PCN 1681
0

The National Defense Intelligence College supports and encourages rese

on intelligence issues that distills lessons and improves Intelligence Comm

capabilities for policy-level and operational consumers

This series of Occasional Papers presents the work of faculty, students and others whose research 

intelligence issues is supported or otherwise encouraged by the National Defense Intelligence Colle

(NDIC) through its Center for Strategic Intelligence Research. Occasional Papers are distributed 

Department of Defense schools and to the Intelligence Community, and unclassified papers are av

able to the public through the National Technical Information Service (www.ntis.gov). Selected pap

are also available through the U.S. Government Printing Office (www.gpo.gov).

Proposed manuscripts for these papers are submitted for consideration to the NDIC Editorial Boa

Papers undergo review by senior officials in Defense, Intelligence and occasionally civilian academic 

business communities. Manuscripts or requests for additional copies of Occasional Papers should 

addressed to Defense Intelligence Agency, National Defense Intelligence College, MC-X, Bolling A

Washington, DC 20340-5100.

This publication has been approved for unrestricted distribution by the Office of Freedom of Inform

tion and Security Review, Washington Headquarters Services. 

This Occasional Paper highlights a unique theme explored by an NDIC student in pursuit of his Mas

of Science of Strategic Intelligence degree, and is adapted from his submitted thesis. It illustra

clearly that students at the College are urged to be innovative and creative in selecting their topics, a

that controlled experimentation is encouraged by the faculty in aiding students to reach original a

useful conclusions. The results of this research on a topic of high visibility in the popular culture 

present (witness the public fascination with the “CSI” or “NCIS” genre of media programming) w

likely have significant impact on the intelligence arena for many years. 

The author of this Occasional Paper, Albert M. Cruz, can be reached for questions or comments 

(850) 499-5327, or hardsomenavydvr@yahoo.com. 

William.Spracher@dia.mil, Editor

Center for Strategic Intelligence Research
C

NDIC PRESS

e

n

t

e

r

f

o

r

Strategic Intelligenc

e

R

e

s

e

a

r

c

h

Occasional Paper Number Twelve

CRIME SCENE INTELLIGENCE

An Experiment in Forensic Entomology

Albert M. Cruz, Lieutenant, USN

National Defense Intelligence College

WASHINGTON, DC

November 2006

The views expressed in this paper are those of the author 

and do not reflect the official policy or position of the 

Department of Defense or the U.S. Government

i
iii

CONTENTS

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Crime Scene Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Forensic Entomology: A Tool to Help Solve War Crimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Collection of Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

The Significance of Blowflies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Revealing Denial and Deception: Movement of the Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Death Scene and the Collection of Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Finding the Cause of Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Detection of Drugs, Chemical Toxins, Biological Agents, and 

Explosive Compounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Initiating the Entomology/Explosive (E2) Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

The E2 Project and the Intelligence Community. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

FIGURES

 1. Fly Life Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

 2. Timeline of Hypothetical Immature Blowfly Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

 3. Decomposition Timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

 4. Fly Life Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

 5. Collection Chart for Forensic Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

 6. Packaging and Shipping of Live Specimens to Forensic Entomological Lab 

 7. Porcine Muscle and One Pound Trinitrotoluene (TNT) Explosive (bottom) . 

 8. Day One. Fly Rearing Chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

 9. Day One. Initial Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

10. Day One. Green Bottle Blowfly Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

11. Day One. Fly Eggs Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

12. Day Two. Multiple Green Bottle Blowflies Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

13. Day Two. Mass Green Bottle Blowfly Larvae Present (1st Instar Stage) . . . . 

14. Day Three. Decomposing Porcine Muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

15. Day Four. Porcine Muscle in Active Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

16. Day Five. 2nd Instars Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

17. Day Five. Transfer of Larvae to the Forensic Lab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
iv

18. Day Five. 2nd and 3rd Instar Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

19. Day Twelve. Containers and Tools Utilized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

20. Temperature-Regulated Forensic Evidence Cabinet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

21. Calliphoraidae, Green Bottle Blowfly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

22. Explosive Detection Cycle by Use of Forensic Entomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

23. Chemical Analysis of Non-TNT Larva Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

24. Chemical Analysis of TNT Larva Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

25. Day Twelve. 1st, 2nd, 3rd Instars, and Pupae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

26. Day Five. Instar Behavior on Porcine Muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

27. Pyramid of Forensic Entomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

28. Applicability of the Forensic E2 Project to the IC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

TABLES

1. The Stages of Rigor Mortis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2. Key Elements Found in E2 Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3. Stages of the Calliphoraidae Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

APPENDIX

Weather Data for May 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
v

LT Albert Cruz’s forensic entomology/explosive (E2) scientific project prov

cutting edge and groundbreaking science in the forensic community. His 

research and original analysis included a newly found forensic/intelligence analy

which could help bring justice, fight the war on terrorism, and find “ground truth” 

which involve domestic and international terrorism, war crimes, torture, drug tra

and chemical explosive identification by utilizing the common carrion fly. In add

project may be effective in counter-denial and deception operations which are k

be highly relevant and valuable to the Intelligence Community (IC) in cases of d

mass grave movement and genocide. 

More importantly, this unique forensic E2 experimental project revealed that e

compounds such as TNT could be detected biologically — in this case by blowfl

which have fed on body tissue exposed to explosive residues — when toxicologic

sis was no longer procurable. The results of the unique E2 forensic experiment 

empirical evidence that forensic entomology is unbiased and has a high degree of 

bility to the IC. The science here is very helpful and when applied strategically to 

tional war crime cases can provide myriad answers and help bring the guilty to j

any war crime tribunal court system. Such information gained would also enable 

to identify a specific batch of explosive, compare it to a known source of TNT, a

it to a terrorist crime or cell.

This original study is remarkable. LT Cruz has provided a new model of expl

gerprinting by utilizing the common insect. He has provided an outstanding 

step” product for the intelligence and forensic communities. It is clear he has step

of the box” and paved the way for future forensic intelligence experts by providin

able future tool which can offer answers to help fill valuable intelligence gaps in 

the war on terrorism and crimes against humanity.

William C. Rodriguez III, Ph.D.

Chief, Deputy Medical Examiner

Office of the Armed Forces Medical Examiner

Rockville, Maryland 

1

Forensic entomology is the study of how insects consume decomposing 

remains and provide data which can aid medical/legal investigations. Common q

answered through the use of forensic entomology include time since death, mov

a body from one location to another, determination of environmental conditions 

a body has been exposed, location of traumatic wound sites, identification of to

cal deaths, and location of drug trafficking. However, many sub-disciplines of 

sciences, including forensic entomology, have not been commonly utilized by th

gence Community (IC) to help solve heinous war crimes. Moreover, the degr

field’s applicability to military and intelligence analysis is not known. To date, 

no forensic entomology intelligence analysts or scientists actively engaged in th

explosive residue identification utilizing forensic entomology.

The forensic entomology discipline in the IC can shed light on the “ground tr

give a viable estimate, without bias, of the perpetrator’s or suspect’s past action

nous human crimes. When studying entomology and methods by which insec

attack, escape, discover, or attract, we may continually ask ourselves whether th

ples that govern deception use in nature apply to human conflict. Can some prin

nature be used to counter deception operations? Will identifying and applying th

ciples at crime scenes be valuable?

Some cases where forensic entomology could yield intelligence—“groun

regarding past crimes, to include “counter-deception”—is in the execution of a 

victims, as well as evidence of torture, drugging, and postmortem movement of 

Other cases include mass graves movement, genocide, and the identification of to

ical and explosive compounds. 

In preparing this study, the author consulted IC professionals and personnel wit

medical organizations. CDR George Ferris, an Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD

and Weapons Branch Chief at the Joint Intelligence Task Force for Combating T

(JITF-CT), Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA);1

 Michael Fanning, Intelligence A

the Hazardous Devices Response Unit, Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI);

Klapec, Forensic Chemist at the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (A

Robert D. Hall, Associate Vice Provost for Research at the University of Miss

1 CDR George Ferris, USNR, Chief, Weapons Branch, Joint Intelligence Task Force 

bating Terrorism (JITF-CT), Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA); U.S. Navy Special O

Officer, Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD), Washington, DC, telephone interview b

8 June 2004. 2 Michael Fanning, Intelligence Analyst at the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s (FBI

ous Devices Response Unit, FBI Academy, Quantico, VA, telephone interview by auth

2004. 3 George Klapec, Forensic Chemist at the Federal Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and 

(ATF), Washington Office, Washington, DC, telephone interview by author, 8 June 2004.
2

Rodriguez III, Chief, Deputy Medical Examiner, Office of the Armed Forces M

Examiner (AFME),5 confirmed that carrion insects, in particular blowflies, may be a 

able tool for intelligence-gathering analysts and law enforcement investigators dealin

international crimes in the area of homicide, suicide, and untimely deaths from te

bombings. 

Hypothetical example: A U.S.-operated Boeing 737 airliner goes down in a C

American tropical rain forest with a member of the U.S. Senate on board. Members 

IC—an intelligence and law enforcement task force (CIA, FBI, ATF, and AFME)—

been called upon to take over the investigation. All four agencies reach the crash site 

a one-week time frame. They would like to ascertain if the plane crashed into the rem

located mountain due to mechanical failure or was exploded by an improvised exp

device (IED). In addition, they would like to identify if the U.S. Senator was killed p

the explosion, which would reveal a deception and misdirect blame. Thus, the theory 

case is that forensic entomology could or would be able to reveal whether explosiv

dues were present on the deceased and could help estimate the Postmortem Interval 

or estimated time of death) by analyzing the blowfly larvae and pupae. 

Although this line of research has never been tried or implemented within the fo

entomology field, federal agencies have noted its potential to become an important to

can help advance the science of explosive detection and identification. This is made po

due to blowfly larvae feeding on postmortem human tissue, tissue which may have 

exposed to the chemical residues from a detonated IED. Past entomological studies 

would back up this theory of transferability through larvae have involved human DN

drug uptake in blowfly larvae. As Dr. Hall observed, “In past cases where a highly d

posed female body is examined for evidenced of rape, semen samples usually are not 

able. But maggots taken from the vaginal area can be valuable and reveal if the woma

sexually assaulted, given the presence of the perpetrator’s seminal DNA in the ma

This would place the accused at the scene of the crime, during or shortly after the ti

death or assault.”6

 The significance of this finding is that if human DNA can be passed 

larvae via feeding, it is plausible that explosive residues can be absorbed by fly larva

relevance of such information would allow IC analysts and operators to detect and id

compounds in terrorist bombings when other means of identification are not available

These forensic determinations are possible, but only if entomological evidence 

ognized, properly collected, and sent to a professional entomological laboratory for 

ysis by a qualified forensic entomologist. IC members, who are intelligence an

enforcement officers, must become fully aware of the complex processes associate

4 Robert D. Hall, Ph.D., J.D., Associate Vice Provost for Research, University of Missou

member of the American Board of Forensic Entomology, telephone interview by author, 

2004. 5 William C. Rodriguez III, Ph.D., Chief, Deputy Medical Examiner, Office of the Armed 

Medical Examiner (AFME), Rockville, MD, telephone interview by author, 8 June 2004. 6 Hall, telephone interview.
3

body. Investigators must understand the need for specimen collection and reco

other pertinent field data. If the proper steps are followed, it is possible for i

reveal silently the information we need to solve some international crimes, inclu

rorist-related bombings. 

WHAT WE KNOW

Literature specifically addressing forensic entomology is minimal. The det

explosive compounds relating to arthropod feeding activity and metabolic abso

not addressed. 

Some literature does address how entomological evidence is controlled, colle

disseminated to forensic scientists to help solve various domestic crimes. 

WHAT WE CAN LEARN

Despite the potential of the relatively new science of forensic entomology, th

of intelligence derived from this discipline to solve war crimes is troubling. On t

the 21st century, nations seem no closer to stopping war and ethnic violence th

beginning of the previous millennium. There is fresh optimism, however, that at 

of a war-stained century nations have found the collective will to deter and pun

who commit crimes against humanity. International criminal tribunal courts, l

Sierra Leone, East Timor, Kosovo, and Cambodia, to name just a few, have be

lished around the world to prosecute perpetrators and enforce the laws of basi

rights. Within these courts, new scientific methods involving forensic science a

employed to prosecute those who commit war crimes. Although forensic scie

applied science related to law and special investigations in dealing with techn

such as DNA analysis, it is clear that specific disciplines within forensic science 

been utilized to their full potential by the IC. Close analysis reveals it is an impor

lytical resource which needs to be utilized by both the IC and the international 

tribunal court system to find “ground truth.” 

The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the Defense Intelligence Agency (D

Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and 

(ATF), the Department of State (DOS), and the Department of Defense (DOD

services—which, among others, comprise the IC—can learn a great deal from 

of forensic entomology by collecting and extracting fluids from insect larvae. T

mation could provide intelligence operators and analysts from all federal dep

with an alternative method to detect explosive compounds, especially when 

machines such as bomb analyzers are not readily accessible or are unsuitable i

field environments. 

Lord and Berger divide the scope of forensic entomology into three genera

nents—medico-legal, urban, and stored-product pests. The medico-legal system fo

the criminal component of the legal system and deals with the carrion feeding in
4

his environment. This area has both civil and criminal components as urban pests ma

on the living and the dead. The damage caused by their feeding activity can produce 

and wounds on tissues that may be misinterpreted as resulting from human abuse. 

pests are of great economic importance, and the forensic entomologist may be

involved in civil proceedings resulting in monetary damages. Lastly, stored product i

are commonly found in foodstuffs, and the forensic entomologist may serve as an 

witness during both civil and criminal proceedings involving food contamination.7

The scope of this project focuses primarily on the first component, which is t

medico-legal entomology and is intended to give the reader a basic understanding 

development and life cycle of the green bottle blowfly. Furthermore, evidence is pro

of the green blowfly’s presence near the Washington, DC, coastal area. It is further 

onstrated that evidence collected from a body discovered outdoors or indoors with 

infestation can lead intelligence analysts and law enforcement investigators to es

the postmortem interval (PMI), probable cause of death, presence of drugging, pos

tem movement of the body, and the detection of explosive compounds.

WHY USE INSECTS?

Why use insects? Although the exact species of fauna may differ from country to 

try, from habitat to habitat, and from season to season, the basic pattern of carrion 

succession is remarkably constant around the world. Entomological science applie

forensic context has the potential of serving as a valuable intelligence counter-dec

tool which may help solve international crimes, to include war crimes against human

such places where genocide and mass grave movement have taken place (Kosovo

etc.). This is accomplished by understanding the blowfly’s life cycle, estimating PM

applying it to law or intelligence. 

For example, a forensic entomologist can estimate PMI by examining the c

insect population near the body. One can also estimate how long the deceased has 

lying in a particular location by sampling the soil and insects underneath the decea

there is a difference in the estimates, and the analysis of the soil suggests a shor

while the analysis of the body fauna suggests a longer PMI, one can determine th

body has been moved. One can also estimate how long the body has been lying at 

tain place by analyzing the plants and the soil surrounding the body.8

 Other example

be discussed later.

Insects in these cases tend to be “nature’s intelligence agents”; they arrive on d

posing corpses in a relatively predictable sequence and in turn provide valuable sci

7 Wayne D. Lord and F. Berger, “Collection and Preservation of Forensically Important 

mological Materials,” Journal of Forensic Sciences 28, (1983): 936-944. 8 Starkeby, M., “Ultimate Guide to Forensic Entomology: Introduction to Forensic En

ogy,” Web-only essay, URL< http://folk.uio.no/mostarke/forens_ent/ introduction.html>, acc

5 January 2004. 
5

waves of different arthropods. Differences in the cast of carrionfrequenting inse

beetles, spiders, ants, etc.) can be used to describe incidents surrounding the dea

insects such as blowflies are the first to invade a corpse, while others such as d

beetles arrive later, removing the final bits of soft tissue. The time sequence in w

rion insects arrive, to include the season, provides investigators data to estimate 

of death, reveal movement of the body from one location to another (deception), 

bly detect explosive compounds utilized in a bombing. Information obtained 

insects is important because it can help the IC analyst or investigator determ

actions were taken by the perpetrator(s), reveal the time of the crime, and possib

if explosives were utilized, to include possible type. 

Upon identifying explosive materials/residues during chemical analysis, thes

compared in reference to materials believed to be utilized by certain individua

tions. For example, larva samples from a previous bombing victim are subm

chemical analysis and test positive for TNT. This sample can then be compar

unknown sample of explosives recovered at another location (e.g., terrorist safeh

both samples reveal an identical chemical signature, one can ascertain the same e

compounds were used by the same terrorist cell. This type of information becom

able only if the insects are properly collected and taken to a professional foren

mologist for extraction and chemical analysis.

CONTRIBUTION TO THE INTELLIGENCE COMMUNITY 

Utilization of forensic entomology can help analysts and others in a task force 

ment find the “ground truth” about what happened in cases of high-profile cr

applicability could also help many other communities outside the U.S. IC, dom

and internationally—such as assisting EOD units; allied intelligence agencies 

MI5, MI6); local and state law enforcement (police departments, sheriffs); cour

and international tribunal courts (e.g., Sierra Leone, East Timor, Kosovo, Cambo

the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The science as a whole wou

officers and analysts of these institutions to expand their evidence collection c

and help answer key questions involving war crimes and the deaths of civilian, 

and intelligence personnel. 

The end product of finding such information could also be strategic in nature, w

cations for sanctioning a nation that is not in compliance with the Geneva Convent

science is intended to help investigators reveal truth and put together cases agains

tional leaders who practice criminal acts against innocent civilians. More importa

intended to be utilized as a tool to fix individual accountability and help dispel the 

collective guilt. 

To achieve the end product discussed, one needs to understand forensic ent

Studies reveal that carrion insects are generally the first to discover a corpse, parti

any attempt has been made to hide the body. Often in outdoor death cases, blowflie

blue, or black bottle) will arrive and begin laying eggs on the body within minu
6

flys life cycle, thus estimating the time of death or PMI.

The theory behind estimating PMI with the help of insects is very simple: since i

arrive on the body soon after death—within 24 hours—estimating the age of the 

larvae will provide an estimation of the time of death.

As Haskell and Catts note, insects are important and often ignored or even discar

evidence at a death scene or an autopsy. Western culture generally views maggots an

as repulsive intruders to be avoided or destroyed. Unfortunately, this attitude is some

held also by death scene investigators and coroners. Conversely, even the absence of i

in situations where they should be present is valuable evidence in any investigation.9

In short, the American Board of Forensic Entomology (ABFE) holds that fo

entomology helps validate data and is considered another avenue for finding o

truth.10 It is a tool which could enable law enforcement and intelligence officials t

row the field of suspects, fix the time of death, reveal if bodies have been moved

assist in identification of the deceased with reference to known missing persons. 

The present study will reveal if explosive compounds can be extracted from bl

larvae or pupae, thus revealing chemical composition. Upon identification of the 

ical composition (chemical signature), the information can be used along with 

identifiers to prove or disprove a hypothesis that the substance came from a c

manufacturer or locale. Such comparative explosive samples can also be obtained 

clothing, footwear, and under fingernails, thus connecting the suspect to the crim

items then can be compared to trace evidence or other articles in question. If anal

conducted properly one can possibly reveal that the suspect came in contact with 

specific substances; unquestionably, he or she could be tied to the crime that was 

mitted. The information can then be applied to an intelligence product and dissem

to leading policymakers in the field who can take political or military action to int

the supply of explosives at their source. 

9 Neal Haskell and N. Catts, Entomology and Death: A Procedural Guide (Clemson, 

Carolina: Joyce’s Print Shop, Inc., 1990), 2. 10 Jason. H. Byrd, member of American Board of Forensic Entomology, interview by 

28 March 2004.
7

Key terms are introduced here to give the reader a better understanding of som

specialized language in the field. Other terms are explained in the Glossary.

ABFE: American Board of Forensic Entomology

AFME: Armed Forces Medical Examiner

ATF: Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms

Calliphoraidae: The third suborder of Diptera which contains houseflies, blue

greenbottles, and their relatives

DIA: Defense Intelligence Agency

Explosives: Substances that can explode, e.g., TNT 

FBI: Federal Bureau of Investigation

Forensic Entomology: The study of insects and related arthropods from a m

legal perspective

Green Bottle Blowfly: Part of the Diptera family; species of blowfly whose f

include shiny metallic green back with hair on thorax and abdomen

Genocide: Systematic killing of an entire group of people 

Homicide: Killing of a person by another

Medico-Legal Entomology: Medical use of entomology from a legal viewpoint 

Metabolic: Changing of food by organisms into energy cells, etc. 

Porcine: Pork meat or muscle 

Postmortem Interval: The period of time between death and a corpse discove

Suicide: Act of killing one’s self intentionally

Violent Crimes: Crimes which exhibit great force, thus breaking the law 
8

WAR CRIMES

The use of insect behavior to estimate the time of death is not a modern concep

earliest recorded crime investigation with insects was in 1235 A.D. in China. Sung T

Chinese “death investigator,” wrote a book entitled The Washing Away of Wrongs

medico-criminal entomology case was recounted as a murder by slashing, which occ

in a Chinese village, and the local death investigator was deputized to solve the 

After some fruitless questioning, the investigator had all the villagers bring their sick

one spot and lay them out before the crowd. Flies landed on only one of the sickle 

This was due to blood being spattered on the sickle. The owner subsequently broke 

and confessed to the crime.11

In 1668 Redi studied rotting meat that was either exposed to or protected from 

From his analysis of subsequent blowfly infestation, he refuted the hypothesis 

“spontaneous generation” of life. Up to that time it was generally believed that und

right conditions maggots came from rotten meat. Until the seventeenth century 

believed that the presence of “worms” (maggots) in corpses was due to spontaneou

eration. Redi proved by his experiments that these larvae came from fly eggs deposi

putrefying carcasses.12

Later near Paris, France, Bergeret (1850) was the first Westerner to use inse

forensic indicators. The body of a baby was found behind the plaster mantle in a h

and an investigation was begun. Bergeret determined that the assemblage of insects 

ciated with the corpse pointed to a state of decay that dated back several years; c

quently, the question of guilt was thrown upon the earlier occupants of the house an

upon the current ones.13

 More recently, a decade has passed since Serb execution squads shot, knifed, 

and clubbed to death about 7,000 Muslims from the United Nations “safe area” o

brenica (in the former Yugoslavia). The media routinely billed these killings as Eu

largest mass murder since the Second World War. They were actually its largest 

Tito's execution squads shot, knifed, axed, and clubbed to death about 35,000 C

Muslims, Slovenes, Serbs, White Russians, and Cossacks in the weeks after World W

had ended. 

These crimes, separated by 50 years, a few hundred miles, and a universe of s

economic, and political changes, show how human depravity has remained co

11 K. Smith, A Manual of Forensic Entomology (New York: Cornell University Press, 

20-23. 12 J. Guiart, “Notices Biographiques II: Francisco Redi 1628-1698,” Archives De Parisito

(1898): 420. 13 Smith, 30.
9

come in terms of their willingness to bring the perpetrators of such crimes to j

least when the victims are located in Europe’s poor southeastern corner. 

The similarities in these mass murders are striking. Almost all of the victims w

oners, defeated soldiers, or civilians. Some had taken part in atrocities. So

wounded and dragged from hospitals. None had a trial. Many died with their han

with wire and their throats cut. The killers buried the bodies in mass graves.

USE OF FORENSIC ENTOMOLOGY IN WAR CRIMES

Forensic entomology, specifically medico-legal entomology, is the science 

insect life cycle data combined with other evidence to uncover circumstances o

to domestic crimes, such as homicide, suicide, movement of bodies, drugging, 

ture.14 It is such techniques which can help the IC solve international criminal ac

humanity, to include war crimes or terrorist activities which involve beheadi

which bodies are discarded at unknown locations. When the body is found in a m

or a crime scene is investigated, insects can provide clues as to what happened

death may be ascertained; many clues about the cause of death or events just 

death can be based on insect behavior and interaction with a corpse. Often drug

the location of death can be determined by analyzing species and the growth of a 

This can help intelligence analysts and law enforcement investigators ascertain 

death occurred at the scene, or if the body was moved at some point in time, i

elements in any war crime investigation. 

Insects have roamed the earth for 250 million years.15 This enormous amoun

has allowed insects to attain a wide diversity in both form and behavior. Presen

are about 700,000 described species and it is estimated there may be more than 1

species of insects on earth.16 Insects can prove useful if the information they p

properly collected. Careful observation with knowledgeable expertise of fauna

sion at a crime scene, added to known insect life cycle data, can lead the inves

infer how long the victim has been available to insect activity (given that a set o

stances has existed). The following medico-legal process reveals how these con

can be reached.

14 Starkeby, “Ultimate Guide to Forensic Entomology: Introduction to Forensic Ent

2004. 15 James L. Castner, “Ultimate Guide to Forensic Entomology: A Review of Forensic 

tion Cards,” Web-only essay, URL: <http://folk.uio.no/mostarke/forens_ent/reviewFI

accessed 5 January 2004. 16 Starkeby, “Ultimate Guide to Forensic Entomology: Introduction to Forensic Ent

2004.
10

The medico-legal aspect of forensic entomology includes arthropod (spiders, in

involvement in events such as murder, suicide, and rape, but also includes physical 

and contraband trafficking (smuggling). The arthropod feature that is most import

medico-legal forensic entomology is the importance of carrion feeders; that is, they 

sume dead animals, including humans. Thus, they give valuable answers to imp

questions in any criminal investigation, such as whether death occurred at the rec

scene or the body was deceptively moved at some point in time following death. 

After death, body temperature drops, rigor mortis sets in, and animal tissue, incl

that of humans, becomes attractive to a variety of insects and other invertebrates. No

prisingly, flies, especially the Calliphoraidae (green bottle and blue bottle fly) lar

maggots (Diptera), on which this study is primarily based, figure largely in the invas

tissue. Usually females of the genus Calliphoraidae oviposit within minutes foll

death. Thus, the flies leave an evidence trail of egg batches, white to yellow and 2 m

length, in the mouth, nose, ears, wounds and, if exposed, the anus and the genitalia w

minutes of death.17 These natural body openings provide moist, humid cavities, 

enhance egg hatching and larval survival.

Although there are various methods of establishing time of death for a human c

such as histological, chemical, bacteriological, and zoological, the last approach is 

on an entomological study of the cadaver and gives accurate results if the data are 

erly collected.

As Smith notes, the invertebrate fauna of carrion consists mostly of insects and

simplest form, the forensic explanation is based on the study of sequence with 

green bottle blowfly or other fly species appear on the cadaver. The knowledge of th

required by each developmental stage at varying temperatures, and identification o

cies in all stages, allows for an estimate of time of death. It may also be possible to 

lish if the body has been moved or partly concealed during decomposition.18

After the first few hours of death, the green bottle blowfly deposits its eggs and th

instar phase begins. This process contains multiple stages of skin molting. Addi

behavior patterns of restlessness, movement away from the body, and burrowing i

also occur. Finally, a pupa (or puparium) is formed and metamorphosis into a se

mature adult insect (Imago) occurs. The life cycle stages of the Calliphoraidae blow

as follows:

1. Egg 4. 3rd instar larvae or prepupa 

2. 1st instar larva 5. Pupa (or puparium) 

3. 2nd instar larva 6. Imago (sexually mature adult insect) 

17 Starkeby, “Ultimate Guide to Forensic Entomology: Introduction to Forensic Entomo

2004. 18 Smith, 20-23. 
11

timeline and stages of immature fly development (Figure 2).

Figure 1. Fly Life Cycle

Source: M. Grassberger and C. Reiter, “Forensic Entomology: Post-Mortem Interval (PMI) E

Using Insect Development Data,” Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Vienna, URL

www.univie.ac.at/ forensic-entomology/ information.htm>, accessed 9 March 2004. Use

permission.
12

Figure 2. Timeline of Hypothetical Immature Blowfly Development

Source: Neal Haskell and N. Catts, Entomology and Death: A Procedural Guide, Clemson, SC: J

Print Shop, 1990. Used with permission.
13

rhoidalis (redtailed flesh fly) does not deposit eggs, only larvae.

The skill to accurately identify arthropods separates the forensic entomolog

other persons that are trained in evidence collection and evaluation. If one kn

long it takes to reach the different stages in an insect’s life, one can calculate th

the larva or deposition of eggs. This calculation of the insect age can be used to e

time of death or PMI in sun or shade, day or night.20 Because of this, entomolog

be called upon to identify specimens for medico-legal purposes, and more im

perhaps to confirm or invalidate a suspect’s alibi in a murder case.

Can insects silently give us valuable information about a crime? The expe

American Board of Forensic Entomology say we should be listening to insects 

the evidence they provide us. Can they tell us when and where someone was mur

even possibly who did it? Can they tell us what type of explosive material was 

bombing? This study and numerous green bottle blowflies may help us decide 

should be listening.

EVIDENTIARY APPROACH

Entomologists must collect, preserve, label, and ship insects or soil samples 

Because there are various techniques in shipping, investigators should discuss 

techniques with their cooperating entomologist. Once proper techniques are estab

highly skilled entomologist can analyze the living or dead specimens in a laborat

ity and determine the PMI or other vital information relating to a domestic or 

tional investigation. 

The analysis of entomological evidence can provide important information 

redirect a war crime investigation. Therefore, it is paramount that analysis and 

sions be as unbiased as possible. Entomological evidence is evaluated empirical

means that the conclusions in an individual case are no more precise than the data 

based upon. This requires a review of how data were collected to determine if 

reliable enough for a domestic or international court of law.

The next few pages will cover many aspects of forensic entomology as p

around the globe. Subdisciplines include faunal succession and cellular deg

seasonality of certain insect fauna; estimation of the time of death; revealing d

by movement of body(ies) from one location to another (grave sites); PMI; dea

and the collecting of evidence, to include photographing, labeling, and tran

finding the cause of death by analyzing drugs; significance of infestation of la

its significance to the IC; and lastly detection of drugs, chemical toxins, b

agents, and explosive compounds.

19 H. Oldroyd, Natural History of Flies (New York: Norton Library, 1964), 110. 20 Starkeby, “Ultimate Guide to Forensic Entomology: Introduction to Forensic Ent

2004.
14

When a person or animal dies, cells in the body immediately begin to break down a

body temperature changes to that of its surroundings, followed by rigor mortis (see Ta

The temperature and stiffness of the postmortem body change after death as follows:

Table 1. The Stages of Rigor Mortis

Source: Starkeby, “Ultimate Guide to Forensic Entomology: Introduction to Forensic Entomol

During this series of events, postmortem putrefaction (decomposition of organic m

production of foul-smelling matter) results in the release of gases, to which blowflies

flies, and other carrion feeders are attracted.21 The soft tissues of the deceased are gen

destroyed quickly by the action of insects and their larvae. This degradational action 

in a definite order, depending on the state of decomposition of the body.22 When the b

discovered, the state of activity taking place can reveal a great deal of information abo

death. This information is deduced by the processing of entomological evidence. 

established an order of decay. Noting that various organs of the body decompose at dif

rates and may also be used to estimate the time of death, the usual order is:

1. Intestines, stomach, liver blood, heart blood and circulation, heart muscle

2. Air passage and lungs 

3. Brain

4. Kidney and bladder

5. Voluntary muscles

6. Uterus 

The putrefaction process results in the release of gases such as ammonia, hyd

sulfide, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen.23 During this stage the skin becomes greenish 

and the body becomes bloated. The putrefaction process is largely due to micro

organisms invading the body.24

Temperature of body Stiffness of body Time since death

Warm Æ Not stiff Æ Not dead more than 3 ho

Warm Æ Stiff Æ Dead 3 to 8 hours

Cold Æ Stiff Æ Dead 8 to 36 hours

Cold Æ Not stiff Æ Dead more than 36 ho

21 Starkeby, “Ultimate Guide to Forensic Entomology: Introduction to Forensic Entom

2004. 22 B. Fisher, Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1993)

23 Smith, 86.

24 G. Bianchini, “La Biologia Del Cadaver,” Archivic Antropologia Criminale, Psichi

Medicina Legale 50, (1930): 1035-1105.
15

putrefaction, depending on the time of year and the situation of the corpse. The 

of this fly accelerate putrefaction and the disintegration of the corpse. Also, Hobs

that larvae feed on liquid between the muscle fibers because the tissues are to

Later, when tissue becomes alkaline, the intermuscular tissue is attacked.25

This has a relevance to entomologists’ investigations since some of the expe

field work on carrion insect fauna has been conducted with waves of infestation o

sion. Different workers have interpreted these waves of insects during the succ

carrion. Nevertheless, the existence of a successional pattern is recognizable.

SEASONALITY

Seasonality can also play an important role when estimating the time of de

cadaver. Some insects, such as June beetles, are seasonal and appear only f

months out of the year, usually during spring to winter. This factor can help ana

investigators narrow the timeline. Bornemissza established that the original faun

minor part in decomposition and that the rate of decay will vary with temperature

microclimate, and other environmental factors. Species lists will differ regionally 

determine whether the corpse initially was in a lit or shaded area.26 Vertebrate sc

may play a larger role in the tropics. Nevertheless, careful collection of data on 

pled with biological knowledge of the insects concerned, will enable a reconstr

events including an estimated time of death. 

 In temperate regions dead bodies are often located in the spring, after the 

melted. The forensic entomologist and the forensic pathologist must then try to d

whether the death occurred during the winter or before the snow set in. If t

occurred before November in the northern hemisphere, it is possible to find dead 

and on the body. This is accomplished by analyzing the dead insect fauna, and det

when the insects probably died (this can be found by looking at meteorological 

Another hint is when the different adults stop flying before the winter. For exampl

way, where bodies have been found in the spring, in one case a dead 3rd stage blow

was found in the back of the mouth. The blowfly larva was of a species that is pre

May to October. It was concluded from this examination that the eggs were prob

during October and, since there were relatively few larvae, probably late in Oc

another case, several living insects and many dead 3rd instar larvae were found o

body. The dead larvae were found on the stomach, the arms, the shoulders, and i

head. Investigators in this case concluded that the live insects had colonized the d

in the spring, and that the larvae had died during the winter.27

25 P. Hobson, “Studies of the Nutrition of Blowfly Larvae, III: The Liquefaction of 

Journal of Experimental Biology 9, (1932): 359-365. 26 F. Bornemissza, “An Analysis of Arthropod Succession in Carrion and the Effect of i

position on the Soil Fauna,” Australian Journal of Zoology 5 (1957): 1-12. 27 Haskell and Catts, 11. 
16

the green June beetle. It is known that only one generation of adults matures each 

Grubs over-winter up to a foot (0.3 m) or more below the soil surface. Green June b

gradually make their way close to the surface during the spring, and feed mainly on d

ing plant matter and to a lesser degree on roots. 28 Biological knowledge of the insect

cerned will enable a reconstruction of events including an estimated time of death. 

POSTMORTEM INTERVAL (PMI): 

ESTIMATING THE TIME OF DEATH 

The theory behind estimating time of death, or PMI, with the help of insects i

simple: since insects arrive on the body soon after death, estimating the age of the i

will also lead to an estimation of the time of death. The stages of development in th

liphoraidae blowfly are helpful in this regard (see Figure 2).

A more precise way to determine age of larvae and eggs is the use of rearin

example, the body is found with masses of eggs on it, or none has hatched. How lon

since the eggs were oviposited (laid)? Note the time of the discovery; note the time 

the 1st instar larvae occurred. Subtract the first occurrence time from the discovery 

(call this time A). Rear the blowflies to adults and let them lay eggs on raw bee

under conditions similar to the crime scene, and take the time from oviposition to th

occurrence of 1st instar larvae (call this time B). By calculating B minus A, one g

which is an estimate of the time from oviposition to discovery. Similar calculations c

made for other instars as well. If one has good baseline data from before under dif

temperatures and for different species, one only needs to rear the flies to a stage 

they can be identified, that is, the 3rd instar stage of the adult stage.

M. Chang and W. Rodriguez note that certain crawling insects are highly predic

especially blowflies of the family Calliphoraidae.29 Typically, these flies dete

cadaver’s odor of decay and lay eggs on or near fresh corpses soon after death. Thu

maggots’ developmental clock can provide an accurate measure of the body’s PMI, 

able that is of interest to investigators.30

Bornemissza recognizes that the carrion community has four ecological categ

Some species simply seek moisture while others require a place to rest and feed on bo

corpse and its inhabitants.31 The four categories of the carrion community are as follo

28 Bill Hilton, Jr., Hilton Pond Center, “June Bug’s Gotta Eat Too,” Web-only essay, 8-1

2002, URL: <www.http://images.searches.yahoo.com>, key work June beetle, accessed 2

2004. 29 M. Chang, “Fly Witness,” Science World Journal 54, no. 4 (1997): 8. 30 William Rodriguez, Ph.D., DoD Coroner, Washington, DC. Interview by the 

16 December 2003. 31 Bornemissza, 5-12.
17

category in establishing time of death. Diptera: Calliphoraidae (blowflies); Sa

haemorrhoidalis (red-tailed flesh fly); Coleoptera: Staphylinidae (rove-beetles) s

on bone.

2. Predators and parasites on the necrophagous species—Second most i

forensic category. Coleoptera: Silphidae (in part); Staphylinidae; Diptera: som

feeders become predaceous in later instars (eat larvae).

3. Omnivorous species—Wasps, ants and some Coleoptera: Staphylinidae (rove

feed on both the corpse and its inhabitants (larvae). 

4. Adventive species—Use the corpse as an extension of their environment. Co

Isotoma sepulchralis (springtails); spiders (which may become incidental predator

 The insects that usually arrive first at a death scene are the Diptera, in parti

Calliphoridae (blowfly) and Sarcophagidae (flesh fly). Beetles and wasps soon 

devour rotting flesh, dried skin, and hair. The difference between the two flies is 

cophagidae give birth to live larvae, due to their ability to hatch eggs in the uteru

of laying eggs.32 After a short time, depending on species, the females of Calliph

their eggs or larvae within one to two days on natural orifices of the body, espe

eyes, nose, ears, anus, and the genital areas.33, 34 Wounds also provide another ea

point, with blood as a further attractant.35

The key to estimating PMI is based on how the insects develop under varying 

mental conditions. After a short amount of time, depending on the species and the 

ature, the egg hatches into a small larva. As noted before, the larva measures abo

in length and lives off decaying tissue, growing at a rapid rate. After two days of 

the larva molts to the 2nd instar, gaining 2-3 mm in length. The larva continue

reaching 3rd instar in 4-5 days. By this stage, the maggot is about 17 mm long 

less. It migrates away from the corpse, seeking a suitable place to burrow itsel

ground and pupate, ending its prepupal stage. Prior to forming the puparium, 

becomes less active and contracts its body into a shorter, thicker form, which bec

puparium. This complete metamorphosis to adulthood typically takes a wee

weeks depending on the species of insect and the temperature in the surrounding 

Figure 4). The rule of growth is the higher the temperature the faster the growth, 

the lower the temperature the slower the rate of growth.

Figure 3 portrays the timeline associated with a corpse’s decomposition, w

allel timeline moving backward to estimate the time of death through faunal e

32 Oldroyd, 112.

33 J. Sachs, “A Maggot for the Prosecution,” Discovery 11 (1998): 103-108. 34 Smith, 88.

35 A. Gail and J. Gaudet, “A Practical Exercise in Forensic Entomology,” RCMP Gaze

11 (1999): 10-12.
18

death and discovery of the corpse, can be estimated fairly accurately, within a w

of certainty bounded by maximal and minimal times.

Figure 3. Decomposition Timeline

Source: Neal Haskell and N. Catta. Entomology and Death: A Procedural Guide.

Clemson, SC: Joyce’s Print Shop, 1990. Used with permission.

If sufficient information exists, the entomologist can establish a reasonable estim

the minimum and maximum time the body was available to insects, to include an es

in hours. For example, a coroner retrieves a newly formed pupa of a particular fly f

death scene (e.g., Kosovo). The entomologist knows that this particular fly could ar

this location within an hour of death and that the eggs of this fly take an average o

hours (390 to 410) to pupate at the temperature of the corpse. The entomologist the

culates by adding one hour, estimating the PMI near 401 hours, but no lower tha

hours and no greater than 411 hours (if the temperature of the crime scene was co

this would simplify the calculations of PMI). 
19

Figure 4. Fly Life Cycle

 Source: “Decomposition: What Happens to the Body After Death?” Australian Museum

URL:<http://images.search.yahoo.com/search/images/view, accessed 9 March 2004. Use

permission.

However, if a body has been exposed to the environment for a longer period 

flies may have gone through multiple life cycles. Therefore, the presence of othe

from subsequent successional waves will be useful in providing an estimate of th

death. 

In addition to estimating the time of death, insects can provide the analyst 

ability to find ground truth, in this case, the deceptive movement of a body or bo

are in question at a scene, to include answers as to what happened to a body in a 

grave. The following case studies are provided for illumination.

COLLECTION OF EVIDENCE 

Within the United States and in other countries around the globe, insect 

(entomologists) are being utilized with increasing frequency to apply their knowl

expertise to criminal and civil case proceedings, and to become recognized me

forensic laboratories and medical/legal investigation teams. Such forensic faci

nationwide and are considered highly specialized laboratories that provide forens

iners and law enforcement personnel with the appropriate tools to support crimin

tigations. In addition to supporting law enforcement criminal investigation
20

hard evidence to prosecute those who commit heinous crimes against humanity. 

In a report disseminated 8 October 2003 by the U.S. Department of Justice, F

Bureau of Investigation Director Robert S. Mueller III described how important fo

laboratories were to the IC: “Regional Forensic Laboratories play an important role 

fight against terrorism by providing critical and timely forensic expertise. Additio

our examiners have helped secure convictions ... against murderers. This program 

smart solution that is positively impacting the way we address complex crimes.”36

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF BLOWFLIES

Because blowfly biology varies among species, and with different environmenta

ditions, the following information is general. The black blowfly differs from the gree

blue bottle blowflies in that it is a cool weather insect which overwinters in the adult 

and is most numerous in early spring or autumn. The green and blue bottle blowfli

abundant during the warm, humid summer months and over-winter as larvae or pup

A case in which blowflies were of great importance involved a murder crime w

victim was thrown down an open well on a farm located in a rural area in central 

ana.37 The exact location of the remains was unknown to investigators. During the in

gation, a search was conducted at several wooded farmyard well sites—the area whe

body was presumed to have been. Haskell and Catts note that the correct site was ob

due to several thousand flies hovering over the debris of tires and rocks that were 

well obstructing the body. Upon recovering the corpse, investigators noted the bod

in an advanced decay stage, with no insects found on it. They concluded that access 

body by blowflies was restricted by the materials. The odor is the contributing facto

that attracted the multitude of insects and led investigators to find the body.

The information gained from this case study can be applied to mass grave buri

cases such as genocide and mass grave burials in Kosovo, intelligence utilized ove

satellites and visual imagery—to provide policymakers with answers as to the poss

of mass burials. Images led investigators and analysts to conclude that soil had 

moved or tilled (e.g., ditches and plots). 

 However, satellites do not have the ability to reveal the whole truth—in this 

revealing if bodies had been buried at the gravesite shown by imagery. By applying 

sic entomology science, however, ground teams can obtain viable evidence, estima

time of death of the bodies, and confirm that bodies are buried at the gravesite sho

the satellite’s visual images. In addition, this counter-deception and unconventional 

36 U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, “FBI Director M

Announces Five New Computer Forensic Laboratories,” Washington, DC: FBI National 

Office, 8 October 2003, URL: <http://www.fbi.gov/pressrel/pressrel03/lab100803.htm>, acce

June 2004. 37 Haskell and Catts, 11-12. 
21

answers as to where a body or bodies might have been moved. Insects hoverin

suspected gravesite provide evidence of the possibility of a buried body or bodi

like buzzards do when carcasses are present in the desert.

REVEALING DENIAL AND DECEPTION: 

MOVEMENT OF THE BODY

Insect evidence may provide clues as to whether a body was disturbed or mo

death. Roy Godson and James Wirtz, authors of Strategic Denial and Deception: 

Century Challenge, define denial as “the attempt to block information that could 

by an opponent to learn some truth, and deception as the ability to mask or co

opponent through disguise.”38 Denial and deception occur when one tries to m

piece of information, such as information about an event, from being discovere

time or leverage. An example of denial is Serbian soldiers killing innocent A

then placing the bodies in mass graves, thus preventing inspectors from discov

crime of ethnic cleansing and genocide.

A murder victim transported to another location may show signs consistent only 

original location. When dealing with entomology, different species have differen

preferences and are also seasonal. For example, one species of green bottle fly, Lu

cata, prefers well-lit areas when breeding, while the black blowfly (Phormia regin

shade.39 When investigators found black blowflies on the rotting body of a wo

Maryland landfill, they became suspicious. Her remains, discovered in July 1984, 

area often exposed to direct sunlight and frequented by green bottle flies. Since 

bottle flies were found on her body, investigators concluded that she had been mov

more shaded environment preferred by black blowflies. Investigators used this a

evidence to track down the killer.40

Morten Staerkeby gives insight to another case in Azerbaijan, dated 5 May 

describes a body found, partly skeletonized and badly decomposed, in a saltwater 

for firefighting. He adds, “Laboratory experiments on live fly larvae found on the 

trousers showed that they could not survive in saltwater, thus proving that the b

been in the tank for only a short time. Obviously, the death had occurred at anothe

the body had been moved. Based upon examination of the larvae it was estimate

death had occurred some seven to ten days earlier. Confession of the killer confir

the victim was shot on 26 April 1962 (nine days earlier than the discovery of the b

38 Roy Godson and James J. Wirtz, “Strategic Denial and Deception,” in Strategic D

Deception: The 21st Century Challenge (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publications, 1

39 May R. Barenbaum, Ninety-Nine More Maggots, Mites, and Munchers (Urbana and 

University of Illinois Press, 1985), 10-46. 40 Gail and Gaudet, 12-14. 
22

the body was found on the seat of the car used to transport the corpse.

Cases which have been solved by forensic entomology can be applied to m

action internationally. Serbian forces on 24 April 1999 were accused of committing 

ities, killing and burying innocent civilians in mass graves in the villages of Pusto 

and Izbica, Kosovo. In the article, Agence France Presse argues that NATO’s aerial p

of mass graves, taken by satellite, were fabricated. NATO showed two photographs 

comparative analysis of each village. 42

In each case, one of the photos shows the area before the alleged graves were du

the second, taken several days later, appears to show a number of freshly dug graves

counter such a claim, counter-deception using forensic entomology should be appl

find the truth. Allied teams of state and federal investigators, to include forensic anth

ogists, odontologists, and entomologists could be put on the ground to reveal if grave

dug recently and if the bodies were in fact buried in the area described by the satellit

tos. Here, forensic anthropologists could reveal the cause of death, explaining w

trauma had been directed to a certain location on a body by a specific weapon. Fo

odontology can reveal the identification of a body through dental analysis. And fo

entomology could reveal time of death by rearing and evaluating the growth of the 

that had infested the corpse, as well as reveal if deceptive movement had occurred, as 

domestic cases with the black and green blowflies. 

The cases discussed can be applied to the theory of tracking and revealing dec

operations, such as the movement of bodies from one gravesite to another. Forensic 

mology thus sheds light on the criminal act that is being hidden by a specific per

force which is or was in-country during a specific time and at a specific place. Thi

cept is a valuable tool for denial and deception practitioners, specifically because it c

used as a counter-deception tool to determine “ground truth.” 

Another way of looking at defeating an adversary who has hidden a body or bod

an unmarked location is by viewing insect behavior. In such a setting a fly would b

to defeat the well-developed camouflage of topsoil made by the adversary. The fly 

case would be able to smell small amounts of putrefaction of a corpse. The blowfly

sory medium would cause the flies to hover over the unknown gravesite. An analy

has to know the fly species in the region, to include breeding and eating habits, then 

out mass hovering to identify the location where a body or bodies may have been l

deposited. In short, the fly’s keen olfaction enhances the investigator’s visual acuity

41 Starkeby, “Ultimate Guide to Forensic Entomology: Introduction to Forensic Entomolo

42 Brent Sadler and others, “NATO: Aerial Photo May Show Mass Graves in Kosovo,” 

online ed., 11 April 1999, URL:<http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/ europe/9904/11/nato.attack

accessed 1 June 2004. 43 Emperor’s Clothes, “Were NATO’s Aerial Photo’s of Mass Graves Faked?” Web-only 

Spring and Fall, URL: <http://emperor.vwh.net/misc/graves2.htm.>, accessed 1 June 2004.
23

having the potential to identify clandestine movement. 

Nonetheless, the application of carrion insects to crime is only as good as th

who recognize it and accept the science as a tool. In short, it is a science whic

applied in any environment, even a military operation at sea.

Such an operation, which was put into play at sea in 1943, was the deceptive 

of Sicily, known as Operation MINCEMEAT. British counterintelligence age

Montagu explains in his book The Man Who Never Was how Operation MINC

called for the use of a dead body, with a made-up identity, dressed as a Roya

officer and presumably killed in an airplane crash, to wash ashore near the t

known Nazi agent of Spain. The deception would include dated theater tickets, fa

tification card, and a deceptive letter discussing the assault. All information w

planted on the body. The operation was designed to hide the true intention of the 

sion of Sicily in June 1943.44 Historically, the operation was a complete succes

theless, one must take a look from a counter-deception standpoint and utilize An

Competing Hypotheses (ACH) to reveal if the deception could have been compr

Hypothetically and from a counter-deception perspective, if the body had c

traces of insect infestation, 3rd instar blowfly larvae for example, the Germa

have estimated the time of death prior to the theater ticket stub dates. A list o

ables follows:

1. 22 April 1943, theater tickets dated

2. 27 April 1943, aircraft is suspected of crashing and is the date of death...

Examiner in Madrid

3. 30 April 1943, body (Major Martin) was launched to shore by submarine

4. 30 April 1943, body was found by fisherman off shore of Huelva

5. 30 April 1943, body seen by Medical Examiner

6. 30 April 1943, body buried with full military funeral

7. 3 May 1943, British received a message from Naval Attaché in Madrid

8. Note one. Body is decomposed and in black putrefaction stage (12-20 days)

9. Note two. No bruises on body (aircraft crash)

10. Note three. 3rd instar at 70 degrees (11 days)

If the body had been found with 3rd stage instars or larvae it would have reve

the body had made contact with flies on land. This would produce an estimate 

body’s death or PMI is at 11 days. The deception plan puts the body in the water, t

being found by a fisherman on 30 April 1943 (30-11=19). The following numbe

suggest the time of death of Major Martin on 19 April 1943. In addition, the 19 A

date would prove the theory that the theater tickets dated 22 April were planted

analysis reveals that the black putrefaction stage would have coincided with the 3

44 Ewan Montagu, The Man Who Never Was: World War II’s Boldest Counterintelligen

tion (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1996), 88-116.
24

was found, death could be estimated to have occurred 1112 days ago (3012=18). Th

culation would place the time of death at 18 April 1943. By comparing both dates, 1

19 April (3rd instar and putrefaction), it is clear that the dates are closer to each othe

ducing an estimate of the time of death between 18 and 19 April 1943.

In this case, ACH is helpful in countering such a deception, but only if the investig

analyst is also in tune with the science of forensic entomology and its sub-disciplines. T

ter understand ACH an analyst should list all the observables in order, and evalua

observables compared to the hypothesis using “C” for consistent and “I” for incons

Then the analyst should eliminate non-diagnostic observables and apply a qualitativ

using “+” or “-” to each observable. Upon completing the aforementioned, the analyst 

eliminate the weak hypothesis, make a last sanity check with two other analysts, and a

own assumptions to determine the most strongly supported hypothesis. If followed co

the results can lead the analyst to find “ground truth” with a high probability of success

In closing, it is this type of scenario that can be utilized and applied to intelli

counter-deception and denial practices to include those in an international tribunal in

ing war crimes or in an International Criminal Court (ICC). 

Although the exact species may differ from country to country, from habitat to h

and from season to season, the basic pattern of insect succession is remarkably con

around the world. While a broad range of insect species are attracted to decomp

remains and play an active role in the decay process, two groups, flies (Diptera) an

tles (Coleoptera), are of major importance in most circumstances. Flies, specifically 

flies, are considered the first wave of insects to be attracted to, and to colon

decomposing corpse. Fly larvae quickly consume the corpse’s skin, remaining soft 

and organs. Only much later, when the corpse is decomposed and reaching dry 

stage, does the second wave of insect species, notably beetles, appear, move in, and 

tinue the process. 

DEATH SCENE PROCEDURES

The overall success of forensic entomology with PMI begins with the death sce

death scene is described as the location where the body was discovered. This is whe

majority of insect evidence is collected. Collection of this material is always one 

most important tasks. Items must first be recognized as potential evidence, then col

properly to yield any forensic information.

Most of the evidence used in forensic entomology as discussed by Haskell and C

classified as “disappearing evidence,” i.e., evidence that crawls, burrows, or takes fli

its surroundings. Therefore, it is important to learn the key habits of insects that sur

the death scene so that proper collection and identification can be accomplishe

doubt exists, the help of an expert entomologist should be sought to reduce error

expert will know the group as a whole and not just the narrow confines of normal fo

45 Haskell and Catts, 84.
25

examine the death scene carefully by making notes about the insects found in a p

ecosystem, keeping in mind proper scientific names. 

To make the most of entomological evidence at a domestic or international w

scene, an experienced and well-trained forensic entomologist should do the c

The exact procedure at the crime scene varies with the type of habitat and the tim

but in general we can divide the work of the forensic entomologist into six parts:

1. Collection of specimens from the body before body removal. 

2. Collection of specimens from the surrounding area (up to 6 m from the bod

removal of the remains.

3. Collection of specimens from directly under and in close proximity to the 

after the body has been removed.47

4. Visual observation and notations at the scene. Entomological evidence field 

recommended.

5. Initiation of climatological data collection at the scene.

6. Shipping insects if needed.48

While at the death scene, and prior to the body’s removal, any insect that is 

around or settled on or under a corpse should be captured with a suitable net, transf

glass or plastic tube, killed, and preserved in 70 percent EtOH (Ethyl alcohol) or 7

Isopropyl alcohol for later study.49 Other adult invertebrates that cannot fly should 

into tubes with the aid of forceps, sticks, or grass stems. If kept alive, each specime

be kept in a separate tube to avoid possible predation. Dadour and Cook give vivid 

how evidence can consume evidence by noting that hairy maggots of genus Chrys

predaceous (taking prey) on other fly species and their own species if placed togeth

It is important to note the precise site and situation on the body where each s

collected, and this should be recorded on the spot. The first insects to be collecte

adult flies and beetles. These insects are fast-moving and can leave the crime s

idly once disturbed. Eggs, maggots, and other larvae of all sizes feeding on 

should be removed from natural openings, including under and in folds of clothes

tion of specimens should extend out to six meters of the body, should be handled 

ceps, and again be placed into 70 percent alcohol or 70 percent Isopropyl alc

labeled (see Figure 5).

46 Smith, 89.

47 Starkeby, “Ultimate Guide to Forensic Entomology: Introduction to Forensic Ent

2004. 48 Haskell and Catts, 90-96.

49 Rodriguez interview.

50 Dadour, I., and D. Cook, “Forensic Entomology,” web-only essay, URL: 

<http:// www.agric.wa.gov.au:7000/ento/forensic.htm>, accessed 5 January 2004. 
26

Figure 5. Collection Chart for Forensic Investigations

Source: Neal Haskell and Paul Catts, Entomology and Death: A Procedural Guide, Clemson, 

Joyce’s Print Shop, 1990. Used with permission.

Labeling

Container labels should indicate date and time the insects were collected, for ex

“5 May 2004, 0700 hours,” geographical location, case number, location on the 

where removed, name and agency of collector, and telephone number. Labels m

printed legibly using waterproof ink or pencil. An alternative method is using a dark 

cil lead on bond paper with at least 50 percent rag content. Properly marked labe

then be placed in the container with the insect.51

Photos and the Recording of Climate Data

Following labeling, a full description of the site and condition of the corpse sho

recorded, both with a diagram and 35 mm or digital photographs. An object suc

ruler or measuring tape should be used to identify overall length of maggots, pupae

tion of the carcass, and inflicted wounds when photographing, if any.52 Where po

both a preserved and a living sample should be taken.53 Physical conditions incl

51 Stephen Bullington, “Forensic Entomology,” Web-only essay, 24 July 2001, URL: <

www.key-net.net/users/swb/forensics>, accessed 5 January 2004. 52 Rodriguez interview.
27

recorded at the death scene (see Appendix A). 

Collection of Climatological Data at the Scene

Such data should include:

1. Ambient air temperature at the scene taken approximately at chest height 

thermometer in the shade, and not exposing the thermometer to direct sunlig

2. Maggot mass temperature. Obtained by placing thermometer directly into t

mass. 

3. Ground surface temperature.

4. Temperature at the interface of the body and ground. This is accomplished b

5. Temperature of the soil directly under the body. Taken immediately af

removal.placing thermometer between the two surfaces, ground and victim. 

6. Weather data, including precipitation for a period of one-two weeks before th

was last seen to three-five days after the body was recovered.

Most importantly, temperature must be considered in PMI calculations for its e

rates of larval growth. Hall suggests that criminologists and intelligence officers 

only consider ambient temperature, but also temperature changes induced by t

themselves when they present themselves in high enough densities. In addition, th

larvae makes the temperature higher and accelerates instar to pupa development.54

If temperatures cannot be recorded on site, then one should locate the close

rological station or, if near a beach, a lifeguard station where records of high 

temperatures can be obtained.55

Transporting Entomological Evidence

Once flies have been collected and preserved, duplicate material should be 

rearing. Specimens can be placed into a specimen container, plastic cup, or alum

rearing pouch with liver, a moist paper towel, and sealed with a form-fitting lid. T

should be made through the lid using a sewing needle for ventilation, or a screen 

be used as an alternative (see Figure 6). Cups should be placed into a sligh

container with newspaper to reduce jarring.56 Mark the exterior of the contai

specimens” and package it for immediate shipping to a forensic entomologist using 

Postal Service, the United Parcel Service (UPS), or other overnight delivery servic

53 Starkeby, “Ultimate Guide to Forensic Entomology: Introduction to Forensic Ent

2004. 54 G. Hall, The Blowflies of North America (Baltimore, MD: Say, 1948), 58. 55 Castner, “Ultimate Guide to Forensic Entomology: A Review of Forensic Ide

Cards,” 2004. 56 Bullington, “Forensic Entomology,” 2001. 

57 Castner, “Ultimate Guide to Forensic Entomology: A Review of Forensic Ide

Cards,” 2004.
28

Figure 6. Packaging and Shipping of Live Specimens to a Forensic Entomological Laborato

Source: Neal Haskell and N. Catts, Entomology and Death: A Procedural Guide, 

Clemson, SC: Joyce’s Print Shop, 1990. Used with permission.

FINDING THE CAUSE 

OF DEATH

In a lab, investigators can piece together where and when the victim died. For

has made it possible to use DNA technology not only to help determine insect speci

to recover and identify the blood meals taken by blood-feeding insects. The DN

human blood can be recovered from the digestive tract of an insect that has fed on an 

vidual. The presence of the individual’s DNA within the insect can place a suspe

known location within a definable period of time. Recovery of the victim's blood ca

create a link between perpetrator and suspect.58 It is this theory which applies to the 

ing of explosive residues or compounds within the maggot’s digestive tract or stored 

fat content. However, instead of a DNA analysis, a chemical analysis is needed to 

58 Jason. H. Byrd, “Forensic Entomology: Insects in Legal Investigations,” Web-only 

URL: <http://www.forensic-entomology.com>, accessed 5 January 2004.
29

experiment will be provided in a subsequent section. 

The sites of fly infestation on the corpse may also be important in determ

cause of death, or reconstruction of events prior to death. For example, if there 

trauma or mutilation of the body prior to death, this may lead to heavier infesta

with the limited natural openings. In knife and gunshot attacks, the use of the 

common while protecting the face and head, resulting in injury to the lower pa

forearm. After death, these wounds are a breeding ground for flies.59 Therefore, 

ral behavior of oviposition or fly larva deposit on wounds can lead investigators t

that self-defense was a factor and that homicide (murder) may have been the 

death during a war crime. 

DETECTION OF DRUGS, CHEMICAL TOXINS

BIOLOGICAL AGENTS, AND EXPLOSIVE 

COMPOUNDS

DRUGS AND CHEMICAL TOXINS

Once the DNA of the insect has been analyzed, a chemical analysis can be c

to reveal activities such as prior drug use or poisoning of the victim, plus fac

might influence the life cycles of the maggot, causing it to accelerate or hinde

Often as a consequence of decomposition—once blood urine and solid organ

longer procurable—toxicological analysis is the only avenue of approach to asc

if the body came in contact with drugs or chemical toxins.

Insects can present IC analysts with useful information where a victim had be

rogated with the use of drugs, such as sodium pentothal (truth serum) or LSD; 

less, this claim has not clearly been validated in open sources. A toxicologist ha

such drugs during toxicological analysis. Experts in the field of forensic entomol

as Introna, have documented the presence of morphine in insect cases of opiate 

tion.60 In addition, Gunatilake and Goff were able to confirm malathion pois

analysis of blowfly larvae from a decomposing body. 61 The following chemic

been traced in maggots and the results are as noted:

59 Starkeby, “Ultimate Guide to Forensic Entomology: Introduction to Forensic Ent

2004. 60 F. Introna and others, “Opiate Analysis in Cadaveric Blowfly Larvae as an Indicat

cotic Intoxication,” Journal of Forensic Sciences 35 (1990): 1. 61 K. Gunatilake and M. L. Goff, “Detection of Organophosphate Poisoning in a Putrefy

by Analyzing Arthropod Larvae,” Journal of Forensic Sciences 34 (1989): 3.
30

can delay the colonization of insects in the mouth.

Amitriptyline—(antidepressant) can prolong the development time up to 77 ho

one species of Sarcophagidae.62

 One case that can shed some light on drugs and toxin analysis is that of a corpse 

by bystanders walking in a wooded area in February 2004. Haskell and Catts expla

the decedent was a 29-year-old intravenous cocaine drug user who had been rep

missing the prior day. “The body was found prone and skeletonized at the skull and 

The report revealed that no drugs or paraphernalia were found, to include no disti

marks, cuts, tears, holes, or evidence of injury to reveal foul play. What was found 

decomposed body was small to large maggots (1st, 2nd, 3rd instars). Skeletal m

along with maggots were submitted for toxicological analysis. Both tissue and ma

were identified as being positive for cocaine. Based on the facts related to the bod

cause of death was ruled overdose.”63

In addition to telling the “true story,” insects can provide valuable information r

ing drug trafficking. Because illegal drugs are often made in one country and sold i

ers, it can be important to find out where the drugs were produced. Morten Sta

explains that, sometimes, insects and other arthropods can be found together wi

drugs.64 A better explanation of this concept is set forth through a scenario: A br

marijuana being shipped from Colombia, cultivated in a high-altitude location 

region, finds its way to America. While entering the U.S. the drugs are seized by B

Patrol agents. Further analysis reveals that a unique spider, found only in the hig

tudes of the Colombian mountains, was found packed in the one-pound brick. This i

leads investigators to the point of origin. 

Starkeby adds, “If these insects are [identified], and the world distribution of the 

ent insects is plotted on a map, one can, by analyzing the degree of overlap, fin

approximately where the drugs came from. If one looks at the biology of the insec

cies found with the drugs, one can also often say something about the surroundings 

the drugs were produced or packed.”65

62 Starkeby, “Ultimate Guide to Forensic Entomology: Introduction to Forensic Entomo

2004. 63 Haskell and Catts, 35-36.

64 Starkeby, “Ultimate Guide to Forensic Entomology: Introduction to Forensic Entomo

2004. 65Starkeby, “Ultimate Guide to Forensic Entomology: Introduction to Forensic Entomo

2004.
31

EXPLOSIVE COMPOUNDS

To date, the idea that forensic entomology could reveal valuable information 

ing to explosive residues found at or near death sites, which have or have 

reached in a timely manner, remains hypothetical. Cases relating to both DNA 

transfer, through maggots, suggest a high probability (on a scale of low, med

high) of explosive compound and biological and chemical agent transfer. 

A scenario that helps show the relevance of the explosive residue/maggot tran

ory—and might give insight to what analysts would be up against if policyma

questions—is the case of an airline accident. 

The question could be that, if technology should fail in the field, by wh

means would investigators be able to find out if high explosives had been u

answer in this case is forensic entomology and chemical analysis. The theor

case is that forensic entomology, through chemical analysis, would be able to 

explosive residues were present on the body of a victim by analyzing the blowfl

and pupae. 

Cases include that of U.S. Secretary of Commerce Ron Brown, Representativ

Leland of Texas, and Representative Larry McDonald of Georgia, all dying 

crashes:

■ 2 April 1996; U.S. Air Force 737-T43; near Dubrovnik, Croatia: The aircr

mountainous terrain while attempting to land at the airport under conditions o

visibility. The flight crew was using an unapproved approach. All six crew 

and 29 passengers were killed. Among the passengers were a number of U.S. c

executives and the U.S. Secretary of Commerce, Ron Brown. The aircraft is a 

version of the 737 that was used to transport military and civilian VIPs.

■ 7 August 1989; Ethiopia: Representative Mickey Leland of Texas was ki

crash in Ethiopia.

■ 1 September 1983; Korean Air Lines 747-200; near Sakhalin Island

Union: Representative Larry McDonald of Georgia was killed along with 

members and the other 239 passengers. The aircraft was shot down by at 

Soviet air-to-air missile after the 747 had strayed into Soviet airspace. 66

Forensic entomology could in this case reveal valuable information about 

explosive compounds were found near or at death sites where badly decompose

have not been reached in a timely manner. By obtaining body tissue—to includ

66 “Fatal Aircraft Events Involving U.S. Politicians,” AirSafe.com, 26 October 2002, MS

the keyword “aircraft accidents involving U.S. politicians,” URL: <http://www.cow

events/celebs/politics.html>,” accessed 28 April 2004.
32

whether a body has been exposed to an explosive compound. It is at this point th

can determine if foul play was in fact the cause of the crash. Upon identifying exp

materials during chemical analysis, comparative analysis can be conducted with k

and unknown samples.

 For example, larva samples from a previous bombing victim are submitted for c

cal analysis and test positive for TNT. This sample can then be compared to an unk

sample of explosives recovered at another location (terrorist safehouse). If both sa

reveal an identical chemical signature, one can ascertain a connection, thus provin

same explosive compounds were used by the same terrorist cell. This type of anal

only possible if the insects are properly collected and taken to a professional fo

entomologist for extraction and chemical analysis. 

To test the theory of explosive transfer through biological means and introduc

analytical tools to help solve terrorist bombings within the IC, the author conduc

experiment using TNT on porcine muscle in an uncontrolled outdoor and cont

indoor environment. The next section will discuss how the original E2 Project wa

ducted. One should note that this test had never been conducted before and will no

add to the science and research of forensic entomology but could also become a new 

lytical technique and tool for the IC to combat terrorist bombings and war crimes. 

INITIATING THE ENTOMOLOGY/EXPLOSIVE (E

PROJECT

To initiate the E2 Project, a plan was formulated. The plan would consist of two 

(1) an outdoor uncontrolled environmental chamber (until maggots reached th

instar), and (2) an indoor controlled environmental forensic laboratory chamber. 

reaching the 3rd and pupa stage, maggots would then be macerated and sent to a to

ogy lab for explosive analysis. 
33

6 plastic container purchased at a local pet store. The initial rearing chamber c

one inch of kitty litter (bottom) and one inch of potting soil (top), placed in an 

uncontrolled environment. Two pieces of porcine muscle were placed in the cham

by side and one inch apart (one doped with TNT and the other without; see F

Explosives used in this experiment were purchased and obtained from Cerill

compound used consisted of one pound of Trinitrotoluene (TNT) explosives.67 

cine muscle in this case was used to attract the unknown fly species found in the 

dria, Virginia, area (see Figure 8). Once the larvae reached the 2nd instar st

would be prepared for transfer. This would conclude the first part of the two-par

The second part would include transferring and rearing the maggots in a controll

sic laboratory environment. 

Figure 7. Porcine Muscle and One Pound Trinitrotoluene (TNT) Explosive (Bottom) 

Explosive material (TNT) is highly toxic and produces a brown oily residue. Two samples o

muscle are noted, one with TNT (middle) and the other without (top). Photographed 21 Ap

Source: Author’s Analysis.

67 Cerilliant Explosive Company, phone number 1-800-848-7837. Trinitrotoluene (TN

sives were utilized in explosive entomology project, CAS No 118-96-7, $20.00 plus shipp

Porcine muscle wit

Trinitrotoluene

(TNT) Explosive

Porcine musc

(non-contamin

Trinitrotoluene

(TNT)

Explosive
34

Figure 8. Day One. Fly Rearing Chamber 

Note the location of the one inch kitty litter (bottom) and one inch potting soil (top). This simul

natural setting for larvae burrowing. Porcine muscle is set on top of the soil and is being utiliz

live specimens experiment, photographed 0700 hours 7 May 2004. 

Source: Author’s Analysis.

Upon completing the first part of the project, blowfly egg oviposit on the porcine 

cle and larvae reaching the 2nd instar would be transported via automobile to the fo

laboratory of the Office of the Armed Forces Medical Examiner (AFME) in Roc

Maryland. There instars (larvae) would then be transferred and placed in two trans

plastic containers (18” in circumference x 6” tall), each containing a piece of fres

cine muscle (one doped with TNT and the other without). In addition, one pou

ready-to-use vermiculite soil was placed in the rearing chamber to simulate a natur

ting and allow 3rd instars to burrow (see Figure 16). The experiment was then p

graphed and plastic containers placed in a temperature-regulated forensic evi

cabinet to be reared (see Figure 20).

Rearing information was obtained from the first forensic entomology textbook

lished in 1986 by Smith, and the second in 1990 by Haskell and Catts. Both texts w

primary source of information throughout the planning process and the project. S

articles are also available on forensic entomology, often authored by the same two 

contributors.

Porcine muscle

meat containing

TNT

One inch potting soil

Porcine muscle

One inch vermiculite
35

ogy was consulted on multiple occasions via telephone for his technical expe

guidance. The expert contacted was Dr. William C. Rodriguez, Chief, Deputy 

Examiner of the Armed Forces Medical Examiner Special Investigations Office

tions asked were unofficial and considered informal. The majority of questions a

ing the project concerned the rearing and transferability of maggots du

entomology/explosive project. Dr. Rodriguez presented the fundamental founda

gave sound advice to initiate and carry out the original entomology/explosive 

project. 

EQUIPMENT USED DURING THE EXPERIMENT

The following equipment was purchased and used in the experiment to esta

time of the fly’s larviposit and stages of development (instars): 

68 William C. Rodriguez III, Ph.D., Chief, Deputy Medical Examiner, Office of th

Forces Medical Examiner (AFME), Rockville, MD. Telephone interview by the autho

2004.
36

Keep in mind that in the first part of the experiment a colony of larvae was reared 

2nd instar stage (adult flies were utilized to lay eggs on the porcine muscle in an u

trolled temperature and environment), located in the Alexandria, Virginia, area. 

reaching the 2nd instar, on day five, the second part of the experiment began. Larvae 

transported and reared for nine more days in a controlled environmental chamber lo

at the Office of the Armed Forces Medical Examiner, Forensic Laboratories, in Roc

Maryland, on 11 May 2004 (see Figures 9-20). 

Before chemical analysis could be accomplished, the porcine muscle in both ci

stances—from the uncontrolled outdoor environment and the controlled environm

chamber—was doped with TNT explosive. This simulates carrion feeding on a bod

has been exposed to an explosive compound during a bombing (e.g., where the 

came in contact with residue from a detonated IED). 

pgg

2. Forceps to handle specimens on the porcine muscle.

3. One surgical knife.

4. One small artist paint brush for picking up tiny specimens that might be dam

by forceps.

5. One 10”/25 cm net, fishing type, for collecting flying insects in the air or on a cor

6. Plastic container, 12” x 6” x 6,” with ventilated lid.

7. Plastic container, 18” in circumference x 6” height, with ventilated lid.

8. One pound of potting soil.

9. One pound of kitty litter.

10. One pound of ready-to-use vermiculite top soil. 

11. Specimen, consisting of one pound of porcine muscle (with collection jars for s

mens, containing 70 percent Isopropyl alcohol as a killing agent).

12. Isopropyl alcohol (70 percent).

13. One six-inch ruler with straight edge.

14. Camera, specifically a Canon 35 mm. 

15. Kodak Max 800 Versatile Plus color film.

16. One pound of Trinitrotoluene (TNT) explosives.

17. Five transparent plastic trays, 4” x 4.”

18. Black screen, 4’ x 4.’

19. One box of large rubber bands.

20. Calliphoraidae, or green bottle blowflies (unknown number). 
37

near a highrise building in Alexandria. Sunlight illuminated the larvae from the ea

the chamber 12 hours of sunlight exposure. Shrubs near the building provided vis

and natural shade during daylight hours. The chamber contained one inch of pottin

top and one inch of kitty litter on the bottom. The substance would help to absor

and odor. This would also simulate a natural setting and allow the instar larvae t

On 7 May 2004 at 0700 hours the experiment started. Daily recordings were cond

behavior patterns, time, day, temperature, and humidity readings. Upon the larvae 

2nd instar (Day Five of the project), they were transferred to a temperature- and h

controlled environment chamber. 

The second part of the experiment would start at 1400 hours on Day Five, 

2004. The oviposit of fly eggs and larvae from the uncontrolled experiment were 

a small circular experimental chamber to establish contact with the fresh porcine 

The second rearing site provided 24 hours of controlled temperature in a roo

degrees Fahrenheit and 60 percent relative humidity. Other factors of control inc

hours of light and 12 hours of darkness—simulating natural light—continuou

moisture, and protection from predaceous insects and animals. 

At the 3rd instar stage, larvae were extracted with forceps and bathed first in h

(170 degrees), then in a 90 percent ethanol solution to rid the larvae of any exte

taminants that could give false residual TNT readings when analyzed. After bat

vae were crushed using a glass pestle. The macerated remains were then dried 

infrared heat lamp for eight hours, which resulted in a dry residue. Residue 

scraped and placed into a glass vial and sent to the Department of Environmental 

ogy and Pathology for analysis. There a Scanning Electron Microscope with a

Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy machine (SEM/EDAX) was utilized to identify 

ties and elements within the macerated maggots’ tissues. 

Scanning Electron Microscope with Energy Dispersive X-Ray 

Spectroscopy

The scanning electron microscope has automated features, to include auto fo

stigmator, and automatic contrast and brightness. The system is expandable, ad

needs from morphological observation to multipurpose, high-resolution element

sis. 

The unique signature, if found, could help investigators and analysts pinpoin

explosive materials at different locales. For example, explosive material found at a 

safehouse may be related to a known bombing. Chemical entomology/explosive 

may be the link to connect the two if the signatures match, just as fingerprints are 

crime scene. The SEM/EDAX system is required to determine whether element

can be found and if explosive transferability via entomological means is possible. 
38

Figure 9. Day One. Initial Exposure 

Exposure of uncontrolled outdoor experiment conducted in Alexandria, VA. Porcine muscle sub

to TNT is located on the right. Porcine muscle has been exposed outdoors for less than five mi

Note the initial brown discoloration of TNT. Strong toxic odor is present. Photographed 0705 h

7 May 2004. 

Source: Author’s Analysis.

Fresh porcine muscle,

non-contminated (left)

and meat covered

with TNT (right)
39

Figure 10. Day One. Green Bottle Blowfly Present 

Blowfly is present within one hour, time 0805. Blowfly is tolerant of the TNT porcine sample 

affected by strong toxic odor it presents. Photographed 7 May 2004. 

Source: Author’s Analysis.

Blowfly present wit

one hour, five minu
40

Figure 11. Day One. Fly Eggs Present 

Blowfly eggs are white in appearance, present on non-contaminated porcine muscle (middle 

corner, under lip of fat). Eggs present on porcine muscle confirm blowfly’s ability to lay eggs ne

compound. Photographed 1415 hours, 7 May 2004.

Source: Author’s Analysis.

Blowfly eggs present

on porcine muscle

in seven hours,

15 minutes
41

Figure 12. Day Two. Multiple Green Bottle Blowflies Present

Presence of flies confirms the fly’s ability to smell rotting meat exposed in an outdoor env

Photographed 0700 hours, 8 May 2004.

Source: Author’s Analysis.

Multiple blowflie

present on porc

muscle, 24 hou
42

Figure 13. Day Two. Mass Green Bottle Blowfly Larvae Present (1st Instar Stage) 

Note mass formation of larvae under the left corner of the uncontaminated porcine muscle. Eg

white in appearance. Photographed 0830 hours, 8 May 2004.

Source: Author’s Analysis.

1st instar larvae mass

within 25 hours,

30 minutes
43

Figure 14. Day Three. Decomposing Porcine Muscle 

Green bottle blowflies present. Major discoloration on porcine muscle with TNT, brown to da

No maggots present, burrowed under meat due to container being exposed to sunlight. No

decomposition of porcine muscle with TNT. Photographed 0700 hours, 9 May 2004

Source: Author’s Analysis.

Decomposing

porcine muscle with

TNT, brown

color, 48 hours
44

Figure 15. Day Four. Porcine Muscle in Active Decay 

2nd stage larvae and green bottle blowflies are present. Note leather discoloration on porcine m

with TNT. Larvae are highly active and behavior is erratic. Larvae have introduced themselves 

contaminated TNT porcine muscle. Note larvae massed in center and around plastic in conta

Photographed 0700 hours, 10 May 2004.

Source: Author’s Analysis. 

Mass of larvae, 72 hou
45

Figure 16. Day Five. 2nd Instars Present 

Instars surround the chamber in an uncontrolled environment. Larvae samples shown are t

chamber and reared in a controlled environment at the Office of the Armed Forces Medical 

Photographed 0700 hours, 11 May 2004.

Source: Author’s Analysis.

Restless 2nd

instar larvae

located on

TNT, to include

in surrounding

chamber, 96 hours
46

Figure 17. Day Five. Transfer of Larvae to the Forensic Lab

11 May 2004, 2nd and 3rd instars were introduced to new porcine muscle. Porcine muscle witho

is located on the left and porcine muscle with TNT is on the right. Larvae samples are in a cont

environment and are being reared at the Office of the Armed Forces Medical Examiner. Photogr

1500 hours, 11 May 2004.

Source: Author’s Analysis.

Figure 18. Day Five. 2nd and 3rd Instar Transfer 

Rearing transfer containers contain porcine muscle (one container with TNT). Transfer of larva

successful. Container contains ventilated top (mesh wire). Photographed 1500 hours, 11 May 

Source: Author’s Analysis.

Vermiculite soil
47

Figure 19. Day Twelve. Containers and

Tools used for transfer and collection are shown above. 

(1) Plastic bottles with resealable lids (located on left/center) contain live 2nd and 3rd insta

Bottle is utilized for collection and easy access to instars. (2) Smaller specimen jars (top l

black resealable lids are also utilized for sampling and preserving. Jars are made of glass an

half Isopropyl alcohol (70 percent) and half hot water, 170 degrees in Fahrenheit. (3) Six-in

(bottom) was used to measure specimens. (4) Forceps (bottom) were utilized to delicately 

specific specimens (instars) located in the plastic containers when needed. (5) Lastly, c

transparent plastic resealable container (top right) was used to view and identify larvae sp

under a microscope. Note, the larvae contained in the plastic container (mid-left) were rinse

water, then bathed in 90 percent ethanol solution, macerated, and sent to the Armed Force

Examiner and the Department of Environmental and Toxicological Pathology. Chemical analy

reveal if in fact the TNT explosive compound could be extracted from the larvae fat content

tools and containers taken at the Office of the Armed Forces Medical Examiner, forensic la

1530 hours, 18 May 2004.

Source: Author’s Analysis.

4.

3.

1.

2. 5.
48

Figure 20. Temperature-Regulated Forensic Evidence Cabinet 

Live larvae specimen container is placed in experiment rearing chamber. Chamber is then plac

Forensic Evidence Cabinet where the temperature is controlled to 85 degrees Fahrenheit wit

percent relative humidity. Photographed 27 March 2004.

Source: Author’s Analysis.

IDENTIFICATION OF THE FAUNA

On 18 May 2004, the larvae reared were visually and properly identified un

microscope as Calliphoraidae species, green bottle blowfly.69 The larva’s posterior 

cles, containing three lines, were viewed to determine species. Such features of i

can be found in Haskell and Catts, Procedural Guide to Forensic Entomology. Th

tures of the green bottle blowfly are distinctive:

69 Smith, 92.

Temperature

Regulated

Forensic

Evidence

Cabinet

Small specimen

containers are placed

inside experiment

chamber (right)
49

bluegreen metallic tail end.

2. Abdomen generally green-striped, banded, or spotted pattern.

3. Reddish eyes.

4. Strongly bristled hair on legs, thorax, and abdomen. 

Figure 21. Calliphoraidae, Green Bottle Blowfly 

Source: James L. Castner, “Ultimate Guide to Forensic Entomology: A Review of Fore

Identification Cards,” Web-only essay, URL: <http://folk.uio.no/mostarke/forens_ent/ reviewF

accessed 20 March 2004. Used with permission.

The green bottle blowflies are diverse in their feeding habits, but are united in 

ciation of their maggots with animal tissue (living or dead) or animal dung. B

characteristics of the green bottle blowfly and its larvae are as follows:

1. Deposits eggs instead of live larvae on cadavers.

2. Scavenger, predator or parasitoid of insects, spiders and their egg sacs, sn

earthworms.

3. Dung feeders.

4. Carrion feeders, including vertebrate and invertebrate (human or animal) car

After identifying species, ambient temperature recordings and samples of ins

collected twice a day, at 0700 hours and 1700 hours, until flies pupated (see Ap

Once pupated and adult fly emergence occurred, recordings were reduced to on

starting at 0700 hours. Photographs were taken during recording periods to 

decay cycles of the host and to measure maggots, pupae, and adults. 

The data compiled from this experiment provide a brief description of the life 

the green bottle blowfly in a Mediterranean environment. This study reveals rate 

70 J. Ohara, “Arthropods Associated With Livestock Dung,” Web-only essay, URL

res.agr.ca/ ecorc/apss/arthback.htm>, accessed 8 October 2003.
50

variant temperatures. More importantly, data reveal if explosive residues can be ext

from larva fat reserves. The results of the toxicology report conducted by the A

Forces Medical Examiner’s Office may help intelligence officials develop alter

methods of gathering explosive data at a crime scene, when other means cease to pr

RESULTS OF THE ENTOMOLOGY/EXPLOSIVE (E2) PROJECT

Depending on weather conditions, a dead body that lies above ground will nor

be quickly consumed by insects and their larvae. The body of an adult human m

completely consumed in as little as six months after death. A child’s body may 

only a month.71 A piece of pork, which was the basis of this research, took two we

be consumed.

The experimental rearing of green bottle blowflies and analysis of porcine musc

17 days (one doped with TNT and the other sample without), revealed that green 

blowflies do have a successive life cycle and will consume meat exposed to exp

compounds. The E2 Project experiment and toxicological laboratory analysis pro

empirical evidence that explosive compounds could be transferred biologically and 

tified by obtaining blowfly larva samples. 

Blowfly larvae have demonstrated the ability to store numerous substances in 

bodies which transfer during feeding of mammalian tissues. The same concept app

explosive compounds. As the body decomposes, many of these compounds, w

drugs or explosives, break down into the tissues. At times the body’s main organs 

be badly decomposed and toxic substances on the surface could have been degrad

eaten by predators (i.e., animals), thus making the corpse itself unsuitable for toxic

cal analysis. Thus, the witness that can help find the answer or “ground truth” for an

charged with resolving any case involving war crimes or terrorist activities is the b

larvae. The blowfly can help in the detection of drugs, chemical toxins, and exp

compounds. This is possible due to the larvae eating the dermal tissue and internal o

(see Figure 22). 

71 V. Geberth, Practical Homicide Investigation: Tactics, Procedures, and Forensic Tech

(New York: Boca Raton, 1993), 44.
51

Figure 22. Explosive Detection Cycle by Use of Forensic Entomology 

Source: Author’s Analysis.

In this E2 Project, TNT explosive was the compound that was introduced to t

fly larva and was later identified through chemical analysis, showing that explos

fer and extraction can be accomplished through biological means.

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

To certify explosive transferability through larvae, hard evidence is prov

explained by chemical analysis. Explosive material analysis was conducted 24 Ma

the Armed Forces Medical Examiner’s Office to reveal if an explosive compound, sp
52

extracted from the experiment were cleansed first in hot water (170 degrees), then bat

90 percent ethanol solution prior to toxicological examination. 

The data revealed from the SEM/EDAX were based on a count of 0-1000 and e

reading of 0-10 for elements reflected on the Periodic Table. The examined mac

sample of larvae, which were reared on porcine muscle without TNT, contained ele

which are normally found in maggots to sustain life (oxygen, calcium, potassium

On the other hand, the larva sample reared on porcine muscle containing TNT, when 

pared to the non-TNT sample, contained the same elements to sustain life, bu

included a very high count of metal elements (iron, aluminum, magnesium, etc.) an

con (see Figures 23 and 24).

Figure 23. Chemical Analysis of Non-TNT Larva Sample 

Source: Author’s Analysis.

Figure 24. Chemical Analysis of TNT Larva Sample 

Note high metallic elements (by-products of TNT). See key to elements shown on chart above in T

below.

Source: Author’s Analysis.
53

Table 2. Key Elements Found in E2 Project Samples

Source: Author’s Analysis.

These metals constitute evidence of by-products or by-components left within t

system, which can be used to identify explosives if no other means are available o

ondary method is needed to confirm explosive identification. In this experimental 

signature for TNT is noted and can be used to identify that specific batch, just as w

gerprint. In an explosive identification case, this fingerprint (chemical signature) ca

used and compared to an unknown source of TNT. If both are identical in nature 

ments are peaking at the same count, it can be concluded with high probability 

compounds came from the same manufacturer, location, and user. 

pp

C= Carbon C= Carbon

O= Oxygen O= Oxygen

P= Phosphorus P= Phosphorus

S= Sulfur S= Sulfur

Cl= Chlorine Cl= Chlorine

K= Potassium K= Potassium

Ca= Calcium

Mg= Magnesium

Al=Aluminum

Si= Silicon

Ti= Titanium

Fe= Iron

Na= Sodium
54

Behavioral characteristics during the experiment were noted daily. Daylight exp

and eating habits during the 1st to 3rd instar stages were different. The maggots exh

less tolerance to bright light with increasing age. Newly deposited larvae remained 

to their deposition site regardless of the light for 8 to 10 hours, but soon afterwar

tended to avoid the light, eating and gaining size for the rest of the larval period an

the prepupal stage, where burrowing and fasting were more common until pupation

Figure 25. Day Twelve. 1st, 2nd, 3rd Instars, and Pupae

Photographed at the Armed Forces Medical Examiner’s Office, 1400 hours, 18 May 2004.

Source: Author’s Analysis.

Calliphoraidae (green bottle blowfly) 1st, 2nd, 3rd larval instars and pupae show s

cant growth and confirm the blowfly’s life cycle to estimate PMI (see Figure 25). Al

placed into tubes with the aid of forceps and preserved in a glass jar with 70 percent iso

alcohol and warm water for later study. Warm water was first utilized to stabilize protei

kill larvae prior to transfer in half 70 percent isopropyl alcohol and half warm water. 

On the fourth and fifth day of the experiment, during the second stage of porcine m

decay, 2nd instar larvae were highly active and were found on the porcine muscle cont

TNT as far as 12” from the main mass of larvae and inside of the experimental con

This reflects that the 2nd instar of the Calliphoraidae species no doubt has a keen abi

seek out new burrowing locations in a controlled outdoor environment (see Figure 26
55

Figure 26. Day Five. Instar Behavior on Porcine Muscle 

Behavior is erratic and maggots are everywhere. Maggots are not affected by TNT. Photograp

Armed Forces Medical Examiner’s Office, 1400 hours, 11 May 2004.

Source: Author’s Analysis.

After 20 days, three flies in the experimental container were set free. The fact 

had been reared to adults in 17 days—normally 29 days at an average temperat

degrees—may lead one to conclude the possibility that fly growth was enhance

TNT exposure in the uncontrolled outdoor chamber. Haskell and Catts’ book En

and Death describes research which has associated a very accelerated develo

maggots feeding on cocaine.72 Nonetheless, more research in the area of explos

pounds and entomology will be needed to analyze this rapid growth theory.

The present research and analysis shows that the Calliphoraidae species (gre

blowfly) that invaded both pieces of porcine muscle (one doped with TNT and o

out) did so in a definite order of succession (see Table 3). To better understand th

an investigator were to find 2nd instars, 3rd instars, and pupae on the remains of a 

it could be concluded from Table 4 that the instars occurred at different times. To 

the PMI process one needs to look at the timeline of the various instar stages. T

careful observation and collection of data on site, coupled with biological know

72 Haskell and Catts, 36-37.

Porcine muscle with TNT

2nd instars. Erratic

behavior is noted

throughout the

experimental chamber

Porcine muscle witho
56

mated time of death (see Figure 27).

 In addition, although the exact species of fauna may differ from country to co

from habitat to habitat, and from season to season, the basic pattern of success

insects is remarkably constant around the world.

Table 3. Stages of the Calliphoraidae Species

The table shows results of the green bottle blowfly with one pound Trinitrotoluene (TNT) explo

Source: Author’s Analysis.
57

Figure 27. Pyramid of Forensic Entomology

Estimating the Time of Death/Postmortem Interval (PMI). Fly infestation on corpse allows 

estimate the time of death. This pyramid reflects the chain of evidentiary exploration, from 

general evidence at the time of the discovery of a human corpse, to more specific eviden

blowfly infestation is detected, to determining the specific PMI after detailed analysis of 

evidence available. 

Source: Author’s Analysis.

59

INTELLIGENCE COMMUNITY

This newly tested explosive detection technique can bring a new capability t

both in a domestic and an international setting, by providing analysts and ultima

cymakers with unbiased answers as to what happened during explosive incide

forensic entomology application could reveal time of death, drug inducement, d

ficking, and movement of the body in cases relating to war crimes or deliberate d

In addition, the findings can be used as evidentiary leverage in cases where a le

abused his power and has introduced forces in a country where they are committi

ities against humanity. In light of the present experimental findings, PMI can 

assessed more thoroughly than before.

Figure 28 indicates the value of forensic entomology and its applicability to th

Figure 28. Applicability of the Forensic E2 Project to the IC

Source: Author’s Analysis.
60

Real and perceived barriers in the past have kept law enforcement and int

agencies apart. Since 9/11 the barrier has been lifted; the U.S. Congress passed 

President signed a new law—the Uniting and Strengthening America by P

Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 200

PATRIOT Act).73 Foreign intelligence information between the federal intellige

munity and the federal law enforcement community could now be shared. With 

of global terrorism, law enforcement and intelligence agencies can now join 

find new techniques, new technologies, new analytical methods, and implemen

fight the new borderless wars against global terrorism and war crimes. One law 

ment technique or tool is addressed in this study: forensic entomology.

The earlier historical discussion noted that, while insects have roamed the 

250 million years, forensic entomology has only come into being within the 

years. Insects interact with us in so many ways and in such different locales that 

often come to ignore them. Insects, primarily blowflies, are attracted to the smell 

and seek out the corpse to lay eggs and live off the body. Insects can provide us w

ural clock when someone’s death triggers this activity. By studying the life cyc

investigators and analysts are able to estimate PMI and find the difficult answer

and when the death occurred.

It is clear from this study that insects are a valuable asset to the IC. They are i

because insects are like small intelligence agents; they are the first to discover 

particularly if a person or a force has attempted to hide a body or bodies. As not

first part of the experiment, blowflies arrive and begin laying eggs on a body wi

utes of death. They also arrive in succession, arriving at different times during de

tion. Although the exact species of fauna may differ from country to country an

to season, the basic succession of insects remains consistent around the world (fl

tles, ants, etc.).

In case of genocide, mass clandestine graves are usually involved, but with the 

tion of forensic entomology as a counter-deception tool one can unweave the 

denial and deception.74 A murder victim transported to another location may sh

consistent only with the original location. Because different species have differen

preferences and are also seasonal—for example, one species of green bottle fly

sericata, prefers well-lit areas when breeding, while the black blowfly Phormia re

fers shade75—awareness of such can help determine if in fact movement has occ

73 Jeff Tandahl, “The USA Patriot Act,” Electronic Privacy Information Center, URL

www.epic.org/privacy/terrorism/usapatriot/>, accessed 8 June 2004. 74 Scott Gerwehr and Russell W. Glen, Unweaving the Web: Deception and Adaptation 

Urban Operations (Monterey, CA: Rand, 2002), Summary. 75 May R. Barenbaum, Ninety-Nine More Maggots, Mites, and Munchers (Urbana and 

University of Illinois Press, 1985), 10-46.
61

explosive compounds via ingestion. On 24 May 2004 it was determined through 

analysis that maggots could absorb explosive residues and compounds in their 

addition, research revealed these compounds or metabolic byproducts can be de

the laboratory. The rearing cycle of the green bottle blowflies proved to be in

Research revealed that the larvae in fact ate the porcine muscle with TNT, and d

definite succession. We can infer that other high-explosive substances (RDX

SENTEX), as well as biological agents and other chemical substances, can be de

the same manner. Collecting, rearing, and extracting fly larva tissues can provid

lysts and investigators answers as to what substances a body or bodies may hav

contact with at or near death. 

With careful observation and collection of data on site, coupled with biologica

edge of the insect concerned, its life cycle, and the external causes involved, suc

perature, rain, and other extreme environmental factors, one can reconstruct the 

events, including the estimated time of death. In short, the purpose of the foren

mology discipline in the Intelligence Community is to shed light on the “grou

and give a viable estimate, without bias, of the perpetrator’s or suspect’s “past ac

human crimes.

The author recommends that a forensic entomologist be called into an investi

the earliest point, whenever possible. If this is not possible, an entomologist s

consulted before collection of entomological evidence is attempted. The collectio

dence at the death scene (e.g., bodies covered with soot from an improvised e

device) is the vital link among law enforcement, the assistance of forensic entom

and finding the answers for intelligence officials. Such findings could also re

play, and give viable evidence that a body has been deceptively moved in cases 

graves and genocide. If the evidence is not properly collected, labeled, preserved

cessed, it will yield no forensic value to solving any heinous crime.

Intelligence analysts and law enforcement investigators, scientists, doct

researchers are just now beginning to realize how beneficial forensic entomolog

in finding answers involving insects that infest cadavers in different environm

conditions. One of the more important items needed for continued research is bet

of insect development and decaying stages around the world. Tables must be d

under varying environmental conditions with different insect species, and in 

locales, domestic and international. This would enable intelligence analysts 

enforcement investigators to estimate PMI in a timely and accurate manner and h

crimes in an International Criminal Court (ICC) without bias or prejudice.

As with all disciplines of forensic science, forensic entomology continues t

With continuous research in explosive analysis, specifically identifying chemic

tures of explosive compounds and estimating PMI based on entomological e

forensic entomology will become even more accurate and more widely accepte
62

valuable to the IC, but also to the International Criminal Court (ICC). In the mea

scientific research has established that insects which metabolize explosive compoun

provide valuable information silently. Forensic scientists, intelligence analysts

enforcement officials, and local and international courts need only listen to these 

agents and they will learn. 
63

WEATHER DATA FOR MAY 2004

Today’s Date : 26-May-04

May-04 for Washington National, DC (66’) LAT=38.8N LON= 77.0

 TEMPERATURE PRECIPITATION

 ACTUAL NORMAL

HI LO AVG HI LO AVG DEPT AMNT SNOW SNCV

1 79 61 70 71 51 61 +9 0.07 0.0 

2 81 57 69 71 51 61 +8 0.67 0.0 

3 57 48 53 72 51 62 -9 0.36 0.0 

4 64 44 54 72 52 62 -8 0.00 0.0 

5 71 49 60 72 52 62 -2 0.41 0.0 

6 76 50 63 72 53 63 +0 0.00 0.0 

7 89 59 74 73 53 63 +11 0.20 0.0 

8 67 56 62 73 53 63 -1 0.00 0.0 

9 83 54 69 73 54 63 +6 trace 0.0 

10 86 64 75 74 54 64 +11 0.01 0.0 

11 89 68 79 74 54 64 +15 trace 0.0 

12 86 68 77 74 55 64 +13 0.00 0.0 

13 85 68 77 74 55 65 +12 0.00 0.0 

14 87 70 79 75 55 65 +14 0.00 0.0 

15 88 67 78 75 56 65 +13 0.15 0.0 

16 81 67 74 75 56 66 +8 0.01 0.0 

17 82 67 75 76 56 66 +9 0.02 0.0 

18 85 67 76 76 56 66 +10 0.05 0.0 

19 79 67 73 76 57 67 +6 0.10 0.0 

HIGHEST TEMPERATURE 92 TOTAL PRECIP 

LOWEST TEMPERATURE 44 TOTAL SNOWFALL 

AVERAGE TEMPERATURE 72.1 NORMAL PRECIP 

DEPARTURE FROM NORM +7.3 PERCENT OF NORMAL PRECI

HEATING DEGREE DAYS 33

NORMAL DEGREE DAYS 73

Key: e= estimated; M= not available; *=tied, most recent year shown
64

These data were used for determining larvae development during the explosive/larvae metabol

experiment.

Source: AccuWeather.com, May 2004, no report number, URL: <http:// www.accuweather.com/a

public/climo_local.asp?partner=accuweather&zipcode=20535, accessed 26 May 2004.

20 72 66 69 77 57 67 +2 0.00 0.0 0 

21 86 68 77 77 57 67 +10 0.04 0.0 0 

22 89 65 77 77 58 67 +10 trace 0.0 0 

23 92 74 83 77 58 68 +15 0.00 0.0 0 

24 90 72 81 78 58 68 +13 0.00 0.0 0 

25 88 69 79 78 59 68 +11 0.39 0.0 0 

26 85 69 77 78 59 69 +8 0.07 0.0e 0 

27 M M M 79 59 69 M M 0.0 0 

28 M M M 79 60 69 M M 0.0 0 

29 M M M 79 60 70 M M 0.0 0 

30 M M M 80 60 70 M M 0.0 0 

31 M M M 80 61 70 M M 0.0 0 

TOTALS FOR DCA

 ACTUAL NORMAL

HI LO AVG HI LO AVG DEPT AMNT SNOW SNCVR 

HIGHEST TEMPERATURE 92 TOTAL PRECIP 

LOWEST TEMPERATURE 44 TOTAL SNOWFALL 

AVERAGE TEMPERATURE 72.1 NORMAL PRECIP 

DEPARTURE FROM NORM +7.3 PERCENT OF NORMAL PRECIP 

HEATING DEGREE DAYS 33

NORMAL DEGREE DAYS 73

Key: e= estimated; M= not available; *=tied, most recent year shown
65

Active decay. That phase of corpse decomposition that follows bloat, is charact

such maggot activity, and terminates with a rapid decrease in body weigh

Adipocere. A fatty waxy substance resulting from the decomposition of animal c

moist places or under water, but not exposed to air.

Advanced decay. That phase of corpse decomposition that follows active dec

characterized by beetle activity.

Arthropod. Any of the invertebrate animals with jointed appendages, an exo

consisting of chitin and protein, and an open circulatory system.

Bloat. That transient phase in corpse decomposition that follows the fresh pha

characterized by excessive swelling, produced by gasses trapped internal

Blowfly. A higher fly in the family of Calliphoridae, also known as bottle flies.

Carrion. Decaying animal flesh.

Community. Used here in an ecological sense, meaning the interacting popul

organisms in a given area.

Cyclorrhapha. The third suborder of Diptera which contains the houseflies, Blu

Greenbottles and their relations.

Diapause. A condition of suspended animation in which development is arrested

at a particular stage (prepupae to pupae). 

Diel. (Rhythms) within a 24-hour period.

Diurnal. Active in the daytime.

Dried remains. The final phase of corpse decomposition that follows advanced d

is characterized by little faunal decay.

Eclosion. The process of hatching from the egg or emerging as an adult.

Ecology. The study of the relationships of animals and plants with each other, in 

nities, and with the physical environment.

Ectoparasite. A parasite that does not completely invade the body, but which fee

ficially on the skin, hair, or feathers or sucks blood.

Endoparasite. A parasite that completely invades the body, i.e., the dermal or su

tissues, head cavities, or inner organs. 
66

anterior edge of the mouth opening.

Facultative parasite. An insect or an animal that is normally free living, but which 

certain circumstances may lead a parasitic mode of life.

Fauna. Any animal in the animal kingdom.

Flesh fly. A higher fly in the family Sarcophaga haemorrhoidalis.

Forensic entomology. The study of insects and related arthropods from a medica

aspect.

Grub. Colloquial name for a larva, usually of the legless maggot type.

Habitat. The locality or situation in which an insect normally lives, or in which de

ment takes place. 

Heliotropism. Reaction to the sun; may be positively heliotropic (sun-loving) or 

tively heliotropic.

Hypothesis. An unproven theory.

Imago. The adult, sexually-developed insect.

Instar. First stage of fly’s life cycle.

Integument. The cuticle or outer covering of the insect’s body.

Larva. The active, feeding, immature stage emerging from the egg and differing f

mentally in form from the adult.

Larviparous. Reproducing by bringing forth larvae which have already hatched 

the female reproductive system, such as the flesh fly.

Maggot. A larvae to a higher fly, typical form of Cyclorrhaphous Diptera larva. It 

its skin twice and has three growth instars prior to pupariation.

Maggot mass. The collective, closely packed mass of higher fly larvae occurr

decomposing carrion.

Medico-legal entomology. Medical entomology from a legal aspect. 

Mediterranean climate. Surrounded nearly or completely by land. Used for large b

of water, such as lakes or seas.

Metamorphosis. The process in arthropods of changing from one life stage into an

Myiasis. The invasion of any living vertebrate animal by fly larvae.

Necrophagous. Feeding on the dead.
67

forms (midges, mosquitoes, craneflies, etc.).

Nymph. The immature feeding stage of insects with an incomplete metamorphos

resembling a miniature version of the adult.

Obligate parasite. A parasite which is dependent upon its host and which cannot 

plete its development without its host.

Oviparious. Producing eggs.

Ovipositor. The egg-laying apparatus or genital tube of the female through which o

sition is carried out.

Pabulum. Food of any kind.

Post-feeding larva. The wandering, fasting phase of the 3rd instar larvae, terminat

pupariation.

Postmortem interval. The period of time between death and a corpse discovery.

Pseudomyiasis. A condition in which living or dead dipterous larvae are found 

intestinal tract of living humans and other vertebrate animals.

Ptilinum. Used by the emergent fly to rupture the puparium and to penetrate the pu

medium.

Pupa (pupae). A transformational (metamorphic), but usually immobile, stage be

the last larval stage and the adult (imago). 

Pupariation. When the post-feeding blowfly larva or white prepupa forms its 

puparium that tans and hardens to form the dark brown puparium after abo

hours.

Puparium (puparia). The thickened, tanned, hardened, barrel-like, last larval skin 

which the pupa of the higher fly is formed.

Pupation. The act of forming the pupa in the process of transforming from the 

stage to the adult.

Putrefaction. The foul-smelling anaerobic decomposition of moist or wet organic m

by microorganisms. 

Saponification. The conversion of corpse body fat into curd-like, foul-smelling pro

Saprophagous. Scavengers feeding on dead and decaying organic matter.

Sarcophaga haemorrhoidalis. Red-tailed flesh fly.

Sarcosaprophagous. Feeding on dead flesh.
68

Seepage. The fluid material draining from the decomposing corpse.

Succession. Used here as ecological succession; the progressive replacement of on

logical community with another.76

76Haskell and Catts, 155-162.
69

AccuWeather.com. May 2004. No report number. URL: <http:// www. accuweat

adcbin/public/climo_local.asp?partner=accuweather& zipcode=20535>.

Accessed 26 May 2004.

Barenbaum, May R. Ninety-Nine More Maggots, Mites, and Munchers. Urbana 

cago: University of Illinois Press, 1985. 

Bianchini, G. “La Biologia Del Cadaver.” Archivic Antropologia Criminale, Psic

Medicina Legale 50, (1930): 1035-1105.

Bornemissza, F. “An Analysis of Arthropod Succession in Carrion and the Effe

Decomposition on the Soil Fauna.” Australian Journal of Zoology 5 (195

Bullington, Stephen. “Forensic Entomology.” Web-only essay, 24 July 2001. URL

www.key-net.net/users/swb/forensics>. Accessed 5 January 2004. 

Byrd, Jason H. “Forensic Entomology: Insects in Legal Investigations.” Web-on

URL: <http://www.forensic-entomology.com>. Accessed 5 January 2004

Byrd, Jason H. Member of American Board of Forensic Entomology. Interv

author, 28 March 2004.

Castner, James L. “Ultimate Guide to Forensic Entomology: A Review of Forens

fication Cards.” Web-only essay. URL: <http://folk.uio.no/mostarke/fo

reviewFIFC.html>. Accessed 5 January 2004. 

Cerilliant Explosive Company. Phone number 1-800-848-7837. Trinitrotoluen

explosives utilized in explosive entomology project. CAS No 118-96-7

plus shipping. 

Chang, M. “Fly Witness.” Science World Journal 54, no. 4, (1997): 8. 

Corninski, Lynn, Professor, Sonoma College. “Periodic Table of the Elements

<www.nbsp.sonoma.edu/resouces/teachers_materials/county_regionals/1

01/img14.htm>. Accessed 26 May 2004.

Dadour, I. and D. Cook. “Forensic Entomology.” Web-only essay. URL: 

www.agric.wa.gov.au:7000/ento/forensic.htm>. Accessed 5 January 2004

 “Decomposition: What Happens to the Body After Death? Australian Museum

URL:<http://images.search.yahoo.com/search/images/view?back=http%3

images.search.yahoo.com/search images%3fp=fly%2blife%2bcycle%26

&h=300&w=500&imgcurl=www.deathonline.net/decomposition/images

cle.jpg&imgurl=www.deathonline.net/decomposition/images/lifecycle.jpg&name=lifecycle.jpg&p=fly+life+cycle&rurl=http%3a//

www.deathonline.net/decomposition/corpse_fauna/flies/
70

corpse_fauna/flies/life_cycle.htm&type=&no=20&tt=294>. Accessed 9 M

2004.

Emperor’s Clothes. “Were NATO's Aerial Photos of Mass Graves Faked?” Web

essay, Spring and Fall. URL: <http://emperor.vwh.net/misc/graves2.ht

Accessed 1 June 2004.

“Fatal Aircraft Events Involving U.S. Politicians.” AirSafe.com, 26 October 2002. M

Under the keyword “aircraft accidents involving U.S. politicians. URL: <

www.cowjones.net/events/celebs/politics.htm>.” Accessed 28 April 2004.

Fanning, Michael. Intelligence Analyst at the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s (

Hazardous Devices Response Unit, FBI Academy, Quantico, VA. Telephone 

view by the author, 8 June 2004.

Ferris, George. CDR, USNR. Chief, Weapons Branch, Joint Intelligence Task F

Counter Terrorism (JITF-CT), Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA); Special 

ations Officer, Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD), Washington, DC. Inte

by the author, 8 June 2004.

Fisher B. Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 19

Gail, A. and J. Gaudet. “A Practical Exercise in Forensic Entomology.” RCMP Ga

53, no. 11 (1999): 10-14.

Geberth, V. Practical Homicide Investigation: Tactics, Procedures, and Forensic 

niques. New York: Boca Raton, 1993. 

Gerwehr, Scott and Russell W. Glen. Unweaving the Web: Deception and Adaptati

the Future Urban Operations. Monterey, California: Rand, 2002. 

Godson, Roy and James J. Wirtz, “Strategic Denial and Deception,” in Strategic D

and Deception: The 21st Century Challenge. New Brunswick, NJ: Transa

Publications, 1997.

Grassberger M. and C. Reiter. “Forensic Entomology: Post-Mortem Interval (PMI) Estim

Using Insect Development Data.” Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of V

URL: <http://www.univie.ac.at/forensic-entomology/ information.htm>. Acce

March 2004. 

Guiart, J. “Notices Biographiques II: Francisco Redi 1628-1698.” Archives de Parisitolo

(1898): 420.

Gunatilake, K. and M. L. Goff. “Detection of Organophosphate Poisoning in a Putre

Body by Analyzing Arthropod Larvae.” Journal of Forensic Sciences 34 (198

Hall, G. The Blowflies of North America. Baltimore: Say, 1948.
71

and member of the American Board of Forensic Entomology. Telephone i

by the author, 8 June 2004. 

Haskell, Neal H. and E. Paul Catts. Entomology and Death: A Procedural Guid

son, South Carolina: Joyce’s Print Shop Inc, 1990.

Hilton, Bill Jr. Hilton Pond Center. “June Bug’s Gotta Eat Too.” Web-only ess

July 2002. URL: <www http://images.search.yahoo.com/search/im

view?back=http%3a//images.search.yahoo.com/search/ images%3fsrch=

june%2bbeetles%26ei=UTF-8%26n=20%26fl=0&h=365&w= 500& 

=www. hiltonpond.org/images/BeetleJune02.jpg&imgurl=www.hiltonp

images/BeetleJune02.jpg&name=BeetleJune02.jpg&p=june+beetles&rurl=http%3a//www.hiltonpond.org/ThisWeek020708.html&rcurl=h

/www.hiltonpond.org/ThisWeek020708.html&type=&no=13&tt=417>. A

27 May 2004. 

Hobson, P. “Studies of the Nutrition of Blowfly Larvae, III: The Liquefaction of 

Journal of Experimental Biology 9 (1932): 359-365.

Introna, F. and others. “Opiate Analysis in Cadaveric Blowfly Larvae as an Ind

Narcotic Intoxication.” Journal of Forensic Sciences 35 (1990): 1. 

Kebabijan Richard. Aviation Accident Photos. “Wen only essay, 1997-2002

<http://www.planecrashinfo.com/index.html>. Accessed 28 April 2004.

Klapec, George. Forensic Chemist at the Federal Bureau of Alcohol Tobacco a

arms (ATF), Washington, DC, Office. Telephone interview by the autho

2004.

Lord, Wayne D. and F. Berger. “Collection and Preservation of Forensically I

Entomological Materials.” Journal of Forensic Sciences 28 (1983): 936-9

Lord, Wayne D. and F. Berger. “Arthropods Associated With Harbor Seal (Phoca 

Carcasses Stranded on Island Along the New England Coast.” Internatio

nal of Entomology 26 (1984): 282-285.

Montagu, Ewan. The Man Who Never Was: World War II’s Boldest Counterint

Operation. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1996.

Ohara, J. “Arthropods Associated With Livestock Dung.” Web-only essay. URL

res.agr.ca/ecorc/apss/arthback.htm>. Accessed 8 October 2003. 

Oldroyd, H. Natural History of Flies. New York: Norton Library, 1964.

Payne, A. “A Summer Carrion Study of the Baby Pig Sus Scrofa Linnaeus.” Eco

(1965): 592-602.
72

Forces Medical Examiner (AFME), Rockville, MD. Telephone interview b

author, 8 June 2004.

Sachs, J. “A Maggot for the Prosecution.” Discovery 11 (1998): 103-108.

Sadler, Brent and others. “NATO: Aerial Photo May Show Mass Graves in Ko

CNN, online ed., 11 April 1999. URL:<http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/eu

9904/11/nato.attack.05/>. Accessed 1 June 2004.

“Serbian Massacres before NATO Airstrikes.” Kosova Crisis Center. URL:<

www.alb-net.com/warcrimes-img/warcrimes.htm>. Accessed 9 March 2004

Smith, K. A Manual of Forensic Entomology. New York: Cornell University Press, 

Starkeby, M. “Ultimate Guide to Forensic Entomology: Introduction to Forensic 

mology.” Web-only essay. URL< http://folk.uio.no/mostarke/forens_ent/ intr

tion.shtml>. Accessed 5 January 2004. 

Tandahl, Jeff. “The USA Patriot Act.” Electronic Privacy Information Center. 

<http://www.epic.org/privacy/terrorism/usapatriot/>. Accessed 8 June 2004.

U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation. “FBI Director M

Announces Five New Computer Forensic Laboratories.” Washington

National Press Office, 8 October 2003. URL: <http://www.fbi.gov/pre

pressrel03/lab100803.htm>. Accessed 9 June 2004.

Webster’s II New Riverside University Dictionary, 2nd ed., 1984. 
73

Lieutenant Albert M. Cruz enlisted in the U.S. Navy in 1990. Following basic 

and Aircrew Survival Equipment School, he served with VAW-113, Naval Ai

(NAS) Miramar; HS-8, NAS North Island; and Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EO

3 and SEAL Team FIVE at Naval Amphibious Base, Coronado, California. In 19

being appointed as a Special Operations Rigger, he was selected for the pr

Enlisted Education Advancement Program (EEAP) for enlisted sailors and gradu

a Bachelor of Science in Criminal Justice from National University, San Diego

nia. His graduate education includes a Master of Forensic Sciences (MFS) from 

University and a Master of Science of Strategic Intelligence (MSSI) with a conc

in Denial and Deception (D&D) from the then-Joint Military Intelligence Colleg

in Washington, D.C. 

LT Cruz attended Officer Candidate School (OCS) as a Special Operations Of

was commissioned an Ensign in 2000. Upon completing OCS, he attended Surf

fare School at SWOSCOLCOM in Newport, Rhode Island, and Dive Officer tr

NAVDIVSALTRACEN, Panama City Beach, Florida. In October 2001, he repor

USS SALVOR at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, and was assigned as Operations Offi

Officer, Air Operations Officer, Antiterrorism/Force Protection Officer, and Int

Officer. In 2004 he graduated from JMIC with orders to NAVSCOLEOD, w

earned his demolition qualification. In 2006, he was selected as a Foreign Are

and is considered a “Plank Owner” in the newly developed Navy HUMINT de

He is currently serving as Flag Aide to the Commander, U.S. Naval Forces South

port, Florida.

LT Cruz has served on the staff of Congressman Brian P. Bilbray of San Dieg

the Superior Court of California. In addition, he has deployed to Asia, the Mid

and Central and South America where he has conducted many high-risk air and d

ations. Operations both in the U.S. and abroad in which he has been involved in

Ehime Maru Project, USS MISSISSINEWA Project, Cooperative Afloat Readi

Training 2002, Operation TEAMWORK SOUTH, Operation BEL SUBMARIN

and 1998, Operation SOUTHERN WATCH 1993, and several Chief of Naval O

(CNO) special projects. Most recently, he participated in Exercise UNITAS 200

which U.S. maritime units circumnavigated the continent of South America co

joint and combined operations with allied forces from a number of different nati