Data received through the satellite show that the instruments work as 

anticipated. Three tiltmeters in Hawaii recorded a 10- to 30-p.rad subsidence of 

the summit Kilauea Volcano during an eruption of May 5, 1973. Volcan Fuego 

in Guatemala inflated by about 25 p.rad during the 6 mo following an eruption in February 1973. 

Events of two different sizes counted on Volcan Fuego, which erupted beginning on Feb. 22, 1973, show an increase in activity during the eruption (fig. 

74). The counter was installed in early February. There was a significant increase in activity about 5 days before this small eruption began. The seismic 
108 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

activity was high during the eruption and returned to a low level after the 

eruption was over. A different counter 30 km from Fuego showed no change 

in seismic activity during the whole period. This :fact implies that the seismic 

activity was indeed at Fuego. 

The prototype global volcano-surveillance system developed as part of the 

ERTS program clearly demonstrates the technological and economic feasibility of building a global surveillance system, hut many details in the design of 

highly reliable instruments still need to be worked out. The primary effort 

in the future will be the collection and analysis of data from these different 

volcanoes to establish clearly the scientific feasibility of this novel and potentially revolutionary approach to surveillance of hazardous volcanoes. 

VOLCAN FUEGO,GUATEMALA 

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FIGURE 74.-Graph of seismic activity recorded by a data 

collection platform at Volcan Fuego, Guatemala. 
DYNAMIC ENVIRONMENTAL PHENOMENA 

IN SOUTHWESTERN ICELAND 

By Richard S. Williams, Jr., 

U.S. Geological Survey 

T

he ERTS image mosaic in figure 75 shows a part of west-central and 

southwestern Iceland, an island republic with a relatively small but rapidly growing population of 213,070 (Dec. 1, 1973) in an area of 103,000 

km2, or a population density of about 2 persons per km2• Iceland, because of 

its cool climate, low population density, and paucity of natural resources, has 

early recognized the potential value of ERTS imagery and the ERTS data 

collection system to provide at low cost and in near real time certain types of 

dynamic environmental data, such as variable snow cover, changes in the area 

of glaciers, and seasonal changes in grasslands. Because Icelanders depend on 

the surrounding seas for fish and crustaceans and on the limited area of arable 

land for agricultural products, their economic well-being is greatly determined 

by their natural environment. Understanding and recognizing changes in, and 

redirecting human and capital resources in response to, the often capricious 

nature of the. natural environment of Iceland have important economic and 

social implications (Williams and others, 1973a and 1973b). 

ERTS imagery of Iceland provides the basis for the study of several different geological and geophysical phenomena that relate in an important way 

to the natural resources of Iceland (Williams, 1972). 

Within the area shown by the late summer color composite ERTS-1 

image n1osaic live the majority of the inhabitants of Iceland. More than half 

the population lives in and around the capital city of Reykjavik at 1. The 

rich grasslands and cultivated areas (tuns) in the lower Thj6rsa valley near 

the coast at 2 and the diminution of vegetation towards the less hospitable 

interior can be clearly seen. Besides the cultivated and grassland areas, the 

variations in hues of red permit the mapping of reclaimed land, dwarf forests, 

and lichen-covered basalts. Barren lands are distinctive by their dark-gray 

tones and the absence of red colors that indicate a lack of vegetation. 

Iceland sits astride the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and is one of the most active 

areas of volcanism in the world. Within the last 12 yr Iceland has had four 

volcanic eruptions: Askja in 1961, Surtesy in 1963-67, Hekla in 1970, and 

Heimaey in 1973. The effects of three of these volcanic eruptions are visible 

on figure 75. Surtesy at 3 is the small (2.5-km2 ) volcanic island off the south 

coast. Heimaey at 4, an island to the northeast in the same archipelago, was 

the scene of an extremely damaging volcanic eruption in early 1973. Nearly 

half the fishing port of Vestmannaeyjar was destroyed or damaged (Williams 

109 
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FIGURE 75.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image mosaic of west-central and southwestern Iceland (1392-12185 and 1392-12191)

I 10 20 
2. Applications to Geology and Geophysics 111 

and ~loon'~ 1978). The new land area on the east side of Heimaey can be 

seen. The ash-fall pattern at 5 and new lava flows at 6 from the 1970 volcanic eruption from the famous Hekla Volcano are evident. The 1970 ash 

fall, containing high concentrations of fluorides, contaminated grasslands that 

were grazed by sheep. At least 7,000 head were lost in the area because of 

fluoride poisoning. 

Several glaciological features are also prominent. The glacier-margin lake, 

Hvitarvatn 7, is distinctive with its powder-blue color characteristic of turbidity caused by glacial sediment. The snow line can be delineated on the 

Hofsjokull 8, Langjokull 9, Myrdalsjokull 10, and Eyjafjallajokull 11 icecaps. Note the absence of vegetation at 12 from an area where one of the outlet glaciers of Hofsjokull has receded. A prominent nunatak at 13 cstn be seen 

in the center of Langjokull. The snow-capped shield volcano, Skjaldbreidur, 

can be seen at 14 and tectonic fissures that extend to the southwest. Sediment 

plumes from the mouths of rivers laden with glacial rock flour are prominent, particularly the one at the mouth of Thjorsa 15. 

The circular caldera form, light-colored rhyolitic rocks, and lighter colored altered-ground areas of Iceland's largest geothermal area, Torfajokull 

at 16, contrast sharply with the surrounding darker basaltic rocks or glacial 

deposits derived from such rocks. The altered ground of the Reykjanes geothermal area is just barely discernible at 17. A circular pattern of a possible 

Tertiary central volcano is visible at 18. At 19 a faint line represents a difference in grass conditions resulting from the installation of a fence to control the grazing of sheep in this district. Finally, an engineering project has 

reversed the flow of water from the solitary outlet of the V-shaped lake, 

Thorisvatn at 20. This reversal has resulted in sediment-laden water from a 

glacial river entering the western arm of the lake, and the gradational plume 

can be clearly delineated. The comprehensive environmental information from 

this ERTS mosaic contrasts markedly with the line map of the same area 

(fig. 76). Although such line maps are revised at intervals, there is no way 

that conventional maps can keep up with or depict such seasonal changes in 

the grasslands, variations in size of sediment plumes, changes in glaciological 

phenomena, and other environmental variables. 

Because of the wide variety of geological and geophysical phenomena 

that can be observed in Iceland, and because of the clear and direct historical 

impact of the dynamic natural environment on the country's natural resources, 

Iceland has been particularly well suited as an area for experimental studies 

to establish the operational feasibility of using Earth resources satellite sensors and other systems to meet resource inventory and management needs on. 

a timely and cost-effective basis. Iceland shares with the United States, and 

with most other countries of the world, a need for accurate and timely information on the status of its natural resources in order to make wise decisions about the best use of such resources. ERTS-1 provides a first-time capability for the acquisition of many types of environmental information, particularly for data on dynamic environmental phenomena (Williams and 

others, 1974). 
10 0 

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ACTIVE FAULTS IN 

THE LOS ANGELES-VENTURA AREA 

OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA 

By Russell H. Campbell, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

F

igure 77 is a color composite ERTS-1 image especially made to enhance 

geologic features by combining bands 4, 6, and 7. The annotated map 

overlay combined with band 5 (fig. 78) shows the system of active faults 

that traverse the greater Los Angeles area. This single image shows all the 

area from Ventura to Santa Ana and from east of Lancaster to Grapevine at 

the southern tip of the San Joaquin Valley. 

Most of the faults shown have been active historically or in the last 30,-

000 to 40,000 yr. Many features that mark the traces of these faults are eminently visible in the image, which offers a striking synoptic view of their relations to each other and to landmarks familiar to all inhabitants of the 

regwn. 

In addition to known faults, the annotations indicate the locations of the 

epicenters of historic earthquakes that are known (or inferred) to have had 

magnitudes on the Richter scale of 6.0 or greater. This compilation shows 

that historic earthquakes and fault movements in the region are not limited 

to the San Andreas Fault and its clearly defined branches. Instead, the area 

clearly has been affected by Earth strains that have been relieved by movement along several faults. 

The epicenters of earthquakes shown in figure 78 (solid circles) are 

labeled according to the year in which the earthquake occurred and include : 

Year Fault Earthquake Magnitude 

1852 ________ Big Pine ___________ _ 

1857-------- San Andreas _______ Fort Tejon ________ _ 

1893 ________ San Gabriel ________ Pico Canyon ______ 1 6.0 

1916 ________ ------------------- Tejon Pass ________ 1 6.0 

1933 ________ Newport-Inglenook long Beach ________ 6.3 

zone of folds and 

faults. 

1952 ________ White Wolf ________ Kern County ______ _ 7.7 

1971 ________ San Fernando ______ San Fernando _____ _ 6.6 

1973 ________ Frontal fault system Point Mugu _______ 6.0 

of the Transverse 

Ranges. 

1 Estimated. 

Remarks 

Ground breakage 

reported. 

Possibly 10 m of 

surface offset. 

About 1 m of 

surface offset. 

Maximum offset 

about 2m. 

<1111 FIGURE 76.-Map of part of west-central and southwestern Iceland (part of 1:1,000,000 map of Iceland, Icelandic Surveying Department, 1971 ). 

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FIGURE 77.-Color composite ERTS-1 image of the greater Los Angeles area of southern California especially made to enhance 

geologic features (1090-18012, bands 4, 6, and 7). 

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2. Applications to Geology and Geophysics 115 

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FIGURE 78.-Annotated ERTS-1 image of the greater los Angeles area of southern California showing location of major and minor 

faults (1018-18010, band 5). Symbols are explained in the text. 
116 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

Faults are shown in figure 78 as solid lines where easily visible on the 

image, dashed where recognized with some difficulty, and dotted where concealed by the ocean. They are listed below along with the symbol used to 

identify them on the image. 

Fault Symbol 

Benedict Canyon ----------- B.C. 

Big Pine ------------------

Callequas ----------------- C. 

Chino -------------------- CH. 

Frazier MountainAlamo Mountain --------- F.-A. 

Garlock ------------------- Newport-Inglewood ---------

Oak Ridge ----------------- O.R. 

Palos Verdes Hills ---------- P.V. 

Pine Mountain ------------- P.M. 

Pleito --------------------- P. 

Red Mountain -------------- R.M. 

San Andreas ---------------

San Cayetano -------------- S.C. 

San Fernando --------------

San Gabriel ----------------

San jacinto ---------------- S.J. 

Santa Rosa ----------------- S.R. 

Santa Susana --------------- S.S. 

Santa Ynez ---------------- S.Y. 

Whittier ------------------- W. 

White Wolf ----------------

Remarks 

Thrust faults. 

Zone of faults and folds. 

Thrust fault. 

Thrust fault. 

Do. 

Historically the most active of the northwesttrending right-lateral faults south of the 

Transverse Ranges. 

Thrust fault. 

The following faults, also shown in figure 78, are segments of the south 

frontal fault system of the Transverse Ranges province: 

Fault Symbol 

Malibu Coast ---------- M.C. 

Raymond Hill ---------- R.H. 

Santa Monica __________ S.M. 

Sierra Madre ----------- Sa.M. 
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY OF 

THE CENTRAL GULF OF ALASKA COAST 

By Austin Post, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

I

n the ERTS image shown in figure 79, the Copper River valley cuts through 

the rugged Chugach Mountains on the left, the Bering Glacier dominates 

the right side, and Cape St. Elias juts into the Pacific Ocean on the south 

end of Kayak Island. The village of Yakataga is near the right margin of 

the image, and the town of Cordova is just off the image to the left. 

"\\'.,.hen this image was taken on Oct. 24, 1973, cold air from interior Alaska 

was sweeping down the Copper River valley, picking up dust from sandbars, 

and blowing it more than 40 km out over the ocean. Large glaciers that flow 

from lateral valleys and terminate in the Copper River valley are hidden 

under the dust pall. 

The Copper River valley is one of the few available low-level routes to 

the interior of Alaska from the coast. More than 60 yr ago, the river became 

famous during the construction of the Copper River and Northwestern Railroad to provide access to the rich Kennicott Mining District. The railroad, 

extremely expensive to construct and maintain, crossed the Copper River three 

times, one of these on a $1,000,000 steel bridge located where the Childs Glacier 

on the west side of the river and the Miles Glacier on the east side terminated 

directly into the river. Just to the north, the tracks had to be laid on the 

stagnant, marginal ice of Allen Glacier, which also reached the river's edge, 

forming Baird Canyon. 

The railroad was abandoned in 1938 after the most accessible ore was exhausted. Using the same route and many of the same bridges, engineers were 

constructing a new highway until the 1964 Alaska earthquake abruptly halted 

progress by destroying most of the new bridges and severely damaging two 

of the largest old steel railway bridges. Construction of the highway has now 

resumed with replacement of bridges in the Copper River delta area. 

This part of the Alaskan Coast is seismically very active and has been 

raised repeatedly in recent centuries. Evidence of this can be seen from ( 1) 

raised sandbars which now form islands off the mouth of the Copper River. 

This area was raised approximately 2 m by the 1964 Alaska earthquake: (2) 

parallel timbered ridges visible along the coast on the right side of this view 

represent former beaches. Raised beaches south and east of the Bering Glacier 

disappear under the glacier margin and indicate that the Bering Glacier 

fronted on the ocean in the not too distant past. 

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FIGURE 79.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the central Gulf of Alaska coast (1458-20205). 

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2. Applications to Geology and Geophysics 119 

Extensive outwash fans constructed by streams from the Bering Glacier 

and by the Copper River are also changing the landscape; for instance, 

former beaches are being covered by the outwash east of the Bering Glacier, 

and the debris from the Copper River is rapidly changing the outline of the 

coast. Intertidal zones appear as darker areas along the coast and are particularly visible in shallow areas such as Controller Bay (center). 

The Bering Glacier is the largest in mainland North America. It heads 

in a broad ice-filled valley, the lower part of which appears in the top right 

part of this image. The ice flows down a valley about 10 km wide to the coastal 

plain, where it spreads out in a semicircular lobe nearly 60 km wide. Down 

the center of this lobe is an extensive band of medial moraines that are made 

up of debris swept by the ice from the high mountains. Folded structures in 

these moraines are faintly visible in this image ; in fact, the broad central 

band of debris is composed of a vast aggregation of parallel ridges that represent about five main medial moraines folded 20 times or more. These structures and the accordianlike folds in the eastern margin of the lobe are caused 

by periodic surges of this vast glacier that apparently occur about every 20 yr. 

Lakes appear dark on the image, and several can be seen. In the upper 

center, large three-pronged Berg Lakes is dammed by an arm of Bering 

Glacier. Many lakes formed by glacier ice dams are notorious for sudden release when the ice dams fail, which most often occurs where subglacial channels develop and rapidly enlarge by melting as the water flows through them. 

Even large lakes can thus be drained in a few hours or, at the most, days. 

Berg Lakes has not drained for many years, but it potentially could devastate 

the Bering River valley should the ice dam fail. At the present time, the ice 

dam is considered to be unstable, and flooding could occur at any time. 

ERTS images are particularly useful for determining the extent of snow 

cover. Figure 79 shows the snow cover as of Oct. 24, 1973. The elevation of 

the snowline can be determined by comparing the image with contour maps. 

Some idea of the snow depth can also be derived from the completeness of 

cover on rough surfaces such as glacier moraines. For instance, the snowline is 

clearly visible on Bering Glacier, covering about half of the terminal lobe. 

From the amount of rock visible in the large central medial moraine it is 

evident that the snow cover at the time of this image is very thin, probably 

not more than a few centimeters, at these lower altitudes. 

The surface of the snow in the immense ice-filled valleys has shadings 

in ERTS images that are not apparent from the ground or even on most 

aerial photography. These shadings evidently represent subtle changes in 

slope that in turn probably are related to bedrock topography, deeply buried 

under the slowly flowing ice. 

In summary, the synoptic images and repetitive coverage provided by 

the ERTS system enable geologists, for the first time, to monitor dynamic 

hydrological, geological, and meteorological phenomena that affect man and 

his environment. 
DEBRIS AVALANCHES 

AT MOUNT BAKER VOLCANO, WASHINGTON 

By David Frank, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

The latest in a series of debris avalanches down Boulder Glacier on Mount 

Baker, Wash., is shown in ERTS images (figs. 80, 81) taken Sept. 16, 

1973. The avalanche occurred sometime during Aug. 20-21, 1973. Mount 

Baker is a quiescent stratovolcano composed largely of andesitic lava flows 

and breccias (Coombs, 1939). Every 2 to 4 yr during recent decades, snow, 

ice, and hydrothermally altered rock have avalanched from the Sherman 

Crater rim, south of the mountain summit. The avalanches have flowed 2.0 to 

2.6 km eastward, a distance just short of the Boulder Glacier terminus. 

A major factor in the avalanche occurrence is geothermal emission and 

subsequent water saturation of the ground beneath the normally heavy snowpack (Frank and others, 1975). Within 50 m of the avalanche source is a 

zone of very active fumaroles, warm ground and thermal springs that currently are causing extensive hydrothermal alteration of rock to clay-rich soil. 

Avalanches will likely continue to occur as long as the current level of heat 

emission is maintained. There is at this time no evidence to indicate that 

fumarole activity is declining; it has been known to exist since the time of 

the last eruptions which probably occurred in the mid-1800's (Davidson, 

1885). Temperatures in fumaroles on Mount Baker are currently being monitored using an ERTS DCP. 

The ERTS image strikingly shows the significance of recurrent mass 

movement from the volcano. Melt water from Boulder Glacier flows down 

Boulder Creek (dashed line) and into two large hydroelectric reservoirsBaker Lake and Lake Shannon. From there the water continues on to the 

heavily farmed Skagit River valley and finally to more highly populated 

areas bordering Puget Sound. Although those avalanches that have been 

observed have not passed the glacier terminus, it is not unlikely that, as hydrothermal alteration continues, increasing amounts of rock will be contained 

in future avalanches. Larger avalanches, along with the possible combination 

of glacier outburst floods, could probably reach the lower Boulder valley. 

This dangerous potential is of particular importance because of the possible 

impact on the reservoirs of the lower valley. An indication of the extent of 

past mass movement in Boulder valley is the large lobate alluvial fan that 

protrudes into Baker Lake. In addition to normal stream deposits, this fan 

contains a sequence of postglacial lahars (debris flows or mudflows~ from 

Mount Baker (J. Hyde, U.S. Geological Survey, written commun., 1974). The 

most recent lahar lies on the surface and likely occurred within the past few 

hundred years. The cause of the recent lahars fron1 Mount Baker is not presently known, but it is significant that such activity apparently has been common in the recent past. 

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2. Applications to Geology and Geophysics 121 

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FIGURE 80.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the Mount Baker area of Washington (1420-18303). 

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FIGURE 81.-Annotated enlargement of part of the Mount Baker image showing the area of debris avalanches (part of 1420-18303, 

band 5). 
STRUCTURAL FEATURES RELATED 

TO EARTHQUAKES IN 

MANAGUA, NICARAGUA, AND CORDOBA, MEXICO 

By William D. Carter, U.S. Geological Survey, 

and jack N. Rinker, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 

T

wo major earthquakes have occurred in the Western Hemisphere during 

the life of ERTS-1. The first was the Managua, Nicaragua, earthquake 

of DP&. 23, 1972, which had a magnitude of 5.6 on the Richter scale. More 

than an estimated 11,000 persons died, and most of the Nicaraguan capital 

was devastated; property damage was estimated to be more than $0.5 billion 

(Brown and others, 1973). The second earthquake, having a magnitude of 

7.0 on the Richter scale, occurred on Aug. 28, 1973, about 240 km southeast 

of Mexico City. Although deaths {500 persons) and property damage were 

less severe than at Managua, buildings collapsed and .numerous fires caused 

by short circuits occurred in six Mexican cities-Ciudad Serdan, Orizaba, 

Cordoba, Puebla, Tehuacan, and Mexico City (Lomnitz, 1973). 

Quick action by the ERTS-1 control and command center at the NASA 

Goddard Space Flight Center made it possible for ERTS to collect data over 

Managua on Dec. 24, 1972, the day after the earthquake. Figures 82 and 83 

show the area of western Nicaragua. The Gulf of Fonseca and Honduras are 

in the upper left. Lake Managua is in the lower right corner, and Managua 

is under clouds southeast of the Chiltepe Peninsula that is marked by two 

crater lakes. Volcanic cones, many of which are often active, can be seen in 

the Cordillera Los Marrabios. Most are in a rather straight, narrow band 15 

to 30 km from the coast. Band 7 images were most useful in studying the 

linear features and show the structural relationship of the Managua area to 

the surrounding region. The synoptic images give an insight on the directional 

trends of fractures and faults in the region that might be found during 

detailed studies of the geology of the city area (Carter and Eaton, 1973). The 

images also indicate that the volcanoes east of Managua were not actively emitting clouds of steam, ash, lava, or other products. The earthquake area was 

overflown by a NASA aircraft within 10 days after the event, and excellent 

detailed aerial photography was provided for study and fieldwork by Nicaraguan and U.S. Geological Survey geologists. These studies indicated that 

the movement during the earthquake took place along fracture systems trending N. 25° to 45° E. 

During September 1973, ERTS-1 data were collected on five different 

days over the area of the Mexican earthquake of late August. Of eight images 

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FIGURE 82.-Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Managua area of Nicaragua (1154-15385). 

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2. Applications to Geology and Geophysics 125 

collected, five had 50 percent or more cloud cover and were therefore only marginally useful for analysis. Three, however, had 25 percent or less cloud cover 

and were useful in defining regional structural features that could contribute 

to seismic activity. Unfortunately, the areas most affected by the 1973 earthquake were in the cloudy regions. 

Interpretation of the images indicates that a strong set of northwesttrending linear features extends from Presa Miguel Aleman through Cordoba 

and also in the Tehuacan Valley to the west, along which earthquake activity 

could take place. Lomnitz ( 1973) stated that the focus of the event was located at a depth of 84 km under the western edge of the Veracruz coastal 

plain, a location that coincides with the Cordoba lineament. 

In both cases cited, it was possible to define the regional structural pattern and to determine areas where detailed ground studies might be fruitful. 

It was not, however, possible to define small areas where physical damage 

had occurred. 

86'30' 

FIGURE 83 .-Map of the earthquake area in Nicaragua plotted on part of ERTS-1 image 1154-15385, band 7. 
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2. Applications to Geology and Geophysics 127 

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681-689. 

Williams, R. S., Jr., 1972, Satellite geological and geophysical remote sensing 

of Iceland [abs.]: lnternat. Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment, 8th, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1972, Proc., p. 1,465-1,466. 

Williams, R. S., Jr., and Moore, J. G., 1973, Iceland chills a lava flow: Ceotimes, v. 18, no. 8, p. 14-17. 

Williams, R. S., Jr.; Bodvarsson, Agust; Fridriksson, Sturla; Palmason, Gudmundur; Rist, Sigurj6n; Sigtryggsson, Hlynur; Thorarinsson, Sigurdur; 

and Thorsteinsson, lngvi, 1973, Satellite geological and geophysical 

remote sensing of Iceland-preliminary results from analysis of MSS 

imagery: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Symposium on Significant 

Results Obtained from the Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1, 2d, 

New Carrollton, N\d., Mar. 1973, Proc., v. 1, sec. A, p. 317-327. 

Williams, R. S., Jr., Bodvarsson, Agust; Fridriksson, Sturla; Palmason, Gudmundur; Rist, Sigurj6n; Sigtryggsson, Hlynur; Saemundsson, Kristjan; 

Thorarinsson, Sigurdur; and Thorsteinson, lngvi, 1973b, Iceland-preliminary results of geologic, hydrologic, oceanographic, and agricultural 

studies with ERTS-1 imagery: Am. Soc. Photogrammetry, Symposium on 

Management and Utilization of Remote Sensing Data, Sioux Falls, S. 

Oak., 1973, Proc., p. 17-35. 

Williams, R. S., Jr.; Bodvarsson, Agust; Fridriksson, Sturla; Palmason, Gudmundur; Rist, Sigurj6n; Sigtryggsson, Hlynur; Saemundsson, Kristjan; 

Thorarinsson, Sigurdur; and Thorsteinsson, lngvi, 1974, Environmental 

studies of Iceland with ERTS-1 imagery: lnternat. Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment, 9th, Ann Arbor, Mich., 197 4, Proc., v. 1, 

p. 31-81. 

Wilson, E. D., Moore, R. T., and Cooper, J. R., 1969, Geologic map of Arizona: 

Tucson, Arizona, Arizona Bur. Mines. 
CHAPTER 3. 

APPLICATIONS TO WATER RESOURCES 

S

ince its launch late in July 1972, a wealth of hydrologic information has been derived from ERTS1. Before describing specific data obtained by 

ERTS and some of the significant observations and 

applications made, it will be useful to examine the role 

of ERTS in determining hydrological conditions over 

any area, observing changes in storage or conditions, 

and providing quantitative inputs for hydrological 

models. 

Hydrology is a science of dynamic phenomena. It is 

concerned with the flux of water from the atmosphere 

to the Earth's surface; overland storage and runoff; 

infiltration, subsurface storage, movement, and eventual discharge; and return to the atmosphere by means 

of evaporation and transpiration. Hydrology is concerned also with water quality and changes in quality 

occasioned by its contact with the environment and 

man's effect on it. A major goal of remote sensing in 

hydrology, therefore, is to observe and measure dynamic conditions of water quantity and quality. 

Water interacts with the Earth's atmosphere, soil, 

vegetation, physiography, and geology, and it profoundly affects the works of man. Hence, remotesensing techniques can be used also to assess hydrologic 

conditions by indirect analysis of water along with 

other environmental parameters. The work of Higer, 

Coker, and Cordes in development of an ecological 

model in Florida (p. 150) represents an important 

milestone in using satellite data for environmental 

monitoring. The investigators have devised a means of 

predicting success or failure of wood stork rookeries 

as one of the indices of hydrologic conditions in the 

Everglades National Park. Parameters upon which the 

predictions are based are water-level measurements 

that can be relayed by the ERTS data collection system, the spatial distribution of water that can be measured on ERTS images, and the population density of 

small aquatic animals per unit area collected in quantitative traps. 

The very fact that the quantity and, generally, the 

INTRODUCTION 

By Morris Deutsch, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

quality of water in a given area are constantly changing requires that repetitive data be collected to monitor 

changes. Although ERTS cannot continuously measure the discharge of streams or their quality, its 18-

day repeat cycle is ideal for determining changing 

hydrological conditions caused by climate, seasonal 

effects, or man's activities. The design of a water-management model for the Everglades, employing quantitative inputs for areas of water surface from band 7 

and water-stage data relayed by ERTS from surface 

recorders has stimulated use of satellite data for operational water management for Florida. 

In the Pacific Northwest and other areas throughout the world, efficient regulation of reservoirs fed by 

melting snow is vital for generation of hydroelectric 

power, irrigation withdrawals, domestic water supply, 

waste assimilation, and maintenance of fisheries. By 

studying successive ERTS images and related ground 

data, Krimmel and Meier ( p. 173) , have determined the rate of change of snow-covered areas and 

estimated amounts of water stored as snow. ERTS 

data have thus provided a basis for improving predictions about the subsequent availability of water 

from snowmelt. 

The ERTS data-collection-system experiment by 

Paulson (p. 132) for the Delaware River basin is 

being used as the framework for an operational system. Hydrologic data relayed by the satellite and 

images are being provided to the Delaware River 

Basin Commission as a basis for improved water management. Timely satellite data can assist agencies in 

water-management decisions concerning reservoir releases, water-plant intake for quality control, and 

municipal and sewage efHuent release. Future satellite 

data-collection systems will enable the U.S. Geological 

Survey to more efficiently operate the national hydrologic data network, which includes about 15,000 instrumented stations where streamflow, water level, 

water quality, and related water data are collected. 

Before the launch of ERTS, the hydrologic scien129 
130 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

tists did not expect that existing flood-applications 

capability would be greatly expanded by the ERTS 

data. Since its launch, however, ERTS has provided 

data, as described herein, permitting observations and 

analyses regarding floods far beyond those anticipated. 

A large synoptic view of flooding along the entire Mississippi River valley below St. Louis was provided on 

only 16 images collected on two dates in 1973 during 

a total period of about 7 min. By color combining preflood coverage with flood coverage, a color-coded display was produced in which flooded area was automatically separated from areas nonnally covered by 

water. The unique water-detection capability of band 

7 has made it possible for the first time to delineate 

areas from which flood waters have receded inasmuch 

as the flood waters leave a spectral signature on the 

surface. This capability is tremendously significant 

since it is not necessary to photograph or image the 

flood in progress. Imaging a flood in progress, of 

course, is of limited value because river valley reaches 

downstream from the peak have not yet experienced 

maximum inundation. 

\Vater in streams less than a few meters to tens of 

meters wide, or lakes less than a few hectares in areal 

extent, cannot be detected by ERTS. The presence of 

water in the soil or in vegetation along the stream valley, however, is readily detectable. Indeed, a highly 

significant fact, vividly portrayed by ERTS color 

composite images of much of the United States and 

Canada, is the immense amount of water transpired to 

the atmosphere by vegetation. The vast extent of the 

vegetation is indicated by the almost totally red composite summer images covering large areas of the 

United States. On standard color composite images 

(bands 4, 5, and 7), vegetation is red, and the denser 

vegetation is depicted by deeper tones of red. The hydrologist thus has at hand a powerful tool for determining the percentage of the water budget involved in 

transpiration and the duration of the period of transpiration for the predominant classes of vegetation. 

Turner (p. 246) has shown, for example, changes 

in the patterns of dense plant growth. This type of 

information will be useful in determining a variety of 

hydrobiological conditions, including range readiness 

for grazing by livestock. 

An estimated 90 percent of the freshwater resources 

of the Earth consists of ground water stored in regional aquifers. Data from ERTS contain much information about the distribution of ground water and the 

extent of its utilization (Deutsch, 197 4). 

Precise delineation of geologic formations--especially the upper or shallow units that, in most areas, form 

the best aquifers-is a requisite for hydrogeologic investigations. ERTS images of areas underlain by glacial, alluvial, eolian, and other unconsolidated sediInents often provide an excellent basis for delineation 

of shallow aquifers. Indurated sedimentary rocks, 

especially limestone and sandstone formations, comprise important and extensive aquifers in Inany regions of the world. In some instances, ERTS data can 

be used directly to detern1ine their boundaries, recharge areas, and discharge areas, including the location of springs. The imagery is potentially useful in 

depicting the detailed surface structures of crystalline 

rocks in igneous and metamorphic terranes, where 

ground water commonly is stored in openings along 

joints and fractures. 

Most applications of remotely sensed data deal with 

surface phenomena inasmuch as it is the surface that 

is being imaged by ERTS and other satellites or aircraft. The hydrogeologist, however, commonly infers 

subsurface hydrological conditions from such surface 

indicators as areal geological features and structures, 

as described by Moore and Hollyday (p. 164). Soils 

and soil-moisture anomalies, vegetative types and distribution, discontinuous ice cover on streams, differential snowmelt, and springs that are detected by ERTS 

may also be indicative of ground water. Accordingly, 

it is believed that remotely sensed data, and particularly the synoptic, worldwide, and repetitive data collected by ERTS-1, can be effectively used as a tool for 

the exploration of ground water and for the monitoring and management of ground-water resources in selected instances. 

Evidence of irrigation from nonsurface sources on 

ERTS data also indicates the presence and distribution of ground water, and the repetitive data can provide a basis for estimating ground-water use. 

Much has been written about the applications of 

ERTS for water quality, and indeed ERTS has made 

important contributions to that field. ERTS data can 

be used to reveal regional or local distribution of anomalies in water quality due to difference in turbidity 

attributable to varying concentrations of sediment or 

other particulate matter in the water. 

The chemical and physical quality of the water can 

be analyzed in the laboratory from samples collected 

on the ground. In the Delaware River basin and elsewhere in the United States, water-quality parameters 

are measured and recorded continuously at numerous 

points by automated monitors, and the data are relayed 

via the ERTS data collection system. The data provided by ERTS are then used to extrapolate areally 

the point-quality data. Thus the sources, movement, 

and fate of pollutants, suspended sediments, or waters 

from different sources are determined. Significant ex-
amples of the use of ERTS data for water-quality applications have been described by Stortz and Sydor 

(1974), who mapped turbidity currents in Lake Superior, and by Lind, Henson, and Pelton (1973), who 

used turbidity as an indicator of water pollution and 

its source and fate in Lake Champlain. The latter 

study is especially significant because the data were 

used in litigation that the State of Vermont initiated 

against the alleged pollutors. 

ERTS data has greatly improved scientists' knowledge of glaciers because of the synoptic and repetitive 

data from generally inaccessible terrain. Krimmel, 

Post, and l\1:eier ( p. 178) in their study of surging 

and nonsurging glaciers in the Pamir Mountains of 

the U.S.S.R. suggest a practical and valuable application for the ERTS data: glacier-surge warnings. 

Glaciologists now have a means of locating and mapping hazardous glacial conditions and providing warnings as to when glacier surges and surge-related floods 

can be expected. 

In their ERTS study of the dynamics of the Lowell 

and Tweedsmuir Glaciers in Canada, Post, Meier, and 

Mayo (p. 180) have shown how river flow may become blocked and form lakes or become impeded and 

disrupt navigation. The ERTS imagery can be used 

to produce maps and quantitative displacement data 

for large surging glaciers far more quickly and efficiently than by use of aerial photographic techniques 

or ground surveys. 

'Vhile an understanding of dynamic glacial processes is of great scientific interest, Meier, in his study 

of the glaciers in the Mount McKinley massif (p. 

185), points out an important practical value of 

these ERTS-aided studies: Glaciers are one of the few 

sources of unexploited water supply, and an improved 

understanding of glacial processes, along with current 

information on their condition, can aid in their eventual development for water supply. 

Williams points out that ERTS permits a glacier to 

be studied as a total system (p. 188) because ERTS 

imagery provides regional views of glaciers and icecaps from a tin1e-lapse viewpoint. Vatnajokull icecap, 

the largest icecap in Iceland, has been imaged several 

times, and each time new knowledge of the dynamics 

of this icecap has been gained. A surge in one outlet 

glacier, rapid motion of another outlet glacier, and 

changes in glacier margin lakes hav~ been observed in 

ERTS images in less than a year's time. 

MacDonald's work with ERTS images of Antarctica, an extremely remote and inhospitable area, has 

been profound (p. 194). The regional synoptic 

view of ERTS imagery and the repetitive coverage 

3. Applications to Water Resources 131 

have already contributed substantial new scientific 

knowledge about Antarctica, particularly on the dynamics of the coastal glaciers and ice shelves. 

~forrison and 'Vhite, in their analysis of ERTS data 

covering the 1973 l\fississippi River floods (p. 196), 

related tone differences in the images to standingwater areas, wet areas, and well-drained soils. They 

found ERTS data to be of value in determining the 

effects of physiographic and manmade levees on the 

distribution of flood waters. They observed also that 

ERTS need not obtain data at the time of the flood 

crest to determine inundated areas because of the fact 

that floods have their effects on the surface reflectance 

conditions that are detectable for a week or more after 

the peak has passed on down the valley. Repetitive 

ERTS imagery, they conclude, can be used to assess 

the adequacy of existing flood-control systems, such 

as reservoirs, levees, and channelization. 

Experimentation with the data collection system on 

ERTS by Kahan ( p. 214) has shown its potential 

value for monitoring cloud-seeding conditions. Under 

Project Skywater, the Bureau of Reclamation weathermodification research progran1, seven data collection 

platforms have been installed in areas of severe environmental conditions and have proven to be very 

reliable and cost effective. Temperature, humidity, insolation, ice riming, wind direction, wind speed, snowwater content, and streamflow data are transmitted 

via ERTS and the Goddard Space Flight Center to 

Skywater's environmental computer network for translation into measured units. 

Shown and Owen have employed ERTS data for 

mapping surficial geology, topography type and quality of vegetation, and land use that influence runoff 

and sediment yield (p. 134). In arid and semiarid 

regions, the combined use of ERTS imagery and reconnaissance methods can be a useful tool for estimating streamflow and sediment discharge where data are 

scarce or inadequate. ERTS imagery can be used effectively to aid in the interpretation of the hydrologic 

characteristics of large drainage basins. 

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is using ERTS 

imagery in an operational program for inspection of 

surface-water bodies with an area of 4 ha ( 40,000 m2 ) 

or larger (Jarman, 1973; Graybeal and others, 1973, 

197 4). In August 1972 the House of Representatives 

passed a bill (H.R. 15951) that required the Corps of 

Engineers to make a national inventory of all dams 

that impound 60,000 m3 of water or that have a height 

of 2 m or more; repetitive coverage provided by 

ERTS will permit updating of this inventory at frequent intervals. 
WATER RESOURCES IN 

THE DELAWARE RIVER BASIN 

By Richard W. Paulson, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

The data collection system (DOS) aboard ERTS-1 is being evaluated as a 

potential operational system for collecting hydrologic data from unattended field instrumentation (Paulson, 1974). The evaluation, which is 

being conducted by NASA, the EROS Program of the U.S. Department of the 

Interior, the U.S. Geological Survey, and several cooperating water-resources 

agencies, indicates that it is technically feasible to use Earth-orbiting satellites 

as vehicles for collecting data from field instruments and that there is potential application for operational satellite data-relay systems. The ERTS experiment described here is a simulation of an operational satellite data-relay and 

data-processing system. 

The ERTS DOS is a communications system that consists of three elements: (1) a small low-power battery-operated radio trans1nitter attached to 

a stream gage or a level, temperature, or quality meter; (2) a relay transponder 

aboard ERTS; and (3) ground-receiver sites. The polar-orbiting ERTS Inakes 

14 orbits of the Earth daily and can relay data from a DCP to a groundreceiver site whenever both are visible from ERTS. This occurs during a brief 

period of each of the several daily orbits. The DCP transmits a brief data 

message of 0.04 s duration once every 90 or 180 s. The number of mutually 

visible periods is primarily a function of geographical position and local terrain interference. Two ground-receiver sites, one at the Goddard Space Flight 

Center in Greenbelt, Md., and one at Goldstone, Calif., provide good coverage 

for the conterminous 48 States. They allow data from DCP's in these States 

to be relayed on 3 to 7 daily orbits during periods lasting as long as 12 to 14 

min. 

The mosaic of ERTS imagery (fig. 84) shows parts of Delaware, Maryland, New York, Pennsylvania, and Connecticut, all of New Jersey, and most 

of the Delaware River basin. DCP's have been installed in the basin on 20 

water-resources instruments operated by the U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the Delaware River Basin Commission, the City of Philadelphia Water Department, and other local, State, and Federal agencies. The 

instruments are 12 water-quality monitors, 5 stream gages, and 3 ground-water 

observation wells, and their locations are shown in figure 84; data from them 

are relayed by ERTS several times daily and are provided in real time to the 

U.S. Geological Survey's office in Harrisburg, Pa. These data are computer 

processed daily using remote terminal access tu the Survey's computer center 

in Reston, Va., and are made available to water-resources agencies in the basin. 

This experiment has verified that it is technically feasible to use the ERTS 

DCS as an operational tool for collecting data fron1 remotely located waterresources field instruments (Paulson, 1973a,b). 

132 
UNITED STATES 

DEPARTM ENT OF THE INTERIOR 

G EOLOGI CA.L SURVEY 

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3. Applications to Water Resources 133 

NEW JERSEY 

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SATELLITE IMAGE MOSAIC 

NEW JERSEY SATEL LITE IMAGE MOSAIC 

1972 

FIGURE 84.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 mosaic showing data collection platform sites (.&) in the 

Delaware River basin. 
HYDROLOGY OF THE WIND RIVER BASIN 

AND ADJACENT AREAS OF WYOMING 

By lynn M. Shown and j. Robert Owen, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

F

igure 85, a color composite ERTS-1 image, shows 

the Wind River basin and parts of adjacent basins 

in central Wyoming. A variety of hydrologic conditions resulting from differences in climate, geology, 

relief, and land use are apparent on the image. 

Boysen Reservoir is the focal point of the drainage 

network of the Wind River basin, which is a deep 

structural depression. Most of the major perennial 

streams occur in the west half of the basin. The streams 

are marked along their entire courses by red, which is 

characteristic in color con1posite images of vigorously 

growing vegetation. Streamflow is sustained by 30 to 

65 em or more of annual precipitation in the mountains 

as opposed to 18 to 30 em in the mostly ephemeral 

lower parts of the basin. In the eastern half of the 

basin, only certain reaches of the streams are perennial. 

In these reaches, shallow ground water is fed to the 

streams from permeable upland areas that are underlain by impermeable clayey siltstone (Whitcomb and 

Lowry, 1968). The reach of Poison Creek through the 

Sand Hills is the best example of this; the wider red 

bands of phraetophytes there indicate ground-water 

discharge along the streams. The identification of such 

conditions on a synoptic image of an area or region enabies a hydrologist, with the aid of topographic maps, 

to prepare a generalized map of the water-table configur.ation that is helpful in the exploration for small 

supplies of ground water in the interstream areas 

(F. N. Visher, oral commun., 1974). 

The wide sandy-bottomed ephemeral stream channels in the east half of the basin ·are quite evident 

because of their light color. This type of channel indicates sandy or gravelly alluvium that absorbs appreciable amounts of the sporadic flood flows and· thus 

diminishes streamflow and sediment discharge in the 

downstream direction. · 

Variations in surface runoff and sediment yield in 

arid and semiarid regions usually correlate;with variations in drainage density (Hadley and Schumm, 1961) 

or topographic texture, which can be quantified readily 

with small-scale satellite imagery for areas greater 

than 250 km 2

• In the Sand Hills area, the highly permeable sandy soils absorb much of the scant 18 to 20 

em of annual precipitation, resulting in very little 

overland flow and, consequently, a low drainage density. This condition contrasts with the high drainage 

134 

density just north of the Beaver Rim and on the flanks 

of the Owl Creek and Bighorn Mountains, which indicates relatively high surface runoff (Peterson, 1962). 

The whitish areas south of Badwater Creek, around 

Boysen Reservoir, and north and west of the Wind 

River are steep, rugged, highly dissected and sparsely 

vegetated hills composed of light-colored claystones, 

siltstones, and sandstones (Keefer, 1965). Runoff and 

sediment yields from these areas are high, but, because 

the rocks are very fine textured and because channel vegetation is sparse, the extremely high drainage 

density of these areas is not apparent on the image. 

Color composite satellite images can aid greatly in 

an analysis of the water resources of river basins or 

other large areas. Because water appears black in these 

images, rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and large ponds, 

greater than 150 to 300 m across, depending on contrast, can be inventoried quickly, and their areas can 

be estimated so that the amount of water evaporated 

from them can be computed. Estimates of evapotranspiration by general vegetation types can be obtained 

by multiplying the area of each type by an average 

water-use factor for that type. Forests appear on the 

image as extremely dark brown areas with reddish 

highlights in the Wind River, Absaroka, and Green 

Mountains. The brilliant red areas in the Wind River 

and Absaroka Mountains are meadows. The patchwork 

red and yellow areas adjacent to the Wind and Bighorn Rivers are irrigated crops, a~d the smooth red 

areas along streams such as the Sweetwater River and 

upper Bad water Creek are irrigated meadows. Nearly 

all the remaining area is rangeland, which appears 

variable in color. These color variations are due to different rock types that have been mapped by Love and 

others ( 1955) and also to different types and densities 

of vegetation. The image colors are light where the 

rocks and soils are eroded and vegetal cover is sparse, 

and the colors are dark where the rocks and soils are 

resistant and the cover of vegetation is relatively dense, 

such as in the Ow 1 Creek Mountains. 

ERTS imagery thus provides an excellent tool for 

improving the understanding of hydrologic processes 

within regional hydrologic systems. Areas for which 

hydrologic knowledge is deficient and areas where 

land-use changes may affect the water resources can 

readily be inventoried using such ERTS imagery. 
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APPROXIMATE SCALE 

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10 20 

20 

30 KILOMETERS 

3. Applications to Water Resources 135 

Wi07 -30 1 

30 MILES 

FIGURE 85.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the Wind River basin and adjacent areas of Wyoming (1013-17294). 

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IMPROVING ESTIMATES OF 

STREAMFLOW CHARACTERISTICS 

By Este F. HollydCly and Edward J. Pluhowski, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

L

and-use data obtained from an ERTS image (fig. 

86) was used to improve estimates of mean 

monthly streamflow for July in the Delmarva 

Peninsula. 

Information on average streamflow and streamflow 

variability is needed for the utilization, management, 

and conservation of our water resources. Historical 

data on mean daily streamflow, floods, and droughts 

are used routinely in designing such structures as electricity-generating plants, reservoirs, bridges, and 

water-supply and sewage-treatment plants. The statistical measures used to characterize streamflow are determined from continuous flow records extending over 

10 yr or more. Frequently, flow records are not available for a particular point on a stream. The flow characteristics at that point, however, may be estimated if 

regional relationships exist between the streamflow 

characteristics and the physiographic and climatic 

characteristics of nearby gaged basins. Assuming that 

regional relationships may be expressed by usable 

equations developed from records of gaged basins, it is 

then possible to characterize streamflow at the ungaged 

sites by measuring each equation parameter in the 

basin above the point of interest. 

As part of a national program of the U.S. Geological 

Survey, equations were formulated using multiple regression techniques. These equations relate as many as 

40 streamflow characteristics to selected basin characteristics. Gaging stations with at least a 10-yr record 

of unregulated flow were used in the regression analyses. Within selected ~rror limits, these equations 

may be used to estimate streamflow characteristics at 

ungaged sites for about 50 regions in the Nation. 

The ERTS image (fig. 86) contains information on 

the distribution of forests (brown-red), fields (white, 

136 

pink, and gray), urban areas (blue-gray), and water 

(blue-black). A measure of the relative area of a drainage basin covered by each of these four land-use categories constitutes a basin characteristic that may be 

used in estimating streamflow. For example, forest 

areas can be separated from the other categories by 

visual interpretation. Automated techniques employing 

film-density discrimination were used to improve upon 

the accuracy and uniformity of this separation. The 

resulting extraction of forest areas (fig. 87) can be 

measured basin-by-basin using automated techniques 

and can be checked by a manual point count. The percentage of forest cover so measured can be added to the 

data on basin characteristics used in the streamflow 

regression analyses. 

In the equation given in figure 87, the land-use 

category Uf (forest) was one of four basin characteristics selected by multiple regression analysis as being 

statistically significant in defining mean monthly 

streamflow for July. The other three significant basin 

characteristics include A (drainage-basin area), Si 

(soil infiltration capacity), and / 24, 2 (24-h, 2-yr-recurrence rainfall intensity) . Other factors in the equation 

include the regression constant, a, and regression coefficients, b1, b2, b3, and b4 • Addition of Uf in the regression analysis resulted in a 20 percent improvement 

upon previous estimates of mean monthly streamflow 

for July. 

In a previous related study, urban, agriculture, forest, and water areas determined from ERTS analogous 

aerial photography were added to the basin characteristics for 39 basins in the Piedmont and Coastal Plain 

provinces of Maryland and Delaware. Addition of 

these characteristics reduced the standard error of estimate of equations for 12 out of 40 streamflow charac-
3 

a 

a 

3 

3 

3 

a 

10 0 

10 0 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 

10 20 

3. Applications to Water Resources 137 

- 5 33- ·' 0 

20 30 MILES 

30 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 86.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the Delmarva Peninsula area (1079-15133). 

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138 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

teristics. The standard error of estimate of seven of the 

equations were reduced more than 10 percent. These 

results are significant in that a reduced standard error 

of estimate indicates less variance about the curve of 

relation, thereby improving predictive capability of the 

equation. 

Significant improvement (standard error reduced by 

more than 10 percent) upon estimates of mean monthly 

streamflow was computed for June, July, September, 

ERTS IMAGE 

' ~ 

~'~~ 

:· ·t~~ ,. ~ t'fl ;,,. f,. 

AREA MEASUREMENT WITHIN SELECTED 

DRAINAGE BASINS 

and :X ovember. Other significantly improved streamflow characteristics included the 7 -day, 2-yr-recurrence 

low flows, 3-day, 2-yr-recurrence flood volumes, and 

estimates of the 50 percentile of flow-duration curves. 

As a result of using remotely sensed data, estimates 

of some characteristics of streamflow at ungaged sites 

have been significantly improved. These improvements 

will support better utilization, management, and conservation of our water resources. 

AVERAGE JULY 

STREAMFLOW 

APPLICATION IN ESTIMATING STREAMFLOW 

FIGURE 87.-Fiow diagram of technique for improving estimates of streamflow characteristics derived from multiple regression 

equations by using forest data extracted from ERTS-1 image 1079-15133 (fig. 86). 
P

layas are almost flat landforms that occupy the 

lowest parts of desert basins. Composed of relatively homogeneous materials and characterized 

by a general lack of relief or of vegetation, their microrelief changes with fluctuations in the level of ground 

water. Playas are common features of arid landscapes, 

and consequently they have widespread global distribution. 

Although playas occupy only 6 percent of the land 

area of Iran, most of the population lives adjacent to 

them because of the availability of flat land and moderate supplies of ground water at relatively shallow 

depths. The playas have not been fully utilized because 

of the lack of adequate know ledge concerning the seasonal changes in their surface- and ground-water hydrologies and in the physical properties of their sediments. Most playa investigations have been conducted 

during the summer when the surficial sediments are 

dry and have sufficiently high bearing strengths to support men and vehicles, but this practice has limited the 

understanding of these dynamic landforms. 

Sixty playas within the interior of Iran have been 

studied since 1965 (Krinsley, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1972a,b). 

These range in area from 25 to 52,825 km2 (Great 

Kavir); 33 playas are smaller than 300 km2 , and, 

except for the Great Kavir, the largest playa is 4,685 

km2

• Visits were made to 22 playas; 20 were observed 

from low-flying aircraft; and 18 were viewed solely 

from aerial photographs and from ERTS-1 images. 

The repetitive coverage of ERTS-1 is ideally suited 

to provide seasonal images of the Iranian playas 

from which changes in the areal extent and morphology of the surficial materials can be recorded along 

with contemporaneous or previous field studies of 

actual surficial conditions. Data derived from the analyses of ERTS-1 images can provide a rational basis 

for planning the economic utilization (salt or water 

extraction and agriculture) and engineering development (roads and airfields) of these geomorphic features. 

MONITORING WATER RESOURCES 

IN QOM PLAYA, WEST-CENTRAL IRAN 

By Daniel B. Krinsley, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Qom Playa, in west-central Iran, is a good example. 

The playa is the sump for a drainage basin of 86,812 

km2 and lies adjacent to the city of Qom and its extensive surrounding farmlands and oil resources. 

During the period of this study, from Sept. 4, 1972, 

to May 14, 1973, Qon1 Playa was driest from midSeptember to late-September (fig. 88). The playa was 

almost completely saturated by mid-May (fig. 89). The 

period of greatest lake fluctuation occurred in midDecember when the lake area almost tripled and the 

lake volume increased more than five times (fig. 90). 

At or near its 1973 maximum extent, the lake is conservatively estimated to have contained approximately 

400 X 106 m3 of water. Most of this enormous resource 

is annually lost to evaporation. 

Diversion, storage, and utilization of this water is 

facilitated by the geographic location of the source and 

the settlement patterns around the playa. The lake's 

three principal streams form a composite alluvial plain 

that borders the western margin of the playa (fig. 89) . 

The city of Qom and its hinterland receive their water 

from the streams, wells, and qanats (underground 

channels used to convey water) on this huge alluvial 

plain. There is almost no settlement along the northern, eastern, or southern margins of the playa. Small 

earthen dams on the plain and larger dams upstrean1 

could store the water during the period of maximum 

discharge (fig. 90) in April and May and extend its 

use during the summer dry period. There would be little or no negative economic effect of the lowered water 

table east of the alluvial plain. In fact, the depressed 

water table of the playa would result in a firm hard 

crust throughout the year that would facilitate transportation and exploration for salts of economic value. 

The juxtaposition of the agricultural and oil resources 

of the Qom area, possible salts of economic value in 

the playa, and a significantly increased supply of water 

are natural possibilities for economic development that 

should be more thoroughly investigated and considered. 

139 
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140 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

E052-801 

10 0 

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E052-381 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 

10 20 

E853-801 

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30 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 88.-Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Qom Playa area of west-central Iran, Sept. 22, 1972 (1061-06381). 

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3. Applications to Water Resources 141 

E052-30 1 E053-00 

E052-30 1 

190-41 07-A-I-N-D-2L NASA ERTS E-1 295-06391 - 01 

20 30 MILES 

I I 

30 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 89.-Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Qom Playa area of west-central Iran on May 14, 1973 (1295-06391). 

N 

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142 ERT5-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

100 

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QOM (928 m) 

·c Mm 

30 80 

20 60 

10 40 

0 20 

-10 0 

Mean monthly temperature and precipitation; mean 

annual temperature, total annual precipitation1 and 

altitude of the station at Qom. 

\a'Ke ~2!~~-- E.stim~.!.--

,.._---- / T/ 

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................ 

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.................. 

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OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APRIL 

1972 1973 

Date of E RTS-1 image 

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FIGURE 90.-Comparison of the climatic data from Qom with the lake area at Qom Playa, as a percentage of the playa area, and the estimated lake volume from Sept. 4, 1972, to May 14, 1973. 
LAKE FLUCTUATIONS IN THE SHIRAZ 

AND NERIZ PLAYAS OF IRAN 

By Daniel B. Krinsley, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

S

hiraz Playa and N eriz Playa occupy separate but adjacent basins within 

the Zagros Mountains watershed of southwest Iran. Pleistocene beaches 

that are similar in number and in relative vertical position and similar 

basin/playa ratios indicate that the two playas have had similar hydrologic 

responses to essentially the same climatic factors of precipitation, temperature, 

and evaporation. 

The intermittent lake at Shiraz Playa (to left of image) , although quite 

shallow, fills the center of the valley bottom during the spring runoff period. 

In April 1967, near its maximum seasonal extent, the greatest measured depth 

of the lake was 50 em (Huber, 1967). Ground observations by Bobek (1963) 

at N eriz Playa in June 1963 and by Krinsley in October 1965 and August 

1967 (Krinsley, 1970) and in September 1972 suggest that the maximum 

depth of the playa lake may have been 2 m within recent time. 

Three color composites of ERTS-1 images of Shiraz and Neriz Playas 

(figs. 91, 92, 93) were prepared from the ERTS-1 positives of seven images 

from Sept. 2, 1972, through Aug. 28, 1973. Data obtained by measuring the 

areas of the playas and of the lakes in each scene were used in the construction of figure 94. 

Lake Shiraz covered 66 percent of the playa area on Sept. 20, 1972 (figs. 

91, 94), and had an estimated average depth and volume of 0.1 m and 16 X 106 

rna, respectively (fig. 95). The lake at Neriz encompassed 21 percent of the 

playa area and had an estimated average depth and volume of 0.4 m and 

68 X 106 rna, respectively. Except for a deep pool near the west shore of Lake 

Shiraz, water depths were uniformly distributed. The deepest water in the 

lake at N eriz was in the western part of the playa (fig. 94) ; the long narrow 

central area of the lake had very shallow water. This period at the end of the 

long hot summer, during which rain is generally absent (fig. 95) and evaporation rates are highest, has the lowest ground-water levels and lake areas of 

the year. 

Lake Shiraz occupied 94 percent of its playa area on Mar. 1, 1973 (fig.· 92, 

94), and had an estimated average depth and volume of 0.4 m and 94Xl06 rna, 

respectively (fig. 95). The lake at N eriz expanded to 99 percent of its playa 

area and had an estimated average depth and volume of 1.0 m and 794Xl06 

rna, respectively. It seems reasonable to assume that some of the precipitation 

143 
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144 ERTS-1 , A New Window on Our Planet 

IE053· 00 E053·30 1 E05<q·00 1 

E053-001 N028-001 E053·30 E05'1·001 

20SEP72 C N28·51/E053·31 N N28-<q9/E053· 36 MSS 5 7 R SUN ELSI AZI31 189·0816-G·I·N·D·2L NASA ERTS E-1059· 06283· 01 

10 

I 0 

I I I I I I I I I 

10 0 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 

I 

10 

I I 

20 

20 30 MILES 

I I I 

30 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 91.-Annotated color compos ite ERTS-1 image of the Shiraz and Neriz Playas of Iran on Sept. 20, 1972 (1 059-06283). 

•. 

R 
3. Applications to Water Resources 145 

falling at the highest altitudes of the narrower Shiraz basin would remain 

as snow, while most of the precipitation falling in the lower, broader valley 

of the N eriz basin would be rain that quickly moved toward the playa. These 

considerations combined with the period of the annual precipitation maximum 

(fig. 95) and evaporation minimum could explain why the lake at Neriz appeared to reach its 1973 maximum extent ahead of Lake Shiraz (figs. 94, 95). 

Lake Shiraz had contracted to 1 percent of its playa area by Aug. 28, 

1973 (figs. 93, 94) and had an estimated average depth and volume of 0.3 

m and 0.9X106 m3 , respectively (fig. 95). The lake at Neriz contracted to 5 

percent of its playa area and had an estimated average depth and volume of 

0.5 and 19 X 106 m3 , respectively. The sequential images of these playas provided by the repetitive coverage of ERTS-1 make it possible to observe and 

measure efficiently and accurately the extreme variation of these lakes within 

a single year. Note that almost 1 full year after Sept. 2, 1972 (fig. 94), Lake 

Shiraz had almost disappeared and the lake at Neriz was reduced to one small 

lake and two separate ponds. This extreme variation is due primarily to the 

marginal climatic equilibrium of these lakes, the delicate balance between precipitation and evaporation. The current lack of complete synchroneity between 

the lakes in the periods of minimum and maximum lake fluctuation is accentuated by man's intervention in the hydrologic cycle of these lakes by his 

increased diversions of water through dams and pumped wells. 

From February through May 1973, there were at least 600 X 106 m3 of 

water available in the lake at Neriz (fig. 95); this figure obviously may vary 

annually with the climate and with the magnitude of the drainage diversions. 

This region is important agriculturally, and more recently it has become the 

site for industrial development, including a large oil refinery. Consequently 

there is need for the large amount of water that is lost to evaporation each 

year, evaporation that is facilitated in a large body of very shallow water. 

Larger, deeper reservoirs are required to store the water during the long dry 

summer. Consideration should also be given to the ecological and local economic effects of further water withdrawals from the lake. The larger villages 

along the southern shore of the lake have qanats (underground channels for 

transporting water) for fresh water but use pumped wells to augment irrigation. If the lake disappears, there will be local climatic effects of increased 

aridity and changes in the plant and animal communities. These hydrologic 

and biologic changes may be undesirable and irreversible and should be considered before any additional water is removed. 

Although the salt crust at N eriz Playa is thin, there may be buried crusts 

that are thicker as well as brines that have salts of economic value. The general accessibility of the playa and its deposits argue for a systematic investigation of its resource potential. 

Lake Shiraz had a relatively negligible water supply from February 

through May 1973 (50X106 m3 of water). Some of this could no doubt be 

diverted for agricultural or industrial use, but the withdrawal would seriously affect the discharge from the several pumped wells in the vicinity. The 

amount of water is marginal and may not justify any significant expenditures 

of money for diversions and storage. Salt from the west shore area is currently used for human consumption, and this use could be expanded. 
~ 9 

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146 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

E053-00 1 

IE052-30 E053-00 

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20 30 MILES 

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FIGURE 92.-Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Shiraz and Neriz Playas of Iran on Mar. 1, 1973 (1221-Q6293). 

E9511·001 

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3. Applications to Water Resources 147 

E05"'-001 

20 30 MILES 

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FIGURE 93.-Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Shiraz and Neriz Playas of Iran on Aug. 28, 1973 (1401-06280). 

N 

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148 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

SHI RAZ PLAY A 

SEPTEMBER 2. 1972 

SEPTEMBER 20, 1972 

DECEMBER 19, 1972 

MARCH 1, 1973 

MARCH 19, 1973 

MAY 12, 1973 

AUGUST 28, 1973 

0 10 20 30 MILES 

rj---.,--~~-r,---.,~'------~~ 

0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 94.--0iagram showing lake fluctuations at Shiraz and Neriz Playas, 1972-73. 

• [S] 

D 

KEY 

LAKE 

ISLAND 

SALT AND 

CLAY FLAT 

SHORELINE PARTIALLY 

OBSCURED BY CLOUDS 
3. Applications to Water Resources 149 

100,----------------------------------------------------------------------rSOO 

75 

50 

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SEPT OCT NOV 

1972 

DEC 

Neriz (1,609 m) Mm 

Mean monthly temperature and precipitation; mean 

annual temperature, total annual precipitation1 and 

altitude of the station at Neriz. 

JAN FEB MAR 

1973 

DATE OF ERTS-1 IMAGE 

700 

600 

500 

400 

300 

200 

100 

FIGURE 95.-A comparison of the climatic data from Neriz with the lake areas at Shiraz and Neriz Playas, 1972-73, as a 

percentage of the playa areas and the estimated lake volume from Sept. 2, 1972, to Aug. 28, 1973. 

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ECOLOGICAL MODEL IN FLORIDA 

By Aaron L. Higer, A. Eugene Coker, and Edwin H. Cordes, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

T

housands of years of seasonally fluctuating water 

supply, punctuated periodically by drought or unseasonally heavy rain, have resulted in a natural 

balance of plant and animal communities in south 

Florida. vV ater fluctuations, together with fires and 

hurricanes, contributed to the shaping of the ecological communities, that is, the tree islands (composed of 

woody vegetation) and grassland communities (wet 

prairies and saw grass marshes). This natural ecological balance, however, is now influenced by a modified 

water regime, altered by water control within the 

Kissimn1ee-Okeechobee-Everglades watershed for flood 

control, crop irrigation, and coastal urban use (fig. 

96). The Central and Southern Florida Flood Control 

District manages this watershed that contains more 

than 22,500 km of canals and levees. 

An effect of water deficiencies in Everglades N ationa! Park is the failure of wood storks to form rookeries. vV ood storks nest in winter at the inner edge of 

the mangrove belt in the Everglades National Park in 

south Dade and north Monroe Counties. According to 

.John Ogden, an ornithologist of the National Park 

Service (written comn1un., 1973), the wood storks were 

successful in forn1ing rookeries in 1959, 1960, and 1961 

but failed for 5 successive years (1962-66), when low 

rainfall in south Florida resulted in prolonged drought 

in the park. 

The success or failure of wood stork rookeries is a 

significant index of hydrologic conditions in the park. 

Wood stork studies in Everglades National Park by 

the National Park Service suggested a working hypothesis for establishing the water conditions of Shark 

River Slough, the largest freshwater course in the 

park, needed for successful formation of these rookeries. An annual prediction of success or failure of the 

150 

rookeries at the inner edge of the mangrove belt could 

be made in November, which marks the beginning of 

the dry season and precedes the height of rookery formation by approximately 2 mo. The prediction can be 

based on recorded water-level measurements together 

with a synoptic view of the spatial distribution of surface water, both available from ERTS data, and on the 

density of small aquatic animals collected in quantitative traps. 

The ecological model is designed to relate the wildlife in the Shark River Slough to the availability of 

food and water (fig. 97) (Higer and others, 1973). In 

an on-going study with the National Park Service, 

more than 50,000 aquatic animals have been captured 

and tagged. The species numbers and hydrologic data 

are entered into a digital computer program that provides statistical summaries of species distributions and 

water depths at point locations in the slough. Timevariant synoptic displays using ERTS imagery taken 

concurrently with stage and rainfall data presently 

being collected frmn DCS (figs. 98, 99) n1ay provide 

the following information to develop an ecological 

model (Higer and others, 1974): 

1. Know ledge of the quantity of water stored in the 

slough. 

2. Knowledge of the spatial distribution of water in 

the slough as it relates to available food for the 

bird rookeries (fig. 100). 

3. Quantitative hydrologic data that allow Inanagement to know where and when to increase water 

into the slough fron1 the upstream water storage 

areas. 

4. Ability to predict the number of aquatic animals 

in the slough and the success or failure of the 

rookeries, based on conditions of the hydrologic 

regime. 
FIGURE 96.-Color composite ERTS-1 image mosaic of 

the State of Florida prepared by the General Electric 

Co., Beltsville, Md., in cooperation with the U.S. Geological Survey, Water Resources Division, Miami, Fla., 

the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control District, and NASA. 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

50 0 50 IOOMILES 

3. Applications to Water Resources 151 
152 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

Sufficient water must be maintained in the Shark 

River Slough of the Everglades National Park to preserve the aquatic community and the several bird and 

mammal species that feed primarily on fish. The "" 

amount and time of water releases to the park are a resource-management decision based on very limited information on the water storage that may be available 

ECOLOGICAL MODEL 

to the north of the park. Small-scale thematic maps 

of water levels provide an accurate evaluation of water 

distribution. A gradual reduction of water levels before the birds start nesting would result in the concentration of fish in the Shark River Slough that may 

ensure adequate food for successful hatches of several 

rare and endangered bird species. 

SURFACE WATER STORAGE MODEL 

SHARK RIVER SLOUCH, EVERGLADES NATIONAL PARK 

WATtR 

LtVEL 

FROM 

DATA COLLECTION 

PLATFORMS 

WATER 

LEVEL 

FIGURE 97.-Wildlife ecological model of the Shark River Slough, FIGURE 99.-Surface-water storage model of the Shark River 

Fla. Slough, Fla. 

FIGURE 98.-Data collection platform in the Everglades National FIGURE 1 00.-Wood storks nesting in the Everglades National 

Park in south Florida used in the ecological model study. Park, south Florida. 
E RTS imagery of the area near Duluth, Minn., 

shows prominent turbidity plumes in the western 

arm of Lake Superior (Stortz and Sydor, 1974) . 

The correlation of image intensity with field obse-rvational data (fig. 101) can be used to produce a waterquality map showing the concentration of suspended 

solids on the lake (Bennett and Sydor, 1974; Scherz 

and others, 1974). This is done either by use of optical 

density slicing of 70-mm bulk transparencies (fig. 102) 

and identifying each image-density range with the 

corresponding range of suspended solids (fig. 103) or 

by using CCT's in a like manner (fig. 104). 

Two major sources of turbidity exist in the area (fig. 

105), the polluted effluent of the St. Louis and N emadji 

Rivers and the erosion of red-clay deposits along the. 

southern shore. The measurement of turbidities on the 

lake and the problem of effluent tracing have important 

practical applications in the selection of the locations 

for new water intakes, in the design of filtration plants 

for the existing water intakes, and in studies of environmental impact on the lake due to extensive harbor 

dredging. The interpretation of ERTS data is based 

on the spectral reflectance variation of particulate 

matter with the various bodies of water. Notice for instance that the harbor area of the St. Louis River appears deceptively clean on the band 5 image (fig. 106), 

largely because of the high light-absorbing characteristics of the St. Louis River water. This fact is helpful in tracing the St. Louis effluent. The variation in 

the MSS signal is shown in figure 107 for bands 4, 5, 

and 6 for the harbor effluent, and the south shore plume 

indicates that the turbidity plumes on the lake could 

be traced to their source of origin using the ERTS 

CCT data. 

TURBIDITY IN LAKE SUPERIOR 

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By Michael Sydor, 

University of Minnesota 

SEPT. 30, 1973 

0

5 10 15 

BAND 5 DIGITAL OUTPUT 

FIGURE 101 .-Correlation of intensity from band 5 of 

ERTS-1 image 1434-16244 with turbidity. 

FIGURE 102.-Density-sliced image using color to show 

turbidity. 

153 
154 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

46'45' 

.. : · · .. 

•• • • • • • • ••• • • • • • • ·. · :.. . • • 0 ••• • • 

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1-4 

4-8 

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FIGURE 103.-Harbor and lake image-density levels identified by corresponding turbidity levels on ERTS-1 image 1434-16244, 

band 5, Sept. 30, 1973. 

FIGURE 1 04.-Computer printout of image-density levels from 

computer compatible tapes of ERTS-1 image, 1434-16244. 

92'00' 91'4 5' 

0 2 4 MILES 

f---r--l-r--' 

0 2 4 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 105.-lndex map of the lake Superior study 

area. 
30SEP73 C Nq6-02/W091-32 N ~6 00/W091-2q MSS 5 

1-

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1-

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0 15 

5 

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Harbor effluent 

--o--- South shore turbidity 

5 

MSS BAND NUMBER 

0 

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D SUN EL37 AZ151 192-6051-N-I-N-D-2L NASA ERTS E-1q3q-162qq-5 01 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

5 

I I I 5 10 

6 

10 15 MILES 

I I I 

15 KI LOMETERS 

FIGURE 106 (above).-Part of ERTS-1 image 1434-16244, band 5, 

showing the Lake Superior study area. 

FIGURE 107 ( left).-Graph showing variation in MSS band 

signals. 
. 

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. 

i 

156 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

IW090 · 30 W090 -00 1 

10 

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W079-3011N044-00 IW079·00 

D mi.~ AZI418 191·56741·N·I·N,?t~ ERTS E-14187·153413· 81 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

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20 30 MILES 

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FIGURE 108.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the Lake Ontario-Niagara River area on Sept. 3, 1973 (1407-15343). 

I 

3 

I 

. 

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2 

I 
DYNAMICS OF SUSPENDED-SEDIMENT PLUMES 

On the south shore of Lake Ontario, large turbidity features are frequently visible on ERTS 

imagery ( Pluhowski, 1973). About 91 percent of 

the inflow to Lake Ontario enters the lake along its 

southern shoreline, 86 percent from the Niagara River 

alone. Thus the principal sediment and nutrient load 

enters Lake Ontario from the south (fig. 108). 

The movement and fate of suspended material entering the lake can be determined by scrutinizing the 

large turbidity features generated at the mouths of the 

following watercourses: Weiland Canal, Niagara 

River, Genesee River, and Oswego River. Turbidity 

plumes are also created by a favorable juxtaposition of 

wind, waves, and shoreline orientation in combination 

with high lake levels and exposed coastal headlands. 

Shoreline erosion generated by this unique combination of factors will result in extensive nearshore turbidity plumes along coastal reaches of the lake. 

Examples of heavy beach erosion and highly turbid 

longshore currents are illustrated in the imagery shown 

in figures 109 and 110 obtained Apr. 12 and 29, 1973, 

respectively. Turbidity readings of 400 JTU and 420 

JTU were obtained on Apr. 12, 1973, in the narrow 

band of milky white nearshore waters between the 

Weiland Canal and Niagara River. These were by far 

the highest turbidity readings obtained in this study 

to date. Extensive beach erosion is shown in the 

imagery for April 12 and 29 in all shoreline areas except those immediately east of the Niagara River 

mouth. On both occasions an eastward-trending wave 

train pounded the southern shore of the lake. However, the northwest orientation of the Niagara River 

jet in Lake Ontario acted as a barrier to the ambient 

wave train, effectively shielding part of the New York 

State shoreline from erosive wave action. 

Three distinct turbidity zones were depicted off the 

New York State shoreline on Apr. 29, 1973 (fig. 110). 

These consisted of a narrow but highly turbid littoral 

zone, an intermediate zone of much lower turbidity, 

By Edward J. Pluhowski, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

12APR73 C N'IJ-1 ~/WIJ79-53 N N'I3-12/WIJ79-~5 I1SS 5 

D ~ EL~ AZI39 191-3666-N-1-N-D-21.. 

PR;A ERTS E-1263-15361-5 01 

FIGURE 109.-Part of an ERTS-1 image showing sediment 

plumes in Lake Ontario on Apr. 12, 1973 (1263-15361, 

band 5). A, Niagara River; 8, Niagara River plume; and 

C, Weiland Canal plume. 

29APR73 C N'I3-21/WIJ18-28 N N'13-IS/W018-IS MSS 5 

D ~ EL~ AZI35 JSI-3983-N-1-N-D-21.. 

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FIGURE 110.-Part of an ERTS-1 image showing sediment 

plumes in Lake Ontario on Apr. 29, 1973 (1280-15302, 

band 5). A, Weiland Canal ; 8, Niagara River plume; and 

C, offshore zone of turbulent mixing. 

157 
158 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

and a relatively clear-water (dark) offshore zone. Of 

special interest is the zone of turbulent mixing between 

the intermediate and offshore clear-water zones as 

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FIGURE 111 .-Part of an ERTS-1 image, made on Sept. 3, 1973, 

and enlarged and color enhanced by Stanford University's 

ESIAC, showing the Niagara River plume (1407-15343). 

shown by the band of wavelike turbidity features in 

figure 110. The dynamic mechanism triggering these 

"turbidity waves" is unknown, but the amplitude and 

trend of the waves suggest the existence of a large 

westward-moving offshore current rather than an apparent eastward-moving longshore current. 

Many factors affect the size and shape of large turbidity features such as the Niagara River or Genesee 

River plumes, the most important in large quiescent 

water bodies such :1s Lake Ontario being wind speed 

and direction, volume of runoff, and differences between the levels of turbidity of the discharging watercourse and the receiving water body. By way of illustration, on Apr. 29,1973 (fig. 110), under the influence 

of brisk west-northwest winds, a strong eastwardmoving longshore current was generated. The shearing 

effect of this current on the northward-moving Niagara 

River plume is shown in the image. The plume extended only 3.2 km offshore, but it was identifiable for 

a distance of at least 13 km downwind along the New 

York shoreline. The total surface area of the plume 

on Apr. 29, 1973, was 34 km2 • 

Gentle offshore winds on Sept. 3, 1973, on the other 

hand, greatly expanded the size of the Niagara River 

plume. The southerly winds on that day reinforced the 

northward-flowing plume. The offshore winds pushed 

the leading edge of the Niagara plume about 30 km 

into the lake. As shown in figure 111, a large clearwater (dark) plume developed and covered 514 km2 

of lake surface. 
WATER-MANAGEMENT MODEL 

OF THE FLORIDA EVERGLADES 

By Aaron L. Higer, Edwin H. Cordes, and A. Eugene Coker, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

The water supply for southeast Florida, which has 

a population of 2.5 million, depends upon the retention of water in four major impoundment areas 

in the Everglades water basin (figs. 112, 113): (1) 

Lake Okeechobee, (2) Conservation Area No. 1, (3) 

Conservation Area No. 2, and ( 4) Conservation Area 

No. 3. Shark River Slough, an important source of 

water for the Everglades National Park, at the downstream end of these interconnected water bodies, also 

depends upon overland flow from adjoining Conservation Area No. 3. An accurate accounting of the amount 

of water in surface storage is difficult because landsurface profiles are not available. The shallow water 

depths of 0.3 to 1.0 m, the flat terrain, the abundant 

vegetation, and the vast area of 3,600 km2 of the Everglades preclude the feasibility of determining accurate 

volumes by conventional methods. In the conservation 

areas and the Shark River Slough, the water does not 

pond in the usual manner but slowly flows over the 

gently sloping land surface. 

Several water-budget studies for the conservation 

areas are underway by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Central and Southern Florida Flood 

Control District. Elements that need more accurate 

definition in the existing water-budget studies are rainfall, evapotranspiration, seepage losses, and surface 

storage. 

The ERTS water-management model uses the DCS 

to provide quantitative in-situ data on the elevation 

of the water surface and l\fSS data to provide information on the areal extent of the water surface ( Higer 

and others, 1973). Knowing the relation between the 

surface-water area and surface elevation for the range 

of water levels, the storage can then be calculated (figs. 

114, 115). In addition, knowing the change in storage and the surface inflow and outflow (input and output) from the system, it is possible to calculate evapotranspiration and seepage (Higer and others, 1974). 

At present the DCS data are transmitted from the 

Everglades stations to the satellite and relayed via two 

ground tracking stations to the Goddard Space Flight 

Center, Greenbelt, Md. The data are then transmitted 

by teletype to the :Miami office of the U.S. Geological 

Survey. The perforated teletype tape is then processed 

daily through a minicomputer to convert the data to 

engineering units and place it into the format requested 

by the Corps of Engineers. The data are then transmitted to the Corps of Engineers, Jacksonville, Fla., 

by telecopier. The time required for the transmission 

of the data from the Everglades via the satellite, the 

NASA tracking stations, and the U.S. Geological Survey to the Corps of Engineers is less than 2 h. 

The importance of the space-relayed data can be 

shown by a comparison of the accuracy and frequency 

of those data received through the Miami teletype with 

data from the existing remote radio-transmission systems in southern Florida. The great line-of-sight distances involved in the radio-transmission systems often 

provide "rare" and garbled data messages. The frequent meteorologic disturbances in southern Florida 

prevent the transmission of the accurate synoptic information on rainfall and water stage that is essential 

for managing the water for optimum conservation. 

ERTS-1 provides the U.S. Geological Survey with five 

transmissions per day of these parameters and warns 

when any DCP recorder becomes faulty, so that it can 

be repaired within 24 h. This enhances the opportunity 

for a constant flow of information and makes it possible for the Corps of Engineers to make daily decisions to optimize its water-control policy to conserve 

a greater proportion of the seasonally deficient water 

resource. 

159 
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160 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

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FIGURE 112.-Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Everglades National Park area of Florida (1242-15240). 

eee-ee1 

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FIGURE 113.-Annotated ERTS-1 image showing water-management conservation areas in the Everglades National Park 

area of Florida (1242-15240, band 6). 

3. Applications to Water Resources 161 

DETERMINATION OF SURFACE WATER STORAGE 

IN CONSERVATION AREA 1 

AREA 

WATER 

DISTRIBUTION 

ERTS-1 IMAGERY 

DEPTH 

WATER 

X DEPTH 

ERTS-1 DCS 

VOLUME 

SURFACE 

WATER 

STORAGE 

FIGURE 114.-Determination of surface-water storage in 

Conservation Area No. 1. Schematic diagram of the 

use of space-relayed data to calculate surface-water 

storage. ERTS data from three successive passes on 

Feb. 14, Mar. 4, and Mar. 22, 1973, of Conservation 

Area No. 1 are used to demonstrate the feasibility of 

determining surface-water storage. 

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FIGURE 115.-Eiectronically processed part of ERTS-1 image 

1242-15240 of Conservation Area No. 1. Each dot represents 4 ha of surface water. 
SUSPENDED SEDIMENT IN GREAT SLAVE LAKE, 

NORTHWEST TERRITORIES, CANADA 

By Donald R. Wiesnet, 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

G reat Slave Lake, during the short summer season of the Northwest Territories, is relatively unspoiled and unpolluted, but naturally occurring 

silt and other suspended sediment do surge into the lake from the nearby 

rivers. The unfrozen season is short in this arctic area, and runoff occurs or.1ly 

in the summer months during the snowmelt season. In the ERTS-1 image 

in figure 116, sediment-laden Slave River is shown discharging turbid water 

into Great Slave Lake. 

The delta at the mouth of the river is evident, as are the distributaries. 

The highest concentration of suspended sediment (lightest tone) is coming 

from the Old Steamboat Channel, the southernmost channel visible. Note the 

deep blue of the Gaudet Bay and other smaller bays northeast of the delta and 

compare it with the lake waters adjacent to the bays. Note also the small oxbow lake east of the delta and the intermediate blue color at that point. 

Winds at 10 kn were prevalent over the lake as ERTS-1 passed over. 

These winds distributed the sediment in a pattern extending northeast along 

the shoreline, thus reflecting a northeast longshore current. The sharp westerly prong of sediment just off the northernmost channel, Resdelta Channel, 

occurs at a point where a sandbar is charted. The effects of a moderate southwesterly wind on the water clarity of the lake are clearly demonstrated by 

this image. The west half of the lake is extremely clear and free of turbid 

water. 

162 
3. Applications to Water Resources 163 

U.lll5· 00 IN0S2· 30 1Wll4· 00 Wll 3· 001 

lWll6·00 Wll5·00 1 Wll4· 001 

JSR.G72 C N6l·33/lolll4·ll N N6l·33/Wll 4·07 MSS 6 0 Sl-"1 EL40 AZJ56 l99· 0339· A· l · N· D· 2L 

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FIGURE 116.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the Great Slave lake area of the Northwest Territories, Canada (1024-

18272). 

0 

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DISCOVERY AND SIGNIFICANCE OF 

THE BEECH GROVE LINEAMENT OF TENNESSEE 

By G. K. Moore and Este F. Hollyday, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

E xamination of a color composite ERTS image of central Tennessee revealed a major lineament that may have considerable geologic, hydrologic, and economic importance. It was named for the community of 

Beech Grove (Hollyday and others, 1973), where the lineament crosses Interstate Highway 24 (open arrow, fig. 117). It extends from Lincoln to Smith 

Counties, Tenn. (fig. 118), a distance of about 165 km. Along most of its 

length, the lineament is less than 2 km wide, but in a few localities, closely 

spaced, parallel lineations suggest a fracture zone about 6.5 km wide. 

Along the lineament, hills are steep and covered by forests. Most culture 

is in the relatively flat stream valleys. The contrast between agricultural land 

and forest land is fairly sharp on October ERTS imagery, and thus there is 

good contrast between the valleys and the uplands. Also, the angle of solar 

illumination is relatively low in October compared to the spring and summer 

months, so that topography is somewhat enhanced by shadowing on the image 

(fig. 117). 

The terrain has more of a three-dimensional appearance (because of lower 

Sun angle) in the Dec. 28 image (fig. 119), but there is somewhat less contrast between forest land and agricultural land because all deciduous vegetation is dormant. The net effect is that the Beech Grove lineament can also be 

seen easily on the December image. 

The Beech Grove lineament is formed mainly by the alignment of nine 

separate stream valleys. The combination of land-use differences and topographic enhancement by shadowing allows the lineament to be seen easily, despite the fact that it is not continuous. The trace of the lineament is obscured 

by woods in the upland areas, but its linearity and continuity are well expressed by the valleys. 

The Beech Grove lineament is not obvious on maps or on either low- or 

high-altitude aerial photographs. Furthermore, it was not recognized as having regional extent during detailed geologic mapping on the ground. The 

lineament can be seen and traced on Skylab photographs, but its continuity 

and possible significance are not as obvious as on ERTS imagery; the synoptic 

view of ERTS imagery was necessary for detection of this lineament. 

Central Tennessee is underlain by nearly flat-lying, dense, interbedded 

limestones and impure limy sediments of Ordovician to Mississippian age. The 

Chattanooga Shale separates these systems and is an important marker bed. 

164 
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3. Applications to Water Resources 165 

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FIGURE 117.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of central Tennessee on Oct. 17, 1972, showing location of the Beech 

Grove lineament (1086-15544). The two black arrows indicate the lineament, and the arrow below center marks the community 

of Beech Grove where the lineament crosses Interstate Highway 1-24. 
166 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

Along part of its length, the Beech Grove lineament may consist of a 

group of parallel normal faults. This is not conclusive, however, and outcrops 

to the north and south of Beech Grove show no evidence of displacement. 

Jewell (1947) stated that a few faults are known but that the throw generally is small. Thus most of the lineament may best be characterized as a group 

of closely spaced, parallel fractures. Small movements may have occurred 

along these fractures, but they only broke or brecciate9. the nearby rocks with 

no significant displacement, and there is no evidence of movement since Paleozoic time. 

Four small zinc-bearing veins at the surface in Rutherford and Cannon 

Counties are located within 6.4 km of each other, but all four veins are within 

3.2 km of the axis of the lineament. All these deposits are associated with 

broken and brecciated rocks (Jewell, 1947). In the veins the most common 

mineral of economic value is sphalerite. 

The new Elmwood mine of the New Jersey Zinc Co. in Smith County is 

3.2 km east of the axis of the lineament and 48 km north of these four veins. 

The zinc ore at this location occurs in brecciated Knox Dolomite of Early 

Ordovician and Late Cambrian age. The entire lineament is a prospect for 

concentrations of sphalerite. 

88. 87" 

Ba se from U.S. Geological Survey map 

86° 

K E N T U C K Y 

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FIGURE 118.-lndex map showing the location of the Beech Grove lineament. 

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3. Applications to Water Resources 167 

l.l086· 00 1 1<1085·301 

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FIGURE 119.-Color composite ERTS-1 image of central Tennessee on Dec. 28, 1972 (1158-15550). The Beech Grove lineament can 

also be seen easily on this image and is indicated by th e arrows. 

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168 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

R. H. Hershey, Tennessee State Geologist, has stated that the Elmwood 

mine of the New Jersey Zinc Co. is at the intersection of the Beech Grove 

lineament and one of three minor transverse lineaments ; other minor lineaments also have intersections in Cannon County and Moore County. The latter 

two sites were termed "under-explored for the potential they have" (Nashville Banner, 1973). The three minor lineaments were interpreted from the 

October ERTS image (fig. 119). 

Several companies have expressed an interest in these prospects; one 

company has begun active exploration (Robert Manning, oral commun., 1974), 

but results are not available. 

The hydrologic significance of the Beech Grove lineament is difficult to 

determine because streamflows, well yields, and spring flows all have large 

variations in dense fractured limestone terranes. For example, most of the 

streams that follow the lineament have either uncommonly large or small 

flows of water at any particular time, but so do many other streams that are 

remote from the lineament. Also, the yields of wells within 3 km of the lineament range from less than 0.06 1/s to more than 6.3 1/s; a similar range in 

well yield also may be found in almost all other areas of similar size in central 

Tennessee. 

Many caves, sinkholes, and springs occur near the lineament, but these 

features commonly are abundant in valleys at the base of steep slopes, the 

same topographic position as most of the lineament. 

Both test drilling of wells and closely spaced measurement of streamflow 

along the streams will be needed to fully evaluate the hydrology of the Beech 

Grove lineament. The broken and brecciated rock along the lineament should 

serve both as a storage reservoir and as an avenue of movement for ground 

water. 

In some cases, ground water may move along the lineament from one 

stream basin to another, beneath drainage divides. Movement is always from 

a small stream at a relatively high altitude to a larger stream at a lower altitude. 

Streams that follow the lineament may lose water to the ground in upstream reaches and gain water in downstream reaches. These streams would be 

expected to have either uncommonly large or small flows at any point, depending on the relationship of stream-channel altitude to water-table altitude. 
WESTERN LAKE SUPERIOR ICE 

By Michael Sydor, 

University of Minnesota 

W inter shipping on the Great Lakes is an ever-increasing possibility, 

particularly with the advent of the supercarriers on the Great Lakes. 

Duluth-Superior is a major port. Because of economy of shipping by 

water, considerable expenditure has been incurred by the Federal Government and private interests in attempts to extend the shipping season into the 

winter months. Navigation on the open lake is not often a problem, though 

better ice forecasting is essential. The problem generally arises in the locks, 

the harbors, and from severe ice packing that blocks the entries to locks and 

harbors. More frequent coverage by ERTS-type spacecraft would greatly aid 

ice forecasting. The ERTS image for Apr. 4, 1973 (fig. 120), shows a typical 

icepack on the western arm of Lake Superior that completely blocks the entry 

to the Duluth-Superior harbor. Notice, however, that the harbor itself is entirely ice free. 

Forecasting ice growth and predicting ice packing are generally based on 

consideration of the heat budget for the ice sheet (Maykut and Untersteiner, 

1971). This in turn requires measurements of light albedo for the entire ice 

cover. ERTS data allow accurate measurement of albedo and also allow delineation of the severely packed ice (fig. 121). Figure 122 shows the light 

albedo for a harbor (bay) station and a lake station used in ice growth studies. 

Figure 123 shows the ice growth in the harbor. 

Figure 124 shows an estimate of the fraction of the ice cover on the western arm of Lake Superior displaying highly packed characteristics. The corresponding values for the volume of the lake ice, estimated from heat-budget 

considerations and the ERTS data, allow a rough calculation of the average 

thickness of the icepack blocking the shipping lanes. The average icepack 

thickness at the opening of the shipping season was 60 em, a mild year. The 

ice packing for the 1971-72 season was much more severe, and ice remained 

in the area until June 9, 1972 (Sydor, 1974). 

169 
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170 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

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FIGURE 120.-Color composite ERTS-1 image of western Lake Superior showing a typical ice pack (1255-16322). 

. 

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80 

60 

ALBEDO 

--X --

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3. Applications to Water Resources 171 

APPROXI MATE SCALE 

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FIGURE 121 .-Density-sliced ERTS-1 image of western 

Lake Superior derived from image 1255-16322. 

Color-density slicing helps differentiate areas of 

contrasting albedo of ice and identify areas of 

intense packing : rose, tightly packed ; dark blue, 

packed ; and light blue, least packed. 

/ X 

X 

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QL---~--~--~---L----L--~------L_--_L ____ ~----~------~-----L----~ 

10 20 31 10 20 31 10 20 28 10 20 

DEC JAN FEB MAR 

31 10 

APR 

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FIGURE 122.-Graph showing albedo at two stations, western Lake Superior. 
172 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

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FIGURE 123 (below).-Graph showing growth of 

ice in the Duluth-Superior harbor. 

FIGURE 124.-Graph showing estimate of volume of ice cover 

that is highly packed, western Lake Superior. 

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MEASURING SNOW-COVERED AREA 

TO PREDICT RESERVOIR INFLOW 

By Robert M. Krimmel and Mark F. Meier, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

A bout two-thirds of the population of the State of Washington live in the n vicinity of Puget Sound. Approximately 80 percent of the electrical 

energy they eonsume is derived from hydroelectrie power reservoirs that 

are fed by melting snow in the Caseade and Olympie Mountains. Regulation 

of this runoff is also vital for domestic water supply, dilution of wastes, and 

the maintenanee of a healthy salmon and steelhead trout population. In order 

to produce the ma:ximum amount of power and to satisfy all other demands 

on the water supply, it is important to be able to forecast the runoff, and this 

can be done by measuring the snow in temporary storage on the ground. 

A mosaic of two color composite ERTS-1 images (fig. 125) shows this 

area from the Fraser River delta near Vancouver, British Columbia, south 

to the cities of Chehalis and Centralia, and from the east half of the Olympic 

Mountains on the left to the western part of the Caseades on the right. The 

cities of Everett, Seattle, and Taeoma are on the east side of Puget Sound, 

and Olympia is at the extreme south of this eomplex waterway. Major reservoirs include Ross and Diablo Lakes (upper right), Shannon and Baker 

Lakes (upper eenter), Alder Lake (lower right), ~Iossyrock and Mayfield 

Lakes (extreme lower margin), and Lake Cushman (southeast of the Olympie 

Mountains). Mount Rainier is the prominent snow-eovered peak in the southeast part of the image. 

Three spectral bands were combined to form this eolor composite image. 

Clean water appears black, silty water appears blue, snow appears white, and 

vegetation appears red. 

Although these images were taken on July 29, 1972, note the large amount 

of snow still remaining in the mountains. The area of snow cover in nine important drainage basins in the Caseades (fig. 126) is being monitored from 

ERTS images using the Stanford Researeh Institute ESIAC, whieh uses an 

eleetronically digitized image, variable density masks, and a computer. The 

snow-covered areas in these basins at the time of this image are shown in the 

following tabulation : 

Basin and name 

Snow cover, 

Percent 

A. Thunder Creek ---------------------------- 44 

B. Cascade River ----------------------------- 33 

C. South Cascade Glacier --------------------- 85 

D. Stehekin River ---------------------------- 32 

E. Suiattle River ----------------------------- 20 

~ Sauk River ------------------------------- 39 

G. North Fork Skykomish River ----------------- 10 

H. South Fork Skykomish River ---------------- 9.1 

I. Snohomish River -------------------------- 16 

173 
17 4 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

l9-.'U.7Z C ~12 1- ~ H HAS J..' Iol -~ 11 s 1 D Sltt El.53 ~fiil!l!'"3· 988'" · ·D·ILI {ITS [ ·1 806 ·1831 8 -7 8 1 

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FIGURE 125.-Color composite ERTS-1 image mosaic of the 

Puget Sound region of Washington (1 006-18310 and 1006-

18313). 

....

Mt Rainier 

8 

FIGURE 126.-lndex map of Cascade Mountains drainage basins
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3. Applications to Water Resources 175 

By carefully studying successive images and related measurements on 

the ground during the spring and summer seasons, hydrologists can determine the rate of change of snow-covered area and the amount of water stored 

as snow. The percentage of the basin covered by snow as a function of time 

is illustrated for four basins in figure 127. The snow-covered area during the 

ablation season is directly related to the volume of water stored as snow, and 

thus to the runoff to be expected. This allows predictions to be made on the 

availability of water from snowmelt for the rest of the summer. These data 

can be used by water managers to optimize the operation of reservoirs to balance hydroelectric-power production requirements and domestic and other 

water needs and to control floods. Areas where clearcutting forests is practiced-most noticeable in this image around Mount Rainier and south of the 

Olympics as rectangular or polygonal patches in forest lands-can appreciably alter the runoff from drainage basins and also affect the visibility of snow 

in the forested areas. 

Evidence of the Puget lobe of the Pleistocene ice sheet can be seen on this 

image. The margins of the ice sheet that covered the Puget lowlands were 

roughly the east side of the Olympic Mountains, the west side of the Cascades, 

and the southern margin was roughly along the arc of lakes between the 

Olympics and Cascades south of Puget Sound. 

0 A (Thunder Creek) 

X 8 (Cascade River) 

• E (Suiattle River) 

A G (North Fork Skykomish River) 

, 

, 

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, . , . , . , . , .· , ,' . .·· - . ,, •' . .·· 

_,-" .. .· .:.·::. .. ~:::: .. ··· 

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT 

1973 

FIGURE 127.-Graph showing percentage of drainage basin area covered by snow. 
MAPPING SNOW EXTENT 

IN THE SIERRA NEVADA 

OF CALIFORNIA 

By Donald R. Wiesnet and David F. McGinnis, 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

The 80-m ground resolution of the MSS on board ERTS-1 provides images 

to measure snow extent on moderately sized (250 to 30,000 km2 ) watersheds. Melting snowpacks in the Sierra Nevada supply much of central 

and southern California's water for domestic and agricultural consumption. 

Monitoring the extent of the snowpack via ERTS-1 is quick and less expensive 

than a simple altitude survey by a light plane. Figure 128, produced using a 

color additive viewer, is a composite of three ERTS-1 band 4 images showing 

the retreat of the Sierra Nevada snowpack in three stages during the spring 

of 1973, on Apr. 21, 1973 (1272-18122), May 9, 1973 (1290-18121), and May 

27, 1973 (1308-18120). 

The area shown in light green is the area of maximum extent from which 

the snow melted from Apr. 21 to May 9, 1973. The area shown in blue denotes 

the area from which snow melted during the period May 9 to May 27 (18 days). 

White depicts the snow cover on May 27. Some minor cloud cover appears as 

green in Nevada to the east of the Sierra Nevada. 

ERTS-1 MSS data have been used to check snow maps prepared from 

the NOAA-2 satellite images, which have a lower ( --900 m) resolution 

(Wiesnet and McGinnis, 197 4). 

176 
3. Applications to Water Resources 177 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 0 10 20 30 40 MILES 

10 0 10 20 30 40 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 128.-Annotated composite of parts of three different ERTS-1 images color enhanced to show retreat of snowpack at three 

stages, spring 1973 (1272- 18122, 1290-18121, and 1308-18120; all band 4). Light green shows greatest extent on Apr. 21, 1973; 

blue shows stage on May 9, 1973; off white depicts snow cover on May 27, 1973. 
SURGING AND NONSURGING GLACIERS 

IN THE PAMIR MOUNTAINS, U.S.S.R. 

By Robert M. Krimmel, Austin Post, and Mark F. Meier, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

F

igure 129 ·shows both surging and nonsurging glaciers in the Pamir Mountains in the U.S.S.R. Most 

mountain glaciers move a few centimeters or tens 

of centimeters per day and slowly adjust to changes in 

climate by gradual advances or retreats. Surging glaciers, on the other hand, periodically change from this 

slow regime to a very rapid flow, on the order of meters 

per hour, causing rapid advances of the terminus 

amounting to 1 km or more per month. Such rapid advances may cause lakes to be formed as tributary 

valleys are dammed by the advancing ice. Later these 

ice-dammed lakes may suddenly release, causing a 

catastrophic flood. 

In this ERTS image (fig. 129), the famous Medvezhii (Bear) Glacier is shown just completing a catastrophic surge that caused widespread destruction. 

The glacier began to surge in April1973 and by early 

June had advanced nearly 3 km. This surge created a 

major threat when the advancing ice dammed the 

Abdukagor River, forming a lake that may have been 

larger than 20 million m3 • On June 20, 1973, the lake 

broke through its ice dam and caused a flood in the 

populated Vanch River valley. Because a flood was 

expected to follow the damming of the river, dikes had 

been built, bridges had been dismantled, and other precautions had been taken, and thus no lives were lost 

although highways and powerlines were damaged. 

The image shows the Pamir Mountains to be a vast 

region of deep arid valleys heading in large glaciers. 

As in such Western States as Washington, Montana, 

and Wyoming, summer ice melt from these glaciers 

supplies critically needed water to irrigate lands. 

Surges of the Medvezhii Glacier occur at intervals of 

10 to 12 yr. The Medvezhii Glacier is normally con178 

fined to the tributary valley of Khirsdara and advances 

out to the Abdukagor Valley only during surges. This 

glacier has been studied intensively by glaciologist Dr. 

Leonid D. Dolgushin and his colleagues (Dolgushin 

and Osipova, 1972) of the Institute of Geography, 

Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R. 

Glaciologists of the U.S. Geological Survey in Tacoma, Wash., have identified six other surging glaciers, 

including Fortambek and Garmo, on this ERTS image. 

These glaciers have the periodically looped medial 

moraines that are unmistakable signs of past surges. 

One, the Bivach.nii Glacier, appears to be primed for 

a surge of about 2 km in the next year or so. Surging 

features can be seen on 16 other glaciers. 

Also of interest in this image is the 77-km-long 

Fedchenko Glacier, the longest in the U.S.S.R. and one 

of the world's most studied glaciers. Its parallel medial 

moraineH indicate that it does not surge. Some nonsurge-related ice-dammed lakes are visible at the margins of tlH• Fedchenko Glacier and are also a potential 

source of tloods. 

As surges and related floods occur abruptly with 

little or no prior warning, glaciologists in countries 

that have surging glaciers, such as Iceland, Canada, 

Argentina, Chile, U.S.S.R., and the United States, are 

pooling information collected from intensive studies in 

order to locate and map hazardous situations, to provide prior warning systems when surges and surgerelated floods are expected, and, hopefully, to determine the causes of these remarkable movements. Because surging glaciers usually occur in relatively inaccessible terrain, satellites such as ERTS-1 will be 

used more and more for the required monitoring. 
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3. Applications to Water Resources 179 

E073·001 

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FIGURE 129.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the Pamir Mountains of the U.S.S.R. (1354-05224). 

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MEASURING THE MOTION OF 

THE LOWELL AND TWEEDSMUIR 

SURGING GLACIERS 

OF BRITISH COLUMBIA, CANADA 

By Austin Post, Mark F. Meier, and Lawrence R. Mayo, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Tweedsmuir Glacier, 70 km in length and the largest glacier in British 

Columbia, Canada, is shown in an image taken on Sept. 13, 1973 (figs. 

130, 131). At that time it was undergoing a spectacular surge (rapid 

advance). The glacier, situated astride the British Columbia-Yukon Territory 

boundary 256 km northwest of Juneau, Alaska, flows out of the St. Elias 

Mountains into the Alsek River valley where it spreads out in a large terminal 

lobe 13 km across. The lobe blocks the main river valley and forces the stream 

into a narrow gorge along the glacier's margin. Beca.use this gorge is impassable to boats and is the greatest hazard on the river, it has been appropriately 

named Turnback Canyon. 

Surges of Tweedsmuir Glacier in the past have dammed up the Alsek 

River at Turnback Canyon and formed lakes as much as 20 km long. The 1973 

surge may again close off the river, and if this should occur, sudden, perhaps 

repeated, releases of water from the lake when the ice dam fails could cause 

hazardous flooding in downstream channels and in Dry Bay, Alaska. Thus, 

it is important to monitor the behavior of the glacier and to measure the 

changing rate of ice flow in order to predict the growth of a potential glacierdammed lake. 

Figure 132 shows changes observed or inferred on Tweedsmuir Glacier 

near its terminus. The ice velocity was inferred from ERTS images by measuring the changing positions of moraine loops during the intervals between 

Apr. 15, July 22, Sept. 13, and Nov. 7, 1973, and drawing a smooth curve 

through the average displacement rates. The actual advance of the terminus 

was measured on the ground by Dr. Gerald Holdsworth ( 197 4) of the Canadian Department of Environment. These curves provide the data for prediction of the timing and the amount of advance of Tweedsmuir Glacier over the 

channel of the Alsek River. 

The study of a sequence of ERTS images of the surging Tweedsmuir 

Glacier has revealed other interesting features. Most important of these is the 

existence of a "shock wave," that is, a steplike feature on the glacier that also 

marks the down-glacier limit of intense crevassing. (Although actual crevasses 

are rarely seen on ERTS images, regions of intense crevassing appear distinctly darker because of the shadows within the crevasses.) This shock wave 

180 
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10 0 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 

10 20 

3. Applications to Water Resources 181 

W136-0el 

20 30 M ILES 

30 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 130.-Color com posite ERTS-1 image of the Lowell Glacier and Tweedsmuir Glacier areas of British Columbia, Canada 

(1417-19531). 

I 

I 
182 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

FIGURE 131.-Annotated ERTS-1 image of the Lowell and Tweedsmuir Glaciers of British Columbia, Canada (part of 1417-19531, 

band 4). 
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3. Applications to Water Resources 183 

Tweedsmuir Glacier 

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I I I Average velocity of 

1973 

shockwave along 

northeast ice stream 

Ice velocity 7 km above 

terminus inferred from 

ERTS images 

FIGURE 132.-Graph showing the velocity of movement of 

the Tweedsmuir Glacier in 1973. 

advanced in midglacier about 8.8 km from Apr. 15 to July 22, an average rate 

of 88 m/day, at least an order of magnitude faster than the actual velocity 

of the ice. Other features that could be seen on the ERTS images include the 

increasing relief along the valley walls, the spreading of zones of intense 

crevassing, and the deformation of medial moraines. 

ERTS images are thus shown to be useful records of important data for 

inaccessible, rarely visited areas such as the Tweedsmuir Glacier area. Furthermore, using ERTS images to produce maps and quantitative displacement data 

for large surging glaciers is far more quick and efficient than using conventional aerial photography or ground surveys. For instance, the Lowell Glacier, 

which has dammed the Alsek River in the past, surged in 1968-70. A map of 

the medial moraine pattern had been made before the surge, using the laborious procedure of mosaicing and rectifying many aerial photographs. A new 

map was made from this ERTS image, compared with the old map, and 

displacen1ent vectors measured in just 1.5 h (fig. 133). This demonstrates the 

usefulness of ERTS imagery for the rapid mapping of large features. 
184 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

LOWELL GLACIER 

ERTS 13 Sept. 1973 (1417-19531) 

0 5 10 15 MILES 

0 5 10 15 Kl LOM ETERS 

FIGURE 133.-Maps showing displacement vectors and changes in medial moraines of 

the lowell Glacier, 1954-73, from late summer 1954 aerial photography and a late 

summer 1973 ERTS-1 image (1417-19531). 
MONITORING THE MOTION 

OF SURGING GLACIERS IN 

THE MOUNT McKINLEY MASSIF, ALASKA 

By Mark F. Meier, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

T he ERTS image in figure 134 shows both surging and nonsurging glaciers 

as much as 64 km in length situated around Mount McKinley in Alaska. 

Nonsurging glaciers, such as the Ruth and Kahiltna, flow at quite uniform rates o:f only a :few centimeters or tens o:f centimeters per day, and the 

media}'moraines-dark-colored strips of rock :fragments stripped :from mountains situated between tributary glaciers-are quite straight and uniform. On 

the other hand, such surging glaciers as the Tokositna, Lacuna, and Y entna 

have wiggly :folded moraines that result :from alternating periods o:f near stagnation (lasting up to 50 yr) and o:f extremely high flow rates (lasting 1 to 3 

yr when the ice may flow :faster than 1.3 m/h). 

The Tokositna Glacier (fig. 135) has just completed a surge that began in 

1970. The Lacuna Glacier has been in a stagnant condition :for 40 or more yr, 

and its dirty mottled surface shows the effects o:f severe melting. The Y entna 

Glacier was first observed surging in 1972. This image shows its :folded moraines displaced more than 1,800 m down valley :from their positions shown on 

recent maps and 1970 aerial photographs. Also visible on the ERTS image is 

a dark line where the rapidly flowing Yentna Glacier has sheared across the 

stagnant ice o:f the Lacuna Glacier (fig. 135) . 

Why a glacier surges and why some glaciers surge but others do not, are 

questions o:f great scientific interest because this type o:f periodic sudden 

movement is common in many other phenomena in nature, perhaps even in the 

mechanism o:f earthquakes. Surging glaciers can advance over large areas and 

cause devastating floods by blocking and suddenly releasing large quantities 

o:f' melt water; thus there is much practical interest in monitoring their behavior. U.S. Geological Survey scientists now are using ERTS images to keep 

track o:f many large surging glaciers in inaccessible areas. 

A better understanding o:f glacier hydrology is becoming increasingly 

important because o:f the potential o:f glaciers as sources o:f water supply. Glaciers are one o:f the :few sources o:f water supply that remain unexploited, and, 

with the advance o:f civilization into the subpolar regions, more attention 

should be paid to these ice masses in relation to potential water-resources 

development. An enormous reserve o:f water, about three-fourths o:f all the 

:freshwater in the world, or equivalent to about 60 yr o:f precipitation over the 

entire globe, is locked in glacier ice. 

185 
186 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

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FIGURE 134.-Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Mount McKinley area of Alaska (1033- 21020). 

81 
3. Applications to Water Resources 187 

FIGURE 135.-Annotated enlargement of the ERTS-1 image of the Mount McKinley area of Alaska (part of 1033-21.020, band 6). 
VATNAJOKULL ICECAP, ICELAND 

By Richard S. Williams, Jr., 

U.S. Geological Survey 

T here are three characteristics of ERTS MSS imagery that make it unique 

for mapping of environmental phenomena : ( 1) it can be related to the 

figure of the Earth; (2) it records spectral reflectivity in four broad 

bands of the visible and near-infrared parts of the electromagnetic spectrum 

on videotape rather than photographic film; and (3) most importantly, it 

provides systematic, routine, and repetitive coverage of an area (Williams and 

others, 1974). Except for areas of high population density, the availability 

of recent aerial photography is rather uncommon, and no aerial photography 

exists at all of large remote areas of the world. ERTS imagery provides a 

heretofore unavailable time-lapse view of many types of dynamic environmental phenomena, including seasonal variations in snow cover, vegetation, 

and glaciers (Williams,.1972). 

Glaciers are extremely dynamic phenomena, subject to great seasonal 

variation, and are particularly suited for study and monitoring on ERTS 

imagery ("\Villiams and others, 1975) for several reasons. Glaciers offer good 

contrast with surrounding terrain. Lateral, medial, and terminal moraines are 

usually large enough to be resolved at the 80-m maximum of ERTS sensors. 

The same is true of glacier-margin lakes, braided stream patterns on outwash 

plains, and sediment plumes of glacial rock flour in lake or marine waters. 

Furthermore, in images made under low-Sun-angle conditions, surface irregularities on glaciers are particularly pronounced because of enhancement of 

shadows on the white background. 

ERTS imagery offers two unique possibilities for glaciological studies not 

readily available by other methods. The first is the fact that regional synoptic 

studies of glaciers and icecaps can be made, and an entire glacier can now be 

studied as a total system rather than as disparate and often temporally separated elements. The second unique aspect of ERTS, because of its 18-day 

cycle, is that-in addition to monitoring changes in runoff, variations in the 

size and location of glacier-margin lakes, and variations in the position of 

glacier margins-the repetitive coverage permits monitoring of surging glaciers on a year-round basis. 

Figures 136, 137, and 138 are ERTS images of Vatnajokull Glacier, the 

largest icecap in Iceland, taken in January 1973, July 1973, and September 

1973, providing a time-lapse view. Figure 139 is a sketch map of the approximate area shown by these images (Thorarinsson and others, 1974). The 

dynamic volcanic and glaciologic environment of Vatnajokull is strikingly 

shown in these images. 

Figure 136 is a midwinter low-Sun-angle (7°) band 5 image of the snowcovered Vatnajokull area of Iceland that shows: 1, the elliptical shape of a 

188 
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3. Applications to Water Resources 189 

FIGURE 136.-Annotated enlargement of ERTS-1 image of the Vatnajokull area of Iceland in the winter (part of 1192-12084, band 7). 
190 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

hitherto unknown subglacial caldera and 2, the elliptical shape of a partially 

subglacial caldera. Although dark, two subglacial craters can be seen on the 

western edge of this caldera; a partially subglacial geothermal area extends 

southwest into the icecap through the westernmost crater. Other features 

include: 3 and 4, elliptically shaped central volcanoes; 5, faint elliptical 

features and associated nunataks which may represent a partially ice-covered 

large central volcano; 6, a well-known subglacial caldera, source of many 

catastrophic jokulhlaups (glacial floods), including one in March 1972; 7, a 

frozen lake, another source of jokulhlaups, including one that occurred in 

August 1973; and 8, the partially snow-covered snout of a glacier. Around the 

periphery of the caldera 6 are a number of punctate features resulting from 

collapse after the March 1972 jokulhlaup. Several more collapse features, 

resulting from the August 1972 jokulhlaup, can be seen in a line between 4 and 

6. Southwest of Vatnajokull are superb examples of northeast-trending grabens, crater rows, and hyaloclastite ridges. Two prominent volcano-tectonic 

lineaments can be seen on this image. One extends N. 45° E. for 80 km from 

between 1 and 2 to the southwestern edge of Vatnajokull. The second lineament extends N.35°W., just north of 7. Concentric recessional moraines in 

front of an outlet glacier can be seen at 9. Medial moraines are visible at 10 

(Williams and Thorarinsson, 197 4; Williams and others, 1973c). 

Figure 137 is a midsummer color composite ERTS-1 image. The high 

Sun angle ( 42°) and high reflectivity of the snow-covered glacier limit the 

amount of surface detail as compared with the low Sun angle of the wintertime image (fig. 136). The icecap, however, exhibits a completely different 

character because summer is a time of dynamic activity around and on the 

glacier. Ablation is at a high rate, and runoff is at its maximum across outwash 

plains. Changes in glacier-margin lakes and glacier termini can be monitored 

systematically on ERTS images. Types and distribution of vegetation around 

the icecap can also be delineated (Williams and others, 1973b). Older snowpack can be seen at 1 where it has drifted. Sediment plumes can be distinguished at 2 and all along the coast. Several glacier-margin lakes are visible; 

note the maximum area encompassed by 3, before the August 1973 jokulhlaup. 

Several braided glacial rivers cross this outwash plain. Undistorted moraines 

can be seen at 4 and contorted moraines at 5. The retreat of the snow line can 

be seen on most of the glaciers, including 6 and 7 (Williams and others, 

1974a). 

Figure 138 is an early fall color composite ERTS-1 image. As the Sun 

angle drops ( 25 °) , surface detail again begins to appear, although it is not aa 

pronounced as on the wintertime image (fig. 136). Note the reduction in sediment plumes along the coast and the decreased discharge of glacial rivers 

across the outwash plain. Note the retreat of the snowline as compared with 

figure 137. Note also the reduction in the lake area at 1 after the August 

1973 jokulhlaup, as compared with figure 137 (Williams and others, 1974a). 

Eyjabakkajokull began to surge in late August 1972. By the time of acquisition of the first ERTS image on Oct. 14, 1972 (Williams and others, 

1973a), the glacier had apparently already moved slightly more than 1 km. 

The glacier was imaged again on Sept. 22, 1973 (fig. 138). According to 

measurements made on the two ERTS images, Eyjabakkajokull has surged an 

additional distance of 1.8 km. Measurements made on contorted medial moraines and volcanic ash layers at 5 on figure 137 between the two dates, Oct. 14, 

1972, and Sept. 22, 1973, give an estimated 600 m of glacier motion in that part 

of Skeidararjokull in a period of 11 mo. 
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3. Applications to Water Resources 191 

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FIGURE 137.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the Vatnajokull area of Iceland in the summer (1372-12080). 

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192 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

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FIGURE 138.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the Vatnajokull area of Iceland in the fall (1426-12070). 

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;fl \ \\i . S~EID~R~R~~~~~) @\: ~\( ~/ EXPLANATION 

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····: 

Late Quaternary and recent volcanism 

Early Quaternary flood basalts 

Tertiary flood basalts 

Alluvial plains 

Crater row 

Topographic expression 

Caldera 

Contact- Dotted where concealed 

FIGURE 139.-Sketch map of the Vatnajokull area of Iceland. 
GLACIOLOGY IN ANTARCTICA 

By William R. MacDonald, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Comparison of an ERTS image dated Dec. 24, 1972, 

with the published U.S. Geological Survey 

1: 250,000-scale map of Ross Island disclosed a 

unique change in the Erebus Glacier Tongue (fig. 140). 

Further e~amination of photographs and historical 

maps indicated that the present position of the tongue 

is about the same as it was in 1910 and that the tongue 

had advanced about 9.6 km since 1947 and 4.8 km since 

1962. A lateral shift or curving of the leading front 

toward the mainland seems also to have occurred since 

1970. Sources are not adequate to determine whether 

the movement occurred gradually or rapidly. Some 

evidence does seem to indicate that the tongue may 

have gone through a surging period. Perhaps it has 

completed a growth cycle and will again break off as 

it did in 1911. I£ field investigations prove it to be a 

surging glacier, it will be the first one found in Antarctica and, therefore, of great interest to glaciologists. 

Further indication that ERTS imagery is useful for 

detecting glaciological changes is given by figures 141 

and 142. An ERTS image dated Feb. 20, 1973 (fig. 

141), was compared with the published U.S. Geological 

Survey 1: 500,000-scale sketch map of Ellsworth Land 

and Palmer Land and with aerial photographs and 

shows that the Ronne Ice Shelf has advanced about 16 

km since January 1966. 

Another excellent example of detecting glaciological changes on images is documented in figure 142, a 

planimetric sketch map compiled from ERTS images 

taken Jan. 21, 1974. When compared with the most 

recent and largest scale map available of the area, a 

1: 250,000-scale Japanese series chart, and other charts 

at scales 1: 1,000,000 to 1:3,000,000 compiled by Japan, 

the U.S.S.R., and Norway, it is readily apparent that 

the Shirase Glacier (A) and Fletta Bay Glacier (B) 

tongues have advanced approximately 52 km and 69 

km beyond the positions depicted on the maps. An important and unanswered question is whether the 

194 

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APPROXIMATE SCALE 

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10 MILES 

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FIGURE 140.-Annotated enlargement of ERTS-1 image 

of the Erebus Ice Tongue of Antarctica (part of 

1154-19322, band 7). Analysis of ERTS-1 images 

and library sources showed that the Erebus Glacier 

Tongue has advanced 9.6 km since 1947. Place 

where the tongue broke off in 1911 is indicated. 

I I 

10 0 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 20 30 40 50M ILES 

I I I I I I I I I I 10 20 30 40 50 Kl LOM ETERS 

FIGURE 141 .-Annotated ERTS-1 image of the 

Ronne Ice Shelf of Antarctica (part of 1212-

11133, band 7). The edge of the shelf has 

advanced about 16 km since 1966. 
changes have been caused by a recent glacier advance 

or instead reflect inadequate mapping because of 

limited source materials. 

Of special interest is the discovery from ERTS images of new geographic features on the polar plateau 

northwest and southwest of Ross Island. Repetitive 

coverage obtained in January 197 4 shows the new features in even greater detail. Cartographers expert in 

interpreting ice and glaciological features on photographs suggest that some of the new features have 

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3. Applications to Water Resources 195 

considerable height relative to the surrounding Iceand -snow terrain and that a gradient is evident, the 

blue ice being on the leeward side. Other characteristics 

indicate extensive crevassing. Detailed analysis of the 

newly discovered features is planned by the National 

Science Foundation and will start as soon as conventional low-altitude photographs are obtained. Bad 

weather and logistical problen1s prevented aerial photography during the austral sum1ner of 1973-7'4. 

ISLAND 

LUTZOW-HOLM BAY 

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FIGURE 142.-Sketch map of the Lutzow-Holm Bay area of Antarctica compiled from ERTS imagery. 
MONITORING FLOOD INUNDATION 

By Roger B. Morrison and P. Gary White, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

E

RTS infrared images from bands 6 and 7 have proven remarkably helpful for appraising and mapping rapidly the areal extent of flood inundation. The inundated areas are very sharply defined in images taken during a flood, if the water is not very muddy, and can be mapped accurately in 

detail because of the high contrast of the water (black) and nonflooded areas 

(light tones). Indeed, using computers for automatic mapping fron1 MSS, 

the damage to large areas can be assessed in a fraction of the time previously 

required. 

Figures 143, 144, and 145 eloquently document the severity of the spring 

1973 floods in the Missouri-Mississippi River valleys. These, the worst Midwest floods in history, lasted 2 mo, drove 35,000 persons frmn their homes, 

and inundated more than 5.3 million ha. All these images are band 7. 

The three figures show the same area of southern Illinois, southeast Missouri, and western Kentucky at the confluence of the Mississippi and Ohio 

Rivers. Preflood conditions on Nov. 24, 1972, are shown by figure 143. The 

Mississippi, Ohio, Cumberland, and Tennessee Rivers are at within-bank discharge stages. Here the flood plains are not easily distinguished because they 

are largely dry, but rivers and lakes are clearly evident. 

Figure 144 shows conditions when the main rivers were in various stages 

of flood on May 5, 1973. Their flood plains are largely covered by flowing or 

standing water (black) and wet soils (dark tones). Light-toned areas within 

the flood plains are well-drained soils above the flood limit, mainly point-bar 

deposits. The widest and most extensively inundated flood plains are in the 

older, broader, ancient-valley reaches of the 1\Essissippi ( 1 and 2) and Ohio 

( 3) Rivers. Narrow flood plains and higher flood crests are in the confined 

reaches ( 4 and 5) where the rivers have had time only to incise narrow valleys. Also of interest are the effects of various artificial and natural levees. 

At 6 the floodwaters of the 1\iississippi are being dammed north of the dikes 

of the Headwater Diversion Channel at Cape Girardeau, l\fo., creating a 

large slack-water area. At 7 the levees skirting the main channels control 

normal floods, but during large floods they keep the overbank waters from 

returning to the main channel and also hold back water from tributary 

streams; thus they deter postflood drying of the flood plain. 

Figure 145 records a period of retreat of the floodwaters on June 10, 

1973. The flood plain of the Ohio River is approaching normal, whereas that 

of the l\fississippi, which drains a much larger area, is slower to dry. On the 

Mississippi's flood plain, much standing 'vater remains, and the poorly drained 

196 
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FIGURE 143.-Annotated ERTS-1 image showing the confluence of the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers in preflood condition on Nov. 24, 

1972 (1124-16061 , band 7). 

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198 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

fine alluvium of former channels still is moist although the better drained 

sediments, especially point-bar deposits, have dried considerably. This image 

also enhances various other alluvial lowlands because their still-moist soils 

have low infrared reflectance and appear darker than the uplands. Thus, 

abandoned flood plains of the Mississippi River 8 and Ohio River 9 are revealed. 

Figures 146 and 147 show the St. Louis area and the junction of the 

Mississippi with the Missouri and Illinois Rivers. Figure 146 was taken before the flood on Aug. 28, 1972. Figure 147 shows the flood swollen rivers on 

Mar. 31, 1973. 

Commonly it is not possible to obtain images that are contemporaneous 

with flood crests because of the 18-day ERTS cycle and cloud cover. Fortunately, images taken a week or more after a flood still provide faithful records 

of the flood inundation because areas that were flooded appear distinctly 

darker in the infrared bands (especially band 7) than the adjoining terrain 

and darker than they appeared in the preflood images. After a week or so, 

these areas gradually lose their relative darkness, and their boundaries become 

fuzzier. The slowness with which they fade suggests that the dark tones (low 

infrared reflectance) commonly are caused more by flood stress on the vegetation than by moist soils. 

On Oct. 21, 1972, the Gila River in the vicinity of Safford, Ariz., reached 

a flood stage of 2,322 n13 /s, third highest on record, and caused about $10 million damage. Figures 148, 150, and 152 show conditions on Aug. 22, 1972, before the flood. The inner cultivated part of the Gila River valley is the prominent arcuate light-toned band. \Vithin this band, the Gila River appears as a 

sinuous thin dark line. Figures 149, 151, and 153 are the first postflood images 

of the same area, taken 11/z weeks after the flood on Nov. 2, 1972. Note the 

greatly widened dark belt of reduced infrared reflectance along the Gila River. 

This belt corresponds with the zone that was inundated, as determined both 

by aerial photographs taken while the flood was in progress and by subsequent 

ground observations. 

Many hundreds of hectares of cropland were badly eroded and/ or covered 

by new deposits of gravel and sand. The areas of erosion and deposition show 

most clearly on band 5 as a light-toned strip inside the inundated belt that 

appears dark on the infrared bands. Thus, by comparing band 5 before- and 

after-flood images, a quick assessment can be made of the severely floodravaged land. 

Figures 154 and 155 provide a comparison with results from the humid 

Midwest. They were taken before and after the big floods of September 1973 

on the East Nishnabotna and West Nishnabotna Rivers in southwestern Iowa. 

Figure 154 shows preflood conditions on Aug. 14, 1972; the other image mosaic 

(fig. 155) from Sept. 19, 1972, shows conditions 1 week after these rivers had 

inundated about 35,000 ha. The areas that were flooded still appear as conspicuous dark bands because of their lowered infrared reflectance. 

These examples illustrate the usefulness of the repetitive, multispectral, 

and synoptic ERTS imagery, not only for monitoring flood inundation and 

damage but also for assessing the adequacy of existing flood-control structures such as reservoirs, levees, and channelization. 
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stage on June 10, 1973 (1322-16060, band 7). 

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and Illinois Rivers on Aug. 28, 1972 (1036-16162, band 7). 

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FIGURE 148.- Preflood color composite ERTS-1 image of the Gila River valley of Arizona on Aug. 22, 1972 (1030-17265). 

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FIGURE 149.-Color composite ERTS-1 image taken 12 days after the flood shows the dramatic increase in the San Carlos lake and 

the soil erosion areas upstream that resulted from the flood of Oct. 21, 1972 (1102-17274). 

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FIGURE 151 .-Postflood ERTS-1 image of the Gila River valley of Arizona on Nov. 2, 1972 (part of 1102-17274, band 7). 

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FIGURE 154.-Annotated preflood ERTS-1 image of southwestern Iowa on Aug. 14, 1972 (1022-16384, band 7). 

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FIGURE 155.-Annotated ERTS-1 image mosaic showing the West and East Nishnabotna Rivers in flood on Sept. 19, 1972 (1058-

16383 and 1058-16390, band 7). 

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OPTICAL PROCESSING OF ERTS DATA 

FOR DETERMINING EXTENT 

OF THE 1973 MISSISSIPPI RIVER FLOOD 

By Morris Deutsch, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

F

lood mapping by conventional methods is a time-consuming and expensive 

procedure. Traditionally either ground surveys or black and white panchromatic aerial photography has been used as a basic tool in flood mapping. Since the launch of ERTS-1, however, considerable interest has arisen 

in using ERTS data for flood applications. From some of the earliest data 

obtained by ERTS-1, Benson and Waltz (1973) delineated and measured an 

area inundated by a severe local rainstorm near Aberdeen, S. Dak. Hallberg 

and others (1973) mapped the Nishnabotna River flood in Iowa with ERTS 

data collected 1 week after the flood. They also assessed the use of color-infrared aerial photography versus traditional black and white panchromatic 

aerial photography for flood-mapping purposes and found the former to be 

highly superior. Morrison and Cooley ( 1973) mapped inundation limits of the 

Gila River flood in Arizona from ERTS imagery and obtained good agreement with maps prepared fron1 aerial photography and ground surveys. Early 

in March 1973, in anticipation of flooding along the Mississippi River, the 

U.S. Geological Survey made a special request to NASA for data from subsequent passes of ERTS-1 over the Mississippi River valley. Basically, the 

objective was to map the extent of inundation as quickly as possible and with 

a minimum amount of conventional ground observations. It was surmised that 

specially processed ERTS data could provide hydrologists with a powerful 

new technique to supplement established methods of flood mapping, for the 

first time making it possible to map accurately the extent of flooding over 

very large areas, and to depict optically the flooded area. On March 31, 

ERTS-1 provided the first synoptic view of extensive flooding along two 

large reaches of the Mississippi River, between St. Louis, Mo., and Natchez, 

Miss. On May 4 and 5, ERTS-1 sensors imaged a strip of the Mississippi 

River reaching from midway between St. Louis and Cairo, Ill., to New Orleans 

and the Gulf of Mexico. The flood was at its peak within the reach between 

Cairo and Memphis, having peaked at Cairo on May 4 at 4.48 m above flood 

stage. 

Figure 156, a set of mosaics prepared from band 7 images, shows the flood 

with the Ohio River to below its confluence with the Arkansas River. The 

inundation over a reach of the Mississippi River from above its confluence 

flood images (center) were obtained on March 31 and May 5 and were en209 
210 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

larged to a scale of 1: 1,000,000. In order to determine the area inundated by 

any flood, obviously, it is necessary to have data on the area normally covered 

by water. For this critical analysis, preflood data collected by ERTS-1 over 

the Mississippi River on Oct. 1 and 2, 1972, were used. The preflood mosaic 

(left) was also prepared from band 7 images. The difference in water-covered 

or wet surface, both in black, between October 1972 and the 1973 flood period 

is obvious. 

The extent of flooding can be color coded by projecting a preflood image 

and one collected during the flood into a single composite image. Band 7 was 

used because there is little or no reflection of incident radiation from water 

in this spectral region, and thus the water appears dark in a positive print. 

Display of the areas of flooding is shown on the right by a so-called 

"temporal composite" prepared by additive projection of the band 7 preflood 

images in red and the flood images in green. The composite covers the area 

of image overlap between the two dates. The composite shows excellent differentiation between dry soil, saturated soil, and standing water. In a properly processed positive (Deutsch and others, 1973), standing water is very dark, 

dry soil is relatively light, and saturated soil is intermediate in density. 

When a nonflood image is projected as red, in register with a flood image 

projected as green, the composite color image is composed of the following 

elements: 

1. Where there is surface water present in both images, the composite image 

receives little or no light and is therefore essentially black. This depicts 

the area normally covered by the river and other surface-water bodies. 

2. Where the ground is not covered with water in both scenes, the composite 

image receives relatively equal amounts of red and green light and is 

therefore yellow. This depicts the area unaffected by flood waters. 

3. Where there is surface water in the scene projected in green, and dry soil 

in the scene projected in red, the composite image receives only red light 

and is therefore a highly saturated red color. This depicts the area of 

flood inundation. 

4. Where there is water-saturated soil in the scene projected in green, and 

d1;y soil in the scene projected in red, the composite image receives red 

light combined with a lesser amount of green light and results in a color 

on a continuum between yellow and red. 

Because available ERTS-1 coverage is limited to cloud-free coverage 

once every 18 days, it cannot track the progress of a flood peak. Inspection' 

of data collected by ERTS-1 on May 24, the day the Mississippi River receded to bankfull stage at St. Louis, indicates that changes in surface-reflectance characteristics caused by the flooding can be delineated, thus making 

it possible to map the total area flooded without the necessity of a real time,, 

continuous system to track and image the peak flood waves. Figure 157 shows 

an additive temporal color composite of band 7 images showing the extent of 

flooding in red on March 31 against normal surface-water distribution on Oct. 

2, 1972. Flood stage was at about 11.58 m on March 31, but on April 28 the 

flood peaked at 13.2 m, obviously inundating additional areas not flooded on 

March 31. Figure 157 also shows a temporal color con1posite of the postflood 

(May 24) data at St. Louis against the October images. In this composite 

there are areas shown in red that are not shown on the March/October temporal color composite. It is postulated that the later scene indicates changes 

in surface-reflectance characteristics caused by the flooding and that the area 

from which the flood waters receded between April 28 and May 24, including 

ponded flood waters, is depicted in tones of red. 
FLOOD Temporal color composite image mosaic 

Oct. 1, 1972 Mar. 31 1973 

' • 

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~~_,~1-~·~-+------~~----~~--TI ________ I 50 100 KILOMETERS 50 0 

FIGURE 156.-Preflood and flood ERTS-1 image mosaics of the central Mississippi River valley, 1972-73, compared with optically combined temporal 

color composite image mosaic to show areas of flooding: red, flooded 

areas; light red, wet areas; black, normal conditions; and yellow and/or 

green, unflooded areas. (Oct. 1, 1972: part of 107Q--16052, 1070-16055, 

107Q--16061 , 107Q--16064, band 7; Oct. 2, 1972: part of 1071-16111, 1071-

16113, 1071-16120, band 7; Mar. 31, 1973: 1251-16122, 1251-16124, 1251-

16131, 1251-16133, band 7; and May 5, 1973 : 1286-16062, 1286-16065, 

1286-16&71, 1286- 16074, band 7). 

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212 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

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FIGURE 157.-Temporal color composite image of preflood October ERTS-1 image combined with March flood image 

(above) and May postflood image (opposite) of the St. Louis area (1071-16104, 1251-16115, 1305-16113, band 7). 
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3. Applications to Water Resources 213 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

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FIGURE 157.-Continued. 
MONITORING CLOUD-SEEDING CONDITIONS 

IN THE SAN JUAN MOUNTAINS OF COLORADO 

By Archie M. Kahan, 

Bureau of Reclamation 

P

roject Skywater, the Bureau of Reclamation's weather-modification research program, has installed seven ERTS data collection platforms 

(DCP's) high in the rugged San Juan Mountains of southwestern Colorado (fig. 158). Here, amid wind-driven deep snow and intense cold, the platforms have proven to be extremely reliable communication tools (fig. 159). 

Weather information relayed rapidly by the data collection system 

(DCS) is incorporated in the decisionmaking process of the Colorado River 

Basin Pilot Project, a part of Project Skywater and the largest winter cloudseeding research program in the Nation. 

Sensing devices linked to the platforms monitor precipitation, temperature, relative humidity, insolation, ice riming, wind direction, wind speed, snow 

water content, and streamflow (table 1). Data from each of the seven platforms are relayed to the satellite during each overhead orbit and then through 

Goddard Space Flight Center to a time-share computer in Denver where the 

data are translated into measured units and stored on file for access by users 

of Skywater's Environmental Computer Network. 

The seven platforms, in remote regions accessible only by oversnow vehicles or helicopters, are being tested under severe environmental conditions 

to determine their operational suitability, maintenance requirements, reliability, and cost effectiveness. 

The seven platform sites are in a variety of terrains, 'but all experience 

severe weather. One, near the crest of 'Vol£ Creek Pass, is in an area that received 1,500 em of snow during the 1972-73 winter. Winds in excess of 96 

km/h are not uncommon, and temperatures plummet far below zero. 

Equipment failures were anticipated in this environment, but during the 

first season's operation of the seven platforms, only one malfunction occurred, 

and it was caused by lightning. 

Meteorologists have gained much data from the system, although it is still 

being tested. During the spring of 1973, when spring snows raised the possibility of floods in the valleys below, Project Skywater suspended the seeding project in a decision based, in part, on timely information provided by 

the ERTS DCS. 

214 
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3. Applications to Water Resources 215 

W107·001 

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FIGURE 158.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the San juan Mountain region of Colorado showing location of data 

collection platforms .6. (1299-17205). 

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216 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

~ 

FIGURE 1 59.-Wolf Creek Pass data collection platform. 

TABLE 1.-Samp/es of Pro;ect Skywater DCS platform data 

2 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 

100 6202 RUNPRK 

110 DATE HHMM ss c TEM HUM WSP WDR TVO TVO HSV BAV 

120 ·c % MPH DEC BIT BIT v v 130 FEB 19 74 0337 15 7 -11 .8 87. 60o86 65. 2.00 1.0 2.5 13.0 

140 FEB 19 74 0340 16 -11.6 87. 60.86 56. 1.00 1.0 2.5 13.0 

150 FEB 19 74 0343 17 7 -11 .6 87. 60.86 37. 1.00 1.0 2.5 13.0 

160 FEB 19 74 0346 17 7 -11 .6 87. 60.86 25. 2.00 1.0 2.5 13.0 

170 FEB 19 74 0516 51 -11 .6 85. 60.86 113. 1.00 0.0 2.5 12.9 

180 FEB 19 74 0519 52 -11 .6 85. 60.86 46. 2.00 1.0 2.5 12.9 

190 FEB 19 74 0522 54 -11 .6 86. 60.86 62. 1.00 0.0 2.5 12.9 

200 FEB 19 74 0525 55 7 -11.6 86. 60.86 59. 1.00 0.0 2.5 12.9 

100 6212 MULESHOE 

110 DATE HHMM ss c TEM HUM WSP WDR RAD ICE HSV BAV 

120 ·c % MPH DEC v v 160 JAN 4 74 0422 08 7 -14.5 13. 12.12 272 6.74 -2.5 11 .9 12.3 

170 JAN 4 74 0425 51 7 -14.3 13. 24.38 276 6.74 - 2.9 11 .9 12.3 

180 JAN 4 74 0429 35 7 -14.3 13. 10.97 285 6.74 -2.9 11.9 12.3 

190 JAN 4 74 0433 18 7 -14.7 13. 13.27 263 6.74 -2.9 11 .9 12.3 

200 JAN 4 74 0606 25 7 -14.1 13. 21.31 268 6.74 -2.9 11 .9 12.3 

210 JAN 4 74 0610 09 7 -14.3 13. 12.88 291 6.74 -2.5 11 .9 12.3 

220 JAN 4 74 0613 53 7 -14.5 13. 10.58 267 6.74 -2.9 11 .9 12.3 

230 JAN 4 74 1520 09 7 -15.7 13. 18.63 286 16.32 -2.9 11 .9 12.3 

Explanation of columns in table: 1, computer printout line num· relative measure of sky radiation ; 11, either null (TVO) or 

ber; 2, transmitter ID no. followed by date; 3, hour and relative measure of rime ice accumulation; 12, Y:z scale volt· 

minute; 4, seconds; 5, quality check ; 6, temperature (•C); age; and 13, battery voltage. The two DCP stations listed are 

7, relative humidity (percent); 8, wind speed (miles/ h); 9, Runlet Park and Muleshoe. 

degrees azimuth of wind direction; 10, either null (TVO) or 
HYDROLOGY OF ARID AND SEMIARID AREAS 

By j. Robert Owen and Lynn M. Shown, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

S

urficial geology, topography, type and quantity of vegetation, and land 

use are factors that influence runoff and sediment yield. ERTS imagery 

is particularly useful, compared to other methods, for discerning these 

characteristics when the area to be surveyed is larger than about 250 km2 • 

For areas of several thousand square kilometers or more, ERTS imagery provides the most practical and rapid method of mapping these characteristics. 

Relationships between drainage-basin characteristics and hydrologic parameters have been developed in a variety of climatic regions (Thomas and Benson, 1970). In arid and semiarid regions, for which hydrologic data on streamflow and sediment discharge often are scarce or from widely scattered sites, 

the combined use of ERTS imagery and reconnaissance methods of estimating 

streamflow and sediment discharge can be a useful tool. 

Figure 160 is a color composite ERTS-1 image that shows the canyonlands of the Colorado Plateau and the confluence of the Green and Colorado 

Rivers in Utah. The area of the Book Cliffs and Roan Cliffs is deeply dissected rugged topography. The dendritic drainage pattern in the vicinity of 

Book Cliffs indicates that the surficial geology is fairly homogeneous. The 

lack of reddish color in the southwest corner of the Book Cliffs indicates 

sparse vegetal cover, the result of low annual precipitation and shallow soils. 

High sediment yields and rapid runoff would be expected in that area owing 

to moderate to intense rainfalls on steep unprotected slopes. The reddish color 

in the higher Roan Cliffs area indicates more plant cover. Better protection 

from erosion afforded by more plant cover results in less sediment yield (J. 

R. Owen, unpub. data) in spite of the steep topography. Linear drainage patterns in the Roan Cliffs area indicate more geologic structural control of 

stream channels than in the Book Cliffs area. 

An integrated channel system is another factor that determines the contribution from a source area to the water yield and sediment yield of a large 

drainage basin. Water and sediment from a source area generally do not leave 

the region when the channels are discontinuous or when flow is absorbed by 

dry channels and sediment is deposited during floods. For example, high 

sediment delivery could be expected in the area of the confluence of the Green 

and Colorado Rivers owing to the steep shale slopes and the well-integrated, 

continuous channel system. In contrast, only a few of the channels in the blue 

area at the base of the Book Cliffs are through-flowing to the main stream, 

217 
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218 ERTS-1, A New W indow on Our Planet 

SAN 

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WI UHJill 

~ "' > z 

'*'..., .... 

...,<¥ RIVER 

RAFAEL DESERT 

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I I I I I I I I I 

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FIGURE 160.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the northern Colorado Plateau (1031- 17311). 

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1-1731 1-!11 91 
3. Applications to Water Resources 219 

thereby tending to reduce the contribution of streamflow and sediment from 

this part of the drainage area. 

The blue area at the base of the Book Cliffs is flat-lying marine Mancos 

Shale of Late and Early Cretaceous age. This area is a transport surface for 

streamflow originating in the Book Cliffs enroute to the Colorado, Green, and 

Price Rivers. The thin brownish lines are presently active channels bordered 

by greasewood or saltcedar. Most of the light-brown areas are pediments, and 

high-altitude aerial photography shows that active channels have been cut 

across some of them. The pediments are overlain by permeable sand and 

gravel, resulting in more plant cover and less water and sediment yield than 

is derived from the surrounding shale area. Owing to low annual rainfall, 

the shale area has a very sparse plant cover, as shown by the absence of red 

on the image. Another blue area surrounding the Henry Mountains is also 

underlain by Mancos Shale (Hintze and Stokes, 1964) with sparse plant cover 

and, therefore, may be expected to be similar to the Book Cliffs area in hydrologic response. 

The orange-tan area west of the Green River is the San Rafael Desert. 

The longitudinal sand dunes oriented southwest to northeast are shown by 

the striated pattern. The sandy soil and the lack of a well-developed drainage pattern indicate that this area has a high infiltration capacity and, consequently, yields little runoff and sediment although the plant cover is sparse. 

When large areas are under consideration, imagery at the scale of the 

synoptic ERTS imagery is a useful tool for evaluating areas for which hydrologic data are sparse. The interpretations derived from ERTS imagery relate 

the effects of physical features of drainage basins-such as topography, plant 

cover, surficial geology, and drainage patterns-to runoff and sediment yield. 

Reasonable limits of runoff and sediment yield for areas with similar hydrologic characteristics must be established from available strea1nflow records 

(U.S. Geological Survey, 1973), estimates of annual streamflow based on 

channel geometry measurements (Hedman, 1970), and sediment surveys in 

small stockponds (Peterson, 1962) . 
REFERENCES 

Bennett, P., and Sydor, Michael, 197 4, Use of ERTS in 

measurements of water quality in Lake Superior 

and Duluth-Superior Harbor: Annual Remote 

Sensing of Earth Resources Conf., 3d, Tullahoma, 

Tenn., 1974, Selected Papers, p. 85-92. 

Benson, L.A., and Waltz, F. A., 1973, Monitoring flood 

damage with satellite imagery: South Dakota 

State Univ. Remote Sensing lnst. Rept. 73--07, 

11 p. 

Bobek, H., 1963, Nature and implications of Quaternary climatic changes in Iran: UNESCO-WMO, 

Symposium on Changes of Climate, Rome Oct. 

19611 P• 403-413. 

Deutsch, Morris, 1974. Survey of remote sensing applications: Water Well jour., v. 28, no. 7, p. 35-

38. 

Deutsch, Morris, Ruggles, F. H., Guss, Philip, and Yost, 

Edward, 1973, Mapping of the 1973 Mississippi 

River floods from the Earth Resources Technology 

Satellite: Am. Water Resources Assoc. Proc., no. 

17, p. 39-55. 

Dolgushin, L. D., and Osipova, G. B., 1972, Pau'satsii 

lednikov problema ikh prognozirovaniia na 

primere lednika medveshch'ego (Zapadniia 

Pamir): Akad. Nauk SSSR, lzv. Ser. Geog., no. 2, 

p. 89-98. 

Graybeal, G. E., Hall, F. G., Moore, B. H., and Schlosser, E. H., 197 4, ERTS-1 data in support of the 

National Program of Inspection of Dams: NASA 

Goddard Space Flight Center, Symposium on the 

Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1, 3d, 

Washington, D.C., Dec. 1973, Proc., v. 1, sec. B, 

p. 1023-1039. 

Hadley, R. F., and Schumm, S. A., 1961, Sediment 

sources and drainage-basin characteristics in 

upper Cheyenne River Basin: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Water-SupplY, Paper 1531-B, p. 137-198. 

Hallberg, G. R., Hoyer, B. E., and Rango, Albert, 1973, 

Application of ERTS-1 imagery to flood inundation mapping: NASA Goddard Space Flight Cen220 

ter, Symposium on Significant Results Obtained 

from the Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1, 

2d, New Carrollton, Md., Mar. 1973, Proc., v. 1, 

sec. A, p. 7 45-753. 

Hedman, E. R., 1970, Mean annual runoff as related to 

channel geometry of selected streams in California: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 

1999-E, 17 p. . 

Higer, A. L., Cordes, E. H., and Coker, A. E., 1973, 

Modeling subtropical water-level dynamics distribution [abs.]: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Symposium on Significant Results Obtained 

from the Earth Resources Technology· Satellite-1, 

2d, New Carrollton, Md., Mar. 1973, Proc., v. 1, 

sec. A, p. 793. 

Higer, A. L., Coker, A. E., and Cordes, E. H., 1974, 

Water-management models in Florida from 

ERTS-1 data: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Symposium on the Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1, 3d, Washington, D.C., Dec. 1973, 

Proc., v. 1, sec. B, p. 1071-1088. 

Hintze, L. F., and Stokes, W. L., 1964, Geologic map 

of southeastern Utah: Utah State Land Board, 1 

sheet. 

Holdsworth, Gerald, 197 4, Surge of Tweedsmuir Glacier, British Columbia, Canada: Ice, no. 43, p. 23. 

Hollyday, E. F., Moore, G. K., and Burchett, C. R., 1973, 

Preliminary assessment of a Tennessee lineament, 

in Shahrokhi, F., ed., Remote sensing of Earth resources, v. ~: Tullahoma, Tenn., Univ. of Tenn. 

Space lnst., p. 119-128. 

Huber, H., 1967, Geological map of Maharlu Salt Lake 

southwest of Shiraz, Fars Province: National Iranian Oil Co. Geol. Note 157, encl. 2. 

Jarman, j. W., 1973, The Earth Resources Program of 

the Corps of Engineers: NASA Goddard Space 

Flight Center, Symposium on Significant Results 

Obtained from the Earth Resources Technology 

Satellite-1, 2d, New Carrollton, Md., Mar. 1973, 

Proc., v. 2, p. 127-141. 
Jewell, W. B., 1947, Barite, fluorite, galena, and 

sphalerite veins of middle Tennessee: Tenn. Div. 

Geology Bull. 51, 114 p. 

Keefer, W. R., 1965, Stratigraphy and geologic history 

of the uppermost Cretaceous, Paleocene, and 

lower Eocene rocks in the Wind River Basin 

Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 495-A: 

77 p. 

Krins_ley, D. B., 1968, Geomorphology of three kavirs 

m northern Iran, in U.S. Air Force Cambridge 

Research lab., Playa surface morphology: miscellaneous investigations: Cambridge Research 

lab. Environmental Research Paper no. 283, U.S. 

Geol. Survey for U.S. Air Force, p. 105-130. 

--- 1969, Caracteres morpho-climatiques des 

kavirs d'lran: INQUA, Congres, 8th, Paris 1969, 

Resumes des Communications, p. 33. 

--- 1970, A geomorphological and paleoclimatological study of the playas of Iran: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Interagency Rept. Military-1, 329 p. 

--- 1972a, Dynamic processes in the morphogenesis of salt crusts within the Great Kavir , north-central Iran; l11ternat. Geol. Cong., 24th, 

Montreal 1972, Proc., sec. 12, p. 167-174. 

1972b, The paleoclimatic significance of the 

Iranian playas, in Zinderen Bakker, E. M. Van, ed., 

Palaeoecology of Africa: Cape Town, A. A. 

Balkema, v. 6, p. 114-120. 

lind, A. 0., Henson, E. B., and Pelton, james, 1973, 

Environmental study of ERTS-1 imagery-lake 

Champlain and Vermont: NASA Goddard Space 

Flight Center, Symposium on Significant Results 

Obtained from the Earth Resources Technology 

Satellite-1, 2d, New Carrollton, Md., Mar. 1973, 

Proc., v. 1, sec. A, p. 643-650. 

love, J. D., Weitz, J. l., and Hose, R. K., 1955, Geologic map of Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey, scale 

1:500,000. 

Maykut, G. A., and Untersteiner, Norbert, 1971, Some 

results from a time-dependent thermodynamic 

model of sea ice: jour. Geophys. Research, v. 76, 

no. 6, p. 1550-1575. 

Morrison, R. B., and Cooley, M. E., 1973, Assessment 

of flood damage in Arizona by means of ERTS-1 

imagery: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, 

Symposium on Significant Results Obtained from 

the Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1, 2d, 

New Carrollton, Md., Mar. 1973, Proc., v. 1, sec. 

A, p. 755-760. 

Nashville Banner, 1973, Zinc exploration boom may 

develop in midstate: Nashville, Tenn., Nashville 

Banner, Mar. 29, 1973, p. 64. 

3. Applications to Water Resources 221 

Paulson, R. W., 1973a, Preliminary analysis of ERTSrelayed water-resources data in the Delaware 

River Basin: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, 

Symposium on Significant Results Obtained from 

the Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1, 2d, 

New Carrollton, Md., Mar. 1973, Proc., v. 1, sec. 

A, p. 777-792. 

1973b, Analysis of ERTS-relayed water-resources data in the Delaware River Basin: Am. 

Soc. Photogrammetry, Symposium on Management and Utilization of Remote Sensing Data 

Sioux Falls, S. Dak., 1973, Proc., p. 191-205. ' 

197 4, An evaluation of the ERTS data collection system as a potential operational tool; NASA 

Goddard Space light Center, Symposium on the 

Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1, 3d, 

Washington, D.C., Dec. 1973, Proc., v. 1, sec. 

B, p. 1099-1111. 

Peterson, H. V., 1962, Hydrology of small watersheds 

in western States: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply 

Paper 1475-1, p. 217-356. 

Pluhowski, E. J., 1973, Remote sensing of turbidity 

plumes in lake Ontario: NASA Goddard Space 

Flight Center, Symposium on Significant Results 

Obtained from the Earth Resources Technology 

Satellite-1, 2d, New Carrollton, Md., Mar. 1973, 

Proc., v. 1, sec. A, p. 837-846. 

Scherz, J. P., Sydor, Michael, and Van Domelen, j. F., 

1974, Aircraft and satellite monitoring of water 

quality in lake Superior near Duluth: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Symposium on the 

Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1, 3d, 

Washington, D.C., Dec. 1973, Proc., v. 1, sec. B, 

p. 1619-1636. 

Stortz, Kirby, and Sydor, Michael, 1974, Remote sensing of lake Superior: lnternat. Symposium on 

Remote Sensing of Environment, 9th, Ann Arbor, 

Mich., 197 4, Proc., v. 2, p. 933-937. 

Sydor, Michael, 197 4, Ice growth in Duluth harbor 

and western lake Superior: Univ. of Tenn. Annual Remote Sensing of Earth Resources Conf., 

3d, Tvllahoma, Tenn., 1973, Selected Papers, 

p. 107-116. 

Thomas, D. M., and Benson, M. A., 1970, Generalization of streamflow characteristics from drainagebasin characteristics: U.S. Geol. Survey WaterSupply Paper 1975, 55 p. 

Thorarinsson, Sigurdur; Saemundsson, Kristjan; and 

Williams, R. S., Jr., 1973 [1974], ERTS-1 image of 

Vatnajokull: Analysis of glaciological, structural, 

and volcanic features: jokull, v. 23, p. 7-17. 
222 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

U.S. Geological Survey, 1973, Surface water supply of 

the United States, 1966-70, pt. 9, v. 2, Colorado 

River basin from Green River to Compact Point: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 2125, 

634 p. 

Whitcomb, H. A., and lowry, M. E., 1968, Groundwater resources and geology of the Wind River 

basin area, central Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Surv. 

Hydrol. lnv. Atlas, HA-270. 

Wiesnet, D. R., and McGinnis, D. F., 1974, Snowextent mapping and lake ice studies using ERTS-1 

MSS together with NOAA-2 VHRR: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Symposium on the 

Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1, 3d, 

Washington, D.C., Dec. 1973, Proc., v. 1, sec. B, 

p. 995-1009. 

Williams, R. S., Jr., 1972, Satellite geological and geophysical remote sensing of Iceland [abs.]: Internat. Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment, 8th, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1972, Proc., p. 

1465-1466. 

Williams, R. S., Jr.; Bodvarsson, Agust; Fridriksson, 

Sturla; Palmason, Gudmundur; Rist, Sigurj6n; 

Sigtryggsson, Hlynur; Thorarinsson, Sigurdur; and 

Thorsteinsson, lngvi, 1973a, Satellite geological 

and geophysical remote sensing of Iceland-preliminary results from analysis of MSS imagery: 

NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Symposium 

on Significant Results Obtained from the Earth 

Resources Technology Satellite-1, 2d, New Carrollton, Md., Mar. 1973, Proc., v. 1, sec. A, p. 317-

327. 

Williams, R. S., Jr.; Bodvarsson, Agust; Fridriksson, 

Sturla; Palmason, Gudmundur; Rist, Sigurj6n; 

Sigtryggsson, Hlynur; Saemundsson, Kristjan; 

Thorarinsson, Sigurdur; and Thorsteinsson, lngvi, 

1973b, Iceland-preliminary results of geologic, 

hydrologic, oceanographic, and agricultural 

studies with ERTS-1 imagery: Am. Soc. Photogrammetry, Symposium on Management and 

Utilization of Remote Sensing Data, Sioux Falls, 

S. Dak., 1973, Proc., p. 17-35. 

Williams, R. S., Jr.; Thorarinsson, Sigurdur; and 

Saemundsson, Kristjan, 1973c, Vatnajokull area, 

Iceland-new volcanic and structural features 

on ERTS-1 imagery [abs.]: Geol. Soc. America, 

Abs. with Programs, v. 5, no. 7, p. 864-865. 

Williams, R. S., Jr.; Bodvarsson, Agust; Fridriksson, 

Sturla; Palmason, Gudmundur; Rist, Sigurj6n; 

Sigtryggsson, Hlynur; Saemundsson, Kristjan; 

Thorarinsson, Sigurdur; and Thorsteinsson, lngvi, 

1974, Environmental studies of Iceland with 

ERTS-1 imagery: lnternat. Symposium on Remote 

Sensing of Environment, 9th, Ann Arbor, Mich., 

1974, Proc., v. 1, p. 31-81. 

Williams, R. S., Jr.; Bodvarsson, Agust; Rist, Sigurj6n; 

Saemundsson, Kristjan; and Thorarinsson, Sigurdur, 1975, Glaciological studies in Iceland with 

ERTS-1 imagery: jour. Glaciology v. 15, no. 73 

(in press). 

Williams, R. S., Jr., and Thorarinsson, Sigurdur, 1973 

[1974], ERTS-1 image of Vatnajokull area: General comments: Jokull, v. 23, p. 1-6. 
CHAPTER 4. 

APPLICATIONS TO LAND-USE 

MAPPING AND PLANNING 

INTRODUCTION 

By james R. Anderson, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

t t 0 f all the factors that detennine the quality of our environment, the 

most fundamental is the use we make of our land" (Curtis, 1973). 

This statement is true not only in the big urban centers of our country, where such problems as air and noise pollution plague us and often go unresolved, but also in the most remote rural and relatively untouched parts of 

the Nation. 

The growing population of this country, coupled with an increasing variety of demands being made on land resources, has brought an expanding 

array of pressures on the available resource base. These pressures have caused 

conflicts that urgently need attention. Some examples are agricultural production in conflict with real-estate development and the resulting urbanization; 

environmental protection versus production of energy to meet increasing demands for power ; recreational development versus the use of the land for 

forestry, grazing, and mining; conservation of coastal areas for recreational 

uses in the face of needs for more port facilities and shoreline industrial sites; 

and preservation of wetlands for natural wildlife and fisheries habitat in the 

face of new demands for development of such wetlands for urban uses, agricultural production, and other uses. 

One of the prime requisites for better use of land is information on existing land use and on changes in land use over time. Presently no systematic 

compilation of information on existing land use and its changes is made on a 

regional and national basis. In order to meet the need for promptness and 

regularity in land-use inventory and mapping, traditional approaches to the 

compilation and dissemination of land-use data must be revised. 

We have available the remote-sensing capability to map effectively the 

land use of the entire United States at regional scales within a reasonable 

time frame compatible with the needs of people engaged in land-use planning, management, regulation, and research. Remote-sensor data from ERTS1, from high-altitude platforms, and from other sources will provide a landuse data-collection system capable of providing a cost-effective and timely 

periodic updating of such data in order that the dynamics and trends in 

land use can be studied effectively. 

223 
224 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

Federal and State agencies need an up-to-date regional inventory of land 

use throughout the country on a basis that is uniform in date, scale, and definition; Anderson, Hardy, and Roach (1972) have developed a land-use classification system to meet the need for at least the more general classes (levels I 

and II). 

The approach to land-use classification being proposed by the U.S. Geological Survey is resource oriented. In using remote-sensor data as the main 

data base, a "cover" approach to land-use classification must be used rather 

than an "activity" approach. Farn1ing, grazing, and forestry are activities; 

cropland, rangeland, and forestland are cover categories. 

A reasonable level of accuracy in compilations of land-use dabt from 

remote-sensor data has already been achieved. At the more generalized levels 

of categorization, correct interpretation of land use 85 to 90 percent of the 

time is considered to be an adequate level of accuracy. Often overlooked is 

the fact that data collected by enumeration and ground-observation techniques 

are generally not infallible. For exan1ple, in the Census of Agriculture taken 

in 1969 by the U.S. Bureau of the Census, the number of farms was low by 

14 percent. 

One of the possible significant advantages of ERTS-1 is the capability to 

identify areas where changes in land use are occurring. ERTS imagery does 

not generally permit a complete detailed identification of the more specialized 

levels of categorization (levels II and III) of land uses, but the availability 

of repetitive coverage on a seasonal and annual basis will enable us to become 

more efficient in updating land-use data. We simply cannot afford to compile 

entirely new land-use m·aps·on a regular annual basis over extensive areas. 

Some examples of the use of ERTS data as an aid in the inventory and 

mapping of land use are presented here. 

North and Linebeck (p. 228) have conducted an interesting and informative experiment in extracting a single theme or land-use type, forestland, 

from ERTS-1 data for the entire State of Alabama within a relatively few 

days and within a few weeks after the ERTS overpasses were made. While 

such land-use data obtained from ERTS will need to be calibrated with existing definitions of land use to be most useful, the potential for inexpensive and 

rapid surveys of extensive land use and cover conditions, such as for forestland, tundra, and so on, offers opportunities to acquire useful information in 

a reasonable time frame for planning and management purposes. This is true 

particularly for developing nations where such information is often lacking. 

The use of ERTS data by Cast ( p. 225) for an area in northeastern 

Colorado also offers an informative example of how land use and cover conditions can in a general way be related effectively and quickly to other land 

characteristics such as soil type, slope, and drainage. 

Place (p. 230), in using ERTS data in the Phoenix area of Arizona 

to monitor land-use changes, has demonstrated that land-use changes of regional significance can be monitored with reasonable ERTS-1 data. Although 

the detailed character of the changes actually occm;ring, particularly in urban 

areas, generally cannot be specifically identified by visual interpretation of 

ERTS data, it helps land planners and managers to know where land-use 

changes are occurring and the general extent of such changes. 

Ellefsen, Gaydos, and Wray (p. 234) have been exploring the use of 

digital data from ERTS-1 to obtain 1nore refined land-use data than can be 

obtained from the visual interpretation of ERTS-1 data. Results to date indicate that land-use mapping by the machine processing of ERTS-1 data is 

feasible. 
I n the semiarid climate of the western Great Plains, 

man's agricultural use of the land requires supplemental moisture to ensure a harvest. The ERTS 

image in figure 161 readily indicates the use of the 

land as determined by moisture and soil. The South 

Platte valley-including both the present and ancestral valleys-ranges from 2.4 to 4.8 km in width and 

is accented on the image by the red band caused by 

reflectance differences between the rich irrigated crops 

and the dry grasses and dry land farming. Irrigation 

water is obtained from high-yield wells located in the 

valley alluvium and from river diversions. Another 

large block of irrigated land can be seen in the left 

center of the image; irrigation there is by surface 

water brought into the area via canals. 

The areas denoted dry land farming are areas w herr 

ground water is insufficient to support an irrigation 

regime or where surface water is not available. The 

soil is suitable for dryland farming because it dors 

have good moisture-retention properties and lrnds itself to a summer fallow method whereby much of the 

land is farmed only every other year. Areas where soil 

conditions are marginal for dry land farming are denoted dryland farming and grassland. In the ERTS 

image (fig. 162) these are areas of relatively even 

gray shades with numerous small light-colorPd rrctangles. The light color is due to the characteristic 

reflectance from bare ground, either summer fallow 

or the dry stubble of harvested wheat; wheat is the 

primary crop of such an area. 

LAND USE IN NORTHEAST COLORADO 

By Larry D. Cast, 

Bureau of Reclamation 

The areas utilized strictly for a grassland (ranching) operation have a relatively even and continuous 

gray color. These are areas where the soil tends to be 

sandy and does not have sufficient moisture-retention 

properties to permit row-crop agriculture. Another 

shortcoming of this area's sandy soil is that it is susceptible to becoming active, a situation in which areas 

of exposed sand or blowouts can be created by wind 

erosion. Grassland in areas of ancient sand dunes often 

have areas of active sand. These appear in the image 

as white dots in the grassland-dune sand areas. 

The larger urbanized areas, such as Denver, can be 

readily recognized by the gridlike pattern of highways and reflectance properties of buildings and streets. 

The sandy floor of Bijou Creek stands out sharply 

near the center of the image. It is an intermittent 

stream that has a high base load of sand during periods 

of high runoff. 

O~e of the more intriguing things that can be readily identified are the circular sprinkler (center pivot) 

irrigation systems. These systems each irrigate 50 to 

60 ha and appear on the image as a small dark dot. A 

cluster of these systems is identified in the upper left 

corner of the image, but these dark dots can be seen in 

many parts of the image. The date of the imagery is 

.T nly 27, 1973 ; cmn, sugarbeets, and alfalfa are the 

principal irrigated crops, and late July finds them in 

their peak growth. This is also normally a dry period 

that emphasizes the contrast between irrigated and 

nonirrigated land. 

225 
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226 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

IWIIH-38 

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FIGURE 161.-Color composite ERTS-1 image of the South Platte River valley of Colorado (1369-17074). 

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4. Applications to land-Use Mapping and Planning 227 

IWie-1-30 Wle-1-001 Wl83-301 Wl83-001 1~1-00 

IW185-00 Wle-1-301 INB39-30 

27Jll.73 C ~-17/1.1183-5'1 N ~-16/lol183-'12 MSS 5 

IW10"1-00 Wl83-301 D SUN EL57 RZI22 190-51'15-N-I-N-D-2L NASA ERTS E-1369-1787'1-5 01 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 0 10 20 

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30 MILES 

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FIGURE 162.-Annotated ERTS-1 image of the South Platte River valley showing irrigated lands, grasslands, and dryland farming 

areas (1369-17074, band 5). 

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THEMATIC MAPPING OF 

FORESTED AND CULTIVATED LAND 

IN ALABAMA 

By Gary W. North, U.S. Geological Survey, 

and Neal G. Lineback, University of Alabama 

The ERTS-1 imagery being collected today is giving man a chance to monitor the changing face 

of his planet. The color composite ERTS-1 uncontrolled mosaic shown in figure 163 was made by the 

EROS Experiments and Evaluation Office in Bay St. 

Louis, Miss. The work was part of a research project 

being conducted by the Geological Survey of Alabama 

entitled, "User acceptance and implementation of 

ERTS-1 data in Alabama." 

Eleven color composite ERTS-1 imageH, taken during the period from August 1972 to March 1973, were 

carefully mosaiced to form one large picture of the 

State of Alabama at an initial scale of 1: 1,000,000. 

Major cities, such as Birmingham, located near the 

center of the mosaic, appear as light-blue areas. Sediment plumes, such as those in Mobile Bay in the southern part of the State, also show up as light tones, as 

do areas cleared for agriculture. This is best illustrated 

by Alabama's "Black Belt." the prominent light-tone 

area extending from east to ·west across the central 

part of the State. an area of intensive agricultural 

use because of its dark fertile soils. 

To illustrate how a mosaic such as this can be used 

to determine land-use change~ an overlay of the 

forested lands was prepared frmn interpretation of the 

mosaic. This so-called thematic extraction showed tlw 

cleared lands as black and the forest as white. Using an 

eight-color VP-8 Image Analysis System, the EROS 

Experiments and Evaluation Office staff determined 

228 

that the forested area of Alabama encompasses 76,986 

km2, or 7,580,211 ha. The total area encompassed by the 

State of Alabama is 134,183 km2 , or 13,211,904 ha. 

which includes 1,971 km2 , or 194,048 ha, of water. These 

figures were compiled on the Image Analysis System 

by scanning the thematic extraction with a television 

camera and then displaying the black and white areas 

on a color television monitor as single colors. By masking off known areas on the extraction, the machine can 

determine the percentage of the scene that falls into 

each category, and these data are then converted 

mathematically into area figures. 

The 1972 "Statistical Abstract of the United States" 

indicated that 9,895,000 ha of land in Alabama were 

in forestland as of .Jan. 1, 1970. Although these figures 

were derived from different data using different techniques, the ERTS analysis indicates that an important 

new capability for inventorying forestland may be 

available soon. No accuracy analysis of this interpretation of ERTS data has yet been made, but studies of 

ERTS-1 imagery made in other places indicate that 

forestland can be interpreted from ERTS-1 data. Although some decline in forestland has probably occurred in recent years, the area of young forests was 

probably underestimated from ERTS data, but comparisml of the· interpretation of ERTS-1 data with 

other data should be possible. An assessment of this 

type can be made in a short perod of time for a cost 

of less than $100. 
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4. Applications to land-Use Mapping and Planning 229 

APPROXIMATE 

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SCALE 

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ERTS- 1 IMAGE INDEX 

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Date of imagery: October 1972-January 1973 

FIGURE 163.-Color composite ERTS-1 image mosaic of the State of Alabama. 
MONITORING CHANGE IN 

LAND USE OVER LARGE REGIONS 

By john L Place, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

F igure 164, a color composite image from the ERTS MSS, provides a view 

of Phoenix, Ariz., and its western environs as of May 2, 1973. Images of 

this type have been used to detect changes in land use, as illustrated by 

figure 165, which shows a 1970 land-use map in muted colors overlain in 

brighter colors by a plot of ERTS-detected residential growth. Also overlain 

in more intense colors on that map are new cropland plots and a replacement 

of cropland by a new reservoir. 

In the past, it took several years to acquire and compile the data to produce a map of current land use for the Nation or even for a large multistate 

region. By the time such a map reached the public, parts of it were out of 

date. vVith the advent of ERTS, for the first time changes in land use nationwide can be n1onitored very rapidly, utilizing a new land-use classification 

system (Anderson and others, 1972) designed especially for work with aerial 

photography and satellite photography and imagery (Place, 1973). 

In order to map land use nationwide, it was advisable to build upon the 

existing map coverage, particularly upon topographic maps which had a 

geometric accuracy that met the National Map Accuracy Standards. The 

largest scale map series presently covering the entire Nation is the 1:250,000 

topographic maps (each quadrangle map covers an area of 1° of latitude 

and 2° of longitude), an ideal scale for use with ERTS images (Place, 1974). 

The test area selected for the first of such land-use maps was the Phoenix 

quadrangle in Arizona. As the first step in this test, a land-use map was compiled for the Phoenix quadrangle. shown in muted colors in figure 165, by 

interpreting high-altitude aerial photographs taken in November 1970. An 

ERTS experiment was conducted under XASA sponsorship to test the utility 

of ERTS images in updating this map. The changes detected, shown in figure 

165, were used to update an existing computer data bank containing information on land use and related factors in the Phoenix quadrangle. 

Of particular importance was an accuracy test performed on the ERTS 

findings, that is, where ERTS images were the only source of information. 

Aerial photographs from a NASA U-2 aircraft in November 1972 were compared with the U-2 photographs of exactly 2 yr earlier, and a new map of 

detected change in land use was compiled. 

The clusters of urban growth detected by ERTS and by U-2 were very 

similar. The aircraft-detected change was more detailed and more precisely 

plotted as to planimetric location on the ground. However, the ERTS interpretation has two advantages over the aircraft interpretation. First, ERTS 

views were repeated at least monthly and allowed interpretation of changing 

vegetation, which aided delimitation of new cropland on the desert margin 

where some fields were fallow and invisible in the November aerial photo230 
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IW112·31 W112-•1 

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4. Applications to Land-Use Mapping and Planning 231 

Wlll·311 WIIJ ··I 

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30 Kl LOM ETERS 

FIGURE 164.-Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Phoenix area of Arizona (1283-17334). 

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232 ERTS-1, A New W indow on Our Planet 

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•• APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 0 10 20 MILES 

I I' I ,. , I I I I 

10 0 10 20 KILO METERS 

FIGURE 165.-Land-use map of the Ph oeni x area, 1970, with changes detected by 

ERTS through April 1973 shown in denser patterns: new res idential in red, new 

cropland in black. The background colors represent land use as interpreted 

from high-altitude aerial photography acquired in 1970: residential in russet, 

cropland in green, and so on. 

graphs. Second, the ERTS images cover the winter of 1972-73 and hence were 

more up to date than the photographs. This is a realistic example of how 

aerial photographs and ERTS images complement each other. In any given 

area of the United States, the most recent aerial photograph is likely to be 

several years old. Furthermore, they are taken too infrequently to allow analysis of seasonal vegetation change. 

Some of the informational content of an ERTS color composite is illustrated in figure 166. Residential landscaping has a distinctive pink color, quite 

different from the intense red of irrigated crops or city parks. Water areas, 

which fluctuate seasonally, can be seen easily. Some of the wild grass that 

grows in the desert after heavy rains can be seen as a dark-red area in the 

desert north of Phoenix; monitoring wild grass is important to range managers. Commercial and industrial districts of Phoenix can be distinguished by 

their bluish color, that is, absence of vegetation. Airport runways and the 

major highways normally can be detected if the background vegetation provides an adequate silhouette. 

The test has verified the utility of ERTS images for updating maps of 

general land use in the arid Southwestern United States and to a lesser degrel' 

in large cities such as Phoenix. At the very least, ERTS images help us to 

detect and focus on the areas experiencing greatest change, to which we can 

then apply more intensive survey techniques. 
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4. Applications to Land-Use Mapping and Planning 233 

20 30 MILES 

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FIGURE 166--Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Phoenix area of Arizona, on Oct 16, 1972 (1085-17330)_ 

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COMPUTER-AIDED MAPPING OF LAND USE 

By Richard Ellefsen, California State University, 

and leonard Gaydos and james R. Wray, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

To date the most common remote-sensing tool used for land-use mapping 

has been interpretation of aerial photographs. The usual procedure is to 

interpret the land use from the photography and then to plot it as irregularly shaped polygons on existing topographic or planimetric maps or on 

photomosaics (Anderson and others, 1972). The land-use polygons may then 

be digitized for computer storage and handling. 

This procedure is dependent on: ( 1) obtaining current aerial-photograph 

coverage, preferably with false-color infrared film of high resolution over as 

large an area as possible; (2) fast. and objective interpretation by several interpreters; (3) reliable and inexpensive digitizing and encoding for computer 

storage and manipulation; and ( 4) aggregation of data by statistical units 

such as census-enumeration district, city. or county. 

In practice, all these conditions can rarely be met adequately, either from 

conventional or nonconventional sources. Generally the requirements either go 

unfulfilled or are fulfilled with either a loss of speed or accuracy or at much 

greater cost. For many uses ERTS data in digital format can provide not 

only timely acquisition of land-use information but also the basis of an information system for processing it. 

There are two main outputs from ERTS: computer compatible tapes 

(CCT's) or imagery (fig. 167). The computer has the capability of examining 

a large quantity of data and objectively classifying it quickly according to 

guidelines established by pattern-recognition algorithms and by the analyst. 

The unit of observation, the pixel (79 X 56 m), is also the unit of area measurement. 

Because the information is already digitized, there exists the basis of a 

geographic information system. Data concerning such factors as slope, climate, 

vegetation, and physical hazards can be matched with the land use to provide 

comprehensive information about environmental conditions. Pragmatic questions, such as how much housing occupies environmentally hazardous areas, 

may then be answered by manipulation of the data. 

Land-use mapping procedures described here are based on a group of 

pattern-recognition programs collectively known as LARSYS. ERTS CCT's 

are preprocessed at LARS (Laboratory for Applications of Remote Sensing, 

Purdue University) before analysis. First, they are reformatted for interaction 

234 
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4. Applications to Land-Use Mapping and Planning 235 

1'839-elitl IWI 22·1i11J 11121·311 Wl2l·liiiJI 

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10 0 

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APPROXIMATE SCALE 

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10 20 

20 30 MILES 

30 KILOMETERS 

18175- 81 

FIGURE 167.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the San Francisco Bay area of California (1 003-18175). 

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I 
236 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

with LARSYS on an IB~I 360/67 computer. Then, five linear transformations 

are made that correct for geometry and produce a data tape with consistent 

scale and data lines oriented west to east when reproduced on a line-printer. 

The best results are obtained when data from two· ERTS passes over the 

same area, but during different season, are used interactively. Over time, 

changes in relative spectral response occur. The agricultural and native vegetation lands change with the season and their growing cycles, whereas manmade 

cover changes very little. In the preprocessing, data from the second pass is 

matched pixel-by-pixel with data from the first in an overlaying step. The 

resultant tape includes eight channels of spectral data in digital form, four 

from each date, and is geometrically correct. 

The output is a line-printer tnap at a scale of 1:24,000 on which each 

pixel is represented by an alphanumeric symbol indicative of the spectral 

class to which it belongs. Determination of land use then requires an interpretation of the spectral 1nap that must be related by the analyst to known 

land-cover patterns on the ground. Reference is tnade to any other source material available, including existing maps and photographs. A few features 

identify readily with certain land uses, and they are used as landmarks for 

interpreting the rest. Gradually, patterns emerge. One by one the predominant 

]and use for each feature is determined (fig. 168). The eventual goal is a pattern that identifies well particular land uses. Once determined, some test 

classifications verify the results or suggest further refinements. 1Vhen they 

are regarded as sound, the entire area is then classified (fig. 169) . The results 

are recorded on tape and form the basis for a variety of products. 

l\faps in line-printer-output form have both advantages and disadvantages. One advantage is that, as an integral part of the computational process, 

the line-printer output may be acquired not just once for each area analyzed 

but as often as desired and in as many different rearrangements of the data as 

the analyst might require. The similarity of all computer line-printer-output 

forms is another advantage and permits direct comparison of results with 

analysis products from other machines. Another advantage of the line-printer 

is the ability to aline the product, when done at full resolution of 1 : 24,000, 

with existing 71h-min quadrangle maps at the same scale. Such maps are extremely valuable to the analyst for classification and for relating the land 

uses to known point and line phenomena (fig. 170) . Figures 171 and 172 show 

two seasonal views of the locale of figure 170. The cellular nature of the lineprinter map also facilitates aggregation by rectangular jurisdictional units 

and by superimposed grid cells of varying sizes. It thus forms the basis for 

a geographic inforn1ation system. The disadvantage of the line-printer is 

mostly that its product is not recognized as a traditional form of a map. 

The mapping of land use from ERTS MSS data in digital form holds 

considerable promise. The system performs well in the diverse physical environments of California, Arizona, and " .. ashington, D.C. (Ellefsen, 1974a 

and 197 4b; Ellefsen and others, 197 4). Todd and others ( 197 4) report similar 

success in 'Visconsin and Indiana. Reliable patterns are also achieved in Lubbock, Tex. (Henderson and others, 1974). 

'Ylwn futurP Earth observation satellites become operational. the scannercomputer 1napping system using satellite data could serve as a continuous, 

silent monitor of conditions on the surface of the Earth. whereas aircraft 

remote-sensing equipment could be called upon for quick coverage of any 

particular area. as in time of environmental calamity. 
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FIGU_RE 168.-Enlarged aerial photograph-map pair of Hayward, Calif. Photograph 

IS part of a single high-altitude false-color infrared aerial photograph acquired 

at a scale of 1:50,000 on May 15, 1970, by NASA for the USGS Census Cities 

ERT~ experiment. Map is by Purdue University LARS for the EROS program 

and IS based on ERTS-1 scanner digital data for image 1003-18175, acquired 

on July 26, 1972. Scan lines have been reformatted so that they are nearly 

parallel to east-west UTM 1-km grid lines (Zone 10). One printout symbol 

0 1 KILOMETER 

r~presents one ERTS scanner picture element (pixel), 0.46 ha (including pixel 

s1delap). Urban classes: commercial-industrial, (1); mobile homes, (V); residential, (M); parking lots ( · ); unimproved open space, bare (-); unimproved 

open space, trees {!); open space, irrigated (+); water (0). Note correspondence between photo and map in mobile home area, lower left corner. Eastward expansion of mobile home park (symbol V on ERTS computer map) has 

been confirmed by NASA 1972 aerial photograph. 
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FIGURE 169.-Part of a computer-classified land-use map of the San Francisco 

Bay region. Map is derived from ERTS-1 scanner digital data, image 1003-

18175, acquired on july 26, 1972. Classification, by Purdue University LARS, 

uses eight Urban classes, aQd three Nonurban classes. Urban area, defined by 

1-km UTM grid (Zone 10), is from USGS Census Cities ERTS experiment and 

0 5 KILOMETER S 

NASA aerial photography. The grid facilitates comparison with corresponding 

ERTS-1 image. The map is produced at a scale of 1 :48,000 by classifying 

every other pixel in every other scan line. About 6,500 km2 (or just under 

0.1 percent of the U.S. land area) were classified on LARS IBM 360/67 in 

about 30 min of computer time. 

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4. Applications to Land-Use Mapping and Planning 239 

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APPROXIMATE SCALE 

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FIGURE 170.-Map (A), orthophotograph (B), two enlargements of color composite ERTS-1 images (C and 0), and computer-classified 

land-use map (E) of a small area near Phoenix, Ariz. All these pictures represent a small part of the Phoenix area. The 7% -min 

quadrangle map (A) was published in 1965; the orthophoto quadrangle map (8) was produced in 1971. The same area was 

selected from the two ERTS-1 images from Oct. 16, 1973 (C) (1085-17330), and May 2, 1973 tD) (1283-17334), enlarged to almost 

the same scale. The enlargements are clear enough to identify the mountains (brown), vegetation (red), and other features as on 

all such ERTS images. Using the computer compatible tapes from both dates, however, a computer map (E) has been reproduced that shows distinctly, in minute detail, the ·land use and its changes. Colors on reduced line-printer symbols discriminate 

such land uses as residential (blue), comme'rcial-industrial (orange-red), agricultural (yellow and green), newly disturbed land 

(purple), and highland and' lowland desert vegetation (brown and tan, respectively). 
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240 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

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APPROXIMATE SCALE 

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10 20 

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FIGURE 171 .-Color composite ERTS-1 image of Phoenix, Ariz., on Oct 16, 1972 (1 085-17330). 

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4. Applications to Land-Use Mapping and Planning 241 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

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FIGURE 172.-Color composite ERT5-1 image of Phoenix, Ariz., on May 2, 1973 (1283-1 7334). 

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REFERENCES 

Anderson, j. R., Hardy, E. E., and Roach, j. T., 1972, A land-use classification 

system for· use with remote-sensor data: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 671, 

16 p. 

Curtis, Virginia, ed., 1973, Land use and the environment, an anthology of 

readings: Chicago, Ill., Am. Soc. Planning Officials for Environmental 

Studies Div., Off. Research and Monitoring, Environmental Protection 

Agency, 199 p. 

Ellefsen, Richard, 197 4a, Automatic digital processing of ERTS-1 MSS data 

in an urban land-use mapping experiment: Am. Soc. Photogrammetry, 

Ann. Mtg., St. Louis, Mo., 1974, Proc., p. 405-416. 

--- 1974b, ADP pattern recognition of urban land uses from satelliteborne multispectral scanner: Univ. of Ariz., Ann. Conf. on Remote 

Sensing in Arid Lands, 4th, Tucson, Ariz., 1973, Proc., p. 71-79. 

Ellefsen, Richard, Gaydos, Leonard, and Wray, j. R., 1975, Computer aided 

mapping of land use using ERTS multispectral scanner data: Pan American Con g. on Photogrammetry, Photo interpretation, and Geodesy, 1st, 

Mexico City, Mexico, 1974, Proc. (in press). 

Henderson, j. A., Baumgardner, M. F., and Walker, C. F., 1974, Preparing 

resource inventories in the southern Great Plains by machine processing 

of ERTS-1 multispectral data: Univ. of Ariz. Ann. Conf. on Remote 

Sensing in Arid Lands, 4th, Tucson, Ariz., 1973, Proc., p. 57-69. 

Place, j. L., 1973, Change in land use in the Phoenix (1 :250,000) quadrangle, 

Arizona, between 1970 and 1972-successful use of a proposed land 

use classification system: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Symposium on Significant Results Obtained from the Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1, 2d, New Carrollton, Md., Mar. 1973, Proc., v. 1, sec. 

B, p. 899-906. 

--- 1974, Change in land use in the Phoenix (1 :250,000) quadrangle, 

Arizona, between 1970 and 1973-ERTS as an aid in a nationwide program for mapping general land use: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, 

Symposium on the Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1, 3d, Washington, D.C., Dec. 1973, Proc., v. 1, sec. A, p. 393-423. 

Todd, W. j., Mausel, P. W., and Baumgardner, M. F., 1974, An analysis of 

metropolitan land use by machine processing of Earth Resources Technology Satellite data: Assoc. Am. Geographers, Proc., v. 6, p. 54-57. 

242 
CHAPTER 5. 

APPLICATIONS TO AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY, 

AND RANGELAND MANAGEMENT 

INTRODUCTION 

By Grover Torbert, 

Bureau of Land Management 

The agriculturist, forester, and rangeland manager all strive for efficient 

n1anagement of renewable natural resources : agricultural crops, timber, 

and forage. Improved n1anagen1ent could provide mankind with a higher 

sustained yield of food and fiber. The following three articles show the capacity of remote sensing from space to contribute to the wise management of 

these resources. 

The need of the resource n1anager for ti1nely and accurate inforn1ation 

is reflected in the complexity and volu1ne of problen1s that confront hin1. Present-day managers, however, could resolve n1any of their problen1s through 

the use of remote-sensing techniques. 

Vegetation conditions are generally dynan1ic, and a correct appraisal of 

conditions at any time is essential for forecasting trends. The synoptic view 

and the repetitive acquisition of in1agery of the Earth's surface at a regular 

interval provide the n1eans for measuring the vegetative characteristics on 

a spectral, spatial, and ten1poral basis. This type of coverage also provides for 

time-lapse observation of the Earth's surface and for monitoring ephemeral 

rangelands, diseased tin1ber, food crops, and other highly dynamic natural 

phenomena. 

The synoptic view fron1 ERTS-1 provides the renewable-resource manager the opportunity to make con1parisons between known and inaccessible 

areas. Geologic features that control terrane and areas suitable for cropping, 

forestry, and rangeland all have unique environntental characteristics. These 

characteristics are expressed primarily, on the surface, by the vegetation they 

support. 

Harvesting tin1ber, planting crops, or ntanaging rangeland all disturb 

the ground surface. Through the synoptic view from a spacecraft, data necessary for the preparation and compliance of envirmunental impact statements 

are made available. 

Satellite data, a n1ajor input into any natural-resource infonnation systen1, provide the perspective for viewing regional problen1s and the repetitive 

coverage for forecasting seasonal change. Both are necessary when making 

decisions about the use of renewable natural resources and when planning 

major public works projects. 

The following pages of this chapter provide a sa1npling of studies of 

ERTS in1age data to determine its usefulness in n1onitoring the effects of 

forest fires in Alaska (by Torbert). in detecting short-tern1 changes in vegetation conditions in ... A._rizona (by Turner), and in n1onitoring ephemeral livestock forage production (by Bentley). These are but a few of the applications that are being evaluated by the bureaus of the Department of the Interior. 

243 
MONITORING FOREST-FIRE 

BURN AREAS IN ALASKA 

By Grover Torbert, 

Bureau of Land Management 

F igure 173 is an ERTS image of northern Alaska that shows a forest fire 

(A) in progress on July 26, 1972 (Anderson, 1973). The Pah River lire 

was discovered on July 8, and by the time the image was scanned the fire 

had consumed 24,000 ha of an overstory of mixed spruce, birch, and aspen 

and an understory of arctic tundra and muskeg. As of September 5, when no 

further smoke was visible, 48,000 ha had been burned. 

In the northwest part of the image is an older burn area (B), south of 

the Kobuk River. This lightning-caused fire, the Shaler fire, began on June 

24, 1971, consumed a similar vegetation assemblage, and ultin1ately burned 

22,300 ha. 

Imagery such as this could be n1uch more useful to firefighting manageInent personnel, however, if it were available on a real-time basis for three 

things : ( 1) to view and evaluate the resource burned and those being threatened by large individual fires, (2) to provide a tool in decisionmaking to set 

priorities on control of large fires, and ( 3) to help provide early ordering and 

coordination of logistical resources for firefighting to meet priorities on large 

fires. 

Cloudy weather during the summer Inonths in Alaska does interfere with 

collection of aerial and satellite imagery, but this deficiency is partly compensated for by ERTS-1, which has greater repetition of coverage (3 days 

in a row of the same area at lat 65°N.). This is due to convergence of orbits 

in polar regions. The cloud problem could be further reduced by acquiring 

images twice a day by taking advantage of the light available during the summer evening hours ( n1idnight sun) at ·high latitudes. Because Alaska is the site 

of one of the three U.S. ERTS ground receiving stations, the pobmtial does 

exist for creation of a real-ti1ne quick-look image capability for use in forestfire managen1ent. Until such an operational capability exists, however, ERTS 

images still retain their value for time-lapse looks at large areas and are 

valuable in delineating the rate of regrowth in burned areas and in assessing 

the general status of vegetation in such remote areas (Carter, 1973). 

244 
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5. Applications to Agriculture, Forestry, and Rangeland Management 245 

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FIGURE 173.-Annotated color composite ERT5-1 image of a forest fire in northern Alaska (1 003-21355). 

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DETECTION OF SHORT-TERM CHANGES 

IN VEGETATION OF SOUTHERN ARIZONA 

By Raymond M. Turner, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

T

he traditional products of pre-ERTS vegetation 

mapping were usually maps showing ranges of 

plant communities or floristic maps showing distributions of individual species. Now that ERTS is in 

orbit, synoptic mapping of short-term vegetation 

phenomena has become feasible. 

l{nowledge of the seasonal changes in plant cover 

can be used by agriculturalists to pinpoint likely areas 

for grazing, to anticipate locust n1igration areas, and 

to help identify crop types and woodland communities. 

Seasonal changes in foliation have been an elusive 

parameter of great importance to hydrologists studying water use within riparian and phreatic communities and to determine likely areas of subsurface water 

availability. 

The ERTS image in figure 17 4 shows an area 

124X 169 km surrounding Tuc..son, Ariz. Terrain altitude within the 20,956 km2 area ranges from about 610 

to 2,896 m. Average annual rainfall ranges from near 

254 mm to more than 762 mm. 

As in most arid regions, the desert near Tucson supports an open sparse plant cover except during seasons 

of favorable rainfall when a dense sward of ephemeral 

plants may develop. These small plants reach maturity 

and complete their life cycles within only a few weeks. 

At the other extreme of plant phenologic response in 

the Tucson region are the conifers and oaks found at 

high altitudes on the isolated mountains; these plants 

are dominantly evergreens and should change little 

through the year. Riparian and phreatic vegetation 

occur at all altitudes. 

By using ERTS images from two or more spectral 

bands, thematic masks can be made that show all areas 

within an ERTS scene where plant foliage cover is 

relatively dense. The technique involves a ratioing 

procedure whereby radiance values across paired 

ERTS scenes are used to generate thematic masks 

(Turner, 1973). In the three examples presented in 

246 

figure 175, two of the four spectral bands have been 

combined by the ratioing procedure. A 70-mm positive 

transparency of band 6 is paired electronically with the 

identical image recorded in band 5. Thematic masks 

are generated by dividing band 6 radiance values by 

band 5 values and by electronically slicing areas that 

exceed some preselected ratio. In the examples given, 

a ratio of 1.25/1.00 was used. Use of a ratio probably 

largely nullifies problems arising from seasonal 

changes in Sun elevation and atmospheric attenuation. 

The technique relies on the well-known fact that leaves 

reflect heavily in the near-infrared range (band 6) but 

reflect little in the red band (band 5). Leaf reflectance 

in these two bands is influenced by two distinct plant 

systems, one involving pigment chemistry, the other, 

mesophy ll anatomy. Both of these systems are closely 

related to the volume of foliage. 

From top to bottom the masks show areas of relatively dense vegetation on Aug. 22, 1972, late summer 

(1030-17271); Dec. 26, 1972, winter (1156-17280); 

and Feb. 18, 1973, spring (1210-17282). The exact 

percentage of foliage cover identified by the 1.25/1.00 

ratio use is not known, although field sampling at the 

time of each satellite overpas~ suggests a 25 percent 

to 50 percent foliar cover. 

The three electronically sliced images show the following: 

1. The highest mountains exceed the threshold ratio 

at all three seasons. This result is expected because these mountains all support dense stands 

of evergreen oaks and conifers .. The color composite image (fig. 17 4) was taken on Jan. 13, 

1973, 18 days after the imagery for the winter 

scene (fig. 175). ~ ote the close relationship between the black areas on the sliced image and the 

red areas (dense plant growth) on the color 

composite. 
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5. Applications to Agriculture, Forestry, and Rangeland Management 247 

1.11 10• 301 IN032· 30 

Wt l0· 30 1 D SUN EL29 A2 1a6 190· 2<1 26 - G· I · 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

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30 KILOMETERS 

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0·00 1 

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FIGURE 174.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the Tucson area of Arizona (1174-1 7275). Outl ine shows the approximate 

area shown in figure 175. 

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248 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

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August 22, 1972 

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December 26, 1972 

February 18, 1973 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

0 10 20 30 40 MILES I I I I I I I I I 0 10 20 30 40 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 175.-Thematic extraction of relatively dense vegetation 

from ERTS-1 images by ratioing: late summer, Aug. 22, 1972; 

winter, Dec. 26, 1972; and spring, Feb. 18, 1973 (1030-

17271, 1156-17280, and 1210-17282). 

2. Foliage cover changes along the two principal 

streams crossing the area produce an expected 

pattern in the sliced images. In late summer (fig. 

175), when the riparian communities and cultivated fields are in full leaf along the full length 

of the valleys. tlw valleys are clearly marked by 

the pattern of sliced areas. By the time of the 

winh'r view, species of the riparian communities, 

such as mesquite and cottonwood, are leafless, and 

only a few fields haw active plants along these 

valleys. ~H tht> tim(~ of the spring view, there is 

heavy plant growth in cultivated areas up to an 

altitude of about ;~,~·wo m in both valleys. Most 

riparian spt>cies WHP still dormant on the date 

of this spring imagP. 

~- Tlw low desert areas, Sl'Pn primarily toward the 

upper left comt>r of t.lw images, exhibit little 

plant growth in thl' latP summer except for some 

irrigated lands and riparian comnmnities. Many 

of these same desert areas exceeded the 1.25/1.00 

threshold ratio on February 18, n. date preceded 

by above avHage rainfall, resulting in an exceptionally heavy growth of desert eplwmeral plants. 

4. Vegetation at intermediate altitudes lying above 

the desPrt and belo'v t.l1e evergreen forests (intermontam' areas to the south and east .within the 

test site) responds in a markedly different manner. There the plant communities are dominated 

by grasses that are active in the summer and 

autumn but dormant in the winter, even when 

moisture is ph,ntifnl. Accordingly, these intermontane arl'as should. show response on the sliced 

images only during the summer, if rainfall is 

adequate. Not all the grassland area in the test 

site exceeded the threshold during the summer of 

1972, however, notably along the western margin. 

This fact can be explained by the pattern of 

sumnwr rainfall in 1972. Regional rainfall was 

abnormal that season, beginning in early June, 

roughly a month early. By the elate of the August 

satellite image, many of the grassland areas to 

the south had recei vecl 200 to 225 mm of rain ; on 

the west, grassland areas received only about a 

third as much rain. 

From the foregoing, it appears that Earth resource 

satellites such as ERTS-1 can provide a sensitive synoptic evaluation of seasonal changes in the pattern of 

plant growth. In vast ariel areas of the world, rangeland is grazed only aftl'r brief periods of unpredictable 

rainfall. These rangelands are. extensive, poorly served 

by roads, and contain few meteorological stations. 

When ERTS-type satellitl's can provide imagery to 

potential users in only a few days' time, a large segment of the Earth's inhabitants will btmefit. 
T

he color composite ERTS-1 image in figure 176 

shows an area of south-central Arizona that includes the arid desert region between Phoenix and 

Tucson. The dese1t area is similar to millions of acres 

of public land in the Southwestern United States administered by the Bureau of Land Management. 

The desert floor accommodates a thin cover of perennial trees and shrubs throughout the year. During 

abnormally wet years, spaces between perennial plants 

may be covered with ephemeral plants, short-lived 

plants that complete their life cycle during the winterspring or summer growing seasons. These plants, when 

growing in sufficient quantity, can provide forage for 

livestock, but the season when plants are green and 

nutritious can vary widely, from 3 weeks to several 

months. In order to maximize the use of forage, resource managers need a fast and reliable method of 

monitoring forage conditions over vast areas (Bentley, 

1974). 

Using the ·color composite ERTS-1 image, three 

distinct vegetative communities can be mapped (fig. 

177). A photointerpretation of this type is best done 

visually by a person familiar with the region being 

mapped. The criteria used for interpreting features are 

differences in colors and tones~ as well as textural patterns ( roughn('ss or smoothness) . of the various homogeneous areas identified on the image. 

Bluish areus on the image correspond to areas 

around the base of desert rocky mountain outcrops and 

on upper bajadas or outwash plains sloping away from 

large mountain ranges. These areas have a good mixture of desert trees and shrubs; ephemeral plants grow 

in the interspaces during rainy periods. These areas 

are designated perennial-ephemeral on thP image. The 

different amounts of l-'phemerals produced (heavy~ 

moderate, and light production) can be separated by 

MONITORING EPHEMERAL 

LIVESTOCK-FORAGE PRODUCTION 

By R. Gordon Bentley, Jr., 

Bureau of land Management 

the relative amount of red or pink blotches or streaks 

running through the bluish areas. Extremely rough 

textured areas in the center of bluish areas are rocky 

mountain outcrops. These areas produce a mixture of 

desert trees and shrubs and a small amount of ephemeral plants. Ephemeral production is light because of 

the shallow rocky soil. Grazing on these areas is difficult for livestock because of steep slopes and rocks. 

Bright red or pink relatively smooth textured areas 

on the image are lower bajadas and valley floors that 

produce nearly pure stands of a single perennial shrub, 

Larrea tridentata (creosote- bush). These areas appear 

white on images made before the start of ephemeral 

plant growth in summer or early fall. These areas are 

designated ephemeral on the image. The red on creosote-bush sites reflects only ephemeral plant growth; 

creosote bushes cannot be seen from satellite altitudes. 

Heavy, moderate, and light ephemeral-forage production on creosote-bush sites corresponds to red, pink, 

and light pink. respectively, on the ERTS-1 image. 

Brownish-red or very deep red areas on the image 

correspond to areas producing a relatively dense cover 

of perennial plants. These areas are at elevations above 

the desert zone and are mountainous, as shown by the 

rough textural pattern on the image. No desert ephemeral plants are found here. Deep-red areas correspond 

to dense stands of coniferous trees. 

Data collected in the. field at the same time the satellite passes over the area allow the resource manager 

to explain the various colors, tones, and textures apparent on the imagery. Measurements of the amount of 

ephemeral-forage production from analysis of ERTS 

images and field obs~rvations can therefore yield 

quantitative information that can be used as a basis 

for licensing of private 1i vestock grazing on public 

ranges. 

249 
250 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

14112·001 

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30 KILOMETERS 

30 MILES 

FIGU RE 176.- Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Phoenix area of Arizona (1211-17334). 

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5. Applications to Agriculture, Forestry, and Rangeland Management 251 

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EXPLANATION 

20 30 MILES 

I I I 

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H -Heavy production 

P -Perennial plant community 

P E -Perennial-ephemeral 

M -Moderate production 

l -Light production 

X -Rock outcrop 

E -Ephemeral .(Light production) 

S -Saltbush @Lake 

FIGURE 177.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the Phoenix area of Arizona showing perennial and ephemeral vegetation and production (1211-17334). 
REFERENCES 

Anderson, D. M., 1973, Delineation of permafrost boundaries and hydrologic 

relationships: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, ERTS-1 Symposium, 

Greenbelt, Md., 1972, Proc., p. 135-138. 

Bentley, R. G., Jr., 1974, Predict ephemeral and perennial range quantity and 

quality during normal grazing season; Type Ill Progress Report to NASA 

for Period 1 July 1972-30 june 1973: U.S. Dept. Commerce, Natl. Tech. 

lnf. Service, 76 p. 

Carter, W. D., 1973, Geologic questions and significant results provided by 

early ERTS-1 data: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, ERTS-1 Symposium, Greenbelt, Md., 1972, Proc., p. 78-87. 

Turner, R. M., 1973, Use of the SRI electronic satellite image analysis console 

for mapping southern Arizona plant communities from ERTS-1 imagery: 

252 

NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Symposium on Significant Results 

Obtained from the Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1, 2d, New 

Carrollton, Md., Mar. 1973, Proc., v. 1, sec. A, p. 761-768. 
CHAPTER 6. 

APPLICATIONS TO ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING 

T

he rapid increase in the Earth's population has 

produced an a ware ness of the need for proper 

utilization of the environment. ERTS-1 imagery 

is an extremely effective tool in the collection and 

analysis of environm(lntal data and is especially useful 

in monitoring environnwntal change. Some of the 

experiments so far undertaken include monitoring 

strip mining. air and water pollution, coastal wetlands, 

environm(lntal factors for larg(l (lngineering projects, 

and tornado d(lstruction. 

Surface mining is one of the major disturbances of 

the surface of the Earth ; an estimated 1.4 million ha 

(14,000 km2 ) of land have b(len disturbed by surface 

mining. Approximat(lly half this excavation can be 

assigned to strip mining for coal, a process that degrades the environment unless proper measures are 

taken to reclain1 the land. Rehder's paper (p. 254) 

demonstrates that strip mining can easily be monitored 

with ERTS-1 imagery, an opportunity for which is 

now available in the Powder River Basin. 

Determination of the sources of air pollution is important in determining the extent and distribution of 

pollutants. \Vithington and Breckenridge ( p. 258) describe an image of an oil-well fire in Wyoming. Their 

report also discuss(ls the control of air currents by local 

topography. Analysis by Brown and Karn (p. 261) of 

ERTS imagery of part of the Ohio and l\{onongahela 

River valleys south of Pittsburgh, Pa., shows the 

emissions from five coal-burning plants. 

ERTS imagery has been used to determine the extent of water pollution in the Great Lakes. Strong (p. 

266) describes the effects of upwelling in Lake Michigan which causes massive phytoplankton blooms, raises 

pH, and initiates a precipitation of calcium carbonate. 

A bloom of algae in Utah Lake is also described in 

another report by Strong ( p. 270). 

Coastal waters and adjacent wetlands are of utmost 

importance in maintenance of marine life. as the wetlands and estuaries are breeding grounds for many fish 

and the nutrient source for many more. It has been 

difficult to determine the extent of the wetlands and to 

INTRODUCTION 

By C. F. Withington, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

monitor their use. but several experiments have shown 

the usefulness of ERTS-1 imagery in accomplishing 

this. Experiments with imagery in the vicinity of 

Charleston. S.C., for instance, show that wetlanddryland boundaries can be mapped, along with major 

vegetation associations, wetland types, and the effects 

of man\; encroachment on wetland. Maps at scales as 

large as 1:250,000 have been made by Carter, Anderson, and McGinness ( p. 273) . 

ERTS digital data provide maximum spatial and 

radiometric information for accurate mapping of eight 

diff(lr(lnt vegetation types, of dredged material, and of 

open water with extrem(lly accurate. results. Tapes of 

ERTS taken at different times allowed for mapping 

by Carter ( p. 280) of other types of vegetation. Carter, 

Anderson, and McGinness ( p. 286) state that ERTS-1 

imagery can shmv the effects of varying tidal stages, 

which must be considered in vegetation analysis and 

wetland boundary determinations. Carter estimates 

that fieldwork in the Dismal Swamp, Virginia-North 

Carolina, can be cut from 3 weeks to 3 days using 

ERTS imagery and that reliable maps can be made 

from ERTS imagery alone. 

A proper consideration of the environmental factors 

in man's efforts to develop the surface of the Earth can 

be made through ERTS imagery. For instance, 

ERTS-1 imagery has proven useful in determining 

the best location for a highway across the Great Kavir 

in Iran through observation of sequential series of 

ERTS images (Krinsley, p. 296). In remote areas of 

Colombia, South America, man's effort to conquer and 

tame the elements is seen in an ERTS image studied 

by Carter (p. 290). 

Finally. the. last several years have seen a high incidence of tornadoes, particularly in the central part of 

the United States. Considerable loss of life and property damage resulted from such storms in 1974. The 

paper by Hollyday and Cook (p. 300) shows how 

ERTS in1agery can be used to delineate tornado paths 

and to assess environmental damage. 

253 
CHANGES IN LANDSCAPE 

DUE TO STRIP MINING 

By John B. Rehder, 

University of Tennessee 

T

he application of ERTS-1 imagery to the detection and monitoring of 

strip-mining landscape change is feasible and capable of becoming operational. The strip-mining landscapes on the Cumberland Plateau of Tennessee are excellent examples of dynamic landscape modification (Rehder, 

1973a). 

From ERTS-1 imagery and RB-57 high-altitude aerial photography, a 

map of strip-mining landscape changes on the Cumberland Plateau between 

April 1972 and October 1972 has been produced (fig. 178). To facilitate the 

determination of landscape change, the map was prepared at a scale, of 

1:120,000, which is the scale of the high-altitude aerial photography. The 

darkest tones on the map represent the landscape areas stripped as of Apr. 18, 

1972, mapped from the high-altitude aerial photography. The light-gray tones 

represent additional stripping operations and expansion of mining as mapped 

from the ERTS imagery dated Oct. 15, 1972 (Rehder, 1973b). 

The analysis of ERTS imagery for strip-mine detection and monitoring 

depends on the ability of the interpreter to identify strip mining on the 

imagery. Strip mines on an original band 5 black and white transparency from 

ERTS appear as light-toned jagged lines on a dark forested background. By 

negative print enhancement, the same image can be printed so that the strip 

mines appear as dark solid jagged lines on a light-toned background, as 

illustrated in figure 179. 

Using the RB-57 photography as a data base and identification medium, 

strip mines are identified as irregular jagged lines that follow the contours of 

the Inountains. Unlike local dirt roads, strip mines do not link geographical 

points. In the negative print of figure 180, the mines are enhanced in dark 

tones on a white forested background. Note the extent of cleared, stripped 

land in April 1972 indicated at the mine north of the arrow. By comparison 

with figure 179, one can see not only the configuration of the same strip mine, 

but can also detect from the October 1972 image additional dark tones immediately north of the arrow. Of considerable importance is the capability of 

the ERTS negative print to enhance and display strip mines in dark tones. 

Such enhancements aid in the detection and identification of newly cleared 

lands and favor the mapping of cleared, stripped, or otherwise deforested 

landscapes. 

254 
-

----------6. Applications to E . 

nvJronmental M . on1toring 255 

• Caryville 

0 

1

1 I I 

1 0 

APPROXIMATE SC l ALE 

I 2 1 r1_ 3 

1

_11 __ 4 MILEs 

2 3 I I 4 Kl LOM ETERS 

-'A 

,., 

STRIP MINING 

LANDSCAPE CHANGE 

April- 0 Anderson and ctober 1972 Campbell C o., Tenn. 

1 

} 

FIGURE17B April 

1 

.-Change · Oct b 

5, 1972. 

0

,. ' m the l.od.c• o " 

1084-15431 ' ~sources: and 5. o NASA J :e nson created Space C by enter str" 'P Mission mmmg . . on 197 th e C .umberland ===-=~------'---- Plat 

aenal ph eau of Te ------ otographs 26-00 50 nnessee, and 26-0063 from A pr. 18 through Oct and ERTS-1 . . •mage 
256 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

0 

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1 

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2 

SCALE 

2 

I 

3 

I 

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I 

4 KILOM ETE RS 

4 MILES 

I 

FIGURE 179.-Strip mines on Cumberland Plateau from enlargement of ERTS-1 image acquired on Oct. 15, 

1972 (part of 1084-15431 , band 5 negative). Dark tones, produced by negative reversal, are enhanced to 

illustrate cultural landscape features such as strip mines, which are normally shown as light tones on a 

positive image. Note the degree of strip mining north of the arrow as compared to that in the same area 

shown in figure 180. 
6. Applications to Environmental Monitoring 257 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

0 1 2 3 4 MILES 

I I I I I I I I I 

1 0 2 3 4 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 180.-Strip mines on the Cumberland Plateau from NASA high-altitude aerial photography; Mission 197 

aerial photograph 26-0063 acquired on Apr. 18, 1972. Note the absence of strip mines north of the arrow 

as compared with the presence of strip mines for the same location on ERTS-1 image 1084- 15431, acquired on Oct. 15, 1972 (fig. 179). 
OIL-WELL FIRE ON ERTS-1 IMAGES 

By C. F. Withington, U.S. Geological Survey, 

and Roy M. Breckenridge, Wyoming Geological Survey 

On Friday, Nov. 30, 1973, a wildcat well being drilled in Converse County, 

Wyo., blew out, and on December 5 the escaping gas and oil ignited. The 

first attempts to contain the fire were only partly successful. A shaped 

nitro-gel explosive was set off over the hole by firefighters on December 19 

and damped the fire only slightly. A second shot on December 23 was successful 

in putting the fire out, but it flared up again the next day. A third attempt 

on December 26 met with limited success. The well was finally capped 33 days 

after the blowout, on Jan. 2, 197 4. Throughout the period the weather was 

seasonable-temperatures ranged from just above freezing to -34°C. The 

well was flowing at an estimated 200 bbljh the entire time it was uncapped. 

The oil, being high in paraffin, solidified around the well because of the cold 

weather and gave a yellowish coating to the area. 

The area was imaged by ERTS-1 (fig. 181) at 10:16 a.m. local time on 

December 20. The oil well and its plume can be distinctly seen on the ERTS. 

image. The plume, a broad black band as much as 0.25 km wide, can be traced 

for a distance of about 16 km. At this point, the wind coming out of the easttrending valley of Antelope Creek dispersed the plume and blew it in a more 

easterly direction. This dispersing plume can be traced an additional 30 km. 

Bands 4, 5, and 7 (fig. 182) were compared to see which band best indicated the plume. Enlargements of the image to a scale of 1 : 250,000 determined 

that band 7 (0.8-1.1 ,urn) is most effective in displaying the plume, no doubt 

because energy at wavelengths of 0.8-1.1 ,urn is more capable of penetrating 

thin cirrus clouds (see Colvocoresses, p. 17, 18, in this paper). 

258 
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6. Applications to Environmental Monitoring 259 

IWIIIIS-38 WUM-381 

WIIS-311 WI86·BBI WIIIIS-311 WilliS-Bel 28DEC73 C ~3-88/WIIIIS-36 N ~3-BliWIIIIS-31 MSS 7 D SUN ELlS AZI5q 191-7181-G-1-N-D-IL NASA ERTS E-1515·17168-7 02 

10 0 

10 0 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 

10 20 

20 30 MILES 

30 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 181.-Smoke plume from wildcat oil-well fire, Converse County, Wyo., on ERTS-1 image 1515-17160, band 7, acquired on 

Dec. 20, 1973. Outline shows approximately the area of figure 182. 

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260 ERT5-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

FIGURE 182.-Enlargements of three ERTS-1 images showing 

comparison of reflectance of smoke plume (part of 1515-

17160, bands 4, 5, and 7). 

1:250,000 

1:250,000 

1:250,000 

5 

5 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

0 

0 

1515 17160 Band 4 

1515 17160 Band 5 

1515 17160 Band 7 

5 MILES 

5 KILOMETERS 
AIR POLLUTION FROM 

THE OHIO RIVER AND 

MONONGAHELA RIVER VALLEYS 

By Fred R. Brown and Fred S. Karn, 

U.S. Bureau of Mines 

T

he Ohio and ~fonongahela River valleys south of Pittsburgh, Pa., provide 

an excellent area for testing the usefulness of ERTS-1 imagery for detecting sources of air pollution due to coal utilization. This area is heavily 

industrialized and includes many coal-fired power-generating stations. 

Figure 183 shows both river systems as shown in an ERTS image dated 

Jan. 12, 1973. Figure 184 shows a map of the general area covered in the image. 

Plumes from specific point sources can be easily identified as originating near 

Morgantown and Captina, ,V. Va., and near Beverly, Brilliant, and Stratton, 

Ohio. Coal-fired powerplants of the following sizes are located in these areas. 

Site 

Morgantown, W. Va. ------------------

Captina, W. Va. ----------------------

Beverly, Ohio ------------------------

Brilliant, Ohio ------------------------

Stratton, Ohio ------------------------

Power generated 

in 1972 

(kWh) 

7.0X109 

11.0X109 

8.9X109 

8.2X109 

11.1 X109 

Approximate 

population 

served 

160,000 

520,000 

420,000 

390,000 

600,000 

The most prominent feature at several of these locations is a large billowy 

steam cloud arising from the stations' water-cooling towers. Ground observations reveal that any gaseous or particulate air pollutants emitted from the 

stacks are often engulfed and obscured by these steam clouds. 

The use of the MSS data from ERTS is illustrated in figure 185, which 

shows the plume from Beverly, Ohio, on Jan. 12, 1973, on all four MSS bands. 

The images corresponding to the blue-green and red parts of the spectrum 

(bands 4 and 5) indicate more clearly the physical characteristics of the 

plume. From these images, the approximate length, width, and altitude of the 

plume can be calculated. The two infrared images (bands 6 and 7), while 

partly penetrating the plume, give a more detailed representation of the 

topography of the region. This difference in sensitivity of the various bands is 

particularly useful in studying the relationship of water systems located 

nearby because of the relative increased absorption in the infrared frequencies 

by bodies of water. This increased absorption provides excellent contrast and 

facilitates the specific location of the origin of the emissions. 

Another specific advantage of the ERTS system in an air-pollution study 

is the repetitive imaging on an 18-day basis. By continuously providing images 

of any given area over many days, data are eventually obtained for features in 

those regions that have relatively few cloud-free days in the year. This advantage is illustrated by figure 186, which contains sections of four ERTS MSS · 

images taken on four different dates. The area is immediately south of Pittsburgh and contains a large coke works. The coke is quenched in open towers 

that emit plumes of steam, other gaseous emissions, and particulate matter. 

Changes in the nature and extent of air pollution can be monitored by this 

repetitive imaging along with data on plant operations and on meteorological 

conditions. 

261 
= I 

262 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

~1081 -001 N0<! I -00 I W080-30 W080-001 

we81·301 1.1081 ·001 12JAN73 C N40-09;WB80•38 N N40·08;W080·34 HSS 

10 0 

10 0 

1.1090·301 W090•001 _ D SUN EL22 AZI51 191·2<\II •N·I·N·D· L NASA ERTS E• l 173•15382· 01 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 

10 20 

20 30 MILES 

30 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 183.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of smoke plumes from power-generating stations in the Ohio River and 

Monongahela River valleys (1173-15362). 

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6. Applications to Environmental Monitoring 263 

so· 

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APPROXIMATE SCALE 

5 0 5 10 15 20 25 MILES 

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5 0 5 10 15 20 25 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 184.-lndex map of the Ohio River and Monongahela River valleys (area shown in the image in fig. 183). 
264 ERTS-1, A New W indow on Our Planet 

Band 4 

Band 6 

0 

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Band 7 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

5 10 15 MILES 

I I I 

10 15 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 185.-Enlargement of part of the ERTS image of the Beverly, Ohio, area showing smoke plumes on different MSS bands 

on Jan. 12, 1973 (part of 1173-15362, bands 4-7). 
November 18, 1972 

ERTS-1 Image, 1118-15305, band 5 

February 17, 1973 

ERTS-1 Image, 1209-15365, band 5 

I I I' I 

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5 

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6. Applications to Environmental Monitoring 265 

December 7, 1972 

ERTS-1 Image, 1137-15364, band 6 

March 24, 1973 

ERTS-1 Image, 1244-15312, band 4 

10 15 MI LES 

I I 

15 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 186.-Enlarged parts of four ERTS-1 images showing steam plumes from coke ovens near Pittsburgh, Pa., November 

1972 through March 1973 (parts of 1118-15305, band 5; 1137-15364, band 6; 1209-15365, band 5; and 1244-15312, band 4). 
A LAKE MICHIGAN "WHITING" 

By Alan E. Strong, 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

F

igure 187 is an MSS false-color composite mosaic of Lake Michigan prepared from images acquired on Aug. 21, 1973. Figure 188 is another 

M:ss color composite mosaic that was made by compositing bands 4, 5, and 

6 using green, red, and red filters, respectively. ~1ilky water appears to be 

occurring over nearly the entire surface of Lake Michigan on this date. Virtually all the water color was seen as the light tone in band 4 (fig. 189) ; band 5 

was nearly dark. Reports of milky water have been made over the last few 

years as pH levels and eutrophication increase. The milky water is believed 

to have been recently intensified by upwelling that moved nutrient-rich waters 

to the surface. This enrichment generated massive phytoplankton blooms, 

raised the pH, and initiated a precipitation of calcium carbonate (CaC03) o 

Secchi disc readings from University of Michigan research vessels were found 

to be drastically reduced during these "whitings." ~fost of the chemical precipitation is occurring beneath the surface to depths of 10 m or more. Deleterious consequences of similar whitings have been clogged municipal water 

intakes at downwind locations along the Lake !fichigan shoreline. The 

phenomenon has not been observed in Lakes Huron or Superior, where both 

calcium and pH levels are somewhat lower than those found in Lake Michigan. 

Similar milky-water periods, however, have been detected by ERTS in Lakes 

Erie and Ontario. 

Within 1 h of this data acquisition by ERTS, the NOAA-2 satellite 

crossed the Great Lakes area and provided imagery of the upwelling along 

the entire eastern Lake Michigan shoreline. This upwelling began during the 

evening of August 20 as the winds over the lake shifted from northwesterly 

to northeasterly at speeds of 10 to 15 m/s. A marked temperature contrast is 

evident in the NOAA-2 thermal infrared image and shows water temperatures 

along the shoreline approaching values of 5 °C, contrasting with readings in 

the lower 20's over the remainder of the Lake Michigan surface water (Strong 

and others, 197 4) 0 

Along the eastern shoreline of the southern basin, sediment can be seen 

being carried offshore to the south and west. 1Vaves from the north, 1 to 2 m 

high, are causing considerable erosion of the sand and clay cliffs that are found 

along this part of the Lake Michigan shoreline. Circulation patterns, not only 

along the shorelines but in tile open lake as well, are nicely revealed by this 

milky-water phenomenon. An anticyclonic gyre is evident near the center of 

the southern basin and corresponds to the highest surface temperatures 

observed by NOAA-2 at this time. Along the 1Visconsin shoreline, sinking 

surface water suppresses much of the whiting. In 1973, the milky water in 

Lake Michigan was first observed in July and continued well into the fall. 

This condition was first reported by the University of Michigan in 1966. 

266 
2Jfl.G73 C ,...3 ·87>"1o11!187 ·82 N ,.. 8!Yioii!J96 ~J T'ISS 

21R.Ln c ,..., . • 31\11i!J87 ·32,. ,..., 7- 2" nss" 

D 9.l't £\.'Se AZ~~f,=f SASJ H .. ·D· 2l IR:;A"'ftt:'{ ,:eo--16838 01 

0 Sll't El..S I AZ\35 I,L·SASJ·N· I · N-0· 2\...I'RSR ERTS E- 139'1· 16833 1!1 1 

D SlJ'II EL52 AZ \33 191 · S'!93· N· I · N· D·Z.. JrfiiSfl EJn1; [ -139"·16835 8 1 

267 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

20 0 20 40 MILES 

I L I I I I _j 

f I I l I I I 

20 0 20 40 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 187 .-Annotated color composite 

ERTS-1 image mosaic of Lake Michigan 

by standard color-combining methods 

using bands 4, 5, and 7 and yellow, red, 

and blue light, respectively (1394-16030, 

1394-16033, and 1394-16035). 
268 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

20 0 20 40 

20 0 20 40 60 KI LOMETERS 

FIGURE 188.-Annotated color composite 

ERTS-1 image mosaic of Lake Michigan 

using bands 4, 5, and 6 and green, red, 

and red light, respectively, to show "whiting" (1394-16030, 1394-16033, and 1394-

16035). 

60 MILES 

21Fl.G73 C N'IJ- 1!17AII8lr1· 1!12 H ,._J ·es.-we8(· );J MSS D ~ EL51 RZ IJS 191 · s.-93 ·N·I·N· D- 2L NASA EJtTS i.·I IEi833 8 1 

21PlJG7J C H'l l- ~7-32 N H"'I · ........S7 · 2<1MSS • D SUI E1.52 RZ 133 91 -~· ·I· 21.. NASA EJtT1 £· 1394·1 6835 liU 
""""' C ..,_.,_-,-82 M ..,,.--53 MSS < D"" El.S' "''"" ,.,.5<93-M-•-M-D-21.- EilTS£- ,,...,6833-< .. 

20 

I r , ' ' 1 

20 

0 

, I 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

20 

I 

40 

I 

269 

I 

60 KILOMETERS 

60 MILES 

J 

FIGURE 189.-Annotated ERT5-1 image mosaic of band 4 images of Lake Michigan 

(1394-16030, 1394-16033, and 1394-

16035; band 4). 
ALGAL BLOOMS IN UTAH LAKE 

By Alan E. Strong, 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

During summer and early :fall, when surface waters o:f lakes reach their 

maximum temperature, algal blooms are likely to develop. Such a phenomenon, which characterizes eutrophic conditions, has been noticed in 

ERTS-1 images o:f Lake Erie and several lakes in the State o:f Utah. In 

addition to their biological impact, the concentration o:f the algae into long 

streamers provides information on surface circulations. The ERTS-1 image 

shown here (fig. 190) is of Utah Lake, which has a surface area of about 

375 km2 and which is known :for its high turbidity and summer algal blooms. 

Within 1 day of this satellite observation, a limnological cruise on Utah Lake 

revealed a massive, highly variable bloom of Aphanizomenon fios-aquae. 

Although the algal bloom appears dark to the eye, reflected infrared radiation 

is quite intense and results in a unique water-surface signature. The color 

image was made using bands 4, 5, and 7 with blue, green, and red filters, 

respectively. An anticyclonic gyre is shown in this shallow (about 3 m deep), 

highly eutrophic lake; the eutrophic state is due to high phosphate content 

(PO=about 0.5 mg/1). Figure 191, bands 4-7 of ERTS-1 image 1051-17420, 

shows variation in water penetration at different wavelengths, thereby clearly 

delineating high turbidity conditions and circulation patterns in bands 4 and 5, 

sediment and algae in band 6, and only the algal bloom in band 7. Other 

blooms have been seen and studied in Lake Erie, around the Erie Islands, from 

ERTS images acquired Sept. 9, 1972, and Oct. 10, 1972 (Strong, 1973). 

270 
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6. Applications to Envi~onmental Monitoring 271 

IWII2-30l Wlll-001 w 111-301 I N0"11-00 

Wll3-001 N039-301 I Wll2-30 710S00JX I II -30G 

12SEP72 C N"'0-I7/WI 12-12 N N"'0-17/WI 12-05 MSS S 7 0 SUN EL"'6 AZI"'0 191-071 1-G-I-N-D-2L NASA ERTS E-1051-17420-7 01 

10 0 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 20 

10 0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS 

30 MILES 

FIGURE 190.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of algal blooms in Utah Lake (1051-17420). 

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272 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

Band 4 

Band 6 

10 

I I I I I I 

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10 

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Band 5 

Band 7 

20 30 MILES 

I I 

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30 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 191.-Comparison of a part of ERTS-1 image 1051- 17420, bands 4-7, showing algal blooms in Utah Lake. Band 4, penetrates the water to show the greatest amount of turbidity; band 5, high turbidity with more distinct shoreline; band 6, turbidity 

pattern less distinct, but sediment and algae visible; and band 7, shoreline clearly delineated, slight wate r penetration, and distinctive pattern of algal bloom. 
WETLAND CLASSIFICATION AND MAPPING 

ALONG THE SOUTH ATLANTIC COAST 

T

he wetland-dryland boundary, major vegetation 

associations, wetland type, and areas modified by 

man's activity can be identified and delineated on 

ERTS imagery (Anderson and others, 1972, 1973, 

1974). Figure 192, an ERTS band 7 image taken 

Oct. 12, 1972, of the Charleston area of South Carolina, shows the coastal marshes inland as far as Lake 

l-Ioultrie. }lost of Charleston is on the two large 

masses of land that jut southward into the Charleston 

harbor. Inland from the coast along the Wando, 

Cooper, Ashley, and Stono Rivers, the water becomes 

progressively less saline, and the vegetation changes 

accordingly. Because of tidal ebb and flow, broad transitional areas of vegetation exist, and the exact boundaries of wetland types are difficult to place using any 

mapping method. Figure 193 is a wetland map of the 

area made from ERTS images taken Oct. 12, 1972, 

and liar. 23, 1973, and compiled with a Bausch and 

Lomb Zoom Transfer Scope at a scale slightly larger 

than 1:250,000. Figures 194 and 195 are color composites of parts of both of these images and show the 

seasonal differences. 

Three categories of marsh are identified as the 

water changes from saline to fresh: 

1. Salt marsh containing predominantly Spartina 

alterniflora ( saltmarsh cordgrass) ; the following subdominants are present in varying 

amounts, usually at or near the upper wetland 

boundary: J uncus roemarianus (needle rush), 

Salicornia spp. (glasswort), Distichlis spicata 

(spike-grass), Spartina patens (salt-meadow 

cordgrass) , B orrichia frutescens (sea oxeye) , and 

Iva frutescens (marsh elder) . 

2. Near-saline to brackish marsh containing predominantly Juncus roemarianus; stream channels are bordered by Spartina alterniflora at the 

more saline end and Spartina cynosuroides 

(giant cordgrass) at the fresher end. Subdominants in this area may include Distichlis spicata, 

Salicornia spp., Spartina patens, Scirpus sp. 

(bulrush, three-square), and Iva frutescens. 

3. Brackish to fresh marsh containing large stands 

of Spartina cynosuroides along stream margins 

and Scirpus americanus or S. olneyi (threesquares) or J uncus roemarianus often filling in 

the remaining area; snbdominants include Scirpws spp .. Zizania aquatica (wild rice), and Ju.ncus 

By Virginia Carter, U.S. Geological Survey, 

and Richard R. Anderson and john W. McGinness, Jr. 

The American University 

sp. (rush). As the water becomes fresher, Sagittaria spp. (arrowhead), Nuphar advena (yellow 

water lily), Pontederia cordata (pickerelweed), 

Peltandra virginica (arrow arum), and Typha 

spp. (cattail) become codominants with Spartina cynosuroides. 

As the water becomes fresher, the species mixture 

becomes more complex, and the vegetative cover becomes more reflective in the near-infrared. During the 

growing season the upper wetland boundary in band 

7 becomes increasingly difficult to identify farther inland. Supplementing the interpretation with band 5 

imagery aids delineation because the marsh shows a 

gray-level reflectance distinguishable from spoil and 

agricultural fields (lighter) and water or woods 

(darker). The best method using black and white 

imagery, however, is to delineate upper wetland 

boundaries on band 7 on winter or early spring 

imagery and to attempt species discrimination using 

band 7 and 5 imagery taken midway to late in the 

growing season. 

The head of the Cooper River estuary south of Lake 

Moultrie is split into two branches (A on fig. 193). 

This area initially presented a complex interpretation 

problem, because the natural water levels are being 

affected by events other than tidal. The riverine 

drainage channel could only be delineated on imagery 

from Aug. 19, 1972, when tide was very low. Imagery 

and false-color infrared photography taken at hjgher 

tide showed the marsh adjacent to the channel to be 

flooded, and only the vegetation along the original 

channel levees had a strong vegetative signature. Before construction of the Santee-Cooper project of the 

South Carolina Public Service Authority in 1942, the 

annual freshwater inflow to the Charleston harbor 

estuary from the Cooper River was 2 m3/s. The project was construction of both a dam and a diversion 

canal into the Cooper River. The annual inflow is now 

42 m3/s, which accounts for flooding of areas adjacent 

to the river channel. As a result of this project, sedimentation in the navigation channel adjacent to 

Charleston has increased from about 138,000 to 7,700,-

000 m3/yr, solid and domestic wastes are trapped in 

the estuary, and the salinity regime has been drastically altered. A proposed U.S. Army Corps of Engineers project would redirect some of the water, thus 

altering the estuarine environment again. 

273 
274 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

APPROXIM ATE SCALE 

10 0 10 MILES 

I I I I I I 

10 0 10 KILO M ETERS 

FIGURE 192.-Enlargement of part of ERTS-1 image 1081-15264, 

band 7, showing the Charleston area of South Carolina. 

EXPlANATION 

D SALT MARSH 

0 ~~t~K~~u~:~ 

.WATER 

lliiD DISTURBED AREA/SPOIL 

0 UPLAND 

1 e TIDAL REFERENCE STATION 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

5 0 5 

I I I I I I I I I I I I 

5 0 5 

10 MILES 

I I 

10 KI LOMETERS 

10112/72 

3 / 23/73 

FIGURE 193.-Wetland map of the Charleston, Lake Moultrie, 

and Cooper River area of South Carolina. 
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6. Applications to Environmental Monitoring 275 

weee -20 1 W080· 001 IN03~ 00 ~107 30 1 

tweeJ-ee wese-30 1 

120CT72 C N33-09/lol080-03 N N33·07/W079-5S MSS W080-00/ 14079-381 D SUN EL42 AZ J45 190-1 28-N·I·N·D-2L NASA ERrS l08 1·1 5264 ~ 01 

10 0 

10 0 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 

10 20 

20 30 MILES 

30 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 194.-ERTS-1 image of the Charleston area of South Carolina showing wetland vegetation on Oct. 12, 1972 (1081-15264). 

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276 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

1-1088-381 

lol081 -1!18 I 

23MAR73 C N33- I B/W980- I B N N33 -B!YWB80- 12 MSS 

10 0 

10 0 

Nli!34!-I!IB I lloiBBB -1!18 WB79-381 

W088-381 loiBBB -1!18 I 

D SlJ\1 EL117 AZI32 190-3387-N-1-N-D-21.. l'ftiA ERTS E-12"13-152711 B2 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 

10 20 

20 30 MILES 

30 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 195.-ERTS-1 image of the Charleston area of South Carolina showing wetland vegetation on Mar. 23, 1973 (1243-15274). 

i 

I 
COASTAL WETLAND MAPPING 

IN THE CENTRAL ATLANTIC REGION 

By Virginia Carter, U.S. Geological Survey, 

and Richard R. Anderson, The American University 

Coastal wetlands are among the Nation's most valuable natural resources. 

The water storage and purification functions of wetlands, as well as the 

nutrient contribution to aquatic organisms, have been well documented. 

"\Vise management of coastal resources includes preservation and maintenance 

of these healthy wetland ecosystems. In turn, wetland-management decisionmaking is dependent upon tinwly and accurate information such as location, 

size, and value of major wt>tlands and identification of areas significantly 

affected by man's activities. ERTS data can supply a relatively low cost and 

moderately accuratP method for mapping these areas. It can also supply 

repetitive information important for updating maps of coastal areas undergoing rapid change (Anderson and otlwrs. 1973). 

ERTS imagery (fig. 196) can be used to map wetland plant species and 

boundaries at scales as large as 1: ~60,000. Figure 197 is an enlargement of the 

Oct. 10, 1972, ERTS image (fig. 196) of the Chincoteague salt-marsh complex 

at the mouth of Chincoteague Bay in the Virginia Eastern Shore. The species 

composition in these marshes is typical of the central Atlantic salt marshes. 

Figure 198 is a n1ap of the sanw arPa showing five categories: (1) sand/ 

dryland vegetation, (2) water. (3) Spartina alterniflora (saltmarsh cordgrass) I Salicornia sp. (glasswort) association, ( 4) Spartina patens (saltmeadow cordgrass) I DistichH8 spicata (spike-grass) I Iva frutescens (marsh 

elder) association, and ( 5) spoil an•as. 

The upper wetland boundary is gt>nerally sharp except where broad 

transition zones exist. The marsh/water intt>rface is sometimes difficult to 

determine in areas interlaced with nmnerous small tributaries or sparse patches 

of vegetation. Sand and marsh at the mouth of Chincoteague Bay (A, fig. 198) 

have accunnllated since publication of the U.S. Geological Survey 1:250,000 

map in 1946. A recent spoil fill at the tip of Chincoteague Island is designated 

C. Spoil areas can be easily separated from reflective vegetation by referring 

to bands 4 and 5 or by using a false-color composite picture, as they are highly 

reflective in all four bands. Areas labeled D are freshwater impoundments in 

the Chincoteague National "\Vildlife Refuge. The area 8 at the south end of 

the map is where old spoil banks are partially revegetated. It is quite distinctive in the band 7 image as a light area extending from Wallops Island to 

the mainland. 

277 
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FIGURE 196.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the lower Chesapeake Bay (1079-15140). 

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FIGURE 197.-Annotated enlargement of ERTS-1 image of the 

Chincoteague Bay salt-marsh complex in the Virginia Eastern 

Shore (part of 1079-15140, band 7). 

6. Applications to Environmental Monitoring 279 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

5 0 5 MILES 

5 0 5 KILOMETERS 

D D D 

Water Sand/dryland vegetation Spartina alterni/loro 

D 

Spartina patens 

A Sand/ marsh area 

B Old spoil area 

W&d 

Spoil area 

C Recent spoil fill 

D Freshwater impoundment 

FIGURE 198.-Wetland map of the Chincoteague Bay salt-marsh 

complex in the Virginia Eastern Shore. 
COMPUTER MAPPING OF COASTAL WETLANDS 

By Virginia Carter, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

E

RTS digital data provide maximum spatial and radiometric-reflectance 

information for satellite rna pping in the coastal zone (Carter and 

Schubert, 197 4). Coastal wetlands, such as those located at the mouth of 

Chincoteague Bay in Virginia, can be mapped at a scale as large as 1:20,000 

by computer. Area measurements for different wetland classes can be made by 

pixel count. Both the maps and the area measurements are of use to resource 

managers faced with inventory needs and construction-site decisions. Figure 

199 is a standard ERTS MSS color composite of the Chincoteague Bay area 

of the Virginia Eastern Shore on Aug. 30, 1973. 

The computer map of the Chincoteague salt-marsh complex (fig. 200) was 

produced from ERTS digital data from Aug. 30, 1973, using the ERTS 

ANALYSIS system at Goddard Space Flight Center. The basis for the system 

is an automatic classification algorithm for vegetation analysis based on the 

International Biological Programme classification system. A reference table 

of established coastal wetland classes was used to make the analysis. Six of 

these classes are identified on this map of the Chincoteague Marsh. These 

include (1) upland vegetation, (2) open water, (3) spoil, and three wetland 

vegetation associations-(4) Spartina alterniflora, (5) Spartina patens, and 

( 6) organic mudflat (sparse vegetation). A fourth wetland association, Iva 

frutescens, could not be identified on the August image but was correctly 

identified on a similar map made with ERTS digital data from October. 

The four major wetland vegetation associations or classes can be defined 

as follows: 

1. Spartina alterniflora ( saltmarsh cordgrass) association: Included in this 

category are mixtures of S. alterniflora and Salicornia spp. (glasswort) 

and some pure stands of Salicorrda spp., which seldom exceed 5m2 • 

2. Spartina patens (salt-meadow cordgrass) association: Included with this 

species, which grows on slight altitudes in the marsh, is Distichlis spicata 

(spike-grass), which is only occasionally found in pure stands in this 

area. 

3. Iva frutescen.Y (marsh elder) association: This shrub grows in slight altitudes in association with Spartina patens. 

4. Organic mudflat : These are usually covered with a low sparse growth of 

Spartina alterniflora, Salicornia spp .• or detritus, and have occasional 

bare spots. · . 

The Chincoteague n1arsh island, known lodally as Wire Narrows Marsh 

and Black Narrows Marsh, lies 1.5 km west of the town of Chincoteague and 

is approximately 3 km east-west and 3.5 km north-south. The size of the marsh 

including interior water as measured from a U.S. Geological Survey 1:24,000 

topographic map is 387 ha and as measured from the computer map by pixel 

count is 386 ha. The identification of wetland classes is extremely accurate in 

figure 200, except on adjacent Chincoteague Island where some deciduous trees 

and grasses are misidentified as Spartina patens. 

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6. Applications to Environmental Monitoring 281 

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FIGURE 199.-Color composite ERTS-1 image of the Chincoteague Bay area of the Virginia Eastern Shore on Aug. 30, 1973 (1403-

15132). 

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282 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

• • • • • ••••••••••••••••• 

I 4'/3-15132CO • • • • • • • • ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

• •••••••••••••••• 

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•••••••••••••••••• 

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•••••••••••••••••• 

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...... ~ ........ . • • • • • • • • 

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• • • • • • • • • • 

• • • • • • • • • • • • 

••••••••••• 

• • • • • • • • • • • 

EXPLANATION 1 CHINCOTEAGUE BAY 

D Water Spoil Upland vegetation 2 BLACK NARROWS MARSH 

3 WIRE NARROWS MARSH 

4 QUEEN SOUND CHANNEL 

5 CHINCOTEAGUE CHANNEL 

~ CHINCOTEAGUE mLAND 

D Organic mud flat D Spartina alterniJ!ara 

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FIGURE 200.-Computer-processed wetland map of the Chincoteague Bay salt-marsh complex in the Virginia Eastern Shore. 
TIDAL EFFECTS IN COASTAL WETLANDS 

By Virginia Carter, U.S. Geological Survey, 

and Richard R. Anderson, The American University 

E RTS imagery provides a ntluable tool for mapping coastal wetlands and 

interpreting nearshore features. Band 7 is the best single band for 

coastal wetland mapping; it defines the land-water interface in coastal 

waters with relatively high turbidity or st>dinwnt content more clearly than 

band 6. The effects of varying tidal Htage must be considered in vegetation 

analysis and boundary determination. Figure 201A is the J nne 3, 1973, in1age 

of the Georgia-South Carolina coast. Figure 201B is an enlargen1ent of Port 

Royal Sound, S.C. This image was made at high tide and should be compared 

with figure 202A, which includes an enlarge1nent (fig. 202B) fron1 the Apr. 28, 

1973, image of Port Royal Sound taken at ]ow tide. The average tidal range 

in this area is 2 m. 

Wetland- drainage patterns and unHlflats show 1nost clearly on ERTS 

ilnagery when the tide is low. Images taken at high tide show only the 

highest marsh elevations and the tree islands that are surrounded by water. 

Intermediate tidal stages are 1nost useful for species discrimination because 

the characteristic density of each vegetation species or association exposes a 

differing amount of water background, thus creating a different signature. 

A ste-pwise analysis of flooding dynamics can be made with a series of ERTS 

images taken at different tidal stages. 

283 
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284 ERTS-1 , A New Window on Our Planet 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

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L--L--+1 ..,--1,1 -,-L-1-r+j---,------...JI I I I I I 10 0 10 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 201A (below).-Color composite ERTS-1 image of the 

Georgia-South Carolina coast on june 3, 1973, at high tide 

(1315-15274). 

FIGURE 2018 (right).-Enlargement of part of ERTS-1 image 

1315-15274, band 7, of Port Royal Sound, S.C., at high tide . 

laJI-11181 ... ·311 

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6. Applications to Environmental Monitoring 285 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

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FIGURE 202A (below).-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image 

of Georgia-South Carolina coast on Apr. 28, 1973, at low 

tide (1279-15280). 

FIGURE 2028 (left).-Enlargement of part of ERTS-1 image 1279-

15280, band 7, of Port Royal Sound, S.C., at low tide. 

140Se·301 lol080· 00 1 

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~ 
WETLAND MAPPING IN 

A LARGE TIDAL BRACKISH-WATER MARSH 

IN CHESAPEAKE BAY 

By Virginia Carter, U.S. Geological Survey, 

and John W. McGinness, Jr., and Richard R. Anderson, 

The American University 

The Chesapeake Bay is one of the largest and most productive estuaries 

in the world. It is surrounded by tidal marshes, especially along its 

eastern shore, where human populations are relatively small. Reduction 

in the number of these wetlands or in wetland primary productivity could 

reduce the population of finfish, shellfish, and waterfowl in the adjacent bay 

and shallow ocean. Mapping and monitoring wetland areas of the bay is 

necessary if proper management and conservation of these valuable natural 

resources are to be realized. 

The Nanticoke Marsh is located at the Nanticoke River entrance to the 

Chesapeake Bay in Maryland. Figures 203 and 204 include enlargements 

of band 7 images of the area (figs. 203B, 204B) acquired on Oct. 10, 1972, 

and July 7, 1973. The October image shows the marsh at low tide (approximately 6.0 em above mean low water) near the end of the growing season, 

when the vegetation has begun to decline. The interior low marsh areas and 

drainage pattern can be seen clearly because very little water is present. V egetation patterns are not as distinct because reflectance from vegetation is not 

optimum at this time of the year. The upper wetland boundary is clearly 

visible, especially in the northern part of the marsh. 

Figure 204A was taken at a tidal stage approximately 42.0 em above mean 

low water, much higher than that shown in the October image. Interior low 

marsh areas show little detail and appear as broad dark areas on the band 7 

image. Vegetation detail in the higher parts of the marsh is very good; highly 

reflective marsh vegetation borders creeks and stre.ams and appears as lighter 

patterns. Vegetation detail in the lower parts of the marsh is obscured 

because of the increased water background. The upper wetland boundary is 

not distinct because vegetation in the northern part of the marsh is highly 

reflective, as is the upland vegetation. 

286 
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6. Application s to Environmental Monitoring 287 

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

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FIGURE 203A (below).-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 

image of the Delmarva Peninsula on Oct. 10, 1972 (1079-

15133). 

FIGURE 2038 (left).-Part of ERTS image 1079-15133, band 7, 

showing Nanticoke Marsh on Oct. 10, 1972, at low tide. 

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288 ERTS-1 , A New Window on Our Planet 

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FIGURE 204A (below).-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 

image of the Delmarva Peninsula on july 7, 1973 (1349-

15134). 

FIGURE 2048 (right).-Parts of ERTS image 1349-15134, band 7, 

showing Nanticoke Marsh on July 7, 1973, when the tide 

was 42.0 em above mean low water. 

lol076-001 W075-301 W075-001 

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Figure 205 is a wetland map produced from the ,July 

7, 1973, and Aug. 30, 1973, band 7 images. The following gPiwral catPgoriPs can be distinguished: (1) 

tree island, ( 2) high marsh, ( 3) low marsh, ( 4) low 

marsh/ water, and ( 5) water. These categories are 

listed in order of decreasing reflectivity. 

TrPP islands arp. upland areas that are the brightest 

imaging featnrefi within the marsh on band 7. The 

high marsh inclndeH plant species and communities 

genprally found above mean high water and inundated 

only at flood tidPs. Tlw wgetation, usually dense and 

having little background reflectance, is more reflectivP 

than other marsh catPgoriPs. High marsh is made up 

of varying amounts of SpaPtina cynosu1'oides, Spa1'tina 

patens/ Distich/is spicata association, Phmgmites communis, h·a frutescens, and Bacchm·is halimifolia. 

Tlw low marsh covprs the greatpst area and is compospd mostly of largp stands of .!uncus roemal'ianus. 

Other spPciPs o:f thl:' low marsh category, Spa1·tina 

alte1"niflom, Scirpus spp., Distichlis spicata, and Salicornia spp., may be :found in homogeneous stands but 

are prPdominantly in large mixPd plant communities. 

ThP lov>' marsh/water category contains shorter 

.!uncus and Schpus stands or areas with sparse plant 

cover, such as mudflats, which exhibit a very low 

reflectance because of the water background (Anderson 

and others, 1973, 197 4). 

38 

20' 

6. Applications to Environmental Monitoring 289 

Nanticoke 

Marsh 

0 

0 

Courtesy of 

American University 

EXPLANATION 

Tree • island 

F&iffil'l 

fiiJEllillil 

High marsh 

Em 

Low marsh 

EJ 

Low marsh/water 

D 

Water 

FIGURE 205.-Wetland map of Nanticoke Marsh compiled from 

ERTS images. 
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT 

OF REMOTE AREAS OF COLOMBIA, SOUTH AMERICA 

By William D. Carter, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

F igure 206 is an ERTS-1 image that shows 34,225 km2 of southeastern 

Colombia, South America. The prominent n1eandering stream crossing 

the image from lower lt>ft to middle right is the Guaviare River, a major 

tributary in the southwestern part of the Orinoco River basin. It and the 

Orinoco flow nmtheastward; the Orinoco flows into the Atlantic Ocean at 

Boca Grande, Venezuela. South of this area, rivers flow southeastward into 

the Xegro Hiver and the Amazon River basin. The Eastern Cordillera of the 

Andes lies west of the area, and Bogota, Colombia's capital city, is about 290 

km to the northwest. 

This unusual image dramatically shows man's efforts to conquer, tame, 

and develop the resources of tropical savanna regions. The red part of the 

image shows the distribution of natural tropical vegetation. The dark bluishgray areas are recent mann1ade burns of savanna grasslands; the brownishgray areas appear to be older burns that are gradually returning to grasslands 

for livestock grazing. The blackest patches may be either very recent burns, 

or possibly wetlands, lakes, or ponds; repetitive views through the year will 

· enable a more accurate identification. The eastern margin of the cleared areas 

indicates that burning clears the higher ground but leaves the lower parts of 

the valleys in vegetation (red) and thereby enhances the dendritic stream 

pattern. 

The only major habitation in the scene is San Jose del Guaviare, shown 

southeast of the confluence of the Ariari River with the Guaviare River. Note 

that the Guaviare waters are dark (clear) west of the junction, whereas the 

Ariari is light blue, indicating shallow, relatively silt-laden water. Part of 

the Inirida River is seen at the lower right; it also flows eastward and joins 

the Guaviare a few kilometers west of its junction with the Orinoco on the 

Venezuela-Colombia border. 

The topography of the region is gentle, ranging from nearly flat near the 

meandering rivers to gently rolling between the rivers. 

A part of the U.S. Air Force Operational Navigation Chart L-26 (fig. 

207) shows how little was previously known about the region. 

This ERTS-1 image has been sent to Colombia for a comprehensive 

analysis.;; The area is of interest to the Colombian Government, whose Department of Agriculture has a program to assist ranchers in the savanna region. 

Perhaps this image will serve as a basis for orderly planning of resource 

development and preservation of the environment before burning has gone 

too far. 

290 
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6. Applications to Environmental Monitoring 291 

1W072·30 lol072-001 14071·301 

W072-301 W072-881 W071-301 

1MFEB73 C NB2·591'WB72·03 N NB2-57Ae71·58 MSS R ~ B..4118 AZII8 188·2731-fH ·N·D·2L ~ ERTS E-1196·14325· 81 

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FIGURE 206.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of southeastern Colombia, South America (1196-14325). 

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\. 

FIGURE 207.-A portion of U.S. Air Force Operational Navigation Chart (ONC L 26) of southeastern Colombia. 

~ 1 ~ 
MAN'S IMPACT UPON WETLANDS 

By Virginia Carter, U.S. Geological Survey, 

and Linda Alsid and Richard R. Anderson, 

The American University 

To gain ready access to the sea, man historically has centered most of his 

commerce, industry, and culture along or near coasts and rivers. Eight of 

our Nation's most populous metropolitan regions are in the coastal zone. 

This high concentration of population has produced serious impact upon 

our coastal wetlands ; the wetland areas have been consistently developed to 

maximize their commercial, industrial, and eeonomic values and to reap the 

tourist dollar. 

Man's activities having a direct impact on and resulting in a loss of acreage 

and viability in coastal wetlands are dredge-and-fill activities for navigation 

purposes, reclamation for agricultural, residential, and industrial sites, ditching for mosquito control, and indiscriminate dumping of spoil and urban 

wastes (Anderson and others, 1974). Impoundment and water-level manipulation for wildlife management also has an environmental impact. Figure 208 

shows man's influence on the N (:'W ,T ersey coastal wetlands, a result of dredging lagoons and filling for nearshore homesite development (A) . The loss of 

wetlands acreage because of highway construction is evident along the Georgia 

coast (fig. 209, B) . Also depicted in the scene is the Savannah Wildlife Refuge 

(C) and a large area of spoil deposition adjacent to the Savannah River (D). 

293 
294 ERTS-1 , A New Window on Our Planet 

W07<1-001 W073-301 

!.1075-081 1.107<1-381 lol07<1-08 1 N838-081 

07APR73 C N38-SS/We7<1-l<l N N38-55/W07<1-05 MSS D StJII a.<IS AZI35 198-3596-N-J-N-D-2L NASA ERTS E- 1258-15085- 02 

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FIGURE 208.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the New jersey-Delaware coastal wetlands (1258-15085). 

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6. Application s to Environmental Monitoring 295 

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FIGURE 209.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the Georgia coastal wetlands near Savannah (1261 - 1 5280). 

i 

I 
SELECTION OF A ROAD ALINEMENT 

THROUGH THE GREAT KAVIR IN IRAN 

By Daniel B. Krinsley, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

The Great Kavir in north-central Iran (fig. 210) is a vast desert with 

extensive salt crusts and swamps underlain by Miocene siltstones and 

evaporites (l{rinsley, 1970, 1972). Access to this difficult terrain is impeded by peripheral mountains and streams that have been incised by recent 

uplift. The Great Kavir is a serious obstacle to transportation across Iran, and 

almost all materials produced in northern and central Iran are exchanged 

by means of trucks moving along the east-west and northwest-southeast road 

that passes through Teheran. Goods from the north destined for the region 

immediately south of the Great Kavir must travel more than 900 km around 

the desert rather than the 200 km that would be required if an all-weather 

road existed across the desert. Less dramatic but nevertheless significant 

savings in time and in transportation costs could be achieved with such a road 

terminating at Nain farther to the southeast (fig. 210). Trucks traveling from 

Damghan to N ain via Teheran cover the 7 50 km in 9 h; the route across the 

Great Kavir would be 450 km and require 6 h. 

The area of the Great Kavir most suitable for the construction of an allweather road is shown entirely within one ERTS-1 image. Six false-color 

composites were prepared from positives of ERTS-1 }ISS images taken of 

this area of the Great Kavir from Sept. 2, 1972, to l\{ay 12, 1973. The driest 

and wettest periods are illustrated in figures 211 and 212, respectively. The 

route of the existing dry-season road was overlain on each composite, and 

the seasonal hydrologic conditions along four critical segments were inferred 

from the ERTS-1 images. Analysis of the ERTS imagery was based on the 

author's fieldwork east of and along the dry-season road in October 1965 

and September 1966, respectively. 

The four critical road segments represent areas that are subject to soil 

saturation or local flooding and thus require special engineering considerations. The road segment from km 25 to 50 is generally trafficable. It is always 

moist along a narrow drainage way at km 40 (fig. 211) during the dry season, 

but this area becomes wet by mid-December. Dissolution of the local salt 

crust parallel to the drainageway suggests saturation of surficial materials. 

By March, the surface in a slight depression is also wet at km 32. The road 

from km 25 to 50 can be alined inexpensively to the west, on good natural 

subgrade, to avoid the two wet areas (fig. 212); culverts will be required 

along drainageways. 

296 
6. Applications to Environmental Monitoring 297 

IRAQ 

NZ ' --~··x' .. I 

KUWAIT '\"' 

NZ 

SAUDI 

ARABIA 

0 500 MILES 

0 100 300 500 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 21 0.-lndex map of Iran showing location of the Great 

Kavir. 

The segment from km 60 to 63 is always moist at km 62 during the dry 

season. This segment is wet by mid-May, and a bridge or raised roadbed 

would be required at km 62 (fig. 212). 

The segment from km 90 to 100 lies in an area principally of salt crusts 

that have low bearing strengths when dry during September but become 

untrafficable when moist by mid-December; some dissolution may take place 

during this period. By early February, both soil and salt crusts are wet, and 

dissolution of the salt continues. Standing water is present by March 1, and 

its areal extent has increased by mid-May. This segment is the most difficult 

and would require both a raised roadbed and a bridge. Although an alinement to the east would avoid the wettest areas, the costs of engineering for 

the poor sub grade over the increased length of the road (up to 30 km) would 

be prohibitive (fig. 212). 

The segment from km 110 to 116 is always moist at km 113 during the 

dry season and becomes more moist by mid-December. By March 1, the surface 

is wet at km 113, and this condition continues into May. This area can be 

avoided by a short diversion to the west (fig. 212). 

The use of ERTS-1 images provides a method for examining areas that 

are seasonally inaccessible in order to determine hydrologic changes that 

affect soil conditions and thus their engineering properties. To interpret 

ERTS-1 images correctly requires some beforehand knowledge of the actual 

ground conditions, and the eventual determination of the location of any 

engi1wering proj ect, such as a road alinement, should be based on extensive 

records of observation and on-site investigations (Krinsley, 1973). 
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298 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

IE054·30 IN035·30 IEess-ee 

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FIGURE 211 .-Annotated color composite ERTS- 1 image of the Great Kavir in its driest peri od on Sept. 20, 1972 (1 059-06265). 

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FIGURE 212.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the Great Kavir in its wettest period on May 12, 1973 (1293-06274). 

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TORNADO TRACKS 

By Este F. Hollyday, U.S. Geological Survey, 

and James G. Cook, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 

Diagonally acros. s the lower left quarter of the 

ERTS image shown in figure 213 is the track 

of a tornado that passed through the William 

B. Bankhead National Forest in Alabama at 9: 20 p.m., 

Apr. 3, 1974. After leveling the town of Guin, Ala. (at 

the bottom of the image) , this tornado felled 20 million board feet of timber within the forest and destroyed one tower of a high-voltage transmission line. 

The track of the tornado may be traced continuously 

for 92 km from a point at the north edge of the forest 

(near the center of this image) southwest to a point 

near Sulligent, Ala., which is southwest of Guin (or 

just off the edge of this image). It is believed to be the 

longest tornado track ever recorded on satellite 

imagery. Near the center of the forest, trees were bent 

or disturbed in a path 1.1 km wide and were uprooted 

or twisted off in a path 0.6 km wide. Careful examination of the image reveals that the track swings northwest across high ground and swings southeast across 

stream valleys. The track is wide on high ground and 

is narrow in the valleys. Ground surveys and low-altitude photography indicate that, although the track is 

narrow in the valleys, the destruction here is equal to 

or greater than destruction on the high ground. 

The image also shows at least two other tornado 

tracks that are parallel to the track through the center 

of the forest. One is near the edge of the forest, 19 

km northwest of the main track. The other crosses 

Lewis Smith Lake near Houston. Ala., 23 km southeast of the main track. These less obvious tracks can be 

traced for only about 20 km each. 

Near the east edge of the southeast quarter of this 

image is a white condensation trail left by an aircraft, 

flying at an altitude of 10.4 km, which passed over 

Boaz, Ala. The gray shadow of this manmade cloud 

is most obvious .. on band 7 and occurs 7 km northwest 

of the trail. The tornado track through the forest was 

initially believed to be such a condensation trail. The 

tornado track, however, does not have a parallel 

shadow. In addition the multispectral nature of the 

300 

ERTS sensors reveals that the track is bright in band 

5 but dull in band 7, as would be expected for stressed 

vegetation but not for a cloud, which would be bright 

in all bands. The repetitive nature of ER.TS reveals 

that the track first appeared on imagery for April 10 

and on this image for April28 and the adjacent image 

for April 29; the condensation trail did not reappear. 

Cloud-free imagery from a real-time operational 

satellite would provide a regional view of areas of 

tornado destruction. This regional view, together with 

reports on damage from local agencies, particularly 

State Civil Defense Offices, would aid the Emergency 

Operations Planner of the lJ.S. Arn1y Corps of Engineers in locating areas of possible severe damage, particularly in nonpopulous areas. Damage in these areas 

could then be assessed jointly by the Corps and the 

Federal Disaster Assistance Administration. The regional view provided by the imagery would not only 

aid deployment of reconnaissance aircraft over the 

most heavily damaged sites but would also be useful 

in correlating and indexing the resulting aerial photography. 

Imagery of tornado tracks could be used to improve interpretations of hydrologic records, especially water levels in artesian wells. The extreme low atmospheric pressures that occur in the path of a tornado 

reduce the pressure upon the column of water standing 

in an artesian well without significantly reducing the 

pressure on the .underground reservoir. As a result, 

water moves into and up the well, resulting momentarily in a very high water level. The highest level on 

record, therefore, might occur in wells near the tornado track during passage of the storm. 

Although much remains to be done in exploring the 

use of satellite imagery in assessing damage caused by 

weather-related phenomena such as tornados, hail 

storms, and hurricanes, this example indicates that 

ERTS imagery will be a valuable tool. Images should 

also be of value in assessing the effects of man's attempts to modify weather by cloud seeding and similar 

procedures. 
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FIGURE 213.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image showing tornado tracks in the William B. Bankhead National Forest near 

Guin, Ala. (1644-15492). 

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REFERENCES 

Anderson, R. R., Carter, Virginia, and McGinness, J. W., Jr., 1972, Interpretation of wetlands ecology from ERTS-1 [abs.]: NASA Goddard Space 

Flight Center, Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1 Symposium, Sept. 

1972, Proc., p. 147. --- 1973, Mapping Atlantic coastal marshlands, Maryland, Georgia, using 

ERTS-1 imagery: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Symposium on 

Significant Results Obtained from the Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1, 2d, New Carrollton, Md., Mar. 1973! Proc., v. 1, sec. A, p. 603-613. 

---1974, Applications of ERTS data to coastal wetland ecology with special reference to plant community mapping and typing and impact of 

man: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Symposium on the Earth 

Resources Technology Satellite-1, 3d, Washington, D.C., Dec. 1973, 

Proc., v. 1, sec. B, p. 1225-1242. 

Carter, Virginia, and Schubert, Jane, 1974, ERTS MSS digital data and field 

spectral measurements for coastal wetlands analysis: lnternat. Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment, 9th, Ann Arbor, Mich., 

1974, Proc., v. 2, p. 1241-1260. 

Krinsley, D. B., 1970, A geomorphological and paleoclimatological study of 

the playas of Iran: U.S. Geol. Survey Interagency Rept. Military-1, 329 p. 

---1972, Dynamic processes in the morphogenesis of salt crusts within 

the Great Kavir, north-central Iran: lnternat. Geol. Cong., 24th, Montreal 

1972, Proc., sec. 12, p. 167-174. 

---1973, Preliminary road alignment through the Great Kavir in Iran by 

repetitive ERTS-1 coverage [abs.]: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, 

ERTS Symposium, 3d, Washington, D.C., 1973, Abs., p. 54. 

Rehder, J. B., 1973a, Geographic applications of ERTS-1 data to landscape 

change: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center! Symposium on Significant 

Results Obtained from the Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1, 2d, 

New Carrollton, Md., Mar. 1973, Proc., v. 1, sec. B, p. 955-963. 

---1973b, Applications of ERTS-1 data to landscape change: Am. Soc. 

Photogrammetry, Symposium on Management and Utilization of Re .. mote Sensing Data, Sioux Falls, S. Oak., 1973, Proc., p. 598-609. 

Strong, A. E., 1973, ERTS-1 observes algal blooms in Lake Erie and Utah 

Lake: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Symposium on Significant 

Results Obtained from the Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1, 2d, 

New Carrollton, Md., Mar. 1973, Proc., v. 1, sec. B, p. 1605-1612. 

Strong, A. E., Stumpf, H. G., Hart, J. L., and Pritchard, J. A., 1974, Extensive 

summer upwelling on Lake Michigan during 1973 as observed by 

NOAA-2 and ERTS-1 satellites: lnternat. Symposium on Remote Sensing 

of Environment, 9th, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1974, Proc., v. 2, p. 923-932. 

302 
CHAPTER 7. 

APPLICATIONS TO CONSERVATION 

Modern society has only recently acknowledged 

the necessity to conserve and manage the resources of the Earth. The exploitation of these 

finite resources has been frequently accompanied by adverse environmental and socioeconon1ic effects. Even 

though some of these effects may be apparent, the 

causal 1nechanisms often are little understood. Environmental information commonly has been unti1nely 

or insufficient for use in decisionmaking processes of 

Federal, State. and private institutions, thus hindering 

the implementation of appropriate conservation and 

management practices. 

Satellite platforms have afforded for the first time 

the n1eans by which certain types of resource data could 

be acquired. \Yith the advent of ERTS, land-use 

planners and managers of natural resources have the 

capability to reach decisions and implement conservation practices based on timely synoptic data collected 

over extensive areas. 

The continual need for energy, food. and other raw 

materials has resulted in observable changes in natt~ral 

and cultural resources on the surface of the Earth 

that can be evaluated in ERTS data. In the paper by 

Lyons, Ebert, and Hitchcock ( p. 304), the perspective 

gained in ERTS imagery provided a clearer understanding of the relationships between the cultural 

features of an ancient Pueblo society and the natural 

resources upon which that society was dependent. 

Williams, in discussing ERTS imagery of Cape Cod 

and Cape Cod National Seashore (p. 307), emphasizes the accuracy and invaluable synoptic and repetitive characteristics of the data. These features are essential for monitoring large dynamic resources such as 

coastal marshes or coniferous forests. 

INTRODUCTION 

By Richard D. Curnow, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

.A recurring problen1 in applying re1notely sensed 

data to resource inventories and environn1ental monitoring is the need for discrin1ination of increasingly 

smaller items and the extraction of increasingly more 

detailed information. Smedes has evaluated the capability of computer analysis of ERTS data applied to 

land-use planning in Yellowstone National Park (p. 

310). Similarly, Gilmer and others discuss computer processing of ERTS data in their study of a 

migratory-bird breeding habitat (p. 321). These 

two papers evaluate what appears to be the limit of 

detail that may be extracted from ERTS imagery. It 

is through such evaluations that the value of ERTS 

data for monitoring extremely complex associations of 

vegetation, land, and water is revealed. 

Because of the inaccessibility of many large uninhabited ]and areas that possess unique ecological value, 

remote sensors, like those of ERTS, provide a meaps 

of rapidly monitoring these resources in a nondisruptive manner. Discussed in the paper by Carter is the 

use of ERTS data to assess the resource values of the 

Great Dismal Swamp (p. 316). In a cooperative 

effort, several agencies were able to use ERTS data as 

a common source of information about the resources 

of the swamp. 

The authors in this chapter have described examples 

of the uses of ERTS data and the uses of the tools of 

remote sensing for conserving natural and cultural resources. I am confident that the applications reported 

here reflect only a very small aspect of the future involvement that ERTS data will have in meeting the 

informational needs of resource specialists. 

303 
ARCHAEOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF IMAGERY 

OF CHACO CANYON REGION, NEW MEXICO 1 

By Thomas R. lyons and james I. Ebert, National Park Service, 

and Robert K. Hitchcock, University of New Mexico 

A bout a thousand years ago, during the lOth and 11th centuries A.D., in the 

n, Chaco Canyon area of northwestern New Mexico (fig. 214), ancient 

Pueblo Indians, the Anasazi, built an extensive land-route communication system that had many of the physical characteristics of what we today, 

in a wheel-based civilization, call roads. These prehistoric dirt roadways were 

as much as 10m wide and often were curbed with stone masonry. They surmounted cliffs and ledges with cut stairways and masonry ramps, traversed 

over the depths of ravines on stone causeways, and possessed other features 

that revealed a high degree of engineering and construction skill. 

The existence of a few of the old roadway segments was first recognized 

in historic times by Navajo occupants of the area who pointed them out to 

early archaeological investigators in Chaco Canyon. More recently, with the 

aid of black and white, color, and color-infrared aerial photography and with 

various kinds of data handling and analyzing equipment, it has been possible 

to map approximately 320 km of these prehistoric roadways. We can now 

safely estimate that there existed at least 320 km more that are no longer discernible even on aerial photography. 

The structure and magnitude of this purposefully designed regional communication system provide evidence to the archaeological investigator that 

the character of the social organization responsible for it was far more complex than has heretofore been described. 

Many questions about the use or function of these roads arise when it is 

considered that even though these people were organized in complex ways 

and possessed a high degree of expertise in the construction of agricultural 

and architectural facilities, they did not have knowledge of the technologically 

important wheel nor did they have any large draught animals that could be 

used in transporting materials over the roads. Also, insofar as we can determine, Anasazi society was not based upon the organization of large numbers 

of men for labor or military pursuits. What purpose, then, did the road system provide in addition to facilitating communication between communities~ 

One effort made to obtain answers to this question and that did indeed 

provide explanatory information was the use of an ERTS-1 image of the San 

Juan Basin area of northwestern New Mexico (fig. 215). The longest known 

1 This article is Contribution Number 9 of the Chaco Center, National Park Service and 

University of New Mexico. 

304 
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7. Applications to Conservation 305 

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FIGURE 214.-lndex map showing location of the Chaco 

Canyon National Monument, N. Mex. 

branches of the roadway system were plotted on this image because it gives 

an excellent synoptic view of most of the region occupied by Chaco people. 

The relationship of the great steppe in which Chaco Canyon proper is incised 

to the adjacent mountain masses and the Inajor river drainage basin is immediately apparent. ~ o attempt was made to locate archaeological sites on 

the image since the spatial resolution was not adequate for this purpose, but 

the image did provide a view of the physiographic relationships that were of 

importance to the early exploiters of this environment. 

1t was instantly apparent that the major branches of the roadway system 

led to the following types of potential resources areas: (1) timbered mountain areas where animals could be hunted and wood for building could be 

collected; (2) river areas where fish could be obtained; and (3) areas where 

materials could be obtained for use in making pottery, stone tools, and other 

objects. 'Vith the heavy concentration of Anasazi population in the Chaco 

Canyon region, local resources were no doubt reduced or depleted, thus forcing the Chaco people to exploit an ever-widening area. 

A quick review of existing data recovered through excavations in Chaco 

Canyon supports this explanation. Remains of garfish that occurred prehistorically in the Rio Grande could have been imported over the east or south 

road extensions. Turkeys apparently were brought in from adjacent highlands 

to the west and east. Marine shell artifacts and fragments discovered indicate 

imports from the West Coast and the Gulf of California. Exotic birds were 

also brought from the south. 

We can conclude then that, in addition to other functions, the road system 

served an economic purpose for the Chaco people, providing access to resources 

outside their particular sphere of occupation and influence. The Chaco Canyon 

road system, as suggested by the regional perspective of the ERTS imagery, 

thus served not only to integrate the various communities in the Chaco region 

but also to link those communities with areas far outside the canyon. 
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FIGURE 21 5.- Annotated color composi te ERTS-1 image of th e Chaco Canyon National Monument, N. M ex. (1317-1721 0). Solid 

lines indi cate field-verified prehi stori c roadways; dashed lines indicate unveri fied (reported or projected) prehistoric roadways. 

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The MSS color composite ERTS-1 image in figure 

216 shows nearly the full sweep of Cape Cod and 

its offshore islands : Martha's Vineyard, Nantucket, 

Monomoy, and other islets (fig. 217). The glacial character of the area is partly revealed by the many bodies 

of water. Many of the depressions are bogs that have 

important economic value as the basis for the cranberry 

industry in this part of Massachusetts. North of the 

Cape Cod Canal, along the coast, are the sandbars that 

nearly enclose Plymouth and Duxbury Harbors (vVilliams, 1973), site of the Pilgrims' final landfall and 

permanent settlement in 1620. 

Cape Cod was given its initial rough outline by the 

last great Pleistocene ice sheet, the \Visconsinan, which 

spread south frmn the north (Davis, 1896). About 

10,000 yr ago the ocean began to rise, engulfing the 

glacial deposits left by the retreating Wisconsinan ice 

sheet and reworking them with waves and wind 

(Strahler, 1966). More recently man himself has begun to leave his mark on Cape Cod, the most prominent 

example being the sinuous Cape Cod Canal that forms 

an artificial demarcation between Cape Cod and the 

south shore of southeastern Massachusetts. 

The landscape is dotted with kettle ponds, marshes, 

natural and manmade harbors, sandbars, spits, islands, 

and islets. It is a region of dynamic geologic processes 

-the wind, the waves, and the tides all contributing 

to the erosion of the land and creation of new land. 

But it is man's capacity to modify the landscape, particularly along coastal areas and coastal wetlands, that 

often causes unnatural and often unexpected changes 

that many times result in degradation and despoilation of a unique and irreplaceable natural resource 

(Chamberlain, 1964). 

For all these reasons, Congress in 1961 established 

the Cape Cod National Seashore, permanently assuring 

the protection of ''one of the last expanses of uninterrupted natural lands along the Atlantic ... The national seashore will ultimately embrace some 27,000 

acres of land" (U.S. Dept. of Interior, 1969). At present it includes the entire outer beach from Provincetown to the tip of Nauset Beach, south of Chatham, 

and substantial parts of the towns of Provincetown, 

CAPE COD AND 

THE CAPE COD NATIONAL SEASHORE 

OF MASSACHUSETTS 

By Richard S. Williams, Jr., 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Truro. "\V ellfleet, and Orleans (fig. 217}. Monomoy 

Island is protected separately as a wildlife refuge. 

ERTS imagery portrays the natural environment in 

a far more accurate and cmnprehensive way than any 

single map could ever do (fig. 217), and it can do it, 

weather permitting, every 18 days through all the seasonal changes and changes effected by natural processes 

and by man. Because Cape Cod is a dynamic environment the need exists for frequent and accurate updating of conventional maps of the area. ERTS imagery 

provides important geologic and hydrologic information necessary for the updating of 1:1,000,000, 1:250,-

000, and perhaps even 1 :125,000 U.S. Geological Survey maps of Cape Cod. Because various types of maps 

provide an important source of environmental information for resource-management decisions, particularly for preserving the environmental integrity of Cape 

Cod National Seashore, such maps must be current 

and accurate. Based on an analysis of MSS images of 

Cape Cod, the ERTS imagery provides timely environmental information not available from conventional 

sources (chiefly aerial photography), except at very 

high cost ("\Villiams and Friedman, 1970). ERTS-1 

imagery has the following advantages: 

1. Provides synoptic, nearly instantaneous imagery of 

a large area at different times in the tidal cycle 

of a coastal area (over several orbital cycles). 

2. Provides cyclic and frequent imagery at relatively 

low cost. 

3. Permits the regional planimetric mapping of 

marshes (wetlands) , tidal flats, shoals, sandbars, 

and harbor channels not normally shown on 

1 :125,000 and smaller scale maps. 

4. Portrays the environment at the correct scale 

initially, thus avoiding the subjective differences 

in cartographic representation caused by generalization of features. 

5. Provides to resource managers the relevant and 

current data necessary for wise decisionmaking 

by periodically recording types of environmental 

information that can be converted to a map or 

other form of presentation quickly. 

307 
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308 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

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FIGURE 216.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the Cape Cod area of Massachusetts (1 040-14552) 11/2 h before low 

tide in much of Cape Cod Bay. 

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7. Applications to Conservation 309 

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FIGURE 217.-Part of the Boston sheet of the International Map of the World showing the area covered by ERTS-1 image 1040-

14552 (fig. 216). [IMW, NK-19, Boston, North America, 1969; compiled by the Army Map Service in 1955 from 1:250,000 maps 

(1947), 1:506,880 maps (1939), and U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Charts (1947 and 1949).] 
LAND-USE PLANNING 

IN YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK, 

WYOMING, MONTANA, AND IDAHO 

By Harry W. Smedes, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Y

ellowstone National Park (fig. 218) is the oldest national park in the 

world and the largest in the United States. Established just a little more 

than a century ago on :Mar. 1, 1872, it encompasses nearly 9,000 km2 of 

vVyoming, Montana, and Idaho. The park contains a wide variety of climatic 

and vegetation zones, wildlife, relief, landforms, and soil and rock types. It 

is one of the fm,? placeH in the. world where scientists can study the primal 

"plumbing" system of hot springs and geysers; elsewhere most such systems 

have been affected by man's intervention and have changed or adjusted in 

response to that intervention. 

The park is on the Pitchstone Plateau, a broad plateau of Quaternary 

rhyolite bordered on the north, PaHt, and south by an arcuate complex of ridges 

and dissected highlands of EocenP volcanic rocks and deformed pre-volcanic 

sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Yellowstone Lake, about 350 km2 in 

area, dominates the southeastern part of that rhyolite plateau and is one of 

the largest natural mountain lakes in the United States. 

The major part of the rhyolite plateau marks the site of ancient calderas 

that formed by collapse as a result of the rapid expulsion of large volumes of 

ash flows, the remnants of which fonn the fringe of the plateau (Keefer, 

1972). Lava subsequently spread across the floors of the calderas to form a 

coalesced mass of lava domes and flows; the toelike projections of some of 

these flows can be seen on the Pitchstone Plateau (shown in fig. 218 by 

arrows at f) . 

Topographic 1naps, geologic maps, and conventional aerial photographs 

provide important tools for planning and management of this large, basically 

primitive area, but ERTS images have provided, for the first time, a comprehensive synoptic picture of the entire park and its environs. In the color 

composite ERTS image shown in figure 219, the park is in the center. The 

cloud-free image taken Aug. 7, 1972, documents the condition of the terrain 

during late summer. (Other images capture the changes in ground cover in 

response to seasonal changes.) In this false-color composite, verdant vegetation appears red; snow is white; bare rock and soil are light gray and light 

blue;and water is black. Note that, because it is so muddy, Turbid Lake (2 or 

3 km northeast of Yellowstone Lake) is blue (fig. 219). 

310 
7. Applications to Conservation 311 

Before ERTS images became available, the only complete pictorial base 

of the entire park was a mosaic compiled from more than 80 high-altitude 

color aerial photographs taken by XASA in 1969 (fig. 220). Three days of 

flying were required to obtain this relatively cloud free photographic coverage. 

Even so, large clouds can be seen over the north-central part of the park and 

along the east-central edge. In contrast, ERTS can provide a synoptic view 

in a few seconds, in one image. 

An investigation was made of the accuracy and usefulness of computerized surface-cover mapping of the entire park and surrounding area using the 

four-channel MSS data from ERTS-1. Previous studies in the north-central 

part of the park using low-altitude aircraft ~iSS data demonstrated th~ 

feasibility of accurately mapping a wide variety of terrain classes automati~ 

cally by computer. Those studies are summarized in a report by Smedes (1971). 

The ERTS MSS data from which figure 219 was prepared were used to make 

a similar but more comprehensive computer-produced terrain n1ap of the 

entire region (CCT's for the .Aug. 7. 1972~ ERTS image 1015-17404). The 

resulting map (fig. 221) depicts 12 terrain classes. The few developed areas 

in the park are mapped as rock because of similar reflectance from building 

roofs, paved areas, and car and trailer tops. The accuracy of this computer 

map ranges from 70 to 95 percent. 

Because the computer map depicts differences in rock, soils, and vegetation both in forested and nonforestecl areas, it is more useful than any other 

existing map for inventorying and monitoring the terrain. The computer 

map not only shows the location and spatial relations of different classes, but 

can determine the total area occupied by each terrain class.· If computer maps 

depicting these same 12 terrain classes are produced at given time intervals, 

such as is possible with the i·epetiti ve coverage of ERTS, the changes in the 

inventory of each class as a function of time may give valuable insights into 

dynamic Earth processes. For example, one can: (1) determine the specific 

location as well as the average and maximum extent of surface area burned 

annually by forest fires, ( 2) analyze wildlife habitats by identifying dynamic 

changes in vegetative types used for food and cover, (3) study trends in snowpack accumulation and water levels in lakes. ( 4) monitor changes in hydrothermal activity as shown by changes in surface thermal deposits and ensuing 

effects on plant communities, and ( 5) search for changes that indicate areas of 

insect-infested trees. In addition, mapping at different seasons should help 

establish more classes for plant species and rock or soil types. 

TheN ational Park Service envisions sometime in the future using a multilayered computer information storage, manipulation, and retrieval system to 

assist in redirected planning, design, and development and to provide concurrent analysis of the environmental impact of that development. The computer terrain map provides the necessary data on the plant communities and 

other types of ground cover in a form readily updated and readily entered 

into a grid or cell information system. In addition to these data, each grid 

point or cell in the information system could contain digitized information 

on such attributes as topography, precipitation, wildlife, rock and soil properties, transportation routes, and socioeconomic data. 
312 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

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FIGURE 218.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the Yellowstone National Park and vicinity on Nov. 23, 1972 (1123-

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7. Applications to Conservation 313 

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FIGURE 219.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of the Yellowstone National Park (outlined) and vicinity on Aug. 7, 1972 

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314 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

111"00' 

10 0 10 MILES 

10 0 10 KI LOMETERS 

FIGURE 220.-High-altitude color aerial photomosaic of the Yellow stone National Park (1969 NASA aerial photography). 
EXPLANATION 10 

I D Thermal deposits and hydrothermally altered rocks 

and aoil, travertine, quartzite, and snow 

• Dark rock, sand. gravel 

Water 

D Coniferous forest with greater than 

40 percent canopy cover 

D Coniferous forest with 15 to 40 percent 

canopy, and grass understory 

D Coniferous forest with 15 to 40 percent 

canopy, and light rock understory 

D Gr&881and 

D Gr&88 and shrub mixture 

D Gr&881and with 5 to 15 percent cover of conifers 

Sparse vegetation on light rock or soil 

• Dominantly light rock and soil 

• Shallow water and muddy water 

I 

10 

7. Applications to Conservation 315 

0 

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FIGURE 221 .-Computer-processed terrain map of Yellowstone National Park made from computer compatible tapes for ERTS-1 

image 1015-17404. 
THE GREAT DISMAL SWAMP 

OF VIRGINIA AND NORTH CAROLINA 

By Virginia Carter, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

I

n 1972 Congress authorized the Department of the Interior to conduct a 

comprehensive 2-yr study of the Great Dismal Swamp and the Dismal 

Swamp Canal (Public Law 9~78). The study is designed to determine 

the desirability and feasibility of protecting and preserving the ecological, 

scenic, recreational, historical, and other valuable attributes of the Great 

Dismal Swamp and Canal and to consider the various alternatives for preservation in terms of effectiveness and cost. The study is being coordinated by 

the U.S. Fish and "\Vildlife Service. Several Federal agencies are participating 

in the Great Dismal Swamp study, including the U.S. Geological Survey, 

which is responsible for wat('r dynamics, mineralogical data, and remotesensing applications. 

On Aug. 31, 197 4, President Ford signed the bill creating the Great 

Dismal Swamp "\Vildlife Refuge. During the next 3 yr, $7 million will be 

expended for land acquisition. 

The Great Dismal Swamp comprises approximately 850 km2 of wooded 

swamp and/or forested bog straddling the Virginia-North Carolina border. 

Because of the large size of the entire swamp and the inaccessibility of many 

interior parts, remote sensing meets the needs of both the current study and 

future research and management. It minimizes the extent of the ground work 

that is needed, allows for more rapid completion of inventory and mapping, 

enhances the ability to detect changes, and aids in detection of certain areas 

of special interest that would be likely to escape notice by conventional 

methods. 

The remotely sensed data used include NASA and U.S. Geological Survey 

aerial photography, ERTS data, and ERTS thematic extractions (Carter and 

Smith, 1973). These data were applied to: (1) overall study-area selection, 

( 2) location of intensive-study areas, ( 3) hydrologic studies, ( 4) vegetation 

mapping, and ( 5) field studies, including identification of areas of special 

interest. 

The choice of the study area (fig. 222) by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service was made on the basis of both false-color infrared and black and white 

photographs and required approximately 3 man-weeks. ERTS imagery, on 

the other hand, later provided a synoptic picture of the entire Great Dismal 

Swamp and its geographic setting on just one ERTS frame. Figure 223 is an 

316 
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FIGURE 222.-Map of the Great Dismal Swamp study 

area, Virginia-North Carolina. (Facsimile of a 

1973 map prepared by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, from U.S. Geological Survey data, 

in response to Public law 92--478.) 

10 

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FIGURE 223.-Enlargement of part of a color composite ERTS-1 image (fig. 224) showing the 

Great Dismal Swamp (1205-15150). 

7. Applications to Conservation 317 
318 ERT5-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

enlargement of a part of a color composite ERTS-1 image (fig. 224) taken on 

Feb. 13, 1973. This image was used to reconfirm the choice of the study area. 

Comparison of this image with the map of the area (fig. 222) illustrates the 

utility of ERTS data in determining wetland boundaries. Delineation of the 

study area from the ERTS image would have reduced the time required for 

selection from 3 man-weeks to less than 3 man-days, including field checks. 

Many of the roads, canals, and vegetation associations can be clearly identified 

on a 1:250,000 enlargement of the ERTS image. Moreover, ERTS imagery can 

be used to construct a reliable map of similar large wetland areas without the 

need for either extensive or repetitive fieldwork or low-altitude aircraft coverage. 

A preliminary analysis of ERTS digital data from CCT's of the Feb. 13, 

1973, Great Dismal Swamp image was made with the General Electric Co. 

IMAGE 100, an interactive multispectral analysis system that uses a television 

screen for displaying the results of the analysis. The thematic extractions 

shown are made by means of multispectral signature analysis. By using the 

spectral information in each ~ISS band, a signature ~an be derived for a 

selected condition or feature. and all other areas with the same signature can 

be detected. 

Figure 225 is a photograph of the interactive color display screen on 

which the digital data from part of the ERTS image are combined to give a 

simulated color-infrared picture of the Great Di!:;mal Swamp. The canals, 

roads, and centrally located Lake Drummond can be ,clearly identified. Deciduous trees (blue), evergreen (red), and cultivated land, bare soil, or snow 

cover (white) can be identified. Figure 226 is a thematic extraction of Atlantic 

white-cedar, a commercially valuable tree spe,cies presently being lumbered in 

the North Carolina section of the swamp. Figure 227 is a thematic extraction 

of surface water below deciduous trees. The presence of surface water and 

maintenance of a high water table during the winter and early spring are 

essential to the continued survival of the swamp. Figure 228 is a thematic 

extraction of the drier deciduous areas of the swamp and the clearcut area 

where some snow remains on the ground. The swamp appears to be moving 

toward a drier condition, largely because of man's continuing efforts at 

drainage. 

Area measurements of extracted themes can provide useful information 

to the resource manager. Monitoring the extent of surface water during the 

winter wet season is very important in assessing the results of water-level 

manipulation and modification of the hydrologic regime. Updating of treecover estimates is necessary periodically. Occasionally very large fires occur 

during the dry season, and measurements of areal extent of damage are important in plans for revegetation. 
N 

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7. Applications to Conservation 319 

W076· 00 1 W075·30 1 

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FIGURE 224.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image of northern Pamlico Sound and the Great Dismal Swamp with a partial 

snow cover on Feb. 13, 1973 (1205-15150). 

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320 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

FIGURE 225.-Color digital display of the Great Dismal Swamp 

in simulated false-color infrared. 

FIGURE 227.- Thematic extraction of surface water below deciduous trees in the Great Dismal Swamp. 

FIGURE 226.-Thematic extraction of Atlantic w hite-cedar in the 

Great Dismal Swamp. 

FIGURE 228.-Thematic extraction of drier decid uous areas in 

the Great Dismal Swamp. 

APPROXI MATE SCALE 

5 0 5 10 15 MILES 

I 1'1 I I I I I I I I I I I 

5 0 5 10 15 KILOMETERS 
MONITORING BREEDING HABITAT 

OF MIGRATORY WATERFOWL 

By David S. Gilmer and A. T. Klett, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 

and Edgar A. Work, Environmental Research Institute of Michigan 

B eca use of their free movement over and between nations and continents, 

migrating waterfowl, including wild ducks, brant, geese, and swans, are 

protected by treaties among the United States, Canada, Mexico, and 

Japan. The agency responsible for coordinating the management of this wildlife resource in the United States is the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Assessment of breeding habitat is an important part of the management 

of waterfowl populations. United States and Canadian biologists have suggested that a significant correlation exists between the abundance of wetlands 

on the breeding grounds and the subsequent size of the continental duck population (Cooch, 1969; Crissey, 1969). The primary duck-breeding range in 

North America extends over the Dakotas, the southern part of the prairie 

provinces, northwestern Canada, and parts of Alaska. Because annual variations in habitat quality in these regions gre.atly influence annual waterfowl 

population, in order to evaluate habitat conditions, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service n1akes low-level aerial surveys that sample approximately 2.2 million 

km2 of the breeding range during each spring and summer. Breeding pairs, 

broods, and wetlands are counted along preestablished survey flight lines. 

These data are used to estimate future waterfowl population by means of a 

mathematical model ( Geis and others, 1969) . This information is needed by 

resource administrators to establish annual waterfowl-hunting limits and 

regulations and other management policies. 

Biologists have speculated that aerial and satellite remote-sensing and 

associated data-processing techniques can be used to obtain accurate and rapid 

counts of wetlands over large areas of the waterfowl-breeding range. Therefore the service began an investigation of the feasibility of using remotesensing techniques for waterfowl-habitat evaluation in 1968. Biologists at the 

Northern Prairie \Vildlife Research Center in ~Jamestown, N. Dak., working 

in cooperation with the Environmental Research Institute of Michigan, Ann 

Arbor, Mich., conducted a series of tests using an airborne MSS for wetland 

mapping and land-use studies. The results of these tests demonstrate that 

airborne remote sensors could be used effectively to obtain regional wetland 

information and related data on surrounding land use, as well as to evaluate 

the waterfowl habitat (Burge and Brown, 1970; Nelson and others, 1970). 

Evaluation of ERTS 1\tfSR data has shown the utility of spaceborne 

sensors for evaluating waterfowl-breeding habitat (Work and others, 1973, 

1!)74). ERTS test sites were selected in a region in North Dakota that contains some of the best waterfowl-breeding areas in North America. Figure 

229 illustrates the coverage provided by three ERTS images obtained during 

May 1973 and July 1972 and 1973. A part of the Missouri Coteau is included 

in each frame. The Coteau is a region characterized by stagnation moraine 

and a nonintegrated drainage system that produces numerous small ponds and 

lakes. Magnetic tapes derived from telemetered satellite data for portions of 

321 
322 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

each frame were processed by computer to obtain an enumeration of the wetlands in the image. Comparisons were made to detect seasonal and annual 

changes. The ERTS in1age shown in figure 230 is a color composite of a scene 

obtained on tT nly 7, 1!17~. Varied land features~ such as agricultural fields, and 

numerous water areas are evident. The ERTS tapes for this image were 

analyzed on a computer programed to reeognize surface water. A 2,389-km2 

part of the Coteau (enclosed by the dashed line) was selected to demonstrate 

this recognition capability. Table 2 eonsists of a size-frequency distribution of 

all wetlands reeognized within the defined area. Additional data provided 

include the geographic loeation and size of eaeh wetland; only a partial tabulation is given. Many water areas smaller than 1 ha are not recognized because 

of the sensor-resolution limitations, but new computer-processing methods and 

statistical-analysis techniques being evaluated are expected to provide inferential data regarding these small water bodies. 

TABLE 2.-Part of a computer printout for the july 7, 1973, ERTS-1 image (fig. 230) showing size-frequency distribution of surface 

water and location and size of water bodies 

07JUL73 C "~7-22/~098-22 "N47-21/W098-07 13~9-1bS43- SUN EL~7 AZ131 192-48bb-N 0-1-0-1 H ERIM IERTS DATAl 

SCENE N.D. COTEAU 

SCENE AREA• 923 SQ. ~1. 

• 2319 so. ~~~-

LINES 138b THRU 1428 

LINES 1429 ThRU 1452 LINES 1~S3 THRU 1499 

LINES 1SOO THRU 1571 

LINES 1S72 THRU 2175 

DISTliiUTION OF RECOGNIZED ~ATER BODIES 

BY AREA 

AREA UCRES I AREA !HECTARES I FREQUENCY 

.2S TO .so .10 TO .20 0 .so TO 1.00 .20 TO .40 0 1.00 TO 2.00 .40 TO • 81 149 2.00 TO 3.00 .81 TO 1.21 bO 3.00 HJ 4.C.O 1.21 TO 1.62 47 4.00 TO 6.00 1.62 TO 2.H b5 6.00 TO 8.00 2.43 TO 3.24 29 8.00 TO 10.00 .).24 TO 4.05 21 10.00 TO 15.00 4.05 TO 6.07 38 15.00 TO 20.00 6.07 TO 8.09 28 20.00 TO 25.00 8.09 TO 10.12 10 25.00 TO 30.00 10.12 TO 12.14 18 30.00 TO 40.00 12.14 TO 16.19 14 40.00 TO so.oo 16.19 TO 20.23 11 

50.00 TO 75.00 20.23 TO 30.35 18 

75.00 TO 100.00 30.35 TO 40.47 16 

100.00 TO 150.00 40.47 TO 60.70 13 150.00 TO 200.00 60.70 TO 80.94 7 

OVER 200.00 OVER 80.94 13 

POINTS 

POINTS 

POINTS 

POI"TS 

POINTS 

3 THRU 2'>0 

3 THRU 374 3 THRU 498 

3 THRU 622 3 THRU 747 

TABULATION OF RECOGNIZED WATER BODIES 

LAT LONG SCAN LINE POINT 

47.3710 99.4194 1439 194 

47.3909 99.5535 1440 13 

47.3133 99.4483 1442 1~6 

47.3637 99.4051 1446 216 47.36b8 99.4399 1449 170 47.3320 99.25b0 1458 422 

47.3288 99.2353 1458 450 

47.3281 99.2403 1460 444 47.3489 99.3953 1464 236 

47.3282 99.2599 146'+ 419 

47.3190 99.2149 1467 481 47.317b 99.2053 14b7 494 

tr7.32b8 99.2699 1468 407 

47.3532 99.4564 1471 156 47.3194 99.2509 1474 435 

47.3164 99.2458 1471 443 47.3270 99.3193 1478 344 

47.3201 99.2742 1478 405 

47.3168 99.2527 1478 434 47.3637 99.5683 1480 8 47.3109 99.2291 1481 4b7 

47.3089 99.2205 1482 479 47.3128 99.2606 1485 426 

AREA 

I ACRES I 20.867 

1.098 

1.098 

7.688 

1:098 

1.098 

•1.098 

4.393 

2.196 

2.196 

3.295 

2.196 

4.393 

1.098 

2.196 

1.098 

3.295 

3.295 

1.098 

4.393 

8.786 

3.295 

1.1)98 

·----..._._.i,.~-31!5 99.2583 1485 4'29 2.196 

27.456 

AREA I HECTARES I 

8.44S 

.444 

.444 

3.111 

.444 

.444 

.444 

1.178 

.889 

.889 

1.333 

.889 

1. 778 

.444 

.889 

.444 

1.333 

1.333 

.444 

1. 718 3.556 

1.333 

.444 

.889 

.444 

4.000 --~~~!:~:~ 11.111 

~-~ 

The synoptic evaluation of waterfowl breeding habitat using ERTS data 

can provide the U.S. Fish and "\Vilcllife Service with a powerful tool in the 

effective management of our important waterfowl resource. Development of 

an operational systen1 appears to be a realistic goal for the near future. 
Frame 1008-16594 

of July 1972 

25 

25 

C A N A D A 

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7. Applications to Conservation 323 

Frame 1295-16550 

of 14 May 1973 

Frame 1349-16543 

of 7 July 1973 

FIGURE 229.-lndex map compiled from U.S. Geological Survey data showing coverage provided by three ERTS images in a primary 

waterfowl-breeding area in North Dakota. 
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324 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

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FIGURE 230.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 image 1349-16543 showing the waterfowl-habitat study area (dashed line) near 

Jamestown, N. Dak., on July 7, 1973, for which computer recognition of surface water bodies was obtained (table 2). 

.. 

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Burge, W. G., and Brown, W. l., 1970, A study of 

waterfowl habitat in North Dakota using remote 

sensing techniques: Univ. of Mich., Willow Run 

Labs., Tech. Rept. 2771-7-F, 61 p. 

Carter, Virginia, and Smith, D. G., 1973, Utilization of 

remotely sensed data in the management of inland wetlands: Am. Soc. Photogrammetry, Symposium on Management and Utilization of Remote Sensing Data, Sioux Falls, S. Oak., 1973, 

Proc., p. 144-158. 

Chamberlain, B. B., 1964, These fragile outposts-a 

geological look at Cape Cod, Martha's Vineyard, 

and Nantucket: Garden City, N.Y., The Nat. History Press, 327 p. 

Cooch, F. G., 1969, Waterfowl-production habitat requirements: Canadian Wildlife Service Rept. 

Series, v. 6, p. 5-10. 

Crissey, W. F., 1969, Prairie potholes from a continental viewpoint: Canadian Wildlife Service 

Rept. Series, v. 6, p. 161-171. 

Davis, W. M., 1896, The outline of Cape Cod: Am. 

Acad. Arts and Sci. Proc., v. 31, p. 303-332; also 

New York, Dover Pub., Geographical Essays, 

p. 690-724, 1954. 

Geis, A. D., Martinson, R. K., and Anderson, D. R., 

1969, Establishing hunting regulations and allowable harvest of mallards in the United States: 

Jour. Wildlife Management, v. 33, no. 4, p. 848-

859. 

Keefer, W. R., 1972, The geologic story of Yellowstone 

National Park: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1347, 92 p. 

Nelson, H. K., Klett, A. T., and Burge, W. G., 1970, 

Monitoring migratory bird habitat by remote 

sensing methods: North Am. Wildlife and Nat. 

Resource Conf., Trans., v. 35, p. 73-84. 

REFERENCES 

Smedes, H. W., 1971, Automatic computer mapping 

of terrain: lnternat. Workshop on Earth Resources Survey Systems, Proc., v. 2, p. 345-406. 

Strahler, A. N., 1966, A geologist's view of Cape Cod: 

Garden City, N.Y., The Nat. History Press, 115 p. 

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 

1969, Cape Cod National Seashore, Massachusetts: U.S. Govt. Printing Office, 2 p. 

Williams, R. S., Jr., 1973, Coastal and submarine features on MSS imagery of southeastern Massachusetts: comparison with conventional maps: 

NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Symposium 

on Significant Results Obtained from the Earth 

Resources Technology Satellite-1, 2d, New Carrollton, Md., Mar. 1973, Proc., v. 1, sec. B., 

p. 1413-1422. 

Williams, R. S., Jr., and Friedman, J.D., 1970, Geologic 

mapping applications of coastal aerial photography, Cape Cod, Massachusetts [abs.]: Photogramm. Eng., v. 36, no. 6, p. 597. 

Work, E. A., Jr., Gilmer, D. S., and Klett, A. T., 1973, 

Preliminary evaluation of ERTS-1 for determining 

numbers and distribution of prairie ponds and 

lakes: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Symposium on Significant Results Obtained from the 

Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1, 2d, New 

Carrollton, Md., Mar. 1973, Proc., v. 1, sec. A, 

p. 801-808. 

---1974, Utility of ERTS for monitoring the breeding habitat of migratory waterfowl: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Symposium on the 

Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1, 3d, 

Washington, D.C., Dec. 1973, Proc., v. 1, sec. B, 

p. 1671-1685. 

325 
CHAPTER 8. 

APPLICATIONS TO OCEANOGRAPHY 

INTRODUCTION 

By William J. Campbell, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

P

erhaps in the whole field of geophysical investigations, the most difficult 

realm in which science is attempting to elucidate the. cause and effect of 

nature is that of the oceans. This is so because the oceans not only cover 

1nost of our planet but also both \cvithin them and on their surfaces large-scale 

changes happen in a short time. For example, the wave structure of whole 

seas can be altered within a few hours by atmospheric forces, and parts of the 

arctic and antarctie sea-iee canopies move. as fast as 50 km/day, and their areal 

extents undergo seasonal fluctuations of 20 percent and 85 percent, respectively. 

The numerical modeling of the physical and biological systems in the 

oceans is progressing rapidly and promises to give man his first, albeit rough, 

quantitative understanding of the eomplex web of oceanic phenomena upon 

which his very survival may hinge. But as the efforts to make a numerical 

model of the atmosphere have shown, the use of models is limited not by our 

lack of an understanding of the physics of the system but by our lack of 

detailed large-scale sequential data to apply to the models. It is precisely in 

meeting this profound need that space technology may render its greatest 

service. 

Without a doubt, the n10st detailed synoptic look at the oceans available 

to science is that given by ERTS-1. The value of these data is immense, and 

what follows in this ehapter must be considered as simply preliminary and 

cursory examples of the use that ean be made. of them. 

The following ten papers are grouped into two sets: the first is made up 

of four papers on the study of turbid water, and the second includes six 

papers on sea ice. 

Carlson has shown how ERTS sequential imagery of suspended-sediment 

plumes in coastal waters ean be used to define the seasonal variation of current 

direction in nearshon• watl::'rs ( p. :~~8). Tlwsl::' nwasurements are both difficult 

and expensive to perform using standard shipboard observations. Furthermore, ERTS imagery gives a truly synoptie view whereas shipboard observations cannot. 

Coker and others have shown how ERTS imagery can be used to study 

the complex current structure of estuaries and the n1orphological changes of 

the bottom topography ( p. 330). An important environmental finding of their 

work is that it may be possible, by using ERTS-type imagery and selected 

326 
8. Applications to Oceanography 327 

ground information, to distinguish between natural and 1nanmade turbidity 

in estuaries, information that is essential for assessing the impact of the great 

numbers of proposed industrial projects to be built on theN ation's estuaries. 

Hunter has used ERTS imagery of turbid-water n1asses off the Texas 

coast to delineate the complex current pattern~ of tlw area (p. ::m+). He has 

shown that gyres and turbid plumes can be tracked for periods of several days 

with high-resolution i1nagery and that these data can be a valuable compleInent to data obtained by ships. 

Campbell has combined ERTS, Nimbus-5 ES~iR, and aircraft image.ry 

of the sea-ice cover of the Beaufort Sea to study both its morphology and 

dynamics (p. 3;)0). These combine<l data ha,~e given a new picture of this 

ice cover that could not have been drawn if the measurements were studied 

separately. The eastern Beaufort Sea is covered with large, round, 1nultiyear 

ice floes, whereas its western sector and the Chukchi Sea are covered with 

small, fragmented, predominantly first-year ice. 

Ca1npbell has shown how ERTS imagery can be used to track the n1otion 

of individual ice floes ( p. 8:17). Such a technique, \Yhen applied to a large part 

of the ice canopy, will give. invaluable data to test numerical models of the 

ice, such as those being developed by AID.JEX. 

Can1pbell has also shown how the complex dynamics of the openings in the 

sea-ice canopy, leads and polynyas. can be monitored by ERTS (p. 340). 

The ERTS data, when acquired sequentially over large areas, will prove to 

be fundamental to thermodynamic studies of the ice cover. 

Campbell illustrates how the complex structure and dynamics of the 

sea-ice shear zone along the Arctic Ocean coasts can be measured by ERTS 

(p. 346). Considering the intense push to explore this area for oil, long-term 

monitoring of the Alaskan and Canadian arctic offshore waters with ERTStype imagery is essential. 

Campbell shows that seasonal morphological changes of sea ice can be 

nwasnred by ERTS (p. 343). 

Barnes and Reimnitz show how spring floods along the northern coast 

of Alaska discharge onto sea ice at their months ( p. ;)f)()) ; they also describe 

the effect of sea ice on sedimentologic.al processes as seen in the synoptic view 

providt:>cl by ERTS imagery ( p. B60). 
MAPPING SURFACE CURRENT FLOW 

IN TURBID NEARSHORE WATERS OF 

THE NORTHEAST PACIFIC 

By Paul R. Carlson, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

E

RTS provides an opportunity to study synoptically seasonal differences in current direction in 

nearshore waters, an area difficult to study by 

ordinary oceanographic techniques. ERTS MSS imagery shows patterns of suspended sediment that can be 

used as indicators of the flow direction of the nearshore surface currents (figs. 231, 232). The flow directions are determined by the shapes of the plumes of 

turbid water, which are elongate in the direction of 

flow and are especially prominent off the mouths of 

major rivers. Photographic interpretations of flow 

directions have been substantiated by the returns of 

drift drogues dropped off the mouths of the northern 

and central California rivers at the time of satellite 

overflights (Carlson and Harden, 1973). 

Turbid-water patterns in the nearshore zone around 

Cape Mendocino, Calif., can be clearly seen on the 

images for Jan. 6, 1973 (fig. 231), and Apr. 24, 1973 

(fig. 232) . During the winter and spring rainy season, 

most of the turbidity is due to large quantities of 

suspended sediment carried into the ocean by the 

streams and rivers originating in the California Coast 

Ranges. For example, the Eel River yields about 

30X 109 kg/yr of suspended sediment, the highest average annual suspended-sediment yield per square kilometer of drainage basin of any river in the United 

States (Brown and Ritter, 1971). Other sources of 

suspended matter and turbidity in the coastal waters 

are planktonic organisms, coastline erosion and sediment resuspension by storm waves, and waste discharge 

effluents. During periods of high river discharge, however, the enormous quantities of suspended sediment 

discharged from the rivers generally mask these other 

sources. 

During January the flow of the coastal currents was 

generally northerly, but by April it had reversed and 

was generally southerly. This change in current direc328 

tion in the nearshore coastal waters corresponds to 

the seasonal change of current flow observed in the 

offshore waters. Most of the year the surface flow is 

southerly (the California Current), but in the winter, 

owing to seasonal reversal of wind direction, a northerly flowing current surfaces (the Davidson Current) 

(Schwartzlose and Reid, 1972). 

Complex flow directions that appear in both images 

around Cape Mendocino and Point Delgada may be 

due to zones of convergence and divergence. These 

zones apparently are related to oceanographic conditions such as upwelling, to localized wind motions, 

and/or to topographic features such as coastal irregularities and submarine canyons. The complex current 

patterns off Humboldt Bay are perhaps manifestations 

of the tidal circulation in this lagoonal system, and 

they are complicated further by the discharge plumes 

of the adjacent Eel and Mad Rivers and the complex 

submarine and coastal morphology. The January 

image (fig. 231) was obtained at the time of maximum 

tidal-flood current in Humboldt Bay. Turbid water, 

most likely from the Eel River plume, has been carried 

in the entrance of the bay and into the north channel. 

The April image (fig. 232) was obtained during ebbtide conditions (about 2.5 h after maximum ebb) and 

shows a discrete plume of turbid tidal water outside 

the entrance to Humboldt Bay. 

The 18-day repetitive cycle of ERTS provides opportunities to obtain seasonal coverage of the surfacecurrent directions of nearshore waters along the Pacific coast of North America in spite of the seemingly 

ever-present cloud cover. Knowledge of the coastal 

currents is vital in coastal areas for proper planning 

by land-use commissions, for proper location of sewage effluents by sanitation districts, for proper management of sport and commercial fishing, and for better 

understanding of ecological conditions. 
8. Applications to Oceanography 329 

10 0 

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10 20 30 MILE S 

10 0 10 

FIGURE 231.-Winter ERTS-1 image of turbid-water plumes along 

the northern California coast on jan. 6, 1973 (part of 1167-

18283, band 4). White masses at extreme left of image are 

clouds. The prevail ing wind direction for january is from 

the southeast (NOAA, unpub. data, 1973). The suspendedsediment concentration in the Eel River at Scotia was 122 

mg/1 on jan. 5. 1973, at 1610 h (U.S. Geological Survey, 

unpub. data, 1973). 

20 30 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 232.-Spring ERTS-1 image of turbid-water plumes along 

the northern California coast on Apr. 24, 1973 (part of 

1275-18290, band 4). White masses at left edge are clouds. 

The prevailing wind direction for April is from the north 

(NOAA, unpub. data, 1973). The suspended-sedi ment concentration in the Eel River at Scotia was 35 mg/ 1 on Apr. 

23, 1973, at 1615 h (U.S. Geological Survey, unpub. data, 

1973). 
DETECTION OF TURBIDITY DYNAMICS 

IN TAMPA BAY, FLORIDA 1 

By A. Eugene Coker, Aaron L. Higer, and Carl R. Goodwin, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

T he Port of Tampa is the 8th largest in the Nation; 

32.7 million t of total cargo are handled annually. 

In terms of export tonnage, the port is fourth in 

the country-10 million t annually. Through this port 

passes 50 percent of all the cargo tonnage in the State 

of Florida. This commerce provides $200 million per 

year in wages and salaries to workers in the Tampa 

area, $15 million to $18 million per year to the U.S. 

Government in the form of customs receipts, and, in 

addition, $50 million per year to the positive side of 

the important U.S. balance of payments ledger. 

In 1970, Congress authorized the deepening of the 

Tampa Bay channel (Rivers and Harbors Act of 1970) 

from 10.4 to 13.4 m. In order to determine the effects 

of this deepening on circulation, water quality, and 

biota during and after the construction, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Tampa Port 

Authority, has collected data and developed a digitalsimulation model of the bay. 

In addition to data collected using conventional 

tools, use is being made of data collected from ERTS1 (fig. 233). RBV multispectral data were collected 

while a shell-dredging barge was operating in the bay 

and were used for turbidity recognition and unique 

spectral signatures representative of type and amount 

of material in suspension. The processed data integrated with other modeled parameters provide a view 

of the dynamics of turbid material during dredging 

periods. A three-dimensional concept of the dynamics 

of the plume was achieved by superimposing the parts 

of the plume recognized in each RBV band. This provided a background for automatic computer processing 

of ERTS data and three-dimensional modeling of 

turbidity plumes (Coker and others, 1973). 

330 

Image identification was made by comparing 

ERTS-1 transparencies (fig. 233), aerial photographs 

(fig. 234), maps, and field observations (fig. 235) of 

the bay with the velocity-vector grid (fig. 236). The 

relative size and shape of the turbidity plume is shown 

to the right of figure 237, as recognized in each RBV 

band. This system operates in three different spectral 

regions: the green band, 0.475 to 0.575 p.m, band 1; the 

red band, 0.580 to 0.680 p.m, band 2; and the nearinfrared band, 0.690 to 0.830 p.m, band 3. 

Organic detritus and clay particles make up most of 

the suspended particulate matter (turbidity) that results from dredging operations in the waters of Tampa 

Bay. The water absorbs and reflects sunlight so that 

the RBV imagery depicts a signature indicative of the 

turbid condition of the water. The intensity of the 

reflection registered in the imagery will be modified 

by quantity and type of material in suspension, stratification, settling depth, type of bottom material, and 

water-surface roughness. If the water is clear or 

slightly turbid, the Sun's energy that spans band 3 is 

mostly absorbed at the surface, and that of bands 2 

and 1 will penetrate to progressively greater depths 

before being absorbed. For this water, the resulting 

tones on positive black and white images will be almost 

black for band 3 with progressively lighter, but stil] 

dark, tones for bands 2 and 1. The lighter tones are 

caused by the greater penetration and scattering (less 

absorption) of light from suspended particulate matter 

in the water and atmosphere at the shorter wavelengths 

of bands 2 and 1. Depending upon the span of energy 

(RBV band), type of particulate matter, stratification, 

depth of settling, and bottom conditions, the more 1 Work done in cooperation with the Tampa Port Authority, Tampa, Fla. 
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FIGURE 233.-Annotated color composite ERTS-1 RBV image of the Tampa Bay area of Florida (1010-15333). 

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332 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

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FIGURE 234 (left).-Oblique aerial photograph of shell-dredging 

operations and turbidity plume. View looking southeast. 

U.S. Geological Survey photograph by Carl R. Goodwin. 

FIGURE 235 (below left).-Sketch map show ing observations of 

turbidity in Tampa Bay. 

FIGURE 236 (below right).-Velocity-vector grid of turbidity in 

Tampa Bay. The barbs indicate current flow direction; the 

shaft lengths are proportional to current velocity. 

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turbid waters will be more reflective than the less turbid waters and will appear as lighter gray tones on the 

Imagery. 

Assuming that the bay water is slightly turbid (fig. 

235), a three-dimensional concept of the shape of the 

more turbid plume may be demonstrated by superimposing those parts of the plume observed in all three 

bands (fig. 237). On both band 1 and band 2, positive 

images, the sediment plume is depicted by lighter gray 

tones near the center and darker tones of lower reflectance at the outer edges of the plume. The turbidityplume boundaries in band 1 extend beyond those in 

bands 2 or 3 and may be areas of deeper settling 

depths and/ or contain less particulate matter in suspension (fig. 237). The energy span of band 3 is mostly 

absorbed by water at the surface, and only the particulate matter at the surface reflects light. The part 

of the plume at the surface may be delineated by 

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8. Applications to Oceanography 333 

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FIGURE 237.-A black and white photograph of RBV bands enhanced by a color-additive viewer and a sketch map of 

turbidity plume. 

lighter gray tones in the imagery of this band. This 

part of the plume may also contain recently suspended 

material that may be more highly concentrated. The 

movement of the plume toward the mouth of the bay 

is in response to ebb-tide conditions at the time of 

ERTS overpass. 

Before ERTS, the extent of dispersion of dredging 

silt plumes in an area as extensive as Tampa Bay (more 

than 770 km2 ) could only be made on a chart by connecting stations having equal turbidity as measured in 

a massive sampling program, but the positions and 

number of transects for turbidity sampling did not 

usually allow complete synoptic coverage showing the 

dynamic distribution of the turbidity plume. Furthermore, compared with ordinary massive sampling programs, the associated field data needed for correlation 

with the ERTS imagery may be considerably reduced 

in number of transects and samples across the bay. 
MOVEMENT OF TURBID-WATER MASSES 

ALONG THE TEXAS COAST 

By Ralph E. Hunter, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

The dynamic nature of turbid-water masses in 

the Gulf of ~fexico near the Texas coast is well 

illustrated by the complex patterns in these two 

ERTS images (figs. 238, 239), taken on successive days 

in late fall 1973. 

Certain features of the system of marine currents 

over the inner Continental Shelf can be deduced from 

images such as this. For example, these images shmv 

plumes of turbid water from the tidal inlets being deflected by southwestward coastal currents. Plumes 

formed by ri VPr discharge are similarly deflected, but 

individual river plumes are difficult to identify. 

Several fingerlike bands of turbid water not related 

to tidal inlets or river mouths can be seen projecting 

obliquely sea ward from the nearshore zone of turbid 

water. Although evidence for the origin of these bands 

is not obvious in this image, studies of other images 

suggest that the bands can be related to flow direction 

in two different ways. Some bands of turbid water are 

parallel to the current ; if the bands in this image are 

of this type, their orientation indicates that the flow 

was obliquely seaward. Other bands of turbid water 

are oblique to the current and are being gradually deformed by current shear; if the fingers in the image 

were being sheared by a current flowing southwestward 

parallel to the coast, their orientation indicates that 

the velocity of the current increased in an offshore 

direction. 

Several gyres can be seen along the shoreward edge 

of the offshore mass of turbid water in figure 239. 

Their counterclockwise rotation indicates current shear 

in a left-lateral sense. Comparison of this image with 

one overlapping this area on the previous day (fig. 

238) suggests that these and other features in the off334 

shore turbid-water mass remained identifiable while 

drifting during this time. The movement of these features indicates that the current was flowing southwestward approximately parallel to shore and that it 

ranged in speed from about 0.2 m/s at a distance of 

25 to 30 km from shore to about 0.1 m/s at a distance 

of 50 to 60 km from shore. The greatest speed probably occurred within the zone of clear water at a 

distance of 15 to 20 km from shore. Zones of rapid 

flow paralleling the shore, such as the one interpreted 

as occurring in this image, have been called coastal jets 

by some oceanographers. 

TlH' t>vitlencP on cnrrent patterns furnished by 

remote-sensing data in areas of turbid water can be a 

valuable complement to data obtained from the movement of surface and bottom drifters or drogues and 

from current meters placed at selected points over extended periods of time. 

ERTS-1 imagery has furnished valuable information on the sources, distribution, and movement of 

suspended sediment in the northwestern Gulf of 

:.Mexico; much of this information could hardly be obtained in any other way and certainly could not be 

obtained over such large areas at such frequent intervals other than by satellites. Measurements of current 

ve.locity from single images have proven possible where 

the place and time of origin of detached plumes from 

tidal inlets could be inferred, and measurements by 

time-lapse methods have proven possible in the areas 

of overlap between images taken on successive days. In 

addition, the patterns of turbidity variation in the 

imagery reveal a wealth of detail on current directions 

and relative velocities (Hunter, 1973). 
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FIGURE 238.-Turbidity patterns in the Gulf of Mexico and Galveston Bay on annotated ERTS-1 image 1486-16173, band 4, on Nov. 

21, 1973. 

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FIGURE 239.-Turbidity patterns along the Texas coast between Galveston and Pass Cavallo on annotated ERTS-1 image 1487-

16231, band 4, on Nov. 22, 1973. 

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0 ne of the most difficult measurements in the 

study of sea ice is to track accurately the trajectory of specific floes. Until very recently the 

only means of doing this was to have men live on 

them and make frequent celestial navigational fixesa very costly, inefficient, and inaccurate approach. Recent experiments by the AIDJEX using unmanned 

drifting buoys tracked by the Interrogation, Recording, and Location Subsystem on Nimbus-4 have shown 

that accurate trajectories can be obtained in this way, 

but the initial cost and emplacement of these buoys are 

expensive. A recent paper by Campbell and others 

(1973) has shown how ERTS images can be used to 

track ice floes, and how images can help interpret data 

on drifting ice floes obtained from unmanned drift 

buoys. 

In this study two large ice floes in the eastern Beaufort Sea in the Arctic were tracked for the period from 

Aug. 2 to Sept. 24, 1972, on sequential ERTS imagery 

of the area. The two floes tracked are shown in figure 

240, an ERTS image acquired on Aug. 19, 1972. These 

were large ice floes measuring 13 X 28 km (upper right) 

and 16 X 27 km (right center), and existed at the edge 

of the icepack, which was made up of predominantly 

big floes of about the same size. 

The trajectories of these floes, as measured from five 

sequential ERTS images (Aug. 2 and 19 and Sept. 4, 

21, and 24, 1972) are shown in figure 241. The two 

floes drifted in a similar fashion, and considerable relative strains (relative displacement between two floes) 

occurred. During the August 19 to September 4 drift, 

the floes converged with a strain rate of 35 percent 

TRACKING ICE FLOES 

BY SEQUENTIAL ERTS IMAGERY 

By William j. Campbell, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

(percentage of spatial displacement between floes 

within a given time interval) in 15 days (2.33 percent 

per day), and during the September 4 to 21 drift, they 

diverged with a strain rate of 26 percent in 17 days 

( 1.53 percent per day). Much open water bordered 

these floes during this period, which allowed the icepack to deform easily, but such large strains have also 

been observed deep within the arctic ice cover. During 

the 40 days that these two floes were being observed, 

only one underwent any weathering; about 20 percent 

of its area was broken off. Both of these floes were 

composed of multiyear ice generally 3 to 4 m thick. 

These measurements illustrate the extremely dynamic nature of the arctic ice cover. ERTS is providing the first high-resolution imagery that permits 

sea-ice dynamics and deformation to be accurately 

measured over wide areas. These data are fundamentally important in the development of numerical 

models to predict sea-ice dynamics, and if man is ever 

to operate ships safely in the Arctic Ocean, it will be 

necessary that such data be acquired on a regular realtime basis. 

A recent study by Weeks and Campbell ( 1973) has 

suggested tlw possibility of towing antarctic icebergs 

to selected sites where they could be used as a water 

resource. In order to do this, however, it would be 

necessary to locate and track icebergs of the desired 

size in the antarctic seas. ERTS imagery has been 

used by Hult and Ostrander ( 1973) to study the motion of antarctic icebergs. This study has shown that 

ERTS is an excellent means of studying antarctic 

iceberg formation and motion. 

337 
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338 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

11-1129-BB 11-1128-BB NB7<1·001 WI2S-B01 W"I25-BBI 

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FIGURE 240.-ERTS-1 image of ice floes in the eastern Beaufort Sea on Aug. 19, 1972 (1027-20241, band 6). 

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8. Applications to Oceanography 339 

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FIGURE 241.-Map showing trajectories of the two ice floes shown in figu re 240 (Aug. 2, 1972, 1010-20293; Aug. 19, 1972, 1027-

20241; Sept. 4. 1972, 1043-20125; Sept. 21, 1972, 1060-20070; and Sept. 24, 1972, 1063-20241). Other numbers (1-6, 8) and 

trajectories show movement of unmanned drifting buoys tracked by Nimbus-4. 
ICE LEAD AND POLYNYA DYNAMICS 

By William j. Campbell, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

I n order to test any numerical model for the dynamics and thermodynamics 

of ice-covered oceans, it is necessary to acquire sequential synoptic imagery 

of the changes in the thickness of the ice cover and its fracturing under 

the influences of the forces operating upon it: air stress, water drag, internal 

ice stress, Coriolis force, and gradient current forces. High-resolution imagery 

is especially important for testing models based on floe-to-floe interactions. 

The only existing remote-sensing satellite that provides imagery having 

sufficiently high resolution is ERTS. All the remote-sensing plans for AIDJEX, whose main experiment will take place from the spring of 1975 to the 

spring of 1976, call for the use of all ERTS imagery obtained of the Arctic 

Ocean ice cover. 

Although ERTS cannot directly measure the thickness of the ice cover, 

it can be used to distinguish between classes of ice thickness and to monitor 

changes within each class. In figure 242. a section of the ice cover of the 

Arctic Ocean deep within the Beaufort Sea is shown ... A.t the time this image 

was obtained, a light wind was blowing on the surface from the northeast. 

Large floes of first-year ice or multiyear ice (the whitest ice seen in the image), 

which vary in thickness from approximately 1.5 to 3m, can be seen separated 

by refrozen polynyas filled with gray ice, which is 20 to 40 em thick. Also, 

numerous new leads can be seen that are either open or have very thin ice 

covers (a few centimeters thick) on them. In the center of the image, a large 

refrozen polynya that runs approximately north-south is composed of two 

distinct zones of gray ice that have been formed by two separate opening 

events of the original lead. 

Figure 243 shows approximately the same area 1 day later, during which 

time a moderate wind continued to blow from the northeast. Strong divergence 

of ice has occurred, and the large polynya has increased in width, the new 

lead on the eastern side of the polynya having expanded approximately 4 km. 

Within this polynya, four distinct zones can clearly be seen: ( 1) a zone of 

open water immediately adjacent to the eastern edge of the polynya, (2) a zone 

of thin gray ice formed very recently by the freezing of the grease ice (ice 

slush), ( 3) a zone of earlier formed gray ice 20 to 40 em thick, and ( 4) a zone 

of older gray ice 40 to 60 em thick. A significant internal ice stress has occurred, causing strong deformation in the period between these images, as 

shown by the recent fracturing of the gray ice in the polynyas. 

When ERTS images such as these are combined with surface measurements, as they will be during the main AIDJEX experiment, they will give 

invaluable information needed to test prediction models for sea-ice dynamics 

and thermodynamics. 

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8. Applications to Oceanography 341 

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FIGURE 242.-ERTS-1 image of the ice cover in the central Beaufort Sea on Apr. 5, 1973 (1256-21391, band 6); polynya is indicated by arrows. 

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342 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

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FIGURE 243.- ERTS-1 image of the ice cover in the central Beaufort Sea on Apr. 6, 1973 (1257-21445, band 6), 1 day after figure 

242 was imaged; large polynya is indicated by arrows. 

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SEASONAL METAMORPHOSIS OF SEA ICE 

By William J. Campbell, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

N ot only does sea ice undergo large dynamic and morphologic changes in 

a short time, it also undergoes significant seasonal changes; especially 

significant is the change that occurs when winter ice metamorphoses 

into summer ice. During most o:f the year, a strong temperature gradient 

exists in the ice cover that acts as a thin insulating veneer about 3 to 4 m 

thick. The ice cover separates two fluids at distinctly different temperaturesthe sea water having a typical surface temperature of -1.7°C and the surface 

air temperature during the winter of -30° to -40°C. In the summertime the 

ice becomes isothermal, and many melt ponds :form on its upper surface that 

are important both :for thermodynamic and morphologic reasons. Because 

they cover from a fifth to a third of the total area of the ice cover at the peak 

of the summer melt period, the melt ponds are a major item in determining the 

summertime heat balance of the ice cover. "'\Vhen they refreeze, they form 

lenses of relatively homogeneous ice with fairly uniform salinity within ice 

floes having a varying vertical structure. 

In figure 244, a very large area o:f sea ice in the eastern Beaufort Sea is,, 

shown be:fore the onset of the summer melt. Five very large ice floes, with 

approximate dimensions of 40 X 50 km, are seen to be composed of cemented 

pieces of very thick ice. The leads and polynyas that appear gray are covered 

with gray ice from 20 to 40 em thick, whereas those that appear black probably have no ice on them. 

In figure 245, the same area of sea ice is shown 17 days later. During the 

period between these images, the segment of sea ice has undergone translation 

within the Beaufort Sea with a net movement to the west of approximately 

30 km. Over the entire area of sea ice, numerous melt ponds have now :formed. 

It is difficult to estimate visually the total area covered by the melt ponds, but 

it is about 20 to 30 percent. (One could make a n1ore accurate estimate by 

using density-slicing techniques.) It can be seen that by the time of this image, 

all the gray ice observed earlier had melted, and the entire icefield is now 

made up of thick ice floes. The large floes visible in the earlier image can 

clearly be seen to have undergone no weathering, and therefore probably the 

greater part of the icE:' SE:'E:'n in thE:>se images is multiyear sea ice with an average 

thickness of 4 m. 

Another interesting thing that can be observed by comparing these two 

figures is that little deformation occurred during the 17 days between observations. The relative positions of all the major floes are the same, and therefore 

the ice has not been subjected to any strong shearing or stretching deformation. 

These images clearly show that the sequential synoptic high-resolution 

capability o:f ERTS will provide invaluable data on sea-ice dynamics and 

morphology on both a day-to-day and a sE:>asonal basis. 

343 
344 ERTS-1 , A New Window on Our Planet 

1.1138-681 W12S·BB1 lNBlB·BB 

18JlM73 C Nn-~132·23 N N77--a-w13H511111S 6 D 9lJI El..35 11Z183 22&--·A·l·N·D·2L NASA ERTS E-13211·2137'1·611 

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FIGURE 245.-ERTS-1 image mosaic of large ice floes in the eastern Beaufort Sea 17 days 

after the image in figure 244 (1345-21315 and 1345-21321, band 6). 
DYNAMICS OF ARCTIC ICE-SHEAR ZONES 

By William J. Campbell, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

The arctic ice-shear zone, which borders the northern coast of Alaska and 

Canada, varies in width from several kilometers to several hundred 

kilometers and on the average closely corresponds to the width of the 

Continental Shelf. It is within this shear zone that all the offshore exploration 

for oil will occur in the foreseeable future. In addition, all proposed arctic 

shipping must use this same zone. For these reasons, interest in the ice-shear 

zones in the Beaufort Sea has grown steadily and has resulted in the formation 

of two international programs to study the morphology and dynamics of 

arctic sea ice, AIDJEX and the Polar Experiment. Scientists involved in 

these large-scale studies think that more know ledge of the ice-shear-zone 

dynamics is of fundamental importance for understanding the dynamics of 

the ice cover on the interior part of the Arctic Ocean. 

ERTS image.ry has provided valuable information on the morphology 

and dynamics of the arctic ice-shear zone. In figure 246, a section of the northwest coast of Banks Island, Northwest Territories, Canada, is shown with its 

adjacent shear zone. At the time this image was acquired, a strong surface 

wind was blowing straight off the coast toward the ice, and a recently opened 

lead can be seen along the entire segment of the coastline. Between the recently 

opened shore lead and the consolidated pack ice, which is approximately 25 

km away, a band of gray ice has formed in the previously opened shore lead. 

Figure 246, therefore, shows three distinct zones of ice: (1) the shore lead in 

which frazil ice (groups of needlelike crystals of ice) and grease ice (ice 

slush) are forming; (2) a zone of recently formed gray ice approximately 

20 km wide, which is probably 20 to 30 em thick; and ( 3) large consolidated 

floes of first-year ice, which are probably 1.5 m thick. 

In figure 247, the same area is shown approximately 24 h later. The 

offshore wind continued to blow, and the first-year ice zone is being moved 

farther offshore, moving about 14 km in 1 day. The gray ice has undergone 

rafting in several places where the lighter colored bands can be seen running 

parallel to the shore in the gray-ice zone. The shore lead has remained open 

along the entire segment of eoast, and ice plumes of grease and frazil ice can 

be seen forming. 

Figure 248 shows the same area 17 days later. During this period the 

first-year ice has been strongly moved to the southwest, and the gray-ice zone 

is now approximately 40 km wide. At the time this image was obtained, the 

wind was again blowing offshore, and a recently formed shore lead can be 

seen. The gray-ice zone by this time was 20 to 30 em thick, and pieces of 

shore-fast ice have been stripped off the coast and are adrift in the shore-lead 

zone. The first-year ice in the northeastern segment of the coast has been 

pushed strongly against the coast and has undergone heavy fracturing, forming many floes. Thus, the ERTS images clearly show the extremely dynamic 

nature of the ice-shear zone and its concomitant complex morphological 

changes. 

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FIGURE 246.- ERTS-1 image of the northwest coast of Banks Island, Northwest Territories, Canada (1261-20243, band 6), Apr. 10, 

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FIGURE 247.-ERTS-1 image of the northwest coast of Banks Island, Northwest Territories, Canada (1262-20302, band 6), 24 h 

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FIGURE 248.-ERTS-1 image of northwest coast of Banks Island, Northwest Territories, Canada (1279-20242, band 6), 17 days after 

figure 247 was imaged. 

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MORPHOLOGY OF 

BEAUFORT SEA ICE 

By William J. Campbell, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

S

ea ice is the most dynamic solid feature on the Earth's surface. At any 

given moment, sea ice covers approximately 13 percent of the Earth's 

ocean area. Because of the increased scientific awareness of the important 

role sea ice plays in determining the polar heat balance, and thus the climate 

of the Earth, major international research programs such as the AIDJEX 

and the Polar Experiment have been formed to expand scientific studies of the 

dynamic and thermodynamic interactions of ocean, ice, and atmosphere. 

ERTS imagery has been used by AIDJEX to study the morphology and 

dynamics of sea ice in the Beaufoit Sea. Campbell and others (1973) have 

shown how a variety of measurements from ERTS-1, Nimbus-4, and Nimbus5 satellites, when used jointly with data from aircraft and drift stations, show 

that the morphology of the ice cover of the Beaufort Sea is not uniform and 

is more complex than hitherto realized. As an example of the use of imagery, 

on Aug. 22, 1972, ERTS-1 obtained images in both the eastern and western 

Beaufort Sea. Figure 249 is a mosaic of ERTS imagery of an area 160X480 

km in the eastern Beaufort Sea. Large round ice floes cover most of the area, 

10 being more than 35 km across and some being as large as 55 km across. 

These floes can be identified in images obtained a month earlier, and, in the 

summer period between these observations, the images show that the floes 

underwent little weathering while moving toward the southwest. The longest 

sequence of ERTS-1 images covering one section was from Aug. 17 to Sept. 

24, 1972, and consisted of five passes over an area just east of that shown in 

figure 249. The shape and size of the large floes observed in the eastern 

Beaufort Sea resemble those of major floes shown in microwave images 

obtained in this area during the 1971 AIDJEX-NASA Remote Sensing 

Experiment (Gloersen and others, 1973). 

Also on Aug. 22, 1972, 200 min after the images comprising figure 249 

were obtained, ERTS-1 passed over the western Beaufort Sea and obtained 

the images shown mosaiced in figure 250. The most striking difference between 

this mosaic and figure 249 is the complete absence of any big floes. The mean 

size of the floes in the western area is more than an order of magnitude smaller 

than those in the eastern area; typical floes are 1 to 2 km across. Also, they 

are not round but have angular fragmented shapes. It is important to bear 

in mind that these mosaics show ice floes at the same latitude and are essentially synoptic. The shape and size of these small angular ice floes in the 

western Beaufort Sea resemble those of ice floes shown in microwave images 

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8. Applications to Oceanography 351 

FIGURE 249.-ERTS-1 image mosaic of the eastern 

Beaufort Sea on Aug. 22, 1972 (1 030-20410, 

1030-2041 2, and 1030-20415, band 6). 
352 ERT5-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

obtained in the same area during the 1972 AIDJEX-NASA Remote Sensing 

Experiment (Campbell and others, 1973). 

Figure 251 shows a mosaic of ERTS-1 images obtained on Sept. 8, 1972; 

the area is slightly east of that shown in figure 249. From surface measurements of drifting buoys of the AIDJEX-Interrogation, Recording, and Location Subsystem, we know that the ice shown in this image was positioned 95 

km to the east on Aug. 22, 1972. The floes in the western part of this mosaic 

resemble the many small floes visible in figure 250, but in the south-center 

section a band of larger rounded floes is seen. 

Therefore, the ERTS images give us a picture of the southern Beaufort 

Sea in which the eastern sector is made up of large rounded ice floes, the 

western sector is made up of small angular floes, and the central sector is made 

up of small floes and a few larger rounded ones. From the fact that the large 

rounded floes in the eastern sector were tracked throughout the summer with 

ERTS images and underwent very little weathering, we can surmise that they 

were multiyear ice floes having average thicknesses of 3 to 4 m. But we cannot, 

using ERTS alone, accurately determine the age and type of ice shown in the 

central and western Beaufort Sea. 

The 1971 and 1972 AIDJEX-N ASA Remote Sensing Experiments 

showed that multiyear ice has a "cool" radiometric signature in the 1.55-cm 

wavelength, whereas first-year ice has a "warm" microwave radiometric signature. The ESMR n1ounted on the Nimbus-5 satellite is providing synoptic 

images of microwave emissions at this wavelength over the entire globe, and 

one of these images of the Arctic on ~Jan. 11, 1973, is shown in figure 252. If 

one looks at the Beaufort Sea area in this image, one can see that, according 

to the ESMR, the ice in the eastern Beaufort Sea has a "cool" radiometric 

signature (blue) and is therefore nulltiyear ice. The image also shows that 

the ice just north of Alaska in the western Beaufort Sea is made up of predominantly first-year sea ice because it has a "warm" (yellow) radiometric 

signature. Data such as these are fundamentally important if science is to 

develop predictive numerical models for the arctic ice cover, models which 

are necessary in order to utilize properly the oil and mineral resources in this 

highly vulnerable and dynamic region. 
FIGURE 250.-ERTS-1 image mosaic of the western 

Beaufort Sea on Aug. 22, 1972 (1 030-22243 and 

1030-22250, band 6). 

8. Applications to Oceanography 

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353 
354 ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet 

FIGURE 251 .-ERTS-1 image mosaic of the eastern 

Beaufort Sea area on Sept. 8, 1972 (1047-22181, 

1047-22183, and 1047-22190, band 6). 

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FIGURE 252.-Polar projection map of the North Pole from Nimbus-5 ESMR data on )an . 11 , 1973. Variations in microwave radiometric temperature are shown in color. The blue and yel low areas are " cool" (multiyear) and " warm " (first-year) sea ice, respectively. 
FLOODING OF SEA ICE BY 

THE RIVERS OF NORTHERN ALASKA 

By Peter W. Barnes and Erk Reimnitz, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Three overlapping high-latitude ERTS images show a 4-day sequence of 

river flooding on the sea ice off the Sagavanirktok River near Prudhoe 

Bay, Alaska (figs~ 253, 254, 255). 

The onslaught of catastrophic events has always both threatened and 

fascinated man, and the spring breakup and initial flow of arctic rivers are 

such events. On the North Slope of Alaska, rivers flood before the melting 

and breakup of the sea ice along the coast and thus cause a freshwater overflow, 1m or more in depth, onto the sea ice in the immediate vicinity of river 

mouths. Subsequent to the overflow, the floodwaters drain through strudel 

(drain holes in ice) (Reimnitz and Bruder, 1972). Field studies show that 

the floodwaters carry very little sediment, because the initial melt involves 

only the snow overlying the frozen soils and sediments. As the floodwaters 

drain through strudel in the ice canopy offshore, the sea floor is extensively 

scoured (Reimnitz and Barnes, 1974). As the season progresses, the ice immediately offshore from the deltas melts because of the influx of warmer river 

waters. Very little of this freshwater mixes with the offshore and/or underlying seawater, and a large freshwater reservoir is created in this arctic region. 

Mixing is damped by a weak current structure that results from a small tidal 

range and the presence of an ice cover that eliminates wind stress. 

The development of flooding can be seen on the ERTS images as the expansion of the dark area (freshwater) outside of the delta of the Sagavanirktok River. Flooding of the sea ice by the river apparently started on May 23 

and had still not reached its maximum extent 5 days later, although the overflow from the eastern channel was starting to drain. The fact that drainage 

was occurring is shown in the May 27 image by the lighter color at the western 

terminus of the overflow. During the period of observation, the area of inundated sea ice increased from approximately 18 km2 to 43 km2 • If the area were 

covered to an average depth of 0.75 m (Barnes and Reimnitz, 1972), this 

volume represents a freshwater lake on the sea ice of at least 32X106 m3, disregarding drainage and subsequent river flow. 

Rapid snowmelt from May 24 through May 27 is indicated by the increased definition of the drilling pads at Prudhoe Bay (fig. 255). The sharp 

northeast-southwest lineation in the oilfield is due to downwind eolian transport of loose sediment from the roads and pads. 

Examination of earlier imagery of the area to the southeast of the Sagavanirktok River and later imagery of the area to the northwest indicates that 

the rivers of the Alaskan North Slope overflow in sequence from southeast to 

northwest, apparently in response to the variance of solar insolation at different latitudes. 

River flooding of sea ice marks the abrupt change from winter to summer conditions in the Arctic when man's transportation activities must shift 

from overland to air or water. Thus, knowledge of this phenomenon is essential for the safe utilization of installations on or near deltas, and ERTS 

imagery provides a tool to determine the variability of the areal extent and 

intensity of flooding from year to year. 

356 
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1973 (1305-21121 , band 6). 

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1973 (1307-21231, band 6). 

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1973 (1308-21290, band 6); drill ing pads indicated by smaller arrow west of Sagavanirktok River. 

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INFLUENCE OF SEA ICE 

ON SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES 

OFF NORTHERN ALASKA 

By Erk Reimnitz and Peter W. Barnes, 

U.S. Geological Survey 

The ice cover of the Beaufort Sea has a critical influence on the sedimentary environment of the 

Continental Shelf north of Alaska. An understanding of this environment is of great scientific interest, for about 25 percent of the world's Continental 

Shelf areas are seasonally covered by ice today; sea ice 

was even more widespread during colder periods in the 

past. Comprehension of this type of environment can 

be directly applied during future offshore development 

of the Prudhoe Bay oilfield. 

Figure 256 is an ERTS MSS color composite image 

taken on June 14, 1973, about 2 weeks after the river 

flooding of the fast ice (sea ice anchored to the coast 

or bottom) but 3 weeks before the breakup of the ice. 

With the initiation of river flow, extensive regions of 

fast ice are inundated by river water that carries some 

sediment onto the ice (Barnes and Reimnitz, 1972 and 

this volume; Reimnitz and Bruder, 1972). By the time 

this ERTS image was taken, most of this water had 

drained from the ice through strudel (drain holes in 

ice), producing bottom-scour features on the sea floor 

(Reimnitz and others, 1974). The outer boundary of 

the flood of river water can be detected in some areas 

(arrows). The ice near river mouths has melted (darkblue area) ; from later images and ground observations, 

we can conclude that, at the time of sea-ice breakup, 

little of the river-supplied sediment remains on the 

ice to be rafted away from deltas. 

The location of the shear line between the fast ice 

and offshore pack ice has pronounced influence on sedimentological processes of the Continental Shelf. In interpreting ERTS images made during the period from 

March through June 1973, we find that initially the 

shear line lies between the 10- and 20-m depth contours along the north coast of Alaska. On the June 

image (fig. 256) the midwinter location is indicated 

360 

by a solid line. Seaward of this line is the shear zone 

in which the ice is intensely deformed and shows a 

dense pattern of major pressure ridges. Ice movement 

in this zone occurs mainly during the first half of the 

winter. Since the keels of many pressure ridges extend 

to the sea floor, the bottom is ploughed during such 

movement of ice. Eventually the pressure ridges become so firmly grounded that the ice in the shear zone 

becomes strongly resistant to further deformation, 

thereby causing: a seaward extension of the fast ice out 

to 20 to 25 km along a relatively straight coastline. 

Overlapping ERTS images of late May 1973, taken at 

a time of strong easterly winds, show that a new shear 

line has formed (May position plotted as dashed line 

on fig. 256) with rapidly moving ice to the seaward of 

the line. Pressure-ridge lineation, which records the 

deformation of winter ice, is best seen in the right 

part of the image (fig. 256) . 

Surveys of the sea-floor bottom made after the seaice breakup show sea-floor gouges produced by ice in 

this zone of major pressure ridges and a remarkably 

smooth bottom in the area landward of the shear line 

(Reimnitz and Barnes, 1974). Box cores from the shear 

zone show that sediments are intensely mixed (Barnes 

and Reimnitz, 197 4). The keels of pressure ridges in 

the shear zone, where they are in contact with the bottom, may affect water circulation on the Continental 

Shelf. Obviously the shear zone will be the most hazardous region for any offshore construction. 

Our studies of ERTS images indicate that in some 

areas the shear line migrates sea ward during the 

winter. Whether it initially forms within the same 

depth range year after year remains to be determined, 

but in the eastern part of the image in figure 256, 

where the shear line passes near outlying islands, its 

location apparently is controlled by bathymetry. 
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outer boundary of the flood of river water is indicated by arrows. Location of shear line in midwinter is shown with a solid 

line, and the new shear line is shown with a dashed line. 

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REFERENCES 

Barnes, P. W., and Reimnitz, Erk, 1972, River overflow onto the sea ice off the northern coast of 

Alaska, Spring 1972 [abs.]: Am. Geophys. Union, 

EEBS, Trans., v. 53, p. 1020. 

---1974, Sedimentary processes on arctic shelves 

off the northern coast of Alaska: Arctic lnst. North 

America, Symposium on Beaufort Sea Coastal and 

Shelf Research, San Francisco, Calif., 1974, Proc., 

p. 439--476. 

Brown, W. M., Ill, and Ritter, j. R., 1971, Sediment 

transport and turbidity in the Eel River basin, 

California: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 

1986, 70 p. 

Campbell, W. j.; Gloersen, Per; Nordberg, William; 

and Wilheit, T. T.; 1973, Dynamics and morphology of Beaufort Sea ice determined from satellites, aircraft, and drifting stations: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, X-650--73-194, 20 p. 

Carlson, P. R., and Harden, D. R., 1973, Principal 

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'tf U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1976 0-21l-907