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Influence Operations and the Human Domain

Thomas M. Scanzillo

Edward M. Lopacienski

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Recommended Citation

Scanzillo, Thomas M. and Lopacienski, Edward M., "Influence Operations and the Human Domain" (2015). CIWAG Case Studies. 13.

https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/ciwag-case-studies/13
UNITED STATES NAVAL WAR COLLEGE

CENTER on IRREGULAR WARFARE andARMED GROUPS

United States Naval War College

Newport, Rhode Island

Draft as of 121916

Thomas M. Scanzillo and Edward M. Lopacienski

Influence Operations and the Human Domain
Influence Operations and the Human 

Domain

Thomas M. Scanzillo and Edward M. Lopacienski

Center on Irregular Warfare & Armed Groups (CIWAG)

US Naval War College, Newport, RI

CIWAG@usnwc.edu
ii

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Operational Strategies to Counter IED Threat in Iraq—Michael 

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Sovereign Wealth Funds as Tools of National Strategy: Singapore’s 

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Varieties of Insurgency and Counterinsurgency in Iraq, 2003-2009—

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Piracy—Martin Murphy

An Operator’s Guide to Human Terrain Teams—Norman Nigh

Revolutionary Risks: Cyber Technology and Threats in the 2011 

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Organizational Learning and the Marine Corps: The 

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Reading the Tea Leaves: Proto-Insurgency in Honduras—John D. 

Waghelstein
ii

This work is cleared for public release; distribution is unlimited.

This case study is available on CIWAG’s public website located at 

http://www.usnwc.edu/ciwag
ii

Message from the Editors

In 2008, the U.S. Naval War College established the Center on 

Irregular Warfare & Armed Groups (CIWAG). CIWAG’s primary 

mission is twofold: to bring cutting-edge research on Irregular Warfare 

into the Joint Professional Military Educational (JPME) curricula; and 

to bring operators, practitioners, and scholars together to share their 

knowledge and experiences about a vast array of violent and nonviolent irregular challenges. This case study is part of an ongoing effort 

at CIWAG that includes symposia, lectures by world-renowned 

academics, case studies, research papers, articles, and books. Our aim is 

to make these case studies part of an evolving and adaptive curriculum

that fulfills the needs of students preparing to meet the challenges of 

the post-9/11 world.

In many ways 2015 is shaping up to be a pivotal year for 

irregular warfare: the withdrawal of U.S. general-purpose forces from 

Afghanistan is fraught with political and operational challenges; 

President Obama refocused U.S. efforts on challenges from armed 

groups in the Middle East and Africa’s Trans-Sahel region in his May 

2014 speech at West Point; and the rise of ISIL (Islamic State of Iraq 

and Levant) has redefined U.S. priorities. These three events, together 

with the continuing budget issues facing the U.S. Department of 

Defense and concerns about waning public support for U.S. military 

operations overseas, help to frame the future face of irregular warfare 

challenges going forward. These events also make this case study on 

influence operations particularly timely and important, since the 

“influence operations mindset” advocated in this case study is 

particularly suited to smaller-footprint, persistent-presence operations 

that Special Operations Forces will be tasked with in the future.

Lieutenant Colonel Edward M. Lopacienski (USA) and Major 

Thomas Scanzillo (USA) are the authors of this case study, which 

developed out of research papers from the U.S. Naval War College and 

Naval Postgraduate School. The case study addresses a common 

problem: how to influence the human domain—a local population—as 

part of a strategic plan. The U.S. Army Special Operations Command 

strategic document ARSOF 2022 places particular emphasis on the 
ii

human domain, which is amplified in this case study. As the authors 

argue, successful influence operations such as those carried out in 

support of the strategic aims of Joint Special Operations Task Force –

Philippines (JSOTF-P) between 2004–2008 can undermine support for 

an adversary, disrupt their operations and strategies, prevent 

recruitment and logistical support, and ensure that the adversary does 

not receive sanctuary and support in the future. Moreover, as new 

threats from armed groups continue to emerge around the world, there 

is a strong demand signal for in-depth analysis of successful influence 

operations from a variety of cases, including JSOTF-P.

The challenge in crafting and implementing effective influence 

operations that influence this human domain is threefold. The first is 

how to clearly define influence operations. The argument that 

Lopacienski and Scanzillo make is that the commonly misrepresented 

and ambiguous term “Information Operations” does not 

comprehensively or adequately address the scope of such operations. 

Instead they propose and clearly define a new joint doctrinal term –

Influence Operations. Influence Operations builds on existing joint 

doctrine and skill sets and does not require expensive new technology 

or weapons platforms. Instead, the authors argue, it is about adopting a 

particular mindset and applying core skill sets for which Special 

Operations Forces such as Army Special Forces, Psychological 

Operations, Naval Special Warfare, Civil Affairs teams, and Marine 

Special Operations units are selected for and are trained to achieve.

The second challenge is practical and operational: how to 

integrate multiple lines of operation to support and capitalize on 

Influence Operations. Common phrases such as “the population is the 

center of gravity” and “winning hearts and minds” can be interpreted 

and applied in many different ways. The question is: what are the 

operators’ roles, and how does an operator “do” Influence 

Operations?

The authors argue for a straightforward approach: to focus the 

preponderance of efforts on influencing the human domain and 

integrating multiple lines of operation to include capacity building, 

civil-military engagement, information engagement, and intelligence 

support operations into that single focus. All activities are carried out 
iii

with the purpose of “influencing the population” in order to achieve the 

goals of the task force or theater commander. The presented examples 

of success display aspects of joint and combined SOF operations whose 

methods affected the civilian populace, terrorist leaders, and insurgent 

forces.1

The third challenge is to identify what conditions make 

influence operations a success (or failure) and whether those conditions 

are specific to a time and place or can be more generalizable. The 

examples in this case come from the authors’ experiences in JSOTF-P 

and focus on two armed groups: Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) and 

Jema’ah Islamiy’ah (JI). Using a snapshot of examples from 2004–

2008, the authors found that as local attitudes began to change, the two 

armed groups began to lose varying degrees of support and influence. 

Eventually, local people began to make a conscious choice to accept 

the positive change offered by the Armed Forces of the Philippines and 

JSOTF-P efforts, with commitments to increase the process as the 

people helped secure the island. As a result, more and more people 

chose not to continue to house the ASG and JI, which would entail 

enduring insufficient health care, income, and security. Although the 

authors are quick to point out that the struggle continues to this day, it 

is one that favors the efforts of the AFP and JSOTF-P. 

It is also important to note four critical caveats to this case 

study. First, the opinions found in this case study are solely those of the 

authors and do not represent the views of the Department of Defense, 

the Naval War College, or CIWAG. Second, while every effort was 

made to correct any factual errors in this work, the authors are 

ultimately responsible for the content of this case study. 

Third, this is just one approach to dealing with human domain 

issues. The argument Lopacienski and Scanzillo make in this case is 

that clear definitions, a clear understanding of how lines of operations 

support the overarching goals, and an examination of various examples 

 

1 MAJ Edward Lopacienski, “SOF and the Use of Influence Operations to 

Defeat Terrorists and Insurgents in the Southern Philippines,” Collective 

Papers for the Naval Post Graduate School, Monterey, CA, Academic Year 

2010-2011.
iv

of success and failure can provide the starting place for an Influence 

Operations mindset to grow and develop. Moreover, the authors are 

very clear that their framework is not meant to be conclusive or 

exclusive; rather, it is meant to be a starting point for current operators 

to consider when conducting their own Influence Operations. As 

always, it is up to the practitioners and operators to adapt this 

framework and others to suit their specific environment and conditions.

Fourth, the study questions presented in all CIWAG case 

studies are written to provoke discussion on a wide variety of topics, 

including strategic, operational, and tactical matters, as well as ethical 

and moral questions confronted by operators in the battlefield. The 

point is to make these case studies part of an evolving and adaptive 

curriculum that fulfills the needs of students preparing to meet the 

challenges of the post-9/11 world and to show them the dilemmas that 

real people have faced in high-pressure situations. 

Finally, in addition to a range of teaching questions that are 

intended to serve as the foundation for classroom discussion, students 

conducting further research will find the extensive bibliography at the

end of the case helpful. Compiled by the case study authors and by

CIWAG researchers at the Naval War College, the bibliography is a 

selection of the best books and articles on a range of related topics. We 

hope you find it useful and look forward to hearing your feedback on 

the cases and suggestions for how you can contribute to the Center on 

Irregular Warfare & Armed Group’s mission here at the Naval War 

College.
v

Author Biographies

MAJ Thomas M. Scanzillo is an operations officer with the Office of 

Special Warfare, under the U.S. Army’s Special Forces Command. He 

is a U.S. Army Special Forces officer with over 12 years of SOF 

experience, including nearly four years serving Operation Enduring 

Freedom - Philippines. During his time with Joint Special Operations 

Task Force – Philippines (JSOTF-P), he served as a detachment 

commander, operations officer, and the Director of Operations, where 

he authored the OEF-P Campaign Plan under COL William Coultrup. 

Following his service in Southeast Asia, MAJ Scanzillo led operations 

in Operation Iraqi Freedom, and deployed again to oversee several 

operations in the USAFRICOM theater. A graduate of the U.S. Naval 

War College, Major Scanzillo has contributed to DARPA, Johns

Hopkins University Applied Physics Lab, and CIWAG research and 

curriculum since 2010. 

LTC Edward M. Lopacienski is currently a deputy commander on 

special assignment. He is a U.S. Army Psychological Operations 

officer with over 10 years of SOF experience, including nearly three 

years serving Operation Enduring Freedom – Philippines. During his 

time with Joint Special Operations Task Force – Philippines (JSOTF-P) 

he served as the operational planner for the JSOTF-P influence 

campaign, U.S. country team advisor, and commander of JSOTF-P 

psychological operations forces. Following his service in Southeast 

Asia, LTC Lopacienski led U.S. Army psychological operations forces 

as both a battalion operations officer and battalion executive officer. A 

graduate of the Naval Postgraduate School’s (NPS) Defense Analysis 

program, LTC Lopacienski has contributed to CIWAG, NPS, Johns 

Hopkins University Applied Physics Lab, and DARPA research on 

influence warfare.
vi

Suggested citation:

Scanzillo, Thomas M., and Lopacienski, Edward M. 2015. Influence 

operations and the human domain. Case study. Newport, RI: US Naval 

War College, Center on Irregular Warfare and Armed Groups.
ii

Table of Contents

CIWAG Case Studies............................................................................... ii

Message from the Editors...................................................................... ii

Author Biographies ................................................................................ v

Figure 1. JSOTF-P JOA.............................................................................1

Introduction ...........................................................................................2

I. The Foundations of Influence Operations...........................................5

A. Definitions and Clarifications.........................................................8

B. The Human Domain: Competing for Attitudes, Perceptions, and a 

Vocal Majority..................................................................................12

II. Joint Special Operations Task Force – Philippines (JSOTF-P) Method 

of Engagement.....................................................................................15

A. Capacity Building .........................................................................19

B. Civil-Military Engagement............................................................21

C. Information Engagement and Psychological Operations ............23

D. PSYOP: A Core SOF Capability......................................................24

E. Intelligence Support Operations..................................................32

III. Influence Operations in Action .......................................................34

A. Together in the Islamic City of Marawi .......................................35

B. Sulu: Message, Messenger, and Medium....................................43

C. After Sulu: Shoring Up Basilan and Zamboanga ..........................50

IV. Alternating Effort to Maximize Influence Effects............................53

V. The Future of Influence Operations.................................................55
iii

A. Preparing SOF as the Executors of Influence Operations............58

B. Conclusion....................................................................................60

Teaching Questions..............................................................................63

Appendix A: Threat Groups in the Philippines.....................................65

Appendix B: Selected Bibliography ......................................................69
1

Figure 1. JSOTF-P JOA2

 

2 Thom Shanker, “U.S. Counterinsurgency Unit to Stay in Philippines,” Coin 

Central, NY Times, August 20, 2009, 

http://coincentral.wordpress.com/2009/08/20/u-s-counterinsurgency-unit-tostay-in-philippines/ (accessed 30 August 2010).

Island of 

Basilan

Provincial 

capital

Central Mindanao & 

Autonomous Region of 

Muslim Mindanao (ARMM):

MILF- & MNLF-controlled 

territory

Jolo Island and primary AO for 

ASG and key JI leadership in the 

Philippines, as well a 

substantial MNLF influence
2

Introduction

Wars among the people that emphasize influencing 

population groups rather than an exclusive emphasis on 

battle is an ancient concept. – USASOC ARSOF 20223

Because guerilla warfare basically drives from the masses 

and is supported by them, it can neither exist nor flourish if it 

separates itself from their sympathies and cooperation. - Mao 

Tse-Tung4

As the nature of contemporary warfare continues to evolve 

geographically, demographically, and politically, it is increasingly 

crucial for commanders and staffs conducting full-spectrum 

counterinsurgency operations to truly understand the complexity of the 

operating environment and to employ forces and assets in a predictive 

and multispectral manner. In wars that are irregular in character, in 

which armed groups recruit from, hide among, and are willing to attack 

communities, the nature of the conflict is a fight for the population.5In 

these environments, the preponderance of effort must be focused on 

influencing the population more effectively than the adversary.6 This is 

the fight for the human domain.

 

3 US Army Special Operations Command, ARSOF 2022, p. 8.

4 Mao Tse-Tung, On Guerrilla Warfare, trans. Samuel B. Griffith 

(Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2000), 46.

5

Irregular war is defined as violent struggles among state and non-state actors 

for legitimacy and influence over relevant populations. (DODD 3000.07, 

December 1, 2008)

6 As defined across political-military milieus, including the U.S. Army Special 

Forces manuals for unconventional warfare (UW), irregular warfare (IW), 

foreign internal defense (FID), and counterinsurgency operations (COIN). The 

civilian center of gravity role is likewise defined by counterinsurgency 

theorists David Galula and Roger Trinquier, as well as by insurgency theorist 
3

The human domain includes the physical, cultural, and social 

environments that combine to influence human behavior.7 Our ability 

to achieve successful influence depends on how much we are willing to 

learn about the human terrain, in combination with the type of 

relationships that we and our adversary establish with the people who 

reside throughout the human domain. 8Success will be determined by 

our ability to overcome our outsider status—most often through local 

partnerships—allowing us to operate equal to or better than the 

adversary. Achieving this takes an investment in time, the 

establishment of trust, and an understanding of the people to effectively 

thwart and prevail over an adversary who seeks to maliciously 

manipulate the population.9

This case study addresses the segment of Operations Enduring 

Freedom – Philippines (OEF-P) history that spans July 2004 through 

July 2008. It discusses the synergized efforts to use Influence 

Operations to change the socio-cultural environment by disrupting the 

tactical and operational advantage of two armed groups: the Abu 

Sayyaf Group (ASG) and Jema’ah Islamiy’ah (JI). As local attitudes 

began to change, the Abu Sayyaf Group and Jema’ah Islamiy’ah began 

to lose varying degrees of support and influence. Influence of the 

population boiled down to the population making a choice: Choose the 

positive change being offered by the Armed Forces of the Philippines 

(AFP) and U.S. Special Operations Forces (SOF) efforts with 

commitments to increase the process as the people help secure the 

island; or continue to house the ASG and JI and endure the existing 

conditions of insufficient health care, income, security, and more. As 

credibility began to shift in favor of the AFP/U.S. presence, the once-

 

and former Communist Premier of the People’s Republic of China Mao TseTung. 

7 Roulo, Claudette, American Forces Press Service, “McRaven: Success in 

Human Domain Fundamental to Special Ops,” June 5, 2013, 

www.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=120219, accessed 02 September 

2013.

8

Ibid.

9

Ibid.
4

hostile population began to change from a predominantly belligerent 

status to a more favorable disposition. Although the mission continues 

to this day, it is one favoring the efforts of the AFP and U.S. The 

presented examples of success display aspects of joint and combined 

SOF operations whose methods affected the civilian populace, terrorist 

leaders, and insurgent forces.10

This case study uses our collective operational experiences and 

research to illustrate the application of successful SOF interdependence 

using our methodology of SF/PSYOP interoperability in JSOTF-P. It 

proposes a joint doctrinal term for “Influence Operations” and 

highlights JSOTF-P methods as a model for successful application in 

confronting insurgencies in the human domain. 

Note: The authors of this paper limit their analysis to their own 

experiences and the four-year time frame 2004 to 2008. This is not

intended to be a comprehensive assessment of all aspects of the JSOTFP, nor is it intended to represent all perspectives or experiences. The 

authors also note that our SOF, DoD, and interagency brethren who 

continue to operate successfully throughout the world have used similar 

methods. More articles and studies are needed to capture their insights 

and perspectives into what makes for successful Influence Operations.

 

10 MAJ Edward Lopacienski, “SOF and the Use of Influence Operations to 

Defeat Terrorists and Insurgents in the Southern Philippines,” Collective 

Papers for the Naval Post Graduate School, Monterey, CA, Academic Year 

2010-2011.
5

I. The Foundations of Influence Operations

When those crosshairs line up on a soldier and that teenager 

sees a U.S. or Filipino flag on the sleeve, he will hesitate, 

remembering all of the good that the Philippines Security 

Forces and Americans have brought. That hesitation is the 

effect we are trying to achieve, as we have truly penetrated 

the thought processes of the insurgents and sown the seeds of 

doubt in their own causes.– BG James Linder11

The argument in this case study is that Influence Operations12

can play an important role in winning the fight against radical 

insurgents and aligning the population with the legitimate, responsible, 

and recognized government.13 As the US and its allies continue to face 

these kinds of challenges around the world, it is vital to consider many 

different examples of how influence operations have been successful 

used and what lessons we can learn from those experience. This raises 

some important questions, which include: How can SOF employ 

Influence Operations to disrupt or subvert terrorist or insurgent centers 

of gravity at the tactical or operational levels? 

 

11 COL James Linder, during a conversation with the authors in the 

Philippines, November 2005. 

12 Information Operations (IO) is a combination of, or unilaterally executed, 

operations conducted by psychological operations (PSYOP), public affairs 

(PA), electronic warfare (EW), operations security (OPSEC), computer 

network operations (CNO), and military deception (MILDEC), for purposes of 

supporting or conducting military operations. Only one of the Information 

Operation LOE specialties is required to operate with regional expertise 

(PSYOP), but all of them can and do operate across varied operational 

paradigms.

13 Inversely, the legitimate government must maintain its social contract with 

the population, remaining aware of how fragile the newly gained trust will 

remain for years to come.
6

The argument in this case is that Special warfare provides 

direction for the application of Influence Operations.14 Moreover, when 

applied correctly and with sufficient resources, SOF Influence 

Operations are perhaps the most effective and sustainable means to 

marginalize and defeat terrorist and insurgent operations. The effective 

implementation of special warfare requires a synergetic approach by 

SOF and conventional forces working with and through host nation 

forces.15 Indeed, Influence Operations are the downrange application of 

special warfare in today’s environment of operations in the human 

domain. 

In order to understand some of the advantages of and 

challenges to successfully carrying out influence operations, this case 

study looks at influence operations through the perspective of 

Operation ENDURING FREEDOM, PHILIPPINES (OEF-P), which is 

an economy-of-force operation that relies on the deliberately 

synchronized efforts and expertise of joint, multinational, and 

interagency partners. The U.S. ambassador, the JSOTF-P commander, 

the Philippine government, and the Armed Forces of the Philippines 

(AFP) share common strategic and regional goals and focused on 

maximizing cooperation and progress—everyone “rows together” 

toward the shared ultimate goals of regional stability and long-term 

effective partnerships. 

One of the first lessons we noted from our research was that 

above all, achieving successful and sustainable results takes willing 

partners, the right force, excruciating patience, and time—more time 

than most commanders and politicians have the patience or tenure for. 

Moreover, developing the mindset for successful influence operations 

is an art that can only be learned by a willing mind and applied by those 

 

14 Special warfare, as defined in ARSOF 2022, is “the execution of activities 

that involve a combination of lethal and non-lethal actions taken by specially 

trained and educated forces that have a deep understanding of cultures and 

foreign language, proficiency in small-unit tactics, subversion, sabotage and 

the ability to build and fight alongside indigenous combat formations in a 

permissive, uncertain or hostile environment.”

15 Lopacienski, “SOF,” 2010.
7

who recognize that constant change is the only certain factor. In 

addition, putting influence operations key tenants into practice requires 

consistency and leadership commitment. 

In this case example, COL James Linder, the commander of 

JSOTF-P in 2005-2006, began achieving these effects by reinforcing 

the mindset of patience and influence within his own task force, rather 

than using primarily kinetic solutions. His initial guidance to JSOTF-P 

focused efforts not mainly on the insurgents but on children between 

the ages of 6 and 12, as well as women. He believed that the older 

children had, for the most part, made up their minds about the 

Philippine government and what ideologies they believed. COL Linder 

recognized that the Philippine government, with U.S. assistance, was in 

a protracted fight to influence the younger generation over the course of 

several years through a deliberate campaign of positive messages and 

actions across a large geographic and demographically diverse area. 

Building Philippine government and security forces’ legitimacy 

was vital to improving their perception so the population would no 

longer view them with suspicion, but see them as public servants who 

serve and protect citizens. This is not a new concept—indeed the C18th 

French writer Jean-Jaques Rousseau was talking about just this 

principle when he wrote about a “social contract” between a people and 

its government.16 In this case, we can see a US commander, COL 

Linder took the doctrinal term of Information Operations (IO) and told 

his people to think of IO as “Influencing Others.”17 This mindset took 

hold and became the mantra of JSOTF-P Influence Operations from 

2006 to 2010. Indeed, COL Linder noted that 10 years into his strategy, 

when one of those children becomes a teenager who has bought into 

radical propaganda and been led astray, he will be looking through a 

sniper scope at U.S. or Philippine security forces. He told his task 

force: “When those crosshairs line up on a soldier and that teenager 

sees a U.S. or Filipino flag on the sleeve, he will hesitate, remembering 

all of the good that the Philippine security forces and Americans have 

 

16 Du contrat social ou Principes du droit politique; 1762

17 Ibid.
8

brought. That hesitation is the effect we are trying to achieve, as we 

have truly penetrated the thought processes of the insurgents and sown 

the seeds of doubt in their own causes.”

18

A. Definitions and Clarifications

It is critical to delineate between Information Operations and 

Influence Operations. In the current organizational and doctrinal 

design, Information Operations (IO) is defined as a parallel 

coordinating function between the maneuver commander, U.S. military 

information executors, and the commander’s operational staff.19 Joint 

Doctrine defines IO as:

the integrated employment of the core capabilities of 

electronic warfare, computer network operations, 

psychological operations, military deception, and operations 

security, in concert with specified supporting and related 

capabilities to influence, disrupt, corrupt or usurp adversarial 

human and automated decision making while protecting our 

own.20

The argument in this case is that the current concept of 

Information Operations is deficient and obfuscates the role of a 

command’s Information Operations staff function with the Information 

 

18 COL James Linder, during a conversation with the authors in the 

Philippines, November 2005. 

19 Information Operations (IO) is a combination of, or unilaterally executed, 

operations conducted by psychological operations (PSYOP), public affairs 

(PA), electronic warfare (EW), operations security (OPSEC), computer 

network operations (CNO), and military deception (MILDEC), for purposes of 

supporting or conducting military operations. Only one of the Information 

Operation LOE specialties is required to operate with regional expertise 

(PSYOP), but all of them can and do operate across varied operational 

paradigms. 

20 Chairman, U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, Joint Doctrine for Information 

Operations. Joint Publication (JP) 3-13, Second Draft (Washington, DC: 

CJCS, 14 December 2004), GL-12.
9

Operations line of operation (LOO). The Information Operations LOO 

is executed by a diverse set of forces unique in their highly specialized 

fields. As an example, Army Special Operations’ psychological 

operations forces are the DoD’s subject matter experts in influencing 

mass foreign audiences; electronic warfare is the Army and DoD’s 

force dedicated to protecting and exploiting the electromagnetic 

spectrum of the battlefield; computer network operations focus on the 

cyber spectrum; public affairs is an information provider for the 

American public; military deception is an operational function along 

with operational security; and the mere presence of U.S. forces on the 

ground creates an influence effect through their daily duties and 

operations. The Information Operations staff is charged with 

coordinating or deconflicting all of the effects and activities between 

these unique fields of expertise as a type of information air-traffic 

controller. The crux of the confusion comes from intermingling the IO 

terminology and IO staff positions responsible for coordinating 

operational security, military deception plans, and information 

narratives with the command’s Information Operations subject matter 

experts and operators from psychological operations, computer network 

operations, electronic warfare, military deception, and combat forces 

who are assigned specific missions to develop influence effects. 

In 2009, RAND defined Influence Operations as:

the coordinated, integrated, and synchronized application of 

national diplomatic, informational, military, economic, and 

other capabilities in peacetime, crisis, conflict, and postconflict to foster attitudes, behaviors, or decisions by foreign 

target audiences that further U.S. interests and objectives.21

However, this broad definition is not all-encompassing. While 

it is theoretically sound, it remains focused at the strategic level and 

 

21 RAND Corporation, “Foundations of Effective Influence Operations,” 2009, 

p. 2. http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/2009/RAND_MG654.pdf, 

accessed October 12, 2010.
10

emphasizes mass communications, thereby overlooking the critical 

operational and tactical aspects of Influence Operations and special 

warfare that are essential for achieving strategic objectives. 

To alleviate the confusion, the current “IO” LOO should be 

redesignated as the “Influence Operations” LOO. Influence Operations

is specific in the role and importance of positively affecting the local 

and wider populations in order to successfully isolate and eliminate 

insurgents and terrorists that destabilize local communities and a

country’s national leadership institutions. Currently, there is no 

standard accepted joint force doctrinal definition of influence 

operations, although Joint Doctrinal Publication 3-0 says:

Focused at the local and community levels, [Influence 

Operations] shape operational conditions by fostering 

changes in the behavior, attitudes, civil dispositions, and 

operating environments across targeted social groups, 

populations, and political-military organizations.22

We further argue the following:

Influence Operations regularly identify and adapt to evolving 

conditions within the targeted audiences’ social structure at 

an interpersonal level. These operations use both physical and 

nonphysical methods of persuasion to affect conditions across 

diverse and complex socio-political networks to generate 

advantageous behavior, perceptions, and attitude changes. 

Ultimately, these methods shape the operating environment 

 

22 U.S. Department of the Army, Field Manual 3-05.130 Army Special 

Operations Forces Unconventional Warfare, September 2008, 2–11, 

http://www.fas.org/irp/doddir/army/fm3-05-130.pdf. 
11

by achieving desired effects to enable US and partner nation 

objectives across all lines of operations.23

Army Special Forces and psychological operations forces are 

special operations forces uniquely suited for Influence Operations by 

nature of their distinct regional specialization and design to execute 

missions within and across complex cultural and social domains in 

strategically and politically sensitive regions of the world.24 The most 

important critical factor to enduring success is the effective cooperation 

between the involved joint, interagency, and multinational partners. All 

stakeholders must understand the desired end state, the collective tasks, 

the operation goals, and the capabilities and limitations of the collective 

effort. Each player must additionally understand that every action (or 

failure to act) has an influence effect— whether intentional or 

unintentional—on one or more of the target audiences. Whether or not 

friendly actions are intended to have psychological, emotional, or 

cognitive effects25 on the population, government, security forces, or 

other audience, every action undoubtedly has a positive or negative 

incremental impact. Therefore, all executors of Influence Operations 

must proactively and cognitively manage actions, messages, and 

perceptions at all times. More importantly, in addition to political and 

cultural awareness, leaders must understand the greatest needs, 

interests, and desires of the population, as well as those of the 

adversary. 

 

23 Lopacienski, Hoke, Carr, Grieshaber, Influence Operations: Redefining the 

Indirect Approach, Master’s Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, 

CA, June 2011, 5.

24 There is an innate influence effect, whether deliberate or circumstantial, in 

any military operation. For instance, deploying a BCT of the 82nd ABN DIV is 

a military operation designed to change the behavior of, or render ineffective, 

a belligerent or hostile force. However, the influence effects on the population 

and any other relevant party are circumstantial and will typically have 

disparate (i.e. unsynchronized) second and third order effects. 

25 David Kilcullen, in a 2007 NOETIC brief, delineates popular perception into 

the emotive (“hearts”) component and the cognitive (“minds”) component.
12

Influence Operations offers a holistic approach to shaping the 

environment of the human domain while simultaneously undermining 

the adversary’s ability to do the same. Influence Operations and 

influence effects must be continuously analyzed and interwoven into all 

activities in an operation or campaign. In general, the overall theme of 

an operation creates a common purpose to shape or change behaviors 

and attitudes toward the desired end state, enables precise and 

minimally invasive combat actions, and alleviates the need for 

prolonged or expanded military actions. Furthermore, Influence 

Operations are proactive in nature and must adapt to the daily effects of 

friendly forces, the enemy, and the population. 

B. The Human Domain: Competing for Attitudes, Perceptions, and 

a Vocal Majority

In irregular and unconventional warfare, everything revolves 

around the competition for people, perceptions, and their support. The 

French counterinsurgency theorist Roger Trinquier said, “The sine qua 

non of victory in [insurgent/counterinsurgent] warfare is the 

unconditional support of the people.”26 A counterinsurgency fight is 

entirely a struggle for influence in order to achieve the ultimate 

objective. Gordon McCormick breaks down the “mobilizable 

population” into three distinct categories: “core supporters of the state, 

core supporters of the insurgency, and a large middle group of 

individuals who are prepared to support one side or the other depending 

on the circumstances of the struggle.”27 The latter are the fence sitters 

weighing the cost and benefit of aligning with one side or the other. 

This group is the focal point of the influence struggle. 

The first two groups are generally ideologically driven and are 

highly unlikely to change sides. For the core supporters of the state, a 

 

26 Roger Trinquier, Modern Warfare: A French View of Counterinsurgency, 

trans., Daniel Lee (New York, NY: Frederick A. Praeger, 1961), 8.

27 Gordon H. McCormick & Frank Giordano, “The Dynamics of Insurgency,” 

paper presented to the Insurgency Board of Experts, Department of Defense 

Analysis, Naval Postgraduate School, June 2002.
13

specialized U.S. task force conducting Influence Operations and 

working with host-nation forces generally provides the host 

government with the resources, training, and/or support that is most 

appropriate for the operating environment. This assumes that Influence 

Operations are in support of a legitimate and recognized government. 

Furthermore, success becomes increasingly difficult to synchronize, 

conduct, and achieve desired effects as the expeditionary force grows 

beyond a single specialized and unified command. To address the core 

supporters of the insurgency, the ideologically driven “hardliners” who 

are unlikely to change, the task force must apply an indirect approach 

(short of unilateral kinetic operations) to disrupt, deny, or otherwise 

prohibit their extreme actions and behavior that may alienate the third 

population group from the legitimate government. 

That large middle group, the impressionable majority of the 

population, becomes the focal point in a struggle between the 

insurgents and counterinsurgents for decisive influence. Many in this 

group will have an initial preference toward one side, but the side they 

choose to support depends on the “expected costs and benefits of their 

alternatives.”28 Influencing that choice is a decisive opportunity and 

requires the collaborative will and resources of counterinsurgent forces 

to engage the population over the long term, often within the 

population’s communities.

One need only look as far as the successes brought forth by the 

Viet Cong’s influence campaign in rural South Vietnam villages, or 

how Hezbollah is infecting the urban and rural populations of Lebanon. 

Consider the narrative example well-known in the Army’s SOF 

community—the “ball of rice” scenario.29 A remote rural farmer is 

barely able to scrape enough food together to feed his family and 

livestock. What little income he has goes to providing for his family 

 

28 Gordon H. McCormick, “Things Come Together,” Third World Quarterly, 

Vol. 28, No. 2, 2007, 301.

29 This narrative is Special Forces institutional lore, and most SF candidates 

are exposed to vignettes like this throughout the Special Forces Qualification 

Course. It is recalled in the authors’ own words.
14

and bringing his harvest to the nearest market. One day a man 

approaches him with some money (more than he would make in a 

season), food for his family, and a rifle. The man tells the farmer, “If 

you join our group, we will provide a ball of rice for each of your 

family members every day for as long as you are a member.” The 

farmer says that he does not know of this group nor does he wish to 

fight, but the man reassures him that the rifle can also be used for the 

protection of his family and crops, and that the likelihood of ever 

fighting is very low. The farmer agrees and becomes obligated as a fullfledged, armed member of an anti-government insurgent group. 

That group influenced him to join by exploiting his needs and 

isolation. He weighed the cost—the small chance he might have to pick 

up his rifle and fight—with the benefit of guaranteed food for his 

family, one of his greatest needs. The insurgents established a basic 

relationship with the farmer, making it easy to further manipulate his 

actions on the basis of whatever cause they hold. This anecdotal 

example highlights events transpiring throughout the underdeveloped 

regions of the world. 

Insurgent groups are well-placed to recognize the needs of a 

targeted population and sway or compel them to support “the cause.” 

On a macro scale, the concepts are routinely similar, and our 

contemporary adversaries are savvy at influencing the large middle 

group of fence sitters before the host government or a coalition of 

forces are in place to prevent it. Successful Influence Operations 

recognizes the criticality of popular support and bases every decision, 

both short and long term, on the projected first-, second-, and thirdorder effects.
15

II. Joint Special Operations Task Force –

Philippines (JSOTF-P) Method of Engagement

Whenever possible, we will develop innovative, low-cost, 

and small-footprint approaches to achieve our security 

objectives, relying on exercises, rotational presence, and 

advisory capabilities. –U.S. Defense Strategic Guidance 

201230

The Joint Special Operations Task Force – Philippines 

(JSOTF-P) has, through significant trial and error, mastered the 

synergetic approach to influencing the target population with a low cost 

and a small footprint. Its successes directly support both U.S. mission 

and USPACOM theater security cooperation plan goals in the 

Philippines. One of the most important factors that have enabled its 

continuing success has been its flexibility: the entire mission is a 

choreographed effort in which every element has a specific function in 

the operating environment and must be guided, surged, or withdrawn at 

any given time to apply appropriate pressure at the appropriate time and 

place. Influence Operations are broken down and interwoven into each 

specific and mutually supportive LOO, and each LOO ultimately 

supports the operational goal of winning the support of the population 

through superior influence. It is also important to remember that the 

adversary gets a vote; some threat groups in the Philippines proved 

surprisingly adept at the same type of influential tactics, so it is 

important to understand their goals and methods in attempting to 

achieve influence superiority.31 For example, the Abu Sayyaf Group, 

 

30 U.S. Department of Defense, Sustaining U.S. Global Leadership: Priorities 

for 21st Century Defense, January 2012, p. 3, 

http://www.defense.gov/news/defense_strategic_guidance.pdf.

31 Influence superiority, a non-doctrinal term used by the authors during the 

planning and execution of OEF-P operations, entails conducting Influence 

Operations (as defined in this case study) more effectively than an adversary.
16

Jema’ah Islamiy’ah, and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front have active 

recruiting campaigns that highlight, or even misrepresent, any actions 

of the Philippine government that cause hardship to the people of 

Mindanao.32 Consequently, these groups exploit the discontent they 

generate to contribute to national and regional instability. (See 

Appendix A: Threat Groups in the Philippines for more information 

about these groups.) 

The acme of skill of the true warrior is to be victorious 

without fighting. –Sun Tzu

In 2006 the commander of Special Operations Command, 

Pacific, Lieutenant General David P. Fridovich, asserted, “We think 

there’s a model here worth showcasing . . . there’s another way of 

doing business.”33 During a time of more kinetic solutions in 

Afghanistan and Iraq, LTG Fridovich highlighted JSOTF-P’s highly 

effective alternative approach to rooting out terrorists and winning the 

support of the population by, through, and with a willing host nation. 

JSOTF-P is an economy-of-force mission that relies on unity of effort 

between joint, multinational, and interagency partners. The task force 

works closely with the U.S. mission in the Philippines to ensure the 

deconfliction and accomplishment of U.S. regional goals and provide a 

mutually beneficial relationship at all levels. All participants recognize 

the importance of the “whole government” approach and generally 

 

32 Many other smaller Islamist groups also contribute to the overall threat to 

stability in the Philippines, such as the Misuari Breakaway Group and the 

Rajah Solaiman Movement. The New People’s Army is the Communist 

terrorist movement in the Philippines; their goals are entirely different that the 

Islamist groups, but their methods are similar (i.e. delegitimizing the 

government, recruiting from the population, etc.). See Appendix A for 

background on threat groups operating within the Republic of the Philippines.

33 John Falk, “This Is the War on Terror. Wish You Were Here!,” Outside, 

January 16, 2007, http://www.outsideonline.com/adventuretravel/asia/philippines/This-Is-the-War-on-Terror--Wish-You-Were-Here-

.html.
17

strive toward achieving mid- to long-term goals without stereotypical 

political infighting. JSOTF-P practices centralized planning and 

decentralized execution. The commanders and staff understand how to 

most effectively employ each component of the task force, which is 

critical when flexing a particular capability forward to support or 

execute a mission, or preempt or respond to an incident. There are also 

strong cultural bonds and relationships (both positive and negative) 

between each of the numerous subcultures that must be accounted for 

throughout engagements with local population groups.

One of the strongest core values within JSOTF-P is the overall 

adherence to the first SOF principle: Understand your operating 

environment. Although Influence Operations are not necessarily SOFspecific, Special Operations Forces are typically the best suited to 

coordinate and conduct deliberate influence efforts, especially in areas 

of operations not engaged in large-scale combat operations. The 

requirement is not for SOF soldiers; rather it is for adaptable soldiers.34

Over the past decade, several military unit types (including general 

purpose forces) proved remarkably capable of adapting and operating 

within influence-centric operational environments, but this is outside of 

their traditional operational focus. SOF is traditionally the force of 

choice when adaptation, ambiguity, and political sensitivities are 

critical, as is typically the case in special warfare environments. 

JSOTF-P created a dynamic influence operations working 

group that regularly met to analyze feedback-driven mission 

requirements, ongoing projects, future opportunities and past and 

projected effects of friendly actions. The construct of the working 

group was comprehensive, and generally run by the JSOTF-P 

Operations Officer (J3) and the Psychological Operations (PSYOP) 

Detachment Commander, who typically doubled as the JSOTF J39. 

 

34

 John A. Nagl, who has written extensively about counterinsurgency, notes: 

“Not all soldiers can adapt, and putting those who cannot in command of a 

counterinsurgency effort is counterproductive.” John A. Nagl, “Foreword,” in 

David Galula, Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice (Westport, 

CT: Praeger Security International, 2006), x.
18

While the working group met twice a week, or when needed based on 

mission requirements, there was a smaller standing Influence Cell 

consisting of the J3, J39, J2, PSYOP Commander, Civil Affairs Liaison 

Officer (CA LNO), and Public Affairs Officer (PAO) that met almost 

daily. This cell constantly ensured that the coalition messages 

propagated and were appropriately incorporated along each LOO. The 

cell was critical to predictive analysis, managing operations within the 

information environment, and synchronizing all lines of operation.

JSOTF-P utilized four LOOs: capacity building, civil-military 

engagement, information engagement, and intelligence support 

operations. All contributed to the overall influence campaign, and are 

based on proven strategies that had measurable effects.35 The maneuver 

elements (SF, NSW, PSYOP, civil affairs, and eventually MARSOC) 

coordinated their activities based on ground situational awareness 

combined with analysis provided by the influence operation fusion cell. 

The influence operations fusion cell synchronized ongoing influence 

activities and continuously assessed successes in shaping the 

operational environment for future targeting.

The primary target audience for JSOTF-P’s Influence 

Operations was the diverse Philippine population within the joint 

operations area. Secondary audiences included local Philippine 

government officials, Philippine security forces, and the Philippine 

population not directly affected or targeted by the insurgents. JSOTFP’s vocal and widely publicized purpose as it engaged local Filipino 

communities was as follows: 

In the fight against terrorism, the JSOTF-P assists the Armed 

Forces of the Philippines in bringing peace and prosperity in 

Mindanao. [We are here to] help strengthen security forces, 

set the conditions for good governance, defeat terrorist 

organizations, and protect U.S. and Philippine citizens from 

terrorist attacks. At the invitation of the Philippine 

 

35 USPACOM, JSOTF-P unclassified promotional video, as created and 

published by the JSOTF-P J39 and Influence Operations Cell in 2008.
19

Government, the United States is here to assist the Armed 

Forces of the Philippines as they create a secure and stable 

environment.36

The phrase “as they create a secure and stable environment” 

was particularly significant. It remains critical for the Filipino 

population to see their own government in the lead, which makes 

enhancing the Philippine Security Forces’ capacity to operate 

autonomously and more effectively a primary JSOTF-P mission.

A. Capacity Building 

The Armed Forces of the Philippines had difficulty overcoming 

their reputation as an oppressive and heavy-handed force. U.S. forces 

generally hold the moral high ground and are predominantly perceived 

as a force for peace that respects the rule of law. Early in the execution 

of OEF-P, several teams reported that local populations throughout the 

joint operations area in Mindanao were wary, even untrusting, of the 

AFP based on past incidents or word of mouth rumors of AFP violence 

against the Muslim populations.37 When U.S. advisors were present for 

community activities, the local Filipinos were much more comfortable 

engaging with both U.S. and Philippine soldiers. The U.S. presence 

enabled the AFP and Philippine National Police (PNP) to engage the 

population and reverse the negative perceptions and biases.38

JSOTF-P explains capacity building as the following:

 

36 Ibid.

37 This was illustrated in several Commander’s Comments of SFODA 

SITREPs to JSOTF-P throughout the first few years of Operation Enduring 

Freedom – Philippines. It is important for the reader to understand that this 

was not the case throughout the entire Philippines, and that the AFP was well 

respected in most areas even during that time. The affected areas referred to 

herein are generally those that contain the “relevant population,” or the 

population from which various secessionist groups may draw support.

38 Maintaining legitimacy and effective access to the population requires a 

professional force, and all JSOTF-P operational elements are chartered with 

assisting the AFP and PNP in fully establishing their systems and methods. 
20

training the Philippine military and national police to fight 

lawlessness. Villagers lived in fear of kidnap-for-ransom 

gangs and other criminal acts, but now live in a more secure 

and peaceful environment. This increased capability provides 

improved security and allows the AFP and PNP to increase 

the legitimacy of the government.39

The themes and messages of the overall influence campaign 

were constantly interwoven into each capacity building event. For 

instance, a U.S. element training a group of Filipino Scout Rangers 

constantly reinforced to them their legitimacy and professional duty 

throughout the course. The same message was applied to a different 

target audience, the population, when that same group of Scout Rangers 

delivered several boxes of books to a rural school. This exemplified 

JSOTF-P’s deliberate influence acts and influence messaging. The 

perception is that the AFP has delivered much-needed books to the 

school, which is probably in an area vulnerable to insurgent 

recruitment. The books, meanwhile, may have come from USAID or 

any other number of sources external to the task force.

JSOTF-P also encourages other U.S. government efforts to 

reinforce their Influence Operations. For example, when USPACOM 

coordinates for theater security cooperation plan events in the 

Philippines, JSOTF-P has the lead in bringing them to the joint 

operations area. This maximizes training benefits and operational 

effects in specific areas, but it also enables JSOTF-P to utilize those 

events where they will provide the greatest influence effect. For 

example, all services conduct joint/combined exchange training events 

with their Filipino counterparts, to include Army Special Forces, Navy 

SEALs, Marine Special Operations Teams, PSYOP teams, DEA, FBI, 

and other security and police agencies. This is a coordinated effort to 

increase the professional capacity of each Philippine agency to operate 

 

39 JSOTF-P promotional video, 2008.
21

both in an autonomous capacity, and in a more interoperable manner 

within their government.40 Once the government is able to effectively 

communicate within itself, it can begin to effectively engage the 

population in the form of humanitarian support and civil-military 

engagement.

B. Civil-Military Engagement

Providing basic human needs further legitimizes the 

government and aids in positively influencing a malleable population. 

Backed by U.S. assistance and resources, the AFP and PNP bring civil 

infrastructure and humanitarian support to the people who need it most. 

This primarily comes in the form of free medical, dental, veterinary, 

and engineering assistance to communities in need. AFP and JSOTF-P 

PSYOP detachments produce materials stating, “Aside from providing 

security [the AFP is] armed with the tools and resources to rebuild 

schools and hospitals, provide medical and dental care, and provide 

fresh water.”41 The method of application begins with a targeting 

process to identify which communities are most vulnerable to a 

particular threat or hostile influence. The next step is a planning 

process that incorporates the Philippine Security Forces and local 

leaders (building capacity and strengthening the bond between the 

government and the people). The AFP and JSOTF-P focus civilmilitary engagement support on permissive and semi-permissive 

communities that are supportive and amiable to the Philippine 

government and resist the insurgents’ push toward lawlessness. The 

overall desired effect is to build a cascading shift in favor of Philippine 

government, ultimately affecting non-permissive communities. 

 

40 Stew Magnuson, “To Counter Terrorism, Philippine Army Takes Lessons 

From U.S. Forces,” National Defense, February 01, 2008, 

http://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/archive/2008/February/Pages/ToCou

nter4664.aspx (accessed May 15, 2014).

41JSOTF-P promotional video, 2008.
22

One of the more effective CME venues is the annual 

Balikatan42 exercise and its respective capacity-building, CME, 

PSYOP, and U.S. embassy strategic communication activities. 

Balikatan is an Influence Operation unto itself that directly supports the 

JSOTF-P lines of operation. Philippine security forces are in the lead 

when it comes to engaging the population, with U.S. forces providing 

significant material and personnel support. This increases Philippine 

government and AFP legitimacy in the eyes of the Philippine 

population. JSOTF-P also employs some special longer-duration 

programs, often with U.S. Embassy support, to teach vocational skills 

to local communities. These efforts generate income, increase 

prosperity, and influence communities to support the government. Most 

successful Filipino military leaders have adopted the same philosophy 

over the past several years, as illustrated by the AFP’s SALA’AM 

Program.43 It has become standard practice to integrate CME into 

nearly every AFP operation in Mindanao.

The message to the people resonated: “Reject violence and 

embrace peace, and good things will come to your village.”44

Historically, the Abu Sayyaf Group conducted retribution attacks on 

 

42 Balikatan means “shouldering the load together” in Tagalog. Asia Pacific 

Defense Forum Staff, “From Balikatan to Mudslide Relief” (Asia Pacific 

Defense FORUM, Winter 2006-2007), 39.

43

 The AFP began the SALA’AM (Special Advocacy on Literacy/Livelihood 

and Advancement for Muslims) Program as “the cornerstone of the AFP 

campaign in the Southern Philippines,” according to MGEN Hermogenes C. 

Esperon, Jr. in 2005. U.S. civil affairs and PSYOP provided advice and 

assistance in developing the program of instruction, manual, and initial 

operating capability, but the AFP has significantly increased their own 

capacity to conduct this civil-military engagement on their own. The program 

continues successfully today. See Armed Forces of the Philippines, SALA’AM 

Manual (Camp Aguinaldo – Quezon City, Republic of the Philippines: AFP 

SOT Center, 2005), i.

44 JSOTF-P PSYOP Multimedia Campaign - Project Sandra, designed to 

highlight the cost of terrorism and demonize violent extremist organizations in 

the Southern Philippines. (See the authors for additional details and samples) 

This campaign was developed in cooperation with local Philippine marketing 

and research companies.
23

communities that supported government-led peace initiatives, 

especially those that involved American support. These tactics quickly 

backfired, and increased the momentum and perseverance of AFP and 

JSOTF-P soft power. A new paradigm emerged as ASG threats began 

to lose influence. The ASG learned that if they attacked civil-military 

projects it would cost them access and support of the local population, 

thereby “forcing the enemy to collaborate in its own defeat.”45

Furthermore, many of the families of ASG members belonged to those 

communities and would not refuse free treatment. For the AFP, this 

was an opportunity to show these families and sympathizers first-hand 

that the government cared about them, a demonstration not replicable 

by the Abu Sayyaf Group. It was also an opportunity to engage the 

people on a personal level, thereby allowing effective Influence 

Operations, community relationships, and productive information 

exchange among a willing and supportive population.

C. Information Engagement and Psychological Operations

The cooperation and support of a population is integral to 

gathering the intelligence needed to weed out insurgents and render 

them ineffective. Establishing a productive and collaborative 

connection between the government and the people is vital to 

conducting effective operations. However, maintaining the connection 

between those two entities is often the challenge. The primary 

executors of JSOTF-P’s influence LOO were the AFP’s and JSOTF-P’s 

PSYOP, civil affairs, special forces, naval special warfare, MARSOC, 

and medical assistance elements. To maintain the attention of, access 

to, and support from the population during Influence Operations, the 

task force required constant dialogue to reinforce PSYOP themes and 

messages. Providing a deliberate range and amount of influential 

information to target audiences and local populations increased twoway dialogue. The most basic benefits occurred when people 

understood what the government was doing in their communities and 

 

45 Falk, 79.
24

developed a desire to support those efforts. In response, the government 

and task force gained otherwise unattainable information about social 

dynamics, attitudes, and insurgent activities, while elements of the 

insurgency began to question their own leadership and decision 

making. This facilitated government actions to marginalize or remove 

the insurgents as the population continued to receive civil-military 

assistance and other benefits from NGOs and community support 

functions. 

The influence messaging process gained momentum and drove 

a wedge further between the population and the insurgent groups. 

PSYOP themes and messages reached the population through a broad 

array of meda including radio, television, social events, flyers, posters, 

text messages, and other social media. The JSOTF-P PSYOP 

detachment employed these meda and methods through four primary 

PSYOP Lines of Effort (LOEs) within the JSOTF-P influence line of 

operation.46

D. PSYOP: A Core SOF Capability 

Our PSYOP detachment established four key PSYOP LOEs to 

shape JSOTF-P’s influence environment and affect the insurgents’ 

ability to operate. Due to their methods of engagement within 

numerous local communities, as well as their access to senior U.S. and 

AFP senior leadership (political, civilian, and military), the PSYOP and 

civil affairs forces often possessed more access, placement, and trust 

with local community leadership and had unique access to informal 

persons of influence within the population. This was due in no small 

part to collaboration and coordination with the SF and NSW teams that 

lived and worked with the AFP throughout specific priority areas. The 

ability of the PSYOP and civil affairs teams to directly engage with the 

 

46 “A line of effort links multiple tasks and missions using the logic of 

purpose—cause and effect—to focus efforts toward establishing operational 

and strategic conditions.” Joint Operation Planning, Joint Publication 5-0, 

Aug. 11, 2011, p. xxii. Lines of operation are typically employed using 

subordinate lines of effort.
25

wider population increased the credibility and access of the other SOF 

teams assigned to work with the AFP throughout key areas of interest.

The first PSYOP LOE supported JSOTF-P’s civil-military 

engagement by personalizing AFP and JSOTF-P support to local 

communities. The second PSYOP LOE was focused on disrupting 

insurgent operations by creating dissent among the insurgents as well 

as between the insurgents and the communities that traditionally 

supported or tolerated them. The third major PSYOP LOE was the 

Rewards for Justice Campaign. This LOE identified the most heinous 

insurgent leaders, offered rewards leading to their arrest, and, more 

importantly, made personal connections between the atrocities 

committed and the insurgent leaders responsible for them. JSOTF-P’s 

fourth PSYOP LOE – the Mass Media Campaign – provided 

operational-level influence support to the task force as a whole and 

galvanized all three previous PSYOP LOEs together through an 

extensive and overt commercial multimedia campaign.

To facilitate change in the populations’ perceptions, enable 

favorable behavior toward AFP and U.S. forces, and build intolerance 

toward the ASG-JI, the PSYOP LOEs were persistently interwoven 

into all of JSOTF-P’s operations. Civil-military engagement provided a 

series of successful events (i.e., deeds) that validated JSOTF-P’s 

influence messaging. Creating dissent within and between the two 

insurgent groups and the populace was dependent on fostering trust and 

developing favorable options for the affected people, thereby providing 

a viable and desirable alternative to living with an insurgent presence. 

AFP and JSOTF’s civil-military engagement was the first layer in 

disrupting ASG and JI access and freedom of movement by providing 

basic health care and much-needed civil projects for afflicted 

communities in need. 

A unique aspect of JSOTF-P’s influence messaging was the 

primacy of using CME and face-to-face engagements to validate the 

influence messages instead of employing reactive messages to address 

events after they occurred. Once a local influence foundation was 

established, PSYOP managed a reciprocal message-deed, deedmessage cycle that became mutually supporting and validating for the 
26

AFP and U.S. civil-military efforts. The messages were routinely 

adapted to inform local villages and population groups about projects, 

why the AFP and U.S. were providing them, and, more importantly, 

demonstrate a long-term local investment in the community by the 

Philippine government. 

The tailored messages and the interpersonal engagements 

supporting them was a systematic and less aggressive approach toward 

gaining populace support and alienating ASG and JI fighters, versus the 

more straightforward practice of directing or telling a population to 

support the government’s endeavors. For example, the AFP and 

JSOTF-P conducted and enabled events to rebuild schools, establish 

clean water wells, provide basic medical and dental care, develop 

roads, and even host veterinary clinics for local farm animals. The 

PSYOP detachment participated in these events to capture the positive 

changes taking place through pictures and casual conversations with 

community members. PSYOP soldiers then used images and 

information to personalize these stories in imagery, media, and print 

products that were disseminated back into the affected and neighboring 

communities to prolong the lasting effects of the AFP and JSOTF-P 

missions taking place across the region.

Communities on the periphery of these efforts also received the 

products (both verbal and nonverbal) to further spread the influence 

effects and to create demand for similar civil-military assistance into 

previously inaccessible communities. Although the imagery was 

personalized to each local community, the general theme remained the 

same: the AFP and U.S. forces can continue the good work of the 

medical, dental, and building projects for areas that no longer tolerate 

the actions of JI, ASG, and other unlawful groups. The products were 

careful not to single out individuals, but focused on the improvements 

made to the communities that no longer provided overt or tacit support 

to ASG or JI elements. 

The PSYOP civil-military LOE began to generate momentum 

in conjunction with SF and NSW synchronized civil-military 

engagements within local communities. Civil-military events provided 

access to free basic and advanced medical, dental, and veterinary care. 
27

Under the insurgents’ coercive influences, These services were rarely 

available to remote communities throughout Sulu, Basilan, and into the 

Muslim areas of Mindanao. Each event was actively promoted and 

designed as a community-wide event by AFP and JSOTF-P personnel 

and supported by local community leaders. The PSYOP detachment’s 

forward support teams mingled with the crowds and ran engagement 

events in the local language to build or improve the social-operational 

picture. This method of engagement proved invaluable in developing 

follow-on messages and products that captured the positive 

achievements of the events. More importantly, they created 

interpersonal messages and increased access to a growing social-group 

network. With each favorably affected community, a new conduit 

opened up for passing on and spreading future information throughout 

the provinces.

The PSYOP Disrupt LOE created dissent between population 

areas typically used by the insurgents and the threat groups by 

challenging the abilities of the insurgent groups’ main leadership. For 

this effort, a series of PSYOP messaging, products, and actions focused 

on amplifying the negative attributes, actions, and distress caused by 

the ASG and JI groups operating within communities and across the 

affected areas of Mindanao. Not only did this include communities 

targeted for ASG attacks, but it also included those communities 

affected by the second- and third-order of effects of insurgent attacks 

and extortion activities. It further included as an audience the families 

of ASG members, who were not receiving the aid and benefits of the 

communities open to AFP and U.S. assistance. 

Although the influence approach was tailored for each 

community, the end objective was to create a divisive attitude between

the ASG and its support base in the population. Each attack or 

attempted attack was captured through imagery and messages to the 

populace, marking JI and ASG as the culprits within minutes to hours 

of an event. By seizing the information initiative, the AFP and JSOTFP maintained and increased the influence momentum. Similarly, when a 

medical, dental, veterinary, or engineering civic action program was 

held, disrupt messages coupled with civil-military engagement 
28

influence messaging shaped the local environment by publicizing the 

positive event and inviting local and surrounding communities, 

specifically, those communities that were known for tacit and active 

support for the ASG. This served to further enhance the positive effects 

of the AFP/JSOTF-P presence versus the increasingly negative impacts 

the ASG was having across the area of operations. Significantly, the 

PSYOP disruption messages and products amplified internal ASG/JI 

dissent, which began to surface through sources. Our PSYOP 

messaging mediums capitalized upon these seams by amplifying the 

population’s silent-majority concerns and grievances with the ASG.47

ASG-associated communities and those affected by terrorist attacks 

began to realize they were not isolated in their struggle, and that there 

was an alternative to living with JI/ASG/MILF exploitation.

Examples of the SF and PSYOP combined capability took 

place when attacks occurred against community centers of gravity like 

marketplaces, malls, or bus stations. The PSYOP and SF operators 

made every effort to provide aid and security and to capture images of 

the devastation. To further alienate the insurgent groups, the PSYOP 

detachment researched the victims and, with their consent, tailored a 

series of influence products highlighting the atrocity, the losses, and the 

terrorist leader responsible. Information was gathered through local 

sources, AFP and U.S. forces, or through our PSYOP ethnographic 

research and media resources. The PSYOP detachment injected the 

information into the media campaign, along with more communitycentric messages and products, to create a local and regional layered 

influence effect against the ASG and JI elements responsible for 

ordering and executing the attacks. With the civil-military and 

dissention aspects of the disrupt effort building upon each other, the 

Rewards LOE further tied the PSYOP portion of the influence 

campaign together by presenting various incentives for information that 

 

47 A common exploitation tactic was a special protection or security tax levied 

by ASG and MILF, which compelled communities to provide monetary and 

logistical support.
29

would lead to the capture and arrest of multiple terrorist leaders, 

severely hindering terrorist activities.

The PSYOP Rewards LOE originated from supporting the U.S. 

country team’s effort to establish a Rewards for Justice Program in the 

Philippines.48 After several months of establishing and linking the 

PSYOP influence LOEs into the wider JSOTF-P influence campaign, 

the rewards program was adapted into a format that negatively 

personalized the most-wanted terrorists by accurately and rapidly 

affiliating specific ASG-JI terrorists with their associated attacks, as 

well as with the affected and neighboring communities. To overcome 

ASG’s familial ties with their affiliated communities, PSYOP messages 

personalized the attacks by publicizing the effects on the victims and 

their extended families. The empathy and sense of loss began to 

resonate within the ASG’s own support base.49 Imagery of the damage 

was associated with imagery of the terrorists responsible for ordering or 

executing the attacks.

The PSYOP detachment paid careful attention not to show 

carnage but to encapsulate the fear and anguish of the witnesses, as 

well as the grim determination of the AFP and U.S. forces that were 

often the first to arrive on the scene with medical aid and security. By 

directly linking attacks with terrorist leaders identified in the Rewards 

products and the emotional and physical effects on the victims, we 

slowly began to break through familial and clan loyalty. With each 

success the AFP and JSOTF-P increased the number of information tips 

received, often enabling key intelligence developments for future 

operations. The terrorists quickly lost the influence initiative while the 

 

48 The Rewards for Justice Program in the Philippines is part of the larger U.S. 

state department rewards program established in 1984. The Philippine 

segment of the RFJ program only focused on the terrorists operating within the 

Republic of the Philippines. For details see 

http://www.state.gov/m/ds/terrorism/c8651.htm and 

http://www.rewardsforjustice.net/. 

49 Victims’ stories were used with the express permission of the families, 

community leaders, the AFP, JSOTF-P commander, and the U.S. embassy 

country team.
30

AFP and JSOTF-P steadily increased their positive momentum and 

built upon each gain.

One particularly successful approach for eroding the terrorists’ 

influence with traditional familial and clan loyalties was through a 

mass media campaign as a separate LOE. What began as a small twoto three-month effort quickly expanded into a yearlong influence 

campaign that used TV, radio, and print media disseminated to specific 

audiences throughout the JSOTF-P AOR. This was possible only 

through the coordinated support of the U.S. country team, AFP senior 

leadership, and the most popular media outlets in the Philippines. Using 

marketing and ethnographic research, each broadcast, newspaper 

advertisement, dialect, and theme was managed on a daily basis in 

response to events unfolding on the ground. During a major AFP 

offensive, several variations of “wanted” and “victim” commercials 

were aired to disrupt ASG and JI movement away from traditional safe 

havens and evasion routes.

In this case, the victims’ stories were pivotal influence 

messages that galvanized empathy with audiences. The campaign 

provided an uninterruptable voice for the victims’ stories and selected 

private pictures to make each terrorist attack personally resonate with 

the target audiences.50 Specific attention was given to sharing the 

stories of affected Filipino Muslim families and children. The media 

campaign reinforced and complemented more localized PSYOP 

products, creating a massing influence effect against the insurgent 

groups and their leadership. The media products were disseminated into 

areas known for active, tacit, and coerced support to the terrorist or 

insurgent groups responsible for attacks throughout the JSOTF-P AOR.

 

50 In retrospect, this process became an automatic intent to create a layering 

effect while incorporating underlying social bias to channel the audiences’ 

perception in line with our influence purpose against the terrorist and unlawful 

groups subverting the local population. The nonverbal messages provided by 

the imagery of our comic book, commercials, CME print products, booklets, 

and other imagery proved the most effective means of reaching and relating 

with our audiences who wanted change and a means to help them get started in 

creating it.
31

After 12 months of incremental successes, in 2007 the PSYOP 

detachment expanded the media LOE by developing a text-messaging 

social-media platform to further broaden the scope and reach of our 

Influence Operations. The effort was purposely kept attributable as a 

reliable means for the population to report JI, ASG, and other insurgent 

activity, but also as a reliable information and news conduit for 

communities that voluntarily opted in to the program. The program 

began by working with a major Philippine telecommunications 

provider with established service in remote areas.

To comply with Philippine law, AFP and JSOTF-P outreachevent attendees were asked to sign up as members of the information 

news service. This enabled them to receive news and community 

information, including free minutes, or a set amount of prepaid minutes 

for their current cellular account to offset the cost of receiving text 

messages.51 The “subscribers” in turn agreed to receive periodic news 

and messages from our information service. After establishing the 

service as a credible, reliable, and responsive information service, the 

PSYOP text messaging number was incorporated into community 

Disruption and Rewards products and messages to expand the reporting 

options on local JI, ASG, and other lawless group activities. Over a 

period of time, subscribers, and even ASG members, began conversing 

with PSYOP team members managing the text messaging service. The 

information was shared with our AFP counterparts and passed on to 

appropriate leadership for action. Within a matter of weeks, 

information regarding the location and planned action of ASG bands on 

Sulu began to flow into the service.52 The text-messaging concept was 

 

51 The PSYOP promotion items incorporated a noticeable and effective 

message in local dialects with the symbol and message of “working together 

hand in hand.” Items that were desirable, coveted, and prominently displayed 

by the population included sandals, soccer balls, water bottles, stickers, tshirts, umbrellas for the rainy season, toys, pencils, school notebooks, and 

school backpacks.

52 Unfortunately, the text service proved short-lived. Shortly after our 

respective redeployments from JSOTF-P, the text-messaging service was 
32

developed based our combined SF-PSYOP initiatives the year before, 

supporting an AFP Marine request to improve their influence and 

operating environment in and around the city of Marawi. 

Achieving these effects was in no small part due to a fusion 

with the JSOTF-P intelligence operations. It is essential to include the 

intelligence effort within the influence fusion cell in order to 

successfully shape and mutually support the intelligence support 

operations LOE. This process develops into a reciprocal mechanism for 

effectively influencing the information and operational environments 

over the long term. Embracing COL Linder’s Influence Operations 

intent, we would later learn that our actions supporting the AFP 

Marines in Marawi became the catalyst that started our SF-PSYOP 

fused influence concept.

E. Intelligence Support Operations

Intelligence support operations designed to track and interdict 

terrorist leadership and networks became increasingly successful due to 

the increasingly improved AFP-JSOTF-P influence campaign. The 

AFP’s capacity to conduct effective tactical operations, civil-military 

engagement, psychological operations, and intelligence gathering has 

increased exponentially over the past decade.53 The U.S. supports the 

Philippine government and security forces with access to information, 

intelligence, and modern technology to assist their efforts to build and 

maintain situational awareness, provide predictive analysis, and react to 

insurgent threats.54

 

discontinued rather than expanded and resourced as a continued information 

and influence conduit.

53 The AFP does not employ a U.S.-defined IO intermediary staff. Their public 

affairs and PSYOP forces operate in a combined or fused construct with their 

civil affairs teams to maximize the productivity of their influence 

methodology. The AFP employs their strategic communications force as a 

national asset with a sensitive operational purview.

54 Personal communcations with MAJ Matthew Worsham, USMC, JSOTF-P 

intelligence officer 2008-2009, September 2010 to February 2011.
33

JSOTF-P embedded liaison coordination elements with AFP 

units (at their request) conducted subject matter expertise exchanges 

with AFP units throughout the country and leveraged U.S. country 

team support and programs to improve interoperability. AFP leadership 

and staff were also invited and encouraged to regularly participate in 

the daily activities of the joint operations center. Despite limited 

intelligence-sharing agreements, AFP and U.S. intelligence 

professionals worked closely to find solutions while protecting the 

sensitive interests of their respective countries. This reflected the 

realistic obstacles of balancing the needs for intelligence sharing and 

protecting sensitive capabilities and methods without sacrificing regular 

engagement between U.S forces and our host nation partners. 

Key to JSOTF-P’s Intelligence LOO success was the ability of 

U.S. intelligence personnel to “export” the processing, exploitation, and 

dissemination of the collected intelligence to the partner or host in 

order to build their capacity and give them ownership of the decisionmaking cycle. This step cannot be overemphasized. The U.S. will 

almost assuredly gravitate toward its strengths (powerful technology 

and resources that are out of reach for most developing countries),

while assuredly falling short in fully leveraging the cultural nuances 

associated with understanding the enemy. The needs of the local 

population, the limitations of the host’s or partner’s intelligence 

capacity, and the sheer manpower required to fully analyze the deluge 

of information collected requires a combined partnership.55 The 

application of intelligence is situational and sometimes commanderdependent, but the goal remains the same: maximizing support to 

operations while simultaneously increasing the host nation’s selfreliance and capacity to operate autonomously. The desired effect for 

terror groups is dissent within their ranks, discord from the populace, 

and their surrender, dissolution, and demonstrated defeat.

 

55 Ibid.
34

III. Influence Operations in Action

Cohesive AFP and JSOTF-P influence operations began with 

the arrival of JSOTF-P’s new commander, COL James Linder. What he 

began by rapidly adapting the mission into an overall Influence 

Operation to shape the environment and enable decisive AFP 

offensives against the insurgent terror groups would continue with 

subsequent JSOTF-P commanders. The subsequent arrival of COL 

William Coultrup would elevate these operations to new heights. 

As JSOTF-P began changing its operational design, the Armed 

Forces of the Philippines were charged with three missions: (1) get 

control of the instability created by southern Philippines secessionist 

groups, (2) address the issues in accordance with the rule of law, and 

(3) reinforce the legitimacy of the government of the Philippines. In 

order to support the AFP in restricting the movement of the three key 

armed groups—the ASG, JI, and “rogue” MILF elements—COL 

Linder quickly decided that the headquarters of JSOTF-P needed to

relocate south from Manila to the operational theater in Zamboanga. 

The relocation to Zamboanga was particularly important because of the 

limited number of U.S. forces assigned to the task force, which 

required immersive exposure to local culture and the environment. As it 

stood, U.S. SOF was not operating as a contiguous effort and was 

divided across the JSOTF-P AOR. With the exception of one 

Operational Detachment Alpha (ODA),56 all U.S. Special Operations 

Forces were relocated to Zamboanga with the tactical detachments 

moving to reinforce Jolo, Tawi-Tawi, and eventually Basilan in an 

economy-of-force effort to deny the enemy traditional safe haven 

access. 

The following two operational cases demonstrate how 

Influence Operations supported the goals of the host nation and the 

 

56 “Special Forces teams are generally organized into small, versatile groups, 

called Operational Detachment Alphas. A typical ODA contains 12 team 

members, each with his own specialty.” http://www.goarmy.com/specialforces/team-members.html
35

joint Special Operations task force. In the first case of the Islamic city 

of Marawi, the Mindanao-based ODA was assigned the key supportingeffort mission to maintain the operational picture of all of Central 

Mindanao and prevent it from growing into a cauldron of ASG/MILF 

influence against the U.S. and the Republic of the Philippines. In the 

second case, Influence Operations were used to shape the environment 

and close off escape routes while the AFP Marines and JSOTF-P began 

to deny Jolo as an ASG-JI safe haven. Each case provides different 

lessons on successful Influence Operations methods in semi-permissive 

and non-permissive environments. A significant contributing factor in 

each case was the JSOTF-P commander’s overarching guidance to 

build positive relationships with the AFP and Philippine government, to 

assist the U.S. mission with improving the security situation, to find 

and fix the ASG and JI through Influence Operations for AFP tactical 

operations, and to apply our SOF mindset and resources towards 

JSOTF-P and U.S. country team regional goals.57

A. Together in the Islamic City of Marawi 

In central Mindanao, the city of Marawi is a microcosm of 

Arab influence. Marawi is the only “Islamic city” in the Philippines and 

is comprised of almost 200,000 Filipinos from various tribal and ethnic 

backgrounds, concentrated into a 35-square-mile area. The level and 

integration of Wahhabi and traditional Arab Muslim characteristics by 

the people of Marawi is in stark contrast the rest of the Philippines 

Muslim communities. Arabic signs, posters, and script replace nearly 

all Filipino local and national language public information conveyance 

methods throughout the city. The Saudi Fund for Development, an 

organization that is comparable to USAID, is one of many Arab 

funding sources that maintain active initiatives in Marawi. These 

 

57 “USASOC forces provide expertise to enable operational-level headquarters 

in their effort to tie tactical capabilities to regional or national strategies.” 

ARSOF 2022, p. 17, 

www.soc.mil/Assorted%20Pages/ARSOF2022_vFINAL.pdf.
36

funding activities foster and maintain varying degrees of influence over 

the city’s Muslim religious and community leaders. 

Marawi was important to our operations because it bound us 

together as a team of Special Forces, PSYOP, and AFP Marines in a 

fused and combined effort to break into a non-permissive influence 

environment. Our operations in Marawi presented particular challenges. 

Each village, community, province, and hostile group was unique 

within the concept of population-centric warfare, but they all shared 

cultural and personal commonalities. For example, outrage over the 

arbitrary killing of children by bus bombs, the need for medical 

assistance for all children in Mindanao, and the general desire for a safe 

and secure environment were bridges across all groups, religions, and 

clan perceptions of self-identity. However, there were no friendly 

intelligence assets trained or allocated to produce this information in 

and around Marawi. We were able to identify these pressure points 

through the evolution of our operations, by being the SOF operators on 

the ground mired in the mud with the AFP Marines who lived within 

the communities. Through these efforts, we enabled the Marines to 

apply appropriate action and reaction using our combined specialties 

and our understanding of how to use information and actions to shape 

the operating environment.

One of the most important relationships the SF ODA 

established in Marawi was with the local Philippine Marine brigade. 

The brigade wanted an ODA to live and operate with them to get in 

touch with the people throughout Marawi and the surrounding rural 

populations. Creating a positive relationship between the population 

and the local Marines did not come overnight, but it did grow due to 

persistent initiatives that proved to be the founding element to success 

in Marawi.

Prior to our work with the this Marine brigade, their interaction 

with the people of Marawi was limited because of the perception that 

the Philippine Marines were aggressors sent by the GRP as occupiers. 

A few staunch anti-GRP community leaders who were supported by 

foreign entities incited friction. As a result, the Marines limited 

themselves to the physical terrain they owned, such as the small ridge 
37

line that bisects the city. The Philippine Marines were slowly building 

trust through limited conflict resolution initiatives among the 

community, but they did not have the resources to mitigate JI-, rogue 

MILF-, and other foreign actor-sponsored malicious influence efforts 

against the Marines and the Philippine government within Marawi. 

The local Philippine Marines brigade commander wanted to 

build off of their initial successes as mediators and a trusted security 

force for local conflicts. The Marines understood they were in a 

position to become a trusted, unbiased force in ending and preventing 

long-standing familial blood fueds called ridos, but they needed 

support in building and sustaining an influence advantage. One of the 

Marines’ first initiatives was to establish their own tip line for 

anonymous callers to help identify crime, terrorism, and corruption 

without risk of reprisal. Before building an influence edge that the 

Marines could maintain and continue to grow, we began training senior 

Marine leadership on the nuances of information narratives and civilmilitary engagement. The Philippine Marines began to learn and 

embrace the purpose of education programs on proper sanitation 

practices, targeted MEDCAPs, targeted engineering projects, and 

identifying key community nodes (formal and informal) to establish 

trusting relationships for use as information conduits. This process was 

instrumental in properly targeting semi-permissive communities that 

would support friendly/permissive communities while at the same time 

serving as a mechanism to open up non-permissive, or hostile, 

communities to further build trust. 

After weeks of extensive conversations with our AFP 

counterparts and limited local community leaders, we began to 

understand the depth of malicious and non-malicious influence from JI 

and other foreign Muslim actors in Central Mindanao that seemed to 

propagate out of Marawi. As our engagements and relationships grew 

with our AFP counterparts, we increasingly learned of JI leadership and 

training cells that were seeking and establishing refuge and operational 

ties to smaller Islamist groups and rogue MILF elements throughout the 

city and its surrounding highlands. 
38

Learning the cultural idiosyncrasies between different tribes 

and clans despite similar political affiliations only came by living and 

embedding with our AFP counterparts. For example, although the 

Maranaoans and Maguindanaoans coexisted in the ARMM and 

generally spoke with a unified pro-ARMM voice, there were 

underlying ridos that outsiders – such as the Philippine Marines and 

their American SOF advisors – would regularly encounter and address 

before engagement initiatives spanning multiple clans and subcultures. 

Unassuming bits of social intelligence were increasingly interwoven 

into the larger picture; learning Khadaffy Janjalani58 attended 

Mindanao State University, for instance, was significant. This 

seemingly small piece of information began to highlight ASG’s wider 

ideological recruiting and support base, and helped us discover how to 

disrupt and deny that support. As our understanding of Marawi 

improved, we were able to help focus the Philippine Marines efforts to 

expand the personal and professional choices available to the people by 

augmenting the Marines’ efforts to demonstrate alternatives to illicit 

activities and income. This tangentially improved the local population’s 

relationship with the Philippine Government, as the Marines were 

increasingly recognized as public servants and not aggressors. 

In addition to understanding local social dynamics through 

persistent presence and engagement with the AFP Marines, the SF and 

PYSOP teams put direct pressure on the people who were actively or 

tacitly supporting ASG and JI activities. The approach was simple but 

extremely effective. First, the SF team took photos of a broad set of the 

Arabic writings and posters throughout the city. The PYSOP team then 

identified the Arabic dialect and any malicious information, and 

translated existing PSYOP messages and products into the same Arabic 

dialect to establish a competing counter-effort. The newly translated 

“Wanted” posters and leaflets directly communicated to the target 

audience that Marawi would no longer be a permissive environment for 

extremist ideologies. One of the key factors in the success of this 

 

58 Khadaffy Janjalani became the eventual leader of ASG and was the younger 

brother of Abu Sayyaf founder Abdurajak Janjalani, with direct al Qaeda ties.
39

program was having the SF and PSYOP teams in close proximity to the 

operating area and to each other. This allowed the effort to be nuanced, 

precise, and timely. After several months of working with the 1st 

Marine Brigade, the Philippine Marines adopted the influence practices 

as their own and continued to build upon each success. 

As the ODA mentored the Philippine Marines and engaged 

with the population, the PSYOP team customized influence messages 

and products to support the influence effort. PSYOP print products 

depicted the Marines’ support to the community. Each PSYOP product 

was tailored so local populations would recognize their own neighbors 

and the Marines assigned to those areas. Over an eight-month period, 

the Marines gained positive influence as friends and supporters, rather 

than still being seen as an outside threat to the local community. At 

their request, PSYOP posters and handouts included phone numbers of 

local Marine leaders to contact for help. This brought the Marines 

closer to the community as trusted and fair arbiters of local disputes.59

The SF ODA and the Philippine Marines’ Influence Operations in 

Marawi benefited from a very responsive PSYOP approval process 

with the JSOTF-P commander and the U.S. country team. Due to 

strong professional relationships between the ODA, the PSYOP 

commander, the JSOTF-P commander, and the country team -- not to 

mention the trust earned over weeks and months of operations -- we 

were empowered to invest sufficient time and resources toward 

supporting the 1st Marine Brigade and capacity-building initiatives. 

As operations progressed in Marawi, two key principles 

emerged in achieving and sustaining success that became mutually 

 

59 There is a distinct difference in how the different components of the PSF are 

perceived, specifically, in the contrast between AFP Army and Philippines 

Marine forces. AFP Army units tend to recruit and assign soldiers to divisions 

that are stationed within provinces and regions nearest their homes and family. 

Conversely, the AFP Marines purposely strives to station their Marines in 

areas and regions without familial ties to help ensure that there are no personal 

distractions.
40

reinforcing and provided a testing ground for how Influence Operations 

can be applied.60 The first is a core SOF principle: 

 Build trust and legitimacy with the host nation forces. 

This requires patience, respect, and a continued presence 

living, eating, and operating with your counterparts for prolonged 

periods. There is simply no substitution for building and maintaining 

core relationships. 

These relationships enable the second principle: 

 Successful Influence Operations are sustained by 

supporting messages with deeds/actions and synchronizing 

them with those your counterparts are exercising. 

It is essential to ensure that host-nation partners understand the 

purpose, plan of action, and systematic process of conducting Influence 

Operations. Every word and deed has an effect, and every mistake has 

the potential for a magnitude of adverse effects and loss of the 

influence initiative. In Marawi and its surrounding communities, the 

sustained and synchronized AFP and/or U.S. presence on the ground in 

each village and community was vital to developing intelligence 

networks and recognizing the cultural and linguistic nuances that allow 

an Influence Operation to grow within the target audiences. Details 

matter—whether a local dialect or a matter of timing. Targeted 

influence narratives and acts are most effective and credible when 

friendly forces are persistently present and adeptly aware of the unique 

characteristics within each community. 

Although it was not systematically planned or considered when 

we developed personal and professional relationships with our 

Philippine Army counterparts, our combined efforts began to mitigate 

the operational seams and gaps in our area of operations as we traveled 

throughout the countryside. For instance, JI was using political and 

geographic boundaries to position their safe havens between three 

separate and unaligned AFP division areas of responsibility. This was 

 

60 Most small units assigned to unconventional and irregular AORs intuitively 

recognize and apply these elements, but may not apply them in a deliberate 

and methodical manner as key part of a larger operational and strategic effort.
41

mitigated by the ODA closing the information gaps between the 

divisions with respect to the ASG-JI threat. At the same time, the 

dissemination of PSYOP messages and products built on ASG and JI 

perceptions that the ODA and AFP units were actively pursuing ASGJI cells, reinforcing their fear of settling into a safe haven. The 

methodology that we intuitively developed can best be described in 

military terms as influence bounding overwatch, or influence bounding. 

This is similar to the U.S. Infantry’s concept of bounding overwatch, in 

which squads or platoons alternate positions to cover for each other as 

they move forward. The SF and PSYOP techniques used in Marawi 

became the catalyst that fused our elements into a cohesive,

interdependent SOF team executing comprehensive Influence 

Operations at the operational and tactical levels. This technique 

organized and synchronized efforts to affect multiple targets and 

audiences across seemingly disparate social groups and geographies. 

Our Special Forces and PSYOP actions rotated the main effort role 

based on what the situation required for each village, community, and 

area we encountered. The message-deed, deed-message roles between 

our respective capabilities became intertwined in a unity of effort to 

favorably influence each community in support of the larger JSOTF-P 

mission.

Moreover, as the Philippine Marines and JSOTF-P became 

more involved in Marawi and the surrounding areas over the next few 

months, NGOs and organizations like USAID began to increasingly 

invest in the population to ensure that malicious influence against the 

people and GRP did not regain the influence initiative. For example, 

USAID brought in sewing machines and education programs to teach 

the women in Marawi a skill set that enabled them to become income 

earners for their families. This was an unprecedented change to the 

dynamics of the community and served as an income alternative to 

illicit activities. 

The Marines’ influence efforts were reinforced when the 

JSOTF-P commander authorized a portion of the USS Blue Ridge’s 

MEDCAP to support the ODA and AFP in Central Mindanao. The USS 

Blue Ridge’s support began with the introduction of what we called 
42

“doctors without helicopter doors.” In close coordination with JSOTFP and the USS Blue Ridge, medical personal provided a physical 

demonstration of the investment by the Philippine Marines, the GRP, 

and the United States in the people of Marawi and the surrounding 

areas. The doctors, primarily Filipino with a small contingent of U.S. 

physicians, were clearly visible in their traditional white coats as they 

circled the city several times in the USS Blue Ridge’s helicopters 

before landing and beginning the first of a series of MEDCAPs 

dedicated to the area. This left a lasting impression on the population 

and cemented the PSYOP messages that the AFP and U.S. personnel 

were present to support the people against violent extremist groups—

not to police the people or kill them, as suggested by the enemy’s 

word-of-mouth propaganda campaign. The tipping point against the 

enemy’s influence effort was apparent with the turnout for the 

MEDCAP. Despite the hostile attitudes of the Islamist male population, 

their wives and children attended the MEDCAP in unexpected 

numbers. When MEDCAP concluded, the women repeatedly thanked 

the doctors, Marines, and U.S. personnel for their support and help. 

With tears in their eyes, the women repeatedly asked if the AFP and 

U.S. would stay longer and not forget them. 

What started as a modest request initiated by the local 

Philippine Marines’ commander led to a combined AFP MarinesJSOTF-P Influence Operation using techniques that became integrated 

into the Marine Brigade’s planning and operations as a matter of 

routine. JSOTF-P subsequently dedicated a full Special Operations task 

force, with embedded PSYOP and civil affairs teams, to support the 

AFP efforts throughout Mindanao to sustain the Influence Operations 

initiated by our earlier engagements with the local Marine brigade. 

USAID also fulfilled its commitment to the area with additional trade 

skill transition programs, new farm-to-market road construction, 

computer education programs, and support to expanded NGO activities 

in the region. As a result, the Philippine Marines’ effort became a 

conduit for the GRP-U.S. anti-terrorism effort, feeding into the wider 

intelligence community. This increased the collective GRP-U.S. ability 

to develop better target sets for collection, more accurate 
43

characterization of threats, counter violent extremist influence 

endeavors, and assess malicious foreign activities throughout the 

Southern Philippines.

B. Sulu: Message, Messenger, and Medium61

In October 2005, JSOTF-P and the AFP set about gaining safe 

access to the island of Jolo through civil-military initiatives.62 Civilmilitary engagement grew rapidly over a period of six months and 

resulted in the development of dozens of civil infrastructure projects, 

free medical clinics, and free veterinary clinics for the people of Jolo.63

Initially, the projects were provided to the least hostile communities 

along the periphery of the island’s capital city. 

In contrast to the Islamic city of Marawi and the MILFcontrolled areas in Central Mindanao, Influence Operations on Sulu 

spanned a smaller geographic area with equally complex political and 

social group dynamics. The Sulu AOR also encapsulated the maritime 

environment and a maritime population of increasing operational 

importance. For instance, the Bajau people (locally referred to as the 

sea gypsies) possessed an unparalleled understanding of everything that 

moved throughout the Sulu Archipelago. The vast majority of the 

population on Sulu was openly hostile to the AFP. Conditions between 

the AFP and Tausug population remained volatile due to a history of 

 

61 MAJ Edward M. Lopacienski, “SOF and the Use of Influence Operations to 

Defeat Terrorists and Insurgents in the Southern Philippines: The Role of 

PSYOP Within Influence Operations,” Monterey, CA, Naval Postgraduate 

School, 2010. This paper comprises the majority of this section, most of it 

verbatim (with updates).

62 The ASG retreated to Jolo from Central Mindanao following an AFP 

offensive into Central Mindanao against “rogue” MILF military camps. The 

offensive forced the MILF into peace negotiations, and the resulting political 

and military pressure forced the MILF to revoke sanctuary arrangements for 

the ASG and their JI affiliates.

63 Herb Daniels, “Keeping COIN Simple: The Outhouse Strategy for Security 

Development,” M.A. Thesis, Defense Analysis department, Naval Post 

Graduate School, 

http://jsou.socom.mil/PubsPages/OtherResearchandReportsofInterest.aspx.
44

friction and sometimes open conflict between local Tausug militias and 

the AFP on Sulu. AFP relations were particularly poor with the Tausug 

MNLF faction that controlled most of the eastern half of Sulu.64 AFP 

and JSOTF-P Influence Operations helped to shape the environment, 

rebuild trust between the AFP and Sulu’s array of communities, and 

successfully disrupt ASG activities. Similar to Marawi, AFP forces and 

JSOTF-P SOF elements increasingly gained access to previously 

unreceptive communities using the Influence Operations methodology. 

These engagements provided a wealth of influence “do’s and don’ts”

by identifying unique local community and Tausug cultural 

sensitivities. The culmination of this information allowed AFP and 

JSOTF-P teams to quickly capitalize on ASG mistakes, and ultimately 

undermine the hostile support systems. 

One of the first and most important challenges on Sulu was 

helping to restore the credibility of the AFP forces. With the 

cooperation of local community leaders, the combined efforts of 

JSOTF-P’s maneuver elements (Army Special Forces, Naval Special 

Warfare, PSYOP and Civil Affairs personnel, and their AFP 

counterparts) began a systematic effort to rebuild relations with the 

local population. These efforts eased residual tensions still simmering 

from hostilities in 2004 and 2005, when the AFP attempted unilateral 

conventional operations against the insurgents. The previous operations 

severely alienated the population to the point where many locals joined 

civil militias to actively resist AFP efforts. The U.S.-first approach was 

used only until the AFP’s trust among the locals was re-established, 

allowing a reversal of the AFP-U.S. roles. 

Initial operations on Sulu focused on building AFP tactical 

combat capacity, with PSYOP and civil affairs actions serving in more 

decentralized and supporting roles. This changed with JSOTF-P’s new 

shift to Sulu. Influence Operations became the principle LOO, with a 

primary emphasis on the message, messengers, and media, all of which 

 

64 Raul Pare, “Sulu Revolt Death Toll Climbs to 60,” Philippine STAR News, 

February 5, 2005, http://www.philstar.com/headlines/268370/sulu-revoltdeath-toll-climbs-60 (accessed May 15, 2014).
45

were tailored to specific audiences. AFP and JSOTF-P Influence 

Operations were setting the stage for more precise AFP combat actions. 

Coupled with civil-military engagements synchronized by Special 

Forces teams on the ground, AFP and JSOTF-P PSYOP forces 

amplified the reach of key communicators supportive of the AFP and 

U.S. presence. The AFP, accompanied by U.S. Special Forces and 

PSYOP teams, disseminated messages through an array of local and

wide-area messaging techniques and actions in an effort to affect the 

behavior and attitudes of the local population, disrupt the insurgents, 

and build local community support. JSOTF-P’s maneuver elements 

worked with the AFP to interpersonally engage with local villages and 

communities. Simultaneously, the influence narratives on the ground 

were reinforced by the PSYOP detachment using broader-reaching

media (such as radio, television, and text messaging) to create a 

massing effect of influence messages and actions/deeds throughout the 

JSOTF-P AOR. 

AFP and JSOTF-P forces engaged each community, from 

permissive to non-permissive, in a village-hopping type of campaign 

with great effect. Each of JSOTF-P’s core SOF capabilities alternated 

main effort roles based on the needs of the operation to ultimately 

influence non-permissive communities to become semi permissive, and 

semi-permissive to become permissive to AFP access and anti-ASG 

objectives. The general population’s attitude and perception began to 

positively shift from a hostile anti-AFP disposition to one that would 

support future AFP military operation against the ASG on Sulu. One by 

one, semi-hostile (and eventually hostile) villages began to change their 

opinions of the U.S. and the AFP. After a period of six months, a 180-

degree change in local attitudes and behavior was underway based on 

feedback from JSOTF-P’s maneuver elements on the ground.65 Villages 

known to support the ASG due to family or other ties began requesting 

similar civil-military medical and engineering activities that were 

 

65 “U.S. Troops Get Warm Welcome in Jolo,” Mindanao Examiner, 31 August 

2006, http://zamboangajournal.wordpress.com/2006/08/31/us-troops-getwarm-welcome-in-jolo/ (accessed 2 December 2014).
46

occurring on the periphery of their communities. Villages and 

municipalities within the AFP and JSOTF-P focus areas of operation 

began to shift their disposition from guarded and negative to a 

generally positive attitude toward U.S. forces and hesitantly accepting 

of the AFP’s engagement efforts. 

In August 2006 an ASG commander ordered an IED attack on 

the local Jolo City co-op, which was refusing to give into ASG 

extortion efforts. That attack became a catalyst in improving AFP 

relations with local residents and undercutting ASG support on the 

island. The attack on the Jolo co-op killed or wounded 12 people, all of 

whom were Philippine Muslims. Within minutes of the attack, AFP and 

U.S. forces were on the scene providing medical aid and security, and 

stabilizing the situation. The JSOTF-P PSYOP detachment rapidly 

developed products following the attack to amplify and spread local 

criticism of the ASG and share images of AFP Marines and U.S. forces 

running to aid the bombing victims. Additional PSYOP messages and 

products countered enemy propaganda blaming the AFP for the 

bombing, and demonized the ASG actions and their JI “puppeteers” as 

cowardly and self-serving. As a result, a potentially negative 

psychological action (PSYACT)66 against the AFP turned into a 

successful “influence counter-ambush” against the insurgents. 

Instrumental to this success was the unified AFP-U.S. relationship and 

response to the attack.67 AFP senior leaders, the U.S. country team, and 

the JSOTF-P commander credited the AFP-JSOTF-P response to the

bombing with helping to solidify changes in local attitudes and 

behavior against the ASG. As local key communicators began to call 

on their supporters to stop or resist supporting the insurgents, more and 

 

66PSYACT: “an action conducted by non-PSYOP personnel that is planned 

primarily to affect the behavior of a TA [target audience]." When PSYACTs 

are planned in support of an existing PSYOP program, the Army requires 

synchronous integration and execution of each PSYACT with PSYOP 

programs and themes to maximize effects. Army FM 3-05.30.

67 In this case, the message was the supporting effort to the actions taken by 

U.S. Special Forces and AFP Marines who immediately responded to the 

bombing.
47

more village and religious leaders began to openly speak out against the 

ASG and their JI associates.68

Following the Jolo co-op bombing, AFP and JSOTF-P 

Influence Operations increased in volume and momentum. AFP and 

U.S medical personnel visited an increasing number of villages and 

communities to conduct medical, dental, and veterinary civil action 

programs. Engineering civil action programs also renovated local 

school buildings, dug fresh-water wells into semi-permissive 

communities, and improved roads into semi- and non-permissive 

communities to improve access. These efforts served to further alienate 

hostile groups throughout the island and enabled rapid movement of 

AFP and JSOTF-P forces to respond to calls for aid from local villages 

resisting the ASG. As AFP and U.S. medical personnel visited an 

increasing number of local villages to conduct MEDCAPs, the clans 

and families associated with ASG leadership and front-line fighters 

began to try and slow the effects. During one particular MEDCAP, a 

neighboring ASG faction was preparing an IED attack against AFP and 

U.S. forces who were conducting the MEDCAP.69 When the local ASG 

commander whose family resided near the village heard of the planned 

attack, he immediately cancelled it. As reported by our AFP 

counterparts and community leaders, the ASG commander’s family and 

his soldiers’ families were participating in the MEDCAP and wanted 

no hostile interference with it. The local commander was reportedly 

concerned about the safety of his family, and that an attack would 

prevent future medical assistance visits.70 The trend of behavior and the 

positive measures of effectiveness toward the civil-military initiatives 

continued to grow. 

 

68 Simon Elegant, “Elevated Threat,” Time, 27 October 2003, 

http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,526545,00.html (accessed 

2 December 2014).

69 COL Linder, James, Weekly Operational Briefing to the U.S. Country 

Team, September 20, 2006.

70 Ibid.
48

Several weeks after the Jolo co-op bombing, preparations for a 

major AFP operation against ASG safe havens on Sulu began to 

coalesce. AFP and U.S. PSYOP, civil affairs, and SF teams began a 

new phase of Influence Operations, solidifying the populations’ 

positive disposition toward the AFP and U.S. A persistent challenge in 

engaging the ASG on Sulu was countering their ability to find 

sanctuary in the jungle and among sympathetic villages. The ASG and 

JI maintained logistical support architecture in Central Mindanao, and 

they were historically adept at using their maritime connections to 

escape by sea to and from Central Mindanao. While AFP and JSOTF-P 

forces began to set conditions on Sulu for the pending AFP Marines 

offensive, JSOTF-P began preparing adjacent operating areas to affect 

the ASG’s ability to withdraw or call upon their habitual local support. 

JSOTF-P’s Central Mindanao ODA and the strategic PSYOP team 

initiated an operation to further disrupt ASG and JI forces from leaving 

Sulu during the pending AFP Marine offensive. 

This effort began with increased dissemination of the “Rewards 

for Justice” messages and products through multiple dissemination 

mediums.71 The messages factually attributed past ASG-and JIorchestrated atrocities against Muslim Filipinos, called out extortion 

tactics, and sought local support in turning over ASG and JI leadership. 

Additionally, the PSYOP detachment surged disruption messaging 

using informal social networks, key communicator engagements, text 

messaging, print, and other activities to prevent the ASG from fleeing 

Sulu. The PSYOP wide-area multimedia campaign also reallocated TV 

and radio broadcasts into and around Sulu and across Central Mindanao 

in areas known to harbor JI and ASG. The multimedia surge further 

criminalized ASG and JI leaders by recounting past events into minithematic commercials that told the stories through the eyes of witnesses 

and victims. The campaign balanced the hard-hitting anti-ASG and 

rewards messages with “Mindanao Peace” themes supporting the 

 

71 U.S. State Department, “Rewards for Justice,” 

http://www.state.gov/m/ds/terrorism/c8651.htm. 
49

positive effects of resisting the “terrorists,” and “allowing good things 

to happen.”72

On Sulu, JSOTF-P maneuver elements and their AFP 

counterparts continued Influence Operations throughout the periphery 

of the AFP engagement areas to disrupt ASG’s and JI’s withdrawal 

routes to safe havens deeper inside the jungle. Simultaneously, the SF 

ODA in Central Mindanao and JSOTF-P’s strategic PSYOP team 

began a disruption effort against the ASG and their supporters to create 

the belief that the AFP and U.S. were positioned to capture ASG- JI 

leadership if they tried to flee Sulu to their previous Mindanao safe 

havens. Together, our SF and PSYOP teams and AFP counterparts in 

Central Mindanao initiated an influence campaign in and around 

previous ASG safe havens and sympathizer enclaves to demonstrate an 

increased and active AFP-U.S. presence. This effort was synchronized 

with increased PSYOP rewards and media campaign message 

dissemination. Similarly, AFP and U.S. Naval Special Warfare 

elements further reinforced the influence effort to disrupt ASG-JI 

escape plans by cordoning off select maritime areas between Sulu and 

traditional transit routes into Central Mindanao.73

By increasing uncharacteristic AFP and U.S. military activity 

in Central Mindanao, querying local key communicators and sources 

for information by AFP and SF ODA elements, and increasing PSYOP 

dissemination of TV, radio, and face-to-face influence messages, the 

joint and combined efforts of Special Forces and PSYOP made ASG 

and JI relocation plans to Mindanao seem untenable. Intelligence later 

reported that ASG and JI leadership were informed by their own people 

not to flee to Central Mindanao because the AFP and U.S. were 

 

72 Magnuson, Stew, “U.S. Special Forces Target Hearts and Minds,” National 

Defense, February 1, 2008, 

http://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/archive/2008/February/Pages/U2357

.S2357.Special2357.aspx (accessed May 15, 2014).

73 As cited in unclassified reports authored by MAJ Thomas Scanzillo, 

Commander ODA-1116.
50

expecting them. In the end, ASG senior leaders did not attempt to flee 

to neighboring islands or Central Mindanao for fear of being captured. 

With the conclusion of the AFP’s offensive, the ASG remained 

pressured and increasingly isolated as AFP and U.S. forces rapidly 

expanded Influence Operations into the former ASG-dominated areas 

on Sulu. During AFP combat operations on Sulu, villages that actively 

resisted the AFP just 12 months earlier either stayed out of the fight or 

actively provided information for the AFP’s assault against ASG 

enclaves. Villages outside the combat area refused to support the ASG, 

reported ASG movement, and resisted calls from the ASG and their 

local allies to actively fight the AFP. This served to further disrupt

ASG withdrawal routes and was a 180-degree change in local attitudes 

since the AFP’s prior offensive actions on Sulu in 2004 and 2005. 

Within days of the assault on ASG camps in Sulu, the AFP overran 

several ASG strongholds, forcing them deeper into Sulu’s mountainous 

jungle interior and further away from their deteriorating support from 

the population. 

Similarly, as a result of the disruption messaging and increased 

AFP pressure in Central Mindanao, the foreign JI cells became isolated 

within Central Mindanao’s Butig Mountains. The multi-faceted 

approach to setting conditions for selective operations against the ASG 

on Sulu through comprehensive Influence Operations paid off. These 

efforts would be duplicated over the next four years to address other 

insurgent activities in Eastern Sulu, Basilan, and again in Central 

Mindanao. The synchronized and deliberate approach to message, 

messenger, and medium applied by the AFP and JSOTF-P increasingly 

improved their access and acceptance as operations expanded to other 

islands and provinces. Word spread quickly about the positive changes 

on Sulu into neighboring regions, with AFP and JSOTF-P civil-military 

support increasingly requested and welcomed into communities that 

previously resisted AFP access.

C. After Sulu: Shoring Up Basilan and Zamboanga 

Nearly a year after the Sulu offensive, different and more 

aggressive examples of successful Influence Operations took place on 
51

the Island of Basilan and in the provincial capital of Zamboanga. In 

2007, brothers Omar Sailani and Iting Sailani, two notorious mid-level 

ASG leaders, responded to AFP successes by planning a coordinated 

IED attack against an AFP regional headquarters that also housed many 

JSOTF-P personnel. As reports of the brothers’ plans and whereabouts

in the area began to accumulate, the stage was set for Influence 

Operations to play a pivotal role in disrupting and deterring their ability 

to operate from traditional safe havens.74 Unbeknownst to the Sailani 

brothers, several weeks earlier one of their critical vulnerabilities had 

come to light, and it would ultimately lead to their downfall. 

The Sailani brothers were native to the island of Basilan, and 

routinely returned there. Two weeks prior to their planned attack on the 

AFP base, a U.S. PSYOP team, Marine Special Operations force, and

civil affairs team executed a series of civil-military and security 

assistance events with their AFP counterparts on the island of Basilan 

near the Sailani brothers’ home village. The village was only a few 

miles from the AFP-U.S. medical outreach event, and the Sailanis’

home village inhabitants were in attendance. Novelty items and 

information handouts were given to attendees during the event as part 

of the PSYOP mission. The handouts included information on the 

brothers’ links to past ASG attacks and identified a reward for 

information leading to their capture. While AFP and U.S. PSYOP 

soldiers mingled and casually engaged attendees in conversation or 

translated for other U.S. forces supporting the event, two locals 

Filipinos approached asking about the rewards program. After several 

minutes of conversation, the two men specifically asked about the 

reward for the Sailani brothers. The ability of the U.S. team to speak 

local dialects and reassure the men that the rewards program was a 

legitimate U.S.-sponsored program solidified their willingness to work 

with the AFP Marines in providing information on the Sailani brothers’

 

74 The summary of events is unclassified and posted in mission report archives 

at US SOCPAC and JSOTF-P.
52

known local safe houses.75 This information would later prove vital in 

closing the net around the Sailani brothers as they fled back to Basilan. 

As the timeframe for the ASG attack against the AFP 

headquarters drew closer, U.S. and AFP sources confirmed the Sailani 

brothers were present somewhere within the Muslim neighborhoods of 

the city. The brothers were allegedly planning a combined vehicle and 

personnel infiltration attack against the AFP base that bordered several 

Muslim neighborhoods. Reports of an IED supply shipment and 

stockpile into the city mounted, making an attack appear increasingly 

imminent within the next 48 to 72 hours.

The PSYOP detachment initiated a plan to disrupt the attack. In 

coordination with AFP PSYOP and intelligence personnel, local police 

forces, and their contacts, more than 75,000 rewards and other 

disruption messages and products that targeted the Sailani brothers

were disseminated throughout select Muslim neighborhoods in the city 

of Zamboanga. The JSOTF’s PSYOP detachment developed and 

produced the Sailani products for the AFP operation, and further 

reinforced it with wide-area messaging through text messages and radio 

commercials. As the JSOTF-P PSYOP detachment’s AFP counterparts 

and contacts began to circulate within the Muslim neighborhoods, they 

were reinforced with text messages written in local dialects citing past 

atrocities of the Sailani brothers and reward values for their capture. 

The AFP also spread the word the two brothers were suspects linked to 

the highly publicized Jolo co-op bombing the year prior, further 

alienating the brothers from the local Muslim communities. Within 48 

hours of the AFP’s and JSOTF-P’s influence efforts, intelligence 

reports indicated a shift in ASG plans. The attack was reportedly 

delayed or canceled, and the Sailani brothers were confirmed as having 

left the city for the island of Basilan less than 10 miles away. 

 

75 Unfortunately, trust in the Philippine government and perceptions of 

government corruption continues to affect AFP operations. Transparency 

International, “Global Corruption Barometer,” Global Coalition against 

Corruption, 2009, http://www.state.gov/m/ds/terrorism/c8651.htm. 
53

The Sailani brothers’ luck then ran out. The locals who 

recognized them on the “Wanted” handouts from the Basilan MEDCAP 

earlier in the month contacted AFP Marine and U.S. PSYOP personnel 

with information on their return. The men and other locals provided 

vital information leading to a successful AFP operation against the two 

ASG leaders. The AFP, supported by local village militia, executed a 

nighttime raid on the Sailani brothers’ safe house. After firing on AFP 

forces that were attempting to arrest them, both brothers were killed, 

removing them from the ranks of ASG leadership. 76

IV. Alternating Effort to Maximize Influence 

Effects

These three vignettes of JSOTF-P Influence Operations provide 

a brief summary of the thousands of hours and hundreds of Filipino and 

American civilian and military personnel working to counter the 

insurgency in the southern Philippines. The operational examples 

identify several of the methods SOF applies within Influence 

Operations to affect terrorist and insurgent networks in special warfare 

environments. The exploitation of critical nodes and vulnerabilities 

directly led to the disruption and degradation of insurgent aggression. 

JSOTF-P, alongside the AFP, applied successful influence methods to 

prevent a repeat of a population uprising against the AFP and the 

Philippine government. SOF’s Special Forces, PSYOP, NSW, 

MARSOC, and civil affairs maneuver elements, including intelligence 

and other enablers, combined to shape the human domain against 

insurgent activity. As a result, the terrorists’ own families shifted 

dispositions, resulting in a loss of ASG cohesion.

 

76 Al Jacinto, “Two Alleged Assassins Slain in Philippine Raid,” Arab News, 

22 June 2007, http://www.arabnews.com/node/299964 (accessed 2 December 

2014). 
54

JSOTF-P improved the security environment by enhancing 

AFP military training and capabilities while facilitating offensive 

operations against insurgent targets. The effects, activities, and actions 

of joint special operations forces, supported by U.S. Navy and Air 

Force conventional elements, serves as an example of how SOF 

Influence Operations can successfully affect the human domain to 

mobilize against insurgent and terrorist elements that operate within

indigenous populations and exploit them. As proven in previous 

conflicts, the impact of living and operating with host-nation 

counterparts as military advisors, conducting operational support, 

intelligence support, and other support actions, is immeasurable. The 

combined efforts of both the U.S. and the AFP played a pivotal role in 

changing the socio-cultural environment, which in turn subverted ASG 

and JI support and freedom of maneuver.

Focusing on the conflict’s decisive points—population support 

mechanisms and the human domain—and subverting the insurgents’ 

ability to solicit and coerce support from the population proved the 

most effective and enduring means of attacking terrorist and insurgent 

critical vulnerabilities. Influencing the human domain increases 

favorable operating conditions for both U.S. and responsible hostnation forces. Conventionally trained forces are typically used in 

displays of force, brinksmanship, and large-scale combat actions. 

Because of these traditional missions, most national-level militaries are 

not readily aligned and trained to apply unconventional and irregular 

methods to defeat subnational groups and nonstate actors. Highly

specialized and regionally expert U.S. Special Operations Forces 

invested years in developing the operational and social environments 

within the conflicted areas of the southern Philippines. Those 

investments resulted in significant gains in countering and reversing 

ASG and JI momentum. 

The disposition of the population, the human domain, in a 

contested or adversary-controlled region is the center of gravity in 

irregular conflicts. Presented with the appropriate incentives, 

opportunities for trust, dedicated security, and livelihood alternatives, 

the populace will often make sufficient choices that will adversely 
55

impact terrorists and insurgent forces. Likewise, the population’s 

choice against terrorist and insurgent forces empowers the host nation 

to regain the support that was previously at risk.

Other key factors that emerge from these vignettes include the 

following: 

 There is no substitute for building trust and legitimacy with

host-nation forces. This requires patience, respect, and a continued 

presence—living, eating, and operating with your counterparts for 

prolonged periods. The operating environment in JSOTF-P 

permitted this approach and remains one of the most significant 

variables in current and future irregular and unconventional 

conflicts.

 Sustaining influence messages with supporting deeds and 

synchronizing Influence Operations with our counterparts was 

vital. Continuity of effort coupled with continuity of personnel 

were key enabling factors. 

 The synchronized and deliberate approach to message, 

messenger, and medium applied by the AFP and JSOTF-P 

maneuver forces increasingly improved access and acceptance as 

operations expanded to other islands and provinces. Success built 

on success, and momentum did not falter. Persistent, sustained 

presence and strategy was vital.

 The ability of U.S. Special Forces and PSYOP operators to 

speak local dialects established rapport and legitimacy, and 

provided immediate unfiltered feedback on initiatives. 

 The legitimacy and trustworthiness of U.S. forces helped to 

build the legitimacy and trustworthiness of AFP forces and build

confidence that the AFP was willing to deliver on their promises. 

The AFP’s ability to assume the lead and maintain the influence 

temp was critical to long-term success.

V. The Future of Influence Operations

Recalling that Influence Operations should be the predominant 

focus in counterinsurgency, unconventional warfare, and irregular 
56

warfare environments, some would argue that Influence Operations are 

a supporting effort to conventional stability operations. This may be 

true if the operational goal is to accomplish a quick kinetic defeat and 

withdraw U.S. efforts from the region. However, given the increasingly 

irregular character of contemporary warfare, the ability of the U.S. to 

limit itself to short-duration conflict in the near future is unlikely. It is 

more likely that the United States will continue to engage in protracted 

conflicts in underdeveloped countries, thereby necessitating continued 

proficiency in unconventional and irregular operations. The 

conventional mindset of destroying the enemy without addressing the 

effects on the population contradicts the idea of long-term stability, as 

both the destruction from combat and the suppression of any segments 

of the population will surely lead to further discontent.77 This mindset 

assumes that destruction of the enemy is accomplished quickly in a

kinetic manner and oversight of the population is necessary through the 

presence of a superior security force for a limited period. One need 

only look to events in Iraq, Georgia, and the Ukraine as examples. 

However, the unconventional mindset of influencing the population to 

enable you to destroy the enemy establishes a basis for building a 

durable and attainable environment of local and regional stability and is 

also applicable within a larger conventional conflict.78

The conventional mindset of stability operations focuses on 

“controlling” the population by providing basic human needs and a 

democratic government, thereby giving the population an alternative to 

supporting the insurgency. This is a flawed assumption, as basic human 

needs and the definition of democracy and responsible governance 

varies drastically throughout the world. Classic stability operations also 

do not take into account the ambiguity and requisite decades-long 

duration of the operation. Too often unrealistic time-driven benchmarks 

are set for neutralizing the adversary, establishing security, and handing 

 

77 Gordon H. McCormick, Steven B. Horton, and Lauren A. Harrison, “Things 

Fall Apart: The Endgame Dynamics of Internal Wars.” Third World Quarterly 

28 no. 2 (March 2007): 321-367.

78 Ibid.
57

the mission over to a host nation that has not yet developed the capacity 

to maintain it. Trying to “kill all the terrorists” (a common 

parochialism) will only serve to create more insurgents and prolong 

hostilities. Adversaries are increasingly politically and ideologically 

driven, socially embedded, and capable of affecting local populations 

for recruitment and other resources.79 Doctrinally, stability operations 

seek to produce long-term results and require thorough joint and 

interagency cooperation, but do not necessarily require or incorporate 

cultural understanding.

Understanding the human domain and stakeholder interests is 

essential to both sides of a conflict. In the affected nation, the relevant 

population will generally choose the side that provides them with the 

greatest stability. For the executors of special warfare operations, 

requisite degrees of cultural understanding, professional maturity, and 

patience are inextricably linked to the degree and speed of success. It is 

incumbent on the executing forces to influence the relevant population 

to align themselves with their responsible, representative, and 

legitimate government. There is no manual or all-encompassing model 

that serves as a lock-step method for success. As with any operation, 

the commander synchronizing Influence Operations is responsible for 

providing clarity on the employment method for his forces. The most 

critical guidance addresses when kinetic or non-kinetic missions 

assume the lead role in operations, as well as when and which core 

capability assumes the main effort and key supporting-effort 

responsibilities. In irregular conflicts, the influence LOO is the 

underlying approach that enables the command’s overall effort to 

achieve long-term stability. The main effort will most likely be aligning 

the population through effective messages and activities, as well as 

building the host nation’s capacity to operate effectively in an 

autonomous role. 

 

79 Alexander Simmons, “Socially Embedded Insurgencies,” M.S. thesis, 

Defense Analysis Department, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA, 

2009.
58

A. Preparing SOF as the Executors of Influence Operations

The most effective way to prepare any force to operate in an 

ambiguous environment is to conduct realistic and adaptive training.

This allows leaders to plan and train for the most likely contingencies, 

rather than attempting to broadly apply conventional training to all 

scenarios. Theater security cooperation plan events provide excellent 

opportunities to train with host-nation partners and exchange lessons 

learned from several theaters before a crisis occurs. Additionally, these

events provide a venue for building strong relationships between 

partner-nation militaries and conducting influence area assessments to 

support future operations. Units that are regionally specialized must 

incorporate and maintain proficiency in regional culture and language 

training. Understanding that it is not possible to prepare for every crisis 

(i.e., learning all cultures and languages), all SOF units must direct 

some focus on working through interpreters, understanding 

insurgencies and counterinsurgency operations, understanding civil 

infrastructure, and appreciating the multiple roles and responsibilities 

within Influence Operations and special warfare. Establishing baseline 

proficiency leads to productive relationships with the host nation and 

fellow Special Operations forces.

An essential facet of adaptation is cultural expertise. Cultural 

awareness and willingness to engage in strange and unfamiliar 

situations are critical to gaining credibility and trust, and therefore to 

achieving and maintaining legitimacy. Major General (Ret.) Robert 

Scales, Jr. notes that “every young soldier should receive cultural and 

language instruction, not to make every soldier a linguist but to make 

every soldier a diplomat with enough sensitivity and linguistic skills to 

understand and converse with the indigenous citizen on the street.”80

SOF soldiers receive rigorous interactive cultural and language 

 

80 Robert H. Scales Jr., “Culture-Centric Warfare,” Naval Institute 

Proceedings October 2004, 

http://www.military.com/Content/MoreContent1?file=NI_1004_Culture-P1

(accessed 4 December 2014). 
59

instruction as a matter of baseline training. These are core skills for 

SOF organizational mission sets, specifically FID, COIN, and UW. 

However, while a solid understanding of (and appreciation for) 

indigenous language and culture provides a collective knowledge base, 

a significant amount of planning, analysis, and synchronization is 

required to achieve influence superiority.

Leaders must assess long-range and emerging threats and 

develop adaptive flexible policies to account for the uniqueness of each 

area of operation (down to the neighborhood level), to include 

intelligence and information sharing. While Moore’s Law dictates that 

technology will change, basic human nature will not.81 There will 

always be a need to revert to the most basic of tactics, techniques, and 

procedures in order to support and develop capacity in countries that 

have scarce resources. Overreliance on technology in an attempt to 

offset a lack of understanding toward the AOR’s human domain will 

only result in failure. Technology should serve primarily to augment 

sound operating principles, enhance tactical advantages, and exploit the 

adversary’s seams and gaps. Intelligence focused on the human domain 

is paramount. Intelligence professionals must adapt to the dynamic 

nature of Influence Operations and develop a firm foundation in the 

basics so they can become “adaptive soldiers” that provide the most 

relevant intelligence analysis and subject matter expertise to their 

host.82

Influence Operations require a deliberate focus to fuse SOF’s 

distinctive core competencies. Although the term influence is 

frequently used in contemporary policy and plans, its scope and 

relevance are rarely encapsulated and incorporated. A commonly 

accepted doctrine will assist in categorizing operations, providing 

commanders and staffs with planning direction, and establishing 

 

81 “Moore’s Law is a computing term which originated around 1970; the 

simplified version of this law states that processor speeds, or overall 

processing power for computers will double every two years.” 

http://www.mooreslaw.org/

82 Personal communication with MAJ Matthew Worsham, 2011.
60

realistic training requirements based on a common understanding of the 

mission scope. Incorporating Influence Operations into U.S. Army 

Special Warfare and joint doctrine will facilitate institutional 

understanding and combine the expertise of SOF’s distinctive core 

competencies to achieve a common objective. Operating as a synergetic 

force that adapts and cycles the main and supporting efforts to mission 

requirements is necessary for conducting Influence Operations 

effectively and efficiently in the application of special warfare.

B. Conclusion

As noted in the introduction, as the irregular warfare landscape 

continues to evolve, so the demand for using an Influence Operations 

approach continues to expand. In addition to countering and defeating 

an insurgency and terrorist threat, influence operations are equally 

applicable against hostile host-nation states that sponsor insurgencies, 

terrorist groups, and/or oppress and manipulate their own population. 

These methods are adaptable with a variety of options for U.S. forces in 

or around the area of operations to affect an insurgency or hostile 

nation state through their own populations. This approach can help 

disrupt the ability of the hostile state, insurgents, and terrorists to 

oppress a population, threaten regional stability, and endanger U.S. 

national interests. There are exploitable vulnerabilities and advantages 

for us to use Influence Operations to affect a hostile nation state from 

within when that nation is itself an oppressive and subversive regime. 

Moreover, when the hostile state is engaging in irregular warfare by 

sponsoring insurgencies within its regional neighbors, our Influence 

Operation advantages grow exponentially. 

Long-term success is ultimately dependent on coordinated 

strategic efforts to solidify the gains made by operators on the ground.

If the strategic focus is not fully aligned with the tactical and 

operational conditions, successes within target populations will be 

short-lived. Influence Operations are key components of special 

warfare, but they require the strategic endurance to achieve long-term 

strategic objectives. This is essential to solidify accomplishments on 

the ground and not undermine operations. Statements and actions that 
61

facilitate a perception of indecisiveness or lack of dedication, such as 

withdraw dates, force constraints, rules of engagement exposures, and 

so on, undermine the credibility and influence capabilities of the 

operators working in support of national objectives. The 

synchronization of tactical, operational, and strategic endeavors will 

reduce operational costs for logistical support, infrastructure 

investment, and lives lost. When initiated in the early stages of an 

insurgency or budding conflict, dedicated Influence Operations can 

aggressively and proactively shape the operational environment and 

prevent the situation from escalating into a prolonged, costly, and 

controversial conflict.

Consistency in Influence Operations is essential. It begins with 

how our influence messages and deeds are developed, planned, 

interwoven, and employed for specific target audiences to achieve an 

overarching desired effect or outcome. In our experience, Influence 

Operations were most successful when they were able to balance the 

need to defeat the insurgents’ ability to grow, undermined their ability

to sustain their activities, and increased the degree of trust between 

local populations and government/military representatives. To be sure, 

this is a challenge, but Influence Operations are a continuous endeavor 

with not only constant incursions by hostile actors but also daily events 

within the population that can counter those stories or distract the 

audience. Maintaining, competing, responding, reinforcing, or 

countering competing efforts is the norm and requires an adaptive and 

dynamic core of operators and resources to be successful. 

Some of our key measures of effectiveness were unique: 

 unsolicited reporting of armed group activities;

 expanding access into previously non-permissive communities;

 attempts to destroy influence signs and poster products;

 armed groups reluctance to attack MEDCAPs;

 children trading comic book pages;

 threats to radio and TV stations broadcasting commercials.

These unique measures of effectiveness were reinforced by 

more traditional measures such as tips called in from previously silent 

populations, local militias providing support for government forces, 
62

and high-value targets captured or killed. The net result over this period 

of time was also tangible: multiple lines of operation curtailed the 

ability of the most-wanted leadership of various armed groups to evade 

detection, and new access to previously closed communities help to 

undermine the ability of armed groups to subvert local communities 

and the national government.83

Influence Operations are not a new form of operations. Key 

elements that resulted in success link directly back to the very roots of 

Special Operations core skill sets: language skills that allow trust to 

develop; patient and persistent presence that allow relationships to be 

formed and nurtured; tailoring messages to the nuances of a 

microculture; attention to detail and to local sensitivities; continuous 

adaptability; and the willingness to include nontraditional groups, 

perspectives, and approaches to solve a problem in a dynamic 

environment.

All operations have an inherent influence effect. Influence 

Operations are deliberate and synergistically focused efforts that are 

interwoven across a command’s other lines of operation. They are 

applied using an overall theme to influence a target group for the 

purpose of accomplishing political, military, and/or regional goals.

Understanding the culture, constantly engaging in capacity-building 

activities with the population, and enabling the host-nation government 

to become independently effective are critical to long-term regional 

success. Regardless of the environment, the success of any Influence 

Operation hinges on the ability to favorably affect the human domain 

and adequately eliminate active and tacit population support to the 

enemy. 

 

83 JSOTF-P PSYOP Operational Detachment Activities (U), August 2006. 

These efforts complemented an increase in maritime interdiction operations by 

AFP and U.S. NSW forces, Army Special Forces initiatives with the AFP, and 

increased fixed and rotary wing intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance 

activities.
63

Teaching Questions

Influence Operations

1. How do Influence Operations differ from stability operations? 

2. What SOF attributes and skill sets—core competencies—

support the conduct of Influence Operations? 

3. The authors argue: “Synergy between all partners is a must for 

effective Influence Operations.” If this is NOT maintained, what 

could then be the result? 

4. What strategies can be used to disseminate key Influence 

Operations themes and messages to their target audiences? What 

are some of the measures of success?

5. Why is capacity building an integral part of Influence 

Operations? 

Human Domain

1. Which groups and individuals should we focus on when 

thinking about Influence Operations activities? Why? What does 

this suggest about how and where to direct development, 

infrastructure, and education resources?

2. Trust is an essential element in successful Influence 

Operations. In conflict zones, what effective initiatives can rebuild 

trust with the local populace? What can undermine that trust? How 

can setbacks be addressed?

3. In conducting Influence Operations, what are the most critical 

activities to focus on in order to achieve long-term regional 

stability and denial of insurgent safe havens? Who should take the 

lead in conducting these activities? Why?

4. What insurgent vulnerabilities or centers of gravity are most 

important to focus on? Why? How did this alter the strategy of 

armed groups in this case study? What measures of progress are 

useful to determine which strategies are successful? 
64

Application of Influence Operations by Adversaries

1. Do our adversaries—state actors or armed groups—conduct

Influence Operations? If so, what can we learn from them?

2. What can we learn from how armed groups such as Hezbollah

or the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) use influence 

operations? 

3. Are these operations considered successful by these groups? If 

so, what accounts for their success?

4. How have armed groups used psychological warfare in their

Influence Operations? 

5. How do armed groups combine kinetic and non-kinetic 

activities to achieve operational and strategic goals?

6. What can we learn from the failures of their Influence 

Operations?
65

Appendix A: Threat Groups in the Philippines

The Abu Sayyaf Group84 (Arabic for “Bearer of the Sword,” or

ASG, formerly known as Al-Harakatul al-Islamiya85), most notoriously 

known for brutal kidnappings, beheadings, bombings, assassinations 

and extortion was founded by Abdurajak Janjalani, after the ASG split 

from the Moro National Liberation Front in 1991.86 The Philippine 

National Police killed Janjalani, the first leader of ASG, in 1998. Their 

professed ideology is to establish an independent theocratic Islamic 

state in Mindanao87, though the group has consistently demonstrated 

“no willingness to negotiate a political settlement.”88 While this may 

have been the driving focus under Janjalani, a seasoned mujahidin

fighter who fought in Afghanistan during the Soviet occupation, the 

current remnants of the group primarily engage in criminal actions and 

terrorism to discredit the government and fund their cause. ASG 

leadership and ranks have suffered great losses in the past few years at 

the hands of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP), but still share 

some collective goals with other violent extremist organizations like 

Jema’ah Islamiy’ah.

 

84 For a detailed history of the Abu Sayyaf Group, see Seeds of Terror, by 

Maria Ressa, and Militant Islam in Southeast Asia: Crucible of Terror, by 

Zachary Abuza.

85 Zachary Abuza, “Balik Islam: The Return of Abu Sayyaf” (information 

paper, Carlisle, PA: U. S. Army War College, Strategic Studies Institute), 2.

86 Lito Dimabildo, Southern Philippine Secessionist Groups (Fort Andres 

Bonifacio, Republic of the Philippines: HQ, Intelligence and Security Group, 

PA, 2004), 86.

87 Ibid, 98.

88 Zachary Abuza, Militant Islam in Southeast Asia: Crucible of Terror

(Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., 2003), 207.
66

Jema’ah Islamiy’ah89 (“Islamic Community,” or JI) is a jihadi 

Islamist Southeast Asian terrorist network, based in Indonesia and 

established by Abdullah Sungkar and Abu Bakar Ba’asyir in 1993 

when they broke from Darul Islam.90 While JI remains independent 

from al-Qaeda, it has strong affiliations as JI is led by mujahidin91 who 

have served in Afghanistan and Pakistan.92 JI has suffered severe losses 

of their leadership and recruiting freedom of movement due to 

increased pressure from Indonesian and Philippine Security Forces. 

However, their goal of establishing a sovereign Muslim state continues 

to unite them (internally and with elements of the Moro Islamic 

Liberation Front), and serves as a catalyst when recruiting from the 

Southern Philippines, Sabah (Malaysia) and other remote areas of 

Southeast Asia.

The Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF)93 is a belligerent 

organization in the Southern Philippines that also seeks to establish an 

independent Islamic state. The MILF broke away from the Moro 

National Liberation Front94 (MNLF, the current political party that 

administrates the Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao [ARMM]) 

citing ideological differences. The group continues to engage in antigovernment rhetoric and violent acts, while recruiting from Mindanao 

to bolster its considerable ranks. 

 

89 For a detailed history of Jema’ah Islamiy’ah, see Jema’ah Islamiy’ah: 

Radical Islamism in Indonesia, by Greg Barton, and Militant Islam in 

Southeast Asia: Crucible of Terror, by Zachary Abuza.

90 Greg Barton, Jema’ah Islamiy’ah: Radical Islamism in Indonesia (Sydney, 

Australia: UNSW Press, 2004), 113.

91 Mujahidin are Muslim fighters, or those engaged in jihad (holy 

struggle)(Barton, 115).

92 Barton, 113.

93 For a detailed history of the MILF, see Under the Crescent Moon: Rebellion 

in Mindanao, by Marites Danguilan Vitug and Glenda M. Gloria.

94 Dimabildo, 57.
67

Balik Islam95 (Tagalog for “Return to Islam”) is a countrywide 

underground movement to convert Christians to Islam, on the 

questionable basis that all Filipinos were originally Muslim before the 

Catholic Spanish colonized the Philippines. The movement is generally 

peaceful, though the ASG and MILF have capitalized on the beliefs of 

some of these new members and conducted successful recruiting. 

Converts to Balik Islam played roles in every major or attempted attack 

in 2005.96

Kidnap for Ransom Gangs (KFRG) are prevalent in the 

southern Philippines, and often affiliate themselves with the MILF or 

ASG (though either rarely recognizes them). The ASG has historically 

used some of these gangs for their area expertise, human contacts, 

logistical support and navigational skills through terrain unfamiliar to 

the ASG.97

Other: There are many other smaller Islamist groups that 

contribute to the overall threat to stability in the Philippines, like the 

Misuari Breakaway Group (MBG) and Rajah Solaiman Movement 

(RSM). The New People’s Army (NPA) is not Islamist at all, but rather

the militant wing of the Communist Peoples’ Party of the Philippines. 

Also known as the Communist Terrorist Movement, their goals are 

entirely different but many of their methods (i.e. delegitimizing the 

government, recruiting from the population, etc.) similarly contribute to 

regional instability.98 As stated by the Philippine Government on 

 

95 For more on the Balik Islam movement, see “Balik Islam: The Return of the 

Abu Sayyaf,” by Zachary Abuza.

96 Abuza, “Balik Islam,” ix.

97 The authors refer to the 2005 example of ASG’s Isnilon Hapilon’s group 

attempting to move through the Daguma Mountain Range on Mindanao by 

using the Abu Suffia KFRG for food and shelter and as guides. The Abu 

Suffia gang has since been eliminated by Philippine Security Forces.

98 The NPA represents one of the greatest threats to the Philippine government 

due to their strong organization, numbers, recruiting, and offensive capability. 
68

countless occasions throughout past decades, the NPA represents one 

of the greatest threats to internal security in the Philippines since its 

establishment in 1969.

 

It is one of the few organizations that are capable of physically attacking (to 

some degree) the financial and political epicenter in Manila.
69

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