U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Leveraging Geodetic Data to Reduce Losses from 

Earthquakes

Open-File Report 2018–1037
U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Cover image: Clockwise from upper left: James Lienkaemper (USGS) conducting 

alignment array field work (photograph by Forrest McFarland, San Francisco State 

University); Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferogram and fault model for the 2008 Mw6.0 

Wells, Nevada earthquake (photograph by Charles Wicks, USGS; ALOS/PALSAR data are 

copyright JAXA and the Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (2007, 2008) 

and were provided by the Alaska Satellite Facility); continuous Global Positioning System 

station operated by USGS Earthquake Science Center (photograph by Andre Basset, 

UNAVCO Inc.); mobile laser scanning apparatus (photograph by Benjamin Brooks, USGS); 

temporary Global Positioning System deployment (photograph by James Sutton, USGS).
U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Leveraging Geodetic Data to Reduce Losses from 

Earthquakes

By Jessica R. Murray, Evelyn Roeloffs, Benjamin Brooks, John Langbein, William Leith, Sarah Minson, 

Jerry Svarc, and Wayne Thatcher

Open-File Report 2018–1037
U.S. Department of the Interior

RYAN K. ZINKE, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

William Werkheiser, Deputy Director

exercising the authority of the Director 

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2018

For more information on the USGS—the Federal source for science about the Earth,

its natural and living resources, natural hazards, and the environment—visit

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Although this information product, for the most part, is in the public domain, it also may

contain copyrighted materials as noted in the text. Permission to reproduce copyrighted items

must be secured from the copyright owner.

Suggested citation:

Murray, J.R., Roeloffs, E.A., Brooks, B.A., Langbein, J., Leith, W., Minson, S.E., Svarc, J., and Thatcher, 

W., 2018, Leveraging geodetic data to reduce losses from earthquakes: U.S. Geological Survey OpenFile Report 2018–1037, 34 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20181037. 

ISSN 2331-1258 (online)
iii

Acknowledgments

This report incorporates valuable comments, suggestions, and information from the following individuals (in 

alphabetical order): Brad Aagaard, Andrew Barbour, Michael Blanpied, Robert Graves, Peter Haeussler, 

Ruth Harris, Stephen Hickman, Kenneth Hudnut, Frederick Pollitz, Charles Wicks, Cecily Wolfe, and 

Yuehua Zeng. In addition, versions were circulated to the U.S. Geological Survey Earthquake Hazards 

Program Council (October, 2016), the Scientific Earthquake Studies Advisory Committee (November, 

2016), and the Advanced National Seismic System Advisory Committee (February, 2017), all of whom 

provided additional feedback that informed the final document.
iv

Contents

Acknowledgments .........................................................................................................................................iii

Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... 1

Geodesy in the Context of NEHRP and NHMA Objectives............................................................................ 4

How Geodesy Contributes to the EHP’s Mission........................................................................................... 5

National Seismic Hazard Model ................................................................................................................. 5

Earthquake Early Warning ......................................................................................................................... 7

Earthquake Forecasting ............................................................................................................................. 7

Situational Awareness................................................................................................................................ 9

Earthquake Triggering and Induced Seismicity ........................................................................................ 13

Envisioned Outcomes for Geodesy ............................................................................................................. 13

Current Capabilities ..................................................................................................................................... 14

Geodetic Observations............................................................................................................................. 14

Continuous Data Collection ................................................................................................................. 14

Collection of Ephemeral Data .............................................................................................................. 16

Targeted Data Collection ..................................................................................................................... 16

Data Analysis....................................................................................................................................... 18

Research.................................................................................................................................................. 18

Partnerships ................................................................................................................................................ 19

Data Collection and Operations ............................................................................................................... 19

Continuously Operating Geodetic Networks ........................................................................................ 19

Geodetic Field Deployments to Measure Crustal Deformation ............................................................ 20

GNSS Data Processing ....................................................................................................................... 20

Topographic Data and Imagery ........................................................................................................... 21

Research.................................................................................................................................................. 21

Approaches for advancing geodetic outcomes ............................................................................................ 22

Staffing Needs ............................................................................................................................................. 24

Conclusion................................................................................................................................................... 25

References Cited......................................................................................................................................... 25

Appendix 1. Focus Issues for Developing Next-Generation Geodetic Deformation Models for the National 

Seismic Hazard Map............................................................................................................................. 32

Appendix 2. Focus Areas for Geodetic Observations and Applied Research .............................................. 33

Figures

1. Geodetic measurements, collectively, sample crustal motion on a range of spatial and temporal scales. 3

2. Moment rate predicted from the geodetically constrained deformation model used in UCERF3. ..............6

3. Cascadia Episodic Tremor and Slip (ETS) events: Using geodesy to map megathrust fault locking. .......6

4. Algorithms using real-time GNSS data can provide more accurate magnitude estimates than seismic 

data alone, and can constrain fault orientation and rupture extent. ............................................................8

5. The August 24, 2014 magnitude 6 South Napa earthquake showcased the joint use of traditional and 

new geodetic observation techniques to comprehensively characterize evolving conditions and aid postearthquake recovery................................................................................................................................. 12

6. Continuously recording Global Navidation Satellite System sites operated by the U.S. Geological 

Survey’s Earthquake Hazards Program (EHP) and partners funded by the EHP..................................... 15
v

7. Map of geodetic monitoring instruments in the San Francisco Bay Area, California................................ 15

8. Map of the western United States showing EHP campaign GNSS data collection sites, color-coded by 

year of most recent EHP occupation and EHP-supported semi-permanent GNSS sites.......................... 17
vi

Abbreviations

ANSS Advanced National Seismic System

BSM borehole strainmeter

EEW Earthquake Early Warning

EHP Earthquake Hazards Program

ESC Earthquake Science Center 

GNSS global navigational satellite systems

GPS Global Positioning System

InSAR interferometric synthetic aperture radar

lidar light detection and ranging

MLS mobile laser scanning 

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NEHRP National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program 

NEIC National Earthquake Information Center

NHMA Natural Hazards Mission Area

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NSF National Science Foundation

NSHM National Seismic Hazard Model

PAGER Prompt Assessment of Global Earthquakes for Response

PBO Plate Boundary Observatory

SAR synthetic aperture radar

SCEC Southern California Earthquake Center

UCERF3 Uniform California Earthquake Rupture Forecast, version 3

UNAVCO University Navstar Consortium

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

VHP Volcano Hazards Program
Leveraging Geodetic Data to Reduce Losses from 

Earthquakes

By Jessica R. Murray, Evelyn A. Roeloffs, Benjamin A. Brooks, John Langbein, William Leith, Sarah E. 

Minson, Jerry Svarc, and Wayne Thatcher

Abstract

Seismic hazard assessments that are based on a variety of data and the best available 

science, coupled with rapid synthesis of real-time information from continuous monitoring 

networks to guide post-earthquake response, form a solid foundation for effective earthquake 

loss reduction. With this in mind, the Earthquake Hazards Program (EHP) of the U.S. Geological 

Survey (USGS) Natural Hazards Mission Area (NHMA) engages in a variety of undertakings, 

both established and emergent, in order to provide high quality products that enable stakeholders 

to take action in advance of and in response to earthquakes. Examples include the National 

Seismic Hazard Model (NSHM), development of tools for improved situational awareness such 

as earthquake early warning (EEW) and operational earthquake forecasting (OEF), research 

about induced seismicity, and new efforts to advance comprehensive subduction zone science 

and monitoring. Geodetic observations provide unique and complementary information directly 

relevant to advancing many aspects of these efforts (fig. 1). EHP scientists have long leveraged 

geodetic data for a range of influential studies, and they continue to develop innovative 

observation and analysis methods that push the boundaries of the field of geodesy as applied to 

natural hazards research. Given the ongoing, rapid improvement in availability, variety, and 

precision of geodetic measurements, considering ways to fully utilize this observational resource 

for earthquake loss reduction is timely and essential. This report presents strategies, and the 

underlying scientific rationale, by which the EHP could achieve the following outcomes:

1. The EHP is an authoritative source for the interpretation of geodetic data and its use for 

earthquake loss reduction throughout the United States and its territories.

2. The USGS consistently provides timely, high quality geodetic data to stakeholders.

3. Significant earthquakes are better characterized by incorporating geodetic data into 

USGS event response products and by expanded use of geodetic imaging data to assess 

fault rupture and source parameters.

4. Uncertainties in the NSHM, and in regional earthquake models, are reduced by fully 

incorporating geodetic data into earthquake probability calculations.

5. Geodetic networks and data are integrated into the operations and earthquake information 

products of the Advanced National Seismic System (ANSS).

6. Earthquake early warnings are improved by more rapidly assessing ground displacement 

and the dynamic faulting process for the largest earthquakes using real-time geodetic 

data. 
2

7. Methodology for probabilistic earthquake forecasting is refined by including geodetic 

data when calculating evolving moment release during aftershock sequences and by 

better understanding the implications of transient deformation for earthquake likelihood.

A geodesy program that encompasses a balanced mix of activities to sustain missioncritical capabilities, grows new competencies through the continuum of fundamental to applied 

research, and ensures sufficient resources for these endeavors provides a foundation by which the 

EHP can be a leader in the application of geodesy to earthquake science. With this in mind the 

following objectives provide a framework to guide EHP efforts:

 Fully utilize geodetic information to improve key products, such as the NSHM and EEW, 

and to address new ventures like the USGS Subduction Zone Science Plan. 

 Expand the variety, accuracy, and timeliness of post-earthquake information products, 

such as PAGER (Prompt Assessment of Global Earthquakes for Response), through 

incorporation of geodetic observations.

 Determine if geodetic measurements of transient deformation can significantly improve 

estimates of earthquake probability. 

 Maintain an observational strategy aligned with the target outcomes of this document that 

includes continuous monitoring, recording of ephemeral observations, focused data 

collection for use in research, and application-driven data processing and analysis 

systems.

 Collaborate on research, development, and operation of affordable, high-precision

seafloor geodetic methods that improve earthquake forecasting and event response.

 Advance computational techniques and instrumentation to enable use of strategies like

repeat-pass imagery and low-cost geodetic sensors for earthquake response, monitoring, 

and research.

 Engage stakeholders and collaborate with partner institutions to foster operational and 

research objectives and to safeguard the continued health of geodetic infrastructure upon 

which we mutually depend.

Maintaining a vibrant internal research program provides the foundation by which the 

EHP can remain an effective and trusted source for earthquake science. Exploiting abundant new 

data sources, evaluating and assimilating the latest science, and pursuing novel avenues of 

investigation are means to fulfilling the EHP’s core responsibilities and realizing the important 

scientific advances envisioned by its scientists. Central to the success of such a research program 

is engaging personnel with a breadth of competencies and a willingness and ability to adapt these 

to the program’s evolving priorities, enabling current staff to expand their skills and 

responsibilities, and planning holistically to meet shared workforce needs. 

In parallel, collaboration with external partners to support scientific investigations that 

complement ongoing internal research enables the EHP to strengthen earthquake information 

products by incorporating alternative perspectives and approaches and to study topics and 

geographic regions that cannot be adequately covered internally.

With commensurate support from technical staff who possess diverse skills, including 

engineering, information technology, and proficiency in quantitative analysis combined with 

basic geophysical knowledge, the EHP can achieve the geodetic outcomes identified in this 

document.
3

Figure 1. Geodetic measurements, collectively, sample crustal motion on a range of spatial and temporal 

scales. A, Networks of sensors and continuous observations, respectively, capture the diagnostic spatial 

and temporal signatures of deformation processes. Arrows indicate the possible extension of a feature to 

greater distance or duration. B, Borehole strainmeter and daily GNSS (Global Navigational Satellite 
4

System) positions provide complementary sensitivity for transient and longer-term processes. Sub-daily 

GNSS positions, while less sensitive, allow for tracking coseismic displacement in real time. Approximate 

sensitivity and period in hours to months indicated on plot. GPS, Global Positioning System; InSAR, 

interferometric synthetic aperture radar; ETS, episodic tremor and slip; SAFZ, San Andreas Fault Zone; 

EQ, earthquake; MLS, mobile laser scanning; M, earthquake magnitude; min, minute; sps, samples per 

second; PBO, Plate Boundary Observatory; BSM, borehole strainmeter; ppm, parts per million.

Geodesy in the Context of NEHRP and NHMA Objectives

Within the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP), the primary 

objectives of the Earthquake Hazards Program (EHP) are: provide quantitative assessments of 

earthquake hazards to improve earthquake-resistant building design and construction practices; 

monitor and report on earthquake activity worldwide and provide timely reports of possible 

effects; develop systems to warn of imminent shaking (that is, earthquake early warning); 

conduct and support research to improve our hazard assessments, monitoring capabilities, and 

the understanding of earthquake phenomena; and communicate earthquake hazards and risk to 

decision-makers, emergency responders, and the general public. These objectives collectively 

support the EHP’s overall mission to reduce losses during future earthquakes, and also are 

closely linked to the Science Strategy of the USGS Natural Hazards Mission Area (NHMA; 

Holmes and others, 2012). The NHMA sets out four goals, two of which focus on outcomes that 

decision-makers and the public can use directly: providing information to enable effective 

situational awareness before, during, and after natural disasters; and generating effective

assessment products and services. The other two goals, to provide enhanced observations and to 

advance the fundamental understanding of hazards and impacts, concern the operational and 

scientific efforts without which these outcomes cannot be realized. The EHP explicitly advances 

the NHMA goals through scientifically rigorous assessments such as the National Seismic 

Hazard Model (NSHM), widely used information products such as ShakeMap and PAGER, and 

world-class research that draws upon diverse datasets. 

Each of the EHP’s core monitoring and observational activities, such as geodesy, 

seismology, paleoseismology, geology, and experimental rock mechanics, provides unique and 

complementary input that is critical to advancing the program’s basic and applied research on 

earthquake occurrence and effects. The monitoring networks funded by the EHP, the external

research partners we support, and additional institutions whose own activities are synergistic 

with ours all help the USGS to meet its statutory responsibilities (Robert T. Stafford Disaster 

Relief and Emergency Assistance Act, 42 U.S.C. § 5121 et seq.) to provide timely and accurate 

information that enhances awareness and understanding of evolving earthquake hazards and 

helps mitigate the effects of seismic activity. 

This report focuses on the role of geodesy in reducing losses from earthquakes. Geodesy 

encompasses a variety of measurements that record motion of the Earth’s surface and strain 

within the shallow crust. Data sources include global navigational satellite systems1(GNSS), 

interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR), borehole strainmeters (BSM), techniques for 

measuring shallow fault offset (creepmeters, alignment arrays), and high resolution imagery 

 

1 The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a subset of GNSS. Currently, many instrument networks and 

processing software packages only support GPS. It is expected that they will include other satellite navigation 

systems in the future. For simplicity, in this document we use GNSS to refer to both GPS-only and generic 

GNSS systems.
5

(including optical imagery and repeat-pass lidar [light detection and ranging] from ground, 

mobile, or airborne sensors). We also consider frontier geodetic techniques under development, 

such as seafloor measurements and crowd-sourced observations from low-cost sensors. 

Collectively, geodetic observations have unique capabilities for recording displacements 

of millimeters to meters over distances of meters to thousands of kilometers, time-spans of 

seconds to decades, and often in three dimensions and real-time (fig. 1). The intersection 

between the rich data provided by geodetic observations and the scientific work central to the 

EHP mission defines the geodesy-related efforts, both observational and research, to which 

allocating resources will be most effective. The target outcomes and strategies described herein 

include maintenance of mission-critical capabilities, growing new competencies where we are 

well positioned to do so, working with partner institutions on topics of mutual interest, and 

fostering new fundamental and applied research.

How Geodesy Contributes to the EHP’s Mission

Geodetic data provide unique information that contributes to successfully accomplishing 

several of the EHP’s most important products and responsibilities pertaining to earthquake loss 

reduction.

National Seismic Hazard Model

The NSHM, which quantifies the level of earthquake-related ground shaking anticipated 

over a specified time period for locations nationwide, is one of the EHP’s most widely used 

hazard assessment products. It is the basis for earthquake building codes and provides 

information used by public officials, the insurance industry, the private sector, and the general 

public to assess risk and better plan for future earthquakes. Earthquake rupture forecasts, a 

principal input for the probabilistic seismic hazard assessment upon which the NSHM is based, 

characterize possible earthquake sources in terms of their magnitudes, recurrence rates, and 

location of the causative fault ruptures. Traditionally the dates and fault displacements of past 

earthquakes, determined from geologic data, have provided the fault slip rate information for 

earthquake rupture forecasts. Building on the Uniform California Earthquake Rupture Forecast, 

version 3 (UCERF3; Field and others, 2013), the 2014 release of the NSHM (Petersen and 

others, 2014) is the first to incorporate slip rates estimated from geodetic observations in the 

western United States (fig. 2). The geodetic data reflect contemporary deformation rates, provide 

slip rate information on additional faults that lack geologic rate estimates, help quantify broadly 

distributed strain, and, in the future, may allow time-dependent forecasts to account for variation 

in slip rates throughout the earthquake cycle (Bürgmann and Thatcher, 2013). In addition, 

geodetic data are unique in their sensitivity to creep rates and spatially variable fault interface 

coupling, including the down-dip limit of subduction zone locking, which are important factors 

in forecasting the potential size of future earthquakes and resulting ground motions (Harris, 

2017; Kanamori, 2014; Kaneko and others, 2010; Loveless, 2017; Loveless and Meade, 2011; 

Roeloffs, 2015). For example, the depth at which aseismic slip occurs in subduction zone 

episodic tremor and slip (ETS) events may delineate the down-dip extent of earthquake rupture 

and can be constrained by borehole strainmeter data (fig. 3). Seafloor geodetic measurements, if 

available, provide unique information to better characterize shallow megathrust strain 

accumulation (Bürgmann and Chadwell, 2014; Nishimura and others, 2014; Yokota and others, 

2016).
6

Figure 2. Moment rate predicted from the geodetically constrained deformation model used in UCERF3, 

the Uniform California Earthquake Rupture Forecast version 3. A fault’s slip rate reflects the relative motion 

that must occur across the fault to accommodate plate motion. Moment rate, obtained by multiplying slip 

rate, fault area, and shear modulus, quantifies the associated energy release. A, Moment rate on faults of 

the UCERF3 model. B, Moment rate associated with deformation not localized onto UCERF3 faults.

Adapted from Parsons and others (2013). MoRate, moment rate; Nm/yr, Newton meters per year.

Figure 3. Cascadia episodic tremor and slip (ETS) events: using geodesy to map megathrust fault 

locking. Data from borehole strainmeters are sensitive to the up-dip extent of transient fault slip coincident 

with nonvolcanic tremor in subduction zones, as demonstrated for an ETS event that occurred in 2011

(Roeloffs, 2015). Slip in megathrust earthquakes is unlikely to penetrate large distances into areas of the 

A B
7

fault that experience transient aseismic slip in ETS events, so the up-dip limit of ETS helps define the likely 

down-dip extent of megathrust ruptures. A–C, Maps showing cumulative number of tremor events from

May 1, 2011 to July 7, 2011 (data retrieved from https://pnsn.org/tremor, last accessed May 30, 2017); 

black lines, contours of depth to the top of the subducting slab (in kilometers) (from McCrory and others, 

2012); percent locking generalized from McCrory and others (2014). D, Forward model of evolving 

subduction megathrust slip at locations of tremor events predicts transient displacement (red line) at a 

continuous GPS (Global Positioning System) site, CHZZ, of the Plate Boundary Observatory (PBO). The 

number of tremor events is used as a proxy for the amount of slip, and the amplitude of modeled slip is 

scaled such that predicted displacement matches that recorded at CHZZ (black dots with 1 standard 

deviation error bars). Dashed vertical lines correspond to dates depicted in A–C. E, Differential extension 

(red) and engineering shear strain (blue) observed (solid lines) at PBO borehole strainmeter B024 and 

predicted (dots) from forward-modeled slip. Dashed red and blue lines show predicted strain if hypothetical 

transient slip is shifted up-dip such that it occurs completely off shore, which would imply a shallower downdip limit of slip in megathrust earthquakes. BSM, borehole strainmeter; km, kilometers; mm, millimeters; %, 

percent; ppm, parts per million. BSM and GPS data were provided by the Plate Boundary Observatory 

operated by UNAVCO for EarthScope (www.earthscope.org) and supported by the National Science 

Foundation No. EAR-0350028 and EAR-0732947.

Earthquake Early Warning

Earthquake early warning (EEW) involves predicting shaking intensity at user locations. 

This ground motion prediction often depends upon accurate, real-time determination of 

earthquake source characteristics including location, magnitude, fault orientation, moment 

release, and slip distribution. Real-time GNSS instruments directly measure coseismic 

displacement and, unlike seismic data, can provide magnitude estimates that do not saturate for 

very large earthquakes (Bock and Melgar, 2016). For earthquakes with magnitudes exceeding 

approximately M7.5, finite fault modeling algorithms that use GNSS data might improve upon 

EEW alerts by allowing more detailed characterization of the distance between the earthquake 

rupture and user locations which, along with the estimated magnitude, influences the accuracy of 

predicted shaking intensity (Crowell and others, 2016; Grapenthin and others, 2014; Minson and 

others, 2014; fig. 4). ShakeAlert, the EEW system under development for the United States west 

coast, released its production prototype in February 2016, and work is in progress to evaluate

algorithms utilizing real-time GNSS data for possible incorporation.

Earthquake Forecasting

Forecasting earthquakes requires robust information about time-dependent earthquake 

probabilities to help decision-makers evaluate risks and take appropriate actions to mitigate the 

effects of possible seismic activity. Currently, the EHP is developing operational aftershock 

forecasts that use a statistical evaluation of the seismicity rate in an ongoing aftershock sequence

combined with information regarding the long-term probability of earthquakes in the affected 

region (Field and others, 2016). During aftershock sequences, geodetic data record aseismic 

deformation with moment release that typically exceeds the cumulative seismic moment. In 

addition, spontaneous and triggered transient fault slip has been inferred using geodetic data in a 

variety of settings, notably subduction zones, and triggering of earthquakes by transient slip has 

been suggested in some cases (Obara and Kato, 2016; Uchida and others, 2016). It is not yet 

known whether periods of transient aseismic deformation consistently correlate with changes in 

earthquake likelihood. However, the spatially dense, broad geographic coverage of continuous 
8

GNSS (cGNSS) networks and the high sensitivity of borehole strainmeters yield data that could

be systematically monitored for anomalous behavior, which could illuminate the relation

between transient deformation and seismicity and potentially improve forecasting tools.

 

Figure 4. Algorithms that use real-time GNSS (global navigational satellite systems) data can provide 

more accurate magnitude estimates than seismic data alone, and can constrain fault orientation and 

rupture extent, as demonstrated here using data from a Mw 9 earthquake in Japan. A, Slip distribution 

(colored squares) for the 2011 magnitude Mw 9 Tohoku-Oki earthquake estimated in simulated real-time

analysis of displacements derived from high-rate GNSS data (black vectors) at 180 seconds after the 

earthquake origin time (Minson and others, 2014). The model identifies the best-fitting fault strike and dip, 

and the inferred slip distribution on a fault with this orientation defines the rupture extent. These 

parameters are re-estimated as new data arrive (as rapidly as once per second); the slip shown here is that 

estimated at 180 seconds past the earthquake origin time and has a corresponding moment magnitude 

(Mw) of 8.9. Inset: standard deviation (meters) of estimated strike slip (top) and dip slip (bottom) from 

Bayesian inversion. Red vectors are GNSS displacement at 180 seconds post origin-time predicted from 

model. km, kilometers; m, meters. Saw teeth mark subduction zone trench, with saw teeth on downgoing 

slab. B, Tohoku-Oki magnitude estimates from finite fault models constrained by different GNSS datasets 

(lines) and from seismic data (stars). Magnitudes derived from seismic data significantly under-estimate the 

true magnitude, Mw9. Grey, post-processed GNSS data; black, simulated real-time analysis of high-rate 

GNSS data (Minson and others, 2014); red, simulated real-time GNSS data analysis using observations 

and processing techniques typical of the quality available from consumer-grade GNSS units (Minson and 

others, 2015); purple stars, Japan Meteorological Authority’s real-time analysis of seismic data; blue star, 

magnitude estimated by the U.S. Geological Survey National Earthquake Information Center.
9

Situational Awareness

The availability of information regarding the cause, immediate effects, and evolving 

aftermath of an earthquake improves situational awareness—the understanding of current 

conditions and what to expect. By rapidly synthesizing observations and analyses from a variety 

of sources, we can provide information to the public and officials to guide response efforts in the 

seconds to weeks after an earthquake or during periods of anomalous activity, such as seismic 

swarms or aseismic changes in deformation rates. High quality, timely information regarding 

ongoing hazards increases the likelihood that losses will be reduced through effective mitigating 

actions.

Following major earthquakes, the EHP generates a suite of earthquake response products,

which are updated as new data come in (Hayes and others, 2011). Geodetic observations

contribute unique information (Barnhart and others, 2015), especially through the integrated use 

of traditional and newer techniques (fig. 5). Only geodetic data can record the evolution of 

postseismic motion observed in the hours to years following major seismic events. This 

deformation reflects fault frictional properties, crust and upper mantle rheology, and the 

redistribution of pore fluids due to earthquake-imposed stress changes (Bürgmann and Thatcher, 

2013). Surface fault rupture and offset, including coastal elevation changes due to subduction 

zone earthquakes, may damage lifelines and impact rebuilding and future land use. Combining

multiple observation strategies allows efficient characterization of damage to guide recovery and 

anticipate total losses (Brooks and others, 2013; DeLong and others, 2015; Hudnut and others, 

2014, Liberty and others, 2013; Sun and others, 2017). Such observations include rapid, repeated 

post-earthquake imagery from satellite and airborne platforms, along with high-resolution 

seafloor bathymetry, paired with pre-event data. GNSS measurement of ongoing surface motion 

in three dimensions is a vitally important complement to imagery data. The expanded availability 

of real-time GNSS data and SAR imagery with frequent repeat passes presents new 

opportunities. If used to its fullest, geodesy could enable a true temporal continuum of 

earthquake response information, providing a bridge from EEW alerts to rapid damage 

assessment and longer-term planning of recovery efforts.

Geodetic data further support awareness of potential seismic threats by recording 

transient, aseismic variation in deformation rates that may reflect changing fault zone conditions.

When monitoring networks detect anomalous seismic or geodetic signals , EHP scientists are 

called upon to assess the possibility that the anomalous observations herald the imminent 

occurrence of a damaging earthquake (Roeloffs and Goltz, 2017). A better understanding of the 

relationship between geodetically observed transient deformation and the fault zone processes 

that control earthquake occurrence is required to guide the development of appropriate public 

messaging in response to such events.

Finally, seafloor geodetic methods have successfully recorded coseismic offsets (Sato 

and others, 2011), postseismic motion (Ohta and others, 2012; Yamagiwa and others, 2015), and 

deformation during slow slip events (Ito and others, 2013; Sato and others, 2017; Wallace and 

others, 2016). If continuously recorded and telemetered, such observations would enhance 

tsunami warning, post-earthquake recovery, and interseismic monitoring capabilities for 

subduction zones in the future.
10
11
12

 

Figure 5. The August 24, 2014, magnitude 6 South Napa earthquake showcased the joint use of 

traditional and new geodetic observation techniques to comprehensively characterize evolving conditions 

and aid post-earthquake recovery (Hudnut and others, 2014). A, Postseismic deformation in the area of the 

South Napa earthquake (epicenter marked by black star), August 31–October 6, 2014, recorded by the 

European Space Agency’s recently launched Sentinel 1a satellite. White arrows are vectors of 
13

displacement measured using global navigational satellite systems (GNSS) during the observation period. 

MLS, mobile laser scanning; LOS, line-of-sight; Az, azimuth of satellite motion relative to ground. B, 

Periodic alignment array measurements recorded accumulating right-lateral displacement at the fault trace 

(Lienkaemper and others, 2016). NW, northwest; cm, centimeters; km, kilometers. C, To augment 

continuous GNSS (cGNSS) data, U.S. Geological Survey scientists deployed campaign GNSS equipment 

in semi-permanent mode to track evolving afterslip (Floyd and others, 2016). Post-earthquake position time 

series for campaign GNSS site DEAL, shown with 2-standard-deviation error bars, exhibit a decelerating 

afterslip signal. mm, millimeters. D, Repeated mobile laser scanning (MLS) measurement of vineyard rows 

recorded surface offsets in unprecedented detail, demonstrating this new measurement technique’s utility 

(Brooks and others, 2017). While fault offset of the vine rows is visually apparent (white dashed line with 

arrows indicating sense of slip in photo), the maneuverable truck-mounted laser scanner enables scanning 

small-scale deformation features from multiple angles. Geometric analysis of the point cloud data acquired 

during repeated scans of the same objects, here vineyard rows, allows precise measurement of evolving 

offsets, depicted as a function of fault-normal distance by the grey dots. E, left, time series of data from a 

borehole strainmeter (Ohlone, OH) measure three components (color-coded for clarity) of the horizontal 

strain tensor, providing both coseismic offsets and postseismic strain records. Right, Coseismic shear 

strain observations, shown in map view by color coded circles at instrument locations, help constrain 

coseismic source models. Star, South Napa earthquake epicenter; blue lines, major, active faults. 

Background shading depicts strain field predicted from best-fitting model; color scale saturates at ±300 ppb 

(Langbein, 2015). ppb, parts per billion; Eee-Enn, 2Een, two components of shear strain recorded by 

instrument. Sentinel 1a data were provided by the European Space Agency (ESA)’s Copernicus 

Programme.

Earthquake Triggering and Induced Seismicity

Fluid extraction and injection, as well as hydrologic loading, occur in a variety of 

geographic regions; however, such processes appear to trigger earthquakes in only a small 

fraction of these locations (Ellsworth, 2013). Because BSM, InSAR, and other geodetic 

techniques can record crustal deformation related to these processes, geodesy could help identify 

factors that influence induced earthquakes in some geologic settings. Geodetic monitoring in 

susceptible regions may provide constraints for elucidating the underlying physics and for

tracking evolving hazard (see, for example, Barnhart and others, 2014).

Envisioned Outcomes for Geodesy

We anticipate that by capitalizing on the unique insight that geodetic information brings

to key EHP activities and the potential value added by new and anticipated geodetic techniques, 

the EHP geodesy program could successfully realize the following outcomes:

1. The EHP serves as an authoritative source for the interpretation of geodetic data and its 

use for earthquake loss reduction throughout the United States and its territories.

2. The USGS consistently provides timely, high-quality geodetic data to stakeholders.

3. Significant earthquakes are better characterized by incorporating geodetic data into 

USGS event response products and by expanded use of geodetic imaging data to assess 

fault rupture and source parameters.

4. Uncertainties in the NSHM and in regional earthquake models, are reduced by fully 

incorporating geodetic data into earthquake probability calculations.
14

5. Geodetic networks and data are integrated into the operations and earthquake information 

products of the Advanced National Seismic System (ANSS).

6. Earthquake early warnings are improved by more rapidly assessing ground displacement 

and the dynamic faulting process for the largest earthquakes using real-time geodetic 

data. 

7. Earthquake forecasting methodology is refined by including geodetic data when 

calculating evolving moment release during aftershock sequences and by a better 

understanding of the implications of transient deformation for earthquake likelihood.

Achieving these objectives would require a combination of research and operational activities. In 

the following sections we summarize the Earthquake Hazards Program’s current capabilities, 

discuss critical partnerships, and define strategies that will guide the EHP to these outcomes.

Current Capabilities

Geodetic Observations

The observational component of the EHP’s geodesy program has four elements:

continuous data collection, collection of ephemeral data, targeted data collection, and data 

analysis. Obtaining raw data, processing, and analyzing them to produce inputs useable for

follow-on investigations and monitoring applications are central to the EHP’s ability to use 

geodesy to advance its research, hazard assessment, and situational awareness efforts.

Continuous Data Collection

Networks of instruments that operate and transmit data continuously ensure, to the 

greatest degree possible, the collection of data that spans all stages of the earthquake cycle. Such 

networks make it possible to fully record evolving postseismic processes, both to guide event 

response and for research. They also increase the likelihood of recording unanticipated events or, 

potentially, preseismic deformation. The incorporation of geodetic observations into products for 

immediate post-earthquake response and the potential inclusion of geodesy in the ShakeAlert 

earthquake early warning system impose concrete requirements for robust real-time GNSS data 

acquisition. BSM data, if available in real-time, could enable future enhancements to EEW in 

some geographic regions (Barbour and Crowell, 2017). Low-cost seismogeodetic sensors that 

provide both GNSS and accelerometer recordings may enable EEW for large earthquakes in 

regions where monitoring with dense observatory-grade networks is not practical and could 

augment alerting capabilities in well-instrumented regions, for example by enabling more 

accurate rapid magnitude estimates as shown in fig. 4B (Minson and others, 2015).

The EHP currently operates cGNSS networks in the San Francisco Bay Area and 

southern California, providing the primary coverage for the southern San Andreas Fault and the 

greater Los Angeles area (fig. 6). Most sites in both networks provide real-time data, and many 

are collocated with seismic instruments. The EHP also operates creepmeters and borehole 

dilatometers to provide high-resolution measurements of coseismic offsets and the evolution of 

afterslip for future Hayward Fault earthquakes (fig. 7).
15

Figure 6. Continuously recording GNSS (global navigational satellite system; cGNSS) sites operated by 

the U.S. Geological Survey’s Earthquake Hazards Program (EHP) and partners funded by the EHP. Left, 

map showing station distribution in the western United States (red outline in inset map shows area 

covered). Red lines are historical and Holocene active faults (USGS, 2006); red line with saw teeth denotes 

megathrust fault of the Cascadia Subduction Zone, saw teeth on downgoing slab. Right, map of the EHPsupported stations that monitor the New Madrid seismic zone in Missouri, Tennessee, and Arkansas. 

Figure 7. Map of 

geodetic monitoring 

instruments in the 

San Francisco Bay 

Area, California. Red 

lines are historical

and Holocene active 

faults (USGS, 2006). 

cGNSS, continuous 

global navigational 

satellite system 

instrument; EHP, 

Earthquake Hazards 

Program of the U.S. 

Geological Survey; 

km, kilometers.
16

Collection of Ephemeral Data

Temporary instrument deployments, for example campaign GNSS surveys, mobile laser 

scanning (MLS), and collection of post-event imagery and bathymetry, augment continuous 

networks by enabling expanded observation of transient crustal motion. The resulting data 

contribute to improved understanding of evolving conditions during spontaneous deformation 

events and after earthquakes. They also provide input for future research, including applications 

not yet envisioned. Recently launched SAR (synthetic aperture radar) satellites like the European 

Space Agency’s Sentinel 1a and 1b, and other missions in the planning stages, are ushering in an 

era in which frequent repeat passes over a given location provide sufficient temporal sampling to 

track the spatial patterns of transient deformation in detail. 

By maintaining an active field crew, modern geodetic instrumentation, and specialized 

field equipment, the EHP is well positioned to carry out effective and immediate post-earthquake 

data collection in some of the most seismically active regions of the country. In recent years we 

have responded to the 2004 Parkfield, California, 2008 Wells, Nevada, and 2014 South Napa, 

California, earthquakes, collecting data central to improved understanding of coseismic source 

properties, postseismic processes, and fault zone characteristics that control deformation (Floyd 

et al., 2016; Hammond et al., 2011; Murray et al., 2006). Recent in-house research and 

development is adding new capabilities such as MLS to our toolbox. Application of this 

technique following the South Napa earthquake (Brooks and others, 2017) produced near-fault 

deformation measurements of unprecedented resolution, shedding new light on the way in which 

earthquake rupture is manifest at the earth’s surface (fig. 5). To expand earthquake response 

capabilities, we have also implemented automatic download and processing of sSentinel InSAR 

data for all earthquakes of M>4.5 in the western United States.

Targeted Data Collection

The staff and facility resources that position us well for earthquake response also enable 

us to design and carry out targeted data collection in support of basic research and externally 

funded projects. Over several decades, the USGS has cultivated an extensive network of 

campaign GNSS sites (fig. 8) and alignment arrays throughout the western United States for 

which we continue to build a database of high quality observations (McFarland and others, 2016; 

Murray and Svarc, 2017). New efforts are underway to develop spatially dense datasets through 

periodic MLS campaigns, which can be used to calculate fault creep rates. EHP scientists are 

also applying paleogeodetic methods, in which sedimentary fossil assemblages and tsunami 

deposits are used to map spatial patterns of earthquake-induced uplift and subsidence, to shed 

light on the rupture extent of great earthquakes in the Aleutian and Cascadian Subduction Zones

(Milker and others, 2016; Nelson and others, 2008; Witter and others, 2012; Witter and others, 

2016). We leverage GNSS, InSAR, and other geodetic data in public archives to complement the 

geodetic measurements we collect. 

EHP research staff also participate in international collaborations that foster data sharing 

among agencies. In particular, we draw upon SAR interferometry data collected by several 

nations’ space agencies to characterize and develop models that describe deformation processes 

including seismic swarms, induced seismicity, and postseismic relaxation. The more frequent 

repeat passes of newly launched SAR satellites enable improved time series analysis and 

reduction of atmospheric noise, thereby expanding the geographic regions over which InSAR 

might be used to measure fault-related deformation. With additional personnel skilled in InSAR 

processing, time series analysis, and interpretation, the EHP could fully harness the wealth of 
17

data generated by new and anticipated SAR missions and, in turn, improve deformation 

monitoring, investigation of underlying processes, and post-earthquake information products.

Figure 8. Map of the western United States showing EHP campaign GNSS (global navigational satellite 

system) data collection sites, color-coded by year of most recent EHP occupation. Map also shows semipermanent GNSS sites supported by the Earthquake Hazards Program (EHP). Thin red lines are historical

and Holocene active faults (USGS, 2006); thicker red line with saw teeth is the Cascadia megathrust fault, 

with saw teeth on downgoing slab. 
18

Data Analysis

The raw geodetic measurements resulting from the EHP’s GNSS, strainmeter, and 

creepmeter field monitoring are archived at the publicly accessible Northern California 

Earthquake Data Center (northern California cGNSS sites, strainmeters, creepmeters) and 

UNAVCO (southern California cGNSS sites). Documentation, cleaned data, and derived 

products are available through the EHP website

(https://earthquake.usgs.gov/monitoring/deformation/).

Raw measurements must undergo processing and analysis to derive geophysically 

meaningful observations such as displacements or velocities. The EHP has built automated 

systems that use computational software (both internally and externally developed) to conduct 

this work in-house (Murray and Svarc, 2017), ensuring timely access to the data needed for 

earthquake response, enabling full understanding of inputs used for follow-on research, and 

permitting EHP scientists to tailor the analysis approach to specific applications. We continually 

work to streamline data acquisition and processing operations. The Earthquake Science Center 

(ESC) has implemented uniform daily processing and automatic web display of data from the 

cGNSS networks that the EHP supports (internally and externally), as well as data from Plate 

Boundary Observatory (PBO) stations throughout the western United States. The EHP has also 

taken the first steps to establish GNSS data processing capabilities at the National Earthquake 

Information Center (NEIC) for global earthquake response. By combining software written inhouse for data acquisition, quality control, and network monitoring with commercial data 

processing software, the ESC has built the computational infrastructure needed to ensure the 

availability of real-time GNSS observations for EEW and other applications central to the EHP 

mission.

Research

In concert with these observational activities, EHP scientists utilize geodetic data for 

investigations that span the continuum from fundamental to applied research. Topically, our 

current work focuses on quantification of interseismic slip rates, strain rates, and the spatial 

distribution of fault coupling in the seismogenic zone; detection and characterization of transient 

signals; modeling the mechanisms underlying postseismic deformation at all spatial and temporal 

scales; and inferring earthquake source characteristics through static and kinematic modeling that

provides input for follow-on investigations, post-earthquake response, and EEW.

Much of this work centers on a subset of the seismotectonic regions within the purview 

of the EHP mission, in particular the San Andreas Fault System in central and northern 

California, the Eastern California Shear Zone, the Cascadia Subduction Zone, and the Basin and 

Range Province. The EHP also draws upon data from other regions worldwide, for example 

Japan, Chile, and Turkey, that record deformation processes analogous to or potentially affecting 

the United States and its territories. We strive to build and maintain relationships with 

international colleagues to facilitate collaborations on topics of mutual interest.

EHP scientists lead research and development of new observational and analysis 

techniques, such as construction of low-cost instrument packages for real-time earthquake 

response and testing of new methods for high-resolution imaging. Experience with seafloor 

geodetic methods is a current personnel resource that could support future efforts. Computational 

strengths include application of viscoelasticity and rate and state friction for modeling 

deformation mechanisms, data assimilation for tracking time-varying processes, pattern 
19

recognition techniques for isolating signals of interest, and Bayesian methods for more complete 

characterization of uncertainties. 

Renewing our expertise in real-time GNSS processing and analysis, quantitative 

assessment of complex noise processes affecting geodetic data, rigorous evaluation of data 

quality, BSM data analysis and monitoring, and investigating deformation of the southern San 

Andreas Fault System could provide a solid foundation for EHP leadership on topics central to 

the program’s goals. Deformation in the central and eastern United States and Alaska, detailed 

examination of vertical crustal motion, and the application of geodesy for induced seismicity 

studies, while relevant to the EHP mission, are currently the focus of limited internal research.

Partnerships

The research and observational outcomes described in this document would be advanced 

by leveraging the unique contributions that geodesy can make. Some geodetic efforts are 

optimally accomplished through partnerships. This section considers such activities and 

highlights external dependencies that potentially affect our geodesy program.

Data Collection and Operations 

Continuously Operating Geodetic Networks

The EHP has a multi-pronged strategy to ensure the availability of continuous geodetic 

data for all regions within the scope of its monitoring, response, and research activities. This 

consists of network operations and maintenance conducted by the EHP, and we augment these 

efforts in several ways.

 The EHP has long-standing cooperative agreements that fund external partners to operate 

cGNSS networks (fig. 6) in the New Madrid Seismic Zone, San Francisco Bay Area, and 

Pacific Northwest (with the latter two providing real-time data) as well as Bay Area 

BSMs (fig. 7). Standards and archiving requirements for cooperator networks have been 

established and are continually updated to reflect evolving capabilities and needs (see 

https://earthquake.usgs.gov/monitoring/anss/docs/Geodetic_Networks_Standards_Proced

ures.pdf). The role of cooperators in supporting real-time GNSS data acquisition may 

grow under the auspices of ShakeAlert. Geodetic instrument coverage in the central and 

eastern United States is sparse outside the New Madrid Seismic Zone. Decadal time 

series from an expanded, high-quality, permanent GNSS network could help significantly 

in fully quantifying deformation across this region (Hamburger and others, 2014).

 The EHP is transitioning to joint network operations for collocated seismic and geodetic 

(GNSS and BSM) sites, where possible, to maximize operational efficiency and enable 

combined use of complementary observations. In planning future network 

upgrades/expansion, we take into consideration that combined seismic-GNSS network 

operations may become the ANSS standard in the future (U.S. Geological Survey, 2017).

 We use freely available data from the National Science Foundation (NSF)-funded PBO 

network, the single largest cGNSS and BSM network in the western United States, which 

is run by the UNAVCO geodetic research, education, and operations consortium. Many 

of the PBO GNSS stations now transmit real-time data. 

 The NEIC builds partnerships with GNSS network operators worldwide to ensure the 

availability of data used in event response information products for earthquakes globally. 
20

 Low-cost instrument packages that integrate GNSS sensors and accelerometers, 

combined with purpose-built software, have been developed by EHP scientists with the 

goal of deployment in large, dense networks for EEW and tsunami warning applications.

In collaboration with international partners, these instruments are undergoing testing in 

seismically active subduction zones (Brooks and others, 2017). 

Reliance on data provided by outside institutions is not without risk. For example, 

changes to management structure or network operation and maintenance policies at institutions 

from which EHP obtains data have the potential to substantially alter the network footprint, data 

collection practices, and accessibility of measurements. An example of such risk is the 

conclusion of NSF's EarthScope initiative in 2018 which has, thus far, supported the operation of 

PBO geodetic infrastructure. Consideration of such impacts and the overall costs and benefits of 

available data sources can continue to inform the design of EHP monitoring and earthquake 

response strategies. Drawing upon a variety of data sources can enhance resilience to change and 

maximize ability to leverage new observational opportunities.

Geodetic Field Deployments to Measure Crustal Deformation

In addition to operating and monitoring data from continuous geodetic networks, we 

expand the variety and quantity of observations available to inform EHP science by participating 

in and supporting temporary field deployments. For example:

 GNSS data collection is an important component of the USGS Volcano Hazards Program 

(VHP) monitoring and research activities. EHP personnel assist the VHP with campaign 

GNSS deployments in locations of mutual interest where the resulting data will 

contribute to regional tectonic studies relevant to seismic hazard assessment. 

 Through our external funding to university partners for geodetic networks, we support 

ongoing alignment array surveys in northern California (McFarland and others, 2016) and 

operation of semi-permanent GNSS sites in the Basin and Range Province (fig. 8; Blewitt 

and others, 2009). Campaign GNSS data collection is also occasionally supported 

through the EHP external research grants for specific projects.

 In some regions such as Alaska, the EHP primarily draws upon publicly available 

continuous data and campaign GNSS observations collected and published by 

universities, both funded largely through non-EHP sources.

While both EHP and university partners acquire and use post-event data for research 

investigations of interest, our dedicated field capabilities directly support the USGS 

responsibility for providing time critical information to support a variety of stakeholders in their 

response and recovery activities. It is incumbent upon the EHP to maintain close coordination 

with our university partners, UNAVCO, and the Southern California Earthquake Center (SCEC)

to promote exchange of data and avoid duplication of effort. 

GNSS Data Processing

Our in-house GNSS data processing provides autonomy and flexibility to meet our 

earthquake response requirements but depends critically on information from external 

organizations, both domestic and international. These groups supply ancillary data, models, and 

reference frames required for high-precision GNSS processing; archive data; and maintain 

multiple software modules for GNSS data translation, quality control, and positioning. The 

benefits of leveraging these well-developed, community-vetted tools outweigh the potential costs 
21

of dependency. We obtain these inputs over the internet. By implementing robust 

communications infrastructure, the EHP could ensure access to this vital information in the 

aftermath of a major earthquake. 

The EHP works actively with ShakeAlert partners and outside agencies to implement 

real-time GNSS data processing and transmission for potential use in EEW and tsunami warning. 

The use of GNSS data for these time-sensitive purposes has required establishing common

standards and protocols. Currently the EHP primarily uses commercial real-time software for 

positioning and calculation of clock corrections, but open-source absolute positioning software 

and freely available real-time clock corrections provided by the International GNSS Service are 

now available, and the variety of commercial solutions for on-receiver real-time positioning is

expanding. By continuing to evaluate our real-time GNSS strategy, we can identify solutions that 

offer cost savings and increased resiliency. 

Topographic Data and Imagery

Various agencies collect, archive, and distribute satellite and airborne imagery used by 

the EHP for research and earthquake response. These include lidar (light detection and ranging), 

optical imagery, and SAR data. The EHP has assembled funding sources, collaborations, and 

partnerships that facilitate data access, for example, through coordination with National Center 

for Airborne Laser Mapping, membership in the Western North America InSAR Consortium, 

and involvement in the planning for future SAR missions such as the anticipated United StatesIndia NISAR satellite. NISAR (NASA-ISRO synthetic aperture radar) is a collaboration 

between NASA, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and ISRO, the Indian 

Space Research Organization, slated for launch in 2020. The Sentinel 1a and 1b satellites are 

now producing freely available data with repeat pass intervals as short as six days. While we 

have in-house expertise for processing of raw SAR, lidar, and other imagery data to obtain the 

deformation measurements required for research and event-response applications, we utilize

externally developed software, both commercial and open-source, for this work. Bathymetric

surveys of seafloor topography, particularly in deeper water, require collaboration with the 

academic community, international partners, and the National Ocean and Atmospheric 

Administration (NOAA).

Research

Recognizing that scientific advances arise when investigators bring to bear a variety of 

approaches, expertise, perspectives, and resources, the EHP strives to address the full breadth of 

basic and applied research required to meet its loss reduction objectives through multiple 

avenues. These include internally-funded work by EHP scientists; work by EHP scientists who 

have obtained funding through cooperative agreements and grants from other institutions, 

government agencies, and the private sector; and work of scientists outside USGS who are 

funded through SCEC and the EHP’s external research grants. 

Through collaborations we can pool resources such as computing, laboratory, or 

instrument testing facilities and undertake large-scale observational and research efforts that 

would be intractable for an individual institution to pursue. The USGS Subduction Zone Science 

Plan (Gomberg and others, 2017) fosters interdisciplinary research that furthers our basic 

understanding of subduction zone processes and our ability to respond to the associated natural 

hazards. Geodetic observations are central to this effort, providing a means for recording 

transient signals and three dimensional deformation potentially at all stages of the earthquake 
22

cycle both onshore and offshore. A shared interest in topics such as subduction zone processes, 

seafloor geodetic monitoring, and near-real-time geodesy for rapid tsunami characterization 

presents opportunities to collaborate on initiatives funded by other agencies such as NSF, NASA, 

and NOAA (see, for example, McGuire and others, 2017). 

Approaches for Advancing Geodetic Outcomes

The following targeted actions would represent tangible progress toward several of the 

envisioned outcomes for the EHP geodesy program that were described earlier in this report:

 Build the next generation of geodetically constrained interseismic deformation models 

and incorporate them into UCERF and the NSHM. Leverage the latest theoretical 

research and methodological advances to address issues outlined in appendix 1. 

 Develop algorithms that combine real-time and near-real-time geodetic observations with 

other data types to enhance EEW, tsunami warning, maps of peak ground displacement, 

and afterslip forecasting as part of a temporally evolving continuum of well-integrated 

information released following seismic events. Implement within EHP production 

systems all methods that provide demonstrable improvement to our products and 

services.

 Expand the role of geodesy in earthquake response products such as maps of surface 

rupture, seafloor displacement, and disruptions to fault-crossing lifelines including roads 

and utilities to improve situational awareness and to aid in earthquake recovery. 

 Determine whether transient deformation observations can effectively inform earthquake 

likelihood estimates; if so, incorporate such observations into operational earthquake 

forecasts.

Steady progress toward the priority outcomes would be bolstered by sustaining the four elements 

of our observational geodesy program:

 Operate robust networks of GNSS stations and targeted creepmeter networks, and 

leverage continuous geodetic networks operated by other institutions, to enable effective 

monitoring, event response, and study of time-dependent processes. 

 Capture ephemeral observations of evolving processes, including spontaneous transient 

signals and postseismic deformation, to augment data from continuously recording 

networks. 

 Conduct targeted data collection, for example through field deployments, mining of data 

archives, bathymetric surveying, or tasking data acquisition from satellite and airborne 

platforms to obtain observations in support of current and future research efforts critical 

to the EHP mission. 

 Utilize automated and customized data processing, calculation of derived quantities, 

visual display, and dissemination of results to promote data discovery and usability 

across the spectrum of target applications. 

The envisioned geodetic outcomes could be achieved through coordinated research and 

observation strategies, as detailed here.

Through fundamental research we can advance our understanding of physical processes that 

influence the time and location of earthquake occurrence and the size to which a rupture 

grows.—Geodetic data can be used in combination with models that incorporate mechanisms 

such as rate and state friction, plasticity, and viscoelasticity to develop a comprehensive 
23

description of evolving deformation and stress within and over successive earthquake cycles. 

Such models have direct relevance to the next generation NSHM, adding a geodetic component 

to EEW, advancing operational earthquake forecasting methods, and creating better products to 

guide response to and recovery from seismic events.

The development of modeling methods that fully and accurately quantify parameter

uncertainties is critical for objective integration of results into probabilistic analyses and will 

ultimately lead to more informative products. Analysis and modeling approaches that harness 

high-performance computing, cloud computing, and data mining opportunities hold great 

potential for accelerating research efforts.

Specific research activities designed to help meet our target outcomes can be accomplished 

through a combination of internal research and collaboration with external partners.—While 

EHP scientists possess the expertise required to carry out a broad range of crustal deformation 

research, only a subset of this work can be addressed given current research staffing levels. The 

following strategy could facilitate addressing research needs:

 Implement a balanced portfolio of internal research that directs effort toward the target 

actions identified above while allowing scientists to explore new ideas and develop novel 

approaches relevant to the EHP mission. Draw upon the existing EHP topical and 

regional strengths outlined earlier, refocusing efforts as appropriate to address the needs 

of the NSHM, EEW, operational earthquake forecasts, response to earthquakes or the 

detection of anomalous signals, and comprehensive subduction zone studies. Undertake 

only those reimbursable projects that most directly align with the objectives stated in this 

report.

 Make research hires to address deficiencies in topical and regional expertise in order to 

fulfill our statutory responsibility to provide authoritative information on earthquakes, 

maintain our leadership position in earthquake science, realize the full potential of new 

initiatives, and ensure our responsiveness to stakeholder needs.

 Fund cooperative agreements to support scientific investigations that complement 

ongoing internal research, strengthen EHP products by incorporating alternative 

perspectives and approaches, or address topics we cannot adequately cover internally. 

Examples include expanded modeling of active processes in Alaska and the central and 

eastern United States, development of additional deformation models for the NSHM, 

further investigation of the physical processes governing aseismic slip, detailed 

characterization of vertical crustal motion, and geodetic studies relevant to induced

seismicity.

Maintaining a vibrant internal research program is critical to meeting EHP priorities.—Doing 

so sustains in EHP scientists a high-level understanding of fundamental research questions and, 

thus, the ability to effectively discriminate among research findings from a variety of sources, to 

identify missing components, and to design new studies to address questions that limit the 

effectiveness of our products. Such knowledge is required to evaluate the results of work we 

fund at cooperator institutions and to assimilate the best available science into widely used 

products and services such as the NSHM, operational earthquake forecasts, and EEW for which 

USGS has primary responsibility. 

EHP scientists fill a critical role in enabling USGS to meet its statutory obligations as an 

authority on earthquake activity. Quickly providing informed interpretation and assessment of 
24

anomalous geodetic observations that may be associated with increased earthquake likelihood

requires scientists with a synoptic understanding of the relevant technical, physical, and regional 

aspects of deformation sources and signals. If we cannot provide timely, trusted information, 

stakeholders will look elsewhere, diminishing the stature and relevance of our organization. 

We can position ourselves well for the future.—In order to maintain our standing and 

effectiveness, we can engage in efforts, both internal and external, that ensure the availability of 

data on which we rely, promote more robust and efficient operations, foster the development and 

application of innovative techniques and novel ways to use existing data to support our mission,

and bring new users to our science. Aligning the EHP’s ongoing and future geodetic 

infrastructure investment with the target outcomes and specific activities described in this report

would most effectively support and advance the EHP mission. The following section discusses 

the role of personnel resources in enabling these efforts. Appendix 2 provides a detailed 

description of observational activities and applied research that could sustain forward 

momentum. Here we highlight three initiatives that, if given timely attention, could help ensure 

we provide the best possible information and assessments in support of actions to mitigate 

earthquake losses.

 Fully utilize data from current SAR missions for rapid earthquake response, tracking 

transient processes including afterslip, and measuring interseismic deformation; position 

ourselves to extend these efforts to future SAR missions such as the NISAR satellite 

mission.

 Identify and take steps to address critical network operation and data management

dependencies, within our own systems and linked to external institutions, that affect our 

ability to carry out our earthquake response, monitoring, and hazard assessment mandate. 

 Develop an actionable strategy to achieve affordable seafloor geodetic data collection 

with sufficient spatiotemporal coverage and precision to infer interseismic strain rates, 

quantify megathrust earthquake slip, and detect transient deformation to support 

improved hazard assessment, monitoring, and rapid dissemination of comprehensive 

information following earthquakes. Central to this effort is building a network of partners

in academia, government, and the private sector.

Staffing Needs

Through wise workforce planning the EHP can maximize its agility in addressing

evolving core and frontier activities. We currently face significant gaps in our ability to meet

operational responsibilities (appendix 2), carry out research upon which mission critical products 

are built, satisfy the requirements of major new initiatives (such as the Subduction Zone Science 

Plan [Gomberg and others, 2017], in which geodesy will play a key role), and catalyze the 

advances envisioned by EHP scientists that are enabled by new resources such as large volumes 

of freely available geodetic data. Retirements put competing demands on remaining personnel. 

There is a particular need for technical staff who combine proficiency in quantitative analysis 

with the basic geophysical knowledge necessary to routinely evaluate data and make preliminary 

interpretations to support the EHP in carrying out both its situational awareness responsibilities 

and ongoing research. 

Broadening our capacity to develop and adopt cutting-edge geodetic methods is central to 

sustaining a dynamic geodesy program. Leveraging advances such as cloud computing that offer 

greater resiliency, efficiency, and cost savings require information technology skill sets that are 

in short supply. Obtaining adequate system administrative, networking, and software 
25

development support would safeguard progress on mission-critical projects. In parallel, research 

hires that bring new capabilities to advance the EHP’s high profile products and that strengthen 

our expertise for evaluating regional seismic hazard could help ensure that the EHP remains a 

leader in the use of geodesy to realize earthquake loss reduction. 

Personnel who contribute to multiple programmatic efforts by possessing broad 

competencies and readily adapting their skills to varied and evolving organizational requirements

help the USGS be responsive, agile, and innovative. Therefore, in order to complement new 

hiring, we can facilitate training of existing staff in new techniques, aid their transition to new 

responsibilities, and nurture their exploration of new avenues for geodetic research. Identifying 

shared needs among multiple disciplines at the science center, program, and mission area levels 

might present additional paths to address gaps in expertise. While staff development may 

prioritize fulfilling existing obligations for monitoring, alerting, and event response, pursuing 

new internal funding initiatives and outside sources of salary support could foster frontier efforts.

Conclusion

This report presents the scientific rationale for and means of implementing strategies by 

which the Earthquake Hazards Program (EHP) can utilize geodetic data to their fullest in 

carrying out its mission to reduce losses from earthquakes. Geodetic observations provide unique 

information for characterizing and monitoring interseismic strain accumulation, transient 

aseismic deformation, and evolving earthquake rupture, in turn supporting improved seismic 

hazard assessments, tools for enhanced situational awareness following earthquakes and during 

periods of anomalous activity, and better-constrained earthquake early warning. Geodesy efforts 

that encompass a balanced mix of activities that sustain mission-critical capabilities, grow new 

competencies through the continuum of fundamental to applied research, and ensure sufficient 

resources for these endeavors can support the EHP in meeting its core responsibilities and 

realizing potentially game-changing advances envisioned by its scientists. Through these efforts, 

the EHP can exploit abundant new geodetic data sources, evaluate and assimilate the latest 

science, and pursue novel avenues of investigation. Central to the geodesy program’s success is 

engaging personnel with a breadth of competencies, from technical to theoretical, and a 

willingness and ability to adapt these to the EHP’s evolving priorities. In parallel, the program 

can collaborate with external partners to support scientific investigations that complement 

ongoing internal research and strengthen EHP products by incorporating alternative perspectives 

and approaches.

References Cited

Barbour, A.J., and Crowell, B.W., 2017, Dynamic strains for earthquake source characterization:

Seismological Research Letters, v. 88, no. 2A, 354-370, doi:10.1785/0220160155, accessed 

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Appendix 1. Focus Issues for Developing Next-Generation 

Geodetic Deformation Models for the National Seismic 

Hazard Map

The development of the Uniform California Earthquake Rupture Forecast, version 3 (UCERF3)

has provided an initial framework for incorporating geodetically inferred deformation rates into 

seismic hazard assessment and National Seismic Hazard Maps (NHSM). However, this effort 

also identified a number of topics for which further research could help in achieving full 

utilization of the unique information that geodetic data can contribute to improving earthquake 

rupture forecasts (Evans, 2017). Examples include:

 Resolve outstanding discrepancies that remain between slip rates estimated from geologic

versus geodetic data for some regions. Assess the degree and implications of 

disagreement between geodetic and geologic measures of shallow coseismic fault slip. 

Further utilize paleogeodetic approaches to refine inferred earthquake histories for major 

faults.

 Reconcile inconsistencies between observed seismicity rates and magnitudes versus 

models that describe the partitioning of deformation on and off major faults in the 

NSHM.

 Quantify the spatial distribution of aseismic fault slip and locking, including locking 

depths, in greater detail with attention to proper extrapolation of near-fault surface 

observations to depth.

 Evaluate the potential for artifacts or biases in deformation rate estimates due to the range 

of models considered, model simplifications, or subjective tuning.

 Incorporate time-dependence and earthquake cycle effects.
33

Appendix 2. Focus Areas for Geodetic Observations and 

Applied Research

 Better characterize vertical deformation signals by integrating multiple data types in 

order to constrain deformation models for subduction zones, regions of pervasive thrust 

faulting, zones of induced seismicity, and areas such as the Sacramento-San Joaquin

River Delta that are subject to the combined threats of subsidence and seismic activity.

 Further develop and apply methods for fully quantifying uncertainties that arise from all 

stages of data processing, including calculation of derived measures from noisy data.

 Apply robust tools that automatically detect and categorize anomalous deformation 

signals, enabling near real-time monitoring of geodetic data. Evaluate the usefulness of 

existing transient deformation detection algorithms and construct new tools as needed.

 Advance sensor design, data processing techniques, and software development to enable 

use of new observational approaches for rapid earthquake response, monitoring, and 

research. Examples include low-cost sensors to augment earthquake alerting systems; 

cost-effective mechanisms for seafloor geodetic data collection; and repeated high 

resolution imaging to record surface deformation, measure topography, and map faults.

 Ensure robust data acquisition from Earthquake Hazards Program-supported permanent

GNSS (global navigational satellite system) networks. 

 Devise new metrics and methods to evaluate and improve the performance of 

geodetic network design, instruments, and data processing techniques.

 Rigorously define station upgrade strategies by quantitative evaluation of collocated

seismic and geodetic measurements, on-receiver real-time positioning, and the added 

value of multi-constellation GNSS signals. 

 Consolidate seismic and GNSS network operations wherever practical.

 Fully implement and maintain a uniform network-monitoring and data-processing system 

for real-time GNSS within the Earthquake Science Center (ESC). Continue to refine tools 

developed by ESC personnel for disseminating data, visualizing analysis results, and 

reporting network status, and seize opportunities to extend these tools to new 

applications.

 Extend the ESC’s automated daily and near-real-time GNSS processing system to the 

National Earthquake Information Center (NEIC) for use in global earthquake response.

 Continue to archive all geodetic data collected by the EHP in community-standard data 

facilities and to document our data collection and processing methodologies in 

compliance with Office of Management and Budget, Department of Interior, and USGS 

data policies.

 Sustain field geodetic capabilities (personnel and equipment) as needed for earthquake 

response and collection of data that cannot be obtained by other means for EHP research. 

Reduce personnel-intensive field operations through greater use of semi-permanent 

instrument deployments in which GNSS equipment is left to record data unsupervised for 

extended periods of time. When establishing new field sites, seek locations that offer 

sufficient security for use of the semi-permanent observation strategy.

 Continue to support operation and maintenance of the EHP’s remaining creepmeters and 

borehole strainmeters so as to maximize the chance of obtaining high-precision 
34

deformation records for future large earthquakes or transient deformation events and to 

provide data for modeling and interpretation of aseismic slip.
ISSN 2331-1258 (online)

https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20181037