This guide is designed to prepare you to deploy to culturally 

complex environments and achieve mission objectives. The 

fundamental information contained within will help you 

understand the cultural dimension of your assigned location 

and gain skills necessary for success (Photo: USAF dental 

technician teaches local 

children to properly brush 

their teeth in Jaffna, Sri 

Lanka).

The guide consists of 2 

parts: 

Part 1 “Culture General” 

introduces the foundational 

knowledge you need to operate effectively in any global 

environment with a focus on South Asia. 

Part 2 “Culture Specific” describes unique cultural features of 

Sri Lankan society. It applies culture-general concepts to help

increase your knowledge of your assigned deployment 

location. This section is designed to complement other predeployment training (Photo: 

US Sailor tours Sri Lankan 

Naval cadets on the 

amphibious transport USS 

Somerset).

For further information, visit

the Air Force Culture and 

Language Center (AFCLC) 

website at http://culture.af.mil/ or contact the AFCLC Region 

Team at AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil. 

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the expressed permission 

of the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the 

US government, Wikimedia, and other sources. 

About this Guide

India Culture Guide Sri Lankan Culture Guide
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture, 

and individuals within a 

culture share a general set of 

beliefs and values. 

Members of a culture also 

usually assign the same 

meanings to the symbols in 

that culture. A symbol is 

when one thing – an image, 

word, object, idea, or story – represents another thing. For 

example, the American flag is a physical and visual symbol of a 

core American value – freedom. At the same time, the story of 

George Washington admitting to having chopped down a 

cherry tree is also symbolic, representing the importance 

Americans place on personal honesty and leadership integrity. 

Force Multiplier

The military services have learned through experience the 

importance of understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20thcentury bipolar world order that dominated US strategy for 

nearly half a century, today the US military is operating in what 

we classify as asymmetric or irregular conflict zones, where the 

notion of cross-cultural interactions is on the leading edge of 

our engagement strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive 

feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on 

influencing constructive change through peaceful means where 

possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local 

nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and 

economic institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and 

traditions. 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

GENERAL

CULTURE
Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build 

relationships with people from other cultures, positively 

influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success. 

Cultural Domains 

Culture is not just represented 

by the beliefs we carry 

internally, but also by our 

behaviors and by the systems 

members of a culture create to 

organize their lives. These 

systems, such as political or 

educational institutions, help us to live in a manner that is 

appropriate to our culture and encourages us to perpetuate that 

culture into the future. 

We can organize behaviors and belief systems into categories–

what the Air Force refers to as “cultural domains”–in order to 

better understand the primary values and characteristics of a 

society. A cross-culturally competent military member can use 

these domains–which include kinship, language and 

communication, social and political systems, and others (see 

chart on next page)–as tools for understanding and adapting to 

any culture. For example, by understanding the ways a culture

defines family and kinship, a US military member operating 

overseas can more effectively interact with members of that 

culture. 

Social Behaviors across Cultures 

While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact 

or even categorize those behaviors differently across cultural 

boundaries. For example, all societies obtain food for survival, 

although agrarian societies generally produce their own food 

for limited consumption using very basic techniques.

Conversely, industrialized nations have more sophisticated

market economies, producing foodstuffs for universal 

consumption. 

Likewise, all cultures value history and tradition, although they 

represent these concepts through a variety of unique forms of 

symbolism. While the dominant world religions share the belief 

GENERAL

CULTURE
in one God, their worship practices vary with their traditional 

historical development. Similarly, in many kin-based cultures 

where familial bonds are 

foundational to social identity, it 

is customary for family or friends 

to serve as godparents, while for 

other societies this practice is 

nearly non-existent. 

Worldview

One of our most basic human behaviors is the tendency to 

classify others as similar or different based on our cultural 

standards. As depicted in the chart below, we can apply the 12 

cultural domains to help us compare similarities and differences 

across cultures. We evaluate others’ behavior to determine if 

they are “people like me” or “people not like me.” Usually, we 

assume that those in the “like me” category share our 

perspectives and values. 

This collective perspective forms our worldview–how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider 

GENERAL

CULTURE
your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for actions and a logical explanation of 

why we individually or collectively act in a certain manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system sets its universal standards of what 

is good and bad, defines right and wrong behavior, and assigns 

a value of meaningful or meaningless. Our beliefs form the 

fundamental values we hold to be true–regardless of whether 

there is evidence to support these ideas. Beliefs are a central 

aspect of human culture. They are shared views about world 

order and how the universe was physically and socially 

constructed. 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, right or wrong depends on our deeplyheld beliefs we started developing early in life that have helped

shape our characters. Likewise, these values are ingrained in 

our personalities and shape our behavior patterns and our selfidentities. Because cultural beliefs 

are intensely held, they are difficult, 

though not impossible, to change. 

Core Beliefs 

Core beliefs shape and influence 

certain behaviors and also serve to 

rationalize those behaviors. 

Therefore, knowledge of individual 

or group beliefs can be useful in 

comprehending or making sense of 

their activities. We will use the 

iceberg model for classifying culture

to illustrate two levels of meaning, 

as depicted. Beliefs and values, portrayed by the deeper and 

greater level of the submerged iceberg, are seldom visible, but 

are indicated / hinted at / referenced by our behaviors and 

symbols (top level). It is important to recognize, though, that 

the parts of culture that are not visible (under the waterline) are 

informing and shaping what is being made visible (above the 

waterline). 

GENERAL

CULTURE
In many cases, different worldviews may present behaviors that 

are contrary to our own beliefs, particularly in many regions 

where US forces deploy. Your ability to suspend judgment in 

order to understand another perspective is essential to 

establishing relationships with your host-nation counterparts. 

The ability to withhold your opinion and strive to understand a 

culture from a member of that culture’s perspective is known as 

cultural relativism. It often involves taking an alternate

perspective when interpreting others’ behaviors and is critical 

to your ability to achieve mission success. 

As you travel throughout South Asia, you will encounter cultural 

patterns of meaning that are common across the region. What 

follows is a general description of 12 cultural domains which 

are used to frame those commonalities. 

1. History and Myth 

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of 

the past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can 

act as a type of historical record, although it is usually a story 

which members of a culture use to 

explain community origins or important 

events that are not verifiable or which 

occurred prior to written language. 

South Asia comprises 5 countries on 

the mainland: India, Pakistan, Nepal, 

Bhutan, and Bangladesh, and 2 island 

countries, Sri Lanka and the Maldives, 

located south of India in the Indian 

Ocean. Over thousands of years, many 

different ethnic and cultural groups 

migrated through and settled in South 

Asia. The region’s first civilization, the Indus Valley Civilization, 

emerged in modern-day Pakistan around 3000 BC. Inhabitants 

developed a complex writing system, built well-planned cities, 

and manufactured bronze tools (Photo: Indus Valley Civilization 

vessel, 2600-2450 BC). 

CULTURAL DOMAINS

GENERAL

CULTURE
Beginning with the Mauryan Empire (325-185 BC), the region 

experienced several cycles as empires consolidated and then

splintered into smaller kingdoms and states before 

consolidating again. The Gupta Empire (320-550 AD) ushered 

in a period of peace and security known as the Classical Age. 

During this period, South Asians made major advances in 

literature, art, mathematics, medicine, and astronomy. The 

Hindu religion also rapidly developed and spread. 

Following the fall of the Gupta 

Empire, warring kingdoms and 

Central Asian invaders known 

as the Mughals competed for 

dominance through the 15th 

century. During the 16th 

century, a series of Mughal 

rulers gradually conquered 

most of South Asia, founding 

the Mughal Empire and spreading Islam. At the height of their 

power in the 16th and 17th centuries, the Mughals greatly 

influenced art, literature, and architecture (Illustration: A village 

scene by a Mughal Empire painter). 

Meanwhile, the Portuguese had reached India in the late 15th 

century. By the early 17th century the French, British, and 

Portuguese were competing for control of the international 

spice trade as well as influence over Mughal leaders. The 

British emerged victorious, taking control of most of the 

subcontinent, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives by the late 18th 

century. Remote Bhutan and Nepal remained independent 

monarchies throughout the subsequent British colonial era. 

Anti-British nationalist movements arose in the early 20th 

century. The Indian National Congress Party emerged as the 

largest anti-colonial movement but failed to attract Muslims, 

who feared Hindu dominance. Instead, Muslims formed their 

own nationalist party, the All-India Muslim League, which 

advocated for a separate independent Muslim state. In 

response to these nationalist pressures, the British government 

divided most of its South Asian colonial empire into 2 

independent nations – Muslim-majority Pakistan and Hindumajority India – in 1947. Sri Lanka gained independence a year 

GENERAL

CULTURE
later. In 1965 the Maldives regained its independence from 

Britain, and in 1971, Bangladesh declared and won its 

independence from Pakistan. 

Since gaining independence, India has remained a fairly stable 

democracy, while Pakistan has resorted to intermittent periods 

of military rule. Bhutan and Nepal have explored transition from 

monarchies to democracies. Sri Lanka emerged from a 26-year 

civil war in 2009, while the Maldives and Bangladesh have

struggled to improve their democratic governance. 

2. Political and Social Relations 

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to 

others in their community. 

South Asia’s strategic position between East Asia, the Middle 

East, and Central Asia, along with its ethnic diversity, greatly 

influenced its political and social systems. From ancient times, 

traders, migrants, and conquerors from various places and 

cultures passed through or settled in 

the region. These peoples included 

the Persians, Scythians, Arabs, 

Mongols, Turks, and Afghans (Photo: 

Jhong village in Nepal). 

Historically, South Asia consisted of

hundreds of kingdoms and 

principalities that no empire could 

control for long. Even under British 

colonial rule, over 200 rulers retained 

control of minor territories. Despite this 

fragmentation, the British colonial bureaucracy successfully 

administered these varied polities and interests for over 150 

years, eventually becoming the framework for South Asia’s 

post-independence governments. 

Today, India retains the region’s most stable democratic 

political system. Pakistan began restoring democratic 

processes in 2008, while Bangladesh and the Maldives 

struggle with corruption and unstable leadership transitions. Sri 

GENERAL

CULTURE
Lanka maintains democratic institutions despite leadership’s 

harsh tactics against political opposition. Nepal’s government 

has dissolved several times since electing its first President in 

2008, remaining deadlocked over drafting a new constitution. 

Bhutan largely closed itself off to the world, ceding control of its 

foreign relations to India between 1949-2007. Thereafter, the

Bhutani king has been directing democratization efforts, 

overseeing the first parliamentary elections in 2007. 

With India the dominant power in South Asia, the other South 

Asian countries are wary of its intentions. Pakistan especially 

rejects India’s role as a regional leader. Ongoing territorial 

disputes between India and Pakistan have erupted in armed 

clashes several times since 

independence and compelled 

both countries to test nuclear 

weapons in 1998. 

Meanwhile, relations between 

India and China are strained 

for several reasons, most 

notably China’s close ties with 

Pakistan, rivalry over access 

to resources and regional influence, and ongoing territorial 

disputes. The US has strong ties to the region and seeks 

deeper economic, political, and security cooperation (Photo: 

US Airman with Bangladeshi schoolboys). 

Modern South Asia encompasses hundreds of ethnicities, 

whose group identities influence regional politics. For example, 

ethnic nationalism prompted Bengalis to declare independence 

from Pakistan, establishing Bangladesh as the only ethnically 

homogenous state in South Asia. Seeking to create an 

independent Tamil state within Sri Lanka, Tamil insurgents 

fought and lost a 26-year civil war against the majority 

Sinhalese in 2009. 

India is home to thousands of tribal groups, where both religion 

and ethnicity are powerful forces in politics. Although officially 

abolished in India and antithetical to the Islamic belief system, 

the ancient Hindu-based caste system still plays a role in South 

Asian society. This system organizes society into a set of 

GENERAL

CULTURE
hierarchical and hereditary groups. At the bottom of the caste 

system are the Dalits (the “oppressed” or “downtrodden”), who 

are largely impoverished and uneducated, and who face strong 

discrimination. 

3. Religion and Spirituality 

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They 

also create social unity by defining shared identity, offer 

individuals peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in 

a society. 

South Asia is the birthplace of 2 major world religions, 

Hinduism and Buddhism. Hinduism’s roots trace back to the 

Vedic Period (ca. 1750-500 BC). During the Gupta Empire from 

the 4th-6th centuries, these early beliefs and traditions evolved 

into the foundations of modern Hinduism. Today, large 

majorities of the populations of India and Nepal are Hindu. 

Siddhartha Gautama, who achieved enlightenment and 

became “the Buddha,” founded Buddhism around 500 BC. In 

the ensuing centuries, Buddhism spread through South Asia

into East and Southeast Asia. Starting in the 4th century AD, 

Buddhism began to decline in 

South Asia, virtually disappearing 

from the region by the 12th century. 

While the percentage of South East 

Asian Buddhists is small, Bhutan 

and Sri Lanka have Buddhist 

majorities and Nepal a significant 

Buddhist community (Illustration: 

Wall painting in a Bhutan Buddhist 

temple).

Beginning in the 8th century, 

Muslims spread Islam throughout 

much of the North and West of 

South Asia, culminating in the founding of the Muslim Mughal 

Empire in the 16th century. Although the early Mughal rulers 

tolerated other religions, later rulers sometimes persecuted 

followers of other religions. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
Under British colonial rule, South Asians were generally free to 

practice the religion of their choice. Religious tensions between 

Hindus and Muslims led to the breakup of the British Empire

into Hindu-majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan. 

Today, South Asians continue to profess diverse religious 

beliefs. In addition to its majority Hindu population (80%), India 

is home to Muslims, Christians, and Sikhs, among other 

traditions. While Sri Lanka recognizes no state religion, its 

constitution gives “foremost place” to Buddhism, which is the 

state religion of Bhutan. Although both Pakistan (96% Muslim)

and India enshrine religious freedom in their constitutions, 

increasing Islamic governance in Pakistan and growing Hindu 

nationalism in India create tensions with minority religious 

groups in both countries. 

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong 

emotional bonds that influence them to treat each other like 

family members (often called “fictive kin”). 

Family life and relationships 

are important to South Asians. 

The traditional South Asian 

ideal family consists of several 

generations of the male line 

living in one household, along 

with their wives, minor children, 

and unmarried adult daughters. 

Women leave their parents’ 

home when they marry and 

join their husband’s family. Inheritance passes from father to 

son, and traditionally the family engages in business or a craft 

together (Photo: Khasia people in Bangladesh). 

In many South Asian families, parents have a great deal of 

influence over their children’s marriages. Arranged marriages 

are common, and young women often marry older men. In 

some regions, families encourage their children to marry within 

their caste. Hindus consider marriage to be an eternal bond, a 

belief that contributes to low divorce rates. Of note, polygyny, 

GENERAL

CULTURE
the practice of a man having multiple wives, is legal in most 

South Asian countries. Two exceptions are India, which 

outlawed polygyny for Hindus (non-Hindus may engage in the 

practice), and Nepal, which outlawed polygyny completely. 

A growing rural-urban divide in economic and educational 

opportunities across South Asia results in notable differences 

in rural and urban family life. The traditional family structure is 

still common in rural areas, where families engage in 

agricultural or village economies. In urban centers, where more 

educational and economic opportunities are available, the 

household is usually much smaller and family structures are 

much more diverse. 

5. Sex and Gender 

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive differences between 

males and females, while gender is a more flexible concept 

that refers to a culture’s 

categorizing of masculine and 

feminine behaviors, symbols, 

and social roles (Photo: 

Nepalese woman).

South Asia’s dominant 

philosophies and religions 

(Hinduism and Islam) privilege 

the male’s role as leader and provider and stress female 

subordination. Despite progressive gender equality policies, 

South Asian women face continued challenges to their

participation in the political system, the labor market, and 

education. While laws supporting equal rights exist in many 

South Asian countries, the legal systems often remain 

discriminatory and rarely uphold such laws. 

In much of South Asia, women still assume the traditional roles 

of wives and mothers. Access to education is unequal in India, 

Pakistan, and Nepal, where fewer girls than boys enroll in 

school. South Asian girls typically marry at a young age, and

over 50% of South Asian women have a child before age 20. 

Women also face discrimination in the workforce. Across the 

region, women comprise only 19% of employment outside of 

GENERAL

CULTURE
agriculture, and their participation in the labor force has 

declined since 1990. South Asian women do participate in 

politics, having served as heads of state in India, Pakistan, 

Bangladesh, Nepal, and Sri Lanka. Nevertheless, women

remain underrepresented in politics, holding only less than 20% 

of the seats in national parliaments. 

Bangladesh has topped the South Asian countries in gender 

equality for the third consecutive year, ranking 47th among 

144. The Maldives also has relatively high gender equality, with 

over 43% of Maldivinian women employed across nearly all 

sectors. 

Homosexuality is illegal in every South Asian country except 

Nepal. Homosexuals suffer discrimination and stigmatization 

across most of South Asia. 

6. Language and Communication 

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural practice of sharing meaning in 

interaction, both verbally and 

non-verbally. 

South Asia is linguistically 

diverse – about 450 languages 

are in daily use in India alone, 

although most are spoken only 

within very limited geographical 

regions. South Asia’s languages 

belong to 4 groups: Indo-European (languages such as Hindi, 

Punjabi, and Urdu, are spoken widely in India and Pakistan), 

Dravidian (such as Tamil, spoken in India and Sri Lanka), SinoTibetan (such as Dzongkha, spoken in Bhutan) and AustroAsiatic (such as Santhali, spoken in India) (Photo: 17th century 

stone inscription in Nepal, written in 15 languages). 

Many South Asians are multilingual, although some regions 

exhibit more linguistic diversity than others. For example, while 

Hindi is India’s national language, the government recognizes 

English as a subsidiary official language and grants official 

status to 21 other languages. By contrast, most people in 

GENERAL

CULTURE
Bangladesh speak Bangla as their first language, while

Dzongkha is Bhutan’s only official language. In Pakistan, large 

populations speak Punjabi, Sindhi, and Saraiki, yet the 

government is slowly transitioning the official language from 

English to Urdu, mother tongue of only 8% of the population. 

South Asians generally consider English a sign of education or 

elite status. The British colonial powers that controlled most of 

South Asia during the 19th and early 20th centuries promoted 

the use of English. Since independence, English has remained 

a national or official language in India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and 

the Maldives, where it is often used in official government 

business alongside local languages. Nepal also uses English

unofficially in government and business. The only countries 

that do not use English to conduct official business are 

Bangladesh and Bhutan. 

South Asians use a variety of scripts, some developed in the 

region and others adopted from abroad. For example, Hindi, 

Nepali, and Sanskrit, spoken in India and Nepal, use variations 

of the Devanagari script from 

northern India. By contrast, Urdu 

and Sindhi, spoken in India and 

Pakistan, use the Arabic script from 

the Middle East. Of note, to write Punjabi, Pakistanis use the 

Arabic script, while Indians use the Devanagari script

(Illustration: “India” written in Hindi Devanagari script). 

While some South Asians avoid confrontation during 

interactions, others are more demonstrative. Generally, South 

Asians value respect in interpersonal relations. Of note,

specific greetings, customs, and traditions used to demonstrate 

respect within interactions can differ significantly by region and 

culture. 

7. Learning and Knowledge 

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and 

health requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, 

behaviors, and symbols that have meaning to the community). 

This knowledge transfer may occur through structured, 

GENERAL

CULTURE
formalized systems such as schools or through informal 

learning by watching adults or peers. 

Traditionally valuing education, South Asian societies have 

established various types of formal institutions of learning. Prior 

to the colonial period, most education took place in religious 

institutions such as the Hindu gurukula (a school headed by a 

guru, or teacher), Buddhist monasteries, and Islamic 

madrasas (religious schools). Schools taught a variety of 

subjects, including religion, philosophy, warfare, medicine, 

astronomy, literature, mathematics, and logic. 

During the colonial period, the British introduced secular 

education in the English language with the goal of spreading 

Western ideas and creating a class of South Asians that could 

support the British bureaucracy. The British suppressed 

instruction in South Asian literature, religion, and philosophy in 

order to “modernize” residents. Educated South Asians in turn

opened their own schools that advocated South Asian history 

and culture. This rising consciousness among the South Asian 

elite contributed to nationalist 

movements of the early to mid-20th 

century, eventually leading to 

independence for most of South 

Asia. 

Today, South Asian leaders view 

education as a tool for developing 

the region. The South Asian 

nations invested heavily in education in the first decade of the 

21st century, resulting in an increase in primary school 

enrollment rates from 75% in 2001 to 89% in 2010. Despite this 

success, 13 million South Asian children remain unenrolled, 

disproportionately girls, while approximately 1/3 of students

receive low quality education that leaves them without basic 

literacy and math skills (Photo: School children in India). 

8. Time and Space 

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that 

are not directly linked to physical survival. In most western 

cultures, people tend to be preoccupied with strict time 

management, devoting less effort to relationship-building. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
Conversely, in most South Asian cultures, establishing and 

maintaining relationships with others can take precedence over 

accomplishing a task in the most efficient manner. Networking 

is very important in South Asia, as introductions through a 

reputable 3rd party can facilitate relationship-building by

providing immediate credibility with a new contact. 

Concepts of personal space differ throughout the region. While 

many Indians prefer to have at least an arm’s length of space, 

Pakistani men tend to stand closely when speaking. In some 

regions, interactions between men and women may be 

restricted. In other regions, unrelated men and women may not 

interact at all. This segregation is particularly true in Pakistan, 

Bangladesh, and northwest India, where many wealthy and 

middle-class Muslim and Hindu families follow a tradition called 

purdah. This practice dictates 

that women a secluded in their 

family homes and wear veils on 

the rare occasions they go 

outside. 

The rhythm of daily life changes 

during religious festivals and 

holidays. For example, during the Muslim month of Ramadan, 

many restaurants close and people enjoy a shorter work day. 

During the 5-day Hindu festival Diwali, participants open their

doors and windows so the goddess of wealth may enter. 

Religious space is also subject to a variety of traditions 

restricting dress, actions, and types of participants, depending 

on the religion or local culture. For example, men must remove 

their shirts when entering some Hindu temples, while the Haji 

Ali dargah, a Muslim shrine in India, is off-limits to women

(Photo: Performers celebrating Republic Day in India). 

Some practices concerning the use of space are common 

across the region. For example, visitors typically remove their 

shoes upon entering a home, temple, or mosque, and

sometimes before entering an office or other private spaces. 

9. Aesthetics and Recreation

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and

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CULTURE
style. Most of South Asia’s forms of artistic expression reflect 

the diversity of the region’s cultures and ethnicities as well as 

the influence of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam. Elaborate 

Hindu temples in India, Buddhist domed shrines in Nepal, and 

Islamic art and architecture, such as the world famous Taj 

Mahal, illustrate the artistic variety of South Asian culture. 

Traditional dance, art, and literature have experienced revival

following a period of suppression under the British colonial 

powers. Ancient epic poems, the Mahabharata and Ramayana,

inspire modern mask and puppet theater, as well as television 

series. Contemporary novelists and poets explore a unique 

South Asian perspective while writing in both local languages 

and English. India features a thriving movie industry based in 

Mumbai. Known as Bollywood (a term constructed by 

combining Bombay and 

Hollywood), it is the world’s 

largest film industry (Photo: 

Dancers performing at an 

Indian cultural event). 

Cricket is the most popular 

sport in South Asia where 

India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka 

each having won the Cricket World Cup at least once. India 

and Pakistan have a strong cricket rivalry and have used 

cricket games as diplomatic ice breakers. India also is 

experiencing a Kabaddi revival – a 4,000 year old game 

combining elements of wrestling and rugby. Additionally, many 

South Asians enjoy soccer and field hockey. 

10. Sustenance and Health 

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures and economics. Theories of disease 

and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness. 

South Asian cuisine is known for its variety and simplicity. Most 

meals are based on a staple, usually flat wheat bread in the 

North and Northwest and rice in the East and South. South 

Asians eat both bread and rice with lentils, beans, vegetables, 

and yogurt prepared with chilies and other spices. Because 

GENERAL

CULTURE
meat is expensive, most South Asians consume it only on

special occasions. Of note, observant Muslims do not eat pork

or drink alcohol; many Hindus do not eat beef or are 

vegetarians; and many Buddhists are vegetarians. Coffee is 

popular in the South, while tea is more common in the North. 

Malnutrition, malaria, HIV/AIDS, 

and unsanitary drinking water 

are major health concerns 

throughout South Asia. Since 

1990, chronic malnutrition has 

declined by almost half in South 

Asia, falling from 61% to 36%. 

However, the number of children 

who are stunted, underweight, or under height remains high 

and has even increased in some countries. 

While most countries have implemented programs to fight the 

spread of malaria and HIV/AIDS, these programs are hindered 

by poor quality healthcare systems. Approximately 8-12% of 

South Asians lack access to clean drinking water. 

Consequently, dysentery and other waterborne diseases are 

prevalent and a major cause of death among children (Photo: 

American and Nepali doctors provide medical care during 

PACANGEL Project Hope in 2014). 

South Asian countries face many challenges in providing 

healthcare to their growing populations. Unequal 

socioeconomic development has resulted in significant 

disparities in health and access to healthcare. As an exception 

to these trends, Sri Lankan life expectancy rates are 

significantly higher than the region’s average due to the 

governmental provision of universal healthcare. 

11. Economics and Resources 

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and 

services. While most South Asians practiced subsistence 

agriculture prior to the arrival of Europeans, the region also 

produced spices and luxury items. Jewelry and fine woven 

goods are made both for local consumption and trade with East 

Asia, the Middle East, and Europe. 

CULTURE

GENERAL
Despite building communication, road, and rail infrastructure 

across South Asia, the British colonial administration did little to 

develop and modernize South Asian economies. At 

independence in 1947, the former British colonies in South 

Asia were some of the poorest countries in the world. 

The South Asian nations followed different economic 

development trajectories following independence. India and 

Pakistan both implemented economic systems that mix market 

economics with significant government planning and control. 

Over the last 60 years, both countries have undergone periods 

of strong economic growth. In contrast, Bhutan closed its 

borders to external economic and cultural influences until the 

1990s, retaining its traditional agrarian economy. 

South Asia as a whole has averaged 6% economic growth over 

the last 20 years. The economies of India and Pakistan have 

diversified into industrial, service, and technology sectors. By 

contrast, the economies of Nepal, Bhutan, and the Maldives 

remain largely undeveloped. Despite its strong overall 

economic growth, South Asia faces numerous economic 

challenges, including almost 300 million people living in 

poverty. Even in India, with its relatively developed economy, 

much of the population has not reaped benefits from economic 

progress – half the Indian 

population is employed in 

agriculture, with few farmers 

able to grow more than they 

need to subsist (Photo: Street 

vendors in India). 

The region’s economies are still 

recovering from the 2008 global 

financial crisis, which reduced demand for South Asian exports 

and slowed investment in the region. 

12. Technology and Material 

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. Since the end of the colonial period, as South 

Asian economies have developed at different rates, modern 

technology has spread unevenly through the region. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
India has made extensive 

investments in its transportation 

infrastructure, creating the 

world’s 2nd largest road 

network and a rail system that 

ranks among the busiest in the 

world. Despite these modern 

alternatives, many Indians still 

use oxen, camels, or even elephants for labor and transport,

even in urban areas. Pakistan’s existing infrastructure is 

deteriorating due to government neglect. Nepal has very little

modern transportation infrastructure, limiting its residents to 

non-mechanized means of transport outside the capital city of 

Kathmandu (Photo: Train station in India). 

While most countries reported cell phone and Internet usage 

rates between 0% and 3% in 2004, Internet usage grew rapidly 

over the next decade, with most countries reporting usage 

rates over 18% by 2016. Cell phones are very popular, with 

most countries reporting usage of at least 81 subscriptions per 

100 people in 2016. The Maldives leads the region, with an 

average of 207 cell subscriptions per 100 people. 

South Asia faces challenges in meeting its growing energy 

demand. India is the world’s 3rd largest energy consumer and 

the 3rd largest producer of coal, which supplies more than half 

its energy needs. Bhutan is South Asia’s only net energy 

exporter, distributing about 70% of its generated electricity to 

India. Nuclear and hydropower are growing sources of energy.

Bhutan and Nepal have been slow to pursue international trade 

and investment. Other South Asian countries have had more 

open economic policies, but their international trade and 

investment relationships often suffer from internal instability 

and lack of resources. With greater economic openness since 

the 1980s and recent improvements in domestic stability, South 

Asian nations are developing greater economic partnerships 

with countries such as China, the US, and Japan. 

Now that we have introduced general concepts that 

characterize South Asian society at large, we will focus on 

specific features of Sri Lankan society. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
HISTORY &

MYTH

Overview 

Sri Lanka is home to an ancient civilization with the world’s 2ndoldest continuous written history. The island’s proximity to the 

mainland South Asian subcontinent greatly influenced its 

historical trajectory. From ancient times, Sinhalese and Tamil 

ethnic groups alternately vied for power, and at times, joined 

forces to repel foreign powers. Later, European colonizers joined 

the struggle to control rich agricultural regions, the trade of 

valuable commodities, and strategic ports. Since achieving

independence in 1948, Sri Lanka endured ethnic tensions, 

culminating in a 26-year civil war 

that ended in 2009. Since then, 

Sri Lanka has slowly pursued 

reconciliation within its multiethnic population, while becoming 

a more economically developed 

and politically stable nation 

(Pictured: 5th-century Sigiriya 

Rock frescoes in Matale, Central 

Sri Lanka). 

The Many Names of Sri Lanka

As described in the Hindu epic 

Ramayana from around 500 BC, 

Lanka (island) was the fortress of 

Ravana, a mythical demon king. Since the earliest times, the 

island’s strategic location attracted foreign explorers, each group

giving it a unique name. According to the Mahavamsa (Great 

Chronicle) compiled by Buddhist monks in the 6th century AD 

(see “Myth” below), the island was known as Thambapanni. 

Greek and Roman voyagers later adapted this name to 

Taprobane, while Arab traders called the island Serendip, the 

root of the English word “serendipity.” Centuries later, the 

Portuguese adapted the ancient Buddhist Pali-language word 

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

1. HISTORY AND MYTH

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

1. HISTORY AND MYTH
HISTORY &

MYTH

Sihalam (Sinhala) to Ceilao, modified by the Dutch and the 

British to Ceylon. As an independent nation, the island officially 

adopted the name Sri Lanka (resplendent island) in 1972. This 

guide uses the term Lankan to refer to native residents of the 

island, regardless of ethnicity. 

Early History 

Scientists believe early humans likely inhabited Sri Lanka 

between 500,000-125,000 years ago. A fossil skull known as 

“Balangoda Man” dates as early as 37,000 BC, while additional 

evidence – such as stone tools, burial sites, and human remains 

in nearby Fa Hien cave – confirm the presence of early humans 

around this time. As 

early as 16,000 BC, 

ancestors of the Veddah 

people (see p. 15 of 

Political and Social 

Relations) inhabited the 

island, hunting game, 

foraging for food, and 

utilizing stone and later 

iron tools. Around 8,000 

BC, these people likely learned to cultivate crops and make 

pottery (Photo: Veddahs shooting arrows in 1907). 

Historians tend to agree that Indo-Aryan migrants from presentday North India arrived in northwestern Sri Lanka sometime 

during the 5th century BC. Historians disagree whether these 

early Sinhalese people arrived before the ancestors of the 

Dravidian Tamils from South India. Regardless of their exact 

arrivals, both groups of migrants likely mixed with each other and 

indigenous Veddahs, initially settling in the lowland coastal and 

riverine regions in the North. As the settlers began to expand 

across the island, other Veddahs fled to the southeastern 

highlands, where some of their descendants remain today (see 

p. 15 of Political and Social Relations).

The Anuradhapura Kingdom and the Arrival of Buddhism

Around 377 BC, Sinhalese King Pandukabhaya founded the 

Anuradhapura Kingdom, named for its capital in North-Central 

Sri Lanka. For centuries, Anuradhapura kings oversaw the 

construction of complex irrigation networks to support the 
HISTORY &

MYTH

cultivation of rice and other crops, enabling them to expand

across drier regions of the island. 

Around 246 BC, Mahinda, the son of famed Emperor Ashoka of 

the Indian Maurya Dynasty, traveled to the island to spread 

Buddhism (see p. 3 of Religion and Spirituality). An early convert 

was Anuradhapura’s King Devanampiya Tissa, who made 

Buddhism the state religion and

founded monasteries and 

stupas (monuments to hold 

sacred Buddhist relics, also 

known as dagobas in Sinhalese 

– see p. 3 of Religion and 

Spirituality) throughout the 

kingdom. By the 1st century AD, 

the island’s stupas were the 

world’s 2nd-largest man-made 

structures, smaller only than the 

pyramids of Egypt (Photo: 4thcentury BC statue of 

Devanampiya Tissa in Mihintale, 

near Anuradhapura). 

At Devanampiya Tissa’s request, 

Mahinda’s sister Sangamitta 

brought various sacred relics such as the Buddha’s alms bowl 

and a piece of the Bodhi tree used to enlighten the Buddah (see 

p. 2 of Religion and Spirituality) to Anuradhapura. By the 1st 

century BC, most Sinhalese had adopted Buddhism, and 

Anuradhapura became a major center of Buddhist learning (see 

p. 3-4 of Religion and Spirituality). 

Early Chola Invasions: Meanwhile, the island’s proximity to the 

South Asian subcontinent made the Anuradhapura Kingdom a 

target for Indian kingdoms seeking to expand. During this period, 

both Lankan Sinhalese and Tamil elites ruled the kingdom. 

Around 205 BC, the southeastern Indian Tamil Chola Kingdom 

invaded Anuradhapura and ruled for the next 44 years. In 161 

BC, Sinhalese control of Anuradhapura was reestablished. 

Subsequent Sinhalese kings increasingly relied on Tamil 

mercenaries from the mainland to maintain control of the 

kingdom. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Lambakanna Dynasty Brings Peace: In 67 AD, Vasabha 

seized the Anuradhapura throne, founding the Lambakanna 

dynasty and beginning several centuries of peace and 

prosperity. Vasabha improved the irrigation systems, while 

establishing trade 

in ivory and other 

goods with 

merchants from as 

far as the Roman 

Empire. In the 4th 

century, Buddhists 

brought a 

treasured relic – a 

tooth belonging to 

the deceased 

Buddha – to Anuradhapura from India. Currently housed in a 

temple in the central city of Kandy, this tooth remains one of Sri 

Lanka’s most sacred Buddhist relics (Photo: Ruins of a Buddhist 

temple in Anuradhapura). 

The Cholas Defeat Anuradhapura: By the early 7th century, 

disputes among Anuradhapura’s Sinhalese rulers increased as 

the Tamil mercenaries began to exert significant influence. 

Meanwhile, invasions from the mainland became more frequent. 

In 993, the South Indian Cholas invaded and defeated 

Anuradhapura, destroying the city and establishing direct rule 

from a new capital in Polonnaruwa, southeast of Anuradhapura. 

After about 75 years of Chola rule, King Vijayabahu I

reestablished Sinhalese control in 1070. 

Parakramabahu Unites the Island 

In 1153, Parakramabahu I took the throne in Polonnaruwa, 

ushering in what is considered a Golden Age. Besides unifying 

the entire island for the first time, Parakramabahu I (r. 1153-86) 

oversaw massive construction projects such as reservoirs, 

irrigation canals, and monasteries, as Polonnaruwa became one 

of the world’s celebrated capitals. Trade flourished as merchants 

from around the world visited the island’s ports, including Muslim 

Arab traders who enabled the spread of Islam (see p. 9-10 of 

Religion and Spirituality). Subsequently, small Muslim 

communities developed, primarily along the coast and in urban 

areas. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

King Parakramabahu also led 2 military expeditions beyond the 

island. Around 1164, a city-state in present-day Myanmar ended 

trade with the island and imprisoned its merchants, causing 

Parakramabahu to 

dispatch a naval fleet to 

invade and capture the 

territory. Buoyed by this 

victory, Parakramabahu 

aided an unsuccessful 

rebellion against the 

Cholas in southern India 

in 1169. The costs of 

these 2 actions severely 

depleted the kingdom’s

funds, which had been depleted already due to massive 

construction expenses. After Parakramabahu’s death, the 

kingdom enjoyed another decade of peace before leadership 

fractured due to infighting (Photo: A Buddhist stupa in 

Polonnaruwa, a popular archaeological site today). 

Tamil Influence in the North and Sinhalese Migration South

Poor leadership and frequent invasions caused violence and 

economic decline in subsequent centuries. With the island 

already weakened by Pandya Kingdom invasions in 1212, 

another South Indian invader, Kalinga Magha, seized control in 

1215. His reign brought significant change, including the 

destruction of Buddhist sites and the forced assimilation of some 

Sinhalese into Tamil ethnic groups. Later in the 13th century, 

forces from a Buddhist kingdom in present-day Thailand 

invaded, primarily to retrieve Buddhist relics, although Sinhalese 

and Tamils banded together with various South Indian groups to 

repel these invaders. 

As more immigrants arrived from India, South Indian Hindu 

culture flourished. Taking advantage of Sinhalese Buddhist 

weakness, Kalinga Magha and South Indian Tamil Hindus

established an independent kingdom in the North around Jaffna. 

Consequently, many Sinhalese Buddhists migrated to the South. 

They eventually founded a fort in Kotte in in the Southwest, used 

to repel Tamil invasions. Subsequent Sinhalese rulers primarily 

built settlements in mountainous or otherwise easily defendable 

areas to further sustain resistance to the continued invasions 
HISTORY &

MYTH

from the North. Because the mountainous terrain proved difficult 

to cultivate, Sinhalese agricultural production declined. 

Parakramabahu VI Briefly Reunites Sri Lanka: As the Tamils 

continued their attacks on the Sinhalese in the mid-15th century, 

they concurrently faced ongoing invasions from other South 

Indian groups. In 1450, after years of clashes, Sinhalese leader 

Parakramabahu VI finally defeated the northern Tamils, bringing 

the entire island within his kingdom until his death in 1466. 

Subsequent conflict resulted in the division of his holdings into 3 

independent kingdoms: the Tamil kingdom of Jaffna in the North, 

the Sinhalese kingdom of Kotte in the Southwest, and a new 

Sinhalese kingdom of Kandy in the Central highlands. Soon, 

Kotte became the most powerful of the kingdoms, primarily due 

to its monopoly of the increasingly lucrative spice trade. 

The Portuguese Begin an Era of European Colonization

In 1505, Portuguese traders arrived on the island seeking to 

acquire a share of its 

trade in spices, 

particularly cinnamon. In 

1518, the king of Kotte

allowed the Portuguese 

to build a fort in Colombo, 

Sri Lanka’s present-day 

commercial capital on the 

southwestern coast. 

Meanwhile, Portuguese 

Catholic missionaries arrived, seeking to convert both Buddhists 

and Hindus (see p. 10 of Religion and Spirituality). While some 

residents converted to Catholicism and adopted other aspects 

of Portuguese culture, several Buddhists fled to the highlands to 

escape conversion (Illustration: The Portuguese greet Kandyan 

Queen Kusumasana Devi, known as Dona Catherina, in 1581). 

By the late 16th century, growing Portuguese trade dominance 

and sometimes violent proselytization caused tensions to rise. 

Portugal annexed Kotte and Jaffna in 1593 and 1619 

respectively, effectively conquering the 2 coastal kingdoms. 

Only the central highland Kandyan Kingdom remained 

independent. Although the Portuguese did not significantly 
HISTORY &

MYTH

interrupt the local social order and even offered land grants to 

some Sinhalese, their heavy taxes proved widely unpopular. 

The King of Kandy Aligns with the Dutch

With Portugal forcing the Kandyan Kingdom into undesirable 

terms of trade and supporting heavy-handed conversion to 

Catholicism, Kandy’s king sought support elsewhere. In 1638,

he successfully negotiated Dutch help for Kandy’s struggle 

against the Portuguese. Within 20 years, the Dutch had ousted

the Portuguese from the island, taking Colombo in 1656 and 

Jaffna in 1658. Although the Dutch granted Kandy 2 conquered 

ports in the East, they quickly monopolized all coastal trade and 

proceeded to landlock 

the Kandyan Kingdom, 

limiting its ability to 

align with other foreign 

powers (Illustration: A 

Dutch engraving of the 

Colombo port in 1680). 

To retain the support 

of the Kandyan king, 

the Dutch took on the 

role of “His Majesty’s Servants,” essentially working as powerful 

middlemen between Kandy and the outside world. Despite these 

unfavorable terms, relations remained mostly peaceful. Unlike 

the Catholic Portuguese, the Dutch sought to convert residents 

to Calvinist Protestantism. Although their efforts were less

violent than Portugal’s, they were also less effective, a legacy 

evident in Sri Lanka’s large present-day Catholic communities

(see p. 10 of Religion and Spirituality). During the almost 150 

years of Dutch control, violence erupted just once, when 

residents of some lowland areas rioted in 1762. After initially 

failing to quell the protests, the Dutch forced Kandy’s king to 

grant them complete sovereignty over the lowlands in 1765. As 

a result, the Dutch secured control of much of the island, while 

allowing the Kandyan Kingdom to persist in a diminished form. 

The British Acquire the Crown Colony of Ceylon

After France conquered the Netherlands in 1795, the Dutch 

turned to the British East India Company to protect the island, 

now known as Ceylon, from a French invasion in an effort to 
HISTORY &

MYTH

retain their overseas holdings. Taking advantage of the situation, 

Britain assumed control of the island a year later and formally 

received Ceylon from the Netherlands under the Treaty of 

Amiens in 1802. While the British government was responsible 

for administering the island, renamed the Crown Colony of 

Ceylon, the British East India Company controlled all trade and 

finance. 

In 1803, a British attempt to conquer the Kingdom of Kandy 

failed. Nevertheless, the Kandyan king’s harsh rule caused local 

opposition groups to align with Britain. In 1815, there was little 

resistance when British troops toppled the Kandyan king. The 

island was reunited once more under a single power, the British.

British Colonization: British colonization of Ceylon was in 

some ways more favorable to the local population than other 

European colonization. For example, the British encouraged free 

trade, while prohibiting state monopolies. They also outlawed a 

traditional class-based forced labor system and included some 

locals, primarily Tamils, in the civil service. The British built 

schools, mandating English as the language of government and 

education (see p. 2 of Language and Communication) and 

enabling the growth of an English-speaking Lankan elite. Of 

note, the British built more schools in northern Tamil Hindu 

communities, resulting in a higher proportion of educated 

English-speaking Tamils compared with Sinhalese (see p. 2 of 

Learning and 

Knowledge) (Illustration: 

British engraving of 

Ceylon, circa 1868). 

The colonial 

administration supported 

the development of a 

plantation economy to 

produce export crops 

such as cinnamon, pepper, sugarcane, and cotton. Coffee 

quickly became Ceylon’s primary cash crop and a source of 

great wealth (see p. 1 of Economics and Resources). Of note, 

Lankans owned relatively large proportions of the land cultivated 

with coffee and rubber, as well as most coconut plantations. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

In the mid-19th century, a leaf disease forced coffee growers to

substitute tea, a crop requiring a permanent labor force. Since 

Lankans, particularly Sinhalese, refused to work as wage 

laborers on British tea plantations, the colonial government 

recruited indentured servants from South India. In subsequent 

decades, hundreds of thousands of Indian Tamils moved to 

Ceylon, forming the bulk of the plantation workforce. Over time, 

these laborers became known as “Indian” or “Plantation” Tamils, 

among other names, to distinguish them from the Lankan Tamils 

who had migrated centuries earlier (see p. 14-15 of Political and 

Social Relations). 

Nationalist Movements 

Eventually, the increasingly educated Lankan elite began 

demanding more rights and participation in the colonial 

government. In 1910, Britain permitted English-speaking 

Lankans to elect a local member to the colonial legislature. 

Meanwhile, Buddhist activist Anagarika Dharmapala and 

American Buddhist convert Henry Olcott campaigned 

relentlessly for Buddhist rights. Further, the rejection of British 

missionaries’ conversion 

attempts (see p. 4 of Religion 

and Spirituality) by both 

Buddhists and Hindus became 

an important component of the 

growing nationalist movements. 

While Ceylon aligned with Britain 

and its Allies in World War I, only 

a few hundred Lankans actually 

served during the war. More 

significantly, the Allies’ promotion 

of freedom and selfdetermination increased Lankan 

nationalists’ drive for independence. In 1915, the British violently 

quelled a conflict between majority Sinhalese and minority 

Muslim groups. Following the arrest of many Sinhalese, 

including prominent nationalist D.S. Senanayake (pictured), 

various other nationalist groups began to coordinate their efforts

against the British. For example, in 1919 Sinhalese and Tamil 

organizations united to form the Ceylon National Congress, 
HISTORY &

MYTH

which subsequently petitioned the British to grant Lankans selfgovernance. 

In an effort to appease the nationalists, Britain imposed a new 

constitution in 1924, granting the island a regional representative 

system. A revised constitution in 1931 promoted universal 

suffrage and outlined a new governing system of executive 

committees, although the British governor retained the power to 

reject any proposed legislation. 

World War II (WWII): Progress towards self-governance was 

interrupted by WWII, when Japan, Germany, and other Axis 

powers went to war against Britain and the Allies, consisting 

primarily of Britain, the US, and Russia, among others. As the 

headquarters of the Allies’ Southeast Asia Command during the 

war, Ceylon received signifcant British investment in 

infrastructure and was an important source of rubber for the 

Allies. Some Lankans 

voluntarily joined the 

Ceylon Defense Force 

under British command. 

In 1942, Japan bombed 

the cities of Colombo 

and Trincomalee, 

although the island was 

largely spared 

otherwise. By war’s end 

in 1945, Ceylon had increased its spending on public education 

and health services significantly, improving the standard of living 

for many Lankans (Photo: Sinhalese women assist in the repair 

of a British Royal Air Force station in 1944). 

Ceylon Gains Independence

Meanwhile, Lankans continued to seek independence, forming 

various political parties primarily along ethnic lines. As Britain 

rapidly lost control of its other Asian colonies, Lankans held 

peaceful protests that prompted Britain to allow them a vote.

After some 150 years of British rule, Lankans voted in their first 

national parliamentary election in 1947. The United National 

Party (UNP), a coalition of primarily conservative and elite

Sinhalese, Tamil, and Muslim parties, received some 40% of the 

vote. In an alliance with another Tamil party, the UNP achieved 
HISTORY &

MYTH

a majority in Parliament and UNP leader Senanayake became 

Prime Minister (PM). Just 4 months later, on February 4, 1948, 

Britain formally granted Ceylon independence as a “dominion” 

within the British Commonwealth of Nations. 

The initial years following independence were peaceful, and 

Ceylon’s economy continued to grow. Nevertheless, some UNP 

policies soon fostered discontent, particularly among Tamils. 

First, Indian Tamils 

were denied citizenship, 

a policy generally 

supported by both 

Sinhalese and Lankan 

Tamils, causing 

thousands of Indian 

Tamils to flee to India. 

Later, land grants to 

Sinhalese in the North 

triggered tensions with 

some Lankan Tamils. Meanwhile, a drop in commodity prices 

around 1950 caused a decline in export proceeds that resulted 

in economic hardship and unemployment. The 1952 death of PM 

Senanayake, Ceylon’s beloved independence leader and

symbol of national unity, brought instability. The 2 subsequent 

PMs, both relatives of Senanayake, were widely unpopular, 

partially due to their attempts to implement difficult economic 

reforms (Photo: Formal ceremony opening the 1st parliament in 

1947). 

The Rise of Sinhalese Nationalism: Meanwhile, prominent 

politician and former Senanayake ally, S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike, 

compelled his Sinhalese nationalist party, the leftist Sri Lanka 

Freedom Party (SLFP), to leave the UNP coalition. 

Bandaranaike appealed to his Sinhalese Buddhist base by 

accusing a UNP-Catholic conspiracy of targeting Buddhists, 

advocating for Sinhala to be the country’s official language, and 

claiming that both Tamil and English were foreign imports. 

Upon becoming PM in 1956, Bandaranaike fulfilled his campaign 

promises by enacting the Sinhala Only Act. Besides making 

Sinhala Ceylon’s official language (see p. 1 of Language and 

Communication), the Act provided state support to Sinhalese 
HISTORY &

MYTH

and Buddhist cultural initiatives, thereby angering increasingly 

isolated Tamil, Christian, and Muslim communities. Then in 

1958, a rumor that a Tamil had killed a Sinhalese caused 

Sinhalese to riot and resulted in the deaths of hundreds of 

Tamils. Declaring a state of emergency, the government 

relocated some 25,000 Tamils from predominantly Sinhalese 

areas to predominantly Tamil areas in the North. 

Meanwhile, the SLFP increased the role of government in the 

economy and enacted socialist policies. In 1959, Bandaranaike 

(pictured) decided to open a dialogue with Tamil leaders to 

explore granting Tamil-dominated areas limited autonomy. In 

response, a militant Buddhist monk

who opposed these overtures to the 

Tamils assassinated Bandaranaike. 

Afterwards, his wife Sirimavo 

became active in politics. In 1960, 

she led her party to electoral victory 

and became the world’s first female 

PM. Mrs. Bandaranaike, as she was 

known, continued her late 

husband’s policies, deporting

thousands of Indian Tamils to India, 

enforcing the Sinhala Only Act, 

curtailing Tamil political activity, and 

nationalizing many businesses and schools (see p. 3 of Learning 

and Knowledge).

The UNP under Dudley Senanayake, son of Ceylon’s 1st PM, 

won the 1965 elections on a platform to improve the economy 

and democratic institutions. Even so, Senanayake’s government 

was largely ineffective. While private sector growth increased, 

the economy as a whole barely improved. To ease ethnic 

tensions, the government implemented the 1966 Tamil 

Regulations, giving the Tamil language a “parallel” status to 

Sinhala in Tamil-speaking regions. Nevertheless, subsequent 

Sinhalese hostility forced the government to declare a state of 

emergency. 

In the 1970 election, Mrs. Bandaranaike joined with 2 leftist 

parties to oppose the UNP. This new United Front (UF) won the 

election with promises of increased rice subsidies and land 
HISTORY &

MYTH

reform, among other changes. The UF criticized the UNP for its 

ties with Tamil parties and sought to make Ceylon a republic,

while further enhancing the status of Buddhism. 

Ethnic Tensions Reach a Breaking Point 

Under the UF government, new laws targeted Ceylon’s 

minorities. For example, the “standardization” policy reduced by 

1/2 the university places reserved for Tamils (see p. 3 of 

Learning and Knowledge). While some Sinhalese argued that 

the policy sought to remedy historical educational disparities

under the British, Tamils rejected this notion as a cover for 

racism and tyranny by the majority ethnic group. Meanwhile, the 

activities of radical Sinhalese groups like the communist 

People’s Liberation Front (JVP) (see p. 6 of Political and Social 

Relations) kept tensions high. In April 1971, JVP operatives 

attempted to topple the government, causing over 1,000 deaths 

in the ensuing violence before the military restored order and 

imprisoned some 16,000 suspected insurgents. 

Ceylon Becomes Sri Lanka 

In 1972, the government enacted a new constitution changing 

the country’s name from Ceylon to the Republic of Sri Lanka, the 

Sinhala name for the island. The new constitution angered 

Tamils because it removed minority protections, lacked 

provisions for an 

autonomous Tamil 

province, and provided 

state support for and 

protection of Buddhism

(see p. 1 of Religion and 

Spirituality). Diverse 

factions within the greater 

Tamil community united in opposition as the Tamil United 

Liberation Front (TULF). In 1977, infighting in the UF enabled 

J.R. Jayewardene, a distant relative of Dudley Senanayake, to 

lead the UNP to a landslide victory in the elections. Meanwhile, 

the TULF pressed for the independent Tamil state of Eelam, a 

Tamil name for Sri Lanka (Photo: Indian Tamils picking tea). 

The Tamil Tigers: The death of the TULF’s leader in 1977 led 

to a political vacuum among Tamil organizations. Several 

underground Tamil separatist groups collectively known as the 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Tamil Tigers filled the void. The strongest of these groups was 

the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), founded in 1972 by

former student leader Velupillai Prabhakaran who first gained 

notoriety for the assassination of the mayor of Jaffna. These 

groups soon attracted followers who advocated violence to 

achieve their independence goals. In 1977, additional ethnic 

violence erupted after a rumor spread that Tamil terrorists killed 

a Sinhalese policeman. An estimated 300 people died. 

The Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka 

Meanwhile, PM Jayewardene’s government sought to mend

relations between Tamils and Sinhalese and also improve the 

stagnant economy. In 1978, he introduced a new constitution, 

transferring executive power to a President, while automatically 

giving the office to the incumbent PM, himself. Jayewardene 

would serve as President of the subsequently renamed 

Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka for the next 11 years.

As President, Jayewardene repealed the controversial 

“standardization” education policy, offered high-level 

government positions to Tamils, and elevated the Tamil 

language to national status to be used in education and for some 

administrative purposes. Nevertheless, Sinhala remained the 

only official 

language (see p. 1

of Language and 

Communications).

Despite these 

measures, ethnic 

violence worsened. 

With the UF in 

disarray, the TULF 

worked with the 

UNP to devise a 

solution for Tamil grievances. Because many Tamil Tigers saw 

this cooperation as a betrayal, they escalated their terrorist 

attacks, primarily against symbols of the state such as police 

stations and post offices. In response, the government

counterattacked. With a rising number of civilians caught in the 

crossfire, support for the Tamil Tigers began to grow as 

disillusioned youth joined the organization (Photo: Tamil Tigers 

transporting other members by sea). 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Violence escalated as Sri Lanka prepared for its 1st direct 

presidential elections in 1982. Pressured by extremists and 

unhappy with government efforts to end the conflict, the TULF 

called for a boycott of the vote. Many Tamils heeded this call: 

while voter turnout in Sinhalese-majority districts was around 

85%, it was significantly lower in most Tamil-majority districts. 

Consequently, Jayewardene’s UNP dominated the election. 

The “Black July” Riots: In July 1983, Tamil Tigers ambushed 

an army patrol near Jaffna. In response, the army killed some 60 

Tamil civilians in the city. Then, some Sinhalese looted Tamil 

homes and businesses, killing Tamils across the country. These 

events, later known as Black July, resulted in the deaths of 400-

3,000 primarily Tamil people. In 

the aftermath, at least 150,000 

Tamils fled Sri Lanka for India 

(Pictured: LTTE symbol). 

Civil War (1983-2009) 

The Black July riots initiated what 

became a protracted civil war 

between the Sri Lankan 

government and the Tamil Tigers. 

While some Tamils sympathized 

with the Tigers, especially in light 

of government violence against 

civilians, others refused to support the radical group. The Tigers 

even resorted to forcibly recruiting some members, particularly 

schoolchildren, to grow its opposition forces. 

Sporadic violence persisted during the mid-1980s. Although 

Jayewardene’s economic policies had finally begun to fuel some 

growth, the start of war triggered a decline in tourism and 

investment (see p. 2 of Economics and Resources), further 

aggravating the already tense situation. 

Indian Intervention: In 1985, the Tigers rejected a government 

offer for limited Tamil self-government. By 1987, government 

security forces had isolated some Tigers to Jaffna, although 

fighting continued throughout the Northeast. As thousands of 

Tamils continued to flee to India, President Jayewardene 

negotiated an arrangement with Indian PM Rajiv Gandhi to 

replace Sri Lankan government troops with an Indian Peace 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Keeping Force (IPKF). Ultimately, the IPKF failed in its mission 

to establish peace primarily because most Sri Lankans opposed 

what they considered to 

be an occupying force. 

Nevertheless, the IPKF 

grew to more than 

70,000 troops in the late 

1980s before ending its 

mission in 1990. A Tamil 

Tiger member 

assassinated former 

Indian PM Gandhi in 

1991 for his government’s involvement in Sri Lankan affairs

(Photo: President Jayawardene presents a baby elephant to US 

President Reagan at the White House in 1984). 

Meanwhile, the radical Sinhalese JVP took advantage of antiIPKF sentiment to demand more government action in support 

of the Sinhalese nationalist agenda. JVP operatives 

assassinated officials across the South and Central regions, 

expanding the conflict. After defeating Mrs. Bandaranaike in the 

1989 election, new President Ranasinghe Premadasa sought 

peace with the JVP. When the JVP refused this overture, 

President Premadasa dispatched paramilitary forces that 

imprisoned or killed all major JVP leaders. 

Premadasa is Assassinated and War Continues: In the early 

1990s, violence continued unabated. At a rally in May 1993, a 

Tamil Tiger bomber assassinated President Premadasa. In the 

subsequent 1994 elections, the leftist People’s Alliance (PA) 

formed a coalition with the SLFP and won the election after over 

15 years of UNP rule. Mrs. Bandaranaike’s daughter Chandrika 

Kumaratunga assumed office as Sri Lanka’s first female 

President. Unlike her parents, President Kumaratunga sought 

both economic liberalization and a dialogue for peace with the 

Tamils. When the Kumaratunga government began negotiations 

with the Tigers, peace reigned for a few months. 

Although the economy enjoyed an upswing, the negotiations 

eventually failed and government relations with the Tamils once 

again became violent. Following a huge offensive, the 

government won control of Jaffna in 1995. In subsequent years, 
HISTORY &

MYTH

the Tigers bombed key areas such as the Central Bank, 

important Buddhist sites, and the international airport. In 1996, 

the US designated the LTTE a foreign 

terrorist organization. In 1999, 

President Kumaratunga survived an 

assassination attempt, although she 

lost sight in an eye. 

An Unsteady Ceasefire: Upon taking 

office as PM in 2001, prominent UNP 

leader Ranil Wickremesinghe 

(pictured) initiated renewed peace 

talks with the Tigers. With support 

from Norwegian peace monitors, the 

Tigers decommissioned weapons and 

abandoned their demands for 

independence, instead favoring an autonomous province. 

Despite this progress, President Kumaratunga publicly 

conveyed that she thought PM Wickremesinghe was being too 

lenient on the Tigers, causing them to renounce the agreement 

in April 2003. 

Meanwhile, the Tigers experienced significant in-fighting and 

broke into factions, which weakened their negotiating position. 

Moreover, in late December 2004, a massive earthquake off the 

coast of Indonesia triggered a tsunami that devastated most of 

Sri Lanka’s coastline and killed over 35,000 people (see p. 3 of 

Political and Social Relations). A subsequent dispute over aid 

distribution among the government, Tigers, and various other 

entities further hindered the peace process. 

Violence Resumes: In 2005, hardline anti-Tiger SLFP 

candidate Mahinda Rajapaksa was narrowly elected President 

amidst Tiger repression of voter turnout. President Rajapaksa 

rejected any form of Tamil autonomy and refused to allow the 

Tigers access to financial aid for tsunami victims. Nevertheless, 

in early 2006, international pressure forced peace talks to 

resume in Switzerland, although they broke down after just a 

month. In April, a Tiger bomb in a Colombo military compound 

killed 8 people, and the government retaliated by conducting air 

strikes against Tamil targets in the Northeast. Violence 

continued throughout the year. Just as peace talks were set to 
HISTORY &

MYTH

resume, Tiger bombers killed over 90 Sri Lankan sailors in a 

suicide attack. Norwegian peace monitors reported truce 

violations and misconduct on both sides (Photo: President 

Rajapaksa with former US 

Under Secretary of State 

R. Nicholas Burns). 

After the Tigers launched 

an air raid against a military 

base near Colombo in 

March 2007, President 

Rajapaksa amplified his 

offensive, forcing some 

Tamils out of Colombo. By 

July 2007, the government controlled the entire Eastern 

Province for the first time in nearly 20 years. The government 

continued to increase its offensive efforts, and in early 2008, 

pledged to win the war within a year. As the violence escalated 

in the North, the Norwegian peace monitors left Sri Lanka. 

The Civil War Comes to a Violent End: By January 2009, the 

government controlled the Tigers’ capital of Kilinochchi in the 

North. Skirmishes continued for several months. As the Sri 

Lankan army advanced towards the Tigers’ final stronghold 

nearby, thousands of civilians fled to a no-fire zone on the far 

northeastern coast. Nevertheless, the Tigers moved into the 

zone to use it as a base of operations, and the ensuing firefight 

resulted in the deaths of thousands of civilians. Although 

accounts vary, some reports claim the army conducted a 

summary execution of surrendering Tigers. When the army killed 

Tiger leader Prabhakaran in May 2009, President Rajapaksa 

declared victory and the end of the civil war.

Aftermath of the War: After some 26 years of episodic violence, 

Sri Lanka’s protracted civil war was formally over. The United 

Nations accused both sides of violating humanitarian law and 

pressed the government to account for its actions during the final 

battles. Although the government established a Lessons Learnt 

and Reconciliation Commission, President Rajapaksa proved 

reluctant to investigate war crimes. Moreover, thousands of 

Tamils languished in refugee camps. While estimates vary

widely, most experts believe between 60,000-100,000 people 
HISTORY &

MYTH

died and over a million more were displaced as a result of the 

war. 

Contemporary Sri Lanka

In 2010, Rajapaksa was reelected President with 57% of the 

vote despite widespread allegations of fraud. Security forces 

subsequently arrested the losing candidate, a former general, 

sentencing him to 3 years in prison. In a televised speech after 

his victory, President Rajapaksa spoke in both Sinhala and 

Tamil, giving real hope to the possibility of improved relations 

between his government and the Tamils. Despite this 

encouraging sign, in subsequent years, the government did little 

to bridge the ethnic divide or account for atrocities committed 

during the war. Moreover, the Rajapaksa government became 

increasingly authoritarian, censoring the media and arresting 

journalists who criticized 

the regime (Photo: 

Rajapaksa launches his 

website). 

In the years immediately 

after the war, Sri Lanka’s 

economy grew faster 

than it had in decades, 

primarily due to 

increased foreign 

investment and tourism 

(see p. 3 of Economics and Resources). The Rajapaksa 

government forged close relations with China, Iran, and other 

autocratic regimes, welcoming their investments. Sri Lanka was 

also the beneficiary of significant foreign aid, primarily to rebuild 

areas in the northeastern Tamil-dominated areas and coastal 

regions hit hardest by the 2004 tsunami. 

By 2013, economic growth began to slow, with many Sri 

Lankans expressing their discontent with what they perceived as 

a corrupt and nepotistic regime. President Rajapaksa’s tight 

control of the media helped give him the confidence to schedule 

elections for early 2015. With the support of former President 

Kumaratunga and former PM Wickremesinghe, Health Minister 

Maithripala Sirisena declared his candidacy, warning that Sri 

Lanka was headed towards dictatorship under President 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Rajapaksa. Widespread shock swept Sri Lanka when Sirisena 

won the election with 51% of the vote (Photo: President Sirisena 

with former US 

Secretary of State 

Kerry).

Since taking office, 

President Sirisena 

has sought to make 

significant reforms 

to the government, 

including reinstating 

presidential term 

limits, increasing 

the power of the courts, and initiating corruption investigations 

(see p. 6 of Political and Social Relations). As Wickremesinghe 

retook the office of PM, the government pursued additional 

political and constitutional reforms. Since then, international 

observers have noted an improvement in civil and political rights 

and freedom of religious expression (see p. 10-11 of Religion 

and Spirituality). Other achievements include the return of some 

lands confiscated from Tamils during the war and the creation of

an office to investigate persons missing due to the war. Further, 

the government legalized the public singing of the national 

anthem in Tamil – a significant symbolic act. 

Despite these encouraging signs, some observers and Tamil 

groups demand reparations and faster progress towards 

reconciliation. While Sri Lanka’s future looks brighter under this 

new government, significant challenges remain. Essential tasks 

will be to enact constitutional reforms, maintain economic 

growth, and improve relations between the Sinhalese majority 

and various ethnic and religious minority groups. 

Myth Overview

In contrast to history, which is supposed to be an objective 

record of the past based on verifiable facts, myths embody a 

culture’s values and often explain the origins of humans and the 

natural world. Myths are important because they provide a sense 

of unique heritage and identity. Sri Lanka has a rich and diverse 

tradition of myths and folklore that are still well-known today. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

A popular legend recounts how the Veddahs and Sinhalese 

came to inhabit Sri Lanka. According to the Mahavamsa, a 

chronicle of early Sri Lankan history compiled by Buddhist 

monks in the 6th century, Prince Vijaya was the 1st of 16 sons 

born to a brother and sister who were the children of a sinha

(lion) and an Indo-Aryan princess from North India. As he 

matured to adulthood, Vijaya caused too much trouble at home, 

so his father banished him. Consequently, Vijaya and 700 

companions left the North Indian Sinhapur Kingdom by ship and 

landed on the western shore of Sri Lanka, supposedly on the 

same day as the Buddha’s death. Vijaya named the island 

Thambapanni, or “copper-colored sand” (Illustration: Ancient 

mural titled “The Coming of Sinhala” depicting Prince Vijaya with 

elephants and riders in Ajanta, 

North India). 

After landing in Sri Lanka, Vijaya

and his men came upon a 

yaksha (spirit) in the form of 

Kuveni, a native woman. 

Although Kuveni trapped Vijaya’s 

men with a spell, the prince was 

protected by a magic thread from 

the Hindu god Vishnu. When 

Vijaya threatened to kill Kuveni 

and her people, she released the 

men and transformed herself into 

a beautiful woman. Vijaya then 

married Kuveni, and the couple 

had 2 children. Subsequently deciding to seek a different wife, 

Vijaya forced Kuveni and the children into the forest. The

children escaped, then married each other and had their own 

offspring, who are said to be the ancestors of Sri Lanka’s ancient

inhabitants, the Veddahs (see p. 15 of Political and Social 

Relations). 

After establishing a kingdom sustained by rice cultivation, Vijaya 

married a Pandu princess from South India, but the couple were 

unable to have a child. Instead, Vijaya’s nephew came from 

North India to continue the Vijaya dynasty upon his uncle’s 

death. Vijaya’s descendants subsequently became known as 

the Sinhalese, or the “people of the lion.” 
Official Name 

Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka 

Srī Lankā Prajātāntrika Samājavādī Janarajaya 

�� ලංකා �රජාතා���ක සමාජවා� ජනරජය

(Sinhalese) 

Ilaṅkai jaṉanāyaka cōcalica kuṭiyaracu 

இலங்ைக ஜனநாயக ேசாச�ச ��யர�

(Tamil)

Political Borders

Coastline: 833 mi

Capital 

Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte 

Demographics 

Sri Lanka’s population of 

about 22 million is growing 

slowly at a rate of 0.8% 

annually, the same as in the 

US. With an average of 725 

people per sq mi, Sri Lanka 

is one of the world’s most 

densely populated countries. Nearly 82% of the population lives 

in rural areas, concentrated in the Southwest, along the eastern 

coast, and on the northern Jaffna peninsula. Major metropolitan 

areas include the commercial capital of Colombo and 

neighboring Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte. 

Flag 

The Sri Lankan flag 

consists of 2 rectangular 

panels set against a 

yellow background. The 

left panel is comprised of 

2 equal vertical bands of 

green (left) and orange 

(right). The right panel displays a large yellow lion holding a 

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sword, with 4 yellow Bodhi tree leaves adorning each corner on 

a maroon background. 

The lion symbolizes the Sinhalese people (see “Ethnic Groups”

below), strength, and bravery, while the sword stands for Sri 

Lankan sovereignty. The 4 Bodhi leaves denote Buddhist ideals 

of kindness, happiness, friendliness, and self-control and refer 

to the tree under which the Buddha received enlightenment (see 

p. 2 of Religion and Spirituality). The flag’s 4 colors represent 

the nation’s ethnic groups: green for Sri Lankan Moors, orange 

for Sri Lankan Tamils, maroon for the Sinhalese, and yellow 

represents all others. 

Geography 

Located in South Asia, Sri Lanka is an island nation situated off 

the southeastern tip of India. The Palk Strait, a shallow stretch

of water just 30 mi wide, separates Sri Lanka from India in the 

North. Sri Lanka is surrounded by the Indian Ocean and Bay of 

Bengal to the East and South, the Laccadive Sea to the 

Southwest and the Gulf of Mannar to the Northwest. Sri Lanka’s

total land area is about 

25,000 sq mi, making it 

slightly larger than West 

Virginia and about half 

the size of Greece.

Notably, Sri Lanka’s 

strategic location on 

several important trade 

routes and waterways 

has shaped its history 

(see History and Myth) 

and modern 

development as a nation (see “Foreign Relations” below). 

Towering, rugged mountains (pictured) dominate Sri Lanka’s 

South-Central interior. Here, Sri Lanka’s highest point, 

Pidurutalagala, rises to 8,281 ft. Sri Pada, the second largest 

reaching reaches 7,356 ft, is a popular religious pilgrimage site 

for Buddhists, Hindus, and Muslims (see p. 1 of Religion and 

Spirituality). Central highlands (also known as “Hill Country”) 

extend north, eventually descending into low, rolling plains in the 

North and East. Sandy beaches line much of the country’s 833 

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mi coastline. The highlands and mountainous regions are home 

to terraced rice paddies and numerous tea and rubber 

plantations. Forests cover about 30% of Sri Lanka. 

Climate 

Positioned just north of the equator, Sri Lanka experiences a 

tropical climate characterized by consistently warm

temperatures throughout the year, although temperatures, 

humidity, and rainfall vary by elevation. Mountainous areas and 

central highlands, for example, are cooler, with temperatures 

averaging 64°F year-round. Meanwhile, lowland and coastal 

regions are humid and hot, with temperatures averaging 82°F. 

Southwest monsoons blanket central, southern, and western 

regions with heavy rains from June-October, while less severe 

monsoonal rains sweep in from the Northeast from DecemberMarch. 

Natural Hazards

Sri Lanka is vulnerable to a variety of natural hazards, ranging 

from cyclones (tropical storms characterized by strong, spiraling 

winds and tornadoes to landslides and droughts. Tsunamis 

(large ocean waves caused by earthquakes and other geologic 

disturbances) occasionally threaten Sri Lanka’s populated 

shores. In December 2004, a massive tsunami generated by an 

undersea earthquake off 

the coast of Indonesia 

ravaged Sri Lankan 

coastal communities, 

killing some 35,000 and 

displacing 800,000 

people. The tsunami also 

destroyed much of Sri 

Lanka’s coastal 

infrastructure (pictured). 

Further, it crippled tourism, manufacturing, and agriculture 

infrastructure, causing notable economic loss (see p. 2-3 of 

Economics and Resources).

Monsoonal rains and cyclones often cause flash floods that

disproportionately affect populations in low-lying regions. In 

2017, severe floods killed over 150 people and forced thousands 

living in the Southwest to flee their homes. The flooding also 

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destroyed agricultural land, killed livestock, and left over 500,000 

people in need of water, food, and medical assistance. Notably, 

as of 2017, Sri Lanka began experiencing a drought, the worst 

in over 4 decades, which has left many communities in the North 

and East suffering extreme water and food shortages. 

Environmental Issues

The clearing of forest for commercial logging, agricultural 

activities, and urban development has resulted in prevalent 

deforestation, which in turn intensifies flooding, leads to soil 

erosion, and severely 

damages the nation’s rich 

biodiversity. To preserve 

Sri Lanka’s forests and

wildlife, the government 

has established national 

parks, forest reserves, and 

wildlife sanctuaries, which 

today cover about 13% of 

the country’s territory. 

Despite these steps, illegal 

loggers and poachers continue to operate and contribute to the

loss of habitat and wildlife populations. Moreover, water and soil 

pollution stemming from the dumping of industrial waste,

agricultural runoff, and untreated sewage are increasingly 

affecting urban areas (Photo: Colombo’s coastline). 

Government

Sri Lanka is a presidential republic with a parliamentary 

government. The country divides into 9 provinces administered 

by governors and elected local councils (palāth sabhā). 

Adopted in 1978, the constitution separates power among 

executive, legislative, and judicial branches and outlines the 

fundamental rights of Sri Lankan citizens. 

Executive Branch 

Executive power is vested in the President, who is both head-ofgovernment and head-of-state and acts as commander-in-chief 

of Sri Lanka’s Armed Forces (see “Defense” below). Directly 

elected by popular vote to serve up to 2 consecutive 5-year 

terms, the President forms and leads a 48-member Cabinet. 

With the Cabinet, the President runs the country’s day-to-day 

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affairs, including implementing domestic and foreign policies, 

managing the national budget, and maintaining domestic law 

and order. The President also appoints a Prime Minister (PM), 

usually the leader of the majority political party who, with his 

party, has the responsibility of introducing legislation. Current 

President Maithripala Sirisena and PM Ranil Wickremesinghe 

both took office in January 2015. 

Legislative Branch 

Sri Lanka’s legislature is a 1-chamber Parliament comprised of

225 members serving 5-year terms. Of those, 196 members are 

directly elected in multi-seat constituencies through a nationwide 

vote based on proportional representation. The remaining 29 

seats are allocated to members of political groups proportional 

to their share of the national vote. The Parliament holds most 

legislative powers such as amending the constitution, ratifying

international treaties, and 

approving declarations of 

war. Nevertheless, the 

President may suspend or 

terminate a legislative 

session or dissolve the 

Parliament with the 

Cabinet’s agreement and 

call for new elections. 

Judicial Branch 

The judiciary includes a Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, 

High and Magistrate courts, and municipal and primary courts 

that oversee minor civil cases. As the highest court, the 10-

member Supreme Court has the power to constitutionally review 

all legislation and official acts of the government. A 9-member 

Constitutional Council nominates all justices, who are appointed 

by the President to serve until age 65. In some communities, 

indigenous legal traditions influence arbitration processes

(Photo: Former US Secretary of State Kerry greets President 

Sirisena). 

Political Climate

Sri Lanka’s political landscape is characterized by a multi-party 

system in which political parties or coalitions of parties compete 

for power. Generally, those parties and coalitions which hold the 

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majority of Parliamentary seats also hold the bulk of government 

leadership positions and consequently retain extensive control 

over Sri Lanka’s political climate. Dominating the political arena 

since Sri Lanka’s independence in 1948 (see p. 10-11 of History 

and Myth), the more conservative United National Party (UNP)

and the liberal Sri Lanka 

Freedom Party (SLFP) 

have led successive 

governments either alone 

or by forging coalitions 

with smaller parties. 

Just prior to running in 

and winning the 2015 

Presidential election, 

President Sirisena abruptly left a prominent position in the SLFP

to unite several fractured opposition groups into a large rival 

coalition, the United National Front for Good Governance

(EYJP). Currently holding the majority of seats (46%) in the 

Parliament, the EYJP includes the SLFP’s rival UNP, several 

defected SLFP leaders, other prominent political figures, and 

some minority groups. 

Meanwhile, the SLFP and its coalition, the United People's 

Freedom Alliance (UPFA), holds 42% of seats. Although Sri 

Lanka has other active political groups, notable parties with 

seats in the Parliament include the Tamil National Alliance 

(TNA), representing the interests of Sri Lanka’s Tamil minority, 

and the People’s Liberation Front (Janatha Vimukthi 

Peramuna, or JVP), a communist group rooted in MarxistLeninist ideology (Photo: Former US Secretary of State Kerry 

meets with TNA leaders). 

Since the surprise 2015 defeat of former President Rajapaksa 

(see p. 19-20 of History and Myth), President Sirisena and his 

new administration have pushed for political and social reforms 

to tackle corruption, improve governance mechanisms, and 

restore the rule of law. In addition, Sirisena, whose campaign 

focused on Tamil, Muslim, and Christian minorities marginalized 

under Rajapaksa, has vowed to reduce inter-ethnic tension 

between the Sinhalese majority and Sri Lanka’s ethnic 

minorities. 

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Nevertheless, the government has been slow to address war 

crimes and humanitarian abuses that occurred during the bitter 

26-year civil war between the 

government and Tamil insurgents (see 

p. 15-19 of History and Myth). Those 

Tamils who disproportionately 

suffered from loss of life and property 

during the war, have voiced concern 

that reconciliation efforts are stalling

and the post-war justice process may 

not meet international standards of 

accountability. 

Moreover, while national-level 

corruption waned substantially 

following Sirisena’s election, the new government has largely 

failed to investigate and prosecute high-profile corruption cases 

that were prevalent during former President Rajapaksa’s 

(pictured) administration. Finally, economic progress remains 

slow, leading to some questioning of Sirisena’s leadership and 

adding to friction between disadvantaged ethnic minorities and 

the comparatively prosperous Sinhalese majority. Amid these

tensions, some observers voice concern that Rajapaksa’s 

brother, Gotabaya Rajapaksa, may eventually rise to power and 

reestablish a repressive 

regime. 

Defense 

Sri Lankan Armed Forces 

are a unified military force 

consisting of ground, 

maritime, and air 

branches with a joint 

strength of 160,900 active 

duty, 5,500 reserve, and 62,200 paramilitary troops (Photo: US 

and Sri Lankan naval ships). Since protracted civil war and a 

campaign against the Tamil Tigers ended in 2009 (see p. 18 of 

History and Myth), Sri Lanka’s armed forces have reoriented 

toward a peacetime internal security posture. The forces focus 

primarily on counter-terrorism, counter-piracy, and humanitarian 

assistance/disaster relief efforts. The military has little capacity 

to operate beyond its territory but has recently begun to 

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participate in international peacekeeping efforts. In 2015, for 

example, about 1,000 troops were sent to support various United 

Nations missions. 

Army: As the largest branch, Sri Lanka’s Army is a wellequipped, well-trained force of 140,000 active-duty troops. The 

Army has 29 command regions and divisions, a special forces 

brigade, 72 maneuver regiments and brigades (including 

reconnaissance, armored, mechanized, light, and air 

maneuver), and 22 combat support regiments. 

Navy: Consisting of 15,000 active-duty personnel, Sri Lanka’s 

Navy is the smallest 

military branch. It is 

equipped with 131 patrol 

and coastal combatants, 

9 amphibious ships and 

craft, and 2 logistics and 

support vessels (Photo: 

US Navy sailors work with 

Sri Lankan marines 

during a humanitarian 

assistance operation following severe flooding in 2017). 

Air Force: Sri Lanka’s Air Force consists of 28,000 active-duty 

personnel divided into 13 squadrons and 1 regiment equipped

with 30 combat-capable aircraft and 45 helicopters. 

Paramilitary: Sri 

Lanka’s Paramilitary 

divides into 13,000 

Home Guard 

members, 15,000 

National Guard troops, 

30,200 Police Force 

personnel, and 3,000 

Ministry of Defense Special Task Force members tasked with 

anti-guerilla operations. The Paramilitary also consists of an 

unknown number of Coast Guard personnel equipped with 11 

patrol and coastal combatants (Photo: Sri Lankan marines 

perform an amphibious abilities demonstration on a beach in 

Mullikulam, in northwestern Sri Lanka). 

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Security Issues

Sri Lanka’s 2 main security concerns are apprehension over a 

potential resurgence in Tamil militancy and the rise of radical 

Islamist movements. 

Tamil Unrest: An influx of foreign aid since the conclusion of the 

civil war in 2009 has allowed Sri Lanka to transition rapidly to a 

peacetime economy and rebuild its infrastructure. However, 

many of the root causes that ignited the conflict (see p. 10-15 of 

History and Myth) have not been resolved. For example, some 

Tamils still feel marginalized by the national government and call 

for greater autonomy of Tamil-majority regions, with a few 

extremists lobbying for the creation of a separate Tamil state. 

Resulting tensions between 

Sinhalese and Tamil groups 

raise fears among some 

observers of resurgent 

Tamil militancy (Photo: 

Tamil protesters in London 

in 2009). 

Although the government 

has begun recently to 

address accusations of war crimes and human rights abuses 

committed during the final stages of the war (see p. 18 of History 

and Myth), reconciliation efforts have been slow to materialize. 

This delay has left Tamils, particularly those with missing loved 

ones, increasingly frustrated. Significantly, Sri Lanka has the

world’s 2nd-highest number of disappearances behind Iraq, 

numbering around 100,000 since the start of the civil war in 

1983. Tensions intermittently escalate to violent protests and 

clashes with security forces. 

Finally, thousands of Sri Lankans displaced by the violence 

continue to languish in temporary camps. About 480,000 

refugees who fled to India, Australia, and elsewhere to avoid the 

conflict have returned to Sri Lanka, further straining already 

scarce resources in Tamil-majority regions. 

Islamist Extremism: Since the 1990s, sporadic violence has 

erupted between fundamentalist Islamist groups and moderate 

Muslim communities within Sri Lanka. While the presence of 

large militant groups like the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS, 

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also known as Daesh, IS, and ISIL – an influential Islamist 

organization currently controlling swathes of territory in Iraq and 

Syria) is minimal in Sri Lanka, observers worry that members of 

Sri Lanka’s marginalized Muslim communities, along with

displaced and otherwise disadvantaged groups, are increasingly 

vulnerable to radicalization. 

Foreign Relations 

Sri Lanka’s strategic location on important shipping lanes 

shapes its foreign relations. The US, India, and China, among 

others, each looks to forge closer bilateral ties and gain access 

to Sri Lanka’s strategic ports, increasingly educated workforce, 

and abundant natural resources (Photo: Former US Secretary of 

Defense Hagel meets 

with ministers of 

defense from Sri Lanka 

and other nations). 

While Sri Lanka 

historically has pursued 

a “non-alignment” policy 

that avoided formal 

alliances with any major 

power, former President 

Rajapaksa’s government relied heavily on economic and 

political assistance from China, creating some tension with 

Western powers. Since 2015, Sri Lanka’s new administration 

has begun to mend relations with the West by attempting to 

accommodate international demands to establish a post-war 

justice process that addresses humanitarian crimes committed 

during the civil war (see p. 18 of History and Myth). 

Nonetheless, Sri Lanka continues to actively participate in the 

Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), an organization of 120 member 

countries that advocates peaceful multilateral cooperation 

between developing nations and the developed world and 

promotes sovereignty and independence of developing nations. 

Sri Lanka is also a member of the South Asian Association for 

Regional Cooperation (SAARC), an organization that promotes 

the development of the South Asian region. In addition, the 

country is a member of global organizations such as the World 

Bank, International Monetary Fund, and United Nations. 

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Relations with India: Sri Lanka shares a historically tense and 

volatile relationship with India. Relations soured most recently 

during Sri Lanka’s civil war, when Sri Lankan rebels, the Tamil 

Tigers, used India’s southern shores to recruit and train fighters. 

Tensions rose significantly in the 1980s, following India’s

eventually unsuccessful intervention in the war (see p. 15-16 of 

History and Myth). Since the conclusion of the war, India and Sri 

Lanka have worked to strengthen bilateral relations. While some 

friction stems from the perceived ill-treatment of Sri Lankan 

Tamils, these tensions are ameliorated by growing economic 

and political ties (Photo: Former US 

Ambassador to Sri Lanka Blake 

presents a water pump to a northern 

Sri Lankan woman displaced by civil 

conflict). 

In part to offset China’s presence in 

the region, India provides economic, 

political, and social support to Sri 

Lanka to help rebuild war-damaged 

infrastructure, fund mine-clearing 

projects, and strengthen social and 

humanitarian programs, among 

other initiatives. Indicative of 

growing economic cooperation, Sri Lanka also takes part in a

bilateral free-trade agreement with India, which provides for the 

free movement of goods, services, and capital between the 2 

nations. 

Relations with Pakistan: Sri Lanka and Pakistan share friendly 

relations, strengthened by close military-to-military cooperation

during Sri Lanka’s protracted civil war. Some observers attribute 

Pakistan’s substantial involvement – including financial aid to 

modernize Sri Lanka’s military, the training of personnel, and 

provision of weaponry – as key factors in Sri Lanka’s eventual 

defeat of the Tamil Tigers. Today, Sri Lanka and Pakistan share 

a bilateral trade and investment agreement protecting 

intellectual property and allowing goods, services, and capital to 

move freely between the 2 nations. 

Relations with China: China and Sri Lanka have been linked

long-term through strong economic and military ties. In addition 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
to providing weaponry and munitions during the civil war, China 

has made substantial financial investments in helping rebuild Sri 

Lanka’s war-torn road, railway, and coastal infrastructures. 

Notably, China’s recent investments and influence in Sri Lanka 

worry regional and global powers like India and the US, who 

seek to curb China’s growing regional dominance. Despite these 

and other powers scrambling to regain regional influence and as 

Sri Lanka’s current administration continues to align politically 

more closely with the West, relations with China have remained 

relatively stable. 

Relations with the US: The US has historically viewed Sri 

Lanka as a country of strategic importance and generally 

maintained close diplomatic relations since Sri Lanka’s 

independence in 1948 (see p. 10-11 of History and Myth). Over 

the last 70 years, the US has delivered more than $2 billion in 

development assistance to support Sri Lanka’s social, 

economic, and political growth. Tensions increased somewhat 

following the conclusion of the civil war in 2009, when the US 

pressured Sri Lanka to reduce ongoing ethnic tensions and 

address war crimes allegedly commited by government forces

(Photo: Former US President and First Lady Barack and 

Michelle Obama with former PM Ratnasiri Wickremanayake at 

the Metropolitan 

Museum in New York in 

2009). 

Following the 2015 

ascension of Sirisena’s 

government, Sri Lanka 

and the US have 

enjoyed improved 

diplomatic ties.

Significantly, in May 

2015 the US announced 

plans to provide $40 million in aid to support recent social and 

political reforms, in such areas as reconciliation, tourism 

management, livelihood development, and democratic 

governance. As Sri Lanka’s foreign policy evolves, the US also 

seeks to deepen military-to-military cooperation, notably holding 

the annual Pacific Partnership military exercises in Sri Lanka’s 

southern Hambantota Port in 2017. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Ethnic Groups

Sri Lanka is a multi-ethnic country whose various groups have 

intermixed throughout history. The 2 largest ethnic groups, the 

Sinhalese and the Sri Lankan Tamils, both migrated to Sri Lanka 

from India over 2,000 years ago (see p. 2 of History and Myth). 

Despite centuries of relatively peaceful cohabitation, ethnic 

relations have been overshadowed by mistrust and violence 

between the Sinhalese majority and the large Tamil minority in 

recent decades (see p. 11-18 of History and Myth).

Sinhalese: Sri Lanka’s largest ethnic group, the Sinhalese, 

account for nearly 75% of the population. First migrating to Sri 

Lanka from North India sometime during the 5th century BC, the 

Sinhalese today primarily live in the South, Central, and Western 

regions of the island. The Sinhalese established political 

dominance following independence in 1948 and enacted some 

discriminatory policies against minorities, resulting in ethnic 

tensions, and subsequently, war (see p. 

11-18 of History and Myth). Some 93% 

of Sinhalese are Buddhist, and most 

speak Sinhala as their primary language 

(see p. 1 of Language and 

Communication).

Sri Lankan Tamils: Sri Lanka’s largest 

minority group, the Sri Lankan Tamils, 

account for around 11% of the total 

population. Most Sri Lankan Tamils are 

descendants of South Indians who likely 

first migrated to Sri Lanka sometime 

between the 5th-3rd centuries BC. 

Today, about 70% live in areas in the North and East. Sri Lankan 

Tamils have been the primary opposition group to Sinhalese 

nationalist policies and comprised the core of the extremist Tamil 

Tigers organization (see p. 15 of History and Myth). Around 81% 

of Sri Lankan Tamils are Hindu and some 14% Roman Catholic. 

Most members of this ethnic group speak Tamil as their 1st 

language (see p. 2 of Language and Communication) (Map: 

Distribution of Sri Lankan Tamils by district). 

Indian Tamils: Several decades ago, Indian or “Plantation” 

Tamils comprised over 10% of the population, yet today account 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
for just 4%. Most Indian Tamils arrived during the British colonial

era to work on plantations in South and Central Sri Lanka (see 

p. 9 of History and Myth), where many still live today. The 1948 

constitution denied Indian Tamils citizenship, even those who

had lived in Sri Lanka for multiple generations. While Indian 

Tamils had the option to choose Sri Lankan or Indian citizenship 

in the 1970s, they largely were considered foreigners in both 

countries. Some 90% of Indian Tamils are Hindu and speak 

Tamil as a primary language. 

Sri Lankan Moors: Comprising over 9% of the population, most 

Sri Lankan Moors are descendants of Arab traders who arrived 

as early as the 8th century (see p. 9 of Religion and Spirituality). 

Today, this group lives primarily in the East, North, or in urban 

areas, and about 93% are Muslim. Sri Lankan Moors have 

experienced marginalization by both Sinhalese and Tamils, 

particularly during the civil war. While most speak Tamil, at times 

mixing in some Arabic words, some are also fluent in English 

and Sinhala. 

Burghers: Just under 1% of the population (about 40,000 

people) are Burghers, who are primarily descendants of 

Portuguese and Dutch colonists. Burghers typically live in urban 

areas such as Colombo, Matara, and Galle, practice Roman 

Catholicism or other 

forms of Christianity, and 

typically speak English. 

Veddahs: The Veddahs, 

also known as Vanniya 

Aththo (forest dwellers),

are an indigenous group 

that traces its origins to 

the earliest inhabitants of 

Sri Lanka (see p. 2 of 

History and Myth). Fewer than 2,000 Veddahs remain in Sri

Lanka today. While some of them still live in traditional 

matrilineal (see p. 2-3 of Family and Kinship) societies as huntergatherers in remote eastern areas, others have become settled 

farmers. Some Veddahs formerly spoke an unwritten AustroAsiatic language, yet most today primarily speak Sinhala (Photo: 

Veddah family in Batticaloa, eastern Sri Lanka). 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Other Groups: Other notable ethnic groups include Malays, 

Indians, and Europeans, all accounting for less than 1% of the 

population. While located throughout Sri Lanka, these minorities 

tend to live in or around urban areas. 

Social Relations

Kinship and family are the governing principles in Sri Lankan

society. Regardless of ethnic identity, Sri Lankans tend to 

identify first with their immediate kin and then their extended 

family. Family connections are important in most political and 

economic activities, and Sri Lankans typically share their

resources with their extended family (see p. 2-3 of Family and 

Kinship) (Photo: A US Marine 

with Sri Lankan children). 

While the idea of social 

equality is increasingly 

prevalent, Sri Lankan society 

remains relatively 

hierarchical, with social 

standing often determined by 

ethnicity, religion, gender, class, and caste. Also common in 

India, the caste system was primarily based on occupation and 

prominent in traditional rural society. In Sinhalese society, for 

example, farmers held a status below only the ruling aristocracy. 

Today, the caste system is declining in significance, and lower 

caste membership rarely affects a person’s economic or political 

mobility. Nevertheless, while they rarely discuss caste 

membership, last names often indicate caste, meaning Sri 

Lankans are typically aware of each other’s place within the 

system. Notably, caste membership remains important in some 

marriage decisions (see p. 4 of Family and Kinship). 

Though related, class tends to supersede caste in modern 

society. Sri Lankan elites tend to be wealthy urban-dwellers who 

are fluent in English, attend select schools, and have access to 

high-level jobs and international networks. While the growing 

middle class is more diverse, poor Sri Lankans typically live in 

rural areas or on urban peripheries and perform jobs traditionally 

associated with lower castes. Inequities between rural and urban 

residents are often intensified by ethnic divisions and unequal 

access to public services, such as education and healthcare. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Overview 

According to US estimates, some 70% of Sri Lanka’s population 

is Buddhist, 13% Hindu, 10% Muslim, and 7% Christian. This 

religious diversity is reflected in the variety of temples, shrines, 

mosques, and churches located throughout the country. 

Notably, a connection between ethnicity and religion prevails 

among Sri Lanka’s ethnic groups (see p. 14-15 of Political and 

Social Relations): most Sinhalese are Buddhist, Tamils are

predominantly Hindu, Sri Lankan Moors are mostly Muslim, and 

Burghers are typically 

Christian. 

Sri Lanka’s constitution 

establishes freedom of

religion, including the 

right for an individual to 

choose religious beliefs

and freely observe, 

practice, worship, and 

teach those beliefs 

both in public and private spheres. Although it does not name an 

official state religion, the constitution assigns Buddhism a 

“foremost place” and requires the government to protect it. 

Consequently, Buddhist organizations, temples, and the 

Buddhist monkhood enjoy preferential state support (Photo: A 

Sri Lankan Buddhist monk). 

Sri Lankans generally are tolerant of other faiths. Religious 

groups tend to mix freely, at times sharing historic pilgrimage 

sites sacred to Buddhist, Hindu, Muslim, and Christian 

worshippers alike. Nevertheless, recently some emerging 

sectarianism has resulted in interfaith friction. Occasionally, 

tensions manifest in violence between nationalist, radical 

members of the Buddhist majority, and religious minorities. 

Moreover, although the state promotes harmony among 

followers of all religions, some local governments and authorities 

fail to enforce protective national laws and, in some cases, are 

complicit in the harassment of religious minorities (see “Religion 

and the Law” below). 

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Early Spiritual Landscape

Early inhabitants of South Asia typically practiced animism, the 

belief that a spirit or consciousness resides in all objects, both 

animate and inanimate. Within animist traditions, all natural 

objects such as trees and animals, are sacred, and there exists

a close connection between animists and their environment. 

Although many Veddahs (Sri Lanka’s indigenous people who 

trace their history on the island for millennia – see p. 2 of History 

and Myth) have absorbed Sinhalese and Tamil cultures, some 

continue to practice and preserve traditional beliefs. 

Buddhism 

Origins of Buddhism: In the 6th century BC, an Indian prince 

named Siddartha Gautama became dissatisfied with Hinduism’s 

explanations of the human condition (see “Hinduism” below). 

Gautama set out in search of truth and the meaning of life, 

eventually achieving enlightenment through meditation, 

reportedly while sitting under a Bodhi tree in northern India. 

Buddhist Theology: Gautama, who became known as the 

“Buddha” (Enlightened One), determined that humans are fated 

to suffer, that suffering is caused by greed or desire and can be 

stopped by following 

a particular spiritual 

path of unselfish 

living and meditation

(Photo: A statue of 

the Buddha). 

Aside from these socalled Noble Truths, 

there are 2 basic 

laws in Buddhism –

causation (similar to 

the Hindu concept of karma – see below) and impermanence, 

the idea that change is constant (related to the Hindu idea of 

samsara). Given these conditions, the goal of Buddhists is to 

conquer suffering and achieve nirvana (moksha in Hinduism), a 

state of peace and unity with the universe. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Although Buddhism, like Hinduism, is based on a voluminous set

of scriptures, there is no god or gods in Buddhism. Instead, 

devotees venerate the Buddha as a god-like figure. Further, 

Buddhism emphasizes ethical and moral instruction to help 

people follow a spiritual path. Buddhism also offers an 

explanation of life after death, specifically, that humans proceed 

through cycles of birth, death, and rebirth or reincarnation. 

Buddhist temples, shrines, and dagobas (Buddhist monuments 

– pictured) abound across Sri Lanka, and many households 

display small figurines of 

the Buddha. 

Several centuries after 

its founding, Buddhism 

split into 2 main streams: 

Mahayana and 

Theravada. Although the 

2 traditions accept and 

practice the same core teachings, they differ in several monastic 

rules and academic points. As the dominant form of Buddhism 

in China, Japan, and South Korea today, Mahayana Buddhism 

encompasses a variety of schools. Buddhism’s 2nd stream, 

Theravada, focuses more strictly on scripture and is considered 

the more orthodox form of Buddhism. This particular stream is 

the predominant form of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, Cambodia, 

Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand today. 

Spread of Buddhism to Sri Lanka: Buddhism was introduced 

to Sri Lanka in the 3rd century BC, when Mahinda, a Buddhist 

monk and son of the Indian king Ashoka, converted King 

Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura (see p. 3 of History and 

Myth), who adopted Buddhism as the state religion and quickly 

converted much of the island’s Sinhalese population. By the 1st 

century BC, the monkhood (sangha) was established, the 

temple became the center of community life, and Buddhism took 

deep root in Sri Lankan society. 

Despite repeated Tamil invasions from India (see p. 3-4 of 

History and Myth) and the concurrent influx of Hindu ideas in the 

early centuries AD, Buddhism continued to prevail in Sri Lanka. 

By the 10th century, membership in the sangha surged with Sri

Lanka becoming an influential center of Theravada Buddhist 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
learning. By the 13th century, Sri Lankan missionary monks 

were exporting the religion to Southeast Asia, making Sri Lanka 

the world’s leader of the Theravada movement. 

In the 14th century, amid continued encroachment by Tamil 

kingdoms and the fragmentation of Sinhalese society (see p. 5

of History and Myth), Buddhism’s influence began to wane. As 

the population and power of monks declined, Hinduism became 

entrenched in the North, where successive Tamil kingdoms 

established rule. Meanwhile, Muslim traders from Arabia had 

formed enclaves on Sri Lanka’s coasts since the 12th century 

(see p. 4 of History and Myth). 

Buddhist numbers reached their lowest during the colonial era

(see p. 6-8 of History and Myth), when Europeans propagating 

Christianity arrived and 

Hindu Tamils gained 

more territory and 

influence. In the late 19th 

century, repressive 

colonial rule and the 

desire to preserve 

Buddhist culture led to 

the rise of Buddhist 

revival movements. 

Rooted in Sinhalese nationalism (see p. 9 of History and Myth), 

these movements reestablished the prominence of Sri Lanka’s 

monastic community and restored the influence of Buddhist 

organizations within Sri Lankan society (Photo: Former US 

Secretary of State Kerry receives a blessing from a Sri Lankan

Buddhist monk). 

Hinduism 

Origins of Hinduism 

The earliest traces of Hinduism date back to religious practices 

of the Aryans during the Vedic Period in India (ca. 1750-500 BC). 

The pantheon of Vedic gods included elemental deities such as 

Surya (the sun god) and Agni (the fire god), with Indra as the 

chief god. The Aryans orally conveyed descriptions of deities, 

rituals and hymns of worship, and teachings about social 

structure and behavior in the 4 Vedas, which were eventually 

transcribed over the period from 1000 BC-500 AD.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Later sacred writings include the Brahmanas Upanishads, the

Dharma Sutras, and the Puranas, which espouse guidelines for 

Brahmins (priests), outline Hinduism’s major tenets and 

concepts, prescribe social classes, and relate tales of Hindu 

mythology. 

Concepts in Hinduism

• Dharma: the duty to fulfill one’s social and spiritual roles in 

life 

• Samsara: what Westerners term “reincarnation;” the cycle of 

continual birth, death, and rebirth until one is able to break 

free (moksha) 

• Karma: the concept that one’s current circumstances derive 

from deeds committed in past lives 

• Varnas: the system of social hierarchy commonly referred to 

as caste (see p. 16 of Political and Social Relations)

A Hindu seeks to achieve 3 aims during his life. The 1st is 

dharma, or duty, in both spiritual and social contexts. The 2nd 

aim is karma, and the third is artha, or 

material wealth (Photo: Hindu Temple 

Festival in Colombo in 1900). 

The Hindu Pantheon 

The Hindu pantheon includes 

hundreds of gods and goddesses. 

Some of these, the “greater” gods, are 

common to most Hindus, while 

“lesser” gods vary from village to 

village. Brahma is the creator, the 

supreme god, and his 2 other 

incarnations – Vishnu, the preserver, 

and Shiva, the destroyer, comprise a 

Hindu “trinity” of sorts. However, Vishnu and Shiva have come 

to overshadow Brahma in popularity; today, only a few temples 

remain that are dedicated to the creator. 

Some gods and goddesses have so-called avatars or other 

forms. For example, Brahma is also known as Rama or Krishna, 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
his most famous avatars, while Shiva appears as Mahadev and 

Nataraja, the “great god” and the god of dance, respectively. 

Deities also have partners of the opposite sex, known as 

consorts, and animal “vehicles” that convey them from place to 

place. Brahma’s wife is Swaswati, the most beautiful in the 

pantheon and the goddess of creativity, learning, and music. 

Vishnu’s female partner is Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth, 

while Shiva’s consort is Parvati, one of whose avatars is 

Mahadevi, the great goddess. 

Spread of Hinduism to Sri Lanka: Tamil kings and their 

followers from South India first introduced Hinduism to Sri Lanka 

in the 3rd century BC. While Hinduism was initially slow to take 

root, centuries of Tamil invasions and periods of Tamil rule over 

the island (see p. 3-5 of History and Myth) eventually led to the 

emergence of significant Hindu populations. 

In the 14th century, Hinduism flourished in the North, where the 

Tamil kingdom of Jaffna (see p. 5-6 of History and Myth) 

supported and spread Hindu art, culture, and beliefs and 

welcomed waves of new migrants from South India. While it 

never displaced Buddhism as the dominant religion and declined 

substantially as Buddhism regained its influence in later 

centuries, Hinduism 

remains the 

predominant faith 

among ethnic Tamils, 

and Hindu values 

continue to influence 

Sri Lankan society 

significantly. 

Religion Today 

Buddhism

Sri Lanka’s Buddhists concentrate in the Central, North-Central, 

Northwestern, Sabaragamuwa, Southern, Uva, and Western 

Provinces. Although religion is a regular part of everyday life for 

Buddhists in general, most followers do not focus on achieving 

nirvana or enlightenment. Instead, they look to Theravada 

Buddhism as a guide for living their lives (Photo: Buddhist 

statues). 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Specifically, the faithful try to follow Buddhism’s instructions to 

take the so-called Middle Way between extreme self-denial and 

sensual indulgence, to avoid evil, and to acquire religious merit. 

To acquire merit, followers may perform a variety of acts, such 

as performing good deeds, giving alms or shelter to monks, 

providing offerings at a temple, performing worship regularly, or 

entering the monkhood (see “The Monkhood” below). 

Worship: Sri Lankan Buddhist temples (viharas) typically 

comprise an image house, which displays statues and images 

of the Buddha and other figures, a dagoba that enshrines sacred 

relics, and a bodhigara, a shrine housing the sacred Bodhi tree. 

Temples do not hold formal, collective, regularly-scheduled 

worship services. Instead, followers worship by chanting, 

praying, or performing other acts of devotion before an image of 

the Buddha when it is 

convenient for them. 

Some followers may 

assemble at the temple on 

special occasions such as 

days when the moon is in 

its full phase (poya) or for 

festivals. On such 

occasions, a monk may 

preach a short sermon 

while followers engage in meditation, make offerings, and burn 

candles or incense at altars. Some communities celebrate the 

particularly important Vesak Poya – the day when Buddha was 

born, achieved enlightenment, and passed into nirvana – with 

large festivals and elaborate processions (see p. 2 of Time and 

Space and p. 3 of Aesthetics and Recreation) (Photo: US Navy 

sailors attend a poya celebration in Hambantota). 

Sacred Buddhist sites, notably places where the Buddha went 

during his 3 purported visits to the island in the 6th century BC, 

draw millions of religious pilgrims from other countries. Notably, 

the ancient Sri Dalada Maligawa or “Temple of the Tooth,” 

which reportedly houses the Buddha’s tooth – a precious 

Buddhist relic – is the largest and most popular temple in Sri 

Lanka (see p. 4 of History and Myth). 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
The Monkhood: Unlike in Myanmar and Thailand, where young 

men may commit themselves to the monkhood for a short period 

before returning to secular life, monks in Sri Lanka expect to 

serve for life. While traditionally young boys were chosen for the 

monkhood based on their religious inclination or on astrological 

predictions, today poor families tend to submit their children into 

the Buddhist clergy to ensure their education and a better 

standard of living. Boys are first initiated around age 10, when 

they sever most ties with their family and enter the monastery to 

live and study (Photo: 

Sigiriya, an ancient 

fortress atop a rock 

formation that served as a 

Buddhist monastery 

through the 14th century). 

Monks commit 

themselves to numerous 

vows, such as those of 

piety and celibacy, and spend considerable time studying 

scriptures, meditating, and performing rituals such as weddings 

and funerals (see p. 5-6 of Family and Kinship). At age 20, 

monks achieve higher ordination, becoming full members of the 

monkhood. 

Some monks work as teachers and spiritual advisors, while 

others promote a socially engaged Buddhism, focusing on 

alleviating social injustice, protecting the environment, and 

participating in interfaith dialogues. While Buddhist monkhood is 

traditionally a male-only occupation, females may enter the 

sangha as nuns, although they have fewer roles and 

responsibilities and enjoy less respect and prestige than their 

male colleagues. 

Some nationalist Buddhist groups promote hostile and 

discriminatory views toward religious minorities, while 

advocating the supremacy of Sri Lanka’s Sinhalese Buddhists. 

In 2014, for example, hardline Buddhist monks attempted to 

desecrate Muslim places of worship and attacked members of 

both Muslim and Christian communities, subjecting them to hate 

speech, physical assault, acts of discrimination, and obstruction 

of worship services. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Beliefs and Rituals from Other Traditions: Sri Lanka’s form of

Theravada Buddhism contains elements from other religious 

traditions, including indigenous ones. For example, certain 

beliefs and rituals trace to Sri Lanka’s animist traditions, beliefs 

that a spiritual presence resides in all objects, both animate and 

inanimate. Other elements trace to Hinduism. For example, 

some Sri Lankans regularly visit shrines dedicated to Hindu 

deities, such as the 4-faced Hindu creation god Brahma or the 

elephant-head deity, Ganesha. Notably, shrines or temples that 

contain both Buddhist and Hindu elements are known as 

devales and differ from Buddhist temples (viharas) and Hindu 

temples (kovils).

Hinduism 

As Hinduism evolved over the centuries, rituals shifted from 

animal sacrifices in open-air venues to more symbolic worship 

in a temple. Usually dedicated to a particular deity, temples 

today house shrines where devotees offer flowers and food in 

return for blessings. In the temple, Brahmin priests act as 

intermediaries between the worshiper and the deity. At home, 

the faithful perform puja (devotion) to their preferred god or gods 

in much the same way. Hindus commonly make pilgrimages to 

holy sites such as temples, caves, rivers, and sacred cities. 

The Hindu calendar abounds with numerous holy days and 

festivals. Among the most significant and widely celebrated in 

Sri Lanka are Thai Pongal, a harvest 

festival celebrated in January (see p. 3

of Aesthetics and Recreation); and 

Deepavali, the festival of lights. Many 

Sri Lankan Hindus are ethnic Tamils, 

mostly concentrated in the Northern, 

Eastern, Sabaragamuwa, and Uva 

Provinces (Photo: Hindu shrine). 

Islam 

Islam was first brought to Sri Lanka by 

Arab traders, likely beginning in the 

7th century. By the 12th century, 

communities of Muslims had 

developed on the island’s coasts and urban areas (see p. 4 of 

History and Myth). Most Sri Lankan Muslims today identify with 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
the Shafi’i school of Sunni Islam, a generally tolerant school of 

thought. A small minority are Shi’a. A very small percentage of 

Sri Lankan Muslims subscribe to an extreme, ultra-orthodox, and 

fundamentalist version of Islam known as Wahhabism or 

Salafism and occasionally engage in violent activity (see p. 10-

11 of Political and Social Relations). Most Muslims reside in 

urban areas in 8 of the 9 provinces, excluding the Northern 

Province. Some 30% of Muslims live in the Eastern Province.

Christianity 

Christianity has ancient 

roots in Sri Lanka, with 

groups of Christians first 

settling along Sri Lanka’s 

coasts in the early 

centuries AD. Despite this 

early presence, Christianity 

did not gain prominence 

until the arrival of European 

colonists centuries later (see p. 6 of History and Myth). The 

Portuguese introduced Roman Catholicism in the 16th century, 

while Protestantism and other denominations were introduced 

by missionaries during the Dutch and British eras (see p. 7-8 of 

History and Myth). Since the end of colonial rule, the numbers of 

Sri Lankan Christians have reduced to about 7% of the 

population (Photo: A church in Katukurunda). 

Christians concentrate in Eastern, Northern, Northwestern, and 

Western Provinces, with a smaller presence in Sabaragamuwa 

and Uva Provinces, where some Indian Tamils have converted 

to Christianity. About 82% of Sri Lanka’s Christians are Roman 

Catholic, while the remainder divide into numerous Protestant 

denominations, primarily Anglicans and members of the Dutch 

Reformed Church. Other Christian congregations with smaller 

numbers include the Methodists, Jehovah’s Witnesses, 

Seventh-day Adventists, Baptists, Pentecostals, and the Church 

of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Mormons). 

Religion and the Law 

In the past, local authorities cited outdated laws to restrict the 

construction of Muslim and Christian religious facilities and force 

other sites to close. Moreover, some authorities have failed to 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
respond to attacks on religious minorities and houses of worship, 

then were reluctant to pursue criminal charges against the 

perpetrators. Sri Lanka’s new administration, which took office

in 2015 (see p. 19-20 of History and Myth), has expressed a 

renewed commitment to maintaining rule of law and curtailing 

religious violence. Despite this stance, some members of 

religious minorities, particularly Muslims and Christians, 

continue to be vulnerable to intimidation and violence. 

Visiting a Buddhist Temple

Non-Buddhists are welcome to visit temples. Visitors 

should dress modestly, particularly long pants for 

men and long skirts/pants for women. Women should 

also wear blouses that cover their shoulders. Visitors 

should remove their shoes before entering, remain 

quiet inside, and refrain from touching any statues or 

other artwork. Photography is usually allowed, but 

visitors should always ask first. 

Although monks may choose to engage visitors in 

conversation, visitors should not interrupt monks who 

are praying or meditating. Visitors should also show

respect to monks by ensuring the level of their heads 

remains below that of the monks. For example, 

visitors should not stand above a seated monk. This 

rule holds true even outside the temple: if a monk is 

seated on a bus, a fellow traveler should never stand 

so that he looms over him. 

Because they regard all Buddhist statues and images 

as sacred, Sri Lankans treat them with great respect 

and expect non-Buddhists to do the same. 

Inappropriate treatment includes climbing on a statue, 

using a foot to point at it, or using a statue or image 

as a backdrop for a photo. Anyone who commits a 

disrespectful act against a Buddhist statue or image 

is subject to punishment such as imprisonment and 

fines. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Overview

While family customs vary among Sri Lanka’s religious and 

ethnic groups, all share a tradition of respect for elders and a 

sense of resposibility for family members. Urbanization has 

shifted some family residency patterns, yet extended families

(typically consists of aunts, uncles, cousins and their immediate 

family members all living nearby or in the same household)

continue to serve as an important support network. 

Residence 

In rural areas, some nuclear families (2 parents and their 

children) live in separate quarters near their extended family. 

Sometimes, the extended family shares a dwelling. In such 

cases, each wife typically maintains 

her own cooking area to symbolize the 

independence of her family unit. In 

urban areas, nuclear families are more 

likely to live without extended family 

nearby (Photo: Pans hang in a Sri 

Lankan backyard). 

Rural: The majority of Sri Lankans live 

in rural areas, usually small villages 

and towns (see p. 1 of Political and 

Social Relations). While the caste 

system (see p. 16 of Political and 

Social Relations) was officially 

abolished in the 1950s, some towns still reflect segregation by 

caste, with some streets housing only members of a certain 

caste or the lowest castes living apart from the rest of the 

community. 

Traditionally, rural homes were constructed of mud and sticks. 

Today, simple cement homes with roofs of coconut fronds, tin, 

or asbestos are common. Upper and middle-class rural homes 

are often constructed from whitewashed cement and have high 

ceilings and windows with built-in vents that circulate air. Middleclass homes typically feature a sitting room (hall), dining room, 

2-3 bedrooms and a veranda, with a kitchen and washroom at 

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
the rear of the house. Interiors are typically simply decorated 

with family photos, a calendar, or a small shrine (see p. 3 and 9

of Religion and Spirituality). Some rural residents plant trees or 

hedges to mark their properties. Nearly all rural homes have 

gardens, many featuring Buddhist, Hindu, or Christian shrines 

(see p. 10 of Religion and Spirituality). 

Urban: Less than 1/5 of Sri Lankans live in urban areas. 

Influenced by Dutch, Portuguese, and British styles (see p. 7-8 

of History and Myth), urban 

architecture ranges from colonialera buildings to single-family homes 

and modern apartment complexes. 

Urban buildings often feature

cement and brick construction with 

red-tiled roofs. Residents of singlefamily homes tend to surround their 

properties with walls (Photo: Part of 

the Colombo shoreline). 

Sri Lanka’s poorest residents live in 

watte, small homes built from

available materials, such as thatch, 

wood, and corrugated metal. 

Improvised and sometimes unauthorized shanty communities of 

watte typically emerge near railways, roadways, beaches, and 

canals. About 1/2 of Colombo’s residents live in such

settlements and lack access to drinking water and sanitation 

services. 

Family Structure

Among all ethnic groups, the oldest male is typically the head of 

the household, although the number of female-headed 

households increased as women were widowed in the civil war 

(see p. 15-18 of History and Myth). Elder family members are 

highly respected and serve as a source of advice for younger 

members. Children typically live with their parents at least until 

marriage. After marriage, the couple moves into their own 

quarters or joins the husband’s family. 

Inheritance patterns vary by region and ethnic group. While most 

groups are patrilineal, meaning descent and inheritance pass 

through the father’s line, Sinhalese in the Kandyan region (see 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
p. 7 of History and Myth) trace descent and inheritance through 

both spouses. Husband and wife each possess property, which 

can be divided equally among their children. Some Tamil and 

Veddah communities (see p. 15 of Political and Social Relations) 

in eastern Sri Lanka are matrilineal, whereby inheritance and 

property pass from mother to daughter. 

Polygyny: Legal only for Sri Lankan Muslims, polygyny is the 

practice of a man having multiple wives simultaneously. In 

accordance with sharia (Islamic law), Muslim men may have up 

to 4 wives. While exact statistics are unavailable, few Sri 

Lankans practice polygyny. Of note, the government is currently 

considering legal reforms that would outlaw both polygyny and 

child marriage (see “Dating and Marriage” below).

Children 

Mothers typically carry their infants until they learn to walk. 

Parents teach lajjawa, a combination of shyness, shame, 

modesty, and fear, to their children so they learn self-control. 

Families emphasize education, yet most children also perform 

household chores. Girls 

typically help with 

cooking and cleaning, 

and boys go to the market 

or tend the family garden 

(Photo: Sri Lankan girls 

reading). 

Birth: In their final weeks 

of pregnancy, women 

often return to their parental home to receive care from their 

mothers. Traditionally, midwives attended births; now most 

deliveries occur in hospitals. After birth, female relatives assist 

the new mother with household tasks, and family and friends 

bring gifts to the new parents. 

Childhood Celebrations: Sri Lankans celebrate several 

childhood events. Sinhalese families typically gather to celebrate 

a baby’s first solid food, usually milk rice, at age 8-10 months. At 

an event held around age 2, a respected elder teaches the child 

the alphabet while presenting numerous items, such as pencils, 

books, money, or tools. Tradition holds that the item the child 

chooses first indicates his future career path. 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Both Sinhalese and Tamil families mark girls’ coming of age. At 

the time of her first menstruation, the family secludes the girl for 

about a week. During this period, an astrologer determines a 

favorable time for her to bathe with herbed water from a dhoby

(clay pot). Following the period of seclusion, the family 

celebrates her transition to womanhood with gifts of jewelry. 

Circumcision: Muslim Sri Lankan boys typically undergo 

circumcision in their early teens, signifying their passage into 

adulthood and membership in the 

Islamic community. Some Muslim 

girls are also circumcised (see p. 

4 of Sex and Gender) (Photo: Sri 

Lankan boy riding a bicycle).

Dating and Marriage 

Dating in the Western sense is 

relatively uncommon, although 

young adults in urban areas often 

socialize in groups. While Sri 

Lankans increasingly choose 

their spouses based on mutual 

attraction, arranged marriages 

are still common. Traditionally, a magul kapuwa (marriage 

broker) assisted families with finding suitable partners for their 

children. Today, few families engage marriage brokers, instead 

relying on relatives, friends, newspaper ads, or matchmaking 

websites. Most Sri Lankans marry within their caste (see p. 16

of Political and Social Relations), ethnicity, and religion (see p. 

1 of Religion and Spirituality), though marriage between ethnic 

groups is increasingly common. 

While the legal marriage age is 18, some younger Sri Lankans 

wed with parental consent or a court order. Of note, according 

to a community law, Muslim girls may marry at 12, although 

Islamic courts occasionally allow even younger girls to marry. 

Consequently, some girls are forced into marriage, usually to 

older men. About 12% of Sri Lankan girls marry before age 18, 

and 2% by 15, though the average marriage age is 23 for women 

and 27 for men.

Dowry and Brideprice: The practice of giving dowry, a payment 

made by the bride’s family to the groom’s family, occurs in some 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
cases and may consist of cash, jewelry, or land. Sri Lankan 

Muslim men traditionally pay a brideprice or mahr to the bride

and her family. A legal requirement for Islamic marriages, the 

mahr may consist of cash, gold, or livestock. 

Weddings: Sri Lankan weddings are often lavish affairs lasting 

up to 4 days. Families typically save for years and some incur 

debt to finance the celebration. Most weddings consist of a 

formal ceremony followed by a celebration with family and 

friends. Christians usually marry in a church. Among Muslims, 

an imam (religious leader) typically blesses the couple at the 

bride’s home or a wedding hall. 

The main event of a Sinhalese Buddhist wedding is the poruwa 

ceremony, named for the elaborately decorated, roofed wooden 

platform under which the couple stands. The couple’s relatives 

perform several rituals, such as tying the little fingers of groom’s 

left and bride’s right hands together with a gold thread, then 

pouring water from a silver urn over the joined hands. Family 

members exchange symbolic 

gifts, such as a sari (see p. 1 of 

Aesthetics and Recreation) and 

food. The ceremony ends as the 

couple lights an oil lamp together. 

Tamil Hindus typically marry in a 

kovil (Hindu temple) or in a hotel 

banquet room. Like Buddhist 

weddings, they are usually lavish 

affairs involving numerous

events and rituals. In one 

example, the couple ties 3 knots 

in gold chain or thread, 

symbolizing their ties of the mind, 

spirit, and body. Following the 

ceremonies, wedding guests throw rice on the new couple to 

signify best wishes and future happiness (Photo: Sri Lankan 

bride). 

Most formal ceremonies are followed by a reception for family 

and friends. When the couple returns from their honeymoon, 

some families have a “homecoming” celebration to welcome the 

bride into the groom’s family. 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Divorce: Previously rare due to the social and religious

importance of marriage, the divorce rate has increased, rising 

from 4.8 divorces per 1,000 married persons in 1946 to 17.9 

today. A variety of factors, such as women’s increased economic 

independence and education levels, contribute to the increase. 

Nevertheless, social stigma still prevents some couples from 

pursuing legal separation. 

Death 

Funeral customs also differ by religious affiliation. While Muslims 

and Christians typically prefer burial in a cemetery, Buddhists 

and Hindus hold cremation ceremonies. Buddhist funeral rites 

usually last several days and generally occur in the home of the 

deceased. Upon death, the body 

is washed and dressed and 

placed in coffin. For the next 

several days, relatives stand

vigil, and monks (pictured) visit to 

give pansakula (last rites) by 

chanting prayers. After about 7 

days, the family accompanies the 

coffin to a crematorium, then 

collects the ashes for burial. 

Following the burial, mourners 

gather at the deceased’s home for a meal of rice and curry 

known as mala batha (rice for the dead). Relatives typically give 

alms (dané) to a temple in honor of the deceased for 3 months 

following a death and annually thereafter. 

Hindus consider cremation as the quickest way to release the 

spirit into the rebirth cycle (see p. 5 of Religion and Spirituality). 

The deceased is bathed, clothed, and covered with flowers. 

Mourners accompany the deceased to the cremation grounds, 

where the body is placed on a funeral pyre. Following the 

cremation, the ashes are collected for scattering. 

In line with Islamic tradition, Muslim Sri Lankans typically bury 

loved ones as soon as possible after death, usually within 24 

hours. Family members of the same gender wash, perfume, and 

shroud the body, then male family members transport it to the 

cemetery. Sri Lankan Christians typically bury their dead 

following a church service. 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Overview

While customs in Sri Lanka differ by ethnic and religious 

affiliation, traditional values privilege men over women in most 

spheres. Women remain underrepresented in the labor force

and were subjected to significant sexual violence during the civil 

war. Women continue to be subjected to domestic violence. 

Gender Roles and Work

Domestic Labor: Traditionally, women perform most household 

tasks, such as caring for children, cooking, and cleaning, while 

men are responsible for providing for and protecting the family. 

On family farms, women also assist with the harvest. Even if they 

work outside the home, women typically retain responsibility for 

household duties (Photo: 

US Navy sailor distributes 

supplies to a Sri Lankan 

woman). 

Labor Force: In 2015, 

about 30% of Sri Lankan 

women worked outside the 

home. While this rate is 

higher than neighboring 

India (27%), it is 

significantly lower than the US (56%). Although women 

predominate in teaching and nursing, some also pursue higher 

education to become doctors and lawyers. Notably, female 

workforce participation has decreased in the last several 

decades from 46% in 1990. Today, young women suffer the 

highest rates of unemployment of any group, and the country’s 

gender gap in labor force participation is the world’s 17th largest. 

Widespread gender discrimination in hiring and promotion is a 

key factor preventing women from entering and remaining in the 

workforce. Consequently, women generally are forced to take 

low-status, low-wage agriculture, services, and manufacturing 

jobs. Even if they find employment, women typically earn less 

than their male counterparts and attain managerial and 

leadership positions at lower rates than men. Finally, women 

5. SEX AND GENDER

SEX &

GENDER
tend to leave the labor force upon marriage due to societal 

expectations that a wife’s most important role is to care for her 

husband and children. 

This lack of suitable employment opportunities has prompted 

some Sri Lankan women to seek work abroad. In 2012, as many 

as 1.5 million Sri Lankans worked outside the country, 1/2 of

which were female. Most women performed domestic labor in 

the Middle East, where some were vulnerable to physical and 

other forms of abuse. Further, critics charged that children left 

behind by migrant parents suffered neglect. Consequently, the 

Sri Lankan government has implemented restrictions on 

international employment, such as banning females younger 

than 23 from traveling to the Middle East for work and mothers 

with children under age 5 from labor abroad altogether. 

Gender and the Law

Although Sri Lankan civil law grants women equal rights to men, 

lack of enforcement and entrenched customs result in unequal 

treatment regarding inheritance, marriage, and divorce. Children 

legally are granted equal rights to inheritance, yet sons typically 

get land and daughters only jewelry or cash. When the deeds of 

female property were destroyed during the 2004 tsunami (see p. 

17 of History and Myth), some 

local governments issued new 

documents in their husbands’ 

names rather than theirs. The 

government historically has 

favored the husband in custody 

issues arising during marriage or 

after divorce, although a 2007 

legal change now permits both 

parents to petition for custody 

rights following divorce (Photo: 

Human rights activist Jansila 

Majeed with former First Lady Michele Obama and former 

Secretary of State Hillary Clinton). 

Some local laws also foster inequality. For example, in the city 

of Kandy, inheritance is determined by residence and marital

status. If a father’s married daughter lives with her husband’s 

family, she receives no inheritance upon her father’s death – her 

SEX &

GENDER
portion passes either to her brothers or to an unmarried sister 

living in the family home. 

Gender and Politics 

Sri Lankan women have held prominent leadership positions in

politics and government. In 1931, Sri Lanka became the 1st 

Asian nation to give women the right to vote. In 1960, Sirimavo 

Bandaranaike served as the world’s 1st female Prime Minister, 

and her daughter Chandrika 

Bandaranaike Kumaratunga 

(pictured with former US Secretary 

of State Colin Powell) served as the 

country’s 1st female President in 

1994. Despite these early gains 

and recent efforts by political parties 

to implement female quotas, 

women’s political participation 

remains low. Currently, just 6% of 

Parliament members are female, 

1/2 the rate of India’s Parliament 

and significantly less than the US 

rate of 19%. On provincial councils, women hold about 6% of 

seats but typically occupy no more than 2% of local council 

seats. 

Gender Based Violence (GBV)

While rape is a criminal offense in Sri Lanka, marital rape is only 

punishable if the spouses are legally separated. Women 

generally do not report sexual violence for fear of facing 

significant social stigma and because indictment and conviction 

entail a lengthy legal process requiring them to share details of 

their assault publicly. In some cases, government officials 

suggest that unmarried victims wed their attackers instead of 

pursuing conviction. 

Women in areas heavily impacted by the civil war (see p. 15-18

of History and Myth) remain particularly vulnerable to GBV. In 

these regions, human rights groups have reported isolated 

cases of Sri Lankan security and police forces committing torture 

and sexual violence against Tamil women. 

Throughout the country, domestic violence remains a persistent 

problem. While exact statistics are unavailable, a 2013 UN 

SEX &

GENDER
survey found that 45% of men admitted to committing violence 

against a domestic partner, and 42% of women reported 

experiencing GBV. Further, only 5% of perpetrators surveyed 

were jailed or arrested for their crime. 

Female Circumcision 

While official statistics on the practice are lacking, anecdotal 

evidence suggests that most Muslim Sri Lankan girls undergo 

some form of female circumcision, usually a symbolic prick or 

cut on the 40th day after birth. Proponents traditionally used the 

procedure to discourage women 

from premarital sex and infidelity, 

although today, it is viewed primarily

as an Islamic duty.

Sex and Procreation

Sri Lankans consider sexual 

intimacy a private matter and tend 

to avoid public displays of affection. 

Though sex outside of marriage is 

not illegal, society generally 

condemns it. Due largely to 

successful family planning 

campaigns, fertility rates in Sri 

Lanka have fallen from 5.5 births per woman in 1960 to 2.1 in 

2015, slightly lower than India’s rate of 2.4 and higher than the 

US rate of 1.8. Of note, abortion is legal only if the pregnancy 

endangers the mother’s life. Nevertheless, unlawful abortion is 

available from primarily untrained providers performing the

procedure under unsanitary conditions. Experts estimate 

complications from these illegal procedures account for some 

6% of maternal deaths annually (Photo: Sri Lankan children). 

Homosexuality: This practice is illegal and punishable with a

10-year prison sentence. In January 2017, Sri Lanka’s 

government debated then ultimately rejected a plan to 

decriminalize same-sex relations, although it did update its 

Human Rights Action Plan to include an addendum banning 

discrimination based on sexual orientation. Nevertheless, 

members of the LGBT community regularly face discrimination 

in housing, employment, and healthcare and are subject to 

harassment and abuse. 

SEX &

GENDER
Language Overview

Historically, language has been a point of division between Sri 

Lanka’s Sinhalese and Tamil residents. In 1956, the Sinhala 

Only Act made Sinhala the country’s official language (see p. 11

of History and Myth), contributing to increased tensions between 

the 2 groups. The 1978 constitution elevated Tamil to the status 

of national language, while reserving “official” status for Sinhala. 

Since constitutional amendments in 1987-88, Sinhala and Tamil 

are both official and national languages, while English is used 

as a bridge or “link” language between the 2. 

Sinhala 

Around the 5th century BC, Indo-Aryan migrants from presentday North India arrived in Sri Lanka (see p. 2 of History and 

Myth). These people spoke Old Sinhala, a variety related to 

Prakrit and influenced by Sanskrit, both ancient languages of 

South Asia. While the earliest Sinhalese inscriptions date from 

around 300 BC, Buddhist monks taught and wrote in Sinhala

(see p. 1 of Learning 

and Knowledge) 

beginning in the 1st 

century AD. Pali, the 

sacred language of 

Sri Lankan 

Buddhism (see p. 2-

4 of Religion and 

Spirituality) and 

Tamil also strongly 

influenced the 

development of Sinhala (Photo: Ancient Sinhalese inscriptions). 

A member of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European 

language family, Sinhala is closely associated with Sri Lanka’s

Buddhist Sinhalese population (see p. 14 of Political and Social 

Relations). About 75% of the total population or some 15.5 

million people speak Sinhala as a 1st language, while some 2 

million use it as a 2nd language. Sri Lankans speak several 

dialects of Sinhala that differ in both intonation and vocabulary, 

though they are mutually intelligible. A more significant 

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
difference exists between spoken and written Sinhala, although 

the spoken language used in formal situations such as speeches 

and the media more closely resembles the written version. 

Members of the Rodiya caste (see p. 16 of Political and Social 

Relations), one of the lowest groups in the traditional social 

hierarchy, have their own dialect. 

The Sinhalese alphabet descends from the ancient Brahmi 

script, the ancestral script of most Indian languages. Few 

Sinhalese letters exhibit straight lines. Instead, they are rounded 

and curling, with each letter typically symbolizing both a vowel 

and a consonant sound. The addition of diacritic marks above or 

below the letter can change the vowel. Like English, Sinhala is 

written from left to right in horizontal lines. 

Tamil

Like Sinhala, Tamil has an ancient written tradition. Tamil

speakers likely began arriving in Sri Lanka around the 3rd

century BC (see p. 2 of History and Myth), and the earliest stone 

and palm leaf records date from that era. Also influenced by the 

ancient Brahmi script, Tamil 

evolved from Old to Middle to 

Modern Tamil, which developed 

after 1600. Like Sinhala, Tamil is 

written horizontally from left to 

right and its alphabet features 

distinctive curved letters that are 

adapted with diacritic markings. 

Of note, Tamil belongs to a 

different language family than 

Sinhala, namely the Dravidian 

family. It is related to other South 

Indian languages, such as

Kannada and Malayalam, and is 

also an official language of the 

Indian state of Tamil Nadu and of Singapore. About 18% of the 

total population or some 2 million Sri Lankans speak Tamil. Most 

Tamil-speakers are Hindus or Muslims, concentrated in the 

North and East. Tamil is the main administrative language in 

Northern and Eastern provinces (Photo: 10th-century Tamil 

inscriptions from India). 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
English 

During roughly 150 years of British presence (see p. 7-10 of

History and Myth), English was the primary language of 

education and administration (see p. 2 of Learning and 

Knowledge). As noted earlier, English is the official “link” 

language intended to unite Sinhala and Tamil speakers. 

Commonly used in commerce and the hospitality industry, 

English is a compulsory subject in school and frequently used in 

higher education (see p. 3-6 

of Learning and Knowledge) 

(Photo: Sign in Sinhala, 

Tamil, and English). 

Other Languages

A few Sri Lankans speak 

languages other than 

Sinhala, Tamil, or English. 

Around 50,000 people speak 

a Creole version of Malay 

mixed with Tamil. The 

indigenous Veddah people 

(see p. 16 of Political and 

Social Relations), historically spoke an Austro-Asiatic language

that is largely extinct today. 

Communication Overview

Effective communication in Sri Lanka requires not only 

knowledge of Sinhala or Tamil but also the ability to interact 

effectively using language. This broad notion of competence 

includes paralanguage (rate of speech, volume, intonation), 

nonverbal communication (personal space, touch, gestures), 

and interaction management (conversation initiation, turntaking, and termination). When used properly, these forms of 

communication help to ensure that statements are interpreted as 

the speaker intends. 

Communication Style

Sri Lankan communication emphasizes the preservation of

social harmony, while avoiding loss of face or shame and 

embarrassment to themselves or others. Consequently, Sri 

Lankans tend to communicate in an indirect, non-confrontational 

manner. Direct statements, especially in support of controversial 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
ideas, are rare. Instead, speakers prefer to communicate their 

intentions through subtle facial expressions or tone of voice. 

Further, some Sri Lankans prefer to avoid an outright refusal, 

which could signify a wish to end the relationship, instead 

answering affirmatively to show politeness. Sri Lankans consider 

loud assertiveness and emotional outbursts rude and tend to 

speak softly (Photo: 

US Sailor talking 

with a Sri Lankan). 

Greetings

Traditionally, Sri 

Lankans greet each 

other by pressing 

their palms together 

in front of the chests, 

while bowing slightly 

and inclining the 

head. They often 

accompany this motion with the phrase Ayubowan in Sinhala 

and Vanakkam in Tamil, meaning “may you be blessed with a 

long life.” Some Hindus also say Namaste (I bow to you), while 

Muslims typically say Assalamu Alaikum (may peace be upon 

you). 

In informal settings, young Sri Lankans tend to greet with

Kohomeda (how are you?). Handshakes are becoming more 

common. While young adults often shake hands with members 

of the same sex, they tend to avoid handshakes with members 

of the opposite sex. Some women in business situations may 

extend their hands for a light handshake, yet foreign nationals 

should generally wait for members of the opposite sex to initiate 

the greeting. 

Names

Most Sinhalese have 2 or 3 names. The first is a family or clan 

name, indicating the family’s origins and often ends in “ghe.” 

This name is passed down to both genders, and women typically 

retain their clan/house name after marriage. When writing their 

names, some Sri Lankans abbreviate their clan names with an 

initial, and some urban Sinhalese omit them altogether. The 2nd 

name is the given or “first” name. Finally, some Sri Lankans use 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
an additional family name, a practice which has become more

common in urban areas. Of note, some Sri Lankans have 

Portuguese names dating from the Portuguese colonial 

presence (see p. 6

of History and 

Myth) (Photo: US 

Navy Capt Jamison 

greets Sri Lankan 

Army Maj Gen 

Crishantha De 

Silva). 

Tamils employ an 

alternate naming 

convention using 2 

names. Instead of a family name, they typically adopt their 

father’s name as their “last” name before their given or “first”

name. After marriage, some Tamil women adopt their husband’s 

father’s name in place of their own father’s name. In writing, 

Tamils may abbreviate their father’s name with an initial.

Examples of some Sri Lankan surnames include Jayasinghe, 

Senanayake, Perera, and Silva (Sinhalese) and Pillai, Krishnan, 

and Ratnam (Tamil). 

Forms of Address

In general, most Sri Lankans address others with their name and 

appropriate title. Common Sinhalese titles include

Mahathamaya (Mr.), Mahathmiya (Mrs.), and Menaviya 

(Miss), while Tamil forms include Shri or Thiru (Mr.), 

Shrimanthi or Thirumati (Mrs.), and Selvi (Miss).

Sri Lankans often use distinct forms of address to demonstrate 

respect and the nature of the relationship. Sinhalese often use

Numbe to address an equal and Thamunnaasse to address a 

superior, respected elder, or Buddhist monk. In less formal 

situations, Sri Lankans may address each other using 

relationship terms, such as calling a young man malli (younger 

brother) or nangi (younger sister). 

Conversational Topics 

Following greetings, Sri Lankans often engage in light 

conversation regarding the weather, food, or sports, especially 

cricket (see p. 4 of Aesthetics and Recreation). To further 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
establish rapport, foreign nationals should explore common 

interests. Sri Lankans take pride in their families and homeland 

and typically welcome questions regarding both. Nevertheless, 

foreign nationals should avoid discussing potentially sensitive 

topics such as politics, the protracted civil war (see p. 15-18 of 

History and Myth), and religion (see p. 1 and 10-11 of Religion 

and Spirituality).

Gestures 

Sri Lankans sometimes use gestures to emphasize or replace 

spoken words, though they tend to rely more on facial 

expressions and head movements than hand gestures. A 

common example is the “head bobble,” performed by tilting the 

head from side-to-side. Also common in India, the gesture’s 

meaning often 

depends on context, 

but commonly

means “OK,” “yes,” 

“maybe,” and “I 

understand.” Sri 

Lankans tend to

signal disagreement 

by pursing their lips 

and slightly shaking 

their head from sideto-side. To beckon someone, Sri Lankans hold the hand, palm 

facing out at the shoulder level, while waving the fingers (Photo: 

Sri Lankan Naval offficer with US Marine officers). 

Because Sri Lankans consider the soles of feet unclean, they 

refrain from showing or using them to point. In addition, Sri 

Lankans never allow their feet to touch sacred items, such as a 

statue of the Buddha (see p. 11 of Religion and Spirituality). 

Because they consider the head the most sacred part of the 

body, Sri Lankans avoid touching another’s head or passing 

anything over it. 

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center website

at http://culture.af.mil for language training resources. Click on 

the Resources tab on the upper toolbar then Language 

Resources. 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Words and Phrases

English Sinhalese

(Romanized)

Tamil

(Romanized)

Hello Ayubowan Vanakakm

Good morning Subha udesenak Kaalai Vanakkam

Good evening Subha Sandevak Maalai Vanakkam

Good night Subha Rathriyak Iniya Iravu

My name is ____ Mahgay nama... Yen peyar....

What is your name? Nama mokadhdha? Ungal peyar yenna?

How are you? Kohomada?

Eppadi 

irukkindriirgal 

Good Vahapata Nalla 

Please Karunakara Thayavu seithu

Thank you Istuti Nandri

Yes / No Ow/Nay Amam/Illai

Goodbye Gihin ennam

poy vittu 

varugiren

Do you speak 

English?

Oba ingreesi kathaa 

karanavadha?

Ningal angilam 

paysu virhala?

I don't understand Mata terinneh neh Enakku puriyavillai 

Sorry Matta kanagaatui Mannikkavum

Excuse me Mata sama venna Mannikanum

Help! Udav Utavi!

I want ___ Mata one ____

Eṉakku vēṇṭum 

____

What? Mokadhdha? Enna

Where? Kohedha? Engey

Who? Kaudha? Yar?

How? Keseda? Eppaṭi? 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
 Literacy

• Total population aged 15 and older who can read and write: 

92.6% 

• Male: 93.6% 

• Female: 91.7% (2015 estimate) 

Early History of Formal Education

Early education in Sri Lanka was closely linked to the spread of 

Buddhism (see p. 3-4 of Religion and Spirituality). Around the 

1st century AD, Buddhist monks began teaching Sinhala (see p. 

1 of Language and Communication) and Buddhist doctrine in

schools associated with 

Buddhist temples. Higher 

education in Buddhist theology 

and Pali, Buddhism’s sacred 

language, was available at 

pirivenas (religious universities)

(Photo: Buddhist ruins at 

Kandarodai, near Jaffna, dating 

from the 9th century). 

Following the introduction of

Hinduism around the 3rd century 

BC (see p. 6 of Religion and 

Spirituality), students received 

instruction from Brahmins, 

Hindu priests. Over time, 

technical schools opened to 

provide training for the architects, sculptors, and engineers who 

designed and built the island’s impressive settlements and 

irrigation networks (see p. 4 of History and Myth). 

Formal Education in Colonial Sri Lanka 

In the 16th century, Portuguese missionaries (see p. 6-7 of 

History and Myth) opened schools as part of their aim to spread 

Catholicism. Some 100 parish schools provided instruction in 

reading, writing, and the Catholic faith. The Portuguese also 

founded several Franciscan and Jesuit colleges (secondary 

schools) exclusively for Portuguese students. 

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
By the mid-17th century, the Dutch effectively controlled much 

of the island (see p. 7 of History and Myth). Also viewing 

education as a means to promote their religion (Calvinist 

Protestantism – see p. 7 of History and Myth), the Dutch 

significantly expanded the education system. Specifically, they 

devised a primary school system that educated some 65,000 

students in 130 schools

by 1760. 

By 1815, the British took 

control of the island as the 

colony of Ceylon (see p. 

7-8 of History and Myth) 

and implemented 

significant change to 

education. The British

closed many Dutch 

schools, while expanding

the public school system. Yet expansion was uneven. The 

British built more schools in Tamil communities, resulting in a

higher proportion of educated Tamils than Sinhalese. Further,

English-language instruction required for employment in the 

colonial civil service was offered primarily at private secondary 

schools. These schools attracted wealthier Christians and Hindu 

Tamils but were unaffordable for poorer Buddhist Sinhalese. 

Finally, the colonial government restricted the funding of rural 

Buddhist schools, further limiting the access of Sinhalese 

communities to educational opportunities (Illustration: 1890 

depiction of Tamil girls in a Sri Lankan boarding school). 

These educational inequities resulted in significant differences 

in educational achievement across ethnic groups. Because they 

lacked English-language education, Sinhalese were largely 

excluded from government employment. Instead, these 

positions largely went to Tamils. By 1901, about 55% of 

Christian males were literate, compared to 35% of Buddhist 

men. Although Lankan Tamils (see p. 14 of Political and Social 

Relations) were well represented in the educational system, the 

so-called “Indian” Tamils brought to the island to work as 

indentured servants (see p. 9 of History and Myth) received little

schooling. Consequently, the literacy rate for Hindu males 

overall was just 26%. 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Education after Independence

Shortly before the country officially attained independence in 

1948, Sri Lanka’s first Minister of Education initiated a new 

education policy expanding public offerings, increasing funding 

for rural areas, and mandating Sinhala and Tamil as the primary 

languages of instruction over English. In subsequent years, the 

number of schools 

increased by over 

50%, enrolled 

students by 300%, 

and teachers by 

400% (Photo: 

Former US 

Ambassador Blake 

with Sri Lankan

students). 

Despite these 

gains, inequalities 

remained. While 

schools offered graduation examinations in both Sinhala and 

Tamil beginning in the mid-1960s, educational attainment still 

lagged among Sinhalese. To rectify the historical imbalance, the 

government created a quota system known as the 

“standardization” policy (see p. 11 of History and Myth) in 1974

that aimed to increase the number of Sinhalese in higher 

education institutions by reducing the numbers reserved for 

Tamils. While education for Sinhalese increased following the 

implementation of this policy, the move helped enflame 

simmering ethnic tensions that within 10 years erupted into civil 

war (see p. 15 of History and Myth). 

Modern Education System

Sri Lanka’s Constitution guarantees all citizens the right to free 

and equal education. Schooling is compulsory and free for 

children aged 6-14 (primary and junior secondary school). 

Schooling beyond age 14 is optional but also free. Further, the 

government subsidizes textbooks, uniforms, school lunches, 

and transport to and from school. As of 2013, Sri Lanka spent 

11% of total government expenditure on education, slightly less 

than India’s 14% and the US’s 13%. The government also funds 

over 700 Buddhist pirivenas. 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
In recent decades, Sri Lanka has achieved significant education 

milestones. Its literacy rate surpassed 90% in the mid-1980s and 

remains one of Asia’s highest. Enrollment rates are also 

relatively high, with about 97% of children of the appropriate age

enrolled in primary and 85% in secondary school in 2014 (Photo: 

US Marine socializes with 

Sri Lankan students). 

Today, Sri Lanka’s 

education system is based 

on the British model.

Schooling divides into 5 

years of primary school, 4 

for junior secondary school, 

2 senior secondary school, 

and 2 pre-university studies. Examinations determine if students 

may continue to senior secondary school and pre-university 

studies. The school year divides into 3 terms: January-early 

April, the end of April-July, and the end of August-early 

December. Classes are generally held from 7:30am-1:30pm. 

The government aims to promote social cohesion by providing 

at least some instruction in both Sinhalese and Tamil language 

and culture to all Sri Lankans, regardless of ethnicity. Yet, many 

schools remain segregated. In 2013, about 63% of schools used 

only Sinhala as the primary language of instruction and about

30% Tamil. Less than 1% of schools offered bilingual instruction. 

Of note, about 4.5% of schools used both Sinhala and English

as languages of 

instruction, 1.6% Tamil 

and English, and fewer 

than 0.5% Sinhala, 

Tamil, and English

(Photo: USS Lake Eerie 

sailor looks at a 

student’s homework). 

Pre-Primary: This level 

of education is optional

for children aged 4-5 and is offered in public, private, and 

religious institutions. Moreover, the government has created

national standards for this instruction. 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Primary: Usually beginning at age 5 or 6, primary curriculum 

focuses on 5 main subject areas: native language (Sinhala or 

Tamil), math, environmental activities, English, and religion. By 

law, public schools must offer religious instruction, and students 

may choose among instruction in Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, 

and Christianity. Students cannot opt out of these lessons. At 

the end of 5th grade, students take an exam to determine 

possible placement in 

special schools that 

provide accelerated 

instruction (Photo: US 

Sailors dance with Sri 

Lankan girls).

Secondary: This level

divides into junior, senior, 

and pre-university levels. 

At the junior level (grades 

6-9), the curriculum 

includes math, religion, history, science and technology, health, 

physical education, social studies, and practical and technical 

skills. These schools also typically provide lessons in either 

Sinhala or Tamil (whichever is not the primary language of 

instruction) and English, though some schools also offer English 

as the language of instruction for certain subjects. 

Grades 10 and 11 comprise the senior secondary level, when

students prepare for the General Certificate of Education (GCE) 

Ordinary Level (OL) examinations. The curriculum during these 

years consists of 6 core subjects and 3-4 electives. Core 

subjects include the student’s 1st language, English, science, 

math, religion, and history. Students may also pursue studies in 

elective subjects such as civics, geography, art, and technical 

specialties. About 60% of students pass the OL exams and 

qualify for pre-university study. Students who do not pass but 

wish to continue their education may enroll at a 

technical/vocational school. 

Pre-university study occurs in grades 12 and 13 to prepare 

students for the GCE Advanced Level (AL) examinations and 

university entrance. Students choose to focus on 1 of 4 

categories: arts, commerce, biological sciences, or physical 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
sciences. The AL examinations typically cover Sinhala or Tamil, 

math, English, and 3 elective subjects. Students’ scores 

determine university admissions. Currently, about 60% of 

students pass their AL exams, yet only 15% attain a high enough 

score to be considered for a university place. 

Post-Secondary Education

The University Grants Commission and Ministry of Higher 

Education administer 15 general universities, most notably the 

former University of Ceylon, founded in 1942 and now 4 distinct 

universities: the University of Colombo, the University of 

Peradeniya, Vidyodaya University, and the University of 

Kelaniya. Other specialized institutions include the Defense 

University, Buddhist and Pali University, Buddhasravaka Bhiksu 

University (for training Buddhist monks), and the University of 

Vocational Technology. 

While university education is free for Sri Lankan citizens, 

competition is intense for spaces, which are distributed solely 

through examination scores. Consequently, only 2-3% of all 

secondary school students attend a university. Those who are 

admitted to universities often receive outdated methods of 

instruction and curricula. Further, universities tend to lack 

sufficient resources and qualified instructors in the science, 

technology, engineering, and math fields. Consequently, 

graduates generally are not prepared adequately for the 

workforce and are unable to find employment. In 2017, the World 

Bank announced it would 

provide $100 million in 

financing to improve the 

quality of higher 

education and promote 

research and technical 

innovation. 

Technical Education 

The Department of 

Technical Education and 

Training and the Institute of Advanced Technical Education offer 

some 7 levels of technical training tied to 50 occupations, 

various types of engineering, and business (Photo: Royal 

College Colombo, the oldest public school in Colombo). 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Overview 

Sri Lankans consider social harmony, consensus, and trust 

fundamental to building strong personal and professional 

relationships. Public displays of affection are common among 

members of the same sex but inappropriate for unrelated 

members of the opposite sex. 

Time and Work 

Sri Lanka’s workweek runs from Monday-Friday or MondaySaturday, and business hours vary by establishment type. Public 

sector employees typically work from 8:30am-4:30pm and 

private businesses from 9:00am-5:00pm. Some businesses are 

also open Saturdays from 8:00am-1:30pm. Shops typically open 

from 10:00am-7:00pm on weekdays and 10:00am-3:00pm on 

Saturdays. Muslim-owned businesses usually close for an

extended lunch break on 

Friday, the Islamic holy 

day (Photo: Sri Lankan 

shopkeeper). 

Banks generally open 

from 9:00am-3:00pm 

Monday-Friday. Post 

offices hours vary but 

typically open from 

8:30am-5:00pm MondayFriday and 8:30am-1:00pm on Saturday. Centers of worship and 

tourist attractions have varied hours. Some Hindu temples open 

at 5:00am and 10:00am for morning prayers then close until 

4:00pm. Buddhist temples typically remain open from dawn until 

dusk. Museums often close on Fridays. 

Working Conditions: Sri Lanka’s legal workweek is 45 hours, 

averaging 8-hour days Monday-Friday and 5 hours on Saturday. 

Workers are allowed 12 overtime hours per week. Sri Lankans

working in agriculture or informal sector jobs typically exceed the 

legal limit. Although labor laws provide regulations to protect 

workers, the enforcement capacity is lacking. Thus, forced labor, 

child labor, and other abuses regularly occur.

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
Time Zone: Sri Lanka adheres to India Standard Time (IST) 

which is 5.5 hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) and 

10.5 hours ahead of Eastern Standard Time. Sri Lanka does not 

observe Daylight Savings Time. 

Lunar Calendar: While Sri Lanka’s official calendar is the 

Western (Gregorian) calendar, Buddhists and Muslims use a 

lunar calendar to calculate religious festivals. Of note, Hindus 

use both solar and lunar calendars to determine certain holidays, 

such as the Hindu Harvest Festival. According to the Islamic 

lunar calendar, days begin at sunset, and each new week begins 

at sunset on Saturday. Consequently, the Muslim holy day of 

Friday begins on Thursday evening. 

Time and Business

While some practices vary by ethnic, linguistic, and religious 

affiliation, common values shape business negotiations. The Sri 

Lankan workplace is typically hierarchical. Junior staff usually 

National Holidays

• January: Thai Pongal (Hindu Harvest Festival) 

• February 4: Independence/National Day 

• Mid-April: Sinhala and Tamil New Year's Eve 

• Mid-April: Sinhala and Tamil New Year's Day 

• May 1: May Day 

• December 25: Christmas Day

These holidays occur on variable dates according 

to the lunar calendar: 

• Mawlid al-Nabi: Birthday of the Prophet 

Muhammad 

• Vesak Poya: The Buddha’s Birthday, observed 

during the full moon in May 

Sri Lanka also recognizes Buddhist holidays at 

every full moon called poya (see p. 7 of Religion 

and Spirituality).

SPACE

TIME &
defer to leadership whose age, education, and experience are 

valued highly. Since leaders make most decisions, resolutions 

sometimes stall. To maintain harmony within the hierarchical 

relations, Sri Lankans typically use an indirect communication 

style that avoids confrontation, assertiveness, and direct 

criticism (see p. 3-4 of 

Language and 

Communication).

Sri Lankans consider 

personal, long-lasting 

relationships as a key 

element of conducting 

business. Potential 

business partners often 

rely on a mutual contact to organize an initial meeting, which 

typically begins with an extended period of conversation about 

family, sports, and recent activities in order to build and define 

relations (Photo: US Capt McPherson, commanding officer of 

USS Lake Eerie, greets a Sri Lankan Navy official in Colombo). 

While Sri Lankans tend to have a relaxed sense of time and often 

arrive late, foreign nationals should arrive on time as a sign of 

respect. Business partners typically exchange business cards 

with both hands, examining them for several seconds before 

carefully putting them away. Sri Lankans rarely exchange gifts 

during a first meeting, but 

rather, on a celebratory 

occasion such as the 

completion of a business 

deal. 

Personal Space

As in most societies, the 

use of personal space 

depends on the nature of

the relationship. Sri 

Lankans tend to maintain 

about an arm’s length distance when conversing with strangers

or people of the opposite sex and stand closer to family and 

friends (Photo: USS Lake Eerie Sailor greets Sri Lankan 

students in Galle). 

SPACE

TIME &
Touch: Close friends and relatives commonly touch one another 

during conversation. Friends of the same sex often greet with a 

handshake, hold hands, or put an arm around each other’s 

shoulders in public. Sri Lankans consider displays of affection 

between the opposite sexes inappropriate, particularly unrelated 

individuals. Foreign nationals should generally avoid physical 

contact with members of the opposite sex. 

Eye Contact

Eye contact is considered key to demonstrating trust in Sri 

Lanka. Consequently, most Sri Lankans maintain eye contact 

during conversation, especially with someone of the same status 

or age. Women typically prefer to avoid eye contact with men, 

and observant Muslims, in particular, avoid eye contact with 

members of the opposite sex. Finally, some employees may 

avoid direct eye contact with authority figures to show respect. 

Photographs 

Military or government offices, mosques, temples, and airports 

tend to prohibit photography. Although permitted on the grounds 

of some Buddhist temples, photography tends to be off-limits

inside. Foreign nationals should avoid posing for photos in front 

or beside a Buddha statue (see p. 11 of Religion and Spirituality). 

Foreign nationals should acquire permission before taking a Sri 

Lankan’s photo. 

Driving 

Travel by motor 

vehicle tends to be 

hazardous in Sri 

Lanka. Narrow 

roads are frequently 

crowded with traffic, 

pedestrians, and 

animals (pictured). 

Larger vehicles such 

as trucks often aggressively assert their presence over smaller 

modes of tranportation such as motorcycles. As a result, Sri 

Lanka’s rate of traffic-related deaths in 2015 was 17 per 100,000 

people, about the same rate as neighboring India but

significantly higher than the US rate of 11. Unlike Americans, Sri 

Lankans drive on the left side of the road. 

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

Sri Lanka’s traditional dress, recreation, music, and arts reflect 

the island’s ethnic and religious diversity, centuries of foreign 

trade and occupation, agricultural activities, and modern global 

trends. 

Dress and Appearance 

Sri Lankans typically wear a combination of traditional and 

modern styles. Traditional attire is more common in rural areas 

and for religious or formal occasions. Specific traditional styles 

and fabrics often vary depending on local customs, ethnicity, 

religious affiliation, and socioeconomic status.

Traditional: Sri Lankan men traditionally wear a sarong, also 

known as a verti (a long 

cloth sewn at the ends to 

form a tube), that they step 

into, pull up, and wrap 

around their waists. Some 

men add a long, fullsleeved, collarless white 

shirt to match. Others 

drape a cloth over their 

shoulders or wear a 

jacket, simple undershirt, or even no shirt at all when working in 

the fields. Today, some men prefer colorful patterned short- or 

long-sleeved shirts. Others also don colorful velvet caps or 

turbans (Photo: Former US Secretary of State Kerry meets with 

Sri Lankan President Sirisena, wearing a sarong). 

Women traditionally wear a sari, a piece of cloth several yards 

in length, usually wrapped around the body and draped over a

shoulder. Methods of wrapping a sari vary by region and other 

factors. For example, Muslim women often wear the sari in a 

special “Gujarati drape” that enables them to cover their heads. 

The osariya is a similar garment with an elaborate frill, 

sometimes cited as the traditional dress of Kandy and often 

accompanied by a jacket with puffed sleeves. Some women, 

typically Tamils, wear a salwar kameez, consisting of tapered, 

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

RECREATION

AESTHETICS &
ankle-length trousers (salwar) beneath a long, tunic-like garment 

(kameez). Another traditional dress is the redde, a 3-yard-long 

cloth similar to a sarong that is worn wrapped around the waist 

or entire body and cinched in different styles. Women often wear 

the redde with a hatte (white linen, laced blouse). 

Modern: Some Sri Lankans, particularly youth and urban 

residents, wear clothing that reflects the latest Western fashion 

trends or a mix of traditional and Western clothing. While attire 

is typically more conservative than in the West, particularly for 

women, most clothing is lightweight and relatively loose due to 

the country’s hot tropical weather. Men commonly wear jeans, 

slacks, or knee-length shorts with casual t-shirts or long-sleeved 

shirts. Women typically wear bright dresses or blouses with 

pants or skirts that fall knee-length or longer. In business 

settings, Sri Lankans tend to wear Western-style suits or 

dresses and other more formal business attire. Sri Lankans often 

wear sandals or flip-flops, which are more comfortable in the 

heat than sneakers and dress shoes. 

Recreation and Leisure 

Sri Lankans prefer to spend much of their leisure time in the 

company of friends and relatives, often visiting each other’s

homes to enjoy conversation, tea, and snacks or meals. They 

also like to watch TV, particularly “teledramas” (soap operas), 

reading, taking walks, kite-flying, jogging, fishing, and swimming. 

Some wealthy Sri Lankans meet at restaurants, gyms, or health 

clubs, where they 

play tennis or 

squash and 

participate in other 

leisure activities

(Photo: Sri Lankans 

on a beach near 

Colombo). 

On weekends and 

holidays, Sri 

Lankan families typically visit local parks, beaches, rivers, or 

mountains. Extended families often hire vans or buses to visit 

historical or religious sites (see p. 1 of Religion and Spirituality), 

national parks, and other similar destinations. While many Sri 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Lankans cannot afford extended vacations, wealthier residents 

often visit religious sites and other tourist attractions in India, 

Thailand, and other international destinations. 

Festivals: A religious and ethnically diverse society, Sri Lanka 

holds a wide variety of local and national festivals annually. The 

festivities surrounding the Sinhalese and Tamil lunar new year

(Aluth Avurudu and Puthandu, respectively) are some of the 

largest, with businesses closing for up to a week. Sri Lankans 

typically celebrate by playing traditional games, buying new 

clothing, preparing lavish feasts, and visiting friends and family 

with sweets and gifts. 

Buddhists mark the full moon monthly with a poya, Buddhist day 

of observance. The most significant poya day is Vesak Poya in 

May (see p. 2 of Time and Space) when Buddhists celebrate the 

birth, enlightenment, and death of the Buddha and as his 3rd 

and final visit to Sri Lanka. In addition to displaying colorful 

lanterns and electronic images of Buddha’s life, Buddhists hold 

a 2-day festival in local temples, where they meditate, fast, and 

pray. During Poson Poya in June, Buddhists flock to 

Anuradhapura to celebrate King Devanampiya Tissa’s 

conversion to Buddhism in 247 BC (see p. 3 of History and 

Myth). Esala Poya in July commemorates the Buddha’s 1st 

sermon after attaining enlightenment and the arrival in Sri Lanka 

of his sacred tooth (see p. 7 of Religion and Spirituality).

Buddhists celebrate the occasion with a 10-day perehera 

(parade) in Kandy featuring decorated elephants, dancers, 

drummers, and other 

performers (Photo: 

Former US Secretary of 

State Kerry walks with a 

monk in a perehera in 

Colombo). 

Hindu festivals are 

equally spirited, often 

including pereheras, 

lights, and colorful 

decorations. During the 4-day Tamil Thai Pongal festival, 

Hindus celebrate the sun and rice harvest by decorating their 

houses and enjoying large feasts. Vel is Colombo’s largest 

RECREATION

AESTHETICS &
Hindu festival, celebrating the god of war’s victory over evil with 

a perehera featuring an ornate silver chariot, dancers, 

musicians, and decorated elephants. Other important Hindu 

festivals include Deepavali (the festival of lights) and the Nallur 

Festival in Jaffna. Significant Muslim festivals include Mawlid alNabi (the Prophet Muhammad’s birthday), Idul Fitr (the end of 

the Ramadan month of 

fasting), and Idul Adha

(festival of sacrifice). The 

most notable Christian 

celebrations are Good 

Friday, Easter, and 

Christmas, a holiday popular 

throughout the island. 

Sports and Games

Traditional Sports: Sri 

Lankans enjoy a variety of 

traditional sports, often played on national holidays and at 

festivals. One notable sport is elle, similar to baseball but played 

on a larger field with a smaller ball and a longer, thinner bamboo 

bat. Another sport is kotta pora, in which 2 competitors use 

pillows to make the other fall from atop a horizontal pole. 

Lissana gaha nageema features a tall greased pole topped with 

a flag. Team members make alternate attempts to reach the flag,

and the 1st to capture it typically wins a cash prize (Photo: US 

Marine plays a game of elle with schoolchildren in Hambantota). 

Cricket: While volleyball is Sri Lanka’s national sport, cricket is 

arguably its favorite athletic pastime. First introduced by British 

colonial officers, a Sri Lankan team played its first formal game, 

called a Test, against a British team in Kandy in 1889. Of note, 

the national team won the ICC Cricket World Cup final against 

Australia in 1996. Today, Sri Lankans enjoy watching both 

international matches and the 7 regional teams that comprise 

the domestic Sri Lanka Premier League. Spectators commonly 

gather in public venues to view Tests, and children and adults 

alike enjoy impromptu village games. 

Other Sports: Sri Lankans also fancy football (soccer), 

swimming, tennis, track and field, netball, rugby, golf, cycling, 

and badminton. Sri Lankan athletes have collectively won 2 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Olympic medals, both silver, at the 1948 and 2000 track and field 

events. 

Games: Popular traditional games include panche, a board

game similar to parcheesi, and olinda keliya, a 2-person game 

played on benches with holes. The object of olinda keliya is for 

players to capture or “eat,” an opponent’s game pieces, often 

red seeds. Flying and sometimes building or fighting kites are 

popular pastimes. Card and dice games, checkers, and chess 

are also common. 

Music 

Traditional: Sri Lanka has a rich variety 

of traditional music passed along 

through generations. Though dependent 

on the regional style, Sri Lankan folk 

music generally is rhythmic and fast, 

with shifting beats and cadence. Various 

unique percussion instruments, 

particularly drums, feature prominently 

in Sri Lanka’s pulsating traditional 

music. The geta bera is a large doubleheaded drum with heads traditionally 

made from monkey and cow hides, and the yak bera is an even 

larger double-headed drum made from cow stomach. The 

udekkiya is a small drum played with one hand while the other

hand manipulates attached strings to control the sound. The 

daula drum is played with a hand on 1 side and a kaduppu 

(stick) on the other. The dandu bera is a bamboo drum played 

with 2 kaduppus (Photo: Sri Lankan man plays traditional drums 

in a perehera). 

Other traditional instruments accompany the drums. The 

thalampata are small cymbals joined together by a string, which 

make complex rhythms primarily for Kandyan dances. Sri 

Lankans typically use a hakgediya (conch shell) to open 

ceremonial events and dances. Similar to an oboe, the

horanawa often accompanies percussion instruments in 

Buddhist ceremonies. The ravanahatha made from a coconut, 

goat hide, and bamboo, is similar to a violin and likely one of the 

world’s earliest bowed instruments. Sri Lankans also play 

foreign instruments such as sitars, harmoniums, and guitars. 

AESTHETICS & 

RECREATION
Modern: One of Sri Lanka’s most popular musical styles is 

baila, fast-paced dance music first introduced by Portuguese 

settlers and their African slaves. Baila is commonly heard at 

parties and other social or dance functions. South Indian music

is widely popular, especially songs from Bollywood (nickname of 

India's Hindi-language film industry) movies. Classical and 

international pop music is also popular. 

Dance 

A key part of Sri Lankan culture, dances are often performed at 

festivals and accompanied by drums, bells, and cymbals. 

Among the many varieties of traditional Sri Lankan dances, 

udarata natum (Kandyan dance) and pahatharata natum (lowcountry dance) are the most common. Sabaragamuwa is a 

popular fusion of the 2 dances, with roots in ancient Veddah 

traditions (see p. 15 of Political and Social Relations). Other folk 

dances include lee keli, performed by adults holding sticks to 

complement a drumbeat, kulu, a harvest dance featuring only 

women, and kalagedi, in which women act as if they are fetching 

water. In addition, Sri Lankan Tamils perform South Indian 

classical dance styles. 

Sri Lanka’s national dance 

is the udarata natum, a 

classical and acrobatic 

dance traditionally passed 

down from father to son, 

although today women 

also participate. Udarata 

natum includes 5 general 

types. Originally performed only in temples, ves is popular at 

festivals and pereheras, featuring a rapid beat, leaps, and flips 

in the air. Women more frequently dance vannam, a 

combination of poetry, music, and dance that often portrays 

animal movements. Pantheru dancers twirl and pass around a 

pantheru (an instrument similar to a tambourine), originally to 

celebrate a war victory. Udekki is named after the udekkiya

drum supposedly commissioned by Sakra, the Buddhist ruler of 

heaven. Naiyandi is a traditional Kandyan ceremonial dance in 

which dancers wear frilly white attire with decorative trim, ornate 

silver headdresses, beaded breastplates, silver bangles, and 

bells (pictured). 

RECREATION

AESTHETICS &
Pahatharata natum, sometimes called Ruhunu, is common in 

Sri Lanka’s southern coastal regions. These low-country dances 

incorporate mime, dialogue, impersonation, and often elaborate 

masks that represent various deities and demons from some of 

Sri Lanka’s pre-Buddhist belief systems (see p. 2 of Religion and 

Spirituality). The notable “devil dances” often last for hours, 

traditionally featuring an exorcism of a demon in order to cure 

disease. Dancers use specific masks, movements, and offerings 

depending on the illness to be cured. Kolam are related 

theatrical narrated dances, typically based on a Buddhist story 

about a mythical queen and king (Photo: A high school student 

performs a low-country 

dance in Hambantota). 

Theater

Early theater in Sri 

Lanka was primarily 

based on religious 

stories and satires, 

similar to dances like 

kolam that 

incorporated some

theatrical elements. Performances have changed over the past 

few centuries. Sokari is a folk drama originating in the central 

highlands around the 17th century. Linked to fertility and harvest 

festivities, sokari typically focuses on a central village character 

and uses narration, mime, and satire to tell his story. Nadagama 

is a more recent form of folk drama, likely first performed in the 

18th century. With origins in South India and the Tamil 

community, nadagama became popular throughout Sri Lanka as 

Catholic missionaries used it to dramatize religious lessons. 

Literature

Sri Lanka has an ancient and rich literary history, with early 

writings on pottery likely dating to at least the 4th century BC. Sri 

Lankan Buddhist monks wrote the Dipavamsa (Island 

Chronicle) in the ancient Pali language (see p. 1 of Language 

and Communication) around the 3rd-4th century AD. Together 

with the subsequent Mahavamsa (Great Chronicle) and

Culavamsa (Lesser Chronicle), the text covers over 2,000 years 

of Sri Lankan history and is considered one of the world’s longest 

continuous written histories. As the most important epic poem in 

RECREATION

AESTHETICS &
Pali, the Mahavamsa tells stories of invasions, battles, cities, 

courts, Buddhism, and even has commentary on the lives of 

ordinary Sri Lankans, eloquently written in verses suitable for 

memorization. 

Although most modern literature in Sri Lanka is in Sinhala, 

English and Tamil publications are increasingly available. 

Common themes include romance, politics, and poverty. A wide 

range of works explores the recently concluded civil war (see p. 

15-18 of History and Myth). One of Sri Lanka’s most prolific 

modern authors was Martin Wickramasinghe, who produced 

over 2,000 pieces and almost 90 books. Wickramasinghe was a 

pioneer of the realistic novel in Sri Lanka. He also wrote short 

stories, academic papers, and opinion pieces spanning a wide 

range of topics, from religion and language to philosophy and 

anthropology. One of his most famous works is Gamperaliya, a 

novel that depicts the demise of 

traditional village life due to 

modernization. Praised for this 

and other works, many consider 

Wickramasinghe the father of 

modern Sri Lankan literature.

Arts and Handicrafts 

Sri Lanka has a rich tradition of

arts and handicrafts, first created 

as practical tools or for religious 

ceremonies. Traditional 

handicrafts include stone 

sculptures, woodcarvings, masks, 

pottery, musical instruments, basketwork, metalwork, and 

jewelry. Giant stone sculptures in the ancient capitals of 

Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa (see p. 2-4 of History and Myth) 

reflect religious devotion and royal patronage for the arts. Today, 

mats, baskets, hats and containers made from local materials 

such as reeds, rattan, bamboo, and coconut fiber are common 

and have practical uses. One of the most popular forms of folk 

art is mask-making. The sanni masks of the low-country dances 

are typically carved from wood and painted with bright colors to 

represent one of the 18 demons of ancient Sinhalese traditions 

(Photo: 12th-century granite Buddhist statue in Polonnaruwa). 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Sustenance Overview

Sri Lankan cuisine prominently features vegetables, fish, and 

other fresh, seasonal ingredients, often heavily laden with 

aromatic and vibrant spices. Friends and families gather often 

for long meals in the home. Urban dwellers in particular enjoy 

dining in cafes, restaurants, bars, and at street kiosks. 

Dining Customs

Most Sri Lankans eat 3 daily meals, with the largest in the 

afternoon or early evening. Arrival and departure times for 

guests are flexible, with friends often dropping by unannounced

and staying for hours. Guests may bring small gifts such as 

chocolate, tea, or other food items for the host. Upon entering 

the home, guests typically remove their shoes. Once seated, 

hosts may offer tea sweetened with sugar and milk along with

light snacks. 

During a meal, female hosts usually serve guests and male 

family members first. In more traditional households, men dine 

with guests while women eat separately and later. After finishing 

their first serving, 

guests usually must 

decline several offers 

of additional servings if 

they do not want more 

food (Photo: A food 

stand in Colombo). 

Although Sri Lankans

traditionally dine while

sitting on mats placed 

on the ground, urban families increasingly use chairs at 

Western-style tables. Sri Lankans typically share food from 

multiple large, centrally-placed dishes. To eat, diners scoop food 

with the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger of their right hand. 

While eating, diners refrain from touching their lips with their 

fingers and avoid soiling the palm of their hands. After a meal, 

diners customarily wash their hands in a bowl of water. 

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Diet 

Sri Lankan cuisine varies by region and reflects Sri Lanka’s 

ethnic diversity (see p. 14-15 of Political and Social Relations). 

Influenced by Indian traditions, northern fare is primarily 

vegetarian and spicier than elsewhere in Sri Lanka. By contrast, 

Sinhalese dishes often incorporate over a dozen spices, creating 

unique flavors. For example, curries are liberally spiced with 

tamarind, turmeric, cinnamon, cardamom, coriander, and lemon 

grass, among other spices. Red and green chili peppers are 

perhaps the most popular flavoring agents and may be chopped, 

ground, powdered, or roasted before incorporation into various 

sambols (fiery dipping sauces) and curries or used as 

seasoning for meats, fish, 

and vegetables. 

Coconut is featured in a 

variety of Sri Lankan 

dishes. Grated coconut, for 

example, is a common 

ingredient in roti (flat 

bread), while coconut milk 

is used a thickening agent 

for curries. As Sri Lanka’s 

main staple grain, rice appears at almost every meal, usually 

alongside lentils (daal), seafood, or vegetables stewed in 

various curries. Generally, Sri Lankans consume little meat, 

instead eating generous portions of fish, legumes, and nuts as 

their primary sources of protein. Sri Lankans also enjoy a variety 

of native vegetables and fruits year-round. One notable example 

is durian (pictured), a fruit encased in a large thorn-covered husk 

and famed for its pungent flavor and smell. 

Some Sri Lankan ethnic groups adhere to certain dietary 

restrictions. Sri Lankan Tamils, who are primarily Hindu, (see p. 

4-6 of Religion and Spirituality) typically avoid beef, preferring 

chicken, mutton, and seafood. Other Hindus are vegetarians 

who acquire their protein through beans, soy, and dairy 

products. Observant Muslims (see p. 9-10 of Religion and 

Spirituality) consume neither pork nor alcohol. In addition, they 

observe particular rules of animal slaughter and meat 

preparation to ensure that food is halal, allowed by Islamic law. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Meals and Popular Dishes 

Breakfast in urban areas commonly includes a variety of breads 

served with eggs and fruit. A more traditional breakfast 

comprises roti, rice, and katta sambol, a mixture of ground red 

chilies, onions, chunks of dried tuna, and lime. Lunch often 

comprises steamed white rice served with various curried 

vegetables, meat, and fish. Dinner may consist of string hoppers 

(steamed nests of rice noodles) or plain hoppers (large fried 

pancakes) served with egg, sambol, and other fillings. For 

dessert, Sri Lankans enjoy a variety of baked goods such as 

cakes, buns, and tarts, 

fresh fruit, and buffalo 

curd served with honey or 

blended into a drink called 

lassi (Photo: Various 

curries). 

Other popular dishes 

include pittu (flour and 

grated coconut steamed in 

a bamboo stalk); pongal

(rice made with cashews and raisins); malu badung (fried whole 

fish); and kool (a spicy, seafood soup popular in the North).

Besides katta sambol, other popular varieties include pol 

sambol (scraped coconut mixed with chopped onions, chili 

powder, and salt) and seeni sambol (a less spicy, sweet and 

sour version). Notably, kiri bath (rice cooked in coconut milk) is 

a dish served on numerous holidays, childhood celebrations 

(see p. 3-4 of Family and Kinship), and other special occasions. 

Beverages 

Sri Lankans tend to drink tea with meals and throughout the day. 

Tea may be served plain or sweetened, with a slice of lemon, 

mixed with milk, or brewed with ginger. Other popular drinks 

include tambili, water of orange (ripe) coconuts and kurumba, 

water of green (unripe) coconuts. Sri Lankans also enjoy fresh 

juices from mangoes, papaya, pineapple, and other fruits. 

Popular alcoholic beverages include locally produced beer, 

wine, and cordials made from a variety of native fruits such as 

oranges, grapefruit, mangoes, and passion fruit. Coconut-based 

alcoholic beverages such as arrack (a liquor distilled from 

coconut sap) are also popular.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Restaurants

Sri Lankans enjoy eating out, with restaurant visits frequently 

lasting hours, particularly on special occasions. In large urban 

areas, restaurants range from upscale establishments offering 

global cuisines to casual eateries serving traditional Sri Lankan

fare. Across the country, street stalls, tea kiosks, and kades

(shops) sell a variety of snacks such as fresh fruit, rice and 

curries, godamba roti (paper thin bread served with or without 

egg), and vadai (a spicy deep-fried lentil doughnut). While most 

restaurants charge an 

automatic 10% 

gratuity, servers may 

expect an additional 

tip for good service 

(Photo: Sri Lankan 

farmers harvest tea). 

Health Overview

Despite enduring 

years of conflict (see 

p. 15-18 of History and Myth), the Sri Lankan population’s overall 

health has improved steadily over the last several decades. 

Today, nearly all Sri Lankans have access to clean water and 

modern sanitation facilities. In addition, malaria has been 

completely eradicated following aggressive government efforts 

to control, treat, and prevent the disease. Further, between1990-

2015, Sri Lankan life expectancy at birth increased from 70 to 75

years, just slightly less than the US rate today. Infant mortality 

(the proportion of infants who die before age 1) decreased from 

18 to 8 deaths per 1,000 live births, much lower than India’s rate 

(38) and similar to the rate in the US (6). Meanwhile, maternal 

mortality fell from 75 deaths per 100,000 live births to 30, 

significantly lower than the rate in India (174) but higher than in 

the US (14) (see p. 4 of Sex and Gender).

Despite these gains, Sri Lanka’s healthcare system underserves 

rural dwellers and suffers from significant disparities in the 

quality of care offered by public and private facilities. Moreover, 

socioeconomic change has increased the prevalence of noncommunicable diseases, with demographic trends likely to 

burden the healthcare system with rising demand and costs in 

coming years.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Traditional Medicine

Traditional medicine consists of knowledge, practices, and skills 

used to protect or restore health derived from the beliefs, 

experiences, and theories of the native population. Traditional 

medicine has a rich history in Sri Lanka and comprises several 

approaches that combine non-surgical methods such as

nutrition, exercise, and herbal remedies to identify and treat the 

basic causes of illness. 

First described in ancient Indian texts from around 300 BC, the 

Ayurvedic system (“science of life” in Sanskrit) is the most 

popular form of alternative medicine in Sri Lanka. Ayurvedic

medicine attemptes to stabilize and rejuvenate the 3 main bodily 

energies, or doshas, of air, bile, and phlegm. Treatments 

include ingesting foods or herbal remedies based on body type, 

therapeutic massages, physical exercise, yoga, and meditation. 

Similarly, the Deshiya Chikitsa system uses plant and herbal 

preparations to treat diseases. Siddha medicine, popular among 

Sri Lankan Tamils, also aims to 

properly balance the body, mind, 

and spirit through herbal, mineral, 

and animal-based remedies, as 

well as yoga and meditation.

Finally, a 4th system, Unani, 

derives from Islamic traditions and 

focuses on treatments based on 

herbal remedies. Homeopathy, a 

form of alternative medicine 

developed in Germany, is also

prevalent. 

Sri Lankans supplement modern 

treatments with traditional 

therapies, growing or gathering 

their own medicinal herbs or 

purchasing herbal treatments from pharmacies and other 

vendors. Notably, according to the World Health Organization, 

as many as 70% of rural Sri Lankans rely entirely on traditional 

medicine to meet their primary healthcare needs. In urban areas, 

hospitals and clinics frequently offer unique treatments 

combining modern techniques with ayurvedic medicine to treat 

a range of illnesses (Photo: An elderly Sri Lankan man). 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Modern Healthcare System

The Sri Lankan government offers free, universal healthcare to 

all Sri Lankans. Notably, despite low expenditure on healthcare

– at just 4% of GDP in 2015 – the overall health of Sri Lanka’s 

population has improved since the 1960s, largely due to the 

government’s effective public health delivery system. A network 

of about 1070 public hospitals and clinics provides both 

preventative and curative care. In addition, doctors commonly

make house calls to accommodate the special needs of 

pregnant women and young children (Photo: A US Navy 

Hospital Corpsman 

shows a ready-to-eat 

meal to a Sri Lankan

health worker). 

Several shortcomings 

plague Sri Lanka’s 

health sector. Outside 

of large urban 

hospitals, public 

facilities, especially in 

rural areas, are outdated and poorly equipped. Moreover, a 

shortage of skilled medical professionals and inadequate 

hospital capacity forces patients who require specialist care and 

complex medical procedures to wait for extended periods before 

receiving treatment. While private hospitals and clinics offer 

higher quality care and address gaps in the public sector’s health 

services, they are generally unaffordable for most Sri Lankans.

Healthcare facilities remain largely dilapidated in the North and 

East from damage incurred during the civil war (see p. 15-18 of 

History and Myth). As a result, Sri Lankans living in these regions 

suffer from significant disparities in quality of care and are often 

forced to travel long distances and incur substantial costs to 

receive proper medical treatment. 

Finally, Sri Lanka’s current healthcare system focuses on 

providing maternal and child health services, while reducing 

rates of infectious diseases. Generally, it is ill-equipped to 

handle long-term care associated with non-communicable 

diseases. As Sri Lanka’s population ages, the associated rise in 

such diseases combined with challenges related to elderly care 

will likely further burden the healthcare system. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Health Challenges

Today, the leading causes of death and illness are so-called 

“lifestyle” diseases such as diabetes, heart and respiratory 

diseases, and cancers. In 2015, these chronic and noncommunicable diseases accounted for 80% of all deaths. In the 

coming years, experts 

predict rates of such 

diseases will rise as the 

population ages and 

becomes more affluent, 

urban, and sedentary, 

and if a recent rise in 

smoking, obesity, and 

alcoholism continues. 

Preventable “external 

causes,” such as accidents, suicides, and drug use result in 

about 13% of all deaths annually, about the same rate as in India 

(11%) but more than double the US (6%) (Photo: Sri Lankans 

during relief operations following the 2004 tsunami). 

Communicable diseases such as tuberculosis, dengue fever, 

hepatitis, and bacterial diarrhea contribute to 8% of all deaths, a 

slightly higher prevalence than in the US (5%). Notably, regular 

flooding leaves millions of Sri Lankans at risk of illness from

polluted groundwater and exacerbates outbreaks of 

communicable diseases. Both in 2016 and 2017, severe floods 

displaced over 1/2 million people and resulted in shortages of 

clean water, food, and medicine. Flooding also created large 

pools of standing water, leaving some communities vulnerable 

to outbreaks of vector-borne diseases. 

Since 2016, large areas of the country are also experiencing a 

severe drought. The worst in over 40 years, the drought has 

endangered the lives of over a million Sri Lankans, limited 

drinking water supplies, destroyed crops, and curbed the 

generation of hydropower, a major source of electricity in Sri 

Lanka (see p. 2-3 of Technology and Material). Significantly, 

even in the absence of food shortages, about 26% of children 

under age 5 are underweight, a rate considerably higher than in 

the US (0.5%). In the wake of the recent floods and ongoing 

drought, observers worry that rates of malnutrition will increase. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Overview

For thousands of years, most Sri 

Lankans subsisted in a rural 

agrarian economy, utilizing 

canals and reservoirs to irrigate 

rice paddies while farming other 

crops. Located on the main trade 

route between East Asia and the 

Middle East, Sri Lankans also 

traded local goods such as 

spices, pearls, elephants, 

coconuts, betel nuts, and shells 

with merchants from around the 

world (Photo: Spice market in 

Colombo). 

In the 16th century, Portuguese and later Dutch colonists 

controlled coastal regions where cinnamon, spices, and other 

goods were exported to Europe (see p. 6-7 of History and Myth). 

During the 19th-century, the colonial British developed 

commercial plantations that primarily grew coconuts and coffee 

for export (see p. 7-9 of History and Myth). When a leaf disease 

destroyed the lucrative coffee industry in the 1870s, the British

replaced it with tea

bushes, and later, 

rubber trees. 

British colonization 

drastically altered Sri 

Lanka’s economy. 

While wet-rice 

cultivation remained 

important, the land, 

labor, and resources spent on the new commercial plantations 

caused a decline in traditional rice production, prompting an 

increase in rice imports. The British also brought Indian Tamils 

to work primarily as indentured servants on the plantations (see 

p. 9 of Political and Social Relations) (Photo: Woman harvesting 

tea on a plantation in the Central highlands). 

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
In the early 20th century, British infrastructure investments and 

the export of tea, rubber, and coconuts fueled Sri Lanka’s 

economy. Following independence in 1948 (see p. 10-11 of 

History and Myth), declining terms of trade reduced profits from 

commodity exports. In the 1960s, the government sought to 

reduce Sri Lanka’s dependence on unstable trade by regulating 

imports and exports and expanding the public sector. In the 

1970s, the socialist government increased its role in the 

economy by nationalizing large plantations and imposing 

internal trade controls. 

By the late 1970s, rising unemployment and years of slow

economic growth prompted economic reforms and liberalized 

deregulation and privatization of public firms. The government 

focused on infrastructure investments, such as large irrigation 

projects and hydroelectric dams, and the creation of free trade 

zones to entice foreign 

direct investment (FDI). 

These actions plus

investments in industry 

and manufacturing

helped Sri Lanka’s 

economy achieve rapid 

growth rates in the early 

1980s. Meanwhile, the 

share of exports 

comprised of cash crops fell from around 90% in 1970 to 42% in 

1986, when textiles surpassed tea as Sri Lanka’s most lucrative 

export. Nevertheless, escalating civil war violence (see p. 15-16 

of History and Myth) and growing debt from infrastructure 

spending caused slower economic growth and a decline in both 

FDI and tourism (Photo: Woman embroidering a tablecloth). 

While subsequent governments continued to support freemarket policies, sporadic civil war violence caused fluctuating 

levels of FDI and tourism during the 1990s and early 2000s. 

From 1990-2000, real per capita GDP growth averaged a 

modest 4.4% before the economy fell into recession in 2001 

following a global economic slowdown, terrorist attacks, and a 

currency crisis. In 2002, Sri Lanka avoided bankruptcy after 

reaching a ceasefire between the government and opposition 

groups (see p. 17 of History and Myth). The economy faced 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
additional challenges when a tsunami ravaged the coastline in 

2004, ruining infrastructure, nearly destroying the fishing 

industry, and causing billions of dollars in damages (see p. 3 of 

Political and Social Relations) (Photo: Train car destroyed by the 

2004 tsunami). 

Despite the catastrophic 

effects of the tsunami, from 

2005 until the war ended in 

2009, the economy grew by 

an average of nearly 5.3%, 

aided by billions of dollars 

of foreign aid. Immediately 

after the war, growth 

accelerated, peaking at 

8.3% in 2012. Today, Sri Lanka has an increasingly educated 

workforce, a growing private sector, relatively low 

unemployment, and a declining proportion of the population 

living below the national poverty line. Moreover, Sri Lanka has 

the continued support of

aid donors and 

international organizations, 

providing assistance 

through loans, grants, and 

various development 

programs.

Nevertheless, Sri Lanka 

continues to face 

economic challenges. Government debt remains high for an 

emerging market, at nearly 80% of GDP, due in part due to

unsustainable public sector wage growth. From 2013-16, GDP 

growth slowed to an average of about 4%. In early 2016, the 

government sought a bailout from the International Monetary

Fund to maintain economic stability as debt repayments and 

erratic inflation eroded public funds and real economic growth

as economic disparities remained. On average, Sri Lankan 

Tamils and other groups living in the war-torn Northeast are 

disproportionately poorer than many of their compatriots, 

particularly those living in Colombo. Millions of Sri Lankans are 

also dependent on remittances, money sent from relatives living 

abroad (Photo: Downtown Colombo). 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Despite these and other issues, Sri Lanka has the South Asian 

region’s highest GDP per capita, except for the tiny Maldives 

island nation. Besides recent increases in tourism and FDI, other 

positive economic signs include government willingness to take 

on critical reforms essential for future sustainable economic 

growth. 

Services 

Accounting for about 61% of GDP and 46% of employment, the 

services sector is the largest and fastest-growing segment of Sri 

Lanka’s economy. Significant sub-sectors include financial 

services; logistics, transport, and storage; public administration; 

banking; gem-cutting and finishing; hospitality; and tourism.

Logistics and Transport: Sri Lanka’s strategic location on the 

shipping lane that transports 2/3 of the world’s oil and 1/2 of its 

trade makes Sri Lanka an ideal hub for logistics and transport 

services such as transshipment between countries. Currently 

accounting for about 11% of GDP, the logistics and transport 

sector grew 40% from 2010-15. With recent investment in ports 

and other infrastructure (see p. 2 of Technology and Material), 

this sector will likely continue to grow in economic importance. 

Tourism: This industry is one of Sri Lanka’s fastest growing 

services subsectors. In 2016, tourism accounted for over 5.1% 

of GDP and more than 400,000 jobs or 4.8% of the total labor 

force. In the same year, Sri Lanka hosted over 2 million tourists 

who visited attractions such as hundreds of miles of beaches, 

ancient ruins, and 8 

official world heritage 

sites. Tourists 

primarily come from 

India, China, the 

United Kingdom (UK), 

Germany, and France

(Photo: Beach in 

Tangalle). 

Industry

As the 2nd largest component of the economy, the industrial 

sector accounts for about 31% of GDP and 26% of the labor 

force. The most significant sub-sectors include manufacturing, 

construction, and mining. 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Manufacturing: Accounting for about 18% of GDP, Sri Lanka’s 

manufacturing sector has been a key component in reducing 

economic dependence on agricultural commodities. Significant 

manufacturing sub-sectors include textiles, food processing, 

chemicals, rubber products, and electronics. Notably, textile and 

garment production accounts for about 40% of exports, or nearly 

$5 billion, and employs some 300,000 people. In recent years, 

Sri Lanka’s textile industry gained a larger market share,

outperforming other South Asian countries primarily due to its 

higher-quality products, social compliance, and sustainability 

practices. 

Construction: In recent years, construction has been a vital 

component of economic growth since much of Sri Lanka had to 

be rebuilt after the war and tsunami damages. Construction 

accounts for nearly 10% of GDP, a much larger proportion than 

most other Asian countries, and provides over 180,000 jobs. 

Mining: Sri Lanka is one of the world’s leading gem exporters, 

with deposits of some 50 gemstone varieties such as rubies, 

sapphires, and topaz. Accounting for about 3% of GDP and 

some 70,000 jobs, the mining industry is primarily artisanal, with 

minerals harvested from thousands of small pits and river 

gravels. In addition to gemstones, Sri Lanka has significant 

reserves of graphite, 

phosphate, mineral 

sands, and salt. 

Agriculture 

The agricultural sector 

consists of farming, 

livestock, fishing, and 

forestry. Agriculture is 

the smallest component 

the economy, 

accounting for about 8% of GDP and 28% of the labor force

(Photo: Tea plantation in Central Province). 

Farming and Livestock: About 44% of Sri Lanka’s land area is

dedicated to cultivation. While some Sri Lankans have small 

plots of land and practice subsistence agriculture, often utilizing

slash-and-burn techniques, others are large commercial 

plantations. In addition to rice, largely consumed locally, tea is 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Sri Lanka’s most important crop with Sri Lanka ranking 2nd in 

the world for tea exports, comprising about 20% of the market 

share and earning over $1 billion each year. Sri Lanka is also 

one of the world’s top exporters of cinnamon, coconuts, and 

cloves. Other major crops include sugarcane, cashews, betel 

nuts, pepper and other spices, cut flowers, coffee, and tobacco. 

Poultry, cows, goats, and 

buffalo are common 

livestock varieties. 

Fishing: Sri Lanka’s 

relatively large fishing 

industry consists of over 

50,000 vessels that harvest 

around 530,000 tons of 

tuna, rockfish, mackerel, 

prawns, and other species 

each year. Selected varieties, such as tilapia and prawns, are 

raised in inland aquaculture farms. Seafood exports typically 

earn over $260 million per year and are primarily sent to

European Union (EU) countries, Japan, and the US. In 2015, the 

fishing industry accounted for about 1.5% of GDP and employed 

over 270,000 people (Photo: Traditional stilt fisherman). 

Forestry: With about 33% of its territory covered by woodlands

in 2015, Sri Lanka has a highly-developed forestry industry.

State-protected forests account for around 55% of Sri Lanka’s

total forested area. Timber, firewood, woodchips, furniture, and 

other wood products comprise nearly 1% of GDP. In addition to 

coconut and rubber trees, 

commercial yields include 

teak, eucalyptus, pine, jack, 

mahogany, and acacia 

trees (Photo: Coconut trees 

on the shore). 

Currency

Sri Lanka’s currency is the

Sri Lankan rupee (�, �, 

or Rs), issued in 9 banknote 

values (10; 20; 50; 100; 200; 500; 1,000; 2,000; 5,000) and 4 

coin values (1, 2, 5, 10). A Sri Lankan rupee subdivides into 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
cents, though rarely used, issued in 6 coin values (1, 2, 5, 10, 

25, 50). With fluctuations in exchange rates, $1 has been worth 

between Rs109-Rs150 in 

recent years. Although some 

larger businesses accept 

credit cards, smaller vendors 

typically accept only cash in 

small denominations (Photo: 

Sri Lankan rupee banknotes). 

Foreign Trade

Sri Lanka’s exports totaled 

nearly $11 billion in 2016 and primarily consisted of textiles and 

apparel, tea and spices, rubber manufactures, precious stones, 

coconut products, and fish sold to the US (29%), UK (11%), India 

(7%), Germany (5%), and Italy (5%). In the same year, Sri Lanka 

imported $19 billion of petroleum, textiles, machinery and 

transportation equipment, building materials, mineral products, 

and foodstuffs from India (28%), Japan (9%), the United Arab 

Emirates (UAE) (7%), and Singapore (6%). 

Foreign Aid

In 2015, Sri Lanka’s largest donors were Japan ($207 million), 

the Asian Development Bank ($152 million), the EU ($117 

million), the World Bank ($111 million), the UK ($38 million), and 

the US ($22 million). Since 1948, the US has delivered over $2 

billion of development aid to Sri Lanka. In mid-2015, the US 

government pledged an increase of US assistance to $40 million 

to support programs for reconciliation, environment, health, 

economic development, democratic governance, rule of law, and 

social services. 

Remittances 

Sri Lanka has experienced a large inflow of money in the form 

of remittances in recent years from some 1.5 million Sri Lankans 

living abroad. In 2016, remittance inflows accounted for almost 

9% of GDP or over $7 billion. While Sri Lankans live throughout 

the world, most work in the Arab Gulf countries or in East Asia, 

typically in construction, hospitality, or as housemaids (see p. 2

of Sex and Gender). In 2016, the primary markets for Sri Lankan 

migrant workers were Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Qatar, Kuwait, 

Oman, and South Korea. 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

Sri Lanka’s Southwest region has well-developed physical 

infrastructure, yet war and natural disasters have stifled the 

development of modern telecommunications and transport

infrastructure in rural areas and in the North and East. Sri 

Lankans generally enjoy 

free speech, although 

the government restricts

some news media and 

Internet content. 

Transportation

Even as the number of 

Sri Lankan families 

using a privately-owned 

vehicle is growing,

public travel by bus, motorbike, train, bicycle, taxi, and foot

remains the most common mode. Auto or cycle rickshaws also 

known as trishaws, tuk tuks, or 3-wheelers provide cheap and 

popular taxi services. Wealthy Sri Lankans typically hire drivers 

to navigate the chaotic urban traffic. Public and private buses 

are the standard and most common transport forms, connecting 

both cities and remote areas across Sri Lanka. Major train routes

extend from Colombo for both local commutes and inter-city 

travel, although lines are generally outdated, resulting in slow 

and frequently delayed journeys (Photo: Buddha statues and 

skyscrapers in Colombo). 

Roadways: Sri Lanka has over 72,000 mi of roads, with about 

26% paved. While urban areas are increasingly connected by 

paved roads and expressways, rural areas typically just have 

unpaved 1-lane roads that are often impassible during monsoon 

rains. The new Southern Expressway (E01) connects Colombo 

and Matara, with additional expressways (E04, E06) under 

construction in the Southwest. After the tsunami in 2004 and the 

end of the civil war in 2009 (see p. 17-18 of History and Myth), 

Sri Lanka reopened highways connecting Jaffna and Batticaloa 

in the North and East to the Southwest, while continuing to repair 

damaged roads in the Northeast. 

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Railways: Sri Lanka has about 970 mi of railways, with work 

underway to expand the network and repair lines damaged by 

the tsunami and war. Railways connect all major urban areas, 

with commuter trains serving the greater Colombo metro area. 

While some railway lines date from the British colonial era (see 

p. 7-9 of History and Myth), new, more efficient lines connect

Colombo to Jaffna and Mannar. Most service is slow, though 

new construction and restoration projects have improved 

efficiency in recent years. In 2015, state-owned Sri Lanka 

Railways and 2 private railway companies served 133 million 

passengers, up from just 96 million in 2011 (Photo: A train 

passes through 

Ella in Central Sri 

Lanka). 

Ports and 

Waterways: Sri 

Lanka has around 

100 mi of inland 

waterways, primarily rivers in the Southwest. Major seaports 

include Colombo, Hambantota, Trincomalee, and Galle. Sri 

Lanka has invested heavily in its ports, opening the 1st section 

of the $1 billion Hambantota port in 2010. In 2014, construction 

began on the $1.5 billion Colombo Port City project, consisting 

of a marina, financial center, and commercial area financed by 

China. Ferry operations to India were suspended in 2011 but are 

expected to eventually resume between Colombo and Kochi, 

India. 

Airways: Of Sri Lanka’s 23 airports, 15 have paved runways. 

Colombo’s Bandaranaike International Airport served about 9 

million passengers in 2015. SriLankan Airlines serves domestic 

and international destinations, while SriLankan, Cinnamon Air, 

Helitours, and FitsAir offer domestic services. 

Energy 

Sri Lanka has no significant reserves of oil, natural gas, or coal. 

About 98% of the country is connected to the national electric 

grid primarily powered by hydroelectric plants, wood, and

imported coal and other fuels. In 2014, 50% of electricity was 

generated by renewable resources, and the government plans 

to increase this share to 60% by 2020 and 100% by 2030. 

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Growing electricity demands and overreliance on hydroelectric 

plants vulnerable to droughts cause an unstable power supply 

and frequent blackouts. 

Media 

Sri Lanka’s constitution protects freedom of speech and press,

and direct government censorship is uncommon. Nevertheless, 

observers claim government officials have harassed, assaulted, 

and arrested journalists, resulting in self-censorship. While the

current Sirisena government has allowed greater speech and 

press freedoms than the preceding Rajapaksa government (see 

p. 19 of History and Myth), in March 2016, the government 

ordered all news websites to join a registry, provoking fears of 

increased government control of the media. 

Print Media: The Sri Lankan press includes dozens of local and 

national periodicals published primarily in Sinhala, Tamil, and 

English. Divaina and Lankadeepa are popular Sinhala national 

daily newspapers with circulations over 200,000, while

Virakesari, Thinakaran, and Uthayan are popular Tamil dailies. 

The Island, Daily News, and Daily Mirror are national Englishlanguage daily publications. 

Radio and TV: Sri Lanka has a wide range of public and private 

radio and TV broadcasters providing content in Sinhala, Tamil, 

and English. Households typically subscribe to satellite TV 

services providing international content. 

Telecommunications

Sri Lanka has a rapidly developing telecommunications network, 

with 12 landline and 123 mobile phone subscriptions per 100 

people in 2016 (Photo: US 

Navy sailor with Sri Lankan 

students near Galle). 

Internet: While just about 

30% of Sri Lankans have 

Internet access at home, it is 

widely available at cafes and 

communications centers. 

Although Sri Lankans can visit most websites since the 

government lifted former restrictions in 2015, the government 

blocks some pornographic sites. 

TECHNOLOGY

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