MAURITANIA

ExpeditionaryCulture

FieldGuide

Mauritania

Nouakchott

BirMoghrein

Russo Bogué

Kaédi

Atar

Tidjikdja

Kiffa Nema
This guide is designed to help prepare you for deployment to 

culturally complex environments and successfully achieve 

mission objectives. The 

fundamental information it 

contains will help you 

understand the decisive

cultural dimension of your 

assigned location and 

gain necessary skills to 

achieve mission success.

The guide consists of two 

parts: 

Part 1: Introduces “Culture General,” the foundational 

knowledge you need to operate effectively in any global

environment (Photos courtesy of Pro Quest 2011). 

Part 2: Presents “Culture Specific” Mauritania, focusing on 

unique cultural features of Mauritanian society and is designed 

to complement other predeployment training. It 

applies culture-general 

concepts to help increase 

your knowledge of your 

assigned deployment 

location.

For further information, 

visit the Air Force Culture 

and Language Center 

(AFCLC) website at 

https://wwwmil.maxwell.af.mil/afclc or contact the AFCLC’s

Region Team at AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the expressed permission 

of the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the 

US government, Wikimedia, and other sources as indicated.

About this Guide

ECFG Mauritania
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes 

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to 

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the 

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that 

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture, 

and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs 

and values. 

Members of a culture also 

usually assign the same 

meanings to the symbols in 

that culture. A symbol is 

when one thing – an image, 

word, object, idea, or story –

represents another thing. 

For example, the American 

flag is a physical and visual 

symbol of a core American value – freedom. At the same time, 

the story of George Washington admitting to having chopped 

down a cherry tree is also symbolic, representing the 

importance Americans place on personal honesty and 

leadership integrity. 

Force Multiplier

The military services have learned through experience the 

importance of understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20thcentury bipolar world order that dominated US strategy for 

nearly half a century, today the US military is operating in what 

we classify as asymmetric or irregular conflict zones where the 

notion of cross-cultural interactions is on the leading edge of 

our engagement strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive 

feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on 

influencing constructive change through peaceful means where 

possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local 

nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

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CULTURE 
economic institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and 

traditions.

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively 

influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success.

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry 

internally, but also by our behaviors and by the systems 

members of a culture create to organize their lives. These 

systems, such as political or educational institutions, help us to 

live in a manner that is appropriate to our culture and

encourages us to perpetuate that culture into the future. 

We can organize these behaviors and systems into categories 

– what the Air Force refers to as “cultural domains” – in order to 

better understand the primary values and characteristics of a 

society. A cross-culturally competent military member can use 

these domains – which include kinship, language and 

communication, and social and political systems among others

(see chart on next page) – as tools for understanding and 

adapting to any culture. For example, by understanding the 

ways different cultures define family or kinship, a deployed 

military member can more effectively interact with members of 

that culture.

Social Behaviors Across Cultures

While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact 

or even group those behaviors differently across cultural 

boundaries. For example, 

all societies obtain food for 

survival, although agrarian 

societies generally produce

their own food for limited 

consumption using very 

basic techniques.

Conversely, industrialized 

nations have more 

sophisticated market economies, producing foodstuffs for 

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universal consumption. Likewise, all cultures value history and 

tradition, although they represent these concepts through a 

variety of unique forms of symbolism. While the dominant world 

religions share the belief in one God, their worship practices 

vary with their traditional historical development. Similarly, in 

many kin-based cultures where familial bonds are foundational 

to social identity, it is customary for family or friends to serve as 

godparents, while for other societies this practice is nearly nonexistent.

Worldview

One of our basic human behaviors is the tendency to classify 

others as similar or different according to our cultural standard. 

As depicted in the chart 

below, we can apply the 12 

cultural domains to help us 

compare similarities and 

differences across cultures. 

We evaluate others’

behavior to determine if 

they are “people like me” or 

“people not like me.” 

Consequently, we assume 

that individuals falling into the “like me” category share our 

perspectives and values. 

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This collective perspective forms our worldview– how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider 

your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for our actions and a logical 

explanation of why we individually or collectively act in a certain 

manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system sets its universal standards of what 

is good and bad, defines right and wrong behavior, and assigns 

a value of meaningful or meaningless. Our beliefs form the 

fundamental values we hold to be true – regardless of whether 

there is physical evidence to support these ideas. Beliefs are a 

central facet of human culture. They are shared views about 

world order and how the universe was physically and socially 

constructed. 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, right or wrong depends on our deeplyheld beliefs we started developing early in life that have help 

shape our characters. Likewise, 

these values are ingrained in our 

personalities and shape our 

behavior patterns and our selfidentities. Because cultural beliefs 

are intensely held, they are 

difficult, though not impossible, to 

change. 

Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence 

certain behaviors and also serve to 

rationalize those behaviors. 

Therefore, knowledge of individual 

or group beliefs can be useful in 

comprehending or making sense of their activities. We will use 

the iceberg model for classifying culture to illustrate two levels 

of meaning, as depicted. Beliefs and values, portrayed by the 

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deeper and greater level of the submerged iceberg, are seldom 

visible, but are indicated / hinted at / referenced by our 

behaviors and symbols (top level). It is important to recognize, 

though, that the parts of culture that are not visible (under the 

waterline) are informing and shaping what is being made 

visible (above the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews may present behaviors 

that are contrary to our own beliefs, particularly in many 

regions where US forces deploy. Your ability to suspend 

judgment in order to understand another perspective is 

essential to establishing relationships with your host-nation

counterparts. The ability to withhold your opinion and strive to 

understand a culture from a member of that culture’s 

perspective is known as cultural relativism. It often involves 

taking an alternate perspective when interpreting others’ 

behaviors and is critical to your ability to achieve mission 

success. 

As you travel throughout the African Continent, you will 

encounter cultural patterns of meaning that are common

among most African countries. What follows is a general 

description of 12 cultural domains which are used to frame 

those commonalities. 

1. History and Myth

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of 

the past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can 

act as a type of historical record, 

although it is usually a story which 

members of a culture use to explain 

community origins or important events 

that are not verifiable or which occurred 

prior to written language. 

Africa has a history that spans the

entire existence of humankind. In 

ancient times prior to the emergence of 

written languages, history and wisdom 

were preserved across generations and 

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CULTURAL DOMAINS
ethnic boundaries through oral folk legends or myths. Most 

early human evolution began as hunting and gathering cultures 

in East and South Africa, with countries such as Ethiopia, 

Kenya, Tanzania, and South Africa renowned for their early 

human sites. In the last several millennia, the development of 

agriculture and pastoralism (animal herding) replaced hunting 

and gathering lifestyles. 

Ancient civilizations evolved in all corners of Africa, inspired in 

part by peoples from the Middle East bringing trade, beliefs, 

customs, language, and on occasion, colonization. Far from 

being isolated empires, the African civilizations were intimately 

connected by commerce and marriage throughout various 

regions of the continent, and when confronted by outsiders, 

managed to adapt to their influences. Eventually, Arab traders 

introduced Islam to Africa and also instituted the TransSaharan African slave trade that lasted from the 7th to 19th 

Centuries. 

The “golden age” of European exploration, which lasted from 

the 18th to mid-20th century, prompted the wholesale 

exploitation of Africans resources – first human assets through 

slavery, followed by natural resources such as minerals, 

precious gems and 

metals, and wildlife, 

thereby diminishing 

most of what was 

traditional and African. 

The introduction of the 

European Trans-Atlantic 

Slave Trade altered the 

slave trade through both 

the sheer number of 

Africans enslaved and

through the cementing of a racist ideology of Black inferiority to 

legitimize the institution of slavery. Slavery decimated the 

African continent for over 400 years through the forced 

relocation of an estimated 25 to 30 million Africans worldwide. 

This figure does not include those Africans who died aboard 

ships or during capture. While abolition of the slave trade 

dissolved the institution of slavery, it did not end the European 

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presence on the African continent nor did it drastically alter 

their attitudes towards Africans.

Starting in the mid-19th century, European colonialism served 

to redefine African ethnic relations on a large scale; however,

as African societies began to resist colonial rule and seek their

independence, widespread ethnic conflict and genocide

occurred. Sustained westernization and globalization continue

to shape the continent through poverty, disease, and social 

reform. A history still to be recorded, Africa’s future identity 

faces many challenges in critical areas such as environmental 

change, ethnic strife, women’s health and security, and 

education. 

2. Political and Social Relations

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to 

others in their community. 

Traditional African political 

organizations in the form 

of bands, tribes, and 

chiefdoms have existed for 

several millennia and 

continue to influence 

contemporary African 

governments. Uncommon 

in modern society, bands 

are limited to hunting and gathering economies, such as the

!Kung of the southern African Kalahari Desert and foragers of 

central African forests. 

Tribes are still represented today across the African political 

landscape, although the use of the word “tribe” is sometimes 

misinterpreted due to its western notion of “primitiveness” and 

oftentimes substituted with the term “ethnic group.” Lacking 

centralized authority, tribes are organized around segmented 

descent groups or in some cases age groups. 

Everyday governance is discharged through councils of 

respected elders and sanctioned through ritual and other 

means. East African pastoralist groups such as the Maasai, 

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along with some West African tribes and the Berbers in North 

Africa, represent this type of organization. 

Chiefdoms or kingdoms are ruled by kings or queens from a 

royal clan and generally incorporate millions of subjects. 

Kingdoms such as the Zulu or Swazi in southern Africa 

developed through conquest, while others like Ghana’s 

Ashante developed through an association of related traditional 

states. However, colonialism eventually diluted the power and 

reach of these empires, 

whose leaders were often 

retained as indirect rulers 

or figureheads. 

Today, all three of these 

political organizations still 

exist, although in the 

confines of modern African 

nation-states created by 

colonial powers who had little regard or understanding of 

African cultures. This juxtaposition of modernity with tradition 

has caused severe conflict throughout the continent. 

Challenged to construct their respective “national” identities, 

regional leaders attempt to do so by diluting the traditionally 

cohesive power of ancestry. These national ruling elites, who 

derive their power from wealth and commerce rather than tribal 

affiliation, feel threatened by loyalty to these traditional 

organizations, labeling their rule as “tribalism.” 

This “class versus descent” scrimmage for power has resulted 

in conflicts across the continent and a dramatic divergence of 

interests. As a means to overcome these and other issues on 

the continent, a 53-nation federation, the African Union (AU), 

was formed in 2002. AU’s charter is to promote “greater unity 

and solidarity between African countries and peoples” by 

building partnerships in all segments of “civil society.”

3. Religion and Spirituality

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They 

also create social unity by defining shared identity, offer 

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individuals peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in 

a society. Prior to the arrival of Islam and Christianity, the 

African continent consisted of orally transmitted indigenous

religious practices. As in many societies, African indigenous 

beliefs influenced diet, subsistence patterns, family structures, 

marriage practices, and healing and burial processes. In 

essence, Africans constructed their worldview through their 

indigenous religions. 

Today, the African continent

is primarily either Muslim or 

Christian. Other faiths such 

as Judaism and Hinduism 

exist as pockets in different

regions of the continent, 

primarily in urban areas. The 

historical trajectories of 

Islamic and Christian 

expansion in Africa offer intriguing commonalities in how 

Africans across the continent initially reacted to the introduction 

of each of those religions. For example, it is common 

throughout the continent to find a blending of many elements of 

indigenous religious practices with local Islam and Christianity

(Photo a courtesy of Wikimedia).

Consequently, many African native religions share similarities 

with religions such as Christianity, Islam, and Judaism in their 

understanding of God as the creator 

and ruler of all life, although He is 

considered untouchable by humans. 

However, unlike Christianity and 

Islam, many African indigenous 

religions believe that God is not 

directly involved in people's lives. To 

them there is a spirit world 

populated with former good and bad 

human beings. The good spirits 

intercede with God on behalf of their 

living families to whom they then 

relay God's will through dreams and acquired possessions. 

The bad spirits work to bring misfortune through sickness, 

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death, or natural disasters to those who behave 

inappropriately. 

Many indigenous African religions revere "nature" spirits living 

in the sky, water, and forests. These impersonal spirits help 

protect people from harm and provide them with life’s essential 

ingredients such as water, sun, and wildlife. This belief system 

is commonly referred to as animism.

Just as spirits mediate relations between God and humans,

religious specialists act as mediators between spirits and 

humans to provide protection from harm. 

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong 

emotional bonds that influence them to treat each other like 

family members (often called “fictive kin”).The traditional 

African family with respect to marriage, family structure, and 

descent is a much 

different arrangement

than is found in most 

American families. 

Likewise, there are 

several components of 

the traditional African 

family that are common 

to all African cultures. 

First, perhaps the most 

difficult feature to 

reconcile to Americans 

is that of polygyny – the practice of a husband having more 

than one wife. A benefit of this arrangement is that it promotes

societal alliances through marriage, procreation, and family 

wealth through female labor. 

Second, due to polygyny, the family in most African cultures 

has historically consisted of an expanded set of kin or relatives 

that extends well beyond the American notion of a nuclear 

family. This arrangement created a family environment where 

children considered all siblings as “brothers and sisters” and all 

of the wives/mothers as “mother.” 

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Third, the extended African family traces descent through 

either the male or female side of the family, a practice which 

differs considerably from the American family. Patrilineal 

descent (through the male side of the family) is the more 

common approach and usually features polygyny. The

matrilineal (through the female bloodline) marriage pattern is 

more uncommon and almost always features monogamy – it is 

rare to encounter a wife having more than one husband. 

Lastly, it is common for two or more blood lines (lineages) to 

share a common ancestor and collectively form a clan, which is 

the largest social unit. Clans do not have formal leaders or 

organizational structures. Membership is transferred from 

father to child and cuts across ethnic and social boundaries. 

The dramatic social changes in Africa during and after 

colonialism in the last 4 decades have obviously affected the 

traditional family, and variations on these 3 features can be 

found across the continent.

5. Sex and Gender

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive differences between 

males and females, while gender is a more flexible concept 

that refers to a culture’s categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. Gender roles in Africa 

follow no single model nor is there a generalized concept of 

sex and common standard of sexual behavior. 

Prehistorically, gender role differentiation in Africa’s hunting 

and gathering cultures was based on a division of labor 

featuring different, yet complementary, sets of responsibilities 

for males and females, adults and children. Females gathered 

over half the caloric 

needs from natural 

vegetation, while also 

reproducing and raising 

offspring. Males were 

primarily hunters but also 

assisted with gathering. 

These gender patterns 

continued as agricultural 

practices advanced. 

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Females shared in farming while continuing to provide for the 

family’s subsistence, and males produced the cash crops. 

Pastoralists like the Maasai of Kenya traditionally have featured 

males involved in cattle-raising and females in food production. 

The 19th-century European colonial period introduced a cash 

economy into Africa, with female labor used to produce the 

cash crops. By inserting male authority over females, colonial 

administrators disrupted the distinct yet complementary 

male/female relationship that had been traditionally African. 

More recently, western influence across the continent has 

dramatically altered the traditional gender roles. Educational 

and professional opportunities for females, along with 

increased family migrations to urban areas, have radically

altered traditional male and female gender roles. 

Likewise, the number of singles parents and even child- or 

other relative-led families has increased with the predominance 

of HIV/AIDS-related deaths and warfare, further altering 

traditional gender responsibilities. Additionally, ethnic conflicts 

involving abuse of women are prevalent in many unstable 

countries, and while the rubric of traditional African gender 

generally remains, the forces of change are gradually ripping it 

away.

6. Language and Communication

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural 

practice of sharing 

meaning in interaction, 

both verbally and nonverbally. America is 

predominantly a 

monolingual society, 

where traditionally, 

fluency in a second 

language has been 

considered a luxury 

rather than a necessity. 

Conversely, national survival for many societies in Africa 

required them throughout their existence to adopt multilingual 

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practices, if for no other reason than to preserve their native 

heritage. 

You may find it challenging to comprehend the scope of 

Africa’s linguistic diversity. There are over 2,000 African 

languages (many spoken-only) from 6 major language families, 

and perhaps 100 of these languages are used to communicate 

among the more dominant ethnic groups such as Berber, 

Swahili, Yoruba, and others. 

Official languages of African nation-states are few, yet the 

linguistic diversity expressed across the continent (Nigeria has 

250 languages) has prompted an awareness of the value of 

Africa’s linguistic traditions. While most areas of the continent 

speak the adopted language of their colonial past – such as 

French and Portuguese in West Africa, French and Arabic in 

Morocco, and English in Kenya and South Africa – the majority 

of people also speak one or more traditional “indigenous” 

languages of their and other ethnic groups. As African 

independence spread throughout the continent, ethnic groups 

continued to depend on their indigenous identifiers, such as 

language, to celebrate their “release” from colonial rule and to 

preserve a sense of 

indigenous identity. 

While communication 

styles tend to vary by 

ethnic or social groups, 

Africans generally are 

friendly and outgoing 

people although they 

tend to communicate 

with reserve to avoid 

confrontation. As in most kin-based societies, Africans believe 

that saving face or protecting one’s honor and dignity are of 

utmost importance; therefore, they avoid public criticism and 

controversial topics at all costs – even to the extent of 

withholding their honest opinion or modifying the truth. 

Africans admire and even expect extended greetings and small 

talk, and to attempt to rush or avoid social graces is considered 

disrespectful. Similarly, Africans avoid direct eye contact when 

communicating with new acquaintances and people of status, 

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particularly elders. They also are fond of non-verbal gestures, 

and it is common throughout African societies for members of 

the same gender to hold hands or touch while conversing.

7. Learning and Knowledge

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and 

health requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, 

behaviors, and symbols that have meaning to the community). 

This knowledge transfer may occur through structured, 

formalized systems such as 

schools or through informal

learning by watching adults or 

peers.

The contemporary African 

educational system hardly 

resembles the traditional precolonial structure, whereby 

community elders were primarily responsible for preparing 

youth for adulthood. Their instruction included fundamentals of 

ethnic ritual and ceremony, along with customary protocol for 

their distinctive gender roles. A rite-of-passage commemorating 

their successful journey from childhood to adulthood served as 

a form of graduation.

European colonialism brought a more structured, formal 

educational system that catered to a small group of African 

elite who demonstrated potential to administer expanding 

colonial territories. Following independence, many African 

nations adopted the European system because they believed it 

would prepare them to be more competitive in intra-continental 

and global marketplaces, thereby enhancing their quality of life.

However, progress in developing and maintaining reliable 

educational institutions has been slow for a variety of reasons. 

Since most Africans live in rural environments, they continue to 

rely heavily on child labor for family survival, resulting in 

decreased school enrollments or early withdrawals. Likewise, 

widespread HIV/AIDS epidemics, ethnic conflict, teacher and 

resource deficits, and inaccessibility to remote rural areas also 

hamper progress. According to 2005 statistics, only half of the 

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continent’s children were enrolled in primary school, leaving 

over 40 million African children without any schooling at all. 

8. Time and Space

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that 

are not directly linked to physical survival. In low-context 

western cultures, people tend to be preoccupied with strict time 

management, devoting less effort to relationship-building. 

Conversely, most African cultures are traditionally high-context 

societies, whereby people center their activities on socializing 

and establishing close associations, having little regard for the 

passage-of-time. 

Only after establishing trust and honor will your typical African 

counterpart agreeably proceed with business. In his worldview, 

time is a precious commodity used to establish relationships 

and form alliances. Any 

attempt to accelerate the 

tempo at the expense of 

social pleasantries will 

likely result in deadlock. 

To an African, close 

physical proximity between 

individuals encourages 

cooperative trust, and for 

centuries they have 

viewed human linkage as 

a core element to survival. This closeness is best represented 

in a traditional African village where strong kinship connections

are evidenced by a display of close interpersonal relations 

among family members. 

While conventional African concepts of time and space remain 

intact, throughout the continent western influence and 

globalization have stepped up the pace of African living, mostly 

in urban areas. Consequently, rural-to-urban migrations have 

reshaped traditional social and subsistence patterns. 

9. Aesthetics and Recreation

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Prior to 19th-century European colonization of Africa, 

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recreation served a vital subsistence role, whereby adolescents 

and adults alike participated in intellectually stimulating 

leisurely activities that concurrently served to develop essential 

hunting and pastoral skills.

Games of chance and skill were important to early childhood 

development, providing social outlets within and outside their 

community. Featuring 

wrestling, jumping and 

running; traditional African 

sport was steeped in 

religious ritual.

Along with colonialism 

came the introduction to 

Africa of western sports 

such as soccer, cricket, 

rugby and track and field. This emphasis on western sport 

continued to thrive with African independence and 

globalization, as seen in sporting events such as the Olympics 

and the World Cup. 

Leaders such as Nelson Mandela skillfully employed sport to 

promote a unified South African nation. Importing the 

predominantly “white” game of rugby, Mandela used it to fuse a 

racially divided country following his election in 1992. This 

event is the theme of the motion picture “Invictus,” exemplifying 

how sport can serve to create national identities and overcome 

ethnic division. His efforts 

have inspired many other 

African nations to follow 

suit.

Likewise, East African 

countries such as Kenya 

and Ethiopia have 

produced the world’s 

dominant male and 

female distance runners, 

and South Africa, Cameroon and Nigeria emerged as strong 

contenders in the 2010 World Cup. African nations are now 

competing in leagues such as the International Basketball 

Association (FIBA) World Championships, and there is also a 

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growing number of African basketball players on US college 

campuses and in the National Basketball Association (NBA). 

10. Sustenance and Health

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures and economics. Theories of disease 

and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness. 

Despite having only 11% of the global population, Africa is a 

victim of many of the world’s debilitating health disorders. 

According to the World 

Health Organization, 60% of 

the global HIV/AIDS cases 

and 90% of malarial 

diseases occur in Africa. 

These and other medical 

conditions are attributed 

primarily to viral infection 

and widespread poverty 

caused by extreme climatic 

conditions and civil unrest, coupled with inadequate 

preventative measures. While extensive drought generates 

widespread famine, civil disturbances generate millions of 

displaced persons. Likewise, with only 58% of the SubSaharan African population having access to safe drinking 

water, water-born bacterial diseases 

such as cholera and schistosomiasis

are common.

Many people in Africa lack access to 

western medicine, and as a result 

depend on traditional health 

practices to combat disease. In 

addition, some traditional beliefs run 

counter to western medical practice

and perhaps discourage individuals 

from utilizing those services even 

when they are available. This 

problem is further intensified by lack of federal regulatory 

healthcare management. 

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While modern healthcare procedures are more common in 

urban areas, many rural people rely on traditional practitioners 

who use a variety of plants and herbs to treat patients. 

Similarly, many families have their own secret remedies. While 

in some cases traditional medicine proves effective with fewer 

side effects than modern drugs, traditional practices do not 

adequately treat many of the more serious conditions.

On a positive note, western influence has stimulated some 

progress in combating Africa’s health crisis. More resources 

are devoted to achieving basic human security by assessing

disease symptoms early and with scientific accuracy. 

11. Economics and Resources

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and 

services. Traditionally having an agrarian-based economy, 

Africa today remains predominantly agricultural, featuring less 

industrialization than 

most other parts of the 

world. Post-colonial 

adversities such as civil 

war, disease, poverty,

and unstable 

dictatorships posed 

unusual hardship on

several young African 

nations; however, 

Africa currently stands 

at the cross-roads of economic development with many nations 

becoming some of fastest growing regions in the world. 

Colonialism institutionalized the exploitation of Africa’s mineral 

resources, resulting in today’s oil industry dominating the 

economic market in several coastal regions. A surge in global 

oil prices; a growing African middle class; and reduction in civil 

wars, foreign aid, and inflation collectively promise a more 

positive outlook for the future.

Countries such as Botswana, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt, and 

South Africa are economically the wealthiest on the continent, 

with regions such as East Africa showing signs of economic 

stability. Despite the economic upswing, much of sub-Saharan 

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Africa’s future economic prosperity is held hostage by 

devastating diseases such as AIDS, particularly in areas of 

southern Africa, and the growing effects of climate change and 

man-made environmental degradation throughout the 

subcontinent. 

12. Technology and Material

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. Africa lags far behind most of the world in 

manufacturing capacity and output. Even the more 

economically-developed nations such as South Africa are 

competitively weak when compared to non-African 

industrialized nations. During the 1970s and 1980s, Africa 

experienced some growth in raw exports although this increase 

did little to boost long-term manufacturing capacity. 

Today, Africa is experiencing an actual decline in 

manufacturing capacity due primarily to a lull in the global 

economy, along with other indigenous issues such as 

environmental stress, poor physical and organizational 

infrastructure, and a 

shortage of skilled 

personnel. Likewise, 

African manufacturing 

capacity is no match 

against global powers 

such as China and 

significant Southeast 

Asian markets. 

International aid from 

both governmental and non-governmental organizations has 

helped African nations establish preliminary economic 

footholds. For example, many of them have dedicated 

industrial developmental zones to attract foreign investment 

and increase export-related manufacturing capacity, although 

Africa is far removed from having a significant role in the global 

marketplace in the foreseeable future. 

Now that we have introduced general concepts that

characterize African society at large, we will now focus on 

specific features of Mauritanian society.

GENERAL

CULTURE 
Historical Overview

The pre-colonial history of the West Saharan region [which in 

contemporary times consists of Mauritania, Mali, and the 

Maghreb (coastline and mountain areas of Moroccan, Algerian, 

and Tunisian)] and was transmitted through the generations

mostly as oral legends and is somewhat vague and incomplete. 

Archaeological findings indicate that the indigenous Black 

African Bafour tribe constituted Mauritania’s original inhabitants

who supported a flourishing yet loosely-connected society 

consisting of hunters, pastoralists, and fishermen. There are 

also indications of Roman commercial activity, particularly in 

western and northern parts of the country.

The Bafour are considered the ancestors to coastal Imraguen 

fishermen and Soninke agriculturalists and traders who,

sometime around the 8th century, founded West Africa’s 

earliest known civilization, the Ghana Empire (discussed 

below). Similarly, the Bafour coexisted alongside valley 

cultivators who were likely the indigenous ancestors of West 

Africa’s riverine Toucouleur and Wolof ethnic groups. (The 

Riverine region is a narrow 

belt along the Senegal River 

valley in the South, where 

soil and climatic conditions 

permit settled agriculture).

Moor Migration

Climatic changes and

excessive grazing and 

cultivation are believed to 

have resulted in the Sahara’s

gradual desert-terrain formation, forcing the Bafour to begin 

migrating southward to the Senegal River Valley (photo 

courtesy of Pro Quest 2011). Between the 3rd and 7th

centuries, Moors, who were a blend of Arab and Berber 

1. HISTORY AND MYTH

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

HISTORY &

MYTH
lineages, migrated from North Africa into the northern West 

Sahara region. Originating along North Africa’s Mediterranean 

coast in present-day Morocco, the Berbers coexisted with 

Arabs who invaded the North African region in the 7th century

despite having a long history of bitter rivalry. Moor infiltration 

further accelerated the southward migration of many remaining

Bafour inhabitants, although the Moor migrants absorbed some 

of the remaining Bafour population as vassals.

In their own language, Moors call themselves Bidhane 

(Bidhany, singular), meaning “Bedouin” or desert nomads. Also 

existing as traders, they traveled by camel caravans carrying 

West African slaves, gold, salt, and ivory north to present-day 

Morocco and Algeria in exchange for goods such as copper 

and cloth. Important trading posts were established in 

Chinguetti, Wadan, Walata, and Tichitt. 

The Ghana Empire

The Moors formed the Sanhadja Confederation, a lucrative 

trading operation which reached its height during the 8th 

century. In the 10th century, however, the Sanhadja 

Confederation succumbed to 

the Kingdom of Ghana. This 

vast society extended from 

southwestern Mauritania, 

western Mali, and along the 

eastern border of Senegal.

The rise of the Ghana 

Empire (depicted left in green 

at its greatest extent) marked 

a shift in West Africa from 

small political organizations 

grounded in village life to 

large political institutions that 

controlled vast geographic regions. The Empire capitalized 

upon the Moorish merchant industry, gaining wealth from the 

sustained exportation of gold, ivory, and salt. Market surpluses 

allowed urban centers to develop, where inhabitants could live 

comfortably through specialized occupations.

Berber Invasion

In 1076 the Almoravids, a group affiliated with a rival Islamic 

Berber dynasty in the North, conquered much of the West 

HISTORY &

MYTH
Sahara region, dismantled the Ghana Empire, and introduced 

Islam to the region. While the indigenous Black African

civilizations continued to dominate the South for a time, the 

Almoravids eventually conquered southern Mauritania, 

displacing much of the 

indigenous population to other 

parts of West Africa. The map, 

courtesy of Wikimedia, depicts 

the Almoravid Dynasty at its 

greatest extent. Archeological 

ruins indicate that the 

southernmost oasis town of 

Aoudaghost was part of 

southern Mauritania.

While Islam became the 

singular external influence that 

actually unified the country, 

Islamization was a gradual 

process which spanned more than 5 centuries (see Religion & 

Spirituality). Similarly, this gradual Islamization was 

accompanied by Arabization, as the Berber masters of 

Mauritania would eventually relinquish power to Arab warlords.

Arab Invasion

Consequently, over the next 500 years, the Arabs challenged

Berber dominance and during the Mauritanian 30-Year War 

(1644-74), the Berbers succumbed to Maqil invaders (a 

collection of Arab Bedouin tribes of Yemeni origin) led by the 

Beni Hassan tribe. The descendants of Beni Hassan warriors 

became the upper stratum of Berber society who retained 

influence by producing the majority of the region's marabouts –

West African scholars of the Sufi tradition (see Religion & 

Spirituality). Hassaniya, an oral Arab dialect having Berber 

influence, derived from the Beni Hassan tribe and became the 

dominant language among the largely nomadic population (see 

Language & Communication). Within Berber society, a social 

hierarchy emerged, yielding a "white" Arab aristocracy and 

indigenous “black” slaves (See Political & Social relations).

Colonial Era

From the 15th to 19th centuries, the Europeans established 

commercial relations with Mauritania – the Portuguese were

HISTORY &

MYTH
the first Europeans to arrive. Their explorations involved 

exchanging their commodities for gold, slaves, and gum arabic 

(a natural gum harvested from indigenous trees and used as a 

stabilizer in the food industry). Ensuing competition for regional 

control among various European powers allowed Mauritania to 

maintain its independence throughout much of the colonial era.

Eventually, France gained sovereignty over the Senegal River 

and the Mauritanian coast, an action which the Congress of 

Vienna (the post-Napoleonic War settlement authority)

acknowledged in 1815. Penetration beyond the coast and the 

Senegal River began in earnest under Senegal’s French 

Governor Louis Faidherbe (pictured, courtesy Wikimedia) in the 

mid-19th century, although 

European conquest of 

Mauritania did not actually occur 

until the early 20th century.

France established a 

protectorate over present-day 

Mauritania, recognizing it as a 

separate entity from Senegal in 

1904. In 1920 France declared

Mauritania a colony and one of 

six official territories belonging 

to the French West African 

Federation. Although the history 

of French colonialism in 

Mauritania is closely tied to the other French colonies in West 

Africa, the French did not apply a strict policy of assimilation 

and direct rule in Mauritania. 

The French tended to pattern their approach by the British 

model of indirect rule where Mauritania remained a colony 

under a French caretaker force with some functions of 

governance delegated to local indigenous leaders. Similarly, 

since direct European engagement began late in Mauritania’s 

history, its traditional social structure was perpetuated with little 

disruption through the colonial period and beyond. 

Independence

During colonization the French imposed legal prohibitions 

against slavery and curtailed inter-ethnic rivalries. 

HISTORY &

MYTH
Consequently, indigenous Black Africans

whose ancestors were expelled during 

previous conquests began to trickle back 

into southern Mauritania. France granted 

the country its independence in 1960. 

The nation elected Moktar Ould Daddah

(pictured) as its President and positioned 

the capital city Nouakchott in a small 

colonial village. For the most part, the 

country’s population remained mostly 

nomadic. 

With independence, larger numbers of ethnic Sub-Saharan 

Africans (Haalpulaar, Soninke, and Wolof) entered Mauritania, 

occupying the area north of the Senegal River. Educated in 

French, many of these new arrivals pursued professions as

clerks, soldiers, and administrators in the new state. 

Daddah held office for 18 consecutive years, during which time

he nationalized the iron mines and created Mauritania's own 

currency (ouguiya) to replace the French franc. Daddah also 

acquired the southern 

third of Western Sahara 

(Morocco claimed the 

northern two-thirds) in 

1975, after Spain withdrew 

from the territory. 

The Polisario Front, a 

guerrilla force favoring 

independence for Western 

Sahara, soon began 

attacking the Mauritanian 

capital city Nouakchott (pictured, courtesy Wikimedia) and the 

country's railroad. Costs associated with the war, combined 

with severe droughts and lower global demand for iron ore, 

undermined Daddah's popularity. Overthrown in 1978 and 

imprisoned until 1979, Daddah left the country, followed by

Mauritania relinquishing its claim to Western Sahara.

Ethnic Conflict

Maayouia Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya (pictured next page, courtesy 

Wikimedia) came to power in 1984 via a bloodless coup and 

HISTORY &

MYTH
established military rule. Taya's initial 

actions proved popular: he normalized 

relations with Morocco, expressed 

neutrality in the ongoing Western 

Sahara conflict, and held elections for 

municipal councils. The Moors reacted 

to this array of post-independence

events by attempting to insert Arab 

influence in much of Mauritanian society, 

particularly legal affairs and language. 

Conflicting interests developed between those who considered 

Mauritania an Arab country (mainly Moors) and those who 

promoted a dominant role for the Sub-Saharan indigenous 

groups. 

In April 1989, this inter-ethnic discord eventually erupted into

violent outbreaks known as the "1989 Events.” In response, 

Taya's regime supported the killing or torture of Black Africans 

in the Riverine region. Furthermore, since many of these native 

Mauritanians shared ethnic ties with Senegalese inhabitants, 

Taya’s administration expelled many of these perceived 

“foreigners” from their homeland. Many fled to Senegal to 

escape the violence.

Because of Taya’s human rights violations, a number of 

Western governments threatened to suspend foreign aid, which

in 1991 influenced him to repatriate some of the expelled Black 

Africans. He further sponsored democratic reforms to help him 

get elected to the Presidency in 1992, although opposition 

parties disputed his victory. Full multiparty elections for the 

National Assembly were held in 1996, with Taya's Democratic 

and Social Republican Party (PRDS) winning nearly every seat. 

In December 1997, Taya was reelected President, capturing 

90% of the vote, although once again major opposition groups 

refuted his election. He won the 2003 presidential elections 

with 67% of the vote. 

In August 2005 Taya was disposed in a bloodless military coup 

while attending the funeral of Saudi Arabia’s King Fahd. 

Opposition parties and Taya's own PRDS voiced support for 

his removal. Colonel Ely Ould Mohamed Vall established the 

ruling Military Council for Justice and Democracy as the 

country’s ruling body. The council dissolved the Parliament and 

HISTORY &

MYTH
appointed a transitional government, which quickly adopted a 

2-year timetable to establish democratic rule. Successful 

parliamentary elections were held in November 2006 and free 

and transparent presidential elections occurred in March 2007. 

A new democratically elected government under President Sidi

Mohamed Ould Cheikh Abdallahi

(pictured left, courtesy Wikimedia) – the 

first in 29 years – was inaugurated in 

April 2007. 

In August 2008 General Mohamed Ould 

Abdel Aziz (pictured below, courtesy of

Wikimedia) seized power in another 

bloodless coup d'etat after President 

Abdallahi dismissed him and three other 

senior military officers. Aziz had Abdallahi 

placed under house arrest, while the country was officially 

administered for 8 months by a 12-member High State Council 

composed of military officers. The Africa Union condemned the 

coup and demanded the return to constitutional order and 

legality. For the first time in Mauritania’s history, the coup 

encountered considerable national 

and international governmental 

opposition. 

In April 2009, Aziz resigned from the 

government and the army and 

announced his presidential 

candidacy in upcoming elections, 

which were boycotted by main 

opposition leaders and ultimately 

rescheduled. A Government of 

National Unity was instituted in June

2009, followed by President Abdallahi's voluntary resignation in 

compliance with the Dakar Accord, an act which officially

served to restore constitutional rule. Aziz scored a first-round 

victory in July 2009 elections, which was officially recognized

by the international community.

Folklore and Myth

Folk tales traditionally were passed through the generations 

orally and used to reinforce moral values and perpetuate

history and traditions (see Learning & Knowledge). 

HISTORY &

MYTH
Official Name

• Islamic Republic of 

Mauritania

Capital

• Nouakchott

Political Borders

• Western Sahara: 

970mi

• Algeria: 288mi

• Mali: 1390mi

• Senegal: 505mi

• Atlantic Ocean: 469mi

Features

• Situated in West Africa, Mauritania covers close to 398,000 

square miles and is about the size of Texas, Oklahoma, and 

Kansas combined – the world’s 29th largest country. 

• Most of the population is concentrated in the coastal cities of 

Nouakchott and Nouadhibou and along the Senegal River.

• The Senegal River and its tributaries are the only inland 

waterways.

• Fishing grounds along the coast are among the richest in the 

world, and along with iron ore mined in the North, comprises

one of the country's two primary natural resources.

• The terrain is generally flat with an indented coastline and 

divided into three distinct geographic regions: 

− The Riverine is a narrow agricultural belt along the

southernmost Senegal River Valley.

− North of the Senegal River valley lies the semiarid Sahel, 

a broad east-west bank characterized by vast sandy

plains and fixed dunes anchored by sparse grass and 

scrub trees. This area is most suitable for herding.

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
− Encompassing 2/3 of the country, the northern Saharan 

region consists of a variety of terrain features, from arid 

desert to rugged mountainous plateaus rising over 1,500 

feet. 

• Climatic conditions are mostly hot and dry with daytime 

temperatures reaching over 100°F in May (the peak month).

Similarly, dusty harmattan winds (West African trade winds)

from the Northeast are common in these areas. Coastal 

areas are cooler although more humid than other parts of the 

country. Winter temperatures are also noticeably cooler.

Flag

It consists of a green 

background with a yellow 

five-pointed star above a 

yellow, horizontal crescent. 

The color green and the two 

symbols traditionally 

represent Islam, while the 

gold color symbolizes the sands of the Sahara Desert.

Political Power

Mauritania’s Constitution provides for a multi-party Republic

containing three branches of government – executive,

legislative, and judicial – with a legal system anchored in its

French colonial structure or Code of Law. It subsequently was 

modified to include Islamic (shari’a) institutions and practices.

Formerly under singleparty rule from 1960 

independence until 

1978, the government

drafted the existing

Constitution in 1991 and 

transitioned to a

democratic government

in 1992 (see History & 

Myth). The Constitution 

guarantees freedom of

opinion, expression, assembly, press, and affiliation with any 

political or trade union organization. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Regional Dynamics

Modeled after the French system of local administration, the

central government’s Ministry of Interior appoints governors 

and prefects to oversee the 13 respective regions (wilaya)

including the capital district, 

Nouakchott. Control is tightly 

concentrated in the executive 

branch, although since the 1992

democratic reform, a series of 

national and municipal elections 

have produced some 

decentralization. For example, 

villages elect their own 

community councils who govern 

local matters.

Executive Branch

Chief-of-State: the President 

serves as both chief-of-state 

and commander-in-chief of the 

armed forces; he is elected by 

popular vote for a 5-year term and eligible for a second term –

currently, Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz (elected to his first term in 

2009). 

Prime Minister: Functions as head-of-government and 

appointed by the President – currently Yahya Ould Hademine

(since 2014).

Cabinet: a Council of Ministers is appointed by the Prime 

Minister and chaired by the President. 

Legislative Branch

The Legislature consists of a two-chamber Parliament.

Senate (Majlis al-Shuyukh): consists of 56 members elected by 

municipal leaders to 6-year terms, with a portion of seats up for 

election every 2 years.

National Assembly (Al Jamiya Al Wataniya): consists of 95 

seats whose members are elected by popular vote for 5-year 

terms. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Judicial Branch 

The Judiciary consists of a Supreme Court, Court of Appeals, 

and lower courts.

Defense

Mauritania’s defense force is estimated to consist of about 

16,000 personnel with an additional 5,000 paramilitaries. About 

15,000 strong, the Army encompasses battle tank, armored 

reconnaissance, motorized infantry, commando, and artillery 

capabilities among others.

The Navy (Marine 

Mauritanienne) has just 

over 600 personnel to 

include naval infantry and

a small fleet of patrol and 

coastal combatants with 

ports at the country’s two 

largest cities, Nouadhibou 

and Nouakchott. The small 

Air Force (Force Aerienne Islamique de Mauritanie, FAIM) 

consists of about 250 personnel and a small fleet of multi-role 

(fighter, reconnaissance, transport, and trainer) aircraft. The 

paramilitaries report to the Ministry of the Interior and are 

divided in the National Gendarmerie (3,000) and the National 

Guard (2,000).

Equipment Upgrades: Historically, Mauritania has invested 

little in weapons systems procurement despite a need for major 

systems’ overhaul. Equipment in all military segments remains 

outdated. Prior to 1991, Libya and Iraq were Mauritania's major 

arms suppliers, and during the 1991 Gulf War, Mauritania was 

allegedly the custodian for some of Iraq’s military inventory. 

The current status of that equipment is unknown. 

The primary source for defense acquisitions since the 1990s

has been through European suppliers, mostly in the form of

naval patrol vessels used to protect offshore fisheries. China 

and India also have emerged as suppliers of cheap, basic 

equipment for the Air Force and the Navy. While the bulk of 

Army's battlefield equipment was acquired in the 1970s and 

1980s, in 2005-06 a large delivery of Al-Thalab long-range 

patrol vehicles from Jordan has helped to enhance land 

mobility and firepower.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Relations with the US

The US was the first nation to recognize Mauritania officially 

upon its independence in 1960, although relations between the 

two countries have undergone several transformations since 

then. From 1960 to 1967, the US maintained cordial relations 

with Mauritania, providing some economic assistance. During 

the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, Mauritania broke diplomatic and 

consular relations with the US for aligning with Israel, although

connections were restored and maintained until the late 1980s.

The violent “1989 Events” (see History & Myth) again brought 

strained US-Mauritanian relations, along with Mauritania's 

suspected alliance with Iraq during the 1991 Gulf War.

By the late 1990s, relations with the US improved and US 

support was reinstated as Mauritania assumed a moderate 

stance to include 

favoring the West 

over Iraq (see History 

and Myth). However, 

the partnership was 

disrupted when in 

2005 and again in 

2008 military coups 

led to unconstitutional 

assumptions of power 

in Mauritania (Photo: 

Mauritanian officers

attend opening ceremony of the Africa Endeavor 2011, which is 

USAFRICOM’s primary communications interoperability 

exercise).

Eventually, democracy and bonds with the US were once again 

restored in 2009 with the signing of the Dakar Accords (see 

History & Myth). Thereafter, the US has partnered with the 

Mauritanian government on a variety of initiatives such as 

counterterrorism cooperation, food security, commerce 

exchange, and a strengthening of democracy and human 

rights.

Trans-Sahara Counter-Terrorism Initiative (TSCTI)

The TSCTI is a US government interagency initiative to combat 

terrorism in Trans-Saharan Africa. The military component of 

TSCTI is executed through Operation Enduring Freedom –

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Trans Sahara. The goal of TSCTI is to “counter terrorist 

influences in the region and assist governments to better 

control their territory and to prevent huge tracts of largely 

deserted African territory from becoming a safe haven for 

terrorist groups." 

Capitalizing on the successful 2003 Pan Sahel Initiative to 

neutralize terrorist safe havens in Africa, the TSCTI officially 

commenced with Exercise Flintlock 2005, with US special 

operations forces training counterparts in 7 Saharan countries 

on regional security and stability practices. Its primary objective 

is to deny terrorists the ability to move freely throughout the 

sparsely populated Saharan region (Photo: Mauritania Army 

Captain and Dan 

Hatcher, project 

manager at the 

Gendarme Training 

Range in Bamako, 

Mali prepare for 

Exercise Flintlock 

2007).

Similarly, TSCTI

aims to facilitate 

cooperation among

the Pan-Sahel countries – Mauritania, Mali, Chad, and Niger –

as well as Nigeria and Senegal and its Maghreb partners –

Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia – in combating terrorism. 

Security Issues

Opposition Groups: Previously known as Group Salafist for 

Prayer and Combat (GSPC), the al-Qaeda in the Islamic 

Maghreb (AQIM) is an Islamic terrorist group with ties to AlQaeda. Notorious for kidnapping Western tourists and holding 

them hostage in the barren Sahel region (predominantly in 

Mauritania, Mali, Niger, and Algeria), AQIM initially organized in 

an attempt to overthrow the Algerian government and establish 

a Muslim state. A highly publicized event occurred in 2003 

when the former GSPC transported 15 European touristhostages into northern Mali – one died while the other 14 

subsequently were released to Malian authorities. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
In September 2009 amid increasing concern about the 

activities of AQIM, military leaders from the four Sahel 

countries agreed on a plan for cooperation in combating 

terrorism and cross-border crime. They established a joint 

military command headquarters in the southern Algerian town 

of Tamanrasset, where the army chiefs from the four countries 

agreed to coordinate intelligence-gathering and patrols in 

border areas. Following further abductions of foreign nationals 

in Mali and Mauritania, in January 2010 the two countries 

agreed to strengthen further their security cooperation.

In late July 2010 Mauritanian troops, supported by the French 

armed forces, conducted an operation against AQIM militants 

who were allegedly plotting an attack against Mauritania. 

Several militants were 

killed in the raid, along 

with a French hostage, 

who in April had been

abducted in Niger.

In February 2011, 

another suspected AQIM 

plot was preempted in 

Mauritania when soldiers 

detected a car packed 

with explosives outside 

the capital of Nouakchott. Military forces had been tracking the

faction’s three-car convoy as it traveled from Mali to 

Mauritania. The Mauritanian soldiers fired upon the convoy, 

resulting in injuries to seven soldiers and the deaths of three 

suspects. Consequently, the continued presence of AQIM in 

the isolated northern desert region of both countries poses a 

threat to Western travelers.

Tensions with Senegal: The “1989 Events” with Senegal 

provoked a crisis that resulted in the two nations suspending 

long-standing diplomatic relations (see History & Myth). Hopes 

for a speedy settlement were undermined in late 1990 when 

Mauritanian authorities accused Senegal of complicity in an 

alleged attempt to overthrow Mauritania’s Taya administration. 

While this situation was subsequently resolved with the 

repatriation of refugees who had fled to Senegal, another 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
dispute between the two neighbors developed in 2000 over 

joint Senegalese River water rights. The dispute escalated 

when Mauritanian authorities recalled all of their citizens living 

in Senegal. Similarly, they issued a 15-day deadline to the 

estimated 100,000 Senegalese nationals living in Mauritania to 

leave the country – both demands were later rescinded. The 

two countries’ heads-of-state settled the water rights issue and 

have since reestablished strong bilateral relations.

Tensions with Mali: In the 1990s Malian authorities asserted 

that Malian Tuareg (desert nomads) and Moor refugees 

residing in Mauritania were launching raids on Malian territory. 

Malian troops had, in turn, crossed into Mauritania in pursuit of 

the rebels. Consequently in 1993, the two countries established

a demarcation of their joint border, followed by signing an 

agreement for the eventual voluntary repatriation of Malian 

refugees from Mauritania. The Tuareg refugee camp in 

Mauritania closed in mid-1997, following the repatriation of 

about 42,000 Malians. In January 2005 the two nations’ 

Presidents signed an agreement on military co-operation 

intended to strengthen border security. Positive relations 

between the two nations have been 

cemented further by their cooperative 

efforts in combating Trans-Saharan 

terrorist activities.

Relations with Libya: Former Libyan 

leader Muammar Qaddafi (pictured)

was known to have patronage 

networks with rebel groups in 

neighboring African countries. From 

the time he gained power in 1969, 

Qaddafi used Libya’s oil revenues to 

promote himself as heroic defender of 

the repressed and prospective leader 

of a unified Africa.

In 2007 Mauritania established bilateral relations with Libya, 

followed by the acceptance of Mauritania’s application to join 

the Libyan-sponsored Community of Sahel-Saharan States at 

the organization’s 10th summit in 2008. Several bilateral 

agreements were signed during a February 2010 meeting of 

the joint committee on cooperation in Nouakchott. Similarly,

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Mauritanian President Ould Abdel Aziz undertook a three-day 

state visit to Libya later that month.

Crime: Mauritania’s moderate crime rate has been steadily 

increasing in recent years. Theft is fairly prevalent in its urban 

centers along with incidences of rape and assault.

Ethnicity

Mauritania has been described as a bridge between the 

continent’s Arabic North and its Black African South. 

Consequently, most Mauritanians identify themselves as either 

Arab or African. With an annual 2.4% growth rate, Mauritania

has a population of about 3.2 million and has the world’s 3rd

lowest population density next to Mongolia and Namibia. 

Traditionally an agrarian 

society, a majority of the 

population continues to subsist 

from agriculture and 

pastoralism. 

The Arab-speaking Moors are 

descendants of North African 

Berbers and Middle Eastern 

Arabs who migrated to the 

present-day Mauritania and, in 

effect, controlled the region

(see History & Myth).

Of mixed Arab and Berber

descent (see History & Myth), 

most Moors remain desert 

herders in the North’s Sahara 

Desert. Collectively, they form a majority of the population 

(70%) – White Moors (Bidan) comprise 30% and Black Moors 

(Harratin, which are a mixture of Moor and Black African

heritages) make up the remaining 40%.

Of note, this Moor division is based as much or perhaps more 

on socialization and descent as actual skin color (see Status

below). For example, the Black Moors were largely of servile 

origin because of their partial non-Arab indigenous Black 

African heritage, while the aristocratic White Moors became 

their slave masters. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
The country’s indigenous 

Black African inhabitants 

form the remaining 30%

of the total population.

They consist largely of 

the Wolof and Pular 

(which are Senegal’s two 

largest ethnic groups)

and a few Soninke, 

Fulani, and Bambara 

from Mali and other 

neighboring countries. 

These and other kinbased groups occupying 

the Senegal River Valley

all share various ethnic and linguistic traits. They are mainly 

sedentary cultivators or herders concentrated in the southern 

Riverine region (depicted shaded area, courtesy of Wikimedia). 

Social Relations

Moors tend to be serious and reserved, while Black Africans 

generally are more vibrant and out-going. As a society, 

Mauritanians value friendship, kinship bonds, honesty, 

politeness, modesty, and respect for elders. Social status, 

which is largely determined by family lineage, often takes 

precedence to material wealth. 

Mauritanians are genuinely loyal to their respective ethnic or 

kin group, and the needs of the community overshadow those 

of the individual (see Family & Kinship). Poverty and a low 

living standard are offset by communal sharing. Muslims are 

generally fatalistic, which means they accept their destiny as 

Allah’s (God’s) will, assuming they have little control over world 

events. They tend to accept hardships in their lives without 

question or intervention. Similarly, they typically associate 

modernization with Westernization, which many elders consider

a threat to traditional Islamic values.

Mauritanians value interpersonal relations and are generally 

friendly and approachable. They admire small talk, whether 

with close friends or new acquaintances, and to a Mauritanian, 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
it is imperative to get to know his colleagues personally prior to 

conducting business with them (See Time & Space).

Status

Traditionally, the ethnic groups occupying West Africa were 

integrated parts of one or more indigenous empires which

basically shared a common class structure. Social status was 

pre-determined and sustained through heritage (race) with 

occupations assigned accordingly. At the top of the spectrum 

were free nobles and commoners to include warrior clans 

(Hassanes) and pious religious leaders (Marabouts, Zouaya, or 

Tolba). Next were casted people or craftsmen (M’allmin), 

artisans, and entertainers (Griots or Igawen), followed by freed 

people (former slaves) and slaves. In some areas fishermen, 

salt miners, and nomadic hunters and cultivators (Zenaga) fell 

at the lower end of the spectrum – even below freed slaves.

Unlike many Western cultures where personal achievement is 

possible and even encouraged, a Mauritanian’s ascribed social 

standing traditionally has been unalterable. However, with 

Western influence, social boundaries have become blurred in 

contemporary society, particularly in urban areas where 

modern trends have 

redefined some traditional 

professions (see Family & 

Kinship and Sex & 

Gender).

Slavery: Functioning as 

an inherent feature of the

caste structure and racial 

divide, slavery has been a 

persistent issue in 

Mauritania for centuries.

The local Arab elite (Berbers or White Moors) have maintained 

their dominance over Mauritania’s Black Moors and indigenous

Black African or non-Arab inhabitants by enslaving them. 

Traditionally, the maintenance of African chattel (move with the 

owner) slaves (EHrateen) has been viewed as fundamental to 

the Arabs’ continued social and economic dominance and the 

stability of their social institutions. The term “A’beed” is used to 

refer to “current slaves,” although it is a sensitive term banned 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
by law though not by religion. While legislation to abolish 

slavery exists in Mauritania, it has been loosely enforced in 

some areas. Even today, slavery remains an inherent element 

in some Mauritanian households, with an estimated 100,000

people currently enslaved.

Social Etiquette

Visiting: In most kin-based societies, visiting is fundamental to

maintaining social harmony within the family unit and the 

community-at-large. Consequently, Mauritanians have a 

relaxed view of time compared to Westerners (See Time & 

Space) and value relationship-building. 

Mauritanians visit each other regularly, for several hours, and 

oftentimes unannounced, particularly in rural areas where 

telecommunications are not widely available. Much visiting 

occurs in the cooler outdoors. Similarly, house guests are 

known to remain for several days and will bring gifts from their 

home region. 

Invited guests: When invited to a Mauritanian’s home, guests 

commonly remove their shoes before entering. Following initial 

greetings, the host offers them refreshments. Guests usually 

present their host with an inexpensive gift in appreciation for 

the hospitality. Later, the host serves the traditional mint tea in 

three ceremonial servings (see Sustenance & Health). Guests 

are obligated to graciously accept refreshments as to decline 

could be offensive. Although many Mauritanians may live in 

poverty, they are charitable

people whose hospitality is a 

genuine gesture (Photo: a 

Moor man uses a charcoal 

burner to brew tea, courtesy 

of Pro Quest 2011).

Greetings: Socially, 

greetings express genuine 

respect for the other person.

A handshake and warm 

wishes for the health and wellbeing of a counterpart and his 

family are common when meeting someone (see Language & 

Communication and Time & Space). 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
As the world’s first declared Islamic Republic, Mauritania is 

predominantly an Islamic nation (100%) although about 4,500

Roman Catholics, mainly non-nationalists, reside in the 

country. There is a single Catholic diocese located in the 

capital city of Nouakchott. While a 1991 constitutional 

provision granted the establishment of political parties, they 

are prohibited from opposing Islam. Similarly, the government 

considers any religious practitioner who attempts to convert 

Mauritanian Muslims to another faith as a threat to society.

Consequently, Islamic institutions and practices continue to 

dominate Mauritanian society.

Muslim Faith

Origins of Islam

Islam dates to the 6th

century when God’s final 

prophet, Muhammad, 

was born in Mecca in the 

current country of Saudi

Arabia. Muslims believe 

that while Muhammad 

was meditating in the 

desert, the Archangel Gabriel visited him over a 23-year 

period, revealing the Qur’an, or the “Holy Book,” to guide their 

everyday life. Comparable to the Holy Bible for Christians and 

the Torah for Jews, the Qur’an represents a core belief that 

helps shape Muslims’ lifelong values (Photo courtesy of 

Wikimedia: Chinguetti Mosque – see description below). 

Meaning of Islam

Islam means “submission to the will of God” and acceptance

of His wisdom. As with the other dominant faiths, Islam is 

more than a religion to its adherents – it is a way of life. 

Muslim Sects

Islam is divided into two divisions: Sunni and Shi’a. 

Mauritanian Muslims are predominantly Sunni of the Maliki 

School (the second largest of four Sunni religious law schools)

and are distinguished by their belief that the leader (Caliph) of 

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
the Muslim community (Ummah) should be elected. 

Conversely, the Shi’a believe the Muslim leader should be a 

direct descendant of the Prophet Muhammad.

Five Pillars of Islam

There are five basic principles of the Muslim faith that all

Muslims accept and follow. 

• Profession of Faith (Shahada): “There is no god but God

and Muhammad is His Messenger.”

• Prayer (Salat): Muslims 

pray five times a day 

facing toward the Ka’aba 

in Mecca. The Ka’aba is 

considered the center of 

the Muslim world and a 

unifying focal point for 

Islamic worship.

• Charity (Zakat): Involves 

an obligatory tithe or donation of alms to the poor.

• Fasting (Sawm): Involves abstaining from food, drink, 

and sexual relations from sunrise to sunset during holy 

month of Ramadan (30 days).

• Pilgrimage to Mecca (The Hajj): Every adult Muslim who 

is physically and financially able is expected to perform at 

least one in a lifetime. 

Shared Perspectives

Many Islamic tenets parallel the other two major world 

religions, Judaism and Christianity. In fact, Muslims consider 

Christians and Jews “people of the Book,” referring to biblical 

scriptures, because they share their monotheistic belief in one 

God. 

Abraham: All three faiths trace their lineage back to 

Abraham, known as Ibrahim in Islam. However, Christians 

and Jews trace their line back to Abraham, his wife Sarah, 

and their son Isaac; while Muslims believe that they descend 

from Abraham and his Egyptian concubine, Hagar, and their 

son Ismail.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Scriptures: Much of the content in the Qur’an is similar to 

teachings and stories found in the Christian Bible’s Old and 

New Testaments. However, Muslims believe Christians 

distorted God’s word and that Muhammad received the true 

revelation of God (Photo 

courtesy of Wikimedia: Qur’an 

collection in a Chinguetti 

Library – see description 

below). Consequently, Muslims 

view Islam as a completion of 

previous revelations to Jewish 

and Christian prophets. 

Jesus: The three religions 

differ significantly regarding the

role of Jesus. While Christians 

consider Him the divine 

Messiah who fulfills the Jewish 

Scriptures, Jews are still 

waiting for the Messiah to 

come. Muslims recognize Jesus as having been a prophet, 

but do not acknowledge the Christian view of His divinity. 

They do not believe in the Christian Trinity.

View of Death: Muslims, like Christians, strongly advocate 

the afterlife. Muslims believe that the time of death, like birth, 

is determined by Allah. Thus old age, illness, or accident are 

not considered the real causes of death. While people grieve 

the loss of family members or friends, they do not view death 

itself as a negative event. As with Christians, Muslims believe 

that a person who lived a good life goes on to live in Heaven.

Concept of Jihad

The concept of Jihad, or inner striving, is a fundamental 

element within Islam. Traditionally, it is the principled and 

moral pursuit of God’s will to lead a virtuous life. It should not 

be confused with the publicized violence often associated with

Jihad. Most Muslims are strongly opposed to terrorism, 

considering it contrary to Islamic beliefs. 

Ramadan

Ramadan is a month-long time for inner reflection, selfcontrol, and focus on God. During this time, Muslims who are 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
physically able are required to fast from dawn to sunset. Many 

Muslims believe that denying their hunger tempers them to 

learn self-control, appreciate the difficulties of the poor, and 

gain spiritual renewal – by fasting, one learns to appreciate 

the good in life. It is common for Muslims to break their fast at 

sunset with a light meal of dates followed by prayer and then 

dinner.

Ramadan occurs during the 9th month of the Islamic calendar

(see Time & Space) and observes 3 Islamic holy days.

• Lailat ul-Qadr: Known as “The Night of Power,” it 

commemorates Muhammad receiving the first verses of the 

Qur’an. 

• Eid-al-Adha (Tabaski): It is the “Festival of Sacrifice” and

acknowledges Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son, 

Ishmael (Isaac according to the Christian faith), as proof of 

his loyalty to God. It is celebrated on the day the Hajj ends. 

• Eid-al-Fitr (Korité): It is a 3-day “Festival of Fast-Breaking” 

celebrated at Ramadan’s end.

Islam in Mauritania

The Almoravid Berbers 

introduced Islam on a 

large scale to the West 

Saharan region in the 11th

century (see History & 

Myth). Since its infusion, 

Islam has functioned as a 

unifying influence. Defined 

as a Muslim nation, the 

Islamic Republic of Mauritania depends on its singular 

religious belief system for its national identity (Photo courtesy 

of Pro Quest 2011: an ancient Qua’ran manuscript found in a 

Chinguetti library – see description on next page).

Sufi Tradition: In contemporary Mauritanian society, most 

Muslims continue to claim affiliation with a Sufi order, which 

ranks among the country’s major institutions. Characterized 

by mysticism and ritualistic prayer, Sufi brotherhoods (tariqas) 

spread into West Africa from Morocco in the 16th century and 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
have traditionally exerted signifcant political influence. Of 

note, Sufis are not fundamentalists.

Believed to hold divine powers, brotherhood leaders 

(marabouts) serve as spiritual intermediaries between God 

and the common populace. A marabout is usually a direct 

descendant from an order’s founder and is therefore heir to 

his forefather’s divine grace (baraka). By spanning ethnic and 

cultural boundaries, these brotherhoods contribute to the 

development of a broad communal identity. By the 1980s two 

brotherhoods, the Qadiriya and the Tijaniya, accounted for 

most brotherhood membership in Mauritania. Both groups 

basically hold similar beliefs, although dissimilar practices. 

Chinguetti: Known 

as the 7th holy city of 

Islam, the desert town 

of Chinguetti was a 

17th and 18th-century 

religious and 

intellectual center

whose libraries today 

house hundreds of 

Islamic manuscripts. 

Similarly, Chinguetti

was a waypoint for 

Muslims conducting their spiritual pilgrimage to Mecca. While 

the desert’s shifting sands have all but buried the city, a few 

buildings still remain uncovered – most notably a famous 

13th-century mosque. Today the Chinguetti Mosque is on the 

World Monuments Watch List of the 100 Most Endangered 

Sites (Photo courtesy of Wikimedia: Hamoni Library in 

Chinguetti).

Indigenous Religions

Islam in Mauritania is greatly influenced by traditional 

indigenous religious practices which existed long before the 

Muslim faith was introduced to the African continent in the 7th

century (see History & Myth). Often referred to as “Africanized 

practices,” a blending of indigenous African religious beliefs 

with fundamental Islamic or Christian customs is common 

throughout Africa. This traditional belief system is rarely based 

on sacred doctrine but mostly on oral traditions passed 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
through several generations. It embraces nature worship and 

the existence of ghosts, spirits, and supernatural powers. 

Animism

Some Mauritanians practice animism or the belief that natural 

forces have power over human existence. This concept 

embodies the notion that natural objects such as trees and 

animals are sacred and must be respected – a conviction that 

closely connects them to the natural environment. 

Consequently, their reverence towards nature drives their 

methods for adapting to their surroundings. For example, 

some animists suggest that nature spirits use their divine

sense of the cosmos to guide their agricultural lifestyle and 

thereby enhance crop growth.

Ancestor Spirits

Similarly, most traditional African religions also promote the 

notion of a supreme being who is creator of the universe.

There also exist other lesser Gods and Goddesses.

Embodied in this faith is the conviction that ancestor spirits

occupy certain places (particularly shrines) and have great 

power and influence on the daily lives of family members.

They in turn seek mediation with the spirit world through 

ordained ministers empowered with mystical insight.

While many ancestor spirits are 

believed to bestow blessings, 

others render curses instead. 

Bad spirits are believed to be 

the authors of environmental 

disaster such as drought and 

epidemic diseases (see 

Sustenance & Health). In order 

to protect themselves from 

these evil spirits, clan members 

rely on psychics or traditional 

healers such as a Sufi 

marabout to intercede with the spirit world and use their divine 

powers to relieve people of hardship. Similarly, some 

inhabitants wear sacred charms or amulets to dispel evil 

spirits (Photo courtesy of Wikimedia: a Kiffa bead believed to 

have magical powers – see text box below).

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Supernatural Powers

Mauritanians are known to blend their traditional myths 

and beliefs with their Muslim religious practices, 

producing an interesting hybrid of spirituality and 

philosophy. Many Mauritanians practice Sufism, a 

branch of Islam that promotes mysticism and the 

supernatural power of the spirit world. Mauritanians rely 

on zawya or marabouts (holy men) to bridge the gap 

between the human element and Allah or the spirit 

world. These marabouts are endowed with baraka 

(divine grace) and are able to shield others from harm 

or bless them with prosperity. 

Similarly, inanimate objects such as Kiffa beads, 

named after their city of origin, traditionally have been 

used both for aesthetic purposes and for their magical 

powers. Intricately formed from powdered glass, Kiffa 

beads are believed to protect a wearer against the evil 

eye (a glance believed to cause injury or bad luck and 

directed at another person based on envy or distaste). 

Especially effective are those of a triangular shape 

(locally known as selkrass and bouzrem) because they 

represent a stylized “good” eye having the power to 

provide protection from the “evil eye” or harm. Some 

kiffa beans are believed to produce water for desert 

dwellers and others promote fertility.

The colors of the beads have symbolic meanings. 

White means purity, which is appropriate for young 

girls. Similarly, yellow symbolizes friendliness, while 

blue represents blessings from heaven. Colors 

combined with certain geometric forms convey certain 

meanings. A light blue bead symbolizes the infinite 

universe; a green circle is expected to bring hope or 

prosperity; and a yellow bead represents the sun.

Mauritanian women frequently wear these beads as 

hair ornaments, with triangular kiffa beads traditionally 

worn in groups of threes portraying a combination of 

blue, polychrome, and red colorations.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Family Organization

The family unit remains the singularly most important institution 

throughout many African societies. Mauritania is a kin-based

society, implying that social and political connections and 

obligations derive from family ties. Similarly, group wellbeing 

takes precedence over individual achievement, and decisionmaking is reached through group consensus. Traditionally, the 

Mauritanian family unit functions as an informal welfare system

that ensures all its members are sustained to include 

cousinages or close inter-ethnic 

relations. 

In rural areas, extended family 

units are large, consisting of 10

or more persons. These units

typically include parents, their

male offspring and families, any 

remaining unwed siblings, and 

other members of the husband’s

family (elderly parents, uncles, and aunts). Large families are

considered a benefit in agrarian societies and foundational for 

providing a dependable work force and building cohesive 

communities. Conversely, in urban areas single nuclear

(parents and offspring) households are more common and tend 

to be physically segregated from the extended family – a 

lifestyle that generally reflects the urban environment’s wage 

labor, educational opportunities, and entrepreneurship. Despite 

geographical separation, extended family bonds remain intact.

Male Authority

Mauritania is a patrilineal and patrilocal society, which means

authority and inheritance occur through the male bloodline and 

the extended family resides near or with the elder male headof-household. The father is considered the head of the family, 

followed by the eldest son. The male leader, normally the 

oldest, is considered the most competent and therefore

manages communal property and affairs. In Muslim societies, 

the elderly (both male and female) generally enjoy great 

respect. It is common for two or more lineages to share a 

common ancestor, collectively forming a clan. Clans within a 

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
village exist as clusters of single-family households sharing a 

compound (described below). Clan members interact by 

sharing land and engaging in inter-clan marriages. 

Motherhood Reverence

Motherhood is revered in Muslim society, where a woman’s 

status is determined by the number of children she bears,

especially sons (see Sex & Gender). Mothers symbolize peace 

and harmony, and elderly women in particular are consulted 

regarding communal decisions. 

Dating 

Courtship is uncommon in rural Muslim societies where 

arranged marriages remain customary – a couple typically 

accepts parental judgment in coordinating their union with 

partners from within the kin group or clan. Consequently, 

individual choice of spouse is hardly a concern, nor is romance.

In urban areas, Western-style dating, romance, and marriage 

are more popular practices particularly among the youth. 

Marriage

Under the prevailing value system, all adults are expected to 

marry and procreate; however, it is not unusual to find 

unmarried women, particularly among the white Moors. Muslim 

women are not allowed to marry non-Muslim men, although

Muslim men are known to 

marry women of other faiths. 

At marriage a woman joins her 

husband’s paternal kin group.

Mauritania is known for some 

rather unique marriage 

customs. For example, it is 

common for family and friends 

to hide the bride from the groom during their first or second 

evening of marriage. Similarly, the new bride and groom tend 

to display reserve when in the presence of elders. It is also 

forbidden for women to refer to their husbands by their first 

name. Instead, the woman usually refers to her husband as 

“he.”

Rural: As in most kin-based cultures, marriage in rural 

Mauritania traditionally represents family alliance and serves as

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
a social contract to ensure the continuation of family traditions. 

Marriages between cousins are a preferred method for 

preserving ethnic lineages. It also facilitates communal support, 

particularly under harsh living conditions. 

Urban: With Western influence, some urban marriages 

generally occur between two consenting adults who have 

reached a more mature age and are likely more educated than 

their rural counterparts (see Learning & Knowledge). While the 

couples choose to marry, they normally seek parental 

permission to preserve extended-family unity.

Bridewealth: Unlike a dowry, in which the woman brings

material value to the marriage, a bride price is compensation 

from the prospective groom to the bride’s family for loss of her 

and her forthcoming children’s labor. Because it could be 

reimbursable in a divorce, bridewealth tends to discourage 

marriage dissolution.

Female Beauty: In traditional 

Mauritanian society, obese

women are considered 

attractive. Particularly in rural 

areas, parents are known to 

force their young daughters to 

gain weight in order to render 

themselves acceptable candidates for marriage. Some girls 

have been forced to drink significant amounts of fat-rich milk

daily to gain weight. This custom is infrequent in urban areas,

where the health risks associated with overeating are highly 

publicized and tend to discourage the practice.

Polygyny: According to Islamic law, a husband is allowed to 

have up to four wives although he is required to equally provide 

for them all. Similarly, each wife must consent to any additional

wives. While polygyny remains customary among Mauritania’s 

Black African community, most Moor marriages are 

monogamous. Conversely, polyandry or the practice of a 

woman having more than one husband is prohibited. 

These traditions are anchored in the notion that historically

men had a higher mortality rate than women, many of whom 

remained unwed or were widowed. Consequently, polygyny 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
became a necessary means of providing for women and 

producing large families (work force). Similarly, a man with 

multiple wives is considered to rank among the elite, as only 

the wealthy can afford large households. 

Still common in rural areas, polygyny is less popular in 

contemporary urban society where sustaining multiple 

households is cost-prohibitive. Similarly, some urban women 

refute the status of secondary spouse, although rural women 

tend to appreciate the mutual support from multiple wives.

Divorce

Divorce is more common in Moorish relationships than in the 

traditional Black African communities. If a divorce is the fault of 

the husband, it is common for the wife to keep the bridewealth. 

According to Muslim tradition, the father is granted custody of 

the children, although smaller offspring remain with the mother.

Under this latter circumstance, the husband is obliged to 

support the mother and children until they are grown. 

Housing

While rural northern homes typically are constructed from rock

with a clay roof, most rural homes in the South are made of 

mud bricks and thatched roofs. Nomadic families live in large 

camel-hair tents, which are elaborately decorated on the inside. 

In the South, Fulani herders live in ruga, temporary domeshaped huts. Urban homes tend 

to have more concrete.

Throughout the country, a high 

wall usually surrounds the family 

compound. While a home 

typically has at least three rooms, 

the size usually conforms to that

of the extended family. Running 

water is rare in rural areas, and even in urban areas, its 

availability can be irregular during the hot season. Cities have 

electricity, although power outages are common. 

Rites-of-Passage

The following rites-of-passage ceremonies mark life’s various 

stages.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Birth & Infant Care: Newborns in Muslim societies represent 

the family’s future and are traditionally the primary interest in a 

marriage. Elders typically provide childcare within the extended 

family, with the first born child usually tended by the 

grandmother and aunts. While women usually care for children 

during infancy, the men become more involved in nurturing 

children as they mature. Infants are rarely separated from 

adults and are nearly always 

carried. 

Of note, it is taboo in 

Mauritanian society to inquire 

about a woman’s pregnancy or 

when her baby is due, as public 

acknowledgement of her 

condition could bring a curse 

which might harm the baby (see 

Religion & Spirituality: Indigenous Religions). It is acceptable to 

inquire about the woman’s health in general. 

Circumcision: The village marabout (religious leader) usually 

circumcises rural boys around age 3 or immediately after birth 

when it occurs in an urban hospital. Female circumcision is a 

common method for recognizing womanhood, although this 

practice is known to be medically risky and is less popular in 

urban areas (see Sex & Gender). 

Adulthood: Traditionally, male and female passage from 

childhood to adulthood is marked by initiation, which typically 

involves marriage and the symbolic passing of knowledge from 

the old to the new generations. 

Death: Muslims customarily bury their dead within 24 hours.

The women of the immediate family usually prepare the body 

for burial, which is performed by the men of the household. The 

women remain at home to pray and grieve during the burial. 

Members of the family and close friends pray through the night 

to ensure safe spiritual passage into the afterlife. In urban 

areas, the male family members and friends pray at the 

mosque together. If a prominent person has passed away, 

prayers are sometimes broadcast over the mosque's 

loudspeaker. In the days following the death, people who knew 

the deceased offer condolences and gifts to the family. 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Sexual Relations 

Largely as a result of Western influence, sexual perspectives

are changing in many African societies. In these traditionally 

male-dominated cultures, sexual relations primarily have 

served to produce offspring, although gradually as gender roles

have altered (particularly as a 

result of social advancements for 

women), so have perspectives

regarding romance and marriage

(see Family & Kinship). Similarly, 

urbanization and educational 

opportunities have stimulated a 

rise in monogamous marriage 

patterns, particularly among youth 

and the elite who tend to view 

status as based on professional 

achievement rather than family 

size.

Gender Roles

In traditional Mauritanian families, 

labor generally is divided by gender, with men considered the 

breadwinners and women the domestic caretakers. It is not 

uncommon for the male head-of-household to commute to 

urban areas for employment. Consequently, many women are 

also responsible for conducting agricultural activities or helping

earn portions of the family income.

Children

Young children are assigned duties, whereby girls typically 

care for younger siblings and perform household chores, while 

boys work as farm laborers and tend livestock. Traditionally, 

only males received an education as females were considered 

to be mentally inferior (see Learning & Knowledge).

Female Freedom

Some of the more conservative Islamic societies believe it is 

imperative for women to live nearly secluded lives. When in 

public, they are to wear a full-body covering to protect their 

honor and purity. Conversely, many West Africans societies do 

5. SEX AND GENDER

SEX &

GENDER
not conform to this traditional practice. Mauritanian women in 

particular enjoy a degree of freedom which permits them to 

openly conduct business in the marketplace and influence 

family decisions in the home. As they age, women gain greater 

respect and authority, both at home and within the community. 

Gender Issues

While Mauritania’s Constitution prohibits sexual discrimination, 

in practice the country remains a male-dominated culture

where a variety of social prejudices work to undermine 

enforcement of gender equality. Traditionally, men have 

dominated the economic, political, social, and religious realms.

Equal Employment: In general, women are less represented 

than men in professional occupations, although urban women 

have more opportunities to gain an education and advance 

professionally. Women are underrepresented in the formal 

sector and therefore do not have access to some of the more 

prestigious positions within the judiciary and civil service, 

among others. Overall, women are significantly more involved 

in the economy than they were 30-40 years ago, resulting in 

their improved standard-of-living.

Childhood marriages: While many African countries have 

enacted laws to limit marriage to a minimum age of 16-to-18 

(depending on jurisdiction), traditional customs allowing 

children to marry at a premature age remain widespread. In 

2004 about 28% of Mauritanian girls were married, divorced, or 

widowed. 

In many African tribal 

systems, particularly in 

Muslim societies, a family 

oftentimes forces a young 

girl into marriage prior to 

reaching puberty in order 

to earn her bridewealth 

(see Family & Kinship). 

Many of these forced marriages involve polygynous 

relationships and are usually poverty-related; therefore, the 

parents use the bridewealth to help support the extended

family. Unfortunately, these practices commonly lead to serious 

medical and social issues, most notably complicated 

SEX &

GENDER
pregnancies due to underdeveloped reproductive organs and 

sexually-transmitted diseases such as HIV/AIDS. Despite the 

gravity of this situation, many African governments have

ignored the implications.

Female circumcision: Traditionally practiced throughout 

Africa, female genital mutilation (FGM) remains common in 

rural Mauritanian society, although less so in urban areas. 

About 75% of Mauritanian women have undergone FGM. 

Regarded as a rite-of-passage initiation into adulthood, FGM is

considered necessary for rendering a young woman an 

attractive candidate for marriage and perhaps her only means 

of securing a viable future. Unfortunately, traditional FGM 

practitioners generally lack medical training, sometimes

resulting in severe complications or death. 

Domestic Violence: While men are legally prohibited from 

physical violence against their wives, spousal abuse does 

occur. These instances often go unreported likely because of 

the wife’s financial and social dependence on her husband. 

Similarly, rape and other forms of sexual abuse are prevalent.

Overeating: An Arab tradition promotes the notion that 

heavyset women represent feminine beauty (see Family & 

Kinship). Consequently, Moorish families are known to force

their daughters to overeat. An

estimated 25% of young girls are still 

subjected to this abuse, although

reduced by half in recent years 

through publicity of harmful effects.

Other Issues: Other concerns 

include slavery, trafficking of 

persons, child labor abuses, and 

prostitution. While these practices 

are illegal in Mauritania, they still 

exist predominantly in urban areas.

Polygyny: (see Family & Kinship).

Inheritance: While Mauritania’s constitution upholds the 

inheritance rights of women, Islamic (shar’ia) law normally 

establishes a female’s entitlement as less than a male’s. 

Daughters, for example, inherit only half the share of sons.

SEX &

GENDER
Official Language

Mauritania’s 1991 Constitution designates Hassaniya Arabic (a 

mixture of Arabic and Berber which is spoken by the Moorish 

majority) as the official language. Modern Standard Arabic

(MSA) is a language for instruction (along with French) in the 

public school system. Similarly, the national languages of the 

respective indigenous Black African ethnic groups include 

Pular, Wolof, and Solinke. Theses indigenous groups are also 

French-speaking, with French widely used in commercial and 

business circles among the educated elite. 

Language Barrier

In the decades following Mauritania’s 1960 independence, 

language became a barrier to establishing a national identity. A 

sizeable number of Mauritania’s Black African population

protested what they perceived as a Moorish scheme to hamper

Black African advancement by mandating Hassaniya Arabic as 

the language for secondary education. While Arabic is the 

language of choice among the Moors, many Black Africans

gained their primary-level instruction in their respective 

indigenous languages and French. Consequently, they had 

minimal exposure to Arabic prior to entering secondary school. 

Consequently, school dropout rates mounted, resulting in a

1999 national reform 

program that established 

an equitable standard of 

instruction (see Learning 

& Knowledge). 

Communication Style

Mauritanians generally 

are outgoing and friendly

people who enjoy 

engaging in conversation, 

both with acquaintances and strangers. They interact with 

dignity and respect for the other person, avoiding confrontation 

and display of anger in most situations. As in other societies, 

Mauritanians commonly express themselves using a variety of 

both verbal and non-verbal gestures. For example, a

Mauritanian typically makes a clicking sound with the tongue to 

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
acknowledge he is listening attentively or agrees with the 

speaker. To disagree, he draws air through the teeth with 

pursed lips.

Greetings

Mauritanians value greetings, and neglecting or rushing the 

welcoming process is considered disrespectful. While a simple

“hello” is usually adequate in Western cultures, throughout 

Africa and Mauritania in particular, the greeting process is more 

elaborate and lengthy. 

Verbal: The most common initial greeting is Salaama

alaykoum (Peace be with you), with a response of Wa 

alaykoum salaama (And peace be with you). Moors typically

say Lyak labass (On you no evil), and the response is Labass

(No evil). The Soninke greeting is An moho (hello) and the 

response is Jam (I am fine). For the Wolof, it is Nanga def, and 

the response is Jam rekk. Among Pulaar speakers, the first 

speaker says M'bda and is responded to with Jam tan. 

Throughout Mauritania, Il humdu li'llah (Praise be to God) is a 

standard response to good news. Members then exchange 

details regarding each other’s health and wellbeing and that of 

respective family members.

Nonverbal: When meeting each other, Mauritanians of the 

same gender commonly shake hands gently and then place

their right hand over their heart. In most kin-based societies, 

personal space is normally closer that in many Western 

cultures (see Time & Space). Consequently, Mauritanians tend 

to stand much closer while 

conversing than you may be 

accustomed to. Similarly, 

they often hold hands while 

conducting extended 

conversations.

In most Muslim cultures, 

members of the opposite 

sex do not normally shake 

hands or touch and typically remain publically segregated. In

more contemporary urban areas, it is more common for a 

woman to extend her hand to a male counterpart, particularly in 

professional settings. Of note, Moor women normally do not 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
shake hands with foreign men. Rule of thumb for a male 

counterpart in this situation: assume a passive approach, 

responding in kind with reserve and modesty.

It is proper protocol for the elderly or a person of status, such 

as a village chief, to initiate the handshake. In response it is 

proper to slightly bow the head as a sign of respect. When

greeting an elder or a person of status, a Moor may place the 

elder's right hand on his own head as an act of respect and 

submission. Mauritanians do not establish eye contact with 

elders nor do they usually address them by name.

Titles

While friends normally converse on a first-name basis, new 

acquaintances exchange greetings using title and surname 

(last or family name). When introducing yourself as a US 

military member to a host-nation counterpart for the first time, it 

is appropriate to use rank along with first and last name, for 

example, Major Shawn Smith. Thereafter, use rank and last 

name. Similarly, when establishing a social relationship with 

the local people, it is best to wait until invited before using only 

their first name. 

Gestures

• In Islamic societies, the left hand is reserved for 

hygienic purposes and considered unsanitary 

(although with Western influence, this restriction 

has declined in importance in urban areas).

o It is best to use the right hand in social settings.

• Pointing with the index finger is perceived as 

impolite – it is proper to point with the entire hand.

• As a gesture of respect, it is customary not to 

establish direct eye contact with an elder or person 

of status.

o Direct eye contact is appropriate among 

members of the same status or age and friends. 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Discussion Topics

After the initial greeting, Mauritanians will often inquire about 

each other’s health, job, or family; thereby spending a few 

minutes in "small talk.” Asking about family members indicates 

sincerity and is an important part of the greeting process. For a 

newcomer, it is considered proper to show interest in your 

counterpart’s background. Mauritanians are proud of their 

heritage and honored to share their history, which they are 

known to convey using oral traditions, riddles, and proverbs 

(See Aesthetics & Recreation and Learning & Knowledge).

It is best to avoid discussing potentially sensitive or 

controversial topics such as politics, religion, status, and sexrelated themes. While some Mauritanians are open to 

discussing some of these topics, it is difficult to gauge in 

advance their views about them. In all situations, a foreign 

national should not debate opposing views with a host national.

Criticism and Humiliation 

The concept of constructive criticism is not viewed positively in 

much of African society. It is therefore best to avoid giving 

public criticism – if you need to approach an issue critically, it is 

best to do so privately. Individual criticism in the presence of a 

person’s peers could result in a loss of face – a serious insult to 

a host national. 

Friendship

It is important for US Forces to 

understand that forging 

relationships is a complex and 

refined process, and it may 

require several visits to gain 

mutual understanding and trust

(See Political & Social Relations and Time & Space).

Mauritanians value friendships and honor guests with warm 

hospitality. However, it is important to be mindful that in Muslim 

cultures, men and women do not normally socialize together. 

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil/resources/index.aspx for 

language training resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Translations

English Hassaniya French

Do you speak 

English?

Wash tatehder 

inglizia?

Parlez-vous anglais?

Where are you 

from?

Anta min fayn De quell pays ètesvous?

I’m from ... Ana min ... Je viens de ...

Hello Salam alaykoum Bonjour

Good-bye Mah salaama Au revoir

Good morning Sabah elkhir Bonjour

Good afternoon N/A Bon après-midi

Good night Messa elkhir Bonsoir

Welcome Merhba Bienvenu

Yes / No Ahey/Abdei Oui / Non

OK Wakha OK

What is your name? Smitek? Comment vous 

apelez-vous?

My name is__ Ismee __ Je m’appelle __

How are you? Ishtaree Comment vas tu?

How is your family? Kidayra La’aila Comment va la 

famille?

I’m fine Bikhir labass Je vais bien

And you? Wa anta? Et vous?

Sorry (forgive me) Afwan Pardon

You are welcome Hada wajib (Afwan 

also works)

Je vous en

Please / Thank you Layhefdek/Shukraan S’il vous plait /Merci

When? Emta? Quand?

Yesterday Yaames Hier

Today Ilyom Aujourd’hui

Tomorrow Subh Demain

Next week Semana jaya La semaine 

prochaine

Later Hta Lmenba’ad Plus tard

Excuse me Smeh li Excusez-moi

I don’t understand Ana mush fahim Je ne comprends pas

What time is it? Waqt shin hoo? Quelle heure est-il?

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy: Age 15 and over who can read and write

• Total population: 51% 

• Male: 60% 

• Female: 43% (2000 estimate)

Traditional Education

Prior to the introduction 

of formal school 

systems, children were 

educated at home where 

they learned a variety of 

occupational skills 

devoted to supporting 

the family unit. Children 

would become 

apprentices to their parents or other adult family members.

Even today in rural areas, some children remain at home to 

learn family-related skills and help support the family. 

Traditional Islamic Education

With the introduction of Islam in the 11th century (see History & 

Myth), traditional Islamic centers began to emerge in nomadic 

communities where students were taught traditional religious 

doctrine among other subjects. Many of the centers developed 

sizable manuscript collections through the efforts of prestigious

marabouts (see History & Myth “Arab Invasion” and Religion & 

Spirituality “Islam in Mauritania”). 

The tradition of religious learning centers continued through the 

late colonial period. The Institute of Islamic Studies, founded in 

1955 at Boutilimit (located about 100 miles southeast of the 

capital city Nouakchott), became the only Islamic institution of 

higher learning in West Africa where it provided instruction in 

traditional Islamic doctrine and teaching methods. After 

independence in 1960, it was moved to Nouakchott, where it 

continued to draw upon Boutilimit’s manuscript collection as 

well as other libraries of traditional Islamic literature in 

Chinguetti, Kaédi, Mederdra, Oualâta, and Tidjikdja (see 

Religion & Spirituality).

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Modern Education

The French colonial administration established the public 

education system in Mauritania which was largely concentrated 

in sedentary communities located in the Senegal River Valley. 

Because public schools were concentrated in the South, the 

Black African community eventually dominated the nation's 

secular educational community. The few French schools that 

were established in 

northern nomadic areas 

initially failed to attract 

notable participation. The 

Moors in particular were 

reluctant to acknowledge

public schools as credible 

and continued to favor 

purely Islamic instruction. 

Gradually, they began to 

enroll their children in public schools, realizing that traditional 

religious training alone would not sufficiently prepare them for 

20th-century modernization (Photo courtesy of Wikimedia: 

young Mauritanian boys taking Qur'an lessons from wooden 

tablets). 

Following independence the government institutionalized

secular education as a means of promoting national unity and 

advancing a modern economy. Since school attendance 

initially was not mandated as compulsory, enrollment rates 

remained low (about 35%) through the mid-1980s – male 

attendance far outnumbered females. 

Education System

A uniform system of compulsory education was introduced in 

1999. The system is based on the French model with classes 

taught in a combination of French and Hassaniya Arabic (see 

Language & Communication). Hassaniya Arabic is the 

language of instruction for first-year primary schools students, 

with French added for second-year students. 

Primary and Secondary Education: The system provides for

6 years of primary education beginning at age 6, followed by 7

years of secondary education where students start learning 

English during their first secondary year. Secondary education 

is divided into two segments based on the French model: the 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
first is referred to as "College" (4 years) and the second is 

known as "Lycée" (3 years). During their 3rd year, students 

have the opportunity to learn an additional foreign language. 

They also take a qualification exam to determine if they will 

continue the additional 3 years of secondary school (Lycée) or 

pursue a vocational track. In their last year of secondary 

school, students specialize in either the arts or sciences and 

take a Baccalaureate exam to determine their qualifications for 

university attendance.

Attendance: About 75% of all children enter primary school

with only about 15% enrolling in secondary school. The sharp 

decline in attendance at the secondary level is primarily 

because many predominantly rural residents consider school 

as irrelevant to their daily activities. Attendance is also affected 

by the need for children to help support the family and a 

distrust of secular education, among other factors. The gap 

between female and male literacy has narrowed in recent years 

as a result of government campaigns encouraging families to 

keep their girls in school. For example, by 2005 enrollment of 

girls in primary school slightly outnumbered that of boys.

Higher Education: Established in 1981, the University of 

Nouakchott is renowned for its superior academic standards to 

include its strict admission criteria and is known to attract 

students from abroad. Areas of instruction include both the 

humanities and technical fields.

Oral History

African folk legends traditionally were the first media 

used to reinforce moral values and perpetuate traditions 

– they continue to thrive particularly in rural areas. A

unique occupation popular in West Africa is that of the

griot (géwél in the Wolof language). Considered skilled 

craftsmen, griots recite history through songs, stories, 

dances, or poems for their community or clansmen. 

Similarly, the town griot records memorable events and 

is therefore responsible for preserving and teaching 

history. 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Concept of Time and Space

As in most African societies, Mauritanians have a relaxed view 

of time compared to Westerners and do not have a strict regard

for time management and punctuality. Most African kin-based 

societies tend to be more concerned about human interactions 

and relationship-building and are generally patient and tolerant.

Flexibility: Similarly, Mauritanians are flexible when 

unforeseen circumstances such as no transportation or family 

illness result in a delay or extended absence. This attitude 

does not mean they are not committed to their occupations – it 

just signifies that in many African societies, personal issues

often take precedence over all other commitments. 

Personal Space & Eye Contact: When speaking with a casual 

acquaintance, Mauritanians typically maintain a closer personal 

space than you may be 

accustomed to and tend to avoid

direct eye contact (see 

Language & Communication). 

Space between Friends:

Similarly, close friends of the 

same gender are considerably 

more affectionate with one 

another, have closer spatial relations, and usually touch while 

conversing. It is normal for them to hold hands or walk arm-inarm. These gestures signal friendship and to back away could

cause offense. Mauritanians value relationships, and close 

friends have great influence on situational outcomes, more-so 

than in American culture (see Language & Communication). 

Taking Photos: Mauritanians generally value their privacy and 

expect outsiders to respect this privilege. It is therefore wise to 

ask permission to photograph local citizens, landmarks, and

government sites. 

Conducting Business

Mauritanians prefer to build relationships prior to conducting

business so that the needs of both sides are well understood 

and mutually beneficial outcomes are easier to achieve. This 

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
approach can be a time-consuming process, so consequently,

foreign nationals should demonstrate patience, humility, and an 

interest in local culture in order to foster relationships.

Mauritanian Work Week

As in Western cultures, the Mauritanian work week begins on 

Monday and ends on Friday, although many retail businesses

are open every day. Business hours typically are from 0800-

1930 hours and includes an extended lunch break. Hours may 

vary in the summer, particularly in cities, and during the holy 

month of Ramadan. Since Friday is the Muslim worship day, 

most businesses have a longer lunch period to accommodate 

prayer time. Government offices and banks are usually open 

from 0800-1600 Monday-Thursday and 0800-1300 on Friday. 

The Islamic Calendar

The Islamic calendar is used to determine the proper day to 

celebrate religious holidays and festivals. It is a lunar calendar 

and contains 12 months, although it is 11 days shorter than the 

Western or Gregorian calendar. As a result, from one year to 

the next, Islamic holidays fall 11 days earlier on the Western 

calendar than the previous year. 

Negotiations

• It is best not to expect immediate decisions, as 

reaching agreement usually requires follow-on 

discussions and negotiating for mutual benefits.

• Disagreements should be handled in a calm, 

diplomatic manner void of emotion.

• It is helpful to find ways to compromise, even if it 

results in delays, and seek mutual outcomes. 

• It is good to remember that most Africans are 

patient and tend to consider time on their side.

• If the negotiation involves cost for an item, you 

may have to bargain (a common practice in 

shopping markets), so it is advisable to initially 

name a lower price than you are willing to pay.

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

Mauritania’s artistic and cultural heritage developed in four 

ancient cities: Ouadane and Chinguetti in the North and Tichit 

and Oullata in the Southeast (see History & Myth). The United 

Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 

(UNESCO) designated these cities as World Heritage Sites to 

be preserved and protected. Among the treasures housed in 

these locations are about 33,000 manuscripts containing the 

nation’s written history (see Religion & Spirituality). Similarly 

UNESCO also seeks to preserve various ruins which represent 

the traditional nomadic lifestyle of those ancient times. The 

World Bank created the Mauritanian Association for Art and 

Culture and the Festival of Nomadic Music to sustain traditional 

art forms.

Attire

Moorish men typically wear a long, draping white, black, or blue 

robe (boubou, or dara'a) usually decorated with intricate 

embroidery over a long-sleeve shirt and baggy pants (seroual). 

Similarly, they tend to 

wrap a turban (cheche)

around their head (and

their face in desert areas 

to protect against the sun 

and blowing sand). Black 

African men are more 

likely to wear brightly 

colored or even Westernstyle attire. Of note, 

western wear is more common in urban areas, particularly 

among young adults. They are known to mix Western and 

traditional fashions, although older adults tend to wear more 

traditional clothing (Photo courtesy of Wikimedia: camel market 

in Nouakhott). 

Moorish women typically wear a skirt and shirt underneath a 

large cloth wrap (mulafa) which is draped over their shoulders

and head. They usually cover their heads in keeping with 

Muslim tradition, although unlike many fundamentalists, they 

do not veil their faces (see Sex & Gender). Black African 

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
women usually wear a wraparound skirt (pagne) along with a 

colorful boubou and head wrap. 

Mauritanian women commonly

favor gold jewelry. Some

women are known to decorate 

their skin with henna (a plant 

dye) as a status symbol.

Recreation

Sport: Known as football, 

soccer is popular in Mauritania (as in many African nations)

whose team, known as the “Mourabitounes,” participates in the 

African Cup of Nations. Similarly, Mauritania belongs to the 

International Rugby Union and participates in the Rugby World 

Cup. Mauritania also competes in the last leg of the 

international Dakar Rally (starts in Europe and ends in Dakar, 

Senegal), which is a demanding road race through the Sahara 

Desert.

Board Game: Mauritanians of all ages enjoy golorgal (kraur in 

the Hassaniya dialect), a popular board game known 

throughout other African societies as wari, aware, ayo, and 

mancala. It is played on a rectangular wooden board with cups

and playing pieces consisting of pebbles, beads, or seeds. The 

game’s objective is to win the opponents pieces by 

maneuvering them through the cups.

Land Yachting

The sweeping winds of the Sahara Desert promote a 

popular sport known as land yachting. Similar to sailing, 

the activity occurs on sand rather than water. 

Participants race across the desert terrain in the wake 

of 50-80 MPH winds riding wheeled vehicles propelled 

by lofty canvas sails. The first yacht race occurred in 

1967 and involved crossing the Sahara from Algeria 

through Mauritania (which took 3 weeks to cross) 

concluding at Nouakchott. Competitors typically do not 

distance themselves from each other for fear of getting 

lost in the sprawling desert terrain.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Other Pastimes: Men enjoy camel racing, land yachting (see 

text box above), golf, and card games (Photo courtesy of 

Wikimedia: Land Sailing). Women do not normally participate in 

sports, but rather, enjoy socializing while embroidering.

Mauritanians of all ages

enjoy dancing, particularly 

on special occasions. 

Similarly, families often 

gather together to listen to 

a visiting musicianstoryteller (griot or

igaeuen, see Learning & 

Knowledge) or holy man 

(marabout, see Religion & 

Spirituality).

The Arts

Steeped in Arabic tradition, poetry and song are favored 

pastimes which some people believe have magical powers. 

Islamic celebrations are the most popular settings for traditional 

music and dance. Instruments such as a four-string lute (tidinit)

and the harp (ardin) accompany vocalists in traditional musical 

performances. 

Contemporary Musicians: A descendant of artisan griots, 

Aicha Bint Chigaly is an internationally acclaimed Mauritanian 

singing star who performs in Arabic accompanied by the tidinit

and shallow drums. Singer Malourna Mint Moktar Ould Meidah, 

popularly referred to as Malouma, is known for blending 

traditional Moorish music with more contemporary rhythms – a 

genre known as “Saharan Blues.” Other renowned performers 

include Dimi Mint Abba, who dances and plays the ardin, and 

Khalifa Ould Eide, who sings and plays the tidinit. 

Artisans: As a traditionally class-oriented society, Mauritania

promotes special castes whose members function as artisans 

for their wealthy Moorish patrons (see Political & Social 

Relations). Griots sing praises and recite oral histories and 

poetry, while craftsmen traditionally produce handicrafts from 

wood and precious metals such as gold and silver. Women 

work leather, form pottery, weave, and sew. Many artisans sell 

their wares in markets. 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Architecture: Traditional architecture is found in the ancient 

Saharan villages of Adrar and Oualanta – the latter is also 

known for its elaborate paintings. 

Cinema: While Mauritanian cinema remains in its infancy, 

producer Abderrahmane Sissako was recognized at the 

Cannes International Film Festival for his productions of 

Bamako and Heremakono (“Waiting for Happiness”). Sissako's 

themes include globalization, exile, and the displacement of 

people.

Festivals

Mauritanians traditionally enjoy celebrating secular events such 

as harvest-time, which is also the season when many 

Mauritanians choose to marry. A prosperous harvest ensures 

plentiful food for the wedding guests. In the North, July and 

August is the season for harvesting dates which includes the 

popular Guetna date festival. During this event, families travel 

to various desert oases to enjoy a variety of activities. The 

Festival International des Musiques Nomades is a week-long 

Mauritanian and African music festival held annually in April.

Mauritanians also commemorate religious milestones such as 

the end of the month-long Muslim Ramadan celebration which 

also coincides with the return from hajj – the annual pilgrimage 

to Mecca, Saudi Arabia (see Religion & Spirituality). The head 

of the household usually slaughters a lamb for the family to 

share in commemoration. Births and funerals are also festive 

rites-of-passage (see Family & Kinship).

Public Holidays

• New Year’s Day (January 1)

• National Reunification Day (February 26)

• Labor Day (May 1)

• African Liberation Day (May 25)

• Constitution Day (July 10)

• Independence Day (November 28)

• Ramadan (Islamic – see Religion & Spirituality)*

• Islamic New Year*

*Dates vary based on Muslim Lunar calendar.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Dining Etiquette

In traditional nomadic society, Mauritanian families typically eat 

while sitting on floor mats made from animal hides. Prior to 

dining, they usually wash their hands in a water basin. Using 

the right hand, Mauritanians share food from communal bowls

although adult men and women seldom eat from the same 

bowl and may even dine in separate rooms. It is customary for 

participants to dine from the portion of the bowl directly in front 

of them. Black Africans normally consume their main meal at 

noontime, while Moors typically share their primary mealtime in 

the evening. 

Diet

The Mauritanian diet retains notable French influence, 

particularly in urban areas where French presence was most 

profound. For example, baguettes of French-style bread remain 

popular. Most meals are served in the form of a stew, which is 

usually a mixture of meat (generally lamb, goat, camel, and 

chicken – Muslims traditionally do not consume pork) mixed 

with rice or couscous, 

which is similar to a 

dumpling. 

Couscous is made from 

sorghum flour (a form 

of grain) carefully sifted 

and rolled into small 

balls, steamed, and 

usually served with 

butter-like idhin. In the 

South, a typical diet also includes fish and millet (a local grain). 

When in season, corn and vegetables (such as carrots, lettuce, 

potatoes, and onions) are included. With negligible agriculture

in the northern desert region (see Economy & Resources), 

most fruits and vegetable are imported (Photo courtesy of 

Wikimedia: couscous with vegetables and chickpeas). 

Standard Cuisine: Many Mauritanians generally eat porridge 

or bread and butter in the morning, rice with stew in the 

afternoon, and steamed millet flour with beans or milk in the 

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
evening. A Mauritanian national specialty is Mechoui, which is 

a whole roast of lamb. 

The southern cuisine basically mirrors that of neighboring 

Senegal and offers more variety than in the North. Two of the 

more popular dishes are rice with dried fish (chep-bu-jen) and 

Senegalese peanut-based stew (mafè). Along the Senegal 

River, mangoes, guavas, limes, and other citrus fruits are 

abundant in season. Dates are grown in the northern oases. 

Beverages: Local specialties such as baobab juice from the 

indigenous African tree or zrig (a whipped combination of 

camel or goat’s milk, water, and sugar) are popular.

Restaurants

Fine-dining establishments normally do not thrive outside of the 

major cities such as Nouakchott and Nouadhibou, although 

there are chop houses in many sizeable townships. While 

Muslims do not normally consume alcohol, it is available in 

urban dining facilities but is known to be expensive. 

Tea Ceremony

The brewing and serving of green tea is a popular 

social custom throughout West Africa, particularly 

among desert nomads, and involves a large degree of 

pomp and ceremony. The event is considered a 

dignified way to welcome a newcomer or socialize 

with close friends. 

Traditionally, three glasses of very sweet tea follow 

the main meal, with the same teabag used to brew all 

three servings. The freshly brewed first glass is said 

to be “strong as death,” the second “mild as life,” and 

the third “sweet as love.”

They serve tea by suspending the tea pot high above 

the cups (the size of shot glasses), allowing the hot 

tea to flow through the air and form a froth when it 

reaches the cup. This action also serves to cool the 

tea for drinking. Many Africans commonly spice their 

tea with mint. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Health Issues

As with many developing countries, Mauritania suffers from 

extreme poverty, widespread disease, and a poor healthcare 

system. A variety of parasitic and contagious infections and 

childhood diseases, such as measles, and malnutrition are

prominent throughout the country. Unlike some other African 

countries, only 0.9% of Mauritania’s adult population is infected 

with the HIV/AIDS virus, which is among the lowest rates 

throughout Sub-Saharan Africa.

Diseases: Because of poor sanitation and an insufficient 

potable water supply, infectious and parasitic diseases are 

common. These include meningitis, cholera, hepatitis, typhoid

and yellow fever. Malaria and Rift Valley fever are found in the 

southern tropical areas along the Senegal River. Contagious 

diseases such as measles and tuberculosis and respiratory 

disorders are more predominant in northern areas.

Fertility and Mortality Rates: Mauritania’s fertility rate is about 

double that of the US (the average Mauritanian woman births 

4-5 offspring compared to 2-3 in the US). Primarily in 

Mauritania’s rural areas, 60/1000 children die within one year 

of birth compared to 6/1000 in the US – many rural women give 

birth unattended by skilled medical personnel. The average 

adult life expectancy rate is 60 for men and 63 for women.

Inadequate Facilities: Concentrated primarily in urban areas, 

medical facilities are understaffed and void of modern 

equipment and treatment. Consequently, a majority of the 

population does not have access to proper healthcare.

Traditional Practices: As part of their indigenous belief 

system, many Mauritanians rely on traditional healing practices, 

particularly those members residing in rural areas who do not 

have access to modern 

healthcare (see Religion 

& Spirituality). Local 

traditional practitioners 

use a variety of plants 

and herbs to treat 

patients, and most 

families also have their 

own secret remedies.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Of note, some traditional African remedies have performed well 

in initial laboratory experiments, proving to be non-toxic in test 

animals. For example, Gawo (a herbal extract from the native 

African Faidherbia albida tree) has proven successful in 

reducing fevers, diarrhea, and inflammation (Photo on previous 

page a courtesy of Wikimedia: a Faidherbia albida tree 

branch). Similarly, the tree bark is used for dental hygiene, 

particularly the treatment of toothache. The extract is also used 

to treat optical infections in farm animals. While in some cases 

traditional medicine proves effective with fewer side effects 

than modern drugs, traditional practices are not proven 

effective in treating many of the more serious conditions.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH

Tradition of the Kola Nut

Since ancient times, the kola nut has had social 

significance throughout West Africa. Renowned as a 

“quick fix” energy booster, some people describe it 

as the “poor man’s friend” for its high caffeine 

content. In fact, the first Coca-Cola recipe contained 

the kola nut thus coining the “cola” label.

Among local tribesmen and even in professional 

settings, chewing the kola nut is a popular social 

pastime. Because of its stark bitter taste, the kola nut 

typically is not swallowed when chewed. However, it 

has been consumed in traditional household 

remedies used to treat digestive disorders, nausea, 

and diarrhea. Its high caffeine content is believed to 

suppress anxiety, migraine headaches, and hunger.

Among some ethnic groups, it is customary for the 

prospective husband to deliver a few kola nuts to his 

future in-laws, whose acceptance indicates marriage 

approval. Similarly, exchanging kola nuts between 

rivals signifies a peace accord, with the nut halved 

between the two parties to signify goodwill.
Economic Overview

Traditionally, Mauritania was a nomadic society where owning 

livestock was a key measure of success. Today, Mauritania is 

among the world’s poorest and least developed countries, with 

about 50% of its population (mostly rural) living in poverty. 

About 25% of Mauritania’s total economy is sustained through 

contributions from the International Monetary Fund and the 

World Bank. Mauritania is therefore one of the world’s largest 

recipients of foreign aid. 

Income: Its gross domestic product (GDP) is divided among 

three sectors (2009 est.): industry (47%), services (40%), and 

agriculture (13%). With about 

2/3 of its land mass 

consisting of non-arable

desert, Mauritania depends

on only a few sources of 

income – primarily mining, 

fishing, some agriculture, and 

more recently oil production. 

Its economy is particularly

vulnerable to fluctuations in 

world commodity pricing and adverse climatic conditions. 

Consequently, Mauritania imports more than 70% of its staple 

food requirements. 

Natural Resources

Iron Ore: As Mauritania’s principal source of income, iron ore 

deposits account for a majority (41%) of Mauritania’s total 

exports. Its primary iron mine, the Societe Nationale Industrielle 

et Miniere (SNIM), is located in the county’s Northwest region.

Fisheries: The nation’s coastal waters hold one of the world’s 

richest fishing reserves, although overexploitation threatens 

this second major source of revenue for Mauritania. The fishing 

industry supplies over 18% of the nation’s total exports and 5-

10% annual GDP. This industry is also a major supplier for 

Mauritania’s domestic food consumption. The country opened 

its first deepwater port near Nouakchott in 1986. 

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Oil Reserves: Offshore crude oil reserves were discovered in 

2001 with subsequent oil production and exportation

commencing in 2006. The oil industry’s first production year

more than doubled the country’s real GDP growth rate from 5.4 

in 2005 to 11.4% in 2006. Since then, production has declined 

due to persistent technical deficiencies.

Other Assets: Mauritania also has access to copper, 

diamonds, gold, salt, phosphate, cobalt, and gypsum (a soft 

mineral used to manufacture plaster products) deposits.

Industry

One of the world’s least mechanized nations, Mauritania’s 

industrial base is anchored in iron-ore processing. Other 

significant activities include a fish-processing plant and an oil 

refinery in Nouadhibou. Similarly, there is a sugar refinery in 

Nouakchott, a meat-processing factory in Kaedi, and a textile 

factory in Rosso. Traditional crafts are produced in Nouakchott. 

Migrant Workers

Limited job opportunities, particularly among unskilled 

Black African laborers, have influenced a number of 

young men to seek employment opportunities abroad. 

A popular destination is the Canary Islands off the 

coast of Spain. For some families, this journey serves 

as a rite-of-passage for their boy’s transition from 

youth to manhood as he seeks to prove his merit. 

For others, it turns tragic when young men fall prey to 

human smugglers and ultimately drown when 

overloaded and non-seaworthy vessels capsize –

literally thousands of young men have become 

victims. Those who do survive the journey experience 

similar difficulty finding jobs in a society that thrives 

predominantly on tourism. Similarly, those traveling 

as illegal aliens face potential deportation.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
The manufacturing sector contributed close to 19% of the GDP 

in 2009, although it employed hardly 1% of the labor force. 

Similarly, mining contributed about 22% of the GDP and 

engaged about 5% of the workforce, while construction added

another 7% GDP and employed 3% of the workforce.

Commerce

Exports: Mauritania exports close to 44% of its products to 

China. Other key partners include Italy, Japan, Spain, and the 

Netherlands. Livestock, processed meat, and hides are 

exported to neighboring countries while iron ore, fish, 

petroleum, copper, gold, and gypsum are distributed 

internationally.

Imports: Mauritania imports machinery and equipment,

petroleum products, foodstuffs, and consumer goods primarily 

from France, China, the Netherlands, Brazil, and Belgium.

Services

Showing a growth of about 4% in 2009, Mauritania’s services 

sector engages about 38% of the workforce. This sector 

includes government employment, healthcare, education, retail 

sales, banking, and tourism. 

Banking and Finance: The financial sector consists of a 

system of retail and commercial banks which collectively form

the Central Bank of Mauritania (BCM). Most of these financial 

institutions began as joint ventures between the state and 

foreign or domestic investors and were progressively 

privatized. Despite recent improvements, Mauritania’s financial 

system is far from efficient, as it lacks the infrastructure to 

promote and sustain long-term economic growth.

Currency: In 1973 Mauritania resigned from the West African 

Monetary Union to

establish its own currency, 

the ouguiya (UM), which 

retained no linkage to the 

West African franc. One 

US dollar is equivalent to 

about 282 UM. 

The import or export of local currency is illegal in Mauritania. 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Credit cards are accepted only at a few major hotels in 

Nouakchott. Currency and traveler’s checks can be exchanged 

at most banks.

Tourism: Mauritania’s cultural heritage and national parks

have attracted international recognition since the 1990s; 

however, since 2009 terrorist activities in Mauritania and other 

Sub-Saharan nations have resulted in a significant drop in 

international travel and tourism in those areas (see Political & 

Social Relations). Similarly, Mauritania’s tourist industry is 

hampered by an underdeveloped transportation system and 

shortage of services facilities (see Technology & Material).

Agriculture

While agriculture comprises Mauritania’s smallest economic 

sector, subsistence farming employs about 50% of the total 

labor force. Less than 1% of the land receives sufficient rainfall 

to sustain crop cultivation, which is largely confined to the

Senegalese Riverine area in the South. Large-scale agricultural 

activities are limited to forestry and fishing. Similarly, livestock 

herding remains a primary occupation in rural areas, which in 

2009 contributed nearly 11% to the country’s GDP.

In the late 20th century, the Mauritanian national government 

invested considerably in the 

Gorgol River (a Senegal 

River tributary) Valley 

irrigation system (pictured, 

courtesy of Wikimedia). The 

system along with other 

efforts brought an initial 

increase in grain production, 

although output has since fluctuated. Consequently, Mauritania 

remains dependant on international donor support.

Land Ownership

Traditionally, the community retained land ownership rights as 

a collective unit. The aristocracy controlled the land and rented 

it to the lower classes according to a sharecropping system. 

Legislation was passed in 1983 abolishing traditional land 

ownership and assigning it to the state. 

Geography & Climate (see Political & Social Relations).

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Technology

Mauritania’s industrial base primarily hinges on mining, fish 

processing, and oil exploitation; although construction materials 

and food-processing are emerging technologies (see 

Economics & Resources). Most industrial activities occur in the 

major cities of Nouakchott and Nouadhibou.

Energy Sources

Privatized in 2000, Mauritania’s electric company, the Société 

Mauritanienne de l’électricité (SOMELEC), historically has 

supplied the country’s thermal-generated electricity. Today,

about half of Mauritania’s power is produced by hydroelectric 

plants located on the Senegal River and sponsored by the 

Senegal River Basin Development Authority. This organization 

is a cooperative initiative among the neighboring countries of 

Mauritania, Mali, Senegal, and Guinea to promote food 

sufficiency and preserve the natural ecosystems. A primary

source is the Manatali Dam located in Mali, which provides 

hydroelectric services to both Mali and Mauritania. 

Transportation

Roadways: Although Mauritania has about 6,900 miles of 

roadway, only about 25% of it is paved and primarily serves to 

connect major cities. Road conditions are generally poor and 

travel accommodations crowded and inefficient. In 2004 a 300-

mile corridor linking Nouakchott and Nouadhibou was 

constructed as a means of promoting tourism and trade (see 

Economics & Resources).

Of note, many people do not 

own cars and therefore travel 

by public transport such as a 

bush taxi (common term in 

West and Central Africa)

which travels on established 

routes having variable 

schedules (Photo courtesy of 

Wikimedia: a typical West 

African bush taxi). Bush taxis usually are designed for small 

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
cargo transport and include trucks, station wagons, and

minibuses. 

Railroads: A 437-mile diesel/electric-powered rail system, the 

Société Nationale Industrielle et Minière (SNIM) railway, almost 

exclusively transports iron-ore deposits from the country’s 

various ore mines to

Nouadhibou. This 

system operates

what is perhaps the 

world’s longest (1.5-

mile) and heaviest 

(over 24,000 US 

tons) trains. SNIM 

does provide limited 

passenger transport services, as Mauritania has no dedicated 

passenger train system. (Photo courtesy of Wikimedia: SNIM 

iron ore train at Nouadhibou station).

Waterways: A 130-mile tract of the Senegal River is navigable 

throughout the year and includes 3 major river ports: Rosso, 

Kaédi, and Gouraye. Located about 6 miles south of 

Nouadhibou, Point-Central is the principal ocean port and a 

primary hub for mineral exportation. There is also a commercial 

and fishing port at Nouadhibou. The deep-water Port de 

l’Amitié at Nouakchott was built in 1986 and is maintained with 

assistance from the People’s Republic of China. In 2009 

Mauritania’s merchant fleet consisted of 155 vessels.

Civil Aviation and Airports: There are 3 international airports 

each located at Nouakchott, Nouadhibou, and Néma; 13 

regional airports; and a number of smaller airstrips. Mauritania

Airways International was established in 2010 as the country’s 

flag carrier, replacing Mauritanian Airways which was 

discontinued the same year for operations and maintenance 

deficiencies.

Telecommunications

Mauritania’s national telecommunications corporation (Mauritel) 

was privatized in 2001, although it continues to monopolize 

fixed-line services. Consequently, mobile cellular networks 

have replaced much of the fixed-line connectivity in urban 

areas. Similarly, a satellite telecommunications system 

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
connects Nouakchott with other regional capital cities. Fiberoptic and Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line networks provide 

internet access primarily in urban locations where internet 

cafés have gained popularity. Internet media consists of 23 

hosts and approximately 75,000 subscribers (2009 statistics).

Telecommunications are mostly exclusive to the larger cities.

Broadcast Media

Mauritania has one each state-owned television (Television de 

Mauritanie) and radio (Radio Mauritanie) networks. The 

television network includes six regional stations which provide 

local programming in Arabic and French. 

Print Media

The state-run Mauritanian News Agency publishes in dominant 

indigenous languages, Arabic, and French via a variety of print 

and web-based media to include newspapers, journals, and 

news portals. Other private news services such as the 

Portuguese News Agency (Panapress) and the African Press 

Agency publish in a wider variety of languages including

Portuguese, Arabic, French, and English. Of note, both 

broadcast and print media are government-censored and 

prohibited from publishing material that "undermines" Islam or 

is perceived to threaten national security.

Environmental Issues

Mauritania’s major environmental concerns include 

desertification, deforestation, and soil erosion caused primarily 

from overgrazing, drought, and shortages 

of fresh water. Of note, various 

international humanitarian organizations 

have promoted extensive projects to help 

secure safe water resources in the Sahara 

region. For example, in 2006 the United 

Nations sponsored a “need for water”

campaign consisting of a team of 

international distance runners who 

embarked on an ambitious 5,000-mile 

journey across the Sahara. Covering much 

of Mauritania, the runners ran the equivalence of 2 marathonsper-day for 111 days. This event was captured in a 

documentary “Running the Sahara” which was produced by 

Academy Award-winning actor Matt Damon.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
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