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Siachen Science Center: A Concept for 

Cooperation at the Top of the World 

Principal Member of the Technical Staff, 

Cooperative Monitoring Center, 

* COOPERATIVE MONITORING CENTER 
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SAND 98-050512 

uc-900 

March 1998 

Siachen Science Center: 

A Concept for Cooperation 

at the Top of the World 

Kent L. Biringer 

Principal Member of the Technical Staff, 

Cooperative Monitoring Center, 

Sandia National Laboratories 

Cooperative Monitoring Center Occasional Paper/2 

@ Sandia National laboratories 

Sandia is a multiprogram laboratory operated 

by Sandia Corporation, a Lockheed Martin 

Company, for the United States Department of 

Energy under contract DE-AC04-94AL85000. 
Siachen Science Center: 

The Cooperative Monitoring Center (CMC) at Sandia National Laboratories assists political and 

technical experts from around the world to acquire the technology-based tools they need to 

assess, design, analyze and implement nonproliferation, arms control and other cooperative 

security measures. As part of its mission, the CMC sponsors research on cooperative security 

and the role of technology. Reports of that work are provided through the Occasional Papers 

series. Research is conducted by Sandia staff as well as visiting scholars. The CMC visiting 

scholars program is administered by the Institute for Public Policy at the University of New 

Mexico. For additional information on the programs of the CMC, visit the CMC home page on 

the World Wide Web at <http://www.cmc.sandia.gov> or write to: 

Cooperative Monitoring Center 

Sandia National Laboratories 

Mail Stop 1373 

Albuquerque, NM 87185-1373 

For specific information on this report contact: 

Kent L. Biringer at the above address. 

This report was prepared by Sandia National Laboratories 

Albuquerque, NM 87185 and Livermore, CA 94550 

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A Concept for Cooperation at fhe Top of the World 

Siachen Science Center: 

A Concept for Cooperation at the Top of the World 

Abstract 

India and Pakistan have engaged in a long-running military dispute in the Siachen Glacier 

region of northern Kashmir since 1984. In recent years, several unsuccessful attempts 

have been made to end the conflict. Despite continuing hostilities, there remains a strong 

interest in resolving the dispute and eliminating the human and financial costs associated 

with maintaining troops on the highest battlefield in the world. One resolution to the 

problem could be the establishment of a scientific research center in the region. 

The military forces in the region would be replaced with scientists and engineers from 

both countries who would advance knowledge in science and engineering by operating a 

high-altitude research station for the study of basic sciences, engineering, and human 

physiology. The high altitude, remote location, and unique geology would provide an 

unprecedented opportunity for ground-breaking research. The paper discusses options for 

such research and precedents, such as the Antarctic Treaty, for research in other hostile 

environments. 

5 
Siachen Science Center. 

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A Concept for Cooperation at the Top of the World 

Contents 

1. BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................ . .............. ...... ....... 9 

2. THE SCIENCE CENTER CONCEPT .................................................................................................. 11 

3. SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL RESEARCH ...................................................................... 12 

4. PRECEDENTS FOR COOPERATION ................................................................................................ 14 

4.2 THE ANTARCTIC PRECEDENT ................................................................................................................ 

4.1 PRECEDENT OF ARCTIC RESEARCH ........................................................................................................ 

5. CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................................................................... 16 

APPENDIX-THE ANTARCTIC TREATY AND ITS APPLICATION TO SIACHEN ....................... 17 

Figures 

Figure 1. Composite Satellite Image of Siachen Glacier Region ...... . . .. .. .. . .. . ...... .. .. . , ... .. .... 9 

Figure 2. Military Troops are Deployed at Extreme Elevations ....................................... 10 

Figure 3. Example Field Research Station in Antarctica ................................................. 1 1 

Figure 4. Experiments in Glacial Ice .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 

Figure 5. Deploying a Remote Monitoring System .......................................................... 13 

Figure 6. NOAA Weather Satellite Image of Antarctica using Advanced Very High 

Resolution Radiometer ....... .. ... .. . .. .. .. ..,. . .... .. .. . . .. . . .. ... ... .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . ... .. . .. .. . . .. . ... .. ... ... .. . . .15 

Figure 7. Antarctic Territorial Claims ..... .. ... . .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. . ... .... ..... .. .. .. .. . . . . .. .. . ... . .. . .. .. .. .. ... ... .19 

7 
Siachen Science Center: 

Acronyms 

ATP Advanced Telescope Project 

CMC Cooperative Monitoring Center 

LOC Line of Control 

NOAA 

SPIREX South Pole Infrared Explorer 

National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration 

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A Concept for Cooperation at the Top of the World 

Siachen Science Center: 

A Concept for Cooperation at the Top of the World 

1. Background 

As India and Pakistan each celebrate their 50th year of independence, there is optimism 

that a new era of cooperation may be emerging. During the 50 years since the partition of 

these countries, the region has been plagued by conflict. Three major wars have been 

fought between India and Pakistan over that period and one war was fought between 

China and India. After the first IndidPakistan war in 1948, the princely state of Kashmir 

was divided under terms of the Karachi agreement. India and Pakistan defined a ceasefire line for most, but not all, of the disputed region. Once the cease-fire line reached a 

particular point high in the Karakoram Mountains, referred to by its map coordinates as 

NJ 9842, the agreement specified an extension of the cease-fire line “thence north to the 

glaciers.” One of the primary features in that region is the Siachen Glacier, the longest in 

the Himalayas. Pakistan interpreted the line to proceed northeastward to the Karakoram 

Pass on the Chinese border. The Indians interpreted it to go along the Saltoro Range and 

Siachen Glacier northwest to the Chinese border. (See Figure 1.) 

Figure 1. Composite Satellite Image of Siachen Glacier Region 

(Image processing by Earth Data Analysis Center. Ilniversiw of New Mexico) 

9 
Siachen Science Center 

With only slight adjustments in the cease-fire line after subsequent wars, the division of 

Kashmir has continued. However, in 1984, in response to perceived Pakistani claims, 

Indian troops suddenly occupied an area of the Siachen Glacier and questioned the 

interpretation of the phrase “thence north to the glaciers.” The result was an area of about 

1000 square miles of disputed territory high in the Himalayas. The Siachen Glacier 

region thus became a 20,000-foot elevation battleground between India and Pakistan. 

(See Figure 2.) 

Although troops have been killed in the skirmishes that have occurred on this highest 

battlefield in the world, more are reported to have died and been injured by the 

inhospitable nature of the environment. 

While there are 

differing views on the 

military significance, 

the Siachen dispute has 

an undeniably strong 

political significance. 

However, as India and 

Pakistan have worked 

to reach agreement on 

many issues over the 

years, Siachen has been 

discussed as a potential 

location for cooperation 

by the two sides 

through disengagement 

Figure 2. Military Troops are Deployed at Extreme of troops from the 

Elevations’ region. In 1989 and 

again in 1993, a settlement on the issue was nearly reached. The costs in financial and 

human terms of continuing this confrontation make it an excellent candidate for 

cooperation while minimizing strategic or military disadvantage. 

Many factors will influence a resolution of the Siachen conflict. While political will is 

the predominant factor, it will be affected by other issues. The desire to reduce human 

suffering and to save money are two examples of important factors that justify resolution. 

Mechanisms will be required to support political will by providing assurance that terms 

of agreements are met. These mechanisms may include monitoring systems, inspection 

regimes, and cooperative projects, all of which can help ensure compliance with an 

agreement. While a variety of resolutions and many monitoring options are possible, this 

paper will develop a single confidence building measure that may contribute to resolution 

of the Siachen dispute. 

‘Photo used by permission. Martin A. Sugarman, War Above the Clouds: Siachen Glacier, Sugarman 

Productions, Malibu, California, 1996. 

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A Concept for Cooperation at the Top of the World 

2. The Science Center Concept 

The concept introduced in this paper is to substitute a scientific presence in the Siachen 

region for the military one. The goal of establishing a “Siachen Science Center” would 

be to satisfy the requirement for a national presence in the area that would help ensure 

terms of a military disengagement agreement, while advancing the cause of science in 

many fields. The project could be conducted cooperatively between the Indians and 

Pakistanis but with the possibility of other regional and international participants and 

sponsors. The balance of this paper will describe the Science Center concept and 

precedents for similar cooperative efforts. (See Figure 3 for an example of a field 

research station in Antarctica.) 

While the nature of an agreement on Siachen could take many forms, the Science Center 

concept assumes an agreement in which a designated area would be set aside for peacell 

scientific use only. The signatories to such an agreement would seek peaceful 

coexistence. Other parties could become signatories in various support or participation 

categories. Establishing a center for scientific research in the Himalayas would provide a 

unique location for specialized research as well as the possibility to be integrated into 

other regional and international networks of scientific research stations. International 

participation could take the form of providing any combination of funding, research or 

operational manpower, guidance, or administration. 

Figure 3. Example Field Research Station in 

Antarctica * 

Photo courtesy of Antarctic Support Associates 

11 

The Siachen Science Center 

would consist of a scientific 

research facility within a 

designated zone in the 

Karakoram Range. It would 

consist of a base camp with the 

potential for outlying field sites 

where scientific instruments 

could he placed. Smaller-scale 

outposts in the vicinity of the 

base station are also possible. 

The Center would be staffed by 

scientists, engineers, and 

technicians conducting research, 

along with necessary support 

personnel for cooking, facility 

maintenance, communications, 

and medical needs. The staff 

could be a mix of bilateral, 

regional or multinational 

personnel. 
Siachen Science Center: 

3. Scientific and Technological Research 

The location high in the Karakoram Range in the western part of the Himalayan 

Mountains offers many advantages as a base for conducting scientific research. 

Depending on specific siting of the facility it has the potential to be the highest altitude 

manned research station in the world. That fact, coupled with the isolated location, 

unique geology, and geographical position, make it a special location for research. 

Several scientific missions are possible, as follows: 

1) Astronomy-The high altitude of the Siachen Glacier would enhance astronomical 

research high above much of the earth’s atmosphere. The remoteness of the location 

away from sources of light pollution is an advantage for astronomy. 

2) Geology-The potential to increase the geological knowledge of this region is great. 

A more detailed understanding of rock origins as well as plate tectonic movements 

could be developed through systematic study of local rock outcroppings. 

Paleontology studies of fossil records in the area could further define the geologic 

history of the area. 

3) Atmospherie Sciences-Atmospheric science would benefit from a more 

comprehensive study of weather patterns in the complex terrain of the Himalayas. A 

series of meteorological stations could enable more accurate weather forecasting. A 

study of atmospheric and ice-bound pollution could also provide useful information 

on global as well as regional pollution concerns. 

4) Glaciology-Glaciology studies can provide insight into climatic variations 

throughout history. (See Figure 4.) Snowfall and glacial melt provide the source of 

rivers such as the Indus. Therefore, hydrologic studies may provide insight into 

relationships between snowfall, glacial activity, and river flows in critical water 

resources. 

and botanical studies of life 

in this high, harsh 

environment would also add 

to collective scientific 

knowledge. 

6) Physiology-Physiological 

studies of the effects of high 

altitude on humans are 

possible in a controlled 

manner in this high-altitude 

laboratory. This could lead 

5) Life Sciences-Biological 

to improved methods for 

preventing high altitude 

sicknesses and treating those 

who suffer from them. 

Figure 4. Experiments in Glacial Ice 

(Photo courtesy of University of Chicago) 

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A Concept for Cooperation at the Top of the World 

7) Psychology and Behavioral Sciences-Investigating the effects of a multinational 

group working together for prolonged periods in this hostile climatic environment. 

In addition to the representative scientific topics listed above, engineering knowledge 

could be gained from deployment and operation of such a science center. Lessons will be 

learned in the design, deployment, and operation of the severe climate shelters needed for 

this glacier science station. Many of the communications and logistical issues associated 

with supplying and maintaining a remote installation provide a chance to add to 

knowledge and demonstrate cooperation on these subjects. 

The Center can also serve as a test bed for characterization and operation of monitoring 

systems in a severe environment. These sensors could include cameras, ground and 

motion sensors, environmental and meteorological equipment, as well as remote power 

systems such as wind generators and solar photovoltaic arrays. (See Figure 6.) One can 

even envision a Siachen World Wide Web site that could include monitoring information 

from the glacier. The Australian Antarctic Division has such a capability on their Internet 

Figure 5. Deploying B Remote Alonitoring System3 

site in which a photograph and current 

weather conditions at 

their Mawson Station 

in the Antarctic can be 

viewed over the 

Internet: 

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’ Photo courtesy of Antarctic Support Associates 

Australian Antarctic Division, World Wide Web Home Page, http:l/www.antdiv.gov.aui 

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There are nearly 

endless possibilities 

for research and 

monitoring opportunities in such a 

center. The topics 

listed above are only 

intended to be 

representative of those 

that may be of interest to South Asian countries. Establishment of such a center could 

include a research board that could accept proposals for those wishing to pursue scientific 

or technical projects in that enuironment. 
Siachen Science Center: 

4. Precedents for Cooperation 

While the concept of cooperative scientific research may be a new one for application in 

South Asia, there are many precedents for different features of this proposal. 

There is an extensive history of people working together in confined spaces in hostile 

environments. These include remote outposts such as lighthouses, radar sites, and 

military outposts (including Siachen itself). Commercial enterprises, such as mineral and 

oil exploration, often include establishment of remote outposts to develop and operate 

mines or oil fields. Examples include offshore oil production in locations such as the 

North Sea or Gulf of Mexico. Cold weather oil production stations, such as the one in 

Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, present another precedent from which to draw experience in 

designing, building, and operating the needed equipment and facilities. Other candidate 

programs from which to gain knowledge useful in establishing a Siachen Science Center 

include naval submarine programs and the U.S. and Russian space station and space 

shuttle programs. However, the most applicable precedents for establishing a South 

Asian center in the Siachen area come from scientific stations and outposts in the Arctic 

and Antarctic. 

4.7 Precedent of Arctic Research 

International efforts for cooperative arctic research include examples of land-based 

stations, ship-based research, ice-based monitors, and remotely transmitting buoy 

networks. The land-based stations reside in particular countries but have scholars and 

advisory boards that represent international participation. One example is the Arctic 

Centre in Finland which has an advisory board of 13 members representing 9 countries. 

A decision to deploy national research stations at Siachen could be addressed in a similar 

fashion. 

Another cooperative example is that of the International Arctic Buoy Program that 

maintains a network of automatic data buoys in the Arctic Basin to monitor pressure, 

temperature, and ice motion. The program is funded and managed by eight countries. 

Over 24 international research institutes participate in the data collection and assessment. 

The Siachen area could similarly provide an opportunity to engage a variety of 

international participants in a similar cooperative research program. 

Currently, the U. S. Department of Energy Atmospheric Radiation Measurement 

Program operates solar radiation and cloud measuring instruments on-board an 

icebreaker in the Arctic and at a station on the north slope of Ala~ka.~ The ship and 

instruments will drift amidst the arctic ice for a 13-month period. This effort is part of a 

US. Global Climate Change Research Program. These examples of scientific research 

in areas of isolation and hostile environments can provide useful lessons to those 

designing a regime for cooperative scientific research in the Siachen region. 

“Arctic Cloud Station: Ambitious Program Puts Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Study on Ice,” 

Sandia Lab News, Sandia National Laboratories, March 14, 1997. 

14 
A Concept for Cooperation at the Top of the World 

4.2 The Antarctic Precedent 

Particularly pertinent to the Siachen issue is the precedent of the Antarctic Treaty of 

1959. The treaty set aside the entire continent for peaceful scientific use only. (See 

Figure 6.) The 14 treaty articles outlined the requirements for successful coexistence on 

the continent. Since entry into force in 1961,39 countries have become signatories to the 

treaty including the 7 states that originally laid claim to portions of the continent. Under 

terms of the treaty, all claims are held in abeyance for the term of the treaty and no new 

territorial claims can be submitted. India is one of the state parties to the treaty having 

acceded to the treaty on August 19, 1983. The Indian Department of Ocean Development 

coordinates and executes the national Antarctic program and maintains stations including 

one at Maitri Antarctica (70'45' S, 11'44' E) which is operated throughout the year. The 

Pakistanis, although not signatories to the Antarctic treaty, maintain the Jinnah Station in 

Antarctica through their Nalional Institute of Oceanography. 

Figure 6. NOAA Weather Satellite lmage 

of Antarctica using Advanced Very High 

Resolution Radiometer 

(Photo courtesy of the University of Chicago) 

The Antarctic Treaty bans any military 

activity in the defined area and prohibits 

nuclear testing. It limits national 

programs to those of scientific research 

and ensures the free exchange of 

information and scientists between 

countries. Inspection rights are granted 

to the facilities and operations of other 

countries with a presence on the 

continent. Provisions are made to have 

an open skies regime, enabling aerial 

observation at any time over any and all 

areas of Antarctica by any of the 

Contracting Parties that have the right to 

designate observers. Regular consultative meetings of the signatory states are 

held and disputes are resolved by 

peaceful negotiation including use of the 

International Court of Justice. 

Currently 25 nations maintain a full-time presence on the continent. As of 1997, the 

treaty has been in force for 36 years. This represents one of the great accomplishments of 

international cooperation. 

Research in the Antarctic is pursued in many of the scientific disciplines suggested for the 

Siachen Science Center. In the case of astronomy, for example, the Advanced Telescope 

Project (ATP) and South Pole Infrared Explorer (SPIREX) project collect information on 

the astronomical qualities of the region and study faint stars and galaxies. 

While not a perfect model for South Asia. there are many features of the Antarctic Treaty 

that might be considered for application in Siachen. Some of these include 

15 
Siachen Science Center: 

demilitarization of the area of concern, dedication of the area to scientific research, 

establishment of research center(s) that share information and are open to joint 

inspection, deferring resolution of territorial claims, and resolving disputes through 

peaceful means. A detailed discussion of specific provisions of the Antarctic Treaty and 

their application to Siachen are included in the appendix. 

5. Conclusions 

Resolution of the Siachen Glacier dispute will require both political will and the 

monitoring and confidence building measures necessary to ensure compliance with 

agreements reached. The ideas presented in this paper offer one option that could 

contribute to confidence by providing for continued national presence on the Siachen 

Glacier while permitting military disengagement. The Siachen Science Center concept 

could serve the political needs of India and Pakistan while reducing costs, saving lives 

and contributing to the advancement of knowledge. 

Several precedents demonstrate the feasibility of this concept for international scientific 

collaboration. Specific provisions of the Antarctic Treaty precedent, such as exclusive 

scientific use of an area, addressing issues of territorial claims, and restricting military 

activity, may have applicability in the South Asian context. For nearly 40 years the 

Treaty has been an outstanding example of international cooperation. 

The political will to address issues of conflict in South Asia is growing as India and 

Pakistan begin the second half of their first century of independence. Governments in 

India and Pakistan appear interested in establishing increased dialogue and cooperation. 

The conflict on Siachen Glacier now appears to be a good candidate for such cooperation. 

The Siachen Science Center may offer one piece of the solution. 

16 
A Concept for Cooperation at the Top of the World 

Appendix-The Antarctic Treaty and Its Application to Siachen 

This appendix provides the text of the 14 articles that make up the Antarctic Treaty.6 The 

text of each treaty article is followed by a brief description on the possible applicability of 

the treaty provisions to the Siachen dispute in South Asia. 

Article I 

1. Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only. There shall be prohibited, inter 

alia, any measures of a military nature, such as the establishment of military bases 

and fortijkations, the carrying out of military maneuvers, us well as the testing of any 

types of weapons. 

2. The present treaty shall not prevent the use of military personnel or equipment for 

scientiJic research or for any other peaceful purpose. 

These provisions would be consistent with the desired military withdrawal and 

demilitarization of the Siachen region. However, they would also permit the use of 

personnel and equipment from earlier military activities to be available to support 

establishment and operation of a peaceful and cooperative scientific center in the area. 

Article II 

Freedom of scientiJic investigation in Antarctica and cooperation toward that end, as 

applied during the International Geophysical Year, shall continue, subject to the 

provisions of the present Treaty. 

This is the theme of the Siachen Science Center concept: that scientific investigation be 

the basis for cooperation in the area. The Antarctic Treaty built upon a year ofjoint 

scientific research by 12 nations in 1957-1958 (International Geophysical Year) in which 

studies of the Earth and it cosmic environment were conducted. 

Article Ill 

1. In order to promote international cooperation in scientific investigation in 

Antarctica, us provided for in Article II of the present Treaty, the Contracting 

Parties agree that, to the greatest extent feasible and practicable 

(a) information regarding plans for scient@ programs in Antarctica shall be 

exchanged to permit maximum economy and eflciency of operations; 

(b) scientific personnel shall be exchanged in Antarctica between expeditions and 

stations; 

‘Arms Control and Disarmament Agreements: Texts and Histories of the Negotiations, United States Arms 

Control and Disarmament Agency, Washington, D. C., 1990. 

17 
Siachen Science Cenfer; 

(e) scient@ observations and results fiom Antarctica shall be exchanged and 

made freely available. 

In implementing this Article, every encouragement shall be given to the 

establishment of co-operative working relations with those Specialized Agencies of 

the United Nations and other international organizations having a scientiJic or 

technical interest in Antarctica. 

2. 

Sharing information is the key element of the cooperative monitoring concept. The 

Antarctic treaty envisioned different national research stations that would share 

information and collaborate. The Siachen Science Center concept could involve either 

separate national stations or a single jointly administered IndidPakistan station. The 

option for an even more diverse multinational station is also possible. Political decisions 

will determine which flags fly at such a center. It is likely that the center would establish 

relationships with UN and other international scientific and monitoring organizations as 

provided for in this Treaty Article. 

Article IV 

I. Nothing contained in the present Treaty shall be interpreted as: 

(a) a renunciation by any Contracting Party ofpreviously asserted rights of or 

(3) a renunciation or diminution by any Contracting Party of any basis of claim 

claims to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica; 

to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica which it may have whether as a result 

of its activities or those of its nationals in Antarctica, or otherwise; 

of claim to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica. 

(e) recognition or non-recognition of any other State's right of or claim or basis 

2. No acts or activities takingplace while the present Treaty is in force shall constitute a 

basis for asserting, supporting or denying a claim to territorial sovereignty in 

Antarctica or create any rights of sovereignty in Antarctica. No new claim, or 

enlargement of an existing claim, to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica shall be 

asserted while the present Treaty is in force. 

Prior to establishment of the Antarctic treaty, seven nations had territorial claims on parts 

of the continent. To establish the continent as a place for exclusive scientific cooperation, 

it was necessary to address questions of territorial claims. (See Figure 7.) The treaty, in 

Article IV, has adopted an interesting model of setting aside the issue of territorial claims 

by deferring them indefinitely, not renouncing, denying or supporting any claims. While 

this was done for the entire continent, in the case of Siachen a portion of the disputed area 

agreeable to both sides could be set aside for scientific research. This in no way takes 

away current claims but allows progress in diffusing tensions without first resolving the 

issue of territorial claims. 

18 
A Concept for Cooperation at the Top of the World 

lndian Ocean 

- 9O'E 

Indian Ocean 

180* 

Figure 7. Antarctic Territorial Claims 

The nature of territorial disputes is complex both legally and politically. The histories of 

the Siachen area and Antarctica are very different. Therefore. the specific legal and 

political precedent for addressing territorial claims in the Antarctic Treaty may not apply 

to the Siachen dispute. However, the concepts introduced in the Antarctic treaty might 

offer new insight into addressing the territorial concerns associated with the Siachen 

dispute. 

Article V 

1. Any nuclear explosions in Antarctica and the disposal there ofradioactive waste 

material shall be prohibited. 

2. In the event of the conclusion of international agreements concerning the use of 

nuclear energy, including nuclear explosions and the disposal of radioactive waste 

material, to which all ofthe Contracting Parties whose representatives are entitled 

to participate in the meetings providedfor under Article IX are parties the rules 

established under such agreements shall apply in Antarctica. 

The nuclear issue is a sensitive one in South Asia because of concerns about nuclear 

proliferation. Therefore, attempts to tie nuclear issues to the Siachen dispute are likely to 

be counterproductive. However, if the parties did agree to prohibit nuclear testing and 

radioactive waste disposal in the limited area of Siachen, a positive step in nuclear 

cooperation between India and Pakistan could be achieved. The political willingness to 

19 
Siachen Science Center: 

agree to such provisions by India and Pakistan is feasible because neither of these 

activities is planned or appropriate in this high mountain region. In 1988 India and 

Pakistan formalized the Agreement of Prohibition of Attack on Nuclear Installations and 

Facilities. The Agreement was ratified in 1991 and lists of nuclear installations covered 

by the agreement were exchanged in 1992. 

Article VI 

The provisions of the present Treaty shall apply to the area south of 60 deg South 

Latitude, including all ice shelves, but nothing in the present Treaty shall prejudice or in 

any way affect the rights, or the exercise of the rights, of any State under international 

law with regard to the high seas within that area. 

An article such as this would be required to specifi the exact area covered by the treaty. 

Clearly issues of laws of the seas do not apply in Siachen. 

Article VI1 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

In order to promote the objectives and ensure the observance of the provisions of 

the present Treaty, each Contrncting Party whose representatives are entitled to 

participate in the meetings rcfferred to in Article Urof the Treaty shall have the 

right to designate observers io curry out any inspection provided for by the present 

Article. Observers shall be ntrtionnls of the Contracting Parties which designate 

them. The names of obsei-wrs shall be communicated to every other Contracting 

Party having the right 10 designute observers, and like notice shall be given of the 

termination of their uppointmerit. 

Each observer designated in rrccordance with the provisions ofparagraph I of this 

Article shall have co~plelLi,fr.cc.d~)m of access at any time to any or all areas of 

Antarctica. 

All areas of Anturcticn. including crll stations, installations, and equipment within 

those areas. and all ship mrl rrir-craft at points of discharging or embarking 

cargoes or personncl in .4nirircticu, shall be open at all times to inspection by any 

observers designated in wcor-hnce with paragraph I of this article. 

Aerial observation mujy he ctrrricld out at any time over any or all areas of 

Antarctica by any of the C'cinir-ucting Parties having the right to designate 

observers. 

Each Contracting Party shall. at the time when the present Treaty enters into force 

for it, inform the other Contructing Parties, and thereafter shall give them notice in 

advance, of 

(a) all expeditions to and within Antarctica, on the part of its ships or nationals, and 

(b) all stations in Antarctica occupied by its nationals; and 

(c) any military personnel or equipment intended to be introduced by it into 

all expeditions to Antarctica organized in or proceeding from its territory; 

Antarctica subject to the conditions prescribed in paragraph 2 of Article I of the 

present Treaty. 

20 
A Concept for Cooperation at the Top of the World 

The ability to allow inspections of facilities on Siachen and to have provision for some 

aerial monitoring also help provide assurance that the activity on the glacier is limited to 

scientific research. Specific provisions would need to be developed on the nature and 

operations of inspections and overflights. Since the science center concept could be 

implemented bilaterally, as well as regionally or internationally, the details of 

inspections and overflights would be worked out in accordance with the parties who 

would be subject to the provisions of the agreement. 

Article VI11 

1. In order to facilitate the exercise of their functions under the present Treaty, and 

without prejudice to the respective positions of the Contracting Parties relating to 

jurisdiction over all other persons in Antarctica, observers designated under 

paragraph 1 of Article VII and scientific personnel exchanged under subparagraph 1 

(8) of Article 111 of the Treaty, and members of the stafls accompanying any such 

persons, shall be subject only to the jurisdiction of the Contracting Party of which 

they are nationals in respect of all acts or omissions occurring while they are in 

Antarctica for the purpose of exercising their functions. 

2. Without prejudice to the provisions ofparagraph 1 of this Article, and pending the 

adoption of measures In pursuance of subparagraph 1 (e) of Article Ur: the 

Contracting Parties concerned in any case of dispute with regard to the exercise of 

jurisdiction in Antarctica shall immediately consult together with a view to reaching 

a mutually acceptable solution. 

Determining jurisdiction for all acts or omissions of the staff of a Siachen Science Center 

as well as mechanisms for addressing disputes will also be important in establishing this 

agreement among member states. 

Article IX 

1. Representatives of the Contracting Parties named in the preamble to the present 

Treaty shall meet ut the City of Canberra within two months after the date of entry 

into force of the Treaty, and thereafter at suitable intervals andplaces, for the 

purpose of exchanging information, consulting together on matters of common 

interest pertaining to Antarctica, and formulating and considering, and 

recommending to their Governments, measures in furtherance of the principles and 

objectives of the Treaty, including measures regarding: 

(a) use of Antarctica for peaceful purposes only; 

(b) facilitation of scientijic research in Antarctica; 

(e) facilitation of international scientijc cooperation in Antarctica; 

(d) facilitation of the exercise of the rights of inspection provided for in Article VII 

(e) questions relating to the exercise ofjurisdiction in Antarctica; 

&I preservation and conservation of living resources in Antarctica. 

of the Treaty; 

21 
Siachen Science Center: 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

Each Contracting Party which has become a party to the present Treaty by 

accession under Article XIII shall be entitled to appoint representatives to 

participate in the meetings referred to in paragraph I of the present Article, during 

such time as that Contracting Party demonstrates its interest in Antarctica by 

conducting substantial scient@ research activity there, such as the establishment 

of a scient@ station or the dispatch of a scientijic expedition. 

Reportspom the observers referred to in Article VII of the present Treaty shall be 

transmitted to the representatives of the Contracting Parties participating in the 

meetings referred to in paragraph 1 of the present Article. 

The measures referred to in paragraph 1 of this Article shall become effective when 

approved by all the Contracting Parties whose representatives were entitled to 

participate in the meetings held to consider those measures. 

Any or all of the rights established in the present Treaty may be exercised aspom 

the date of entry into force of the Treaty whether or not any measures facilitating the 

exercise of such rights have been proposed, considered or approved as provided in 

this Article. 

The need to set up an organization to administer control of the Siachen Science Center is 

reflected in this article. This organization, which would include representatives of 

signatory countries, could decide policy; select research experiments; collect, share and 

publish information jointly; and address other issues associated with funding and 

operating the center. 

Arficle X 

Each of the Contracting Parties undertakes to exert appropriate efforts consistent with 

the Charter of the United Nations, to the end that no one engages in any activity in 

Antarctica contrary to the principles or purposes of the present Treaty. 

This article reinforces the underlying intent that all efforts be made to meet the spirit as 

well as letter of the treaty. 

Arficle XI 

1. rfany dispute arises between two or more of the Contracting Parties concerning the 

interpretation or application of the present Treaty, those Contracting Parties shall 

consult among themselves with a view to having the dispute resolved by negotiation, 

inquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement or other peaceful 

means of their own choice. 

Any dispute of this character not so resolved shall, with the consent, in each case, of 

all parties to the dispute, be referred to the International Court of Justice for 

settlement; but failure to reach agreement or reference to the International Court 

shall not absolve parties to the dispute porn the responsibility of continuing to seek 

to resolve it by any of the various peaceful means referred to in paragraph I of this 

Article. 

2. 

22 
A Concept for Cooperation at the Top of the World 

This article provides for peaceful and appropriate legal resolution of disputes arising from 

the ,agreement. It further commits the signatories to continue seeking peaceful resolution 

of all disputes. Provisions such as these would build confidence that a Siachen resolution 

was intended to keep the peace despite disagreements that might arise. 

Article X// 

1. (a) The present Treaty may be mod2Jied or amended at any time by unanimous 

agreement of the Contracting Parties whose representatives are entitled to 

participate in the meeting provided for under Article Ur: Any such modification or 

amendment shall enter into force when the depositary Government has received 

notice porn all such contracting Parties that they have ratified it. 

(b) Such mod2Jication or amendment shall thereafter enter into force as to any other 

Contracting Policy when notice of ratlJication by it has been received by the 

depositary Government. Any such Contracting Party porn which no notice of 

ratij’ication is received within aperiod of two years.sJ2.om the date of entry into 

force of the modification or amendment in accordance with the provisions of 

subparagraph 1 (a) of this Article shall be deemed to have withdrawnporn the 

present Treaty on the date of the expiration of such period. 

present Treaty, any of the Contracting Parties whose representatives are entitled 

to participate in the meetings provided for under Article Eso requests by a 

communication addressed to the depositary Government, a Conference of all the 

Contracting Parties shall be held as soon as practicable to review the operation 

of the Treaty. 

Conference by a majority of the Contracting Parties there represented, including 

a majority of those whose representatives are entitled to participate in the 

meetings provided for under Article U: shall be communicated by the depositary 

Government to all the Contracting Parties immediately after the termination of 

the Conference and shall enter into force in accordance with the provisions of 

paragraph 1 of the present Article. 

(c) Ifany such modification or amendment has not entered into force in accordance 

with the provisions of subparagraph 1 (a) of this Article within a period of two 

years after the date of its communication to all the Contracting Parties, any 

Contracting Party may at any time after the expiration of that period give notice 

to the depositary Government of its withdrawalpom the present Treaty, and such 

withdrawal shall take effect two years after the receipt of the notice by the 

depositary Government. 

2. (a) Ifafter the expiration of thirty years.sJ2.om the date of entry into force of the 

(b) Any mod2Jication or amendment to the present Treaty which is approved at such a 

As with all treaties, this article specifies the conditions for amendment, withdrawal, and 

duration of the treaty. The specific requirements for these provisions would need to be 

established during negotiation of a Siachen agreement. 

23 
Siachen Science Center: 

Article XI11 

1. The present Treaty shall be subject to ratification by the signatory States. It shall be 

open for accession by any State which is a Member of the United Nations, or by any 

other State which may be invited to accede to the Treaty with the consent of all the 

Contracting Parties whose representatives are entitled to participate in the meetings 

provided for under Article 1x of the Treaty. 

2. Ratijication of or accession to the present Treaty shall be effected by each State in 

accordance with its constitutional processes. 

3. Instruments of ratijication and instruments of accession shall be deposited with the 

Government of the United States of America, hereby designated as the depositary 

Government. 

4. The depositary Government shall inform all signatory and acceding States of the date 

of each deposit of an instrument of ratification or accession, and the date of entry into 

force of the Treaty and of any modification or amendment thereto. 

5. Upon the deposit of instruments of ratification by all the signatory States, the present 

Treaty shall enter into force for these States and for States which have deposited 

instruments of accession. Thereafter the Treaty shall enter into force for any 

acceding State upon the deposit of its instruments of accession. 

6. The present Treaty shall be registered by the depositary Government pursuant to 

Article 102 of the Charter of the United Nations. 

This article addresses the process of treaty ratification. 

Article XIV 

The present Treaty, done in the English, French, Russian and Spanish languages, each 

version being equally authentic, shall be deposited in the archives of the Government of 

the United States of America, which shall transmit duly certijied copies thereof to the 

Governments of the signatory and acceding States. 

In Witness WhereoJ the undersigned Plenipotentiaries, duly authorized, have signed the 

present Treaty. 

Done at Washington this first day of December, one thousand nine hundred andfiftynine. 

Finally, the treaty languages and deposit location for signatory and acceding States are 

specified as they would need to be in a formal Siachen agreement. 

24 
A Concept for Cooperation at the Top of the World 

References 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

Samina Ahmed and Varun Sahni, “Freezing the Fighting: Military Disengagement on 

the Siachen Glacier,’’ CMC Occasional Paper, Sandia National Laboratories, 

SAND98-0505/1, Albuquerque, New Mexico, March 1998. 

Arms Control and Disarmament Agreements: Texts and Histories of the Negotiations, 

United States Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, Washington, D.C., 1990. 

Robert G. Wirsing, Pakistan s Security Under Zia, 1977-1988: The Policy 

Imperatives of a Peripheral Asian State, St. Martin’s Press, New York, 1991. 

G. Noorani, Easing the Indo-Pakistani Dialogue on Kashmir: Confidence-Building 

Measures for the Siachen Glacier, Sir Creek and the Wular Barrage Disputes, 

Occasional Paper 16, The Henry L. Stimson Center, Washington, D. C., 1994. 

Lt. Gen. M. L. Chibber, “Siachen-The Untold Story,” Indian Defense Review, 

January 1990. 

P. S. Sidhu, “Siachen: The Forgotten War,” India Today, May 3 1, 1992, pp. 86-101. 

Edward W. Desmond, “War at the Top of the World,” Time Magazine, July 3 1, 1989. 

Martin A. Sugarman, War Above the Clouds: Siachen Glacier, Sugarman 

Productions, Malibu, California, 1996. 

Rakesh Sood, “Implementing Confidence Building Measures-India and Her 

Neighbors,” paper presented at the Ninth Regional Disarmament Meeting in the AsiaPacific Region, Katmandu, Feb. 24-26, 1997. 

25 
Siachen Science Center: 

Distribution 

350. MS 1373 CMC Library, 5341 

1 MS 9018 Central Tech Files, 8940-2 

2 MS 0899 Technical Library, 4916 

2 MS 0619 Review & Approval Desk, 

12690 for DOE/OSTI 

26