NUREG/CR-7238

Guidance Document: 

Conducting Paleoliquefaction 

Studies for Earthquake Source 

Characterization

Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research
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NUREG/CR-7238

Guidance Document: 

Conducting Paleoliquefaction 

Studies for Earthquake Source 

Characterization

Manuscript Completed: January 2017 

Date Published: January 2018

Prepared by: 

M. Tuttle1

L.Wolf2

P. Mayne3

K. Dyer-Williams4

R. Lafferty5

1

M. Tuttle & Associates, P.O. Box 345, Georgetown, ME 04548

2

Auburn University, Geosciences, Auburn, AL 36849

3

Georgia Institute of Technology, Civil and Environmental Engineering,

Atlanta, GA 30332-0355 

4

VanLeen Associates, P.O. Box 156, Columbia, MD 21045 

5

Lafferty-Hess Consultants, 16400 Sigmond Lane, Lowell, AR 72745 

Sarah Tabatabai, NRC Project Manager 

Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research 

iii

ABSTRACT

Destructive earthquakes, both recent and historical, demonstrate the critical need for 

paleoliquefaction data to assist with the assessment of the potential for damaging earthquakes 

around the world. Paleoliquefaction studies, along with other paleoseismic studies such as fault 

studies, supplement seismicity studies and provide information about the long-term behavior of 

earthquake sources. Paleoliquefaction studies focus on soft-sediment deformation features, 

including sand blows and sand dikes, and related ground failures that result from large 

earthquakes. Most paleoliquefaction studies have been conducted in intraplate geologic settings, 

but a few such studies have been carried out in interplate settings as well. Paleoliquefaction 

studies have provided valuable information about timing, location, and magnitude of large 

paleoearthquakes, particularly those with moment magnitude, M, greater than 6, during the past 

50,000 years. Although the results of paleoliquefaction studies have greatly increased the 

understanding of seismic hazards in a few regions where Holocene (0.01 million years ago, or Ma, 

to present) and Late Pleistocene (0.126 to 0.01 Ma) age deposits occur, the specific type, level of 

detail, and quality of paleoliquefaction data vary from one study area to another. This variation is 

due in part to the lack of standardized procedures for paleoliquefaction studies. There is also a 

shortage of qualified and experienced paleoliquefaction experts and few comprehensive 

resources for new investigators or regulators interested in obtaining results from paleoliquefaction 

studies for characterization of earthquake sources. In order to overcome some of the current 

deficiencies and advance the field of paleoliquefaction, this document provides detailed guidance 

for conducting paleoliquefaction studies that will generate high-quality paleoliquefaction data for 

use in seismic source characterization and seismic hazard assessment. Intended as a 

comprehensive resource for investigators and regulators interested in the field of 

paleoliquefaction, this report includes background information on earthquake-induced liquefaction 

and related ground failures and the resulting soft-sediment deformation features that may be 

preserved in the geologic record, relevant information derived from the disciplines of geology, 

geophysics, and geotechnical engineering, an extensive bibliography, and recommendations for 

future research. 

v 

FOREWORD

The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) requires an evaluation to determine the Safe 

Shutdown Earthquake Ground Motion (SSE) for a nuclear power plant site as specified in 10 CFR 

Part 100. A performance based approach to define site-specific earthquake ground motion is one 

component in the development and evaluation of the SSE. Regulatory Guide 1.208 provides 

guidance on this performance based approach which implements a probabilistic seismic hazard 

analysis. The probabilistic seismic hazard analysis is dependent on the characterization of 

seismic (earthquake) sources, with the key parameters in characterizing seismic sources being 

their location, timing, and size. The historical record of measured earthquakes is limited; 

therefore, the study of prehistoric earthquakes is extremely valuable in characterizing seismic 

sources. The study of prehistoric liquefaction features, paleoliquefaction, is one method used to

characterize seismic sources.

Regulatory Guide 1.208, A Performance-Based Approach to Define the Site-Specific Earthquake 

Ground Motion, and the Standard Review Plan for the Review of Safety Analysis Reports for 

Nuclear Power Plants: LWR Edition (NUREG-0800), Section 2.5.1, provides guidance to license 

applicants and NRC staff, respectively, on the review of seismic sources. This document provides 

valuable guidance on how to conduct a paleoliquefaction study and evaluate data with 

consideration of uncertainties encountered in the various phases of the study for seismic source 

characterization. This guidance document will be a resource for staff as updates to regulatory and 

staff guidance are developed on characterizing seismic sources. 

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT...............................................................................................................................iii

FOREWORD ............................................................................................................................. v

LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................ix

LIST OF TABLES...................................................................................................................xvii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .........................................................................................................xix

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS........................................................................................................xxiii

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ....................................................................................xxv

1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 1-1

1.1 Paleoseismology and the Paleoliquefaction Approach .................................................. 1-1

1.2 Earthquake-Induced Liquefaction .................................................................................. 1-3

1.2.1 Process of Liquefaction..................................................................................... 1-3

1.2.2 Conditions that Influence Liquefaction and the Formation of Liquefaction 

Features ............................................................................................................ 1-7

1.2.3 Ground Motions that Cause Liquefaction.......................................................... 1-8

1.3 Ground Failure Resulting from Liquefaction................................................................. 1-12

1.4 Earthquake-Induced Liquefaction Features ................................................................. 1-16

1.4.1 Dikes, Sills, Diapirs, and Blows ....................................................................... 1-16

1.4.2 Soft Sediment Deformation Features within the Liquefied Layer .................... 1-21

1.4.3 Diagnostic Criteria and Characteristics of Liquefaction Features.................... 1-22

1.4.4 Non-Seismic Features Not To Be Confused with Earthquake-Induced 

Liquefaction Features...................................................................................... 1-25

2 PLANNING AND CONDUCTING PALEOLIQUEFACTION STUDIES ............................... 2-1

2.1 Federal Regulations....................................................................................................... 2-1

2.2 Information Used in the Selection of the Study Area ..................................................... 2-2

2.2.1 Accounts of Ground Failure Indicative of Liquefaction ...................................... 2-2

2.2.2 Aerial Photography and Satellite Imagery ......................................................... 2-3

2.2.3 Quaternary Geology ....................................................................................... 2-6

2.2.4 Geotechnical Data .......................................................................................... 2-7

2.3 Field Studies ................................................................................................................ 2-7

2.3.1 Initial Reconnaissance ................................................................................... 2-8

2.3.2 Site Investigations........................................................................................... 2-8

2.3.3 Surveys of River Cutbanks and other Exposures............................................ 2-21

2.4 Dating of Liquefaction Features ................................................................................... 2-22

2.4.1 Soil Development and Weathering Characteristics ......................................... 2-23

2.4.2 Stratigraphic Context....................................................................................... 2-25

2.4.3 Archeological Context ..................................................................................... 2-25

2.4.4 Radiocarbon Dating......................................................................................... 2-28

2.4.5 Optically-Stimulated Luminescence ................................................................ 2-30

2.4.6 Dendrochronology........................................................................................... 2-31

2.5 Interpretation of Liquefaction Features ........................................................................ 2-33

2.5.1 Correlation of Liquefaction Features ............................................................... 2-34
viii

2.5.2 Timing of Paleoearthquakes............................................................................ 2-35

2.5.3 Locations of Paleoearthquakes ....................................................................... 2-36

2.5.4 Magnitudes of Paleoearthquakes.................................................................... 2-39

2.5.5 Recurrence of Paleoearthquakes.................................................................... 2-61

3 USE OF PALEOLIQUEFACTION DATA IN EARTHQUAKE SOURCE 

CHARACTERIZATION ...................................................................................................... 3-1

3.1 Development of Seismic Source Models ....................................................................... 3-1

3.2 Example - New Madrid Seismic Zone in Central United States..................................... 3-3

3.2.1 Paleoliquefaction Studies in the New Madrid Region........................................ 3-4

3.2.2 Seismic Hazard Models for the New Madrid Seismic Zone .............................. 3-8

4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH.......................................................... 4-1

5 REFERENCES................................................................................................................... 5-1

APPENDIX A EVALUATION OF OVERBURDEN STRESS AND PORE 

WATER PRESSURE .................................................................................. A-1

APPENDIX B UPDATED CRR CURVES FROM IN-SITU TESTS..................................... B-1

APPENDIX C SEISMIC GROUND DEFORMATIONS....................................................... C-1

APPENDIX D SITE DESCRIPTION FOR PALEOLIQUEFACTION STUDY...................... D-1

APPENDIX E ARCHEOLOGICAL EXCAVATION PROTOCOL DEVELOPED FOR 

PALEOSEISMIC INVESTIGATIONS AT ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN 

ARKANSAS................................................................................................ E-1
ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1-1 Photograph of large sand blow with central crater that formed during 1811-

1812 New Madrid earthquakes (from Fuller, 1912).............................................. 1-2

Figure 1-2 Schematic representation of changes in grain-to-grain contacts and pore 

water pressure as a volume of water-saturated granular sediment 

experiences ground shaking. The blue column represents the pore water 

pressure (from Johansson, 2000)......................................................................... 1-4

Figure 1-3 Flow chart showing the different types of soil liquefaction: flow liquefaction, 

cyclic liquefaction, cyclic mobility, and cyclic softening. ....................................... 1-5

Figure 1-4 Schematic of undrained cyclic behavior of sand illustrating cyclic 

liquefaction, where qcy represents the cyclic shear stress and qst is the initial 

geostatic static shear stress (from Robertson and Wride 1998)........................... 1-6

Figure 1-5 Sand blows or sand volcanoes resulting from liquefaction of watersaturated loose, granular sediment and subsequent venting of water and 

entrained sediment onto the ground surface (from NUREG-2115). Upper: 

photograph of moderate-sized sand blow (12 m long, 7 m wide, and 14 cm 

thick) that formed above ground fissure about 40 km from epicenter of 

2002 M 7.7 Bhuj, India, earthquake (Tuttle et al., 2002a). Lower: schematic 

diagram illustrating structural and stratigraphic relations of sand blow, sand 

dike, and liquefied sediment at depth (after Sims and Garvin, 1995)................... 1-7

Figure 1-6 Peak ground acceleration (PGA) for 2% probability of exceedance in 50 

years on a uniform firm-rock site condition with a shear wave velocity in 

upper 30 m of 760 m/s (from Petersen et al., 2012)........................................... 1-10

Figure 1-7 Simplified relation for stress reduction factor (rd) as a function of depth 

(from Youd et al., 2001)...................................................................................... 1-11

Figure 1-8 Bearing strength failure during 2010 M 7.0 earthquake in Haiti (from 

Kattenhorn, 2011)............................................................................................... 1-13

Figure 1-9 Lateral spread adjacent to river during 2001 M 7.7 Bhuj earthquake in 

India. Sand blows also formed on surface of block that moved towards 

river (from Tuttle et al., 2002a). .......................................................................... 1-14

Figure 1-10 Flow failure, about 88 m wide and extending 150 m across the valley 

below, triggered by M 5.9 Saguenay earthquake in Canada (from Tuttle et 

al., 1989 and 1990). Photograph taken looking down slope. Note blocks of 

soil and debris pile at toe of slide........................................................................ 1-15

Figure 1-11 Small sand blow noted following 2011 M 7.2 van Tabanli earthquake in 

Turkey (from Cetin et al., 2011). For scale, pencil adjacent to vent. ................. 1-16

Figure 1-12 Block diagram showing relationship between the liquefied layer and 

overlying liquefaction features including intrusive sand dikes and sills and 

an extrusive sand blow (from NUREG-2115). .................................................... 1-17

Figure 1-13 Photograph of sand dike exposed in a cutbank of the Meramec River near 

St. Louis, Missouri (NUREG/CR-5730). The dike crosscuts and is coarser 

grained than the silty deposit it intrudes. For scale, shovel is 1 m long. 

Photograph by M. Tuttle. .................................................................................... 1-18

Figure 1-14 Photograph of convolute bedding, foundered clasts in liquefied layer and 

base of related sand dike intruding overlying mottled silt. Photograph by M. 

Tuttle................................................................................................................... 1-19
x 

Figure 1-15 Photograph of sand diapirs intruding base of overlying silt layer exposed in 

a cutbank of Big River southwest of St. Louis, Missouri (NUREG/CR-5730). 

Notice foundered clasts of silt in the sand layer that liquefied. Photograph 

by M. Tuttle......................................................................................................... 1-19

Figure 1-16 Photograph of sand blow and related sand dikes exposed in a trench in the 

New Madrid seismic zone. Brown soil horizon is crosscut by two sand 

dikes, displaced downward ~1 m, and buried by the sand blow. Clasts of 

the soil horizon occur within dikes and overlying sand blow. Each colored 

intervals on shovel handle represents 10 cm. Photograph by M. Tuttle............ 1-20

Figure 1-17 Very weathered sand blow and related feeder dike (1.3 m wide) exposed in 

trench near Marianna, Arkansas, 80 km south of the New Madrid seismic 

zone (Tuttle et al., 2010a). Dating indicates that the liquefaction features 

formed about 9,900 yr B.P. Distance between level lines is 1 m. 

Photograph by M. Tuttle. .................................................................................... 1-20

Figure 1-18 Load cast that formed in laminated sediment of Van Norman Lake during 

the 1952 Kern County, California, earthquake (from Sims, 1975)...................... 1-22

Figure 1-19 Desiccation crack filled with soil from above, exposed in wall and floor of 

trench. For scale, short handled shovel is 1 m in length. Photograph by M. 

Tuttle................................................................................................................... 1-26

Figure 1-20 Ball and pillow structures in glaciofluvial deposits exposed along Rouge 

River near Toronto, Ontario (Tuttle et al., 2010b). Photograph by M. Tuttle ..... 1-27

Figure 1-21 Deformation of sediment due to cryoturbation exposed in trench excavated 

in sand blow that formed during 1988 M 5.9 Saguenay, Quebec, 

earthquake (NUREG/CP-0119). For scale, red pocketknife is 9 cm long.......... 1-28

Figure 1-22 Fluid injection structures in glaciofluvial deposit below diamicton or glacial 

till (dark gray) (Tuttle et al., 2010b). Each colored intervals on the shovel 

handle represents 10 cm. Photograph by M. Tuttle........................................... 1-28

Figure 2-1 Aerial photograph showing light-colored sand blow deposits near the 

Pemiscot Bayou east of Lepanto, Arkansas (Tuttle, 1999). Sand blows are 

aligned above point bar deposits within the meander scroll bars. 

Photograph taken on January 26, 1964 by U.S. Department of Agriculture......... 2-4

Figure 2-2 Google Earth satellite image showing linear sand blows parallel to and 

within 300 m of Pemiscot Bayou north of Blytheville, Arkansas. These 

features probably formed during lateral spreading towards the bayou. 

Historic and prehistoric sand blows and related sand dikes have been 

documented and dated in nearby excavations (Tuttle, 1999)............................... 2-5

Figure 2-3 Example of correlation between two parallel apparent resistivity profiles

offset by ~ 16.5 m showing en echelon expression of sand dikes (indicated 

by arrows). (A) Apparent resistivity highs show position of sand dikes later 

exposed in trench excavation. Dike at -5 meters is 18 cm wide. (B) 

Apparent resistivity along parallel profile to south of (A) shows dike at -15 

meters getting smaller and dike at +12 meters getting larger (after Wolf et 

al., 1998)............................................................................................................. 2-11

Figure 2-4 (A) Example of a resistivity profile at a liquefaction site in the New Madrid

seismic zone in northeastern Arkansas. Dotted line outlines approximate

contact between sand blow deposit and host sediments. Warm colors
xi

reflect sediment associated with sand blow deposits and sand-filled dikes, 

which typically have higher resistivities than surrounding fine-grained 

sediment. Blue colors reflect material with higher percentages of clay and 

moisture, which are more conductive. The resistivity profile is correlated 

with a trench log (B) that runs at an angle to the resistivity profile. The 

trench log reveals only the portion of the resistivity section outlined by the 

black rectangle in (A). Dark brown colors correlate with green to blue colors 

in the resistivity profile, while yellow to red colors correlate to sand blow 

deposits and the top of the feeder dike. Note cross-cutting relationship of 

sand-filled dike with finer-grained sediment of buried soil horizons. (C) 

Inset map shows location of the trench (heavy black line) and trench log 

(open rectangle) in relation to the N-S oriented geophysical profiles and 

northwest oriented sand blow (shaded gray) as seen on satellite imagery 

and in the field. ................................................................................................... 2-12

Figure 2-5 Measured grain sizes at seven sites in the New Madrid seismic zone in phi 

size, φ, where particle diameter =1 mm ∙ 2-φ. Host sediment (triangles) 

corresponds to sediment sizes of silts and clays; sand blows correspond to 

fine to very fine sand; sand dikes correspond to mostly medium sand. 

Where difference in grain sizes between liquefaction features and host 

sediment is small, resolution is poor (e.g., sites 5 and 7). Where contrast is 

greater (e.g., sites 1 and 2), resolution is good. Site numbers 5 and 6 

represent two trenches at the same site............................................................. 2-13

Figure 2-6 (Above) Pseudo-three dimensional GPR image correlated with (Below) log 

of trench excavation showing large sand blow and related sand dike near 

Marianna, Arkansas (from Al-Shukri et al., 2006)............................................... 2-15

Figure 2-7 Magnetic anomaly maps from an archeological site in Turkey showing 

location of buried graves. Left panel shows observed magnetic anomalies. 

Right panel shows anomalies after data processing (from Arlsoy et al., 

2007). ................................................................................................................. 2-16

Figure 2-8 Paleoseismic investigation at archeological site 3MS306 in the New Madrid 

seismic zone (NUREG/GR-0017). Contact between the plow zone and the 

underlying sand blow is carefully examined for features, such as cultural 

pits and tree-root casts, that may help to constrain the minimum age of the 

sand blow. Photograph by M. Tuttle.................................................................. 2-18

Figure 2-9 (Above) Photograph of excavations and (Below) log of trench wall at 

archeological site 3MS306 in northeastern Arkansas, showing relationships 

between the sand-blow crater, sand blow, sand dikes, and Native American 

hearth, pit, and occupation horizon (from NUREG/GR-0017). Also shown 

are 2-sigma calibrated radiocarbon dates of organic samples collected from 

cultural features and horizon. On the basis of the artifact assemblage and 

radiocarbon dates, the earthquake-induced liquefaction features are 

estimated to have formed in A.D. 900 ± 100 yr .................................................. 2-20

Figure 2-10 Earthquake-induced liquefaction features found along a river cutbank 

during reconnaissance in the region surrounding the New Madrid seismic 

zone. Note that the layer that liquefied is visible as well as the sand dikes 

and sill that intrudes the overlying deposits. One dike extends about 2 m 

up section and terminates near the top of the photograph. On the two 

larger scales, black and white intervals represents 10 cm; on smaller scale 

near dike tip, intervals represents 1 cm. Photograph by M. Tuttle..................... 2-21
xii

Figure 2-11 Diagram illustrating sampling strategies and age estimation of liquefaction 

features (after NUREG-2115)............................................................................. 2-23

Figure 2-12 Log of sand blow and uppermost portions of related sand dikes exposed in 

a trench wall at the Dodd site in the New Madrid seismic zone (after

NUREG-2115). Sand dikes were also observed in trench floor and 

opposite wall. Radiocarbon dating of charcoal from a pit in soil below the 

sand blow and a maize kernel from a cultural feature excavated in the top 

of the sand blow bracket the age of formation of the sand blow between 

490 and 660 yr B.P. Artifacts in the A horizon buried by the sand blow and 

in the A horizon developed in the top of the sand blow indicate that the 

sand blow formed during the late Mississippian cultural period (300-550 yr 

B.P. or A.D. 1400-1670). .................................................................................... 2-27

Figure 2-13 Portion of dendrocalibration curve illustrating conversion of radiocarbon 

age to calibrated date in calendar years. For example, 2-sigma radiocarbon 

age of 2,280-2,520 BP is converted to calibrated date of 770-380 BC (from 

Tuttle, 1999). ...................................................................................................... 2-29

Figure 2-14 Bald cypress tree-ring chronologies from Reelfoot Lake, Tennessee (A), St. 

Francis sunkland, Arkansas (B), and regional chronology based on four 

bald cypress chronologies in central Arkansas (C). Note growth surge at 

Reelfoot Lake that peaked in 1814 and prolonged growth suppression at 

St. Francis sunkland following New Madrid earthquakes of 1811-1812 

(from Van Arsdale et al., 1998)........................................................................... 2-32

Figure 2-15 In situ tree trunk buried, and likely killed, by sand blow deposit in the New 

Madrid seismic zone presents opportunity to date paleoearthquakes to the 

year and even season of occurrence. For scale, shovel is 1 m long. 

Photograph by M. Tuttle. .................................................................................... 2-33

Figure 2-16 Earthquake chronology of the New Madrid seismic zone for the past 2,000 

years based on paleoliquefaction studies (e.g., Tuttle et al., 2002b and 

2005; NUREG-2115). Vertical bars represent age estimates of individual 

sand blows, and horizontal bars represent inferred event times based on 

intersection of overlapping age estimates: 138 yr BP (AD 1811-1812); 500 

yr BP ± 150 yr; 1,050 yr BP ± 100 yr. Statistical analysis resolved event 

times with narrower uncertainty ranges of 503 yr BP ± 8 yr and 1,110 yr BP 

± 40 yr as indicated by darker portions of the horizontal bars. ........................... 2-36

Figure 2-17 Shaded relief map of NMSZ and surrounding region showing instrumentally 

recorded earthquakes, inferred locations of historical earthquakes, large 

liquefaction field produced by large earthquakes, estimated ages and 

measured sizes of earthquake-induce d liquefaction features including sand 

blows and sand dikes (from Tuttle, 2010)........................................................... 2-38

Figure 2-18 Relation between moment magnitude, M, and distance from earthquake to 

farthest surface expression of liquefaction (after Papadopoulos and 

Lefkopoulos, 1993)............................................................................................. 2-41

Figure 2-19 Relation between M and epicentral distance to farthest known sand blows 

induced by instrumentally recorded earthquakes (after Castilla and 

Audemard, 2007)................................................................................................ 2-42
xiii

Figure 2-20 (Left) amax - M combination required to induce liquefaction at an 

hypothetical site; (Right) lower bound amax - M combination determined for 

the same hypothetical site (from Green et al., 2005).......................................... 2-44

Figure 2-21 Alternate earthquake scenarios that could explain the distribution of 

prehistoric liquefaction features in the greater St. Louis region (from 

NUREG/CR-5730): (Above) M > 7 earthquake centered near 

Germantown, Illinois, in vicinity of largest liquefaction features on Shoal 

Creek. (Below) M > 6 earthquake centered near Germantown, M > 5.2 

near St. Louis, and M > 7.5 centered near New Madrid, Missouri. Solid 

black lines indicate location and strike of dikes, where length of lines 

represent dike width: 8 mm line < 1 cm width, 12 mm line = 1-10 cm width, 

16 mm line > 10 cm width. Solid black squares represent dikes with 

unknown strike. Red and green filled squares represent sand blows and 

sand sills, respectively. Blue filled squares indicate soft-sediment 

deformation structures. Thick yellow lines identify river sections that were 

searched for liquefaction features. Surface traces of faults and fold axes 

are shown with gray lines and thin magenta lines, respectively. ........................ 2-45

Figure 2-22 Illustrative sets of cyclic resistance ratio (CRR) curves for M 7.5 

earthquakes from in-situ tests: (a) standard penetration; (b) shear wave 

velocity; (c) cone penetration; and (d) flat plate dilatometer (after Schneider 

et al., 1999)......................................................................................................... 2-49

Figure 2-23 Deterministic CRR curves for adjusted SPT N-value in clean sands for 

NCEER method (after Youd et al., 2001). .......................................................... 2-51

Figure 2-24 Probabilistic CRR for the SPT evaluation of liquefaction (Juang et al., 

2002). ................................................................................................................. 2-52

Figure 2-25 Representative seismic piezocone penetration sounding at 

paleoliquefaction site at a paleoliquefaction site in Marked Tree, Arkansas. ..... 2-53

Figure 2-26 Soil behavioral type for CPT classification (after Robertson, 2004). .................. 2-54

Figure 2-27 Cyclic resistance ratio (CRR) for evaluating soil liquefaction potential from 

CPT. ................................................................................................................... 2-56

Figure 2-28 Family of CRR curves corresponding to different levels of probability of 

liquefaction (after Jiang and Juang, 2000). ........................................................ 2-57

Figure 2-29 Comparison of the various CRR curves from different reviews of the 

available databases on seismic sites (Robertson, 2009). Note: Qtn value is 

specific to its methodology. ................................................................................ 2-58

Figure 2-30 Conventional SCPT cone tip resistance and neighboring seismic flat 

dilatometer test (SDMT) with frequent-interval Vs every 20 cm provides a 

detailed profile useful in paleoliquefaction (from McGillivray and Mayne, 

2008). The normal SCPT increment for Vs readings is 1 m, CHT interval is 

1.5 m (or 5 ft), and SASW interval 5 or 10 m...................................................... 2-59

Figure 2-31 Representative frequent-interval SCPTu measurements near Aiken, South 

Carolina. ............................................................................................................. 2-60
xiv

Figure 2-32 Example of graphical representation of age estimates and recurrences 

times of paleoearthquakes in the New Madrid seismic zone (from Tuttle et 

al., 2002b). (A) Age estimates and related uncertainties of New Madrid 

events during past 2,000 years. (B) Variability in recurrence times related 

to ranges of event ages. Average recurrence time for past two earthquake 

cycles is 500 years. ............................................................................................ 2-62

Figure 3-1 Example of logic tree for the Reelfoot rift-Marianna RLME source (from 

NUREG-2115). Paleoliquefaction data figure into evaluations of clustered 

behavior and magnitude and recurrence of RLMEs. The branch 

representing “out of cluster” behavior is not shown.............................................. 3-2

Figure 3-2 Map of NMSZ and surrounding region showing portions of rivers searched 

for earthquake-induced liquefaction features by various investigators (from 

NUREG-2115). ..................................................................................................... 3-5

Figure 3-3 Compound sand blow composed of multiple depositional units capped by 

clay-silt drapes formed during 1811-1812 New Madrid earthquake 

sequence. See Figure 1.16 for view of vent area and related sand dikes 

below. Photograph by M. Tuttle........................................................................... 3-6

Figure 3-4 Liquefaction fields for the past three New Madrid events as interpreted from 

spatial distribution and stratigraphy of sand blows (from NUREG-2115). 

Ellipses define areas where similar-age sand blows have been mapped. 

Overlapping ellipses indicate areas where sand blows are composed of 

multiple units that formed during a sequence of earthquakes. Dashed 

ellipse outlines area where historical sand blows are composed of four 

depositional units. Magnitudes of earthquakes in A.D. 1450 and A.D. 900 

are inferred from comparison with the 1811-1812 liquefaction fields. 

Magnitude estimates of December (D), January (J), and February (F) 

mainshocks and large aftershocks taken from several sources; rupture 

scenario from Johnston and Schweig (1996). ...................................................... 3-7

Figure 3-5 NMSZ logic tree of the seismic source model in the CEUS SSC project 

(modified from NUREG-2115). Paleoliquefaction data are reflected in 

clustered behavior and in the recurrence data used in the seismic source 

model.................................................................................................................. 3-10

Figure 3-6 NMSZ logic tree of the seismic source model in the National Probabilistic 

Seismic Hazard Maps (modified from Petersen et al., 2014). The ground 

motion model is not included in this figure. Paleoliquefaction data are 

reflected in increased weighting of earthquake sequence and 500 year 

recurrence time................................................................................................... 3-11

Figure 4-1 Scaled-down versions of the cone penetrometer including: (a) mini-CPT 

(Cha and Santamarina, 2013) and (b) micro-CPT (Kim et al., 2010). .................. 4-4

Figure A-1 Unit weight relation between shear wave velocity and depth (Mayne et al., 

2009). ................................................................................................................... A-2

Figure A-2 Relation for soil unit weight from CPT sleeve friction resistance.......................... A-3

Figure A-3 Direct relation between soil unit weight and CPT sleeve friction for a variety 

of geomaterials (after Mayne, 2014)..................................................................... A-4

Figure B-1 Updated cyclic resistance ratio for SPT in clean sands (after Boulanger and 

Idriss 2014)........................................................................................................... B-1
xv

Figure B-2 Evaluation of the stress reduction factor (rd) for the updated SPT-CPT 

approach (after Boulanger and Idriss 2014)......................................................... B-3

Figure B-3 Nine-zone chart of soil behavioral type for cone penetration tests (after 

Robertson, 2010).................................................................................................. B-4

Figure B-4 Regions A1, A2, B, and C defining flow liquefaction, cyclic liquefaction, 

and/or cyclic softening (after Robertson, 2010).................................................... B-5

Figure B-5 Updated cyclic resistance ratio for CPTs in clean sands (after Boulanger 

and Idriss 2014).................................................................................................... B-6

Figure B-6 Recommended CRR7.5 for liquefaction evaluation using DMT in clean 

sands (after Tsai et al., 2009)............................................................................... B-9

Figure B-7 NCEER recommended CRR for liquefaction evaluation using Vs1 in sands....... B-10

Figure B-8 Updated CRRs for normalized shear wave velocity using database 

methodology of Kayen et al., (2013)................................................................... B-11

Figure B-9 Relation for residual undrained strength of sand, normalized SPT 

resistance, and effective overburden stress (Kramer and Wang, 2015). ........... B-12

Figure B-10 Recommended strength of liquefied sands from CPT resistance (after 

Robertson, 2010)................................................................................................ B-13

Figure C-1 Interrelationship of volumetric strain, safety factor, and sand relative density 

for evaluating seismically-induced settlements (after Ishihara and 

Yoshimine 1992)................................................................................................... C-1

Figure C-2 Schematic drawings of ground surface conditions for lateral spread 

deformations......................................................................................................... C-2

Figure C-3 Relation of maximum cyclic shear strain (γMAX) with sand relative density 

(DR) and calculated safety factor (FS) against liquefaction (after Zhang et 

al., 2004: Ishihara and Yoshimi, 1992). ................................................................ C-3

Figure E-1 Archeologist, Robert Lafferty, documenting artifacts recovered from 

features intruding top of sand dike at archeological site 3MS557 in 

northeastern Arkansas. Photograph by M. Tuttle................................................ E-1

Figure E-2 Cross-sectional drawing G-G’ to J-J’ of archeological excavation at the East 

site (3PO610) in northeastern Arkansas (from Tuttle et al., 2011). Location 

of G-G’ to J-J’ profile indicated on plan view shown in lower left. Stratum 7 

is sand blow indicated with stipple pattern. .......................................................... E-2

xvii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1-1 Summary of tests for determining seismic origin of soft-sediment structures 

(from Wheeler, 2002; Sims, 2012)...................................................................... 1-24

Table 2-1 Summary of dating techniques used in paleoliquefaction studies (after 

NUREG-2115). ................................................................................................... 2-24

Table 2-2 Cultural periods, time spans, and associated diagnostic artifacts (from 

Tuttle et al., 2005b)............................................................................................. 2-28

Table 2-3 Uncertainties related to interpretation of paleoearthquake parameters (from 

NUREG-2115). ................................................................................................... 2-34

Table 2-4 SPT modification factors for field procedures (modified after Skempton 

1986; Kulhawy and Mayne 1990; Youd et al. 2001)........................................... 2-50

Table 2-5 Soil behavioral type and zone number as defined by CPT material index, Ic. .... 2-55

xix

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The primary goal of this document is to provide detailed guidance for conducting paleoliquefaction 

studies in order to generate high-quality data for use in seismic source characterization and 

seismic hazard assessment. Towards this end, the document includes a review of many of the 

geological, geophysical, and geotechnical techniques applied in paleoliquefaction studies and of 

approaches used to incorporate paleoliquefaction data in seismic hazard assessment. 

Furthermore, this document advances procedures for quantification of uncertainties of 

paleoliquefaction results. The intended audience includes scientists new to the field who may be 

interested in pursuing paleoliquefaction studies, government and consulting personnel interested 

in using paleoliquefaction data in seismic hazard assessments, regulators seeking a better 

understanding of paleoliquefaction in order to evaluate the results of specific studies, and 

experienced paleoliquefaction experts planning future research. This document was written by an 

interdisciplinary team with more than ninety years of combined experience in paleoliquefaction 

and the related fields of paleoseismology, Quaternary geology, structural geology, neotectonics, 

seismology, geophysics, geotechnical engineering, soil science, and archeology.

Originally developed in California as a subdiscipline of paleoseismology, the study of 

paleoliquefaction is a type of empirical science that documents, dates, and analyzes soft-sediment 

deformation structures and related ground failures that resulted from large earthquakes, 

particularly those of moment magnitude, M, greater than 6, that occurred during the past 50,000 

years, and possibly earlier. Evidence of these events may be preserved in the geologic record for 

thousands to tens of thousands of years in the form of soft-sediment deformation structures such 

as sand blows, dikes, sills, diapirs, foundered clasts, convolute bedding, pseudonodules, and load 

casts, as well as fissured, subsided, and tilted ground. Paleoliquefaction has emerged as a 

significant contributor to the understanding of the earthquake hazard in intraplate geologic settings 

of the Central and Eastern United States (CEUS) and southeastern Canada. In these regions, 

paleoliquefaction data supplement historical seismicity data and extend knowledge of the behavior 

of earthquake sources back in time. Paleoliquefaction studies have been conducted primarily in 

intraplate regions because active faults, the preferred target of most paleoseismic studies, are 

rarely expressed on the surface or are otherwise difficult to identify in these intraplate 

seismotectonic regions. However, recent earthquakes in interplate settings, such as the 2010 M

7.0 event in southern Haiti and the 2011 M 6.2-6.3 earthquake in Christchurch, New Zealand, 

induced severe liquefaction over large areas but were not associated with surface ruptures. 

Therefore, paleoliquefaction studies are likely to be more broadly applied in both interplate and 

intraplate settings in the future than they have been in the past.

In 2012, the CEUS seismic source characterization (SSC) project was completed. It was a multiyear project funded by the Electric Power Research Institute, the U.S. Department of Energy, and 

the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission to develop a new generation of regional seismic source 

models for the CEUS. Recognizing their significance to seismic hazard assessment, 

paleoliquefaction data were used in the development of the new seismic source models. As part 

of the SSC project, a paleoliquefaction database was developed that included all major regional 

datasets. In addition, a technical report was written summarizing the current state of knowledge 

for each region and reviewing uncertainties related to the identification and interpretation of 

earthquake-induced liquefaction features. During the course of that effort, it became evident that 

the type, level of detail, and quality of paleoliquefaction data vary from one region to another. It 

was found that, even in regions where large paleoearthquakes have been recognized, significant 

uncertainties remain regarding their sources, magnitudes, and recurrence times, largely due to 

insufficient data. One of the recommendations of the report was the development of a manual of 
xx

best practices to provide guidance in conducting paleoliquefaction studies and to promote the 

collection of accurate and complete paleoliquefaction data. Following up on that 

recommendation, this document provides a comprehensive overview of paleoliquefaction studies. 

The intent of the document is to help standardize methodologies, to promote paleoliquefaction 

studies in areas where new or additional data are needed to better characterize seismic sources, 

and to encourage further development of the field through multidisciplinary research. 

Similar to the paleoseismology field in general, paleoliquefaction studies provide information about 

the timing, location, magnitude, and recurrence times of large paleoearthquakes and are 

especially useful in regions where recurrence times of large earthquakes are longer than the 

historical record of earthquakes. Unlike fault studies, paleoliquefaction studies focus on softsediment deformation structures and related ground failures resulting from earthquake-induced 

liquefaction. Paleoliquefaction studies are inherently regional in scope and require observations 

and interpretations of liquefaction features at many sites over a large area. The field of study is 

interdisciplinary and requires expertise in paleoseismology, Quaternary geology, and the affiliated 

fields of sedimentology, geomorphology, soil science, geochronology, and sometimes archeology. 

A background in structural geology, neotectonics, seismology, geophysics, and geotechnical 

engineering is also desirable. Knowledge of ground motion is also relevant, as this is key to 

linking observed liquefaction features to potential sources. Qualified and experienced 

investigators should be involved in planning and execution of paleoliquefaction studies in order to 

avoid misidentification of soft-sediment deformation features and misinterpretation of the presence 

or absence of earthquake-induced liquefaction features. It is beneficial for more than one 

experienced investigator to be involved in the observation and interpretation of liquefaction 

features. If possible, site reviews should be conducted by paleoliquefaction experts during or 

soon after field investigations in order to discuss uncertainties and to avoid erroneous 

interpretation and results.

Characteristics of earthquake-induced liquefaction features and criteria for identifying them are 

well established, but the pool of experienced paleoliquefaction experts is small. Although there 

are numerous scientific articles and reports on various topics related to liquefaction studies, there 

are few resources that summarize all the relevant information. Therefore, this document was 

designed as a comprehensive resource for investigators and regulators to help remedy the 

shortage of practitioners in the field of paleoliquefaction for characterization of earthquake 

sources. It draws upon case studies of modern earthquakes that induced liquefaction, welldocumented paleoliquefaction studies, and efforts to incorporate paleoliquefaction results into the 

seismic source models used in the national probabilistic seismic hazard maps and in probabilistic 

seismic hazard analyses for nuclear facilities.

This document presents background information on paleoseismology, earthquake-induced 

liquefaction and related ground failures, and soft-sediment deformation structures that form as a 

result of liquefaction. It also provides guidance on all aspects of paleoliquefaction studies, 

including selection of study areas and the various types of information that should be consulted, 

performance of site investigations and surveys of river cutbanks and other exposures, relative and 

absolute dating techniques used to constrain ages of liquefaction features and thus important for 

estimating the timing and recurrence of paleoearthquakes, and geological and geotechnical 

approaches to estimating source areas and magnitudes of paleoearthquakes. The report 

identifies factors that contribute to uncertainty in paleoliquefaction data and observations and 

analyses that can help to reduce those uncertainties. In addition, procedures are offered for the 

quantification and expression of uncertainty in estimates of timing, location, magnitude, and 

recurrence of paleoearthquakes. The report also includes a discussion of the use of 

paleoliquefaction data in seismic hazard assessment through the development of regional seismic 
xxi

source models and presents recent examples of the use of paleoliquefaction data in seismic 

source models of the New Madrid seismic zone in the central U.S. The document concludes with 

recommendations for future research, ranging from liquefaction induced by recent earthquakes, to 

geophysical methods for mapping buried sand blows and sand dikes, and to geotechnical in situ 

testing devices and procedures, as well as improved methodologies, for assessing liquefaction. 

xxiii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The development of this guidance document is sponsored by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory 

Commission (NRC) under contract NRC-HQ-11-C-04-0041. The views and conclusions

contained in the document are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as necessarily

representing the official policies of the U.S. Government. Many thanks to Thomas Weaver who 

provided valuable guidance and support during the first year of the contract. Others who 

encouraged the development of this document include Annie Kammerer, Jon Ake, and Russ

Wheeler. Gail Atkinson reviewed the entire document, and Russell Green, Shannon Mahan, and

Julie Morrow reviewed sections of the report on the geotechnical approach to estimating

magnitudes, optically-stimulated luminescence dating of sand blows, and archeological

excavation protocols, respectively. Thomas Holzer contributed to the section on the liquefaction 

potential index. Taylor Busch, Caroline Moseley, and Cameron Schroeder assisted with editing

portions of the manuscript and Kathleen Tucker modified several figures. Many thanks to 

reviewers Gail Atkinson, Russell Green, Thomas Holzer, Shannon Mahan, and Julie Morrow as

well as NRC staff members Alice Stieve, Gerry L. Stirewalt, Thomas J. Weaver, and Sarah 

Tabatabai whose comments and suggestions contributed to and improved this document. We 

are very grateful to Rasool Anooshehpoor who helped to complete the editing process for this 

document.

xxv

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

3-D Three-dimensional 

ADAMS Agencywide Documents Access and Management System

AMS Accelerator mass-spectrometry 

CEUS Central and Eastern United States

CFR Code of Federal Regulations 

CHT Crosshole test

CPT Cone penetration test

CSR Cyclic stress ratio

CRR Cyclic resistance ratio 

DHT Downhole test 

DMT Flat dilatometer test 

EM Electromagnetic 

ER Electrical Resistivity

ETM+ Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus

FC Fines content 

FS Factor of safety 

GPR Ground-penetrating radar

IBC International Building Code

LDI Lateral displacement index

LiDAR Light Detection and Ranging 

LPI Liquefaction potential index

LSI Liquefaction severity index

M Moment magnitude

MSF Magnitude Scaling Factor

N Blow count

NCEER National Center for Earthquake Engineering and Research

NEHRP National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program

NMSZ New Madrid seismic zone

NRC Nuclear Regulatory Commission

OSL Optically-stimulated luminescence 

PGA Peak ground acceleration

RLME Repeated large-magnitude earthquake
xxvi

SBT Soil behavioral type

SCPTu Seismic piezocone test

SPT Standard penetration test

SSC Seismic source characterization

SDMT Seismic flat dilatometer test

TM Thematic Mapper

UCD University of California-Davis

USGS U.S. Geological Survey
1-1

1 INTRODUCTION

The field of paleoliquefaction has developed over the past forty years and is now providing 

important information on source areas, magnitudes, and recurrence times of large 

paleoearthquakes. Recently, paleoliquefaction data have been used in the development of the 

national seismic hazard maps and in the central and eastern U.S. (CEUS) seismic source 

characterization for nuclear facilities. Paleoliquefaction studies, along with other paleoseismic 

studies such as fault studies, supplement seismicity studies and provide information on 

earthquake potential that will be necessary for seismic hazard assessments of nuclear facilities. 

This document provides an overview of paleoliquefaction, including recent advances, to facilitate 

the broader application of this relatively new field of inquiry for such assessments.

1.1 Paleoseismology and the Paleoliquefaction Approach

Paleoseismology is the study of fault ruptures and the effects of strong earthquakes as preserved 

in the geologic record. This scientific discipline extends our knowledge of seismic activity into the 

prehistoric period, thereby improving our understanding of the long-term behavior of fault zones 

and seismic sources (e.g., McCalpin, 1996 and 2009). Paleoliquefaction studies, which focus on 

the effects of strong shaking preserved in the geologic record, are especially valuable in regions 

where seismogenic faults may not rupture the surface or are otherwise difficult to identify (Tuttle, 

2001; Tuttle et al., 2003). Paleoseismology, including paleoliquefaction studies, is especially 

useful in regions like central and eastern North America where strain rates are relatively low and 

recurrence times of large earthquakes are longer than the historical record. In such regions, the 

seismicity catalog is insufficient to characterize the expected rates of large events, a critical issue 

for uncertainty in seismic hazard estimation.

The paleoliquefaction approach is based on field observations of surface effects and softsediment deformation structures resulting from soil liquefaction induced by historical and modern 

earthquakes. The 1819 Cutch (Kachchh) earthquake in India is an example of a large historical 

earthquake that induced liquefaction and ground failure. Accounts of the earthquake reported by 

Captain J. MacMurdo (1822) and later discussed by Oldham (1926) describe “the occurrence of 

sand vents” “frequent and widespread throughout Cutch,” “spots of ground in circles” that “threw 

out water to a considerable height, and subsided into a slough,” and rivers, generally dry except 

during the monsoon, “filled to their banks for a period of a few minutes...to half an hour." The 

2001 moment magnitude, M, 7.7 Bhuj earthquake also in the Kachchh region of India is a modern 

example of earthquake-induced liquefaction and ground failure. Accounts of this event describe 

fountains of water 1 to 2 m high during and immediately following the earthquake, formation of 

sand blows and ground fissures, and water flowing temporarily in previously dry channels (Tuttle 

et al., 2002a). Fuller (1912), who studied the 1811-1812 New Madrid earthquakes in the central 

U.S. almost a century after the event, describes the appearance of sand blows, sand sloughs, 

sand scatters, sand dikes, and simple and compound fissures (Figure 1-1).
1-2

Figure 1-1 Photograph of large sand blow with central crater that formed during

1811-1812 New Madrid earthquakes (from Fuller, 1912). 

Fuller (1912) also recognized “geologic evidence of shocks long antedating that of 1811.” The 

evidence included “certain sand sloughs, ...cracks as large as any of those of the last great 

disturbance...with trees fully 200 years old grown on their bottoms and slopes” and sloughs with 

“all the characteristics of sunk lands except the dead timber”...pointing “to a considerably earlier 

origin.” Fuller was an early paleoseismologist. Applying the principle of uniformitarianism, that 

suggests: "the present is the key to the past," he recognized paleoliquefaction features (or 

prehistoric liquefaction features) and related ground failures and used them to interpret the 

occurrence of paleoearthquakes similar to those in 1811-1812. Following the 1971 San 

Fernando, California earthquake, Sims (1973) described three zones of soft-sediment deformation 

structures in lacustrine deposits that had accumulated in the Van Norman reservoir. The three 

zones of deformation structures were attributed to liquefaction induced by three separate seismic 

events: the 1971 earthquake, and two prior earthquakes in 1952 and 1930. Recognizing the 

potential usefulness of soft-sediment deformation structures in developing long-term earthquake 

histories, Sims (1975) suggested criteria for distinguishing seismically from non-seismically 

induced structures. These and many other post-earthquake studies, including geological and 

geotechnical investigations, have provided valuable information used to identify earthquakeinduced liquefaction features in the geologic record, to develop empirical relations, and to make 

interpretations about paleoearthquakes from paleoliquefaction features. 

The paleoliquefaction approach has been most broadly applied in central and eastern North 

America. Paleoliquefaction studies have been conducted in the New Madrid (e.g., Saucier, 1991; 

Tuttle, 1999; Tuttle et al., 2002b and 2005), the Charleston (e.g., Talwani and Cox, 1985; 

Obermeier et al., 1989; Amick et al., 1990; Talwani and Schaeffer, 2001), and the Charlevoix 

(Tuttle and Atkinson, 2010) seismic zones, where large historical earthquakes are known to have 

occurred. In addition, paleoliquefaction studies have been conducted in the Wabash Valley (e.g., 

Munson et al., 1997; Obermeier, 1998) and the Eastern Tennessee (Hatcher et al., 2012) seismic 

zones, where only small to moderate earthquakes have occurred during the historical period. 

Other studies have been conducted outside recognized seismic zones, including those in the 
1-3

meizoseismal areas of the 1727 Newburyport, Massachusetts, earthquake (Tuttle and Seeber, 

1991), along the mid-Atlantic Seaboard (Amick and Gelinas, 1991), in southwestern Illinois 

(McNulty and Obermeier, 1999; NUREG/CR-5730), along the Clarendon-Linden fault zone in 

western New York State (Tuttle et al., 2002c), and near the southwestern terminus of the Reelfoot 

Rift fault system in east-central Arkansas (Tuttle et al., 2006; Al-Shukri et al., 2009). In the 

northeastern Caribbean, paleoliquefaction studies have been carried out in the Dominican 

Republic (Tuttle et al., 2003) and in Puerto Rico (Tuttle et al., 2005a; Tuttle, 2011) to help assess 

the earthquake potential of onshore and offshore faults. A paleoliquefaction study is currently 

underway in the Central Virginia seismic zone, the source of the 2011, M 5.8, Mineral earthquake 

that led to the temporary shutdown of the North Anna nuclear power plant located 18 km from the 

epicenter (Tuttle, pers. comm., 2015). The study will compare liquefaction features that formed 

during the 2011 M 5.8 earthquake (Green et al., 2015) with several weathered sand dikes found 

during a paleoliquefaction study in the mid-1990s, (Obermeier and McNulty, 1998; Agencywide 

Documents Access and Management System [ADAMS] Accession No. ML042800292). 

The goals of paleoliquefaction studies are to estimate the timing, source areas, magnitudes, and 

recurrence times of strong earthquakes during the past 50,000 years, and possibly earlier. 

Results of paleoliquefaction studies increasingly are being used as input parameters for seismic 

hazard analyses and probabilistic risk assessments. In developing the U.S. national seismic 

hazard maps, the results of several paleoliquefaction studies were incorporated into the source 

model for the New Madrid seismic zone (Petersen et al., 2008). The CEUS Seismic Source 

Characterization Project developed a paleoliquefaction database that included all major datasets 

and used the paleoliquefaction data to identify earthquake source areas, to estimate recurrence 

times, and to weight maximum magnitudes in the new regional seismic source model (NUREG2115).

1.2 Earthquake-Induced Liquefaction

Since the 1960s, when the 1964 Alaska, U.S., 1964 Niigata, Japan, and 1967 Caracas, 

Venezuela, earthquakes, caused catastrophic liquefaction-related failures, earthquake soil 

dynamics has been a major research focus of the geotechnical engineering community (Seed and 

Idriss, 1982). Due to this concerted research effort, the process of liquefaction, the conditions 

contributing to liquefaction and the mechanisms of ground failure are much better understood than 

before. 

1.2.1 Process of Liquefaction

Liquefaction is the phenomenon that occurs when saturated sands exhibit reduced strength and 

stiffness due to increased pore water pressure, most often associated with cyclic loading imposed 

during earthquakes (Youd, 1973; Seed and Idriss, 1982; Boulanger and Idriss, 2014). There are 

two primary types of liquefaction: (a) flow liquefaction; associated with static monotonic loading; 

and (b) cyclic liquefaction, caused by repeated (earthquake) loading (Robertson and Wride, 

1998). The term "liquefaction" is reserved for sands and granular deposits, while similar but rarer 

"cyclic softening" can occur in soft fine-grained clays and silts (Idriss and Boulanger, 2008). 

Sediment must be water-saturated in order for pore water pressures to develop during ground 

shaking. High pore water pressure can lead to a buoyancy effect on sediment grains causing a 

significant drop in the shear strength of the sediment (Kramer et al., 2011). During earthquakes, 

seismic waves propagate towards the ground surface and cyclic shear waves distort the structure 

of near-surface sediment through which they pass. Loose sands and gravels will tend to compact 

and reduce in volume (termed contractive behavior), leading to a reduction in strength and 

stiffness, i.e. "liquefaction". In contrast, dense sands and gravels will exhibit dilative behavior (i.e., 
1-4

increase in volume) and are less likely to liquefy, however, they may accumulate deformations of 

limited magnitude in a phenomenon termed "cyclic mobility". 

At the micromechanics level, sediment is composed of individual grains or particles (e.g., sand) 

and each particle is in contact with a number of neighboring particles (Figure 1.2). The weight of 

the overlying particles produce contact forces between the particles by gravity (termed overburden 

stresses) and these forces hold individual particles in place and give the sediment its strength and 

structure. For saturated sediment below the water table, some of the weight of the overlying 

particles is carried by the pore water creating a buoyancy effect. Under level ground conditions 

and where no shear stresses are applied from foundations or other structures, a stable matrix of 

granular particles exists as long as the overburden stress (gravity) exceeds the pore water 

pressure (buoyancy). In contrast, liquefaction occurs when the structure of water-saturated, 

loose, granular sediment breaks down due to rapidly applied and repetitive loading caused by 

earthquakes. As the sediment structure breaks down, the loosely packed particles attempt to 

move into a denser configuration (termed contraction). During an earthquake, however, there is 

not enough time for the water in the pores of the sediment to be squeezed out. Instead, the water 

is trapped and prevents the particles from moving closer together. This is accompanied by an 

increase in pore water pressure that reduces the contact forces between the individual particles, 

thereby softening and weakening the sediment.

Figure 1-2 Schematic representation of changes in grain-to-grain contacts and pore water 

pressure as a volume of water-saturated granular sediment experiences ground 

shaking. The blue column represents the pore water pressure (from Johansson, 

2000). 
1-5

σσ′ = σσ − uu

where σσ is the total (vertical) overburden stress, uu = pore water pressure, and σσ′ is the effective 

(vertical) stress. This is classically referred to as the principle of effective stress (Terzaghi 1943). 

See Appendix A for an explanation of the evaluation of overburden stress.

Soil behavior is complex during soil liquefaction, as illustrated in Figure 1.3. Cyclic liquefaction

results from the accumulation of excess pore water pressure as repeated load cycles are applied 

by earthquake ground motions. Cyclic liquefaction of sands is the most common type of behavior. 

In the phenomenon of cyclic mobility, deformations accumulate in sands under the repeated 

cycles of earthquake loading, however the soil strength is not significantly reduced. Cyclic 

softening can occur in soft sensitive clays and silts. Flow liquefaction occurs during first-time 

(monotonic static) loading of unstable soils, including sands, silts, and clays. In cases of both 

cyclic and flow liquefaction, a significant loss of soil strength occurs.

Figure 1-3 Flow chart showing the different types of soil liquefaction: flow liquefaction, 

cyclic liquefaction, cyclic mobility, and cyclic softening.

In the well known concept of "quicksand", a flow liquefaction condition can occur where the total 

vertical overburden stress equals the ambient hydrostatic pore water pressure (probably high due 

to artesian conditions), such that the effective stress equals zero:

GEOMATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION

Sands and Gravels Clays and Silts

Fines Content: FC < 50% FC ≥ 50%

CPT Ic < 2.6 CPT Ic ≥ 2.6

Strain Softening

Behavior

Strain Hardening

Behavior

Flow 

Liquefaction

Softening under repeated loading

Cyclic 

Softening

Monotonic (Static)

Trigger

Size and Duration

of cyclic loading

Gravitational stresses (slopes)

> undrained shear strength

Contained

Deformation

Uncontained

Deformation

Potential for 

Progressive Failure

Deformations continue

after triggering

Possible porewater

redistribution

Shear stress

reversal

No shear

stress reversal

Cyclic

Liquefaction

Cyclic

Mobility

Large

Deformations

Small

Deformations

Deformations 

completed

after cyclic loading

Indices (wn, LL, PI)

Sensitivity, St (Vane Shear, Fall Cone)

Undisturbed samples

Monotonic triaxial tests

Monotonic simple shear tests

Cyclic triaxial tests

Cyclic simple shear tests

Strain Hardening 

and/or no peak 

softening

Small

Deformations

Large

Deformations

Modified after Robertson 

& Wride (1998) and Idriss

& Boulanger (2008)

Highly

Sensitive

or Quick

The state of stress in a soil or sediment is best represented by the effective stress condition:
1-6

σσ = uu aaaaaa σσ′ = 0

Contractive soils undergo flow liquefaction when gravitational shear stresses (loads on the soil) 

are greater than the residual undrained shear strength (strength of liquefied soil). Flow 

liquefaction results in large deformations. Examples of flow liquefaction failures include the Fort 

Peck Dam (Casagrande, 1965) and Aberfan flowslide (Bishop, 1973) among others.

At most documented liquefaction sites, the more common mechanism is cyclic liquefaction where 

earthquakes cause the generation of pore water pressures that accumulate during repeated 

cycles of back-and-forth shearing. In loose contractive sand, the development of positive pore 

water pressure reduces the effective stress state and when the effective strength envelope is 

reached, the onset of cyclic liquefaction occurs (Figure 1.4; Robertson and Wride 1998; 

Robertson 2010).

Figure 1-4 Schematic of undrained cyclic behavior of sand illustrating cyclic 

liquefaction, where qcy represents the cyclic shear stress and qst is the initial 

geostatic static shear stress (from Robertson and Wride 1998).

During large earthquakes, the excess pore water pressures can force the liquefied sand upward 

towards the ground surface from several meters below the ground. During this process, an 

upward flow of water is initiated in the layer that liquefied, which can further cause liquefaction in 

overlying non-liquefied sandy deposits, producing a quicksand effect (Kramer et al., 2011). If the 

slurry of water and sediment intrudes the overlying layers, it will form sand dikes and (Figure 1.5) 

small sand diapirs. Sand dikes are tabular in morphology and have some lateral continuity; 

whereas, sand diapirs are intrusive structures with little lateral continuity. Sometimes the upward 

flowing slurry of water and sediment intrudes laterally below the basal contact of a relatively 
1-7

impermeable layer, forming sills (Tuttle, 2001). If the slurry of water and sediment erupts on the 

ground surface, sand blows or sand boils will form. These features are also described as sand 

volcanoes because they resemble small volcanic cones, some with small craters at the surface, 

aligned along ground fissures (Figure 1.5).

Figure 1-5 Sand blows or sand volcanoes resulting from liquefaction of water-saturated 

loose, granular sediment and subsequent venting of water and entrained 

sediment onto the ground surface (from NUREG-2115). Upper: photograph of

moderate-sized sand blow (12 m long, 7 m wide, and 14 cm thick) that formed 

above ground fissure about 40 km from epicenter of 2002 M 7.7 Bhuj, India,

earthquake (Tuttle et al., 2002a). Lower: schematic diagram illustrating

structural and stratigraphic relations of sand blow, sand dike, and liquefied 

sediment at depth (after Sims and Garvin, 1995).

For additional discussion of the process of liquefaction, see Seed (1979), Seed and Idriss (1981), 

Ishihara (1985), Castro (1987 and 1995), Dobry (1989), Robertson and Wride (1998), Youd et al. 

(2001), and Robertson (2010).

1.2.2 Conditions that Influence Liquefaction and the Formation of Liquefaction Features

Liquefaction features commonly form in fluvial, lacustrine, beach, and estuarine deposits of 

Holocene age (0.01 Ma to present) where sand is interbedded with silt and clay and shallow 

groundwater conditions prevail (e.g., Sims, 1973; Youd, 1984; Tuttle et al., 1990, 2002; 

Obermeier, 1996; Reid et al., 2012). Sedimentological and hydrological conditions in these 

environments favor liquefaction during earthquakes and result in deformational structures that can 

be recognized by the trained professional. Liquefaction features also have formed in similar 
1-8

deposits of Late Pleistocene age (0.126 to 0.01 Ma) that are characterized by loose to moderate 

soil density and have not been cemented (e.g., Tuttle et al., 2006; Tuttle and Atkinson, 2010; 

Tuttle and Dyer-Williams, 2010). Although much less common, liquefaction features have been 

reported in sediment as old as 200,000-240,000 yr B.P. (Obermeier et al., 1990).

The physical properties of sediment that influence liquefaction susceptibility, or their tendency to 

liquefy during earthquakes, include the size, shape, and packing arrangement of the sediment

grains. Well-rounded, well-sorted, loose to moderately loose, fine sand with a high void ratio 

would be especially susceptibility to liquefaction, so long as it is saturated. Generally, coarser

grained sediment, such as coarse sand or pebbles, would be less susceptible to liquefaction than 

fine sand due to its greater permeability, making the buildup of pore water pressure during ground 

shaking more difficult. Poorly sorted sand, with lower void ratio as well as lower permeability, also 

would be less susceptible to liquefaction. Liquefaction susceptibility decreases with increasing

fines content, especially if the fines include clay (Seed et al., 1983). For fine-grained soils (clays

and silts), shaking ground can possibly result in significant deformations, particularly with soft or

sensitive soils, and this is now termed cyclic softening (Idriss & Boulanger, 2008).

Aging can have a significant effect on the strength of soil, and thus may influence the liquefaction 

susceptibility of sediment (e.g., Leon et al., 2006; Andrus et al., 2007). Over time, sediment

consolidates, especially if buried by subsequent deposits, becoming more densely packed and 

less susceptible to liquefaction. In addition, cementation of sand grains by clay, calcium

carbonate, and iron and manganese oxides will strengthen the sediment and reduce its

liquefaction susceptibility (Sowers, 1979). Cementation can increase the soil liquefaction 

resistance particularly where the water table fluctuates. Wetting and drying cycles in the depth 

range of a fluctuating water table can promote the precipitation and concentration of clays,

carbonates, and oxides. In situations with considerable groundwater flow, however, carbonates

and other potential cementing agents may be flushed out of the sandy deposits (Green et al.,

2005). Due largely to aging effects, Pleistocene (2.58 to 0.01 Ma; Gibbard et al., 2010) deposits

tend to be less susceptible to liquefaction than Holocene (0.01 Ma to present) deposits, and prePleistocene (before 2.58 Ma) deposits tend to have a very low likelihood of being susceptible to 

liquefaction (Youd and Hoose, 1977; Youd and Perkins, 1978). 

Layering in sediment plays an important role in liquefaction and the formation of liquefaction 

features. Upper capping layers of clay or silt form impermeable barriers that prevent or retard the 

flow of water upward through the sediment from underlying sandy layers (e.g., Friedman and 

Sanders, 1978). By preventing or retarding the flow of water, layers of clay or silt promote the 

buildup of pore water pressure in sandy layers during ground shaking that can lead to liquefaction 

(Idriss & Boulanger, 2008). In addition, distinctive types of liquefaction features form in 

interbedded coarse-grained and fine-grained sediment that can be fairly easily recognized. These 

features include foundered clasts, load casts, convolute laminations, ball and pillow structures, 

and pseudonodules that formed in the layer that liquefied as well as sand diapirs, dikes, and sills 

that intruded overlying layers, and sand blows or sand volcanoes that resulted from venting of 

liquefied sediment onto the ground surface. A more detailed discussion of these earthquakeinduced liquefaction features is provided in Section 1.4. 

As mentioned above, sediment must be saturated in order to liquefy. Therefore, the elevation of 

the water table relative to the sediment that is susceptible to liquefaction is an important factor. 

The water table is often high in fluvial, lacustrine, and estuarine environments contributing to the 

liquefaction susceptibility of sediment in these settings. The water table fluctuates in response to 

precipitation and therefore varies from season to season and from year to year. In coastal 

settings, the water table fluctuates in response to ocean tides as well as to precipitation. Longterm changes in relative sea-level cause large fluctuations in the water table in coastal and nearby 

inland areas and can have significant impact on liquefaction potential of sediment. 
1-9

1.2.3 Ground Motions that Cause Liquefaction

The key index parameters of ground motion include ground acceleration, ground velocity, ground 

displacement, and duration of ground shaking (Seed and Idriss, 1982). These combined with the 

frequency characteristics of ground motion account for the intensity of ground shaking. 

Characteristics of earthquake ground motions at a particular site, that may or may not suffer 

liquefaction, will depend on several seismological and geological factors. These factors include 

magnitude of the earthquake, the source mechanism of the earthquake, distance from the site to 

the earthquake source, directivity of seismic energy related to the direction and speed of fault 

rupture, characteristics of the rocks along the wave path from source to site, and local soil 

conditions at the site. 

Earthquake-induced liquefaction is caused by the buildup of excess pore water pressure due to 

cyclic shear stresses imparted by ground motions. In particular, the amplitude of the cyclic shear 

stresses and the number of cycles of shearing contribute to liquefaction (Seed and Idriss, 1982). 

Maximum shear stress is related to maximum ground acceleration and the number of cycles

depends on the duration of the earthquake and also implicitly its frequency content. Earthquakes 

in the eastern US with higher frequency content cause higher peak ground accelerations (PGAs) 

than western earthquakes at the same magnitudes and distances (Atkinson and Boore, 2000). 

Both maximum ground acceleration and duration of ground shaking generally increase with 

earthquake magnitude and may also increase as a result of seismotectonic setting, site 

conditions, and bedrock topography (i.e., basin effects). The default or reference magnitude value 

for liquefaction analyses in the U.S. is M 7.5, which is considered to impart 15 cycles of uniform 

stress (Youd et al., 2001; Idriss and Boulanger 2004; Boulanger and Idriss, 2014). 

In liquefaction analyses, the level of ground shaking from seismic loading is expressed in terms 

of the cyclic stress ratio (CSR), which is the ratio of the cyclic shear stress (τ) to the effective 

overburden stress (σ'vo) at any given elevation, or CSR= τ/σ'vo. Using the conventional 

simplified procedures, the cyclic stress ratio (CSR) is expressed as (Seed and Idriss, 1971):

CCCCCC = 

ττaa aa

σσvvvv

′ = 0.65 ∙ �aamm mm

gg � ∙ �σσvvvvσσvvvv

′ � ∙ rrdd

where τave is the average equivalent uniform shear stress generated by the earthquake 

(assumed to be 65 percent of the maximum induced stress), aammaamm is the peak (horizontal) ground 

acceleration (or PGA), gg = the gravitational acceleration constant (gg = 9.8 m/s2

 = 32 ft/s2), σσvvvv and 

σσ

′

vvvv are the total and effective vertical stresses, respectively, and rrdd is a stress reduction 

coefficient that accounts for the flexibility of the model soil column (rrdd ≤ 1.0). See Appendix A for

additional details concerning the calculations of σσvvvv and σσ

′

vvvv. 

The PGA is taken as the maximum of either horizontal component, or alternately as the geometric

mean of both peak horizontal components, however, is not calculated as the resultant value from

the two measured axes from accelerogram records (Youd and Idriss, 1997).

The magnitude of PGA = aammaamm/gg can be estimated using three basic approaches: (a) empirical

PGA distance plots, (b) seismic hazard maps, and/or (c) site-specific amplification analyses and

acceleration records. Point source methods have been used to develop PGA distance relations

(e.g., Boore 1983, 2005). Seismic hazard maps showing the expected PGAs are published by the 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and various state geological agencies, the Federal Emergency

Management Agency, the International Building Code (IBC), and by international sources for

regions outside of the United States. Figure 1.6 is an example of a USGS seismic hazard map 

showing estimated PGA across the US.
1-10

Figure 1-6 Peak ground acceleration (PGA) for 2% probability of exceedance in 50 years on 

a uniform firm-rock site condition with a shear wave velocity in upper 30 m of 

760 m/s (from Petersen et al., 2012).

The value of CSR can be more properly evaluated using site-specific values of soil stiffness, in 

particular, the small-strain shear modulus: GGmm mm = ρρtt ∙ VVss

2, where ρρtt = total soil mass density and 

VVss = shear wave velocity. Thus, measured VVss for each of the various soil layers at depth provide 

the corresponding GGmm mm stiffness values that are input directly into computer codes such as 

SHAKE (Schnabel et al., 1972), EduSHAKE (www.proshake.com), ProSHAKE 

(www.proshake.com), SHAKE2000 (www.geomotions.com), and DEEPSOIL (Hashash and Park, 

2001; Hashash et al., 2010: http://deepsoil.cee.illinois.edu). A full acceleration-time record from a 

reference earthquake event can be used as input in the generation of the expected dynamic 

stress levels. Alternatively, the value aamm mm is taken from the appropriate design events for a given 

project (i.e., the 2%, 5%, or 10% probability earthquake for a certain return period; the maximum 

credible event for a known fault located a certain distance from the site; or a code-based response 

spectrum).

The stress reduction factor (rrdd) can be obtained via alternate approaches, including: (a) simplified 

approach that uses a mean value from probabilistic studies; or (b) a site-specific analyses for the 

particular location and soil shear wave velocity profile (e.g., SHAKE, DEEPSOIL). The magnitude 

of the factor rrdd decreases with depth (rrdd ≤ 1) with the mean relation shown in Figure 1.7 plus 

upper and lower bounds following the original study by Seed and Idriss (1971).
1-11

Figure 1-7 Simplified relation for stress reduction factor (rd) as a function of depth

(from Youd et al., 2001). 

Per the recommendations of the National Center for Earthquake Engineering and Research 

(NCEER) Workshop on soil liquefaction, a continuous function for rdd can be expressed in terms 

of depth zz (in meters) for the simplified procedure (Youd et al., 2001) which is given by: 

rrdd = 

1 − 0.411zz0.5 + 0.0405zz + 0.00175zz1.5

1 − 0.418zz0.5 + 0.0573zz − 0.00621 + 0.00121zz2

While the above expression provides a quick deterministic value for rrdd in the CSR evaluation, in 

truth, site-specific values show considerable variance and wide possible ranges, thereby adding 

significant uncertainty in the outcome. Studies by Idriss and Boulanger (2010) showed that rrdd

depends not only on depth (zz) but also on earthquake magnitude (M), as described in Appendix B. 

Moreover, extensive analyses conducted by Cetin et al. (2004) offer a more detailed look at the 

rrdd parameter that provides more complex expressions which depends upon depth (zz), moment 

magnitude (M), PGA, and shear wave velocity (VVss), as summarized in Appendix B.

Much of the research and documentation on earthquakes have focuses on a reference 

earthquake of magnitude Mw = 7.5 lasting approximately 15 seconds duration with level ground 

conditions. Thus, a more generalized cyclic stress ratio can be detailed as:

CCCCCC7.5 = 

ττaa aa

σσvvvv

′ = 0.65 ∙ �aamm mm

gg � ∙ �σσvvvvσσvvvv

′ � ∙ rrdd∙

1

MM MM ∙ KKσσ ∙ KKαα

where MM MM = magnitude scaling factor, KKσσ = overburden factor, and KKαα= ground slope factor 

(Idriss and Boulanger 2004; Robertson 2009). In reality, a range of earthquake magnitudes may 

occur in nature and thus the MSF allows for a direct adjustment of the methodology to a common 

event (Boulanger and Idriss 2012). The KKσσ and KKαα factors are applicable for more specialized 

cases, such as large earthen dams and reservoirs, where loose natural sands might lie beneath 

slopes and may be situated under several hundred meters of overburden. For the simplified 

0

5

10

15

20

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

Depth, z (meters)

Stress Reduction Factor, rd

Mean Value (Seed & Idriss 1971)

Ranges for Various

Soil Profiles

No case studies

in this region
1-12

procedures of the NCEER approach where case histories are restricted to depths of zz < 15 m and 

effective overburden stresses are generally σσvvvv

′ < 2 atm, the value of KKσσ ≈ 1 and for flat horizontal 

ground conditions, KKαα ≈ 1.

The recommended magnitude scaling factor (MM MM) to adjust the CCCCCC for the NCEER approach is 

given by Youd et al. (2003):

MM MM = (7.5/MMww)−3.3

1.3 Ground Failure Resulting from Liquefaction

The understanding of ground failure comes largely from case studies following modern 

earthquakes (e.g., Bray et al., 2010; Cetin et al., 2011; Cubrinovski et al., 2011; Tuttle et al., 

2002a). Earthquake-induced liquefaction can cause several types of ground failure, including loss 

of bearing strength, ground settlement, ground oscillation, lateral spreads, and flow failures 

(National Research Council, 1985; Robertson et al., 1992). Soil or sediment properties that 

influence the location and type of ground failure include permeability, thickness, strength, and 

spatial relations (Tuttle and Barstow, 1996). Nature and severity of ground failure is related to the 

reduction in shear strength and the magnitude of the static shear loads supported by the layer that 

liquefies (Ishihara and Yoshimine, 1992). See Appendix C for additional information on the 

evaluation of ground deformation, including settlements and lateral spreads.

Loss of Bearing Strength: This type of failure, also referred to as bearing capacity failure, usually 

results in settling or tipping of a building or some other engineered structure into a near surface 

layer that has liquefied (Figure 1.8). Bearing strength failures also can affect soils or sediment 

overlying the layer that liquefied. Loss of strength of the liquefied layer or formation of a waterinterlayer below a relatively impermeable surface layer, such as a weathered clay or silt, can lead 

to sinking of pieces of the overlying layer into the weak layer below. 

Ground settlement: Settlements due to liquefaction can occur as the layer that liquefies compacts 

and excess pore water pressures dissipate. This type of failure can result in drowning of low-lying 

areas, including forests, and shifting of drainage patterns.

Ground oscillation: This type of ground failure occurs on flat ground. It is thought that the layer 

that liquefies sloshes back and forth as shaking continues. The overlying soil is jostled and 

broken, ground cracks open and close, and water or mud may erupt or vent through them. A 

recent example of this phenomenon was videotaped in Tokyo’s Central Park during the 2011 

Tohoku earthquake (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I3hJK1BoRak).
1-13

Figure 1-8 Bearing strength failure during 2010 M 7.0 earthquake in Haiti (from

Kattenhorn, 2011). 

Lateral spreads: Lateral spreads occur on gently sloping ground (0.3-3°) and involves lateral 

movement of large blocks of soil as a consequence of liquefaction in a subsurface layer (e.g., 

Youd et al., 2002). Figure 1.9 illustrates a lateral spread during the Bhuj earthquake in India 

(Tuttle et al., 2002a). Horizontal movements of 3-5 m are common, but may be as great as 30-50 

m, if slopes are unfavorable and ground shaking lasts for a long time. Lateral spreads often break 

up internally, forming numerous fissures, scarps, and hummocky ground. Lateral spreads 

typically occur along riverbanks with fissures forming perpendicular to the direction of movement. 

Flow Failures: This type of failure occurs on slopes greater than 3° and involves lateral movement 

of a layer of sediment or blocks of sediment riding on the liquefied sediment or water interlayer 

(Robertson, 2010). Figure 1-10 shows a flow failure induced by the Saguenay earthquake in 

Canada 180 km from the epicenter (Tuttle et al., 1989 and 1990). Flow failures are the most 

catastrophic type of ground failure caused by liquefaction. Horizontal movements can range from 

several meters to several tens of kilometers. Although they can occur on land or underwater, the 

largest flow failures have occurred underwater in coastal areas. 
1-14

Figure 1-9 Lateral spread adjacent to river during 2001 M 7.7 Bhuj earthquake in India. 

Sand blows also formed on surface of block that moved towards river (from

Tuttle et al., 2002a).

Familiarity with the various types of ground failure resulting from liquefaction is helpful in 

interpreting the geologic record of past liquefaction events. Certain liquefaction features, 

described in Section 1.4 below, are likely to form during different types of ground failure. Sand 

diapirs and foundered clasts are likely to be associated with bearing strength failures. Sand blows 

and sand dikes are likely to form during ground oscillations and lateral spreads (Figure 1-11). 

Chaotic deposits with destroyed bedding and large soil clasts may result from flow failures, and 

drowned forests may be indicative of ground settlement. Earthquake-triggered landslides on 

slopes greater than 3° can exhibit many of the same characteristics as landslides triggered by 

non-seismic causes such as saturated soil conditions resulting from intense rainfall or rapid 

snowmelt and erosion of the slope toe by fluvial or wave action. In order to attribute mass 

movements to a paleoearthquake, it is usually required to find many landslides that formed at the 

same time over a large area (e.g., Adams, 1982; Goldfinger, 2011; Aylesworth and Lawrence, 

2003; Brooks, 2013).
1-15

Figure 1-10 Flow failure, about 88 m wide and extending 150 m across the valley below, 

triggered by M 5.9 Saguenay earthquake in Canada (from Tuttle et al., 1989 

and 1990). Photograph taken looking down slope. Note blocks of soil and 

debris pile at toe of slide.
1-16

Figure 1-11 Small sand blow noted following 2011 M 7.2 van Tabanli earthquake in 

Turkey (from Cetin et al., 2011). For scale, pencil adjacent to vent.

1.4 Earthquake-Induced Liquefaction Features

The types of sedimentary features that result from earthquake-induced liquefaction can be 

divided into two categories: those related to deformation extending beyond the layer that 

liquefies and those related to deformation within the sedimentary layer that liquefies (Figures 

1.12-1.18 and 1.20). Features that extend beyond the liquefied layer, such as intrusive dikes, 

sills, and diapirs and extrusive sand volcanoes or blows, are most commonly used in 

paleoliquefaction studies. Features that form within the liquefied layer include foundered clasts, 

load casts, convolute lamination, ball-and-pillow structures, and pseudonodules. Because these 

in-layer features can form as the result of other sedimentary processes, they are rarely used 

alone in paleoliquefaction studies. In the best of circumstances, both types of features and their 

interrelationships can be observed in a single exposure.

1.4.1 Dikes, Sills, Diapirs, and Blows

As described above, strong ground shaking can induce liquefaction and fluidization of watersaturated, loose, sandy sediment and lead to various types of ground failure. This can result in 

intrusion of pressurized water and entrained sediment into adjacent and overlying deposits, and 

extrusion of water and sediment onto the ground surface (Figure 1.12). Because sandy sediment 

is more easily liquefied and fluidized than finer-grained sediment, the intrusive and extrusive 

features resulting from liquefaction are most often sandy in nature. However, silt also is known to 

liquefy and form intrusive and extrusive features. For example, liquefaction was observed in silty 

soils in Adapazari during the 1999 Kocaeli, Turkey, earthquake (Bray and Sancio, 2006).

Dikes are sheet-like or tabular-shaped intrusive bodies that crosscut bedding in the host deposits. 

Dikes usually have well-defined margins and can be differentiated from the host deposit by 
1-17

differences in grain size and weathering characteristics (Figure 1.13). Dikes typically originate in a 

layer of sandy sediment (i.e., the source layer) and are composed of sediment derived from the 

source layer (Figure 1.14). The dikes may contain clasts of the intruded host deposits and exhibit 

flow structure or lineations. They often become narrower and finer-grained, and sometimes 

branch, up section. Dikes may pinch out or terminate within the stratigraphic section or extend 

through the entire section to the ground surface. Tree root casts, animal burrows, dessication 

cracks, and other voids or weak spots near the ground surface can be utilized as pathways to the 

surface (e.g., Audemard and de Santis, 1991; Tuttle, 1999; Martin, 2011). Diapirs are similar to 

dikes but are relatively small intrusions of sediment extending from the layer that liquefied into the 

base of the overlying layer (Figures 1.12 and 1.15). In contrast to dikes and diapirs, sills are 

intruded parallel to bedding of host deposits and usually take the form of lenses intruded below 

low-permeability layers. The source layer of dikes, diapirs, and sills may contain foundered clasts 

of the overlying layer and exhibit deformation structures, such as dish structures, ball-and-pillow 

structures, and convolute bedding, as well as flow structure or lineations (Figure 1.14). 

Alternatively, the source layer may be massive if bedding has been completely destroyed.

Figure 1-12 Block diagram showing relationship between the liquefied layer and 

overlying liquefaction features including intrusive sand dikes and sills and 

an extrusive sand blow (from NUREG-2115).

Blows are extrusive deposits resulting from venting of water and entrained sediment onto the 

ground surface (Figures 1.5, 1.12, and 1.16). The opening at the ground surface through which 

the slurry of water and sediment flows is referred to as the vent. As vented water flows across the 

ground surface, the entrained sediment is deposited to form constructional cones or to fill 

subsided areas. In plan view, the shape of a blow is related to the shape of the void through 

which the slurry of water and sand vented. Linear to elliptical blows result from venting through 
1-18

fissures (Tuttle and Barstow, 1996). Circular blows result from venting through tubular-shaped 

conduits such as root casts. In cross section, blows overlie soil horizons and other depositional 

units and are connected to dikes or other sediment-filled conduits below the vent.

Figure 1-13 Photograph of sand dike exposed in a cutbank of the Meramec River near St. 

Louis, Missouri (NUREG/CR-5730). The dike crosscuts and is coarser 

grained than the silty deposit it intrudes. For scale, shovel is 1 m long. 

Photograph by M. Tuttle.

Typically, sediment composing the blows is thickest and coarsest-grained immediately above the 

vent and, generally, thins and fines away from the vent. The sand blows often contain clasts of 

the underlying deposits through which the slurry of water and sand flowed. Clasts within the 

blows tend to be larger and more abundant in close proximity to the vent. In cases where a large 

volume of subsurface sediment has vented to the surface or where there has been lateral 

spreading, the soil horizon buried beneath the blow may dip toward the vent or be displaced 

downward across the vent due to ground subsidence (Figure 1.16; Tuttle and Barstow, 1996). In 

cases, where craters form at the ground surface, vented sediment is deposited within the craters 

and around the crater rims. Over time, the craters are filled with reworked sand blow deposits, 

slack-water deposits, and organic material.
1-19

Figure 1-14 Photograph of convolute bedding, foundered clasts in liquefied 

layer and base of related sand dike intruding overlying mottled silt. 

Photograph by M. Tuttle.

Figure 1-15 Photograph of sand diapirs intruding base of overlying silt layer exposed in 

a cutbank of Big River southwest of St. Louis, Missouri (NUREG/CR-5730). 

Notice foundered clasts of silt in the sand layer that liquefied. Photograph 

by M. Tuttle.
1-20

Figure 1-16 Photograph of sand blow and related sand dikes exposed in a trench in the 

New Madrid seismic zone. Brown soil horizon is crosscut by two sand dikes, 

displaced downward ~1 m, and buried by the sand blow. Clasts of the soil 

horizon occur within dikes and overlying sand blow. Each colored intervals 

on shovel handle represents 10 cm. Photograph by M. Tuttle. 

Figure 1-17 Very weathered sand blow and related feeder dike (1.3 m wide) exposed in 

trench near Marianna, Arkansas, 80 km south of the New Madrid seismic 

zone (Tuttle et al., 2010a). Dating indicates that the liquefaction features 

formed about 9,900 yr B.P. Distance between level lines is 1 m. Photograph 

by M. Tuttle.
1-21

Subsequent to their formation, blows and blow craters may or may not be buried by other 

deposits, such as overbank deposits in fluvial systems or lagoonal deposits in estuarine systems. 

Burial of blows and blow craters helps to preserve them in the geologic record. Those features 

that form on higher or relatively stable positions of the landscape will be subjected to soil-forming 

processes. If the features are small, they are likely to be destroyed within decades or centuries, 

leaving truncated and weathered sand dikes below. If the blows and blow craters are large, they 

can persist for thousands of years and develop soil characteristics indicative of their age (Figure 

1.17; NUREG/GR-0018 and Tuttle et al., 2006). Other blows subjected to reworking or erosion 

may be partially or wholly destroyed, leaving only vent structures and related dikes as evidence of 

earthquake-induced liquefaction (Reid et al., 2012; Tuttle et al., 2012).

1.4.2 Soft Sediment Deformation Features within the Liquefied Layer

Features that form within sediment layers that liquefy include load casts, convolute bedding and 

laminations, ball-and-pillow structures, and pseudonodules. These deformation structures have 

been attributed to earthquake-induced liquefaction on the basis of laboratory experiments 

(Kuenen, 1958) and field studies (e.g., Sims, 1973 and 1975; Obermeier, 1996; Tuttle, 1999). A 

large body of sedimentological literature also discusses non-seismic mechanisms of formation of 

these deformation structures (e.g., Lowe and LoPicollo, 1974; Lowe, 1975; Allen, 1982; and 

Owen, 1987). Chief among the mechanisms is a gravitational unstable density gradient often due 

to high rates of sedimentation.

Sims (1975), who pioneered the use of these types of features in paleoliquefaction studies, 

developed recognition criteria by studying earthquake-induced structures that formed in different 

environments during modern and historic earthquakes. He noted that these liquefaction features 

typically form in interbedded fine- and coarse-grained deposits close to the sediment-water 

interface as a result of bearing strength failure due to liquefaction of the coarse-grained layers. In

a recent overview paper, Sims (2012) provides a detailed discussion of the characteristics of 

liquefaction features and the conditions under which these liquefaction features form. In the case 

of load casts, fine-grained layers sag into the liquefied coarse-grained layer but without completely 

detaching (Figure 1.18). If the sagging layers detach, convolute laminations and ball-and-pillow 

structures form as they sink into the liquefied coarse-grained layer. 

Pseudonodules form when the coarse-grained layer separates into domains or irregular masses. 

See Sims (2012) for additional photographs of soft-sediment deformation structures. In his early 

research, Sims (1973) found that load casts form at lower intensities of about VI, whereas 

convolute laminations and pseudonodules form at higher intensities of VIII-IX. Therefore, the 

occurrence of the different types of strata-bound liquefaction features may help to constrain the 

locations and magnitudes of paleoearthquakes. However, further research is needed to 

determine whether these features can provide reliable magnitude estimates.
1-22

Figure 1-18 Load cast that formed in laminated sediment of Van Norman Lake during the 

1952 Kern County, California, earthquake (from Sims, 1975).

1.4.3 Diagnostic Criteria and Characteristics of Liquefaction Features

Criteria used to identify and utilize paleoliquefaction features in paleoseismology studies have 

been developed over the past forty years. Focusing primarily on intrusive and extrusive features 

extending beyond the layer that liquefies, the following general criteria are recommended for 

identifying earthquake-induced liquefaction features: (1) sedimentary characteristics consistent 

with case histories of earthquake-induced liquefaction; (2) sedimentary characteristics indicative 

of a sudden, strong, upwardly directed hydraulic force of short duration; (3) occurrence of more 

than one type of liquefaction feature and of similar features at multiple nearby locations; (4) 

occurrence in geomorphic settings where hydraulic conditions described in (2) would not develop 

under non-seismic conditions; and (5) age data to support both contemporaneous and episodic 

formation of features over a large area (Obermeier, 1996; Tuttle, 2001). Criteria (1)-(3) are 

required and (4) and (5) preferred to attribute a sedimentary structure to earthquake-induced 

liquefaction. The more criteria that are satisfied, the greater the confidence is in the interpretation. 

Dikes, blows, and blow craters have been documented following historical (e.g., Dutton, 1889; 

Fuller, 1912) and modern (e.g., Tuttle et al., 1990: Tuttle et al., 2002a; Sims and Garvin, 1995) 

earthquakes and are considered diagnostic of earthquake-induced liquefaction. Tuttle and 

Hartleb (2012) compiled the following list of structural and sedimentary characteristics of 

earthquake-induced liquefaction features to assist in their recognition in the geologic record: 

Dikes:

• Dike sidewalls typically subparallel, usually widen downward; also may broaden upward

into vent structure at the ground surface (event horizon),
1-23

• Typically a few meters to tens of meters long (in map view); therefore, often, but not

always, exposed in both walls of a trench,

• Sand within dikes often fines upward,

• Often characterized by flow structure or lineations,

• Often contain clasts of host deposit(s),

• Near-vertical dikes may exhibit grading, with finer material along dike margins; inclined

dikes may exhibit bedding,

• May be characterized by subsidiary dikes and/or sills,

• Source layer may lack original sedimentary structure where fluidized or may exhibit flow

structure or lineations, as well as soft-sediment deformation structures such as ball-andpillow structures and dish structures.

Blows and blow craters:

• Typically elliptical or linear, sometimes circular, in map view,

• Connected to feeder dikes below,

• Often characterized by “cut-and-fill” structure and flow structures, or flow lineations, above

the feeder dike,

• Vented sediment typically fine to coarse sand and may include some silt and clay,

• Often becomes finer-grained up-section and laterally away from feeder dike/vent,

• Usually thins laterally away from feeder dike/vent,

• May comprise multiple fining-up depositional units related to a sequence of earthquakes;

seismites may be separated by layers of fines, such as silty clay or clay that accumulated

between earthquakes,

• May contain clasts of host deposit, especially near feeder dike; clast size generally

decreases with distance from vent,

• Volume of vented deposit should be reasonable relative to size and number of sand dikes,

• Subsidence structures may be seen near vent, including localized down warping of

surface soil and host strata and possible vertical displacement across feeder dikes,

• Blow craters often form in organic-rich soils or clay-rich host deposits,

• Blow craters contain vented sand deposits and clasts of host material; overlain by crater fill

deposits and/or reworked material.
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Sims (1975) suggested the following criteria for distinguishing seismically from non-seismically 

induced deformation structures:

• Liquefiable sediment is present or potentially present,

• Deformational structures observed are similar to those formed experimentally or shown to

have formed during seismic events,

• Structures are restricted to or originate from a single stratigraphic interval,

• Zones of structures are correlated over large areas,

• Absence of detectable influence by slopes, slope failures, or other sedimentological,

biological, or deformational processes.

Wheeler (2002) later expanded the criteria and further evaluated limitations related to determining 

the origin of these deformation structures. Recognizing these limitations, Tuttle and Atkinson 

(2010) urged that these structures be used in combination with blows and dikes in 

paleoliquefaction studies. Although these deformation structures can provide information about 

paleoearthquakes, additional research is needed to further explore the full range of expression of 

stratabound liquefaction features as well as the ground motions and site conditions under which 

they form.

Table 1-1 Summary of tests for determining seismic origin of soft-sediment structures 

(from Wheeler, 2002; Sims, 2012).

Test Name Observation Limitations

Sudden formation

Structure formed more suddenly, 

and perhaps more violently, than any 

non-seismic alternative

May be unable to rule out some 

nonseismic origins without 

additional evidence

Synchronous 

formation

Nearby structures of same type 

formed at times indistinguishable 

from each other

May be unable to rule out some 

nonseismic origins; dating and 

correlation lack resolution to 

distinguish synchronous from nearsynchronous formation

Zoned distribution Size of structure decreases away 

from a central area Cannot rule out earthquake origin

Size

Structure not larger than similar 

structures formed by historical 

earthquakes

Maximum size may be unknown; 

cannot rule out an earthquake origin 

for small structures

Tectonic setting 

structure

Seismic shaking strong enough to 

form the structure occurs more 

frequently than nonseismic 

alternatives in modern analog 

settings

Threshold magnitudes and 

accelerations for formation are only 

generally known

Depositional setting Seismic shaking by itself forms the 

structure in similar modern deposits

Difficulty in recognizing some newly 

formed structures in the field
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1.4.4 Non-Seismic Features Not To Be Confused with Earthquake-Induced Liquefaction 

Features

There are many features that can be misidentified as earthquake-induced liquefaction features by 

an inexperienced investigator. One way to distinguish non-seismic from earthquake-induced 

liquefaction features is to compare the features in question with features whose origins are known 

(e.g., sand-blow craters that formed during modern earthquakes; craters resulting from tree throw 

during recent storms). A few of the most commonly misinterpreted features are briefly discussed 

below with respect to the depositional environments in which they occur. 

All sedimentary environments: Root casts and dessication cracks occur in near-surface sediment 

in almost all depositional settings. Both root casts and dessication cracks pinch downward and 

are filled from above (Figure1.19). Root casts also branch downward. These characteristics are 

opposite to those of sand dikes, which branch and pinch upward and are filled from below. It 

should be noted that root casts, cracks, animal burrows, and other voids and weaknesses in nearsurface sediment provide pathways for venting water and entrained sand resulting from 

earthquake-induced liquefaction. In these cases, a sand dike or other sediment-filled conduit that 

increases in size with depth occurs below these features.
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Figure 1-19 Desiccation crack filled with soil from above, exposed in wall and floor of 

trench. For scale, short handled shovel is 1 m in length. Photograph by M. 

Tuttle.

Fluvial environment: Fluvial deposits that may be sandy and limited in extent, such as point-bars 

or crevasse splays, should not be confused with sand blows. Blows are connected to sand dikes 

that crosscut soil horizons and underlying deposits, whereas fluvial deposits are not. 

Lacustrine and estuarine environments: Dewatering structures, including ball-and-pillow 

structures, are common in deltaic deposits that experience high sedimentation rates, such as 

where rivers debauch into lakes or bays (Figure 1.20). Depositional context is key to recognizing 

these structures as non-seismic in origin.
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Figure 1-20 Ball and pillow structures in glaciofluvial deposits exposed along Rouge River 

near Toronto, Ontario (Tuttle et al., 2010b). Photograph by M. Tuttle

Periglacial environment. Two commonly occurring deformation structures in periglacial deposits 

are involutions and ice-wedge casts. Involutions caused by cryoturbation (i.e., disturbance from 

freeze and thaw cycles) are characterized by distortion and mixing of the upper meter of sediment 

(Figure 1.21). Ice-wedge casts are downward-narrowing, nearly vertical, tabular features that 

result from thermal contraction of frozen ground. Both types of structures form over relatively long 

periods of time, compared to earthquake-induced liquefaction features.

Glacial environment. In glacial deposits, there is an abundance of deformation features related to 

ice tectonics. Deformation features that might be misinterpreted as earthquake-induced 

liquefaction features include stringers of sediment incorporated into diamictons and fluid-injection 

structures below glacial tills (Figure 1.22). However, these features often occur in association with 

sheared sediment, are very irregular in shape, and lack characteristics of earthquake-induced 

liquefaction features, such as source beds with soft-sediment deformation structures. 
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Figure 1-21 Deformation of sediment due to cryoturbation exposed in trench excavated in 

sand blow that formed during 1988 M 5.9 Saguenay, Quebec, earthquake 

(NUREG/CP-0119). For scale, red pocketknife is 9 cm long.

Figure 1-22 Fluid injection structures in glaciofluvial deposit below diamicton or glacial till 

(dark gray) (Tuttle et al., 2010b). Each colored intervals on the shovel handle 

represents 10 cm. Photograph by M. Tuttle.
2-1

2 PLANNING AND CONDUCTING PALEOLIQUEFACTION STUDIES

The components of a paleoliquefaction study include the following:

• Selection of the study area;

• Field investigations;

• Dating of liquefaction features; and

• Interpretation of liquefaction features.

Each of these components is discussed in detail in the following sections.

As previously stated, the primary goals of paleoliquefaction studies are to estimate the timing, 

source areas, magnitudes, and recurrence times of strong earthquakes during the Late 

Quaternary. The results of paleoliquefaction studies increasingly are being used as input 

parameters for seismic hazard assessments. Like paleoseismology in general, paleoliquefaction 

requires expertise in Quaternary geology, and the affiliated fields of sedimentology, 

geomorphology, soil science, geochronology, and sometimes archeology. Background in 

structural geology, neotectonics, seismology especially ground motion, geophysics, and 

geotechnical engineering is also desirable. It is advisable that experienced, qualified investigators 

be involved in planning and execution of paleoliquefaction studies in order to avoid 

misidentification of features in the geologic record and misinterpretation of the presence and 

absence of liquefaction features (NUREG-2115). Along these lines, it is advantageous to have at 

least two experienced investigator involved in field investigations so that they can discuss 

observations and interpretations of liquefaction features onsite. If possible, site reviews should 

conduct by paleoliquefaction experts during or soon after field investigations while features are 

intact and sites accessible. Some knowledge of ground motion is also relevant, as this is key to 

linking observed liquefaction features to potential sources. Uncertainties related to all aspects of 

paleoliquefaction studies - from the indentification and dating of liquefaction features to the 

interpretation of the timing, source area, and magnitude of paleoearthquakes - should be 

quantified and represented in results of the studies.

2.1 Federal Regulations

Federal agencies must comply with the National Environmental Policy Act and the National 

Historic Preservation Act when conducting or funding a paleoliquefaction field study. Compliance 

with the National Environmental Policy Act may require the federal agency to perform an 

environmental assessment and/or an environmental impact statement to assess the effects of 

field activities on the environment. Some federal agencies have categorical exclusions for 

geologic reconnaissance activities that preclude the need for performing these environmental 

studies. In addition, the National Historic Preservation Act requires the federal agency to comply 

with the 106 process described in the Code of Federal Regulations (36 CFR 800). This process 

requires coordination and communication with State Historic Preservation Officers and Native 

American Tribes prior to initiating ground disturbing activities.
2-2

2.2 Information Used in the Selection of the Study Area

A variety of information is helpful in selecting the best area for a paleoliquefaction study. This 

information includes accounts of ground failure indicative of liquefaction during modern and 

historical earthquakes, aerial photographs and satellite images, data on Quaternary geology and 

geotechnical properties of soil or sediment, and conditions in the field. For the results of a 

paleoliquefaction study to be useful in assessing seismic hazards, the study area must possess 

sedimentological and hydrological conditions that are conducive to the formation and preservation 

of liquefaction features (Sims, 1975; Obermeier, 1996; Tuttle, 2001). In addition, there must be an 

adequate exposure of sediment to be able to identify and study liquefaction features.

Conditions necessary for the formation of liquefaction features include (1) the presence of loose to 

moderately dense sandy sediment usually within 15 m of the ground surface, and (2) a water table 

or perched water table above the liquefiable sediment so that it is saturated at the time of the 

earthquake. In addition, a relatively impermeable capping layer promotes the increase in pore 

water pressure in and liquefaction of saturated sandy sediment during ground shaking. 

Liquefaction features are most likely to be preserved in geologic settings that are relatively stable 

or are experiencing sediment accumulation. For example, sand blows may endure for millennia on 

surfaces of abandoned plains or high terraces or they may be buried and preserved by subsequent 

deposits in coastal, fluvial, and lacustrine environments. Even in these settings, however, 

liquefaction features can be destroyed by natural processes such as river channel migration and 

mass movements. In addition, human modification of the landscape can destroy liquefaction 

features. For example, the agricultural practice of plowing commonly disturbs the upper 10-25 cm 

(4-10 inches) of the topsoil. Land leveling removes variations in topography by cutting and filling 

and can disturb up to several meters of the land surface. Therefore, plowing can destroy relatively 

small (<10 cm thick) sand blows and land leveling can destroy even large (1-2 m thick) sand blows. 

Finding and interpreting paleoliquefaction features is very difficult in areas that have been severely 

altered by human activity.

2.2.1 Accounts of Ground Failure Indicative of Liquefaction

For many large modern and historical earthquakes, there are eyewitness accounts of water and 

sand venting from the ground often through cracks or fissures. This type of ground failure is 

almost always due to earthquake-induced liquefaction of subsurface sediment. Often there are 

reports of springs forming or shutting down and riverbanks collapsing in the same area. 

Modern and historical accounts of ground failure indicative of liquefaction can provide helpful 

information. For example, the accounts likely (1) indicate that sedimentological and hydrological 

conditions exist for the formation of liquefaction features, (2) point to possible study sites where 

paleoliquefaction features may be found in addition to modern or historical features, and (3) can 

be used along with information about the location and magnitude of the modern or historical 

earthquakes to interpret paleoliquefaction features in the study area. Accounts of liquefaction 

were used in these ways in the meizoseismal areas of the 1727 felt-area magnitude (Mfa) 5.5 

Newburyport, Massachusetts earthquake (Tuttle and Seeber, 1991; Tuttle, 2007 and 2009); the 

1811-1812 moment magnitudes, M 7 to 8, New Madrid earthquakes in the central U.S. (Tuttle, 

1999; Tuttle et al., 2002b); the 1925 M 6.2 Charlevoix, Quebec, earthquake (Tuttle and Atkinson, 

2010); the 1944 M 5.8 Cornwall, Ontario-Massena, New York, earthquake (NUREG/CR-6495); 

and the 1988 M 5.8 Saguenay, Quebec, earthquake (Tuttle et al., 1990 and 1992). 
2-3

2.2.2 Aerial Photography and Satellite Imagery

Aerial photography and satellite imagery can provide a bird’s eye view of surficial sand blow

deposits. As long as the deposits are not obscured by forest canopy and other vegetation or 

destroyed by development and agricultural practices, sand blows appear as circular, elliptical, and 

linear, light-colored patches on the ground surface (Figures 2.1 and 2.2). Historical aerial 

photographs that predate modern development can be especially useful in identifying and 

mapping sand blows, which are especially apparent if the surrounding soils are fine grained and 

therefore have a greater moisture-holding capacity. Sand blows are obvious on river floodplains 

characterized by silty and clayey soils developed in overbank deposits. The lower moistureholding capacity of sand blows also may be reflected in vegetation type and in crop growth. For 

example, crops growing on large sand blows in the New Madrid seismic zone in the central U.S. 

often wilt and die during the course of the growing season (Tuttle et al., 2011). In agricultural 

settings, relatively small (< 0.25-0.5 m thick) sand blows may be destroyed over time by plowing. 

However, large sand blows, like those in the New Madrid seismic zone (up to 2 m), will be 

recognizable on aerial photographs and satellite imagery despite plowing of the upper decimeter 

or more.
2-4

Figure 2-1 Aerial photograph showing light-colored sand blow deposits near the 

Pemiscot Bayou east of Lepanto, Arkansas (Tuttle, 1999). Sand blows are 

aligned above point bar deposits within the meander scroll bars. Photograph 

taken on January 26, 1964 by U.S. Department of Agriculture.
2-5

Figure 2-2 Google Earth satellite image showing linear sand blows parallel to and within 

300 m of Pemiscot Bayou north of Blytheville, Arkansas. These features 

probably formed during lateral spreading towards the bayou. Historic and 

prehistoric sand blows and related sand dikes have been documented and 

dated in nearby excavations (Tuttle, 1999).

Satellite imagery has been acquired relatively recently, and therefore, reflects ground conditions 

as they exist today. Therefore, sand blows that have been disturbed by farming may appear less 

distinct on satellite images than on historical aerial photographs. However, satellite imagery, 

image processing software, and geographical information systems now provide the opportunity to 

combine data sets within a geographical framework and to classify and map sand blows over 

large areas based on their spectral characteristics. LANDSAT-7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper 

Plus (ETM+) imagery may be especially useful in this regard. 

ETM+ imagery can provide information on reflected or emitted radiation from the Earth's surface 

in the blue-green (band 1), green (band 2), red (band 3), near-infrared (band 4), mid-infrared 

(bands 5 and 7), and the far-infrared (band 6) portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. In 

addition, ETM+ imagery includes a panchromatic band 8 with a high resolution of 15 m. For 

mapping sand blows less than 15 m in diameter, higher resolution panchromatic imagery is also 

available. The TM infrared bands reflect the character of the soil and rock materials. Band 4 is 

ideal for near-infrared reflectance peaks in healthy green vegetation and for detecting water-land 

interfaces. The two mid-infrared bands are useful for vegetation and soil moisture studies and 

discriminating between rock and mineral types. The far-infrared band is designed to assist in 

thermal mapping and for soil moisture and vegetation studies. Band ratio images are often 

created to remove effects of illumination differences and to accentuate the spectral differences 

between materials (e.g., Rencz, 1999; Rattan, 2006). This involves dividing the values of pixels in 

one band by the values of pixels in a second band. By computing ratio images using TM infrared 

bands, it may be possible to map sand blows of different ages based on soil characteristics that 

develop over time. Resulting liquefaction maps, like all maps based on remotely sensed data, 
2-6

must be calibrated with field data or otherwise verified in the field. Although satellite imagery has 

been used extensively to map soils, only pilot studies have been conducted to date for mapping 

sand blows. This is an area of research that appears to hold much promise.

Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) is an optical remote sensing technology that can provide highresolution elevation data. The data are processed to produce detailed bare earth models and 

therefore are particularly useful for mapping faults in densely vegetated regions. Typical accuracies 

range between 20-100 cm horizontally and between 9-18 cm vertically but can be further improved 

with closer pulse spacing (> 4 pulses/sq m) during data acquisition. LiDAR data are being used in 

paleoseismology to map fault ruptures that offset topography. Their application in paleoliquefaction 

studies has been very limited so far. In the greater Christchurch region of New Zealand, LiDAR data 

are being used to study the environments in which liquefaction features formed during the 2010-

2011 Canterbury earthquake sequence (Villamore et al., 2014). With additional research, LiDAR 

may be found to be useful in mapping medium to large sand blows, especially when combined with 

other remotely-sensed data that can reflect sediment and soil types. Currently, high-resolution 

LiDAR data are not readily available and are expensive to acquire. 

Aerial photography and satellite imagery have been used successfully to identify sand blows on 

the ground (e.g., Tuttle et al., 1999 and 2006). In addition, they are readily available and relatively 

inexpensive. With soil characteristics and seasonal growth patterns in mind, it is advantageous to 

select aerial photographs and satellite imagery that was acquired when sand blows would be 

more apparent. In northern forested areas, the best acquisition time is probably late fall following 

leaf off and prior to the wet or snowy season. In agricultural areas where floodplains are under 

cultivation, these times include late winter or early spring following plowing and prior to crop 

growth, late summer or early fall when soils have dried out and crops have been adversely 

affected by droughty soil conditions, and late fall following harvest and prior to the beginning of the 

wet or snowy season. Times to avoid image acquisition include the rainy season when all soils 

would tend to be wet and when floodplains may be flooded, as well as spring and summer before 

crops have been adversely affected by droughty soil conditions.

2.2.3 Quaternary Geology

As discussed above, liquefaction features tend to form in response to strong ground shaking 

where saturated, loose to moderately loose sandy deposits are overlain by less permeable 

sediment that may include silt and clay. These sedimentological and hydrological conditions often 

exist in Holocene fluvial, lacustrine, esturine, deltaic, and lagoonal deposits and sometimes in 

similar deposits of Late Pleistocene age. Therefore, surficial geology maps, as well as articles 

and reports about the Quaternary geology of a region, provide essential information about the 

presence and distribution of conditions where liquefaction features are most likely to occur, if they 

have formed in a region. Therefore, it is important to consult relevant geologic resources before 

undertaking, or during the early stages of, a paleoliquefaction study. 

A systematic review of surficial geology maps, in combination with aerial photographs and/or 

satellite images, can help to identify areas where suitable conditions are likely to exist and where 

exposure of sediment may be available for examination in plowed fields, sand and gravel pits, and 

river cutbanks. Based on such a review, a reconnaissance plan can be developed to verify 

conditions and exposure prior to conducting systematic searches along rivers or subsurface 

investigations at selected sites. Many geologic maps are now available in digital and 

georeferenced formats and can be downloaded over the internet. These georeferenced maps 

can be imported into a Geographical Information System to be displayed and analyzed in 

combination with other datasets such as satellite imagery, soils maps, and topography.
2-7

2.2.4 Geotechnical Data 

Geotechnical data that characterize the material properties of subsurface soil, or sediment, at a 

site also can be used to assess whether or not suitable conditions are present for the formation of 

liquefaction features. Properties of sediment measured today are likely to differ from what they 

were in the past. Therefore, age effects and stress history of the sediment should be considered 

when assessing past conditions. Geotechnical data are often used to identify the layer that 

liquefied. The liquefied layer can only be known with certainty, however, if liquefaction features 

are observed originating in this layer. Once areas of interest are identified based on 

characteristics related to Quaternary geology, site-specific geotechnical data can be sought for 

these areas. 

Geotechnical data used in the design of bridge foundations are often collected prior to their 

construction at crossings of rivers, lakes, estuaries, and lagoons, environments where conditions 

tend to be suitable for the formation of earthquake-induced liquefaction features. These data 

include borehole logs, geophysical logs, results of laboratory tests, and engineering reports. The 

borehole logs typically show the type and depth of soil, or sediment, (e.g., clay, silt, sand, gravel, 

organics), blow counts (N), and the depth to the water table. Laboratory analyses may include 

information on specific gravity, void ratio, grain size, liquid and plastic limits, water content, and 

unconfined compressional strength.

Blow counts are the number of hammer blows, with a 140-lb hammer dropped a distance of 30 

inches that are required to advance a 2-inch (outside diameter) split-barrel sampler one foot 

(ASTM D1586). Non-standard hammers, samplers, and distances of drop have been used, in 

which case, correction factors generally have been applied to the blow counts. However, any 

geotechnical study carried out with the intent of using the data for liquefaction analyses should be 

performed with standard equipment. The blow count (N) is correlated to soil density and has 

been empirically related to liquefaction of soil or sediment during actual earthquakes. In recent 

years, the electronic cone penetrometer and seismic piezocone have been employed more 

frequently in site characterization because of the continuous readings, direct logging of measured 

data to the computer, and repeatability and reliability of the cone penetration test (ASTM D5778). 

If needed, relations have been developed between tip resistance (qt) and blow counts (N) 

(Kulhawy and Mayne, 1990; Idriss and Boulanger, 2004). Liquefaction susceptibility in sandy 

soils generally increases with decreasing blow counts and cone tip resistance. Of particular 

interest for paleoliquefaction studies are saturated, sandy soils, with blow count values in the 0-30 

range and tip resistance in the 0-18 MPa (megapascal; measurement unit of pressure; 1 MPa = 

10 bars) range, that occur below a fine-grained confining layer and usually less than 15 m or 49.2 

ft below the surface (Obermeier et al., 2001; Tuttle, 2001). 

Geotechnical data generated for bridge projects are often available at local, state, or federal 

transportation agencies. Some data have been digitized and entered into databases making the 

information more accessible. Even so, it can be labor intensive to identify bridge projects, 

download or copy geotechnical data, review the data, and extract information useful for 

paleoliquefaction studies. However, it is well worth the effort since this information related to 

material properties helps in the selection of suitable areas for reconnaissance. Furthermore, if 

they are collected at paleoliquefaction study sites, geotechnical data can be used in liquefaction 

analysis of scenario earthquakes (see Section 2.5.4.3).

2.3 Field Studies 

Paleoliquefaction field studies should be designed to fully characterize the ages, sizes, and 

spatial distribution of paleoliquefaction features in a region. These studies often include initial 

reconnaissance, site investigations, and river surveys, in order to achieve well-constrained age
2-8

estimates of paleoliquefaction features, as well as to gather information about the size and spatial 

distribution of paleoliquefaction features over a large area. During every phase of a field program, 

it is recommended that a paper or electronic site description form be used to record information 

about liquefaction sites, liquefaction features, and samples collected. The use of a form ensures 

that relevant information is consistently collected at all liquefaction sites (see Appendix D for an 

example of such a form). To fully characterize the ages of liquefaction features, suitable sediment 

of Holocene to Late Pleistocene age should be included in the studies. In areas where 

liquefaction features are small and sparse, including areas far from the epicenters of causative 

earthquakes, more exposures will need to be examined to find and characterize liquefaction 

features. Fieldwork should be conducted at times of the year, and even at times of the day in 

coastal areas, when exposure is optimal in order to minimize chances that liquefaction features 

are missed due to high water, heavy vegetation, or snow cover. It is important to conduct 

investigations in areas of suitable conditions and exposure and to determine where liquefaction 

features have and have not formed. 

Utmost care must be taken to correctly identify earthquake-induced liquefaction features and not 

to confuse them with features that formed as the result of other processes. In plan view, sand 

blows have circular, elliptical, and linear shapes and can range up to tens of meters in width and 

hundreds of meters in length. In cross-section, sand blows commonly take the form of 

constructional cones that can range up to 1 to 2 m in thickness. Deposits and features that have 

been misidentified as earthquake-induced liquefaction feature include fluvial deposits, sedimentfilled dessication cracks, chemical weathering, tree-throw, and cultural features. Liquefaction 

features have certain characteristics, described in Sections 1.4.1-3, that help to distinguish them 

from other deposits and features (Figure 1.12). For example, the presence of feeder dikes helps 

to distinguish earthquake-related sand blows from fluvial deposits and deformation related to tree 

throw. With close examination of deposits and features by an experienced eye, earthquakeinduced liquefaction features can be identified and analyzed with confidence. 

2.3.1 Initial Reconnaissance 

A reconnaissance plan must be developed and may be based on a variety of information including 

eyewitness accounts of liquefaction effects during modern or historical earthquakes, interpretation 

of aerial photographs and satellite imagery, and information about geological, geotechnical, and 

ground water conditions. The plan identifies locations to visit in order to assess whether or not 

sand blows occur at the ground surface, exposure is adequate to warrant searches for liquefaction 

features along rivers and ditches and in borrow pits, and conditions appear favorable for formation 

and preservation of liquefaction features. The results of reconnaissance are used to refine plans 

for field studies, including searches for and site-specific investigations of paleoliquefaction 

features. 

Reconnaissance involves inspection of sites for which possible sand blows were identified on 

aerial photographs and/or satellite imagery. Once permissions are arranged with property 

owners and farmers, the site is walked and the possible sand blow identified on the ground. 

State Archeological Surveys, State Historic Preservation Offices, and Tribal Historic 

Preservation Offices should be contacted prior to excavation. If the possible sand blow 

appears sandier on the surface than the surrounding soils, several test pits about 1-1.5 m deep 

are dug by hand to observe the sedimentary characteristics of the deposit. Color, grain size, 

sedimentary structures, and thickness of the soil horizons and sediment layers are 

documented. If the deposit is found to be sandier than surrounding soils, to be deposited on 

top of the surrounding soil, to contain clasts of the underlying soil, and to be characterized by 

irregular bedding or flow structures, it is likely to be a sand blow and may warrant further study.
2-9

Likely sand blows found in this manner are evaluated, and those deemed the most likely to 

provide crucial information about paleoearthquakes are selected for further investigation (see 

Section 2.3.2 below). 

Reconnaissance also includes inspection of rivers and borrow pits, where suitable conditions for 

the formation of liquefaction features may occur. For rivers, conditions and exposures are 

inspected at bridge crossings, boat ramps, parks, and other public access points. For each 

location, photographs are taken and information is recorded about access, cutbank exposure, type 

of sediment, and river level. For borrow pits, permission and access must first be arranged with 

sand and gravel companies. Inspections of borrow pits include taking photographs and describing 

exposure, type of sediment, and deformation structures, including liquefaction features. Those 

portions of rivers and borrow pits with the most suitable conditions and best exposure are selected 

for systematic searches for liquefaction features (see Section 2.3.3 below). 

2.3.2 Site Investigations

Detailed investigations are conducted at sites where sand blows have been identified and that 

hold promise for providing information about the timing, locations, and magnitudes of 

paleoearthquakes. Sand blows that occur in association with cultural horizons and features (e.g., 

pits, post molds, wall trenches) are often selected for site investigations because cultural artifacts 

and abundant organic material found in these horizons and features can be used to estimate the 

ages of the liquefaction features. For example, many of the better-constrained age estimates of 

sand blows in the New Madrid seismic zone in the central U.S. have come from investigations at 

archeological sites (e.g., Bauer, 2006; Tuttle, 1999; Tuttle et al., 2005b). If investigations are to be 

conducted at archeological sites, it is imperative to involve professional archeologists in the 

endeavor, to take steps to minimize impacts to the site, and to comply with the National Historic 

Preservation Act. 

Site investigations often include geophysical surveys followed by trenching. As explained below in 

more detail, geophysical techniques are used to map the extent of the sand blow, to locate the 

main feeder dikes of the sand blow, and to identify cultural features that may be associated with 

the sand blow. The results of geophysical surveys help to position trenches to reveal critical 

relationships between the liquefaction features and cultural horizons and features, while 

minimizing the impact to the archeological site. Excavation of trenches is necessary to study and 

document characteristics of the liquefaction features and their relationships with host sediment, 

soil horizons, and cultural horizons and features, as well as to collect carefully controlled samples 

for dating the time of formation of the liquefaction features. In addition, archeologists document 

and sample cultural horizons and features found to be associated with the liquefaction features. 

2.3.2.1 Geophysical Techniques 

Geophysical techniques offer a non-invasive tool for mapping the three-dimensional (3-D) 

morphology of sand blows and locating sand dikes and sand blows in the subsurface. Although 

sand blow deposits are often identified by careful examination of surface deposits and natural 

understanding of subsurface relationships and can help guide trench excavations necessary to 

collect samples for dating sand blows and their causative earthquakes. The physical properties of 

surficial deposits and their three-dimensional morphology strongly influence the distribution of 

sand blows and other liquefaction features. The ability of geophysical techniques to detect vertical 

and lateral changes in sedimentary properties makes them an effective mapping tool in 

paleoliquefaction studies. This section discusses the types of geophysical methods that can be 

used in paleoliquefaction studies and the factors important for planning geophysical surveys to 

optimize their effectiveness and utility. 
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Electrical resistivity, ground penetrating radar, seismic methods, magnetic methods and ground 

conductivity surveys have all been used in paleoliquefaction investigations. All methods are 

useful for locating subsurface features, although each has its advantages and its limitations. 

These relative assets and disadvantages should be carefully considered when choosing the 

technique or combination of techniques to be employed at a given site. All methods derive their 

success from their sensitivity to variations in the physical properties of the sediment, and all are 

best used following surface reconnaissance to determine and narrow the general survey area. 

The geophysical methods discussed here are not ideal for large-scale, regional reconnaissance, 

but rather, are best employed once a liquefaction site has been identified using the geological 

techniques described above in Section 2.3.1. 

Electrical Resistivity (ER): ER methods use a low-frequency alternating current that is introduced 

through an electrode pair, while a potential difference is measured by another electrode pair. The 

ratio of the voltage at the receiver electrodes to the current input by the transmitting pair is the 

impedance. The ability for current to travel through the subsurface is a function of the physical 

properties of the medium. Resistivity, the inverse of conductivity, is a measure of the resistance 

of a volume to the applied electric current. In general, rocks are associated with high resistivity, 

whereas sediment, due to its higher porosity, can be associated with either high or low resistivity 

depending upon the degree of saturation or clay content. Saturated sediment or those containing 

salt or clay, because of their ionic content, increase the ability for current to flow and thus 

decrease the resistivity of the material. 

Although electrical methods have been in use for resource exploration since Schlumberger’s early 

work in the last century (Oristaglio and Dorozynski, 2009), the method was first applied to studies 

of earthquake-induced liquefaction in the mid-1990’s (Wolf et al., 1998; Tuttle et al., 1999). The 

time required to perform surveys and their imaging capability have since improved with the use of 

equipment offering multichannel, automated switching capability and 3-D inversion algorithms for 

estimating the true subsurface distribution of resistivities (Wolf et al., 2006). 

The calculation of apparent resistivity is based on the style of array, or electrode configuration, 

selected. The factors affecting the measured values are the input current, the spacing between 

electrodes, and the physical properties of the material. If 3-D data acquisition is not employed, 

profile lines should be oriented perpendicular to the strike of elongated sand blows, if observed at 

the surface. In map view, sand dikes and related sand blows often form en echelon patterns and

parallel profile lines help to determine their orientation (Figure 2.3). 

Important to all geophysical surveys are the depth and scale of the imaging desired. For ER 

surveys, the depth of imaging is greatly affected by the conductive properties of the near-surface 

layers and the spacing of the electrodes. Early geophysical studies of paleoliquefaction features 

used a basic four-electrode layout, usually in a Wenner constant-spread array (Wolf et al., 1998). 

For a Wenner style or mixed Dipole-Dipole array, the spacing between electrodes or dipoles 

should be no more than twice the size of the features to be imaged, and approximately equal to 

the desired imaging depth (Wolf et al., 2006). Tighter spacing will resolve smaller features, but 

there will be a trade-off in the maximum depth imaged. For example, with an electrode spacing of 

3 m, sand dikes as small as 18 cm in width that crosscut silty deposits at a depth of less than 1 m 

have been imaged (Figure 2.3; Wolf et al., 1998). 
2-11

Figure 2-3 Example of correlation between two parallel apparent resistivity profiles offset 

by ~ 16.5 m showing en echelon expression of sand dikes (indicated by

arrows). (A) Apparent resistivity highs show position of sand dikes later 

exposed in trench excavation. Dike at -5 meters is 18 cm wide. (B) Apparent 

resistivity along parallel profile to south of (A) shows dike at -15 meters 

getting smaller and dike at +12 meters getting larger (after Wolf et al., 1998). 

When done correctly in suitable environs, the imaging capability and resolution of the ER method 

is excellent. Figure 2.4 contains an example of an electrical resistivity profile that has been 

correlated with a log of a wall of an excavated trench. The location for the excavation was chosen 

based on the results of the site reconnaissance (e.g., archeological surveys, soil test pits, etc.) 

and geophysical survey. Warm colors in the geophysical cross-sections denote more resistive 

material (e.g., fine to coarse sand associated with sand blow deposits and dikes).
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Figure 2-4 (A) Example of a resistivity profile at a liquefaction site in the New Madrid 

seismic zone in northeastern Arkansas. Dotted line outlines approximate 

contact between sand blow deposit and host sediments. Warm colors reflect 

sediment associated with sand blow deposits and sand-filled dikes, which 

typically have higher resistivities than surrounding fine-grained sediment. 

Blue colors reflect material with higher percentages of clay and moisture, 

which are more conductive. The resistivity profile is correlated with a trench 

log (B) that runs at an angle to the resistivity profile. The trench log reveals 

only the portion of the resistivity section outlined by the black rectangle in (A). 

Dark brown colors correlate with green to blue colors in the resistivity profile, 

while yellow to red colors correlate to sand blow deposits and the top of the 

feeder dike. Note cross-cutting relationship of sand-filled dike with finergrained sediment of buried soil horizons. (C) Inset map shows location of the 

trench (heavy black line) and trench log (open rectangle) in relation to the N-S 

oriented geophysical profiles and northwest oriented sand blow (shaded gray) 

as seen on satellite imagery and in the field.

Blue colors reflect sediments with higher percentages of fines, such as silts and clays. Important 

in the interpretation of the geophysical data is the recognition of patterns and geometries 
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commonly associated with liquefaction deposits, as discussed in Sections 2.2.2, 2.3, and 2.3.1, 

because interbedded fine- and coarser-grained sediment is common in fluvial environments.

In addition to the electrode spacing, success in imaging is determined by the contrast in physical 

properties between the liquefaction deposit or feature, and the surrounding host material. The 

contrast in grain sizes between the coarser grained, sandy liquefaction features and the finer 

grained host deposits provides a good indication of the potential success of the survey. Wolf et al. 

(2006) compared the grain-size distribution of sediment sampled from liquefaction deposits with 

that of the surrounding host sediment at seven sites in the New Madrid seismic zone in the central 

U.S. (Figure 2.5). Results showed that, when the contrast in grain-size is large, imaging by 

resistivity surveys is excellent. However, at sites where the contrast is low, results are relatively 

poor and success is only achieved through decreasing the electrode spacing, which can greatly 

increase the time needed to perform the survey. For a more detailed discussion of ER arrays and 

their utility, the reader is referred to standard texts, such as Burger et al. (2006) or Parasnis 

(1997). For representative ranges of resistivity values for different sediment and rock types, the 

reader is referred to Telford et al. (1990).

Figure 2-5 Measured grain sizes at seven sites in the New Madrid seismic zone in phi 

size, φ, where particle diameter =1 mm ∙ 2-φ. Host sediment (triangles) 

corresponds to sediment sizes of silts and clays; sand blows correspond to 

fine to very fine sand; sand dikes correspond to mostly medium sand. Where 

difference in grain sizes between liquefaction features and host sediment is 

small, resolution is poor (e.g., sites 5 and 7). Where contrast is greater (e.g., 

sites 1 and 2), resolution is good. Site numbers 5 and 6 represent two 

trenches at the same site.

Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR): GPR methods involve the transmission and reflection of 

electromagnetic energy. Like seismic methods, transmitted waves (in this case electromagnetic 

fields) are scattered, reflected and partitioned at interfaces in the subsurface due to contrasts in 

impedance such that some energy is returned to the surface. This partitioning is determined by 

the contrast in physical properties at stratigraphic and structural boundaries. GPR systems 

operate over a range of frequencies, and the ability for waves to propagate is a function of the 

dielectric permittivity of the medium, the operating frequency of the system (antenna choice) and 
2-14

the propagation dispersion (radar response to small-scale heterogeneities in the subsurface). 

GPR is best used in areas of dry, sandy soils, as the signal penetration through clayey soils and 

saturated soils can be poor. An important decision to be made before beginning GPR surveys is 

the target depth and size of the features being imaged and the appropriate antenna to achieve 

this depth and resolution. An excellent source for a thorough discussion of the relations affecting 

GPR theory and practice can be found in Annan (2005). With the proper choice of antenna 

frequency and suitable soils, GPR methods offer a fast, efficient tool for locating subsurface sand 

dikes, feeder dikes and deformation structures at depths less than 5 m. 

The use of GPR methods for earthquake-related liquefaction studies was pioneered by Liu and Li 

(2001) and later further developed by Al-Shukri et al. (2006). Liu and Li (2001) used both a 400 

and 100 MHz antenna to study three sites in the New Madrid seismic zone. As with ER methods, 

there is a trade-off between depth of signal penetration and feature resolution; lower frequencies 

penetrate deeper, but lose their resolving capability. Similarly, the success of the method is 

dependent on the physical properties of the near-surface sediment. Like electrical methods, GPR 

works best when there is a contrast in grain size between the sandy liquefaction features and the 

surrounding host sediment. However, a key limitation of GPR surveys is the loss of signal 

penetration associated with conductive overburden. Clays and clayey soils are very good 

conductors and effectively prevent electromagnetic energy from penetrating to strata below. 

Penetration depths in such conditions can be less than one meter. Because true 3-D data 

acquisition is not common in most GPR surveys, parallel profile lines are oriented perpendicular to 

elongated sand blows. The profiles can later be combined to form a pseudo-3-D data set.

Al-Shukri et al. (2006) had good success using a 400-MHz antenna in their work on 

paleoliquefaction deposits in east central Arkansas south of the New Madrid seismic zone. They 

noted that, because the sand blow thickness was less than 4 m, this antenna frequency provided 

the necessary penetration depth as well as the spatial resolution needed to image sand dikes 

crosscutting silty host deposits, contacts between buried soils and overlying sand blows, and 

displacements of those contacts due to liquefaction-related ground failure (Al-Shukri et al., 2006; 

Tuttle et al., 2006). Resolution was also improved by post-processing the data (e.g., filtering for 

noise reduction, removal of direct wave arrival) following acquisition. Results of Al-Shukri et al. 

(2006) show clear reflectors similar to what one might achieve with seismic reflection surveys 

(Figure 2.6). A key advantage to GPR surveys is the speed with which surveys can be 

accomplished relative to seismic surveys. In addition, GPR surveys require only minimal 

personnel (e.g., Liu and Li, 2001; Salvi et al., 2003) and preliminary data processing can be 

accomplished in the field.

Seismic Methods: Seismic refraction and reflection have been used in paleoliquefaction studies, 

but have not had the success of other methods. Generally, the resolution of the surveys are 

influenced by sediment properties, such as layer impedance (velocity x density), layer thickness 

relative to geophone spacing, type of energy source, and the dynamic range of recording system. 

Although refraction methods are good for determining velocities and depth to stratigraphic 

interfaces, they work best in relatively flat-lying layers. They can be used to determine the 

thickness of overburden, depth to the water table, and potentially depth to underlying buried sand 

blows or source sands. However, refraction methods are limited in their ability to image vertical 

boundaries, such as crosscutting sand dikes, and require long profile lengths for reliable 

determination of crossover distances, which are needed to determine layer thickness. In contrast, 

seismic reflection methods are more useful for imaging offset host horizons, displaced reflectors, 

and sand conduits or vents. 
2-15

Several sources (e.g., the mini-Sosie, explosives, Betsy gun and hammer) have been used in 

earthquake hazard studies and shallow investigations. However, most of these do not resolve 

features at less than several meters depth (e.g., Sexton and Jones, 1988; Bray and Frost, 2010). 

Hammer sources achieve the best resolution at shallow depths, but are labor-intensive for long 

profiles.

Figure 2-6 (Above) Pseudo-three dimensional GPR image correlated with (Below) log of 

trench excavation showing large sand blow and related sand dike near 

Marianna, Arkansas (from Al-Shukri et al., 2006).

Seismic reflection surveys, although useful for locating faults and structural deformation, have 

limited utility for paleoliquefaction studies because they do not lend themselves to mapping sand 

blows and sand dikes at depths that can be trenched for the study of liquefaction features and 

collection of samples for dating. They can be used in combination with electromagnetic (EM) and 

GPR to study the relationship of liquefaction features, shallow subsidence, and offset strata with 

possible faulting of deeper horizons. In addition to their limitations in imaging shallow layers, the 

data acquisition time in seismic surveys, compared to GPR and ER, is significantly longer and 

data processing is much more involved.
2-16

Magnetic Surveys: Magnetic gradiometric surveys have been used in archeological studies for 

some time. However, their use in paleoliquefaction studies to locate cultural features and horizons 

in close association with sand blows is more recent (e.g., Wolf et al., 1998; Tuttle et al., 1999). As 

discussed in Section 2.4.3 below, these cultural horizons and features contain organic materials and 

artifacts that can be used to constrain the ages of associated sand blows and sand dikes. 

Magnetic anomalies are frequently observed at archeological sites due to the contrast in magnetic 

properties of cultural objects, such as pottery and daub relative to the surrounding host sediment 

(Figure 2.7). The artifacts possess a remanent magnetism acquired from magnetite or other 

similar minerals as they are heated and then cooled causing the magnetic domains within the 

minerals to realign with the applied field. Thus, objects made from baked clay, such as bricks, 

pottery, hearths, and cooking pits, or points containing magnetite can often be located by 

magnetic surveys. Also, buried features or objects that are not in themselves magnetic 

sometimes can be located as a result of soil disturbance at the site (e.g., shallow graves). A 

characteristic of anomalies associated with cultural features is their morphology, as they are often 

quasi-circular (in the case of pits, post holes, etc.) or elongate (walls) in map view (Figure 2.7).

Figure 2-7 Magnetic anomaly maps from an archeological site in Turkey showing 

location of buried graves. Left panel shows observed magnetic anomalies. 

Right panel shows anomalies after data processing (from Arlsoy et al., 2007).

Although some success has been achieved by total magnetic field surveys made with portable 

magnetometers, gradiometer surveys are known to be most successful for finding artifacts and 

cultural features. Portable magnetometers can be modified to operate as a gradiometer. In 

gradiometer surveys, the gradient, or change in intensity with distance, is measured. To be 

useful, the measurement spacing must be small relative to the distance to the sources of the 

anomalies. Results of gradiometer surveys can be difficult to interpret, often because of noise 

sources in the near surface. For instance, the presence of daub or baked soil, commonly found at 

archeological sites such as those studied in the New Madrid seismic zone, can be hard to 

distinguish from clay-rich deposits or lenses. A preliminary investigation to determine the contrast 

in magnetic properties of the host sediment relative to a known cultural feature at the site is one 

approach for overcoming this problem. This approach can guide the choice of measurement 

spacing and subsequent interpretation of the data.
2-17

Electromagnetic Surveys: Electromagnetic surveys using ground conductivity meters have been 

used for paleoliquefaction studies and provide a rapid, easily used reconnaissance tool. Wolf 

(2004) used a Geonics EM31 at several sites in the New Madrid seismic zone. The EM31 

generates a primary magnetic field via a transmitter coil, which in turn, produces eddy currents in 

the ground. These currents generate a secondary magnetic field that is measured by the receiver 

coil. The difference between the primary and secondary fields is a complex quantity reflecting the 

physical properties of the earth materials. The EM31 is limited by a fixed transmitter frequency 

and coil separation, resulting in little control over the imaging depth of the instrument. The 

measured value is a function of the material properties within about five meters of the surface. If 

the liquefaction features are large (e.g., sand dikes > 1 m wide) and the contrast between 

liquefaction deposits and host sediment is notable (see Figure 2.5), the instrument can provide 

useful information. For smaller features, the instrument does not provide adequate resolution, 

and it is best utilized for broad reconnaissance. Other EM instruments allow a range of 

transmitting frequencies or coil separations, which control the depth of imaging and might, 

consequently, yield better success with smaller features.

In summary, although there is a range of geophysical methods that can be used for site 

investigations, the choice of technique depends strongly on (1) the site geology, (2) the scale of 

the survey, (3) the resolution required (i.e., the estimated size and depth of liquefaction features), 

and (4) the presence of cultural features. To date, the most reliable techniques for imaging 

subsurface sand blows and sand dikes are ER and GPR; however, the limitations of each method 

should be considered in the context of the site characteristics. In general, the highest resolution is 

achieved with ER methods, whereas GPR affords faster data acquisition. At sites where clays are 

prevalent in the near-surface sediment, the penetration depth and resolving capability of GPR is 

very limited (possibly < 1 m) due to strong signal attenuation. Although ER also will suffer signal 

attenuation in the presence of near-surface clays (which can channel energy), the investigator can 

adjust the electrode configuration for improved imaging. At sites in which there is little contrast 

between the host sediment and that of the liquefaction features, the resolving ability of ER will be 

limited. In these cases, GPR may be superior for locating features such as sand dikes and vents, 

where the sedimentary layering has been disturbed by ground failure and dike intrusion, which 

cause scattering and diffraction of the transmitted energy. The optimal methodology for sites is a 

combination of the two techniques - GPR for initial reconnaissance and ER for detailed imaging. 

Magnetic methods (particularly gradiometry) are useful at sites that contain cultural features 

because pottery and other clay-rich artifacts have remanent magnetism. Geophysical imaging of 

liquefaction sites prior to trenching can help the investigator to identify relationships critical for 

interpreting liquefaction features, locate material for estimating the timing of the liquefactioninducing earthquake, and minimize disruption of sensitive cultural deposits.

2.3.2.2 Paleoseismic Trenches

As mentioned above in Section 2.3.1, trenches are excavated in surface sand blows that are 

thought to hold the most promise for providing information about past earthquakes. Trenches are 

typically 1.5 to 2 m deep, depending on the thickness of the sand blow. To ensure safe working 

conditions, it is recommended that trenches in sandy soils have sloped walls at a horizontal to 

vertical ratio of 1.5:1, or be shored if walls are vertical. Stable trenches deeper than 2 m are not 

feasible in environments where the water table is fairly close to the ground surface. Trenches are

usually excavated roughly perpendicular to the strike of the liquefaction feature, which is 

determined from aerial photography and/or satellite imagery, geophysical surveys, and field 

observations. It is recommended that the trenches be dug with a backhoe or excavator with a 

smooth-blade bucket, sometimes referred to as a sand bucket or mop-out bucket. A smooth-
2-18

blade bucket makes a clean cut in the bottom of the trench, making it easier to recognize features 

of interest and to clean the surface for further examination. 

If there is a plow zone at the site, it is removed with the backhoe in thin, 2-5 cm thick, cuts until the 

base of the plow zone is reached. The contact with the underlying sand blow is carefully cleaned 

and examined for intruding root casts or cultural features such as post molds, pits, and wall 

trenches (Figure 2.8). Any intruding features are documented, photographed, and sampled. The 

excavation continues through the sand blow, with frequent cleaning and examination of the walls 

and floor and documentation of biological, cultural, and geological features encountered. This 

procedure is followed until the soil or sediment layer buried beneath the sand blow is reached. 

The contact of the buried soil or sediment layer is carefully examined for and samples collected of 

buried leaves, tree debris, tree trunks, and other organic materials. If cultural artifacts are found in 

the buried soil, backhoe excavation ceases and an archeological excavation, referred to as a test 

unit by archeologists, is planned and excavated by an archeologist. If no cultural artifacts are 

found in the buried soil, backhoe excavation continues as needed to reveal the feeder dikes of the 

sand blow. 

Figure 2-8 Paleoseismic investigation at archeological site 3MS306 in the New Madrid 

seismic zone (NUREG/GR-0017). Contact between the plow zone and the 

underlying sand blow is carefully examined for features, such as cultural pits 

and tree-root casts, that may help to constrain the minimum age of the sand 

blow. Photograph by M. Tuttle.

After trench excavation is completed, trench walls are cleaned with shovels and trowels and 

logged at an appropriate scale (1" = 25 cm or 50 cm) depending on the complexity of the features 

(Figure 2.9). Logging, a fundamental technique employed in paleoseismic studies, requires 

careful observations and recording of crucial relationships. Logs are created of the trench walls, 

and sometimes the trench floor, by gridding the surfaces and measuring points of interest relative 

to the grid or by surveying points of interest using a total station. During logging, liquefaction 

features and their sedimentological, stratigraphical, and structural relations are studied. 

Liquefaction features are described in terms of size (i.e., width of dikes, and lateral extent and 
2-19

thickness of sand blows and sills), orientation, vertical and horizontal displacements, sedimentary 

structures, cross-cutting relations, soil development, and stratigraphic context. Liquefactionrelated ground failure and the amount of vertical and horizontal displacements are measured and 

described. The characteristics of the host sediment also are documented, including sediment 

type, bedding, thickness, lateral continuity, and soil development. Organic samples are collected 

for radiocarbon dating and sediment samples are collected for optically-stimulated luminescence 

(OSL) dating. The locations of the samples are carefully noted on the trench log. 

During the excavations, artifacts collected by an archeologist are bagged and tagged according to 

provenance. Cultural features that intrude or are intruded by liquefaction features also are 

excavated. Later in the archeological laboratory, feature fill is processed by flotation to recover small 

artifacts and organic materials for radiocarbon dating. In addition, artifacts are described in terms of 

sherd sizes and types, lithic types and sources, and tool types. Information about the artifact 

assemblage of a site and results of radiocarbon and OSL dating are used to estimate the ages of 

liquefaction features. See Appendix E for archeological excavation protocol developed for 

paleoseismic investigations at archeological sites in Arkansas.

It is critical that the ages of the liquefaction features be well constrained if they are to be correlated 

across the region and used to estimate the source areas and magnitudes of the prehistoric 

events. Samples collected during site investigations, and during surveys of river cutbanks and 

other exposures as described below in Section 2.3.3, are later reviewed and the best samples 

selected for dating of the sand blows and sand dikes. To reduce uncertainties in radiocarbon 

ages, the accelerator mass-spectrometry (AMS) technique is recommended. Although more 

expensive than radiometric dating, AMS yields errors of only +/- 40 years. Various methods can 

be used to calibrate radiocarbon ages (e.g., Vogel et al., 1993; Stuiver et al., 1998). As described 

in Section 2.4.5, uncertainties in OSL dates can be quite large due to a variety of factors (LDRL, 

2010). However, OSL dating can provide age control at liquefaction sites where organic samples 

needed for radiocarbon dating are not available. To narrowly constrain age estimates of individual 

liquefaction features, it is advisable to date multiple samples at each site. Furthermore, since 

paleoliquefaction studies are regional in scope, it is often necessary to date liquefaction features 

at many sites across the study area.
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Figure 2-9 (Above) Photograph of excavations and (Below) log of trench wall at 

archeological site 3MS306 in northeastern Arkansas, showing relationships 

between the sand-blow crater, sand blow, sand dikes, and Native American 

hearth, pit, and occupation horizon (from NUREG/GR-0017). Also shown are 

2-sigma calibrated radiocarbon dates of organic samples collected from 

cultural features and horizon. On the basis of the artifact assemblage and 

radiocarbon dates, the earthquake-induced liquefaction features are estimated 

to have formed in A.D. 900 ± 100 yr. 
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2.3.3 Surveys of River Cutbanks and other Exposures

Eroding river cutbanks, recently excavated drainage ditches, and active borrow pits provide 

exposures of Holocene and Late Pleistocene deposits in which liquefaction features may occur. 

Surveys of selected rivers, ditches, and borrow pits should be conducted when water levels are 

low and exposure is at an optimum. Where possible, it is recommended that surveys be 

conducted by motorboat or canoe so that a larger area can be surveyed in the time available.

During the river surveys, all exposures are carefully examined for the presence of liquefaction 

features and other deformation related to earthquakes. This often involves checking subvertical 

features, such as cracks and soil discontinuities, to determine if they are sand dikes. If the 

features appear to be sand dikes, they are tracked up section to determine if they terminate within 

the host deposit or if they are connected to sand blows (Figure 2.10).

Figure 2-10 Earthquake-induced liquefaction features found along a river cutbank during 

reconnaissance in the region surrounding the New Madrid seismic zone. Note 

that the layer that liquefied is visible as well as the sand dikes and sill that 

intrudes the overlying deposits. One dike extends about 2 m up section and 

terminates near the top of the photograph. On the two larger scales, black 

and white intervals represents 10 cm; on smaller scale near dike tip, intervals 

represents 1 cm. Photograph by M. Tuttle.

As during trench investigations, liquefaction features are described in terms of their size (width of 

dikes, thickness and lateral extent of sand blows and sills), orientation, vertical and horizontal 

displacements, sedimentary structures, crosscutting relations, soil development, and stratigraphic 

context. The main liquefaction features, and their context and relationships, are photographed. 

Wood, charcoal, and other organic samples are collected for radiocarbon dating, and sediment 

samples are collected for OSL dating. It is often necessary to scrape the exposure with a trowel 
2-22

or shovel to find organic samples in close association with liquefaction features, such as in soils 

buried by or developed in sand blows or near dike terminations. OSL samples are often collected 

at the contacts between the sand blows and the underlying soils or sediment in order to date the 

time of burial. The locations of liquefaction sites are measured with a global positioning system 

and marked on topographic maps. In addition, it is important to document the sedimentary 

conditions and amount of exposure where liquefaction features are not found.

2.4 Dating of Liquefaction Features

Liquefaction features are dated to estimate the ages of the paleoearthquakes that were 

responsible for their formation. It is important to constrain the ages of liquefaction features as 

narrowly as possible to differentiate closely timed events and to correlate similar-age features 

across a region. Sand blows usually provide the best opportunity for estimating the ages of 

paleoearthquakes with relatively small uncertainties, because it is often possible to determine both 

maximum and minimum age constraints for sand blows and thus bracket their age of formation 

(Figure 2.11; Tuttle, 2001). Close maximum age constraints can be determined by dating plant 

material, such as twigs and leaves, and sediment that was at or near the ground surface and 

buried by the sand blows at the time of the event. 

Similarly, plant material derived from surface soils and incorporated in the vented deposits of sand 

blows and sand-blow craters also provides close maximum age constraints. In addition, minimum 

age constraints, and sometimes, close minimum age constraints, can be determined for sand 

blows and sand-blow craters. For example, a close minimum age constraint can be achieved by 

dating plant material and sediment that accumulated in craterlets in the upper surface of sand 

blows soon after they formed. More commonly, minimum age constraints come from dating plant 

material in soils that developed in the sand blows over time and from tree roots and cultural pits 

that extend down into sand blows from above (Figure 2.11). 

Estimating the ages of sand dikes and sand sills usually involves greater uncertainty than for sand 

blows and sand-blow craters, because dikes and sills may terminate several meters below the 

ground surface at the time of the paleoearthquake (Figures 1.12 and 2.10; Tuttle, 2001). 

Maximum age constraints can be determined by dating the uppermost stratigraphic units that the 

dikes crosscut or the sills overlie, but these ages may be hundreds to thousands of years older 

than the liquefaction feature (Tuttle et al., 1999). Minimum age constraints of dikes and sills can 

be determined by dating roots, animal burrows, and cultural pits that clearly intrude and postdate 

the liquefaction features or by dating deposits that overlie unconformities truncating the 

liquefaction features. However, it is fairly uncommon to find circumstances such as these that 

help to constrain the minimum age of dikes and sills (Tuttle, 2001). Therefore, age estimates of 

sand dikes and sills often have large uncertainties. Some investigators will make educated 

guesses as to the ages of these types of liquefaction features based on weathering characteristics 

of the features themselves or the approximate age of the deposits in which they occur. There can 

be large uncertainties on the order of thousands of years in these estimates.
2-23

Figure 2-11 Diagram illustrating sampling strategies and age estimation of liquefaction 

features (after NUREG-2115).

Pseudonodules, load casts, and related folds typically form close to the sediment-water interface 

at the time of sediment deposition (Sims, 1975). Age estimates and related uncertainties for 

causative earthquakes can be derived by dating the deformed sediment itself or by dating plant 

material above and below the deformed sediment. There often are much larger uncertainties in 

estimating the ages of sand diapirs and foundered clasts because these soft-sediment 

deformation structures may have formed anytime following deposition of the stratigraphic units 

involved. Maximum age constraints can be established by dating the deformed deposits, but the 

deformation may be hundreds or thousands of years younger than the deposits. 

A variety of dating techniques are used in paleoliquefaction studies (Table 2.1). A brief summary 

of the most commonly used dating techniques is provided below.

2.4.1 Soil Development and Weathering Characteristics

The state of a soil system is defined as a function of five soil-forming factors: climate, biological 

activity, topography, parent material, and time (Jenny, 1941, 1961; Birkeland, 1999). In 

genetically related suites of soils in which all soil-forming factors except for time are about equal, 

soil profiles, as well as certain soil properties, develop systematically with age (Harden, 1982; 

Harden and Taylor, 1983). These soil properties include rubification (i.e., reddening and 

brightening of soil colors), clay and organic accumulation, soil structure, consistence, and pH. 

Therefore, soil profiles and properties can be used to estimate the age of a soil if they are 

calibrated with numerical techniques, such as radiocarbon dating and OSL dating as described 

below in Sections 2.3.4 and 2.3.5 (Table 2.1).
2-24

Table 2-1 Summary of dating techniques used in paleoliquefaction studies (after NUREG2115).

Dating 

Technique

Applicable 

Time Period 

(Years BP)

Dating 

Precision 

(Years)

Applied in CEUS 

Regions1 Selected References2

Soil development 1–100,000+ Varies with 

soil property

(1) NMSZ (1) NUREG/GR-0018

Stratigraphic 

context

1–100,000+ 100’s–1,000’s (1) NMSZ

(2) WVSZ

(1) Tuttle, 1999

(2) Hajic et al., 1995; Munson and

Munson, 1996

Archeological 

context

1–12,000 10’s–1,000’s (1) NMSZ

(2) STL

(3) WVSZ

(1) NUREG/GR-0018; Tuttle et al.,

2005, 2011

(2) Tuttle, Chester, et al., 1999

(3) Munson and Munson, 1996

Radiocarbon 1–50,000 10’s–100’s (1) NMSZ

(2) MAR

(3) STL

(4) WVSZ

(5) ALM

(6) CSZ

(7) AC-CVA

(8) NEWBURY

(9) CxSZ

(1) Tuttle et al., 2005b

(2) Tuttle et al., 2006

(3) Tuttle, Chester, et al., 1999

(4) Munson and Munson, 1996

(5) Cox, Larsen, et al., 2004

(6) Talwani and Schaeffer, 2001

(7) Obermeier and McNulty, 1998

(8) Tuttle and Seeber, 1991

(9) Tuttle and Atkinson, 2010

Optically 

stimulated 

luminescence

100–700,000 10’s–1,000’s (1) NMSZ

(2) MAR

(3) WVSZ

(4) ALM

(1) Mahan et al., 2009

(2) Tuttle et al., 2006

(3) Mahan and Crone, 2006

(4) Cox, Larsen, et al., 2004

Dendrochronology1–1,000s Annual, 

possibly 

seasonal

(1) NMSZ (1) Van Arsdale et al., 1998; Tuttle,

1999

1. NMSZ = New Madrid seismic zone and surrounding region; MAR = Marianna Area; STL = St. Louis

and surrounding region; WVSZ = Wabash Valley seismic zone and surrounding region; ALM =

Arkansas-Louisiana-Mississippi region; CSZ = Charleston seismic zone; AC-CVA = Atlantic Coast and

Central Virginia reconnaissance; NEWBURY = Newburyport, Massachusetts, and surrounding region;

CxSZ = Charlevoix seismic zone and surrounding region.

2. Selected references shown here. See references at end of report.

In most paleoliquefaction studies, soil development is used as a relative dating technique to 

distinguish young, unweathered features from significantly older, weathered features. In the New 

Madrid seismic zone, for example, the thickness of A soil horizons developed in sand blows has 

been used to distinguish paleoliquefaction features from those that formed during the 1811-1812 

earthquake sequence and to estimate the age of prehistoric sand blows (NUREG/GR-0018). The 

age estimates are based on a rate of A horizon development derived from measurements of A 

horizon thickness of sand blows whose ages were determined by radiocarbon dating. Age 

estimates derived in this manner typically have uncertainties on the order of 100-200 years, similar 

to the uncertainties of radiocarbon dating on which the rate of A horizon development is based. 

In a few regions where sand dikes have terminated within the stratigraphic section and organic 

material and cultural artifacts have not been available for constraining the ages of the features, 

soil characteristics such as iron staining and accumulation of fine-grained sediment have been 
2-25

used to correlate features over large distances. This practice is not recommended unless the soil 

characteristics have been calibrated and the uncertainties associated with their rates of 

development quantified. Otherwise, the spatial correlation of features and the interpretations 

related to the spatial distribution of those features may be erroneous (Tuttle, 2001).

2.4.2 Stratigraphic Context

Stratigraphic context and relationships can be used as a means to estimate the relative ages of 

buried sand blows and sand dikes, and to correlate paleoliquefaction features between exposures. 

The law of superposition, crosscutting relationships, and identification of paleosurface indicators 

preserved in the stratigraphic record can be used to help determine the relative ages of 

paleoliquefaction features. Moreover, in an area with laterally continuous stratigraphy or prominent 

marker beds, age equivalence can be established between different exposures or sites. If the ages 

of some or all of these continuous strata are determined by numerical or other means at one site, 

these ages can be extrapolated to other nearby sites. However, correlation of paleoliquefaction 

features identified in similar-age deposits is potentially problematic. For example, most of the midto late-Holocene sand-blow craters identified in the Charleston, South Carolina, region are found in 

beach ridge deposits that are 100 ka and older (McCartan et al., 1984). If only the host deposits 

had been used to correlate and date paleoliquefaction features, the timing of the events may have 

been overestimated and the number of paleoearthquakes underestimated. Ages derived through 

other methods reveal that earthquakes separated by a significant time period have produced 

paleoliquefaction features within correlative stratigraphic units. 

In addition, stratigraphic context and relationships can be used to place maximum ages on, for 

example, sand dikes that terminate upward at a stratigraphic level that may be lower than the 

paleo-ground surface at the time of the causative earthquake (Figures 1.12 and 2.11). Sand dikes 

that terminate below the event horizon, or a horizon that represents the ground surface at the time 

of the earthquake, commonly are encountered outside of active seismic zones and at greater 

distances from the seismic source than sand blows. By numerical or relative dating of the host 

deposits, it is possible to place at least a maximum age constraint on the timing of dike formation 

(Figure 2.11). 

Although stratigraphic context can be used to estimate the relative ages of paleoliquefacion 

features, this approach is typically less precise and less accurate than numerical dating 

techniques. Therefore, it should be calibrated using radiocarbon or OSL numerical dating 

methods where possible. Even so, uncertainties in age estimates of paleoliquefaction features 

based on their stratigraphic context are likely to be on the order of several hundreds to several 

thousands of years at best (Table 2.1).

2.4.3 Archeological Context

Regional archeological chronologies are developed primarily on the basis of two methodologies: 

(1) seriation, or the sequence of artifact and ceramic types particularly within cultural horizons and

(2) radiocarbon dating of organic material associated with artifacts and cultural horizons (Aiken,

1990; Morse and Morse, 1983; O’Brien and Lyman, 1999). Artifacts found at liquefaction sites

can help to estimate the ages of the liquefaction features (Saucier, 1991; Tuttle and Schweig,

1995; Lafferty, 1996; Munson et al., 1997). Some artifact types are narrowly tied to specific

cultural periods while others are not. Age estimates of liquefaction features based on their

archeological context will have uncertainties at least as great as those based on radiocarbon

dating (Tuttle, 2001; Table 2.1).
2-26

Cultural artifacts found in, or associated with, liquefaction features during reconnaissance can 

provide a preliminary estimate of the ages of the features. The stratigraphic relationships 

between liquefaction features and cultural features and horizons, as well as the assemblage of 

artifacts (especially if diagnostic artifact types are present) can help to further constrain the ages 

of the liquefaction features (e.g., Tuttle et al., 1996, 2005, and 2011). For example, the 

assemblage of artifacts within an A soil horizon buried by a sand blow can provide an estimate of 

the maximum age of the liquefaction feature (Figures 2.9 and 2.12; Tuttle et al., 1999). The 

assemblage of artifacts within an occupation horizon developed in a sand blow or cultural 

features, such as a storage pit or wall trench dug into a sand blow, can provide an estimate of the 

minimum age of the sand blow (Table 2.2). It is important to study assemblages of artifacts at a 

site since there are still many uncertainties regarding the temporal and geographical ranges of 

artifact types.

Due to the common abundance of organic-rich material, archeological sites often provide good 

opportunities for finding samples suitable for radiocarbon dating and constraining the age(s) of 

any liquefaction feature that is present. In these cases, it is desirable to conduct both 

archeological analyses and radiocarbon dating of organic samples to provide a means of 

independently verifying results and add confidence to the age estimates of liquefaction features. 

The archaeological context of a sand blow or sand dike is defined by the presence of artifacts 

and/or cultural features that may occur stratigraphically above, below, or within the geologic 

feature. In the broadest sense, an artifact is an object that has been modified by human beings. 

This can range from bringing an object, such as a cobble from a river, onto a site, to building large 

structures such as long houses and bridges. Portable artifacts are divided conceptually by some 

theoreticians (i.e., Taylor, 1948) into two categories: (1) intentionally produced artifacts, such as 

knives, projectile points, pottery, and (2) cultural debris, such as the flakes produced when making 

a projectile point, bones from a meal, or seeds that were charred by cooking. All of these artifacts 

incorporated into the soil matrix make up the archaeological site or a stratum at the site. On 

intensively occupied sites, there will often be 100s or even 1,000s of square meters of continuous 

matrix of archaeological deposits, which are called sheet middens. 

Cultural features are constructed (e.g., mounds, burials, hearths, house walls, trash pits, and 

pottery kilns) or are large accumulations of artifacts (e.g., a midden, stone tool quarry, pottery 

waste piles). Unlike artifacts, cultural features cannot be removed from the field as a single entity. 

Instead, they must be carefully documented before and as they are recovered via excavation. 

Features are time capsules that often contain deposits from a short duration of time, usually on 

the order of decades. Pits and postholes are generally the most common feature types 

encountered on prehistoric archaeological sites. Most pits manifest as dark stains in the host 

deposits. These deposits often have an abundance of small charred seeds, as well as wood and 

nut fragments ranging in density up to hundreds or even thousands per liter. These remains are 

dateable and many are identifiable to a species. Moreover, the seeds and nut fragments are 

annuals and provide radiocarbon dates with small standard deviations.
2-27

Figure 2-12 Log of sand blow and uppermost portions of related sand dikes exposed in a 

trench wall at the Dodd site in the New Madrid seismic zone (after NUREG2115). Sand dikes were also observed in trench floor and opposite wall. 

Radiocarbon dating of charcoal from a pit in soil below the sand blow and a 

maize kernel from a cultural feature excavated in the top of the sand blow 

bracket the age of formation of the sand blow between 490 and 660 yr B.P. 

Artifacts in the A horizon buried by the sand blow and in the A horizon 

developed in the top of the sand blow indicate that the sand blow formed 

during the late Mississippian cultural period (300-550 yr B.P. or A.D. 1400-

1670).

Diagnostic artifacts, such as pottery, projectile points, and axes, change through time. For 

example, from about 200 B.C to A.D. 400, Native Americans in the Lower Mississippi Valley begin 

producing fabric-decorated, grog-tempered ceramic wares (Table 2.2; Morse and Morse 1983 and 

1996). From about A.D. 400 to 1000, cord marked and plain pottery predominate. After about 

A.D. 1000, potters consistently added shell as a tempering agent to their ceramic paste. During

the succeeding 600 years, scores of decorative techniques were used. Many of these ceramic

types have been dated in their archaeological context and the occurrences and relative

frequencies of ceramic types can be used for establishing the general age of a site.

Plant remains that commonly occur at cultural sites also can help to constrain the age of 

liquefaction features, and thus paleoearthquakes. From about 1000 B.C. until historic time, the 

eastern North American Indians cultivated a variety of plants. During the early part of this 

development, Native North American seed plants, including goosefoot/lambs quarter 

(Chenopodium berlandiera), sunflower may grass (Phalaris carolina), little barley (Hordeum 

pusillum), knot weed (Polygonum erectum), sunflower (Helianthus annuus), and sumpweed (Iva 

annua), dominated. Later, tropical cultivars from Mesoamerica (i.e., southern Mexico and 

Guatemala) were added and proliferated. Remains of tropical plants, most notably maize (Zea 

mays), beans (Phaseolus vulgarius), and squash (Cucurbita spp.), occur only in trace amounts in 

cultural assemblages dating to about 1000 B. C. After about 400 B.C., however, the quantity of 

tropical cultivars increased, and by A. D. 1100, they dominated the botanical assemblages. 
2-28

Changes in botanical assemblages such as these allow for fairly accurate (+/- 200 years) age 

estimates of the feature or horizon from which plant remains are collected.

Table 2-2 Cultural periods, time spans, and associated diagnostic artifacts (from Tuttle et 

al., 2005b).

Cultural Periods Years (A.D./ B.C.) Diagnostic Artifacts 

Historic A.D. 16731- present Iron, glass, glazed pottery, plastic

Late Mississippian A.D. 1400-1673 Shell-tempered pottery - Parkin Punctate, Campbell 

Applique, Matthews Incised, Bell Plain, and Memphis 

rim mode; Nodena points

Middle Mississippian A.D. 1000-1400 Shell-tempered pottery - Parkin Punctate and Old Town 

Red (exterior slipped); Madison points

Early Mississippian A.D. 800-1000 Pottery transition - shell-tempered pottery, Varney Red 

Filmed pottery (interior slipped) and mixed temper 

wares; Madison points

Late Woodland A.D. 400-10002 Cordmarked and plain, sand- (Barnes) and grog- 

(Baytown, Mulberry Creek) tempered pottery; Madison 

points and Table Rock Stemmed points

Middle Woodland 200 B.C.-A.D. 400 Sand- and grog-tempered pottery; dentate, stamped, 

and fabric-marked pottery; 

Early Woodland 500-200 B.C. Punctated pottery; baked clay objects

Late Archaic 3000-500 B.C. Stemmed projectile points; baked clay objects

1. Dougan, 1995.

2. Morse and Morse (1983 and 1996) use A.D. 400-700. Radiocarbon dating performed for paleoliquefaction sites indicates Late Woodland period extends to A.D. 1000.

2.4.4 Radiocarbon Dating

Radiocarbon dating, or 14C dating, is the most common dating technique used in 

paleoliquefaction studies (Table 2.1). Although reliable for only the past 50,000 years, 

radiocarbon dating is useful for the time period of interest for most paleoseismic studies. 

Uncertainties in the results are related to the dating techniques, to conversion of radiocarbon ages 

to calibrated ages, and to sampling of materials that are used in dating liquefaction features.

Two different radiocarbon dating techniques are used, depending on the size of the sample 

(Aiken, 1990). The radiometric technique is used for larger samples (e.g., charcoal ≥ 15 grams, 

wood ≥ 25 grams, and soil ≥ 200 grams) and the accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) technique 

is used for smaller samples (charcoal ≥ 20 milligrams, wood ≥ 20 milligrams, and soil ≥ 2 grams). 

Using the radiometric technique, a precision of better than ± 1%, corresponding to ± 80 

radiocarbon years, can usually be achieved for samples that are less than 10,000 years in age. 

High-precision measurements can be made on wood samples of ≥ 1 kilogram by measuring the 

beta activity of the sample in a proportional gas counter (Stuiver et al., 1998). For these very 

large samples, a precision ± 0.25%, corresponding to ± 20 radiocarbon years, can be obtained. 

With the AMS technique, precision of about ± 0.5%, corresponding to ± 40 radiocarbon years, can 

be achieved. Although more expensive, the AMS technique is more often used in 

paleoliquefaction studies because of its higher precision.
2-29

Radiocarbon dating results are reported as both measured and conventional 14C ages. 

Conventional ages are derived from measured ages by normalizing them to the modern standard 

through the use of 13C/12C ratios. 14C in the atmosphere has fluctuated over time due to 

variations in cosmic radiation and, recently, to burning of fossil fuels and testing of nuclear devices 

(Stuiver et al., 1993). Therefore, it is desirable to convert conventional ages to actual or calendar 

years by using the radiocarbon calibration curve (Figure 2.13; Tuttle, 1999). Although the recent 

part of the curve (12 k.y. or thousand years) based on tree-ring records is the most reliable, the 

calibration curve now extends to 50 k.y. B.P. (Walker, 2005; Reimer et al., 2009). Calibration 

procedures that are commonly used in paleoliquefaction studies and that yield similar results include 

CALIB, OxCal, and Pretoria (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993; Talma and Vogel, 1993; Vogel et al., 1993; 

Bronk Ramsey, 1995 and 2001; and Stuiver et al., 2005). It is preferable to use 2-sigma calibrated 

dates to either bracket or approximate the ages of the liquefaction features. This assures with a 

high probability that the actual ages of the liquefaction features fall within the estimated age range. 

Calibrated ages rarely have 2-sigma ranges of less than 100 years, more often have 2-sigma 

ranges of about 200–300 years, and sometimes have two or three ranges depending on the number 

of intercepts of the conventional radiocarbon age with the calibration curve.

Figure 2-13 Portion of dendrocalibration curve illustrating conversion of radiocarbon age 

to calibrated date in calendar years. For example, 2-sigma radiocarbon age of 

2,280-2,520 BP is converted to calibrated date of 770-380 BC (from Tuttle, 

1999).

The type and location of samples collected for radiocarbon dating affect the uncertainty of the age 

estimate of the liquefaction features. Plant remains that occur in close stratigraphic position to a 

sand blow will fairly closely reflect its age. For example, leaves or burned wood that occur at the 

contact of a buried soil horizon and an overlying sand blow would provide a close maximum age 

constraint for the sand blow. Similarly, maize kernels, leaves, or burned wood incorporated into 

the top of a sand blow would provide a close minimum age constraint (Figures 2.9 and 2.12). In 

contrast, a piece of charcoal within the buried soil or underlying sediment would provide a 

maximum age constraint, but could be hundreds or even thousands of years older than the sand 

blow. Unless associated with in situ cultural or biological features such as fire pits and tree trunks, 
2-30

a charcoal sample could be reworked, in which case its age relationship to the sand blow would 

be even more uncertain. 

Bulk samples of soils buried by or developed in sand blows can also be dated. However, 

radiocarbon dates of soils reflect the mean residence time of carbon in those samples (Trumbore, 

1989; Walker, 2005). Also, contamination by young (e.g., modern humic acids) and old (e.g., 

lignite and calcium carbonate) carbon can be a significant problem in soils. Therefore, dating soils 

is usually a last resort and requires a sampling strategy to help minimize the uncertainties (Tuttle, 

1999).

2.4.5 Optically-Stimulated Luminescence

Luminescence techniques, including OSL dating, provide an estimate of the time since quartz and 

feldspar grains were last exposed to light, which sets the luminescence signal to zero. OSL 

dating is a type of radiation exposure dating that determines the age of a deposit based on its last 

exposure to light or intense heat (>150 °C). When a mineral is exposed to naturally occurring 

radiation, electrons accumulate at defects within the crystal lattice, or “electron traps”. Exposure 

to light will free electrons from light-sensitive traps, a process referred to as bleaching. Bleaching 

serves to reset the clock, and the mineral will not begin to accumulate trapped electrons until 

deposition and burial. Ideally, all sediment grains will be reset at the time of deposition (Duller, 

2008; Rhodes, 2011). In other words, OSL is a numerical method used to determine the amount 

of time that has passed since sediment was last exposed to light. OSL can be used to estimate 

the ages of sand blows, and thus their causative earthquakes, by dating sediment that pre- and 

post-dates sand blows (Mahan and Crone, 2006; Tuttle et al., 2006; Mahan et al., 2009). 

OSL dating can be employed in a variety of terrestrial stratigraphic settings, can date sediment 

100 years to <700,000 years old, and is particularly useful for dating sediment that receive brief 

exposure to sunlight prior to deposition (Table 2.1; Lian and Roberts, 2006; Duller, 2008; Rhodes, 

2011; LDRL, 2010). Uncertainties in OSL dates are increased according to the variations in the 

population of equivalent doses that are measured from the grains of the deposit. The preferred 

grain size of sediment for OSL dating is coarse silt to medium sand (quartz or feldspar) that has 

had at least one to two minutes of sunlight exposure. Quartz is preferred to feldspar if the deposit 

has had limited exposure to sunlight and is not older than 150,000 years.

There are multiple sources of uncertainty that can limit the accuracy of OSL dating. The most 

common problem is that the sediment has not received enough sunlight exposure prior to burial in 

order to rid the sample of previously acquired luminescence (Lian, 2007). In addition, silt and 

sand grains that are coated with clay during their erosional travel path may be shielded from the 

bleaching effects of sunlight. Because cosmic radiation often fluctuates and attenuates quickly 

with depth, uncertainties in the depositional elevation of the sediment sample also may contribute 

to the uncertainty in the resulting OSL age estimates. In addition, the accuracy of OSL dating 

may be limited by estimates of past water content in the deposit (e.g.. water table fluctuations and 

disequilibrium in the U series, etc.) because of the radiation-absorbing characteristic of water. 

To minimize the impact of the sources of uncertainties described above, it is preferable that OSL 

samples come from a relatively homogeneous stratigraphic unit that is at least 30 cm thick, and 

has not undergone significant bioturbation, water-content variations, or diagenetic changes 

following burial (LDRL, 2010). Therefore, careful selection and sampling of sediment are crucial 

as well as early guidance on sampling techniques and sample handling from the luminescence 

dating facility.
2-31

2.4.6 Dendrochronology

Dendrochronology is the dating of past events through the study of the tree ring records. This 

technique was first developed to date prehistoric timbers of pueblos in the southwestern U.S. and 

later used to date historic log cabins and prehistoric waterlogged wood in the east (Douglass, 

1936). As trees grow, they add annual growth bands, or rings, to their circumference. Tree ring 

width varies from species to species and from year to year depending on the amount of annual 

rainfall and other environmental factors. Therefore, tree-ring chronologies are both species and 

region specific. Master chronologies are constructed by starting with tree-ring sequences for 

modern trees and adding antecedent and overlapping sequences back through time (Douglass, 

1941; Pierce, 1986; Stahle et al., 1985). Dating a sample of an ancient tree is accomplished by 

matching the sequence of rings with the master chronology. It is desirable to have a sequence of 

one hundred rings for dating purposes. Accurate dating of the death of a tree requires having the 

exterior ring of the specimen.

Dendrochronology has the potential to date paleoearthquakes to the year and even the season 

(Table 2.1; Pierce, 1986; Stahle et al., 2004). For example, trees killed by coseismic subsidence 

along the coast of Washington State helped to provide exact dates of megathrust earthquakes along 

the Cascadia subduction zone (Atwater et al., 2004). In the New Madrid seismic zone, bald cypress 

in Reelfoot Lake in westernmost Tennessee showed a dramatic increase in ring width following the 

1811-1812 earthquakes; whereas bald cypress in the St. Francis sunkland in northeastern Arkansas 

showed decreased ring widths for about 45 years following the earthquakes (Figure 2.14; Van 

Arsdale et al., 1998). Enhanced growth of bald cypress in Reelfoot Lake is attributed to increased 

water depth resulting from subsidence. Suppressed growth of bald cypress in the St. Francis 

sunkland is thought to be due to tissue damage inflicted by earthquake shaking. 

So far, dendrochronology has been used very little in paleoliquefaction studies but it has the 

potential to better constrain age estimates of paleoearthquakes, especially in regions where 

liquefaction-related ground failures were severe (Table 2.1). Abrupt changes in soil-moisture 

conditions due to liquefaction-related subsidence of the ground surface and/or burial by thick sand 

blows, as well as disruption of tree root systems by lateral spreading, may affect tree ring growth 

and even lead to tree death (Figure 2.15; Tuttle, 1999). Therefore, trees buried and preserved 

below sand blows may provide accurate dates of paleoearthquakes. Before dendrochronology 

can be used to date paleoliquefaction features, however, regional chronologies that extend 

beyond the historic period must be developed for long-lived tree species.
2-32

Figure 2-14 Bald cypress tree-ring chronologies from Reelfoot Lake, Tennessee (A), St. 

Francis sunkland, Arkansas (B), and regional chronology based on four bald 

cypress chronologies in central Arkansas (C). Note growth surge at Reelfoot 

Lake that peaked in 1814 and prolonged growth suppression at St. Francis 

sunkland following New Madrid earthquakes of 1811-1812 (from Van Arsdale 

et al., 1998).
2-33

Figure 2-15 In situ tree trunk buried, and likely killed, by sand blow deposit in the New 

Madrid seismic zone presents opportunity to date paleoearthquakes to the 

year and even season of occurrence. For scale, shovel is 1 m long. 

Photograph by M. Tuttle.

2.5 Interpretation of Liquefaction Features

Following field studies and dating of samples found in association with liquefaction features, 

interpretations are made regarding the ages of the features and the timing of causative 

earthquakes, the source areas and magnitudes of paleoearthquakes, and the recurrence times of 

large earthquakes and long-term behavior of earthquake sources. These interpretations are 

based on information about the locations, sedimentary and structural characteristics, and sizes of 

liquefaction features, as well as their archeological and stratigraphic context, and results of 

radiocarbon and OSL dating of liquefaction features. There are numerous factors that contribute 

to uncertainties in earthquake parameters (timing, location, magnitude, and recurrence time) 

interpreted from liquefaction features. However, these uncertainties can be reduced by 

conducting a broad and balanced field program, by making careful and thorough field 

observations, by collecting samples to constrain the ages estimates of liquefaction features, and 

by wisely employing analysis tools in the interpretation of liquefaction data (Table 2.3).
2-34

Table 2-3 Uncertainties related to interpretation of paleoearthquake parameters (from 

NUREG-2115).

Earthquake 

Parameter

Range in 

Uncertainty

Factors that Contribute to 

Uncertainty

Observations and Analyses that 

Reduce Uncertainty

Timing 10’s–1,000’s 

of years

(1) Dating of liquefaction features

(2) Use of sand dikes in absence

of sand blows

(1) Well-constrained age estimates

of liquefaction features

(2) Space-time diagrams

(3) Statistical analysis of

uncertainty range of age estimates

of multiple liquefaction features

Location Few–100’s of 

km

(1) above

(2) Correlation of features across

region

(3) Size and spatial distribution of

contemporaneous features

a. Style of faulting

b. Earthquake source

characteristics

c. Directivity of seismic energy

d. Attenuation and amplification

of ground motion

e. Relative density of sediment

f. Distribution of liquefiable

sediment

g. Water table depth

(4) Field sampling and exposure

(1) through (3) above

(4) Size distribution of features

(5) Information regarding

uncertainty factors (3a) through

(3g).

(6) Field studies conducted where

sedimentary and hydrologic

conditions suitable for formation

and preservation of liquefaction

features, and when adequate

exposure available to find features,

if present

(7) Comparative study with

calibration event in same region

(8) Relationship to active fault

Magnitude 0.25–1+ unit (1) through (4) above

(5) Epicentral distance to farthest

sand blow unlikely to be known

(6) Changes in source sediment

due to liquefaction or to

postliquefaction effects such as

cementation and compaction

(1) through (8) above

(9) Empirical relations based on

global database of earthquakes

that induced liquefaction

(10) Evaluation of scenario

earthquakes using liquefaction

potential analysis

Recurrence 

time

10’s–1,000’s 

of years

(1) Uncertainty in timing of

paleoearthquakes

(2) Completeness of

paleoearthquake record in space

and time

(1) Well-constrained age estimates

of paleoearthquakes

(2) Space-time diagrams

(3) Consideration of history of

sedimentation and erosion as well

as of changes in water table

2.5.1 Correlation of Liquefaction Features

Correlation of liquefaction features is an important and necessary step in the interpretation of the 

timing, location, and magnitude of paleoearthquakes. Correlation of liquefaction features is based 

on available information, including one or more of the following (from NUREG-2115):

• Chronological control: Paleoearthquakes are distinguished based on grouping

paleoliquefaction features that have overlapping age estimates. As described above in
2-35

Section 2.4, sand blows are best to use because the event horizons are more easily 

identified and their age estimates are usually better constrained, whereas the event 

horizon and age estimates associated with sand dikes are often poorly constrained. 

• Size distribution: In general, feature size diminishes as ground shaking decreases.

Therefore, the size distribution of liquefaction features relates to magnitude and distance

from the causative earthquake. The size distribution of features is also important for

interpreting whether similar-age features formed during a single large earthquake or

multiple smaller earthquakes.

• Stratigraphic control: Paleoearthquakes are distinguished based on grouping

paleoliquefaction features found in deposits of similar age (see caveats described in

Section 2.4.2).

• Pedologic or weathering characteristics: Paleoearthquakes are distinguished based on

grouping paleoliquefaction features with similar soil or weathering characteristics (see

caveats described in Section 2.4.1).

If the different types of information described above provide conflicting correlations for a specific 

field study, the investigator must assess the relative quality of the information and provide a 

preferred interpretation. Additional field reconnaissance may be necessary to identify areas for 

targeted studies that might be necessary to resolve these conflicts.

2.5.2 Timing of Paleoearthquakes

Estimates of the timing of paleoearthquakes are based on dating of many individual liquefaction 

features, and possibly other paleoseismic deformation structures, across a region. If ages of 

liquefaction features cannot be constrained within a few hundred years, it may not be possible to 

correlate features chronologically or to resolve the timing of paleoearthquakes with confidence. 

Therefore, it is paramount to date many liquefaction features across a region and to constrain the 

age estimates of those features as narrowly as possible. Uncertainty in the estimates of the 

timing of events decreases as the number and spatial distribution of well-constrained age 

estimates increases for a region (Table 2.3). 

It is more difficult to recognize older liquefaction features, due to effects of soil development, 

weathering, and bioturbation, and to narrowly constrain their ages. Liquefaction features that are 

more than 50,000 years old are beyond the reach of radiocarbon dating, the most precise dating 

technique. For these ancient liquefaction features, age estimates may be provided by 

stratigraphic context and OSL dating of the host deposit but the uncertainties may be on the order 

of 1000s of years. 

Clustering of age estimates of liquefaction features that can be reasonably correlated across a 

region is thought to reflect the timing of paleoearthquakes (Figures 2.16 and 2.17). For a 

particular cluster, the union of well-constrained age estimates of liquefaction features represents 

the time period during which the paleoearthquake is likely to have occurred. It is not uncommon 

for this time period to have a range of 100 to 1,000 years. Using the intersection of overlapping 

age estimates of sand blows may provide an event time with a range of tens to hundreds of years, 

as long as there is a high degree of confidence in the accuracy of the age estimates. Statistical 

analysis data clusters that include several well-constrained age estimates can lead to a more 

narrowly defined range of several to tens of years and thus smaller uncertainties in the estimated 

timing of the paleoearthquakes (Figure 2.16).
2-36

Figure 2-16 Earthquake chronology of the New Madrid seismic zone for the past 2,000 

years based on paleoliquefaction studies (e.g., Tuttle et al., 2002b and 2005; 

NUREG-2115). Vertical bars represent age estimates of individual sand 

blows, and horizontal bars represent inferred event times based on 

intersection of overlapping age estimates: 138 yr BP (AD 1811-1812); 500 yr 

BP ± 150 yr; 1,050 yr BP ± 100 yr. Statistical analysis resolved event times 

with narrower uncertainty ranges of 503 yr BP ± 8 yr and 1,110 yr BP ± 40 yr 

as indicated by darker portions of the horizontal bars.

2.5.3 Locations of Paleoearthquakes

Once liquefaction features have been correlated across a region on the basis of one or more of

the criteria described above in Section 2.4 (e.g., chronological or stratigraphic control), these 

features, specifically sand blows and sand dikes, can be used to infer the approximate locations of

paleoearthquakes. The regional distribution of contemporaneous liquefaction features,

sometimes referred to as the liquefaction field, is thought to reflect the meizoseismal (i.e.,

strongest shaking) area or source area of a particular paleoearthquake, and the area in which the 

largest liquefaction features are concentrated is interpreted as the epicentral area or energy 

center (Obermeier et al., 2001; Tuttle, 2001; Castilla and Audemard, 2007). As mentioned in 

Section 1.4.2, soft-sediment deformation structures such as convolute bedding, pseudonodules,

and load casts may be useful in defining minimum levels of ground shaking. If present, therefore, 

these types of structures may help to delineate the outer limits of liquefaction fields and to 
2-37

constrain the locations and magnitudes of paleoearthquakes, as long as they meet 

certain criteria and are used in combination with sand blows and sand dikes. Lone 

occurrences of earthquake-induced liquefaction features may be indicators of unique 

site conditions and should be interpreted with care. 
2-38

Figure 2-17 Shaded relief map of NMSZ and surrounding region showing instrumentally 

recorded earthquakes, inferred locations of historical earthquakes, large 

liquefaction field produced by large earthquakes, estimated ages and 

measured sizes of earthquake-induce d liquefaction features including sand 

blows and sand dikes (from Tuttle, 2010).
2-39

As demonstrated by modern earthquakes, sand blows generally decrease in size and frequency 

with increasing distance from the epicenter (e.g., Ambraseys, 1988; Castilla and Audemard, 

2007). Nevertheless, the size and spatial distribution of sand blows can be influenced by a variety 

of factors including style of faulting, earthquake characteristics, directivity of seismic energy, 

attenuation and amplification of ground motion, relative density of sediment, distribution of 

liquefiable sediment, and water table depth. The complexity of processes and conditions 

influencing sand-blow formation contribute to difficulties in interpreting paleoliquefaction data. 

Accounting for various seismological, geological, and hydrological factors may help to reduce 

uncertainties to some degree. In addition, the sampling strategy and sediment exposure will 

affect uncertainties related to the spatial distribution of paleoliquefaction features. If searching for 

liquefaction features is not performed where conditions are suitable for the formation and 

preservation of liquefaction features, and at times when exposure is adequate to find features, 

information gained during paleoliquefaction studies may be incomplete and skewed spatially 

and/or temporally, which can lead to erroneous interpretations. Taking together the possible 

factors affecting the occurrence and observation of paleoliquefaction features, uncertainty in 

interpreting the locations of paleoearthquakes is probably on the order of tens to hundreds of 

kilometers (Table 2.3; NUREG-2115). 

Modern and historical earthquakes that induced liquefaction can serve as calibration events for 

interpreting paleoliquefaction features. If the size and spatial distribution of liquefaction features 

generated by a paleoearthquake are similar to those for a modern or historical earthquake in the 

same region, the paleoearthquake can be inferred to have a similar source area to that of the 

modern or historical earthquake. For example, the source area of the 1886 Charleston, South 

Carolina, earthquake is thought to have produced several large paleoearthquakes in the past 

5,500 years judging from similar spatial distributions of historical and prehistoric sand-blow craters 

(Talwani and Schaeffer, 2001). Similarly, the New Madrid seismic zone is thought to be the 

source of several sequences of large paleoearthquakes judging from the size, internal 

stratigraphy, and spatial distributions of historical and prehistoric sand blows (Figure 2.17; Tuttle 

et al., 2002b and 2005). 

In comparative studies, the accuracy of the inferred locations of the paleoearthquakes is less than 

that for the modern or historical earthquakes, usually a few kilometers to a few tens of kilometers, 

respectively. If paleoliquefaction features can be directly related to a fault, such as has been done 

with the Reelfoot fault in the New Madrid seismic zone, uncertainty in the location of the 

paleoearthquake may be reduced to just a few kilometers (e.g., Kelson et al., 1996; Tuttle et al., 

2002b; Table 2.3).

2.5.4 Magnitudes of Paleoearthquakes

As demonstrated by case studies of instrumentally recorded earthquakes that induced 

liquefaction, the size of sand blows, as well as the spatial extent of sand blows, increases with 

earthquake magnitude (e.g., Ambraseys, 1988; Castilla and Audemard, 2007). Therefore, the 

size and spatial distribution of paleoliquefaction features can help to estimate the magnitudes of 

paleoearthquakes (e.g., Obermeier, 1996; Tuttle, 2001). However, due to the many factors 

affecting the occurrence, distribution, and observation of liquefaction features, uncertainty in 

magnitudes of paleoearthquakes estimated from paleoliquefaction data can be fairly large, 

perhaps ranging up to 1 magnitude unit and above. It may be possible to reduce the uncertainty if 
2-40

the size distribution of similar-age features is well constrained and by conducting comparative 

studies, using empirical relations, and performing geotechnical analysis (Table 2.3; Tuttle, 2001).

2.5.4.1 Comparison with Modern or Historical Analogues

In comparative studies, the size and spatial distribution of sand blows generated by a 

paleoearthquake are compared to those induced by a local modern or historical earthquake 

whose magnitude is fairly well known. For example, paleoearthquakes centered in the New 

Madrid seismic zone about AD 1450 (500 yr BP) and AD 900 (1,050 yr BP) are thought to be on 

the order of M 7 to 8 based on the similarity in the size and spatial distribution of sand blows with 

those that formed during the 1811-1812 New Madrid earthquakes (Figures 2.16 and 2.17; e.g., 

Tuttle et al., 2002b; NUREG-2115). A similar approach was used in the southeastern U.S. to 

compare the spatial distribution of paleoliquefaction features with those that formed during the 

1886 M ~7 Charleston, South Carolina, earthquake (Talwani and Schaeffer, 2001). In studies 

such as these, the uncertainty related to the inferred magnitudes of the paleoearthquakes is 

greater than that for the modern and historical earthquakes, which usually range from 0.25 to 0.75 

of a magnitude unit, respectively.

2.5.4.2 Empirical Relations

Empirical relations used in paleoliquefaction studies to estimate magnitudes of paleoearthquakes 

include (1) the relations between earthquake magnitude and maximum distance of surface 

manifestations of liquefaction, or sand blows, and (2) the relation between the liquefaction severity 

index and distance of liquefaction from the seismic energy source. In order to use the empirical 

relations to estimate magnitudes of paleoearthquakes, their source areas must first be interpreted. 

As described above in Section 2.5.3, the size and spatial distribution of liquefaction features are 

used to interpret the source areas of paleoearthquakes.

Both empirical relations are based on modern and historical cases of earthquake-induced 

liquefaction for which the locations and magnitudes of the earthquakes are fairly well known 

(Figure 2.18; e.g., Ambraseys, 1988; Papadopoulos and Lefkopoulos, 1993). Recent studies 

have found that style of faulting and directivity of seismic energy appears to influence the size and 

distance of liquefaction features, but that the greatest distance of surface manifestations of 

liquefaction is still a useful indicator of the magnitude of the causative earthquake (Figure 2.19; 

Obermeier, 1996; Tuttle et al., 2002a; Castilla and Audemard, 2007).

Paleoearthquake magnitude estimated from earthquake magnitude-liquefaction distance relations 

are considered minimum values since the actual epicentral distance to the farthest sand blow is 

unlikely to be known (Tuttle, 2001; Castilla and Audemard, 2007). A great deal of reconnaissance 

by an experienced investigator is often required to find and recognize distal sand blows since they 

become smaller and less frequent, and may occur mainly in areas characterized by sediment that 

is highly susceptible to liquefaction. The distance to the farthest sand dikes observed in river 

cutbanks should not be used to estimate magnitudes of paleoearthquakes. To do so could lead to 

overestimation of paleoearthquake magnitudes since sand dikes can form at greater distances 

than sand blows, and the magnitude-distance relations were based on “surface manifestations” of 

liquefaction not subsurface sand dikes.
2-41

Figure 2-18 Relation between moment magnitude, M, and distance from earthquake to 

farthest surface expression of liquefaction (after Papadopoulos and 

Lefkopoulos, 1993).
2-42

Figure 2-19 Relation between M and epicentral distance to farthest known sand blows 

induced by instrumentally recorded earthquakes (after Castilla and 

Audemard, 2007).

There are several obvious factors that contribute to uncertainties in magnitude estimates for 

paleoearthquakes based on the magnitude-bound method, which an empirical method based on 

the surface expression of liquefaction. The epicentral location may be poorly defined and the 

farthest sand blow is unlikely to be known. In addition, the magnitude-distance relation itself has 

some inherent uncertainties since the epicentral distance to the farthest sand blow may not be 

known even for instrumental earthquakes. Due to the sparse data for infrequent very large 

earthquakes, the relation is poorly constrained for earthquakes greater than magnitude 7.2. Given 

the various unknowns, uncertainties associated with magnitude estimates determined with the 

magnitude-bound method are likely to range from 0.25 to 0.6 of a magnitude unit (NUREG-2115).

Attempts have been made to reduce uncertainties in the magnitude estimates of 

paleoearthquakes by performing regional calibration of the magnitude-distance relation 

(Obermeier et al., 2001; Olson et al., 2005a). However, calibrations that rely heavily on historical 

earthquakes with poorly constrained locations and magnitudes are unlikely to significantly improve 

the magnitude-distance relation based on the worldwide database of instrumentally recorded 

earthquakes (e.g., Ambraseys, 1988; Papadopoulos and Lefkopoulos, 1993; Castilla and 

Audemard, 2007). Calibration of the magnitude-bound relation may be most fruitful for regions 

that have recently experienced instrumentally recorded earthquakes that induced liquefaction.

The liquefaction severity index (LSI) is a measure of ground failure displacement related to lateral 

spreading on gently sloping late Holocene fluvial deposits (Youd and Perkins, 1987). LSI 

represents the maximum observed severity of ground failure at a given locality, with 

displacements greater than 2.5 m receiving the limiting value of 100. Values of LSI have been 

determined for several earthquakes, ranging in magnitude from M 5.2 to 9.2, in the western U.S. 
2-43

and plotted against horizontal distance from fault rupture (Youd and Perkins, 1987). A relation 

has been developed for one modern and two historic earthquakes in the eastern U.S. and Canada 

that shows liquefaction at greater distances in this region compared to similar-size earthquakes in 

the west (Youd et al., 1989). For example, the 1988 M 5.9 Saguenay, Quebec earthquake, 

induced liquefaction 25-30 km from its epicenter, a much greater distance than has been reported 

for liquefaction triggered by similar magnitude earthquakes in the western US (Tuttle et al., 1990; 

Youd and Perkins, 1987). Liquefaction at greater distances is probably due in part to lower 

attenuation of ground motion in the relatively old and hard crystalline rocks of eastern North 

America. Although they have been employed only rarely in paleoliquefaction studies, LSIdistance relations allow for the use of liquefaction features, including sand blows, in a 

meizoseismal area and do not rely on distal liquefaction features, often sand dikes, that may be 

difficult to date with tight age constraints and attribute to one particular paleoearthquake.

2.5.4.3 Geotechnical Approach

The geotechnical approach for evaluating the magnitudes of paleoearthquakes has involved site 

characterization of in situ soil properties, characterization of ground motion for scenario 

earthquakes, and liquefaction potential analysis (e.g., Obermeier et al., 2001; Olson et al., 2001, 

2005b; Green et al., 2005). The evaluation is based on the identification of the soil or sediment 

layers that may have liquefied during the events, the measurement or estimation of geotechnical 

parameters (e.g., penetration resistance, soil density, effective overburden stress, and shear 

modulus) of the layers, and the groundwater level, which are used to estimate the seismic ground 

motions necessary to induce liquefaction in the layers. It is best to collect the geotechnical data 

used in the analysis at the sites of interest to ensure the data are representative of the site 

conditions. 

Typically, liquefaction potential analysis is performed for sites where liquefaction features have 

and have not been observed in excavations or in natural exposures such as river cutbanks. Field 

observations of liquefaction features help to constrain the depth of the sediment that liquefied and 

to select the sediment layers used in the liquefaction potential analysis. During the analysis, 

minimum values of acceleration likely to induce liquefaction are determined for each site. For 

distal sites of liquefaction, the values may be close to the actual accelerations experienced by the 

sites. By comparing results of this analysis with field observations, scenario earthquakes are 

selected that may best reflect the source areas and magnitudes of paleoearthquakes. A variation 

of this approach involves determining combinations of peak ground surface acceleration and 

earthquake magnitude for sites that liquefied and did not liquefy (Figure 2.20; Green et al., 2005).
2-44

Figure 2-20 (Left) amax - M combination required to induce liquefaction at an hypothetical 

site; (Right) lower bound amax - M combination determined for the same 

hypothetical site (from Green et al., 2005).

The geotechnical approach has been applied in the Charleston (e.g., Hu et al., 2002a, 2002b; 

Leon, 2003; Leon et al., 2005; Gassman et al., 2009) and the Wabash Valley (e.g., Obermeier et 

al., 1993; Pond and Martin, 1997; Olson et al., 2001; Green et al., 2005; Heidari et al., 2011) 

seismic zones and in the St. Louis region northwest of the New Madrid seismic zone 

(NUREG/CR-5730). It has also been used to a more limited extent in the New Madrid (e.g., 

Schneider and Mayne, 2000; Schneider et al., 2001; Liao et al., 2002; Stark, 2002; Tuttle, 2004; 

Liao and Mayne, 2010) and the Charlevoix (e.g., Tuttle and Atkinson, 2010) seismic zones.

The geotechnical approach may suggest multiple possible source areas and a range of possible 

magnitudes for a given paleoearthquake. For the Wabash Valley seismic zone, the magnitude 

estimates range from M 7 to 7.8 for the Vincennes-Bridgeport paleoearthquake about 6,100 ± 200 

yr B.P. and from M 6.3 to 7.3 for the Skelton paleoearthquake about 12,000 ± 1,000 yr BP (Pond 

and Martin, 1997; Green et al., 2005; Olson et al., 2005a; Castilla and Audemard, 2007). For the 

Charleston seismic zone, magnitude estimates for large regional paleoearthquakes range from M

6.8 to 7.8 (Hu et al., 2002b), M 5.5 to 7.2 (Leon et al., 2005), and M 6.7 to 7.0 (Gassman et al., 

2009), depending on the study. For the region northwest of the New Madrid seismic zone in 

southeastern Missouri and southwestern Illinois, paleoliquefaction features that formed about 

6,500 yr B.P. can be explained by one very large (M > 7) regional earthquake or two smaller 

earthquakes located in close proximity to the clusters of features (Figure 2.21; NUREG/CR-5730). 
2-45

Figure 2-21 Alternate earthquake scenarios that could explain the distribution of 

prehistoric liquefaction features in the greater St. Louis region (from 

NUREG/CR-5730): (Above) M > 7 earthquake centered near Germantown, 

Illinois, in vicinity of largest liquefaction features on Shoal Creek. (Below) M 

> 6 earthquake centered near Germantown, M > 5.2 near St. Louis, and M >

7.5 centered near New Madrid, Missouri. Solid black lines indicate location

and strike of dikes, where length of lines represent dike width: 8 mm line < 1

cm width, 12 mm line = 1-10 cm width, 16 mm line > 10 cm width. Solid black

squares represent dikes with unknown strike. Red and green filled squares

represent sand blows and sand sills, respectively. Blue filled squares

indicate soft-sediment deformation structures. Thick yellow lines identify

river sections that were searched for liquefaction features. Surface traces of

faults and fold axes are shown with gray lines and thin magenta lines,

respectively.
2-46

There are numerous sources of uncertainty associated with evaluating the locations and 

magnitudes of paleoearthquakes from geotechnical data. It is incumbent on investigators to be 

transparent with and describe how uncertainties are considered in their analyses. Sources of 

uncertainties include (1) identification of the sediment layer that liquefied during a particular event; 

(2) measurements of the geotechnical properties of the layer that liquefied; (3) changes in

geotechnical properties of the layer due to liquefaction and to post-liquefaction effects related to

aging and groundwater conditions; (4) seismic parameters (e.g., amplitude, duration, frequency,

and directivity), regional ground motion attenuation, and local site effects; and (5) interpretation of

site-specific results in a regional context (Tuttle, 2001; Green et al., 2005; Olson et al., 2005;

NUREG-2115; Electric Power Research Institute, 2013). Improving the understanding of these

sources of uncertainty and quantifying their influence on location and magnitude estimates of

paleoearthquakes is an area of ongoing research

2.5.4.3.1 Liquefaction Potential Analysis

Both the cyclic-stress (e.g., Seed and Idriss, 1982; Youd et al., 2001; Cetin et al., 2004) and the 

seismic energy (e.g., Pond, 1996) methods of liquefaction potential analysis have been used in 

the evaluation of paleoearthquakes. The cyclic-stress method, also known as the simplified 

procedure, is the preferred method because it is well established, remains the standard in 

engineering practice, and is suitable for many field and tectonic settings (e.g., Seed and Idriss, 

1971 and 1982; Youd et al., 2001; Robertson, 2004 and 2009; Idriss and Boulanger, 2004 and 

2008; Moss et al., 2006; Cetin et al., 2004). However, progress has been made in seismic energy 

methods, which may be used more in the future (Green, 2001).

In the analysis, peak ground accelerations are estimated for scenario earthquakes of various 

moment magnitudes (e.g., M 5-8) at distances of interest from known or suspected earthquake 

sources by employing regionally appropriate ground motion prediction equations (previously 

known as ground motion attenuation relations) and site response analyses. Several prediction 

equations often are used in the calculations to capture the uncertainty inherent in the relations. 

Prediction equations vary significantly from one region to another, and even within regions, due to 

the differences in seismic source properties and geological characteristics (Heaton and Hartzell, 

1988). Most prediction equations are derived from statistical modeling of recorded ground 

motions generated by interplate earthquakes. For intraplate tectonic settings, which are 

characterized by lower rates of seismicity and few recorded large magnitude earthquakes, 

prediction equations are based on semi-empirical seismological modeling and typically calibrated 

with limited data. In addition, the standard deviation of actual ground motions is about a factor of 

two about the median relation. It is the motions above the median that typically dominate the 

hazard and produce the more severe observations. Furthermore, variability in ground motions is 

large even over small spatial scales (e.g., a factor of two for sites within several hundred meters of 

each other), and liquefaction sites across a region may represent these above-median motions. 

Therefore, it is important to consider these two sources of variability in ground motions by 

including higher than median motions in the evaluation and interpretation of scenario earthquakes 

(Atkinson, pers. comm., 2015). As mentioned earlier, earthquakes in the eastern US with higher 

frequency content cause higher peak ground accelerations than western earthquakes at similar 
2-47

magnitudes and distances (Atkinson and Boore, 2000). For example, the high-frequency 

amplitudes of the 1988 M 5.9 Saguenay, Quebec earthquake, which induced liquefaction farther 

than a similar magnitude earthquake in the western US, exceeded median predicted levels by a 

significant margin (Boore and Atkinson, 1992). Therefore, frequency content of eastern 

earthquakes may be an important factor in interpreting the distribution of liquefaction caused by 

paleoearthquakes. Uncertainties in prediction equations, especially for intraplate regions like the 

Central and Eastern United States (CEUS), as well as variability in ground motions, will have 

significant impacts on magnitude estimates of paleoearthquakes. 

Using empirical relations between cyclic stress ratio and corrected penetration resistance, it can 

be determined whether or not representative layers at a site would be likely, or unlikely, to liquefy. 

Given the uncertainty in predicting ground motions, it is recommended that several prediction 

equations be used to capture the possible range of results. In addition, it is prudent to consider 

ground motions about a factor of two higher than the median since higher-than-average motions 

are likely to strongly influence the pattern of liquefaction (Atkinson, pers. comm., 2015). After 

computing the peak ground accelerations, cyclic stress ratios (CSR) generated by scenario 

earthquakes are calculated using the following expression for flat ground and depths < 15 m, as 

discussed earlier in Section 1.2.3:

CCCCCC7.5 = 

ττaa aa

σσ′vvvv

= 0.65 . �

aamm mm

gg � . �

σσvvvv

σσ′vv0

� . rrdd . 1

MM MM

where aamm mm= PGA = peak (horizontal) ground acceleration, (aamm mm/gg) is peak ground 

acceleration divided by gravity, σσvvvv and σσvvvv′ are the total and effective vertical overburden 

stresses, respectively (see Appendix A),rrdd is a stress reduction coefficient (see Appendix B), 

and MSF = magnitude scaling factor (see Section 1.2.3 and Appendix B). The CSR7.5

represents the normalized shear stress (ττaa aa/σv') induced in the soil by the earthquake event 

(i.e, the seismic demand) and commonly referenced to a benchmark case with M = 7.5. For 

ground that is sloped and for high overburden stresses (i.e., z > 30 m), consideration should be 

given towards inclusion of a slope correction factor (K∝) and/or overburden correction factor 

(Kσ), as discussed previously in Section 1.2.3 and Appendix B.

The ability of the soil to resist the triggering of liquefaction is quantified in terms of cyclic 

resistance ratio (CRR). If the CSR exceeds the CRR, liquefaction can be expected; otherwise, 

if CSR < CRR, liquefaction is not anticipated. The CRR has been correlated to a number of 

different in-situ tests including: standard penetration test (SPT), cone penetration tests (CPT), 

flat dilatometer test (DMT), and shear wave velocity (Vs) measurements. A summary of the 

standard approaches for SPT, CPT, and Vs are given in Youd et al. (2001). For illustration, 

selected CRR curves for M 7.5 earthquakes for the four test methods (SPT, Vs, CPT, and DMT) 

are presented in Figure 2.22. SPT and CPT are the most common test methods and additional 

details on the use of these methods are provided in the following sections.

2.5.4.3.2 Evaluation of Liquefaction Using the Standard Penetration Test

The procedure and tools used to perform the standard penetration test (SPT) cause variations in 

the measured blow count. These variations are corrected by adjusting the measured blow count 

(Nm) using the relation:

NN1(60) = CCNN CCEE CCBB CCRR CCSS NNmm
2-48

where NN1(60)

 is the SPT blow count corrected for hammer energy (CE), borehole diameter (CB), 

rod length (CR), and sampler configuration (CS), with Nm being the measured SPT resistance or

"blow count" reported in blows/foot (or blows/0.3m). Approximate values for various factors are

given in Table 2.4 below. The subscript "60" refers to the average energy efficiency in the US at

the time these factors were quantified (e.g., Seed et al., 1985; Skempton 1986). The magnitude 

of CE is only reliably obtained by calibration measurements of dynamic force and acceleration

with time per ASTM D4633.

The stress normalization of the N60 value is often called an "overburden correction" and

provided in order to reference the data to an equivalent effective stress of one atmosphere,

designated (NN1)60 and given by:

(NN1

)60 = CCNN . NN60

The stress normalization factor (CN) depends upon the specific methodology adopted, as

detailed in Skempton (1986), Kulhawy and Mayne (1990), Boulanger and Idriss (2014), and 

ASTM D6066. A simple and commonly-adopted expression is CN = (σatm /σ'vo )

0.5 ≤ 1.7. 

Following the computations of the cyclic stress ratio and the adjusted and normalized blow 

count, the liquefaction potential of representative layers at borehole sites is determined by 

plotting computed cyclic stress ratio (CSR) versus normalized blow count [ (N1)60 ] on charts 

such as that shown in Figure 2.22(a) for M 7.5 earthquakes. If the values plot above the cyclic 

resistance ratio (CRR) curve, then the soil is likely to liquefy. Conversely, if the values plot 

below the CRR, then liquefaction is considered unlikely. 

The CRR curve for the corrected SPT resistance in clean quartz to silica sands is presented in 

Figure 2.23, following the NCEER approach. This curve was obtained from case studies at

sites that experienced strong earthquakes. The CRR demarcates those seismic sites that

showed clear evidence of liquefaction (i.e., bearing capacity failure, sand boils) versus seismic

sites where no liquefaction was observed or evident.
2-49

Figure 2-22 Illustrative sets of cyclic resistance ratio (CRR) curves for M 7.5 earthquakes 

from in-situ tests: (a) standard penetration; (b) shear wave velocity; (c) cone 

penetration; and (d) flat plate dilatometer (after Schneider et al., 1999).
2-50

 b = 200mm CB = 1.15

CS Split-barrel sampler Sampler with liner

Sampler without liner*

CC = 1.0 

1.1 < CC < 1.3

CR Drill rod length, L L > 10m

6m < L < 10m

4m < L < 6m

3m < L < 4m

L < 3m

CC = 1.00

CR = 0.95

CC = 0.85

CC = 0.80

CR = 0.75

*Notes: normal practice in US is without a liner.

For clean sands that are tested in boreholes using the standard penetration test (SPT), the cyclic 

resistance ratio (CRR) for a M 7.5 event proposed in the NCEER approach (Youd et al., 2001) is 

given by the relation:

CCCCCC7.5 = 

1

34−(NN1)

60

+ (NN1)

60

135 + 50

�10 . (NN1)

60+45�

2 − 1

200

for (N1)60 < 30

where (N1)60 = N60/(σvo'/σatm)0.5. The relation is presented in Figure 2.23. Note when clean 

sands and gravels exhibit (N1)60 ≥ 30, these granular soils are considered too dense for 

liquefaction and thus categorized as "nonliquefiable". 

For sands that contain fines, a family of CRR curves can be developed that depends upon the 

fines content (FC in %), such as those presented in Figure 2.22a. Alternatively, the normalized 

SPT resistance (N1)60 can be converted to an equivalent value characteristic of clean sands, 

designated (N1)60-cs, that for the NCEER approach can be approximated by:

(NN1)60−cc = 5 . [ 1 − 1

1 + (FC/15)3.7 ] + (NN1)60 . [ 1.2 − 0.21 + ( C/22)3.3 ]

Then, this resistance is used in the CRR for clean sands for the specific method as shown in 

Figure 2.23. Thus, the aforementioned can be upgraded to:

CCCCCC7.5 = 

1

34 − (NN1)

60−cc

+ 

(NN1)

60

135 +

50

�10 . (NN1)

60−cc + 45�

2 − 1

200

for (N1)60-cs < 30

Table 2-4 SPT modification factors for field procedures (modified after Skempton 1986; 

Kulhawy and Mayne 1990; Youd et al. 2001).

Factor Influencing Variable Field Case Factor Values

CN Depth effect due to increasing 

effective overburden stress 

(σvo')

Note: σσaattmm= 1 atmosphere 

= 1.013 bars = 101.3 kPa CN = (σatm/σvo')0.5 ≤ 1.7

CE Energy ratio (ER) of drop 

hammer system per 

ASTM D4633 standards:

CE = ER/60

Automatic Hammer

Safety Hammer

Donut Hammer

Pinweight Hammer

1.0 ≤ CE ≤ 1.6

0.8 ≤ CE ≤ 1.3

0.6 ≤ CE ≤ 0.8

0.5 ≤ CE ≤ 0.7

CB Borehole diameter, b 65mm < b ≤ 115mm

b = 150mm

CB = 1.00

CB = 1.05
2-51

Figure 2-23 Deterministic CRR curves for adjusted SPT N-value in clean sands for 

NCEER method (after Youd et al., 2001).

Factor of Safety: For liquefaction analyses, a factor of safety (FS) can be calculated as:

= 

CCCCCC7.5

CCCCCC7.5

where CRR7.5 = cyclic resistance ratio for a moment magnitude earthquake of M 7.5 and CSR is 

the cyclic stress ratio for M 7.5. 

The aforementioned methods for simplified stress-based analyses of liquefaction susceptibility 

have been formulated in a deterministic outcome; that is, a binary decision as to "liquefaction" or 

"no liquefaction". As a means to better quantify the uncertainty, the stress-based methods have 

been re-evaluated using probabilistic analyses. In lieu of a single CRR curve, a family of CRR 

curves was developed to indicate the degree of probability (PL) that liquefaction may occur. 

Sets of probability curves have been developed for the SPT with ranges generally given from 

PL = 5% up to PL = 95% (Liao et al., 1988; Youd and Noble 1997; Toprak et al., 1999; Juang et 

al., 2002; Cetin et al., 2004; Boulanger and Idriss, 2012). An example of these probabilistic 

CRR curves for the SPT is presented in Figure 2.24.
2-52

Figure 2-24 Probabilistic CRR for the SPT evaluation of liquefaction (Juang et al., 2002).

The calculated factor of safety (FS) can in fact be used to approximately assess the probability of 

liquefaction (PL). For instance, for one approach detailed by Juang et al. (2002), they suggest:

PPLL = 

1

1 + ( / 0.8)3.5

2.5.4.3.3 Evaluation of Liquefaction Using the Cone Penetration Test

The cone penetration test (CPT) is an excellent means for detecting the presence of loose 

sandy soils and evaluating their susceptibility to liquefaction because it provides continuous 

logging of strata and layering with at least three separate readings with depth: cone tip

resistance (qqtt), sleeve friction (fs), and penetration pore water pressure (u2). The identification 

of loose granular soils is accomplished using a CPT material index (Ic) that determines soil 

behavioral type and estimates fines content. The available soil resistance (i.e., cyclic resistance 

ratio, CRR) in the ground is evaluated from the stress-normalized cone resistance (Qtn) which is 

compared with the level of seismic ground motions (i.e., cyclic stress ratio, CSR) to calculate the 

factor of safety (FS) and/or probability of liquefaction (PL) at the location. Furthermore, the 

magnitude of seismic ground deformations (i.e., settlements, subsidence) and amount of 

expected lateral movement also may be estimated from these results.

Of particular value, the seismic piezocone test (SCPTu) offers a hybrid technology that 

combines penetrometer readings with geophysical downhole testing to measure shear wave 

velocity (Vs) profiles, in particular the vertically-propagating and horizontally-polarized mode 
2-53

(i.e., VsVH waves). These shear wave measurements play a triple role in site investigations in 

high seismic areas and can be used for the following: (a) IBC seismic site classification; (b) sitespecific amplification analyses to determine level of ground shaking; and (c) an evaluation of 

soil liquefaction potential (independent of the aforementioned assessment from Qtn). Figure 

2.25 shows a representative SCPTu from the paleoliquefaction site at Marked Tree, Arkansas 

that shows a predominance of sandy sediment from 3 to 28+ m depths.

Figure 2-25 Representative seismic piezocone penetration sounding at paleoliquefaction 

site at a paleoliquefaction site in Marked Tree, Arkansas.

Geostratification and Soil Behavioral Type: The CPT readings are first used to delineate 

geostratigraphy and layering. The soil type is evaluated from the CPT material index, Ic

(Robertson, 2004):

IIcc = �[3.47 − log QQtttt ] 2 + [1.22+ log rr]2

where Qtn = stress-normalized cone resistance and Fr = normalized sleeve friction are calculated 

from the cone penetrometer readings:

QQtttt = 

(qqtt − σσvvvv)/σσaa

(σσvv ′/σσaa )

Fr (%) = 100 . 

fs

(qt − σvo )
2-54

where σvo = total vertical overburden stress, σσvvvv′ = effective vertical stress, and σatm = a 

reference stress equal to atmospheric pressure (1 atm ≈ 1 bar ≈ 100 kPa). In the initial 

evaluation, the exponent n is set to n = 1 to find the soil behavioral type (SBT) which is based 

on a 9-zonal chart developed by Robertson (1990 ). The SBT was modified by Robertson and 

Wride (1998) and Zhang et al. (2002), as shown in Figure 2.26.

Figure 2-26 Soil behavioral type for CPT classification (after Robertson, 2004).

The exponent n is a stress-normalizing parameter that actually varies with soil type; generally 

taken as n = 1 in clays and decreasing with coarseness of geomaterials to about 0.75 in silts 

and around n ≈ 0.5 ± 0.2 in clean sands. It is found by iteration until conversion using the 

following expression (Robertson 2009b):

n = 0.381· Ic + 0.05 (σvo'/σatm) - 0.15≤ 1.0

With the center of an imaginary circle, Ic can be conceptually considered as a radius value on 

the Qtn-Fr plot. Generally, soils that are susceptible to cyclic liquefaction are sandy materials 

identified by Ic < 2.6. In the more unusual case of flow liquefaction that may involve fine-grained 

materials, some additional considerations are given elsewhere (Robertson, 2010). Table 2.5 

provides the ranges for Ic for each zone and additional algorithms necessary in order to identify 

all 9 SBT zones.
2-55

Table 2-5 Soil behavioral type and zone number as defined by CPT material index, Ic. 

Soil

Classification

SBT

Zone Number

Range CPT Material Index Ic

Stiff clays and sands 8 and 9 (see note a)

Sands with gravels 7 Ic < 1.31

Sands: clean to silty 6 1.31 < Ic < 2.05

Sandy mixtures 5 2.05 < Ic < 2.60

Silty mixtures 4 2.60 < Ic < 2.95

Clays 3 2.95 < Ic < 3.60

Organic soils 2 Ic > 3.60

Sensitive soils 1 (see note b)

Notes:

a. Zones 8 and 9 are found when Fr > 1.4% and the following criterion is met:

QQtttt > 

1

+0.006( rr − 0.9) − 0.0004( rr − 0.9)2 − 0.002

b. Sensitive soils of Zone 1 identified when: Qtn < 12 exp( -1.4 Fr)

Fines Content: The liquefaction curves were developed initially on the basis of field performance 

of clean sands (identified by Ic < 1.64). Therefore, with the occurrence of sands with silty fines 

(material < 0.075 mm), the normalized cone resistance must be adjusted accordingly. 

The fines content (FC in %) may be estimated from the CPT material index Ic as follows:

For Ic < 1.64 FC (%) = 0

For 1.64 ≤ Ic ≤ 3.5: FC (%) = 1.75 (Ic)3.25 - 3.7

For Ic > 3.5 FC (%) = 100

A correction for fines content is applied to give the equivalent value of stress-normalized cone 

resistance for clean sands according to (Robertson and Wride, 1998):

(QQtttt)cc = KKKK .QQtttt

where the correction factor Kc is obtained from:

For Ic ≤ 1.64: KKKK = 1.0

For Ic > 1.64: KKcc = −0.403IIcc

4 + 5.81IIcc3 − 21.63IIcc2 + 33.75Icc − 17.88

Determination of CRR from CPT Data: At each elevation, the levels of seismic ground motion 

(CSR) are compared with the normalized cone tip resistances for clean sand to determine 

whether liquefaction will or will not occur. A critical level of loading is designated by the cyclic 

resistance ratio (CRR), as presented in Figure 2.27. If the CSR > CRR, then liquefaction is 

likely, otherwise if the CSR < CRR, liquefaction is unlikely. For clean sand, the CRR can be 

expressed by the following equations for an earthquake moment-magnitude of 7.5 (Youd et al., 

2001; Robertson and Wride, 1998):

For (Qtn)cs < 50: CCCCCC7.5 = 8.33 �

(QQtttt )cccc

1000 � + 0.05
2-56

For 50 ≤ (QQtttt)cc < 160 ∶ CCCCCC7.5 = 93 �

(QQtttt)cccc

1000 � + 0.08

Figure 2-27 Cyclic resistance ratio (CRR) for evaluating soil liquefaction potential from 

CPT.

Probability of Liquefaction: Applying statistical evaluations to the datasets, CRR curves of different 

probabilities of occurrence have been developed from mapping functions (Chen and Juang, 2000; 

Juang and Jiang, 2000; Juang et al., 2006). These have been approximately related to the 

calculated safety factor FS to estimate the liquefaction probability PL. For instance, based on a 

database of 225 CPT-based cases of sites having undergone a seismic event, Juang and Jiang 

(2000) develop sets of CRR vs. Qtn probability curves, as presented in Figure 2.28. The relation 

between FS and PL using the CPT database from Robertson & Wride (1998) that is included 

within the NCEER approach can be expressed:

PPLL = 

1

1 + 3.34

A similar set of liquefaction probability CRR curves using stress-normalized shear wave velocity is 

presented in Appendix B based on recent work by Kayen et al. (2012).
2-57

Figure 2-28 Family of CRR curves corresponding to different levels of probability of 

liquefaction (after Jiang and Juang, 2000).

Additional, considerations in liquefaction assessment can be given to the effects of sloping 

ground, very high overburden stresses, and limited sand layer thicknesses (Youd et al., 2001; 

Robertson, 2004; Robertson 2010). In addition, re-evaluation of compiled liquefaction case 

histories and re-examination of CPT data have been made independently by Idriss and Boulanger 

(2004) and Moss et al. (2006) with new formulations and algorithms for normalized CPT data and 

corrections for fines content. Appendix B presents the latest CRR trends for SPT and CPT 

developed by Boulanger & Idriss (2014). In general, the various methods tend to show similar 

results in the definition of the CRR curves, despite the differences in their stress-normalization 

schemes, as illustrated by Figure 2.29, particularly in the loose-firm sand regions where Qtn < 100.

2.5.4.3.4 Advances in Testing

The amount of detail in subsurface exploration depends upon the type of test employed during 

field investigations and can be particularly important in paleoliquefaction studies since the depths 

and thicknesses of liquefied layers may be of limited extent. In the conventional rotary drilling and 

sampling operations, it is customary to conduct the SPT on 1.5-m depth intervals within the 

boreholes (Figure 2.30). Similarly, the conventional crosshole test (CHT) for collection of shear 

wave velocity (Vs) data obtains measurements at 1.5-m intervals. A somewhat better resolution is 

made during seismic cone tests since a geophysical downhole test (DHT) is performed at 1-m 

intervals for Vs determinations. In the DMT, readings are obtained at 20-cm intervals. CPT is 

particularly useful in paleoliquefaction analysis since multiple readings are made at 2-cm to 5-cm 

intervals, thus providing fine detailing of the soil profile. In addition, CPT results can be used to 

evaluate the magnitude of ground deformations (Appendix C).
2-58

Figure 2-29 Comparison of the various CRR curves from different reviews of the 

available databases on seismic sites (Robertson, 2009). Note: Qtn value is 

specific to its methodology.

A new type of downhole testing known as frequent-interval shear wave velocities (Vs) may help to 

reduce uncertainties related to measuring the properties of the sediment layers that liquefied during 

past earthquakes. The new technique employs either a seismic cone or a seismic dilatometer and 

allows detailed profiling of small-strain stiffness (Figure 2.30). Another technical advance includes 

the roto-autoseis, which is an electrically-driven surface source for shear wave generation that is 

high quality and repeatable, thus improving the resolution of Vs profiles and derived Gmax profiles. 

Detailed profiles of two separate readings can be used independently to assess soil liquefaction 

potential at any given depth: (a) either qt1 and Vs1 in the case of SCPT, or (b) KD and Vs1 in the 

seismic flat dilatometer test (SDMT). The results of a frequent-interval SCPTu from South Carolina 

is presented in Figure 2.31 showing very fine details in the shear wave velocity profile. The upper 

15 m is within the vadose zone (i.e., above the groundwater table) and thus the higher expected 

values of Vs are in partially unsaturated soils. Based on the Vs profile, apparent cemented layers 

are evident at depths of 34 m and 44 m due to the calcareous constituency of the deeper Miocene 

to Eocene (5.3-56 Ma; Walker et al., 2012) deposits.
2-59

Figure 2-30 Conventional SCPT cone tip resistance and neighboring seismic flat 

dilatometer test (SDMT) with frequent-interval Vs every 20 cm provides a 

detailed profile useful in paleoliquefaction (from McGillivray and Mayne, 

2008). The normal SCPT increment for Vs readings is 1 m, CHT interval is 1.5 

m (or 5 ft), and SASW interval 5 or 10 m.
2-60

Figure 2-31 Representative frequent-interval SCPTu measurements near Aiken, South 

Carolina. 

2.5.4.3.5 Liquefaction Potential Index

The liquefaction potential index (LPI) was originally proposed to assess the severity of liquefaction 

at a specific site, where severity is related to the degree of surface ground deformation. If LPI

proves to be an effective tool for forward prediction of liquefaction, it also may be useful for

inferring seismic parameters of past earthquakes from measurements at paleoliquefaction sites.

LPI has been used to infer peak ground accelerations at a site shaken by the 2003 San Simeon,

California, earthquake (Holzer et al., 2005). The inferred ground motions compared favorably to 

seismically based estimates. In addition, LPI has been used to infer possible seismic sources in 

southeastern Arkansas, although questions remain about the interpretation of paleoliquefaction 

features in that area (Cox et al., 2007; NUREG-2115).

LPI combines (for an individual boring or sounding) depth, cumulative thickness, and factors of

safety of liquefiable intervals into a single parameter. It evaluates the factor of safety and

thickness of potentially liquefiable layers to a depth of 20 m based on the proximity of layers to the 

ground surface. Iwasaki et al. (1978) define LPI as follows:

LL = � WW

20mm

0

(ZZ) ,

where F = a function of the factor of safety against liquefaction (FS) defined as = 1− for 

≤ 1 and = 0 for FS > 1; z = depth in meters; and ww(zz) = 10 − 0.5zz is a linear depthweighting factor. LPI values theoretically can range from 0 to 100. LPI evaluates the factor of 

safety and thickness of potentially liquefiable layers according to the proximity of layers to the 

ground surface.
2-61

Toprak and Holzer (2003) calibrated LPI by correlating computed values from CPT soundings at 

soil sites in California that had been strongly shaken during modern earthquakes, with locally 

observed surface manifestations of liquefaction. Their correlations indicate that the severity of 

liquefaction increases with increasing LPI. They observe that in general, sand boils or blows 

appear at LL = 5 and lateral spreads occur at LPI=12. Furthermore, they proposed that LPI 

could be used in probabilistic liquefaction hazard mapping by characterizing the statistical 

variability of liquefaction potential of surficial geologic units. Holzer et al. (2006a) attempted 

such an application of LPI for mapping the variability of liquefaction potential of geologic units in 

the Greater Oakland area, California. Their approach relied on field-based complementary 

cumulative frequency distributions of LPI for mappable surficial geologic deposits. Holzer et al. 

(2006b) used these distributions to develop liquefaction probability curves for a surficial geologic 

unit, where the probability of liquefaction is estimated from the ratio of peak ground acceleration 

(amax) to the liquefaction magnitude scaling factor (MSF), amax/MSF. More recently, liquefaction 

probability curves have been proposed for a wide range of geologic units (Holzer et al., 2011). 

Liquefaction hazard maps for future earthquakes using LPI, based on seismic cone penetration 

tests and measurements of pore water pressure (SCPTu), have been published for the Bay Area, 

California; Charleston, South Carolina; Evansville, Indiana; Memphis, Tennessee; and St. Louis, 

Missouri. For example, Heidari et al. (2011) characterize the liquefaction potential of the sandy 

portion of the 100,000-year-old Wando Formation (Qws) near Charleston, South Carolina, in 

terms of the LPI and corrected for the influence of diagenetic processes. They found that values 

of LPI are independent of the fault distance and suggest a uniform liquefaction susceptibility for 

Qws. In addition, liquefaction scenarios for historic earthquakes using LPI have compared 

favorably to liquefaction observations for these earthquakes.

2.5.5 Recurrence of Paleoearthquakes

A primary contribution of paleoliquefaction studies is a longer view of the seismic behavior of a 

fault zone or earthquake source area than afforded by the historical period. However, this view is 

limited by the completeness of the earthquake record. The paleoearthquake record may be 

incomplete in a particular region for a variety of reasons, including spatial variability in 

sedimentological and hydrological conditions, changes in liquefaction susceptibility over time, and 

availability of exposures and adequate sampling (NUREG-2115), and thus must be evaluated 

cautiously. The degree of completeness in space and time contributes to uncertainty in the 

locations, magnitudes, and recurrence times of paleoearthquakes. For regions where the 

paleoearthquake record is thought to be incomplete, paleoliquefaction features still can be used to 

determine the minimum number of earthquakes of a particular magnitude range for a given 

period. In this way, a minimum recurrence rate can be estimated. For regions in which the 

paleoearthquake record is reasonably complete for a certain time period (e.g., the Holocene), 

recurrence times for liquefaction-inducing earthquakes can be estimated. 

The precision with which recurrence times can be calculated will depend on the precision of the 

estimated timing of the paleoearthquakes. Well-constrained age estimates of liquefaction features 

and paleoearthquakes contribute to well-constrained estimates of recurrence times (Table 2.3), 

providing that multiple earthquake cycles are recognized. The space-time diagram, in which the 

ages of liquefaction features are plotted against the locations of the features, is a graphical tool 

commonly used in paleoseismology (McCalpin, 1996 and 2009). In paleoliquefaction studies, the 

graphical representation of paleoliquefaction data aids in the correlation of similar-age features 

across a region, reducing the uncertainty associated with the timing of a paleoearthquake, the 

identification of paleoearthquake source areas, and the calculation of recurrence times for each 

source (Figures 2.16 and 2.32; Tuttle et al., 2002b). For regions with long and complete 
2-62

paleoearthquake records, space-time diagrams of paleoliquefaction data may help in recognizing 

clustered versus non-clustered behavior and periodicity of seismicity. As more paleoliquefaction 

data become available over broad regions, the ability to evaluate the spatial and temporal 

distribution of paleoearthquakes produced by a single source or by multiple sources and to 

address questions related to long-term behavior and interaction of fault systems is improved. 

McCalpin (1996) suggests using statistical tests (Z statistic) to determine whether clustered 

paleoearthquakes in a study zone are related (e.g., whether they occur on multiple segments of 

the same fault). This test examines the extent to which the probability distributions associated 

with the numerical ages for the paleoearthquakes overlap. As the timing of individual events 

becomes better constrained, the standard deviation of the age estimate is reduced and the 

probability that the earthquakes are related increases. Knowing whether individual earthquakes 

are contemporaneous contributes to understanding the potential for faults or fault segments to 

interact during an earthquake rupture. This has significant implications for seismic hazard in 

estimating the maximum probable earthquake for a regional assessment.

Figure 2-32 Example of graphical representation of age estimates and recurrences times 

of paleoearthquakes in the New Madrid seismic zone (from Tuttle et al., 

2002b). (A) Age estimates and related uncertainties of New Madrid events 

during past 2,000 years. (B) Variability in recurrence times related to ranges 

of event ages. Average recurrence time for past two earthquake cycles is 

500 years.

Regional space-time-histories can also be used to reveal information about the periodic behavior

of fault systems. For example, as knowledge about the timing and source areas of large 

paleoearthquakes in the greater New Madrid region has accumulated, inferences have been 

drawn regarding migration of the locus of activity over time (Tuttle et al., 2006; Al-Shukri et al.,

2009; NUREG-2115). 
2-63

Although paleoliquefaction studies, when used in these ways, extend the earthquake record for 

seismic hazard estimation, it should be noted that it does so only for earthquakes larger than ~ 

M 6, which is generally accepted as the minimum magnitude required to produce liquefaction 

features over a large area. That is, the long-term behavior of low to moderate seismicity may 

notbe revealed by these studies, so a complete understanding of fault system dynamics cannot 

be achieved. 

3-1

3 USE OF PALEOLIQUEFACTION DATA IN EARTHQUAKE SOURCE 

CHARACTERIZATION

Paleoliquefaction studies provide information about large earthquakes during the past 50,000 

years, and possibly earlier, including their source areas, magnitudes, and recurrence times. In 

regions with fairly long and complete paleoearthquake records, paleoliquefaction data may also 

provide insights regarding clustered versus non-clustered behavior of earthquake sources and 

migration of seismicity within and/or between fault systems. This information is useful in the 

development of seismic source models, seismic hazard maps, and in site-specific seismic hazard 

assessments (e.g., Petersen et al., 2008 and 2014; Tuttle and Atkinson, 2010; NUREG-2115).

3.1 Development of Seismic Source Models

Over the past 10 years, paleoliquefaction data have increasingly shaped the seismic source 

model used in the National Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Maps developed and periodically 

updated by the U.S. Geological Survey. These maps display the ground-motion hazard 

component of the seismic provisions of national building codes and are used as input to design 

maps. The national seismic hazard maps also are used by the insurance industry to establish 

earthquake insurance rate and by government agencies concerned with national infrastructure. 

Given that they represent the best available data for estimating the sizes and frequencies of large 

Central and Eastern United States (CEUS) earthquakes, paleoseismic data were used to develop 

the fault model component of the seismic hazard model (Petersen et al., 2008). However, at the 

time, only the New Madrid seismic zone (NMSZ), the Charleston seismic zone, and the Meers 

and Cheraw faults were judged to have sufficient paleoseismic data to constrain recurrence times 

for large earthquakes. 

As part of the more recent CEUS SSC project, a regional seismic source model was developed 

for use in probabilistic hazard analyses for nuclear facilities (NUREG-2115). The source model 

defines the frequency, spatial distribution, and rupture characteristics of potential earthquakes in 

the future (NUREG-2115). A master logic tree is used to establish the framework for the regional 

seismic source model. The framework includes a hierarchical approach to the identification and 

characterization of seismic sources. Sources of repeated large-magnitude earthquakes (i.e., 

RLMEs with magnitudes greater than 6.5, in this case) are included as a branch of the master 

logic tree. In the master logic tree, RLME sources help to define the Mmax zones for assessing 

the spatial and temporal characteristics of future earthquake sources. The project made 

unprecedented use of paleoliquefaction data, collected over the previous twenty to thirty years, to 

define the RLME sources. More specifically, paleoliquefaction data, where available, are used to 

evaluate whether a RLME source is in or out of an earthquake cluster and to define the range and 

weights of magnitudes and recurrence rates for RLMEs (Figure 3.1). 

Relying heavily on the CEUS SSC project, the 2014 National Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Maps 

updated the information on the New Madrid, Charleston, Meers, and Cheraw sources and added 

six more fault-based sources of RLMEs, including the Wabash Valley (IL-IN), Commerce 

Geophysical Lineament (AR-IN), the Eastern Rift Margin (western TN) Marianna (east-central 

AR), and Charlevoix (southeastern Canada) areal source zones and the New Madrid (AR-KY) 

fault source (Petersen et al., 2014). Paleoliquefaction data figured largely in the Wabash Valley, 

Charlevoix, and New Madrid sources.
3-2

Figure 3-1 Example of logic tree for the Reelfoot rift-Marianna RLME source (from 

NUREG-2115). Paleoliquefaction data figure into evaluations of clustered 

behavior and magnitude and recurrence of RLMEs. The branch representing 

“out of cluster” behavior is not shown.

As part of the CEUS SSC project, a paleoliquefaction database including all major datasets was 

developed for use in the regional seismic source model. In addition, a technical report was 

written, summarizing the current state of knowledge for each region and reviewing uncertainties 

related to the identification and interpretation of earthquake-induced liquefaction features 

(Appendix E in NUREG-2115). Guidance for the use of paleoliquefaction data in seismic source 

characterization also was developed and is provided below:

• Ensure liquefaction features have an earthquake origin and are not the result of other nonseismic processes. Diagnostic criteria and characteristics of liquefaction features are

described in Section 1.4.3.

• Use liquefaction features with well-constrained calibrated (2-sigma) ages to determine timing

of paleoearthquakes (see Sections 2.4 and 2.5.2; Figure 2.11). Space-time diagrams

illustrating age constraints and estimated ages of features can help to estimate timing of

paleoearthquakes (e.g., Figure 2.16).

• Correlate features that are similar in age and/or occur in similar stratigraphic context within the

same exposure or where strata are laterally continuous (Section 2.5.1 and Table 2.1).

• Compare size and distribution of paleoliquefaction features with those that formed during

modern or historical earthquakes in the same or similar geologic and tectonic settings to help

interpret the source areas and magnitudes of causative earthquakes (Sections 2.5.3 and

2.5.4.1).
3-3

• Use information on surficial geology, geologic and groundwater history, and geotechnical data

and analysis, to help interpret the source areas and magnitudes of paleoearthquakes. Timeslice maps and animations may help to interpret earthquake source areas, and ground motion

simulations may help to interpret earthquake magnitudes.

• Use empirical relations developed from case studies of modern earthquakes in similar

geologic and tectonic settings to estimate magnitudes of paleoearthquakes on the basis of

maximum distance of sand blows from the inferred epicenters (Section 2.5.4.2).

• If sufficient data are available, analyze the effect of ground motion parameters (e.g.,

attenuation and site response) on the size and distribution of liquefaction features and apply

the geotechnical approach to help interpret source areas and magnitudes of

paleoearthquakes (Section 2.5.4.3).

• Consider the completeness of the paleoearthquake record in both space and time when

estimating source areas, magnitudes, and recurrence times of paleoearthquakes.

• If sufficient data are available, estimate recurrence times of paleoearthquakes that exhibit welldefined timing, source areas, and magnitudes of paleoearthquakes (Section 2.5.5).

3.2 Example - New Madrid Seismic Zone in Central United States

In 1811-1812, a major earthquake sequence including three mainshocks with moment 

magnitudes, M 7 to 8, and several large aftershocks, struck the central United States (Figure 2.16; 

e.g., Johnston, 1996; Hough et al., 2000; Bakun and Hooper, 2004). These earthquakes are

inferred to have been centered in the NMSZ and to include some of the largest known intraplate

earthquakes in the world (Johnston and Kanter, 1990). The 1811-1812 earthquakes destroyed

several settlements along the Mississippi River and induced severe liquefaction and ground failure

throughout the New Madrid region. A large liquefaction field (~10,000 km2

) has been attributed to

the 1811-1812 earthquakes (Fuller, 1912; Saucier, 1977; Obermeier, 1989). In addition, the

1811-1812 earthquakes caused minor structural damage as far away as Cincinnati, Ohio, and St.

Louis, Missouri, and induced liquefaction more than 240 km from their inferred epicenters (Street

and Nuttli, 1984; Johnston and Schweig, 1996). The large liquefaction field and the great distance

of liquefaction support the interpretation that the 1811-1812 mainshocks were very largemagnitude earthquakes (Fuller, 1912; Ambraseys, 1988; Johnston and Schweig, 1996; Tuttle et

al., 2002b; Castilla and Audemard, 2007). There is considerable concern about possible impacts

of a repeat of a New Madrid event to urban centers such as Memphis, TN, Little Rock, AR, and St.

Louis, MO, and to engineered structures across the central United States.

Paleoliquefaction studies have made great strides in deciphering the prehistorical earthquake 

record of the NMSZ and improving understanding of the hazard it poses. By finding and dating 

hundreds of earthquake-induced liquefaction features across the region, earthquake sequences, 

similar to the 1811-1812 sequence, are thought to have occurred in A.D. 900 + 100 yr, A.D. 1450 

+ 150 yr, and 2350 + 200 yr B.C. (Figure 2.16 and 2.17; e.g., Tuttle et al., 2002b and 2005b).

From these paleoliquefaction data, a mean recurrence time of 500 years has been estimated for

New Madrid events. Results of the paleoliquefaction studies, including insights on temporal

clustering of earthquakes, timing, source area, and approximate magnitude of paleoearthquakes,

as well as recurrence times of large-magnitude earthquakes, have been incorporated into seismic

source models developed for seismic hazard assessments (NUREG-2115; Petersen et al., 2014).
3-4

3.2.1 Paleoliquefaction Studies in the New Madrid Region

During the past 30 to 40 years, various investigators have searched for and studied earthquakeinduced liquefaction features in the NMSZ and surrounding region. In some of the studies, 

liquefaction features were assumed to have formed in 1811-1812. In other studies, pre-1811 

sand blows and related sand dikes were recognized by their soil characteristics and stratigraphic 

and structural relationships (e.g., Russ, 1982; Saucier, 1991; Tuttle and Schweig, 1995; Tuttle et 

al., 1996). Since then, paleoliquefaction studies have focused on finding and dating 

paleoliquefaction features, constraining their ages, comparing their internal stratigraphy, sizes, 

and spatial distribution to features that formed during the 1811-1812 earthquakes, and estimating 

the locations, magnitudes, and recurrence times of their causative paleoearthquakes (e.g., Tuttle, 

1999; Tuttle et al., 2002b and 2005b). In addition, magnitude-distance relations have been 

considered and liquefaction potential analyses have been performed to help constrain locations 

and magnitudes of paleoearthquakes. 

Paleoliquefaction studies have been conducted in Holocene and Pleistocene fluvial deposits of 

the Mississippi River and its major tributaries. Some paleoliquefaction studies involved 

investigating sand blows at archeological sites (e.g., Saucier, 1991; Craven, 1995; Tuttle et al., 

1996, 1999, and 2005b; Wolf et al., 2006), whereas others involved searching for liquefaction 

features along river cutbanks and drainage ditches (Figure 3.2; e.g., Vaughn, 1994; Tuttle, 1999 

and 2010; Broughton et al., 2001). To date, more than 650 km of rivers and ditches have been 

searched and over 800 liquefaction features have been studied at about 210 sites (NUREG-2115; 

and NRC-HQ-11-C-04-0041). At the sites, liquefaction features were documented, described, 

and measured, and samples, where available, were collected for dating the liquefaction features. 

At more than 50 sites, half of which were also archeological sites, age estimates of sand blows 

and related sand dikes are well constrained (Figures 2.16 and 2.17; e.g., Tuttle et al., 1999, 

2002b, 2005b). 

The age estimates of liquefaction features across the region cluster around A.D. 1810 + 130 

years, A.D. 1450 + 150 years, and A.D. 900 + 100 years (Figure 2.16; Tuttle et al., 2002b). These 

dates are interpreted as the timing of paleoearthquakes. Age estimates of liquefaction features at 

several sites in northeastern Arkansas and southeastern Missouri cluster around 2350 B.C. + 200 

yr, suggesting an earlier event (Tuttle et al, 2005b). The sizes and spatial distributions of sand 

blows that formed during the paleoearthquakes are strikingly similar to those that formed during 

the 1811-1812 New Madrid sequence (Figure 2.17). In addition, there is a close spatial 

correlation of both historic and prehistoric sand blows with the NMSZ, which was almost certainly 

the source of earthquakes responsible for most, if not all, of the liquefaction features. The 

paleoliquefaction findings indicate that the NMSZ generated sequences including earthquakes 

similar to the 1811-1812 mainshocks (M 7 to 8) every 500 years on average during the past 1,200 

years. The uncertainties in the timing of each New Madrid event allow for recurrence time to be as 

short as 160 years and as long as 1200 years (Figure 2.32; Cramer, 2001). 

Many historic sand blows in the New Madrid region were found to be compound structures 

attributable to the three to four largest earthquakes in the 1811-1812 sequence (Saucier, 1989; 

Tuttle, 1999; Tuttle et al., 2002b). The compound sand blows range from 0.2 to 2 m total

thickness and are composed of 1 to 4, generally fining-upward sedimentary units that are 20 to 60 

cm thick, tens of meters wide, and hundreds of meters long (Figure 3.3). Often the depositional 

units are capped by silt or clay resulting from quiet water deposition following the cessation of 

ground shaking. During the 2010-2011 Canterbury sequence in New Zealand, recurrent 

liquefaction occurred during as many as ten earthquakes (Quigley et al., 2012), leading to the 

formation of compound sand blows composed of multiple depositional units capped by silt drapes 
3-5

(Tuttle et al., 2012; Villamor et al., 2014). The compound sand blows in the Canterbury region 

range up to about 40 cm thick, 5 m wide, and 10 m long and are much smaller than those in the 

NMSZ (Tuttle et al., 2012). Sand blows in the New Madrid region are large, diameter ≈ 30 m ± 10 

m, compared to sand blows worldwide (e.g. California sand boils have diameter ≈ 2 ± 1 m) 

(Castilla and Audemard, 2007).

Figure 3-2 Map of NMSZ and surrounding region showing portions of rivers searched 

for earthquake-induced liquefaction features by various investigators (from 

NUREG-2115).
3-6

Figure 3-3 Compound sand blow composed of multiple depositional units capped by 

clay-silt drapes formed during 1811-1812 New Madrid earthquake sequence. 

See Figure 1.16 for view of vent area and related sand dikes below. 

Photograph by M. Tuttle

Like those that formed in 1811-1812, many of the pre-1811 sand blows are compound structures 

composed of multiple, fining upward units, indicating that they too formed as the result of several 

large earthquakes clustered in time (Tuttle, 1999; Tuttle et al., 2002b). The lack of inter-event soil 

development of depositional units argues for closely timed earthquakes over a period of only 

months. The total thickness of the pre-1811 compound sand blows, as well as the thickness of 

the depositional units (sand blows representing individual earthquakes) are similar in thickness 

and lateral extent to depositional units that formed in 1811-1812, suggesting that the A.D. 1450 

and A.D. 900 events caused similar levels of ground shaking, and therefore were similar in

magnitude, to the 1811-1812 earthquakes. 

The spatial distribution of sand blows that formed in 1811-1812 are explained with three 

liquefaction fields, taking into account the internal stratigraphy or number and thickness of the 

major depositional units constituting sand blows across the region (Figures 2.17 and 3.4). The 

sand blows that formed in 1811-1812 usually have a maximum of three major sedimentary units. 

However, several sand blows located between Caruthersville and Marked Tree have a fourth unit 

that may have formed as a result of a large aftershock, on December 16th. In a review of intensity 

data, the December 16th aftershock has been attributed to the southeastern segment of the 

Reelfoot fault (Hough and Martin, 2002). It will be interesting to see if a fourth liquefaction field 

(dashed in Figure 3.4) becomes better defined near the southeastern segment of the Reelfoot 

fault as newly acquired data is incorporated into the liquefaction maps.
3-7

Figure 3-4 Liquefaction fields for the past three New Madrid events as interpreted from 

spatial distribution and stratigraphy of sand blows (from NUREG-2115). 

Ellipses define areas where similar-age sand blows have been mapped. 

Overlapping ellipses indicate areas where sand blows are composed of 

multiple units that formed during a sequence of earthquakes. Dashed ellipse 

outlines area where historical sand blows are composed of four depositional 

units. Magnitudes of earthquakes in A.D. 1450 and A.D. 900 are inferred from 

comparison with the 1811-1812 liquefaction fields. Magnitude estimates of 

December (D), January (J), and February (F) mainshocks and large 

aftershocks taken from several sources; rupture scenario from Johnston 

and Schweig (1996).

The liquefaction fields of the 1811-1812 earthquakes are constrained by sand blow data and 

encompass the preferred fault-rupture scenario for the 1811-1812 event of Johnston and Schweig 

(1996) (Figure 3.4). The liquefaction fields of the A.D. 1450 and A.D. 900 events can be modeled 

in a similar manner as the 1811-1812 earthquake sequence. The current interpretation of the 

sand blow data is that at least two earthquakes occurred during the A.D. 1450 and A.D. 900 

events that were similar in locations and magnitudes to the 1811-1812 mainshocks. In addition, 

(1) faults associated with the northwest-oriented, central branch of the NMSZ, such as the

Reelfoot fault, were the source of similar-size earthquakes during all three sequences, (2) faults

associated with the southern branch of the seismic zone may have ruptured during each

sequence, but produced a smaller magnitude earthquake in A.D. 900, and (3) faults associated

with the northern branch of the NMSZ may have ruptured in A.D. 900 and 1812, but not in A.D.

1450 (Tuttle, 1999; Tuttle and Hartleb, 2012). Other interpretations of sand blow distribution and

stratigraphy are possible, and the liquefaction fields will likely change as additional data are added

to the maps. Using sand blow distribution and stratigraphy to map the liquefaction fields of

multiple large events in an earthquake sequence is a powerful tool for identifying earthquake

sources and studying the behavior of the complex fault system in the New Madrid region.
3-8

Overall, the similarity between the historical and prehistoric liquefaction fields suggest that the 

paleoearthquakes were generated by sources in the same area and had similar magnitudes to the 

mainshocks of the 1811-1812 sequence. Using the magnitude-distance relations developed from 

case studies of liquefaction around the world (e.g., Ambraseys, 1988; Castilla and Audemard, 

2007), lower bound moment magnitude of 6.7 and 6.9 were estimated for the A.D. 1450 and A.D. 

900 events, respectively, from the distance of observed sand blows. However, these are 

minimum magnitude values since the limits of liquefaction have not yet been defined for the 

paleoearthquakes, even though more than 650 km of river and ditch cutbanks have been 

searched. For the 1811-1812 event, the magnitude-distance relations suggest a lower bound M

of 7.6 given a maximum distance of 240 km for surface manifestation of liquefaction. Since the 

paleoliquefaction features are similar to the 1811-1812 features in the meizoseismal area, it 

seems likely that they may extend to a similar maximum distance as the historical features. 

However, this is yet to be confirmed by additional reconnaissance in distant locations. 

Several studies have used the geotechnical approach to estimate the magnitude of New Madrid 

events. Overall, the results are consistent with interpretations of the locations and magnitudes of 

historic and prehistoric earthquakes. Using electronic cone penetration soundings collected at six 

liquefaction sites in northeastern Arkansas and southeastern Missouri and within the NMSZ, it 

was concluded that the December 1811 New Madrid earthquake was likely in the M 7.6-8.0 range 

(Schneider and Mayne, 2000; Liao et al., 2002). Similarly, analysis of geotechnical data collected 

at a liquefaction site east of Memphis, TN, along the Wolf River, suggested that the December 

1811 earthquake was larger than M 7.5 (Schneider et al., 2001). Another study using the same 

data from the NMSZ and the Wolf River found that magnitudes in the M 7.4 -8.4 range were 

necessary to cause liquefaction at the sites disregarding soil aging effects (Stark, 2002). 

Liquefaction analysis using geotechnical data from a bridge crossing close to liquefaction sites 

along the Hatchie River near Covington, TN suggested that the December 16, 1811 and February 

7, 1812 mainshocks were ~M 7.6 and 7.8, respectively, and that the January 23, 2012 mainshock 

was located too far away to induce liquefaction in this area, even if it were of M 7.8 (Tuttle, 2004). 

Interestingly, these finding are supported by observations of compound sand blows along the 

Hatchie River, suggesting two episodes of liquefaction during the 1811-1812 event. The 

magnitude estimates, ~M 7.6 and 7.8, are similar to those derived from intensity data for the 1811-

1812 mainshocks (Bakun and Hopper, 2004). 

Taken together, the results of the various paleoliquefaction studies in the New Madrid region 

strongly suggest that the NMSZ generated earthquake sequences including very large, M 7 to 8, 

mainshocks in A.D. 1450 + 150 years, A.D. 900 + 100 years, and probably in 2350 B.C. + 200. 

Therefore, the NMSZ can be characterized by an average recurrence time of 500 years, at least 

during the past 1,200 years, for 1811-1812 New Madrid-type events (Tuttle, 1999; Tuttle et al., 

2002b and 2005b).

3.2.2 Seismic Hazard Models for the New Madrid Seismic Zone

As mentioned above in Section 3.1, paleoliquefaction data were used in the development of 

seismic source models for the 2012 CEUS SSC project’s probabilistic hazard analyses and the 

2014 National Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Maps. More specifically, the data were used to 

identify sources of RLMEs, to evaluate whether RLME sources are in or out of an earthquake 

cluster, and to define the range and weights of magnitudes and recurrence times for the RLMEs. 

From paleoliquefaction data, it is clear that the NMSZ is a source of RLMEs. Also, the 

paleoliquefaction data indicate that the NMSZ produced three of the four events during the past 

1200 years, suggesting that it is likely to be within a cluster or active period with New Madrid 
3-9

events occurring on average every 500 years. There is significant uncertainty in magnitude 

estimates of the paleoearthquakes and the 1811-1812 mainshocks; however, most magnitude 

estimates fall within the 6.9-7.9 range. Furthermore, liquefaction data indicate that the NMSZ 

produced sequences including very large earthquake about A.D. 1450 and A.D. 900, as well as in 

1811-1812, suggesting an average recurrence time of 500 years. These earthquake parameters 

are reflected in the NMSZ logic trees of the seismic source models in the CEUS SSC project and 

the National Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Maps. In the logic tree of the CEUS SSC project, a 

heavier weight (0.9) is placed on clustered earthquakes than on non-clustered earthquakes (0.1) 

and the dates of the last three New Madrid events (1811-1812, A.D. 1450 and A.D. 900) are 

included in the recurrence data (Figures 3.5; NUREG-2115). In the logic tree of the National 

Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Maps, weighting on earthquake sequence and on a recurrence time 

of 500 years is increased over the values used in the 2008 maps (Figure 3.6; Petersen et al., 

2014). In addition, the 2014 logic tree includes the CEUS SSC project fault model as an 

alternative branch.

The NMSZ is recognized as having the highest hazard in the CEUS, but large uncertainties in the 

hazard models have spurred considerable debate and controversy. Sensitivity analysis of 

sources associated with the NMSZ suggests that earthquake rate has the greatest effect on 

hazard estimates, with uncertainties being greatest for the central New Madrid fault zone 

(McGuire, pers. comm., 2012). Mean recurrence interval estimates for this region are much more 

dependent on paleoseismology than anywhere else in the CEUS. To remedy this problem, the 

NRC is supporting a multi-year research project to recover additional paleoliquefaction information 

to reduce the uncertainties associated with earthquake rates before the near-surface record of 

past earthquakes is lost to land leveling and other agricultural practices.
Figure 3-5 NMSZ logic tree of the seismic source model in the CEUS SSC project (modified from NURE

Paleoliquefaction data are reflected in clustered behavior and in the recurrence data used in 

model.

3-10
Figure 3-6 NMSZ logic tree of the seismic source model in the National Probabilistic 

Seismic Hazard Maps (modified from Petersen et al., 2014). The ground 

motion model is not included in this figure. Paleoliquefaction data are 

reflected in increased weighting of earthquake sequence and 500 year 

recurrence time.

3-11

4-1

4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

Liquefaction studies contribute to understanding of seismic hazard by providing information about 

the timing, locations, magnitudes, and recurrence rates of paleoearthquakes. However, there are 

often large uncertainties associated with the derived earthquake parameters and there are many 

regions where paleoliquefaction studies have not yet been conducted. With additional research 

on various aspects of paleoliquefaction, it may be possible to reduce uncertainties associated with 

earthquake parameters and to advance the usefulness and application of this field of study.

Case Studies: Documentation of liquefaction induced by modern earthquakes, with wellconstrained locations, magnitudes, and other earthquake parameters, is encouraged and would 

help to further characterize the size and spatial distributions of liquefaction features. The case 

studies should be regional in scope and include detailed descriptions of liquefaction features such 

as size and sedimentary characteristics of sand blows, dikes, sills and the soft-sediment 

deformation structures that formed within the liquefied layer. These case studies would provide 

calibration events for direct comparison as well as information that could be used to further 

improve empirical relations of earthquake and liquefaction parameters. Stratabound deformation 

structures, including convolute bedding and laminations, load casts, and pseudonodules, may be 

very useful in paleoliquefaction studies. However, additional research is needed to explore the full 

range of expression of these features as well as the ground motions and site conditions under 

which they form. 

To gain a better understanding of both the processes of liquefaction and the effects on the source 

layers that liquefied, instrumentation of liquefaction-prone sites is encouraged, as is pre- and postevent measurement of geotechnical properties. This information may help to reduce uncertainties 

related to back-calculating magnitudes using post-event measurements. Field experiments of 

earthquake-induced liquefaction are more likely to be conducted in interplate settings where large 

earthquakes occur more frequently. It would be beneficial to better understand differences 

between characteristics, such as frequency content and attenuation of ground motion, of both 

intraplate and interplate earthquakes as they relate to liquefaction, so that results of field 

experiments could be applied to intraplate settings.

Mapping Using Remotely-Sensed Data: Modern technology provides new tools and techniques 

that make it possible to identify and map geologic and geomorphic features over large areas. It 

behooves us to develop methodologies that utilize these tools and techniques for mapping 

earthquake-induce liquefaction features and related ground failures, especially given the 

increasing human disturbance of the landscape and its impact of the geologic record of past 

earthquakes. Satellite imagery, image processing software, and geographical information 

systems provide the opportunity to combine data sets within a geographical framework and 

classify and map sand blows over large areas based on their spectral characteristics. For 

example, LANDSAT-7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) imagery provides information on 

reflected or emitted radiation from the Earth's surface and holds promise for mapping sand blows 

of different ages based on soil characteristics. Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) highresolution elevation data may be useful in mapping medium to large (greater than 2 m in diameter 

and 0.2 m in height) sand blows, if combined with other remotely-sensed data that reflect 

sediment and soil types. It should be recognized that liquefaction maps based on remotelysensed data may be limited by feature size and depth of ground disturbance and will still require 

field validation. 

Dating Techniques: Dating paleoliquefaction features is perhaps the most important aspect of any 

paleoliquefaction study. If the age estimates of paleoliquefaction features are not well 
4-2

constrained, it is difficult to correlate similar age-features across a region and to interpret the 

locations and magnitudes of paleoearthquakes with confidence. Therefore, research to improve 

dating of paleoliquefaction features is a high priority.

Radiocarbon and optically-stimulated luminescence (OSL) are the two most commonly used 

dating techniques in paleoliquefaction studies. Because they are often collected stratigraphically 

above and below sand blows, samples for radiocarbon and OSL dating provide minimum and 

maximum constraining dates for liquefaction features, and thus the earthquakes that caused 

them. Although the individual dates may have precisions of ± 20–80 years, the age estimates of 

liquefaction features based on the combination of the minimum and maximum constraining dates 

will have uncertainties of about 100 years in the best of circumstances. Dating techniques and 

sampling strategies that provide more precise and accurate results would help to improve the 

utility of liquefaction features for identifying paleoearthquakes and characterizing regional 

seismicity. 

OSL dating provides an opportunity to date soil and sediment buried by sand blows. Therefore, it 

is particularly useful at sites where organic samples necessary for radiocarbon dating cannot be 

found. However, uncertainties associated with OSL dating can be quite large, limiting its 

usefulness in paleoliquefaction studies, especially in regions where the repeat times of large 

earthquakes are on the order of hundreds of years. It is recommended that efforts be made to 

evaluate and improve both sampling and laboratory analysis used in OSL dating of sand blows, 

so that tighter age estimates can be derived from this technique. 

Dendrochronology is one technique that could improve accuracy (annual, possibly seasonal) of 

age estimates of liquefaction features. Therefore, it is recommended that case studies be 

conducted of impacts of earthquakes on trees, including burial by sand blows, damage related to 

ground failures, and direct damage to the living tissue. Using lessons learned from these studies, 

efforts could be made to use dendrochronology to date paleoliquefaction features in regions 

where chronologies of long-lived tree species are already developed and where fossil wood is 

preserved by paleoliquefaction. If those efforts are successful, it may be worthwhile to extend 

those chronologies back in time to constrain the ages of older liquefaction features. In addition, 

chronologies could be developed for new regions where they could help to date paleoliquefaction 

features.

Geophysical Techniques: Geophysical surveys have proven a useful tool for locating sand dikes, 

mapping sand blows, and selecting locations for paleoseismic trenches. However, distinguishing 

between earthquake-induced liquefaction features and non-seismic sedimentary features and 

deposits in remotely sensed data can be difficult, particularly where sand blows are buried and 

have no surface expression. A better understanding of the morphological and spatial 

characteristic differences between features and sedimentary deposits could increase the 

usefulness of geophysical methods as a reconnaissance tool and as a means for tracing features 

beyond trench excavations. 

Although geophysical methods yield results sensitive to the physical properties of rocks and 

sediment, better knowledge of empirical relations between these properties and the geophysical 

observations would increase confidence in data interpretations. This information could be used to 

better understand the soil and sediment characteristics that contributed to the occurrence of 

liquefaction in a particular environment. Specifically, the influence of stratigraphic and 

sedimentological properties in the development of pore water pressures at liquefaction sites could 

lead to a better understanding of the process of liquefaction and the conditions that contribute to a 

site’s susceptibility. Further work on calibrating geophysical surveys with sedimentological and 
4-3

geotechnical analyses is needed to extend the utility of site-specific geotechnical measurements 

and improve the ability to relate laboratory studies of liquefaction to actual field studies.

Geotechnical Approach: There are many uncertainties associated with the geotechnical approach 

for estimating the magnitudes of paleoearthquakes. Additional research is needed to further 

evaluate and reduce the sources of these uncertainties. The development and application of new 

techniques, devices, and procedures for in situ testing of soil properties in paleoliquefaction 

studies could help to reduce some of the uncertainties as follows:

1. Improved resolution

The traditional sampling interval of soil borings may be too gross to accurately reflect the 

properties of the deposit or layer that liquefied. The sampling interval for standard penetration test 

(SPT) N-values and crosshole/downhole shear wave velocities is 1.5-m. The conventional 

seismic cone test (SCPT) and seismic dilatometer test (SDMT) improve slightly on this as shear 

wave data are collected at 1-m intervals. However, the newest techniques such as frequentinterval shear wave velocities (Vs) using either a seismic piezocone or seismic dilatometer allows 

more detailed profiling of Vs and small-strain stiffness (Gmax) at 0.2-m intervals that may help to 

reduce uncertainties. Also, the continuous-interval seismic piezocone test (CiSCPTu) is now 

available and permits profiling at 0.1-m intervals, although the data are noisier and less robust. 

It may be possible to use of a mini-cone to construct stratigraphic profiles of compound sand 

blows as well as of buried sand blows. This could facilitate and compliment trench investigations 

and permit rapid characterization of sand blows at many sites across a region. Development of 

this technique, which will require field testing, has the potential to deliver a more accurate and 

detailed characterization of sand blows that have limited layer thickness, or that are composed of 

multiple depositional units related to recurrent liquefaction during an earthquake sequence. In 

addition, the technique may make it possible to identify ancient sand blows buried beneath the 

reach of trenches. 

2. New testing devices and procedures

Several new devices are being developed that may help identify and evaluate the susceptibility 

and potential of soils to liquefy (Mayne, 2012), including the vibrocone penetrometer (Schneider et 

al., 1999; McGillivray et al., 2000; Bonita et al., 2004), large shaker tests (Rathje et al., 2005), the 

vision cone penetrometer (Saftner et al., 2011), and the piezovane (Charlie et al., 1995). These 

new devices may help to advance understanding and subsurface mapping via in situ testing at 

paleoliquefaction studies. Also, a newly developed procedure, the Rapid Soil Characterization 

System (RAPSOCHS) discussed by Kianirad et al., (2011) employs a manual-dynamic multichannel penetrometer and may be useful testing at remote and difficult to access sites. Moreover, 

given the shallow occurrence and limited dimensions of paleoliquefaction features, mini-CPTs 

(Cha and Santamarina, 2013; Monfared, 2014) and micro-CPTs (Kim et al., 2010; Mayne, 2012) 

may help to better define layers, lenses, and liquefied zones and even to identify dikes and sills by 

the measured resistances (qt, fs, and u2) with these reduced-scale penetrometers.
4-4

Figure 4-1 Scaled-down versions of the cone penetrometer including: (a) mini-CPT (Cha 

and Santamarina, 2013) and (b) micro-CPT (Kim et al., 2010).

Paleoearthquake Chronologies: In regions where paleoearthquake records exist but have not 

been fully developed, paleoseismic studies could be designed that would improve the 

completeness and extend the length of the paleoearthquake chronologies in order to improve 

recurrence estimates of large earthquakes and understanding of earthquake sources. It is also 

recommended that paleoliquefaction studies be conducted in regions of low seismicity that share 

geologic and tectonic characteristics with known seismogenic zones to better understand the 

earthquake potential of those regions and to test the hypothesis that inherited geologic structures, 

particularly faults that were active during the Mesozoic, controls seismicity.
5-1

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Zhang, G., P.K. Robertson, and R.W.I. Brachman, “Estimating Liquefaction-Induced

Ground Settlements from CPT for Level Ground,” Canadian Geotechnical Journal,

39(5):1168-1180, 2002.
5-20

Zhang, G., P.K. Robertson, and R.W.I. Brachman, “Estimating Liquefaction-Induced

Lateral Displacements Using the Standard Penetration Test of Cone Penetration Test,”

Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 130(8):861-871, 2004.
A-1

APPENDIX A 

EVALUATION OF OVERBURDEN STRESS AND PORE

WATER PRESSURE

The evaluation of the effective vertical (overburden) stress is one of the first and important steps in 

any situation involving geotechnics. The total vertical overburden stress (σvo) is calculated from 

the accumulation of total soil unit weight (γt) with depth:

∫ ⋅=

z

vo t dz

0

γσ

The above can be approximated on a spreadsheet using summation of unit weight times layer 

thickness with depth according to:

∑= ∆⋅ z

i vo ti i z 1

σ γ )(

where the subscript i refers to each successive layer.

Measured Soil Unit Weight: Soil unit weight can be measured from undisturbed thin-walled tube 

samples (ASTM D1587) as total weight (W) divided by total volume (V), such that: γt = W/V. In

this case, the soil mass density is obtained from: ρt = γt/g, where g = 9.8 m/s2 = gravitational

constant. Tube samples are readily obtained in fine-grained soils, however, granular soils

especially clean sands are often difficult or very expensive to procure by this technique.

If the soil is dry, γt equals the dry unit weight (γdry) and if the soil is saturated, then γt = γsat. It is also

possible to have soil unit weights between these two extreme values, yet it will be dependent on

the existing degree of saturation (S). A primary soil identity relation can be used to assign unit

weights based on index parameters: 

Gs · wn = S · e0

where Gs = specific gravity of solids, wn = natural in-place water content, and e0 = void ratio. For

most natural soils, a value Gs = 2.70 ± 0.10. For saturated soils: S = 1 (or 100%), and for dry

soils: wn = 0. The general case for unit weight is given by the second soil identity:

ws

n

t G

e

w

γ ⋅⋅ γ

+

+ = 1 0

1

where γw = unit weight of water (γw = 9.81 kN/m3 for freshwater and = 10.0 kN/m3 for salt water). 

For the two usual cases:

1 0 e

G ws

dry +

⋅ = γ γ
A-2

w

s

dry e

eG

γ ⋅γ

+

+ =

0

0

1

Estimated Unit Weight: In many cases, neither measured unit weight nor water content has been 

obtained for a soil layer. In these cases, values for various soils are often assumed or taken from

published textbooks. A more rational approach for deriving values of soil unit weight can be made 

via direct statistical relations derived from large databases. In this appendix, methods for

estimating soil unit weight are given for shear wave velocity, SPT, CPT, and DMT.

Figure A1 shows a clear link between the total unit weight and field shear wave velocity for a

variety of soils, including clays, silts, sands, gravels, and mixed soils. For these sites,

approximately 90% were submerged and thus represent the saturated unit weight. The shear

wave velocity data were obtained primarily from downhole tests (85%), crosshole tests (10%),

suspension logging (2%), and surface wave type methods (3%). A secondary effect with depth 

(z) is also shown. The general expression (units dependent) is given by:

γt = 8.63 log (Vs) - 1.18 log (z) - 0.53 

where γt = unit weight (kN/m3

), Vs = shear wave velocity (m/s), and z = depth (meters). An 

alternate expression given in terms of effective overburden stress (σvo') rather than depth is also 

available (Mayne et al., 2009), which is more fundamental since groundwater table conditions are 

considered. However, the parameters σvo' or z are only secondary level effects to the regression.

Figure A-1 Unit weight relation between shear wave velocity and depth (Mayne et al., 2009). 

For the SPT, no direct means to estimate unit weight has been developed. However, many 

methods have empirically related shear wave velocity to SPT-N value (Wair et al., 2012). A rather 

quick and simple estimate is afforded from the large empirical dataset (n = 1654) reported by Imai 

and Tonouchi (1982) for all soil types: 

Vs (m/s) = 93 (N60)

0.314
A-3

whereby the estimated Vs and corresponding depth z can be entered into Figure A.1. to obtain an 

estimated soil unit weight. A more recent and rational approach has been developed that

incorporates the corrected SPT resistance, influence of effective overburden stress (in KPa), and

age (Wair et al., 2012): 

Vs = 30 ∙ ASF∙ (N60)

0.215 ∙ (σvo')0.275

where the age scaling factor (ASF) is taken as 0.87 for Holocene soils and 1.13 for Pleistocene 

soils. Slightly different values are used for fine-grained and coarse-grained soils. The above 

relation requires iteration with depth since σvo' depends on the unit weight. A means of estimating

unit weight from the CPT sleeve friction also has been developed (Mayne et al., 2010a, 2010b).

The results have been developed on the basis of 58 sites where statistical regression analyses

were conducted on paired sets of laboratory-determined unit weights and CPT readings, as

summarized in Figure A2. The summary expression is given by:

06.0 06.0

' 95.1 















⋅ 















⋅⋅=

atm

st

atm

vo

t w

f

σ σ

σ

γ γ

where γt = soil total unit weight, γw = unit weight of water, fst = measured total sleeve friction from 

the CPT, and σatm = atmospheric pressure ( = 1 atm ≈ 1 bar = 100 kPa). The relation appears 

valid for estimates in uncemented geomaterials including a variety of clays, silts, sands, tills, and 

mixed soil types, however, is apparently not valid for diatomaceous clays and perhaps of limited 

applicability in highly calcareous soils.

Figure A-2 Relation for soil unit weight from CPT sleeve friction resistance. 
A-4

The above relation was expanded to over 80 sites and then simplified for direct use (Mayne, 

2014) such that no iteration was necessary:

.1[ 22 .0 15 ln(100 +⋅⋅+⋅= .0/ 01)] t w s atm γγ f σ

The direct trend between soil unit weight and sleeve friction is presented in Figure A.3 along with 

corresponding statistical measures from regression analyses.

Figure A-3 Direct relation between soil unit weight and CPT sleeve friction for a variety of 

geomaterials (after Mayne, 2014). 

For the flat plate dilatometer test (DMT), the soil unit weight can be estimated from the material 

index: ID = (p1 - p0)/(p0 - u0) and dilatometer modulus: ED = 34.7(p1 - p0) from (Mayne et al., 2009) 

γt = 1.12 γw ∙ (ED/σatm)

0.1 ∙ (ID) -0.05

Hydrostatic Pore Water Pressure: The hydrostatic pore water pressure (u0) is obtained from the 

water table information (Mayne et al. 2002). For the case of unconfined aquifers, the depth to the 

groundwater (zw) can be measured in open boreholes, observation wells, and by installation of 

piezometers. With CPTu, the depth of the water table can either be measured by allowing a full 

dissipation of the measured pore water pressures to hydrostatic (u2 → u0) at selected test depth, 
A-5

otherwise inferred from data in clean sand layers because the measured pressures are close to 

hydrostatic (u2 ≈ u0) and therefore the height of the water is hw = u2/gw. At that elevation, the depth 

of the groundwater table is then obtained as zw = z - hw. 

Once zw is known, then the profile of u0 below this depth (z > zw) can be calculated from:

Below groundwater table: u0 = (z - zw) · γw

Above the water table (z < zw), there are at least three possible cases (Mayne et al. 2002). The 

two simplest scenarios include completely dry soil and completely saturated soil due to capillary 

rise, where the u0 conditions for these cases are:

Above water table (dry soil): u0 = 0 

Above water table (saturated soil): u0 = (z - zw) · γw

The normal assumption is that clean sands are dry above the water table, while clays can be 

saturated (or dry) above the water table because of full capillarity. In the third possible case 

involving partially-saturated soils, the conditions could vary anywhere in-between, depending on 

many factors, including: the degree of saturation, recent rainfall or infiltration or irrigation, drought 

activity, humidity, temperature, and other environmental variables. In the case of special 

groundwater circumstances including artesian pressures and/or drawdown, it may be necessary 

to install permanent piezometers and monitoring wells to document the actual water table and its 

variations on a daily or weekly or seasonal basis.

B-1

APPENDIX B 

UPDATED CRR CURVES FROM IN-SITU TESTS

Since the NCEER consensus reports were developed about two decades ago (Youd and Idriss, 

1997), a number of new case studies from large seismic events worldwide have provided 

additional data to allow updating of the various cyclic resistance ratios (CRRs), as well as the 

cyclic stress ratios (CSR), for each of the in-situ test methods. Herein, a brief description will be 

provided for selected deterministic SPT, CPT, DMT, and Vs methods for soil liquefaction 

evaluation. Full details on the updated SPT and CPT methods are given by Idriss and Boulanger 

(2004, 2008, 2010) and Boulanger and Idriss (2012, 2014). 

SPT: An updated SPT procedure for evaluating soil liquefaction triggering is presented by Idriss 

and Boulanger (2010) and Boulanger and Idriss (2014). Figure B.1 shows the new CRR for this 

method which depends upon specific procedures for the evaluation of the cyclic stress ratio for a 

magnitude M 7.5 and effective overburden stress of 1 atm, designated: CSR7.5, σv'= 1 atm, and for 

obtaining the stress-normalized and energy-correction SPT resistance for an equivalent clean 

sand, designated: (N1)60-cs. 

Figure B-1 Updated cyclic resistance ratio for SPT in clean sands (after Boulanger

and Idriss 2014). 

The normalized soil resistance for the updated method is given by:

(N1)60 = CNe ∙ N60
B-2

where the stress normalization factor is estimated by: 

CNe = (σatm/σvo')m ≤ 1.7

The exponent m varies with relative density (DR) of the sand, such that: 

m = 0.785 - 0.521∙ DR

For clean sands, the relative density can be estimated from the normalized penetration resistance 

(e.g., Skempton, 1986; Kulhawy and Mayne, 1990). For the updated approach, the relative 

density of clean sands is given by: 

DR (%) = [ (N1)60/46 ]0.5

For sands with fines, there is a correction for the fines content (FC in %) that provides a means to 

obtain a normalized penetration resistance that is equivalent to that for clean sands: 

(N1)60-cs = (N1)60 + ∆(N1)60

where the fines correction is obtained from:





















 





+ − +

=∆ +

2

601 .0 01

15 7.

.0 01

7.9 )( exp .1 63

FC FC

N

The combined effects of relative density and fines content can be expressed to give the exponent

m in terms of the normalized and corrected SPT resistance: 

m = 0.784 - 0.0768 ∙ [ (N1)60-cs ]

0.5

where 0.264 ≤ m. This procedure of course requires iteration to resolve the final value for (N1)60-cs. 

Once determined, the cyclic resistance ratio for M 7.5 and effective overburden stress at 1 atm (as

shown in Figure B.1) is evaluated from:















  − 

 



  +  



  −  



 = + − − − −

= .2 80

25 4.

)(

23 6.

)(

126

)(

14 1.

)(

exp

4

601

3

601

2

601 601

1',5.7

cs cs cs cs

v atm

N N N N CRR σ

The level of ground shaking by the earthquake is represented by the cyclic stress ratio (CSR) and 

is given by the following expression for flat horizontal ground:

σ

σ σ

σ

KMSF

r

g

a CSR d

vo

vo

v atm

11

' 65.0 max

1',5.7 ⋅⋅⋅ 





























 = ⋅=

where the first three terms have been detailed previously. For the Boulanger and Idriss (2014) 

approach, the stress reduction factor (rd) is expressed as a function of depth (z) and magnitude 

(M), as presented in Figure B.2.
B-3

Figure B-2 Evaluation of the stress reduction factor (rd) for the updated SPT-CPT

approach (after Boulanger and Idriss 2014). 

The MSF is evaluated from the magnitude earthquake and normalized-corrected penetration 

resistance: 

MSF = 1 + (MSFmax - 1) ∙ [ 8.64∙exp( - M/4) - 1.325 ] 

where MSFmax = 1.09 + [ (N1)60-cs/31.5 ]2 ≤ 2.2

The overburden stress factor is expressed as a function of normalized and corrected penetration 

resistance and effective stress: 

Kσ =1 - Cσ ∙ ln(σvo'/σatm) ≤ 1.1

where Cσ = 1/[ 18.9 - 2.55∙{(N1)60-cs }0.5 ] ≤ 0.3

The factor of safety for triggering liquefaction is finally calculated as the ratio of the resistance to 

the demand: 

v atm

v atm

liq CSR

CRR

FS

1',5.7

1',5.7

=

= =

σ

σ
B-4

CPT: A number of updates to the cone penetration testing (CPT) methodologies for soil 

liquefaction assessment have occurred since the NCEER approach. Analogous to the 

aforementioned updated method for SPT, a parallel and consistent approach for CPT has also 

been developed (Boulanger and Idriss, 2014) where many additional case history records from 

the recent 2010 Canterbury M 7.1 and 2011 M 6.3 Christchurch earthquakes in New Zealand and 

2011 M 9.0 Tōhoku earthquake in Japan have provided new data. The updated approach for 

calculating CRR and CSR from CPT data is discussed subsequently. 

Also, clarification of the definitional types of soil liquefaction and ground failure conditions have 

been made using soil behavioral type (SBT) charts (Robertson, 2010). As detailed earlier in 

Figure 2.26 and Table 2.5, the normalized CPT parameters delineate nine different soil types 

within a plot of Qtn versus F, as presented in Figure B.3. After screening out Zones 1, 8, and 9, 

the CPT material index (Ic) is used to delineate Zones 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7.

Figure B-3 Nine-zone chart of soil behavioral type for cone penetration tests (after 

Robertson, 2010).

Sandy soils may be susceptible to either flow or cyclic liquefaction and identified by a CPT

material index Ic ≤ 2.60. The identification of soils that are contractive versus dilative are 

demarcated by a normalized cone resistance for equivalent clean sand (Qtn)cs = 70 (Robertson,

2010). Consequently, four regions are shown in Figure B.4 that categorize the expected types of

soil behavior associated in seismic ground hazards.
B-5

• Region A1 (cohesionless soils): Cyclic liquefaction possible

• Region A2 (cohesionless soils): Cyclic and flow liquefaction possible

• Region B (cohesive soils): Cyclic softening possible

• Region C (cohesive soils): Cyclic softening and flow liquefaction possible.

Regions A1 and A2 include sands, sandy mixes, to gravelly sands and can be noted when:

22.1(76.647.3[ log ])2

10 Fr Qtn

+−− ≥

Flow liquefaction may occur in Regions A2 and C, which can be approximately represented by:

25.16.0[ /[ }])2.2/(1 8.1

10 Fr Qtn cs

++

− ≤

Figure B-4 Regions A1, A2, B, and C defining flow liquefaction, cyclic liquefaction, and/or 

cyclic softening (after Robertson, 2010).
B-6

Figure B-5 Updated cyclic resistance ratio for CPTs in clean sands (after Boulanger and 

Idriss 2014).

The updated CRR7.5 curve for CPT results is shown in Figure B.5 and seen to be a more

conservative relationship for liquefaction triggering, in comparison with the NCEER (2001) curve.

Initially, the CPT material index (Ic) as defined by Robertson (2009a, 2009b, 2010) can be used to 

evaluate soil type and an estimate of the fines content of the sand, as discussed by Boulanger

and Idriss (2014): 

FC (%) = 80 (Ic + CFC) = 137 where 0% ≤ FC ≤ 100%

and the term CFC is a site-specific calibration factor where the CPT readings can be calibrated with 

soil samples from adjacent side-by-side borings: -0.29 ≤ CFC ≤ +0.29. In the event no samples 

are available, an initial estimate of CFC ≈ 0 may be used for preliminary efforts.

The stress-normalized cone resistance for clean sands is evaluated as a function of effective 

overburden stress and relative density: 

qc1N = CNe ∙ qc/σatm

where the stress normalization factor is given by: 

CNe = (σatm/σvo')m ≤ 1.7
B-7

For general CPT interpretation in soils, the use of qnet = qt - σvo is essentially mandatory, where qt

= total cone tip resistance (Robertson, 1990; Lunne et al., 1997; Mayne, 2007). However, in clean 

sands, qt ≈ qc because induced penetration pore water pressures are low (u2 ≈ u0). Also, since 

total overburden stress is small relative to cone tip resistance (qt >> σvo) in clean sands at depths

z < 30 m, essentially: qnet ≈ qt ≈ qc. Since liquefaction applies primarily to sands, the updated 

approach by Boulanger and Idriss (2014) has thus retained qc in its formulations.

The exponent m varies with relative density (DR) of the sand, such that: 

m = 0.785 - 0.521∙ DR

For this approach, the relative density of clean sands is given by: 

DR (%) = 0.478 (qc1N)

0.264

- 1.063 

For clean to silty sands, the measured (or estimated) fines content is used to adjust the 

normalized cone resistance to that for an equivalent clean sand: 

qc1N-cs = qc1N + Dqc1N

where the fines content correction term is expressed:















 



 





+

 +



 





+

 −⋅ 

 



 +=∆

2

1

1 2

15 7.

2

7.9 11 .19. 63

14 6. FC FC

q

q Nc

Nc

Then this corrected and normalized CPT resistance is used to obtain the exponent m: 

m = 1.338 - 0.249 (qc1N-cs)

0.264

where it is restricted to the range: 0.264 ≤ m ≤ 0.782.

The available strength of the ground to resist an earthquake is represented by the cyclic 

resistance ratio for a M 7.5 and effective overburden stress at σv' = 1 atm (as shown in Figure 

B.5), which is evaluated from:















  − 

 



  +  



  −  



 = + − − − −

= .2 80

113 1000 140 137 exp

4

1

3

1

2

1 1

1',5.7

Nc cs Nc cs Nc cs Nc cs

v atm

qq q q CRR σ

The level of ground shaking by the earthquake is represented by the cyclic stress ratio (CSR) and 

is given by the following expression for flat horizontal ground:

σ

σ σ

σ

KMSF

r

g

a CSR d

vo

vo

v atm

11

' 65.0 max

1',5.7 ⋅⋅⋅ 





























 = ⋅=

where the first three terms have been detailed previously. For this updated approach, the stress 

reduction factor (rd) is expressed as a function of depth (z) and magnitude (M), as presented in 

Figure B.2.
B-8

The MSF is derived from the earthquake magnitude and normalized-corrected penetration 

resistance: 

MSF = 1 + (MSFmax - 1) ∙ [ 8.64∙exp(-M/4) - 1.325 ] 

where MSFmax = 1.09 + [ (qc1N-cs)/180 ]2 ≤ 2.2

The overburden stress factor is expressed as a function of normalized and corrected penetration 

resistance and effective stress (Boulanger and Idriss 2014): 

Kσ = 1 - C ∙ ln(σvo'/σatm) ≤ 1.1

where Cσ = 1/[ 37.3 - 9.27∙ (qc1N-cs)

0.264 ] ≤ 0.3

The calculated factor of safety for triggering liquefaction is finally determined as the ratio of the 

resistance to the demand: 

v atm

v atm

liq CSR

CRR

FS

1',5.7

1',5.7

=

= =

σ

σ

DMT: For the flat plate dilatometer test (DMT), an updated method has been developed by Tsai 

et al. (2009) that uses the NCEER evaluation of CSR (Youd et al., 2001) and the CRR shown in 

Figure B.6. The CRR for a magnitude M 7.5 event can be expressed in terms of the DMT 

horizontal stress index, KD = (p0-u0)/σvo':















  −



 



  + 

 



  −  



 = 1.3

5.25.68.8 exp

3 2

5.7

D D KKK D CRR

Liquefaction studies reported by Amoroso et al. (2015) have shown this approach to give 

reasonable results when checked against sites in the L'Aquila earthquake.
B-9

Figure B-6 Recommended CRR7.5 for liquefaction evaluation using DMT in clean sands 

(after Tsai et al., 2009)

Shear Wave Velocity: The NCEER approach (Youd and Idriss, 1997) also includes a method for 

evaluating soil resistance using shear wave velocity (Vs), specifically the stress-normalized value:

where the term CVs ≤ 1.4. The corresponding CRR is given by (Andrus and Stokoe, 2000):

which has a hyperbolic form and the limiting asymptotes (*Vs1c = 220, 210, and 200 m/s) are given 

in terms of fines contents: (a) FC < 5%; (b) FC = 20%, and (c) FC > 35%, respectively. Figure B.7 

presents the CRR for Vs1. The CSR7.5 is determined per the NCEER guidelines, as detailed earlier 

in this report.

1 25.0 )/'( vo atm

s

s Vs s

V VCV

σσ =⋅=

( ) 



 



 − − ⋅= ⋅+

csscs

s VVV

CRR V

1 1

2

5.7 1

1

*

1 022.0 8.2100
B-10

Figure B-7 NCEER recommended CRR for liquefaction evaluation using Vs1 in sands 

More recently, an updated approach using a larger database and recent case studies has been

developed with both deterministic and probabilistic curves (Kayen et al., 2013), as presented in 

Figure B.8. In addition to adopting an exponential format (rather than the aforementioned 

hyperbolic algorithm), the method has a modified term for MSF and a rather more involved 

method for stress reduction factor, rd. 

The deterministic curve is associated with a probability of exceedance of 15% (PL = 0.15) and can 

be expressed simply as: 

CRR7.5, sv'= 1atm = exp[ (Vs1/173.7)2.80

- 2.96 ] 

where the stress-normalized shear wave velocity has a cap of the term CVs ≤ 1.5. The level of 

ground shaking represented by the cyclic stress ratio (CSR) is given by:

where DWF = duration weighting factor (essentially identical to the MSF = magnitude scaling

factor), given here as: 

DWF = 15 M-1342

DWF

r

g

a CSR d

vo

vo

vo

ave 1 65.0 '

max

5.7 ' ⋅⋅ 















⋅ 















⋅== σ

σ

σ

τ
B-11

Figure B-8 Updated CRRs for normalized shear wave velocity using database 

methodology of Kayen et al., (2013). 

More specifically, the generalized CRR for a range of probabilities is given by: 

CRR=exp{[0.514∙[(0.0073∙Vs1)

2.80

 -2.617∙ln(M)-0.0099∙ln(σvo'/σatm) +0.0028∙FC+0.481∙φ-1(PL)]} 

A detailed analysis on the stress reduction factor (rd) has been conducted by Cetin et al. (2004). 

This permitted a statistical relation developed on the basis of depth (d) in meters, moment 

magnitude of the earthquake (M), level of ground shaking (amax/g), and averaged shear wave 

velocity (Vs) in m/s over a particular depth range (0 < d < 12m), designated as Vs,12m. The mean 

value of rd may be calculated as follows: 

For depths d < 20 m: 

dr

ms

ms

ms

ms

d

V

MV ga

d V

MV ga

r ,

12,

12, max

12,

12, max

)]

.0 0525 .2 949 )/( 23.013

1

16.258 .0 exp[201 .0 341 .7( 586 .0 0785 )]

.0 0525 .2 949 )/( 23.013

1

± σ ε

⋅

−⋅−+⋅

+

⋅+−⋅⋅+

−⋅−+⋅

+

=

16.258 + 0.201⋅ exp[0.341⋅(7.586 + 0.0785
B-12

dr

ms

ms

ms

ms

d d

V

MV ga

V

MV ga

r ,

12,

12, max

12,

12, max

.0 0046 ( 20)

16.258 .0 exp[201 .0 341 .7( 586 .0 0785 )]

.0 0525 .2 949 )/( 23.013

1

16.258 .0 exp[201 .0 341 ( 12.414 .0 0785 )]

.0 0525 .2 949 )/( 23.013

1

±−⋅− σ ε

⋅+⋅⋅+

−⋅−+⋅

+

⋅+−⋅⋅+

−⋅−+⋅

+

=

The standard deviations about the mean profile of rd are given by:

For depths d < 12 m: σε,rd = 0.0198·d0.85

For depths d ≥ 12 m: σε,rd = 0.0198·120.85 = 0.164

Residual Undrained Strength: After flow or cyclic liquefaction occurs, the shear strength of the 

liquefied sand is reduced to a smaller yet finite value, termed the residual undrained strength, sr. 

Several new methods for evaluating the magnitude of sr in sands from SPT resistance have been 

developed (Olson and Johnson, 2008; Boulanger and Idriss, 2014; Kramer and Wang, 2015). 

Using the latter method, which is shown in Figure B.9, the derived expression is:

Figure B-9 Relation for residual undrained strength of sand, normalized SPT resistance,

and effective overburden stress (Kramer and Wang, 2015). 

Similiarly, new derivations for assessing the post-cyclic liquefied strength of sands from CPT 

results have been developed (Olson and Johnson, 2008; Robertson, 2010; Boulanger and Idriss, 

2014). Using the approach reported by Robertson (2010), Figure B.10 shows the normalized 

)( exp[ .0 109 .5)( 379 .8)/'( 444] 1.0 Sr atm = N 601 ⋅+⋅ vo σσ atm −

For depths d ≥ 20 m:
B-13

residual undrained strength to effective overburden ratio (sr/σvo') with normalized CPT cone tip 

resistance for an equivalent clean sand that can be expressed:

rr

σσvvvv′ =

1

45.5 − QQtttt−cc

3201

1 − QQtttt−cc

37.4 + (QQtttt−cc )2

5608

where the ratio lies within the range: 0.03 ≤ (sr/σvo') ≤ tanφ' and applies when (Qtn)cs < 70.

Figure B-10 Recommended strength of liquefied sands from CPT resistance (after 

Robertson, 2010).

C-1

APPENDIX C 

SEISMIC GROUND DEFORMATIONS

Earthquake ground motions can result in collapse of the sand matrix structure resulting in ground 

deformations, including settlement and subsidence in level ground terrain. In sloped ground, 

there may be additional losses due to lateral spread. The use of the CPT results can be 

implemented in a systematic procedure to evaluate the magnitudes of seismic ground 

deformations in accord with the methodology described by Zhang et al. (2002, 2004).

Volumetric Strains: The magnitude of volumetric strains (εvol) are determined on the basis of the 

calculated factor of safety (FS) and the relative density (DR) of the sands, as illustrated by Figure 

C.1. The seismic-induced permanent settlements (sz) are calculated from:

∫ =

z

sz vol dz

0

ε

Figure C-1 Interrelationship of volumetric strain, safety factor, and sand relative density 

for evaluating seismically-induced settlements (after Ishihara and Yoshimine 

1992).

Relative Density of Sand Layers: The relative density of sands (DR) is a measure of the 

compactness of the state of packing of sand particles that range from its loosest (emax) to its 

densest state (emin), where e = void ratio and the limiting states are given by ASTM D4253 and 
C-2

D4254. From a practical matter involving sands at a range of depths below the ground surface, 

the evaluation of DR is empirically determined from the cone tip resistance:

DR (%) = 76 · log (Qtn-cs) - 85 ≤ 100%

where normalized cone tip resistance: Qtn-cs ≤ 200. Note for values of Qtn-cs above 200, set DR

= 100%.

Lateral Displacements: In sloping terrain and/or ground with a free-face condition, the occurrence 

of liquefaction can result in lateral spreading and horizontal movements downhill. The ground 

conditions include: (1) level ground, (2) gently sloping terrain, (3) level ground with free face, and 

(4) gentle slope with free face, as depicted in Figure C.2. The percent slope (S) and free face

geometry (H = height and L = distance) are also defined here.

Figure C-2 Schematic drawings of ground surface conditions for lateral spread

deformations. 

The magnitudes of induced lateral displacements (LD) are estimated from the maximum cyclic 

shear strains (γMAX) which are integrated with depth to obtain the lateral displacement index (LDI): 

∫ =

z

LDI MAX dz

0

γ

The level of cyclic shear strains was studied under laboratory controlled conditions on prepared 

sand specimens by Ishihara and Yoshimine (1992). They related magnitude of γMAX to the factor

of safety (FS) and sand relative density (DR). In addition, a limiting value of cyclic shear strain was

established from the work of Seed (1976, 1979) and Housner et al. (1985). The resulting

methodology is presented graphically in Figure C.3 (Zhang et al., 2004; Robertson 2004).

Depending upon the slope angle (0.2% < S < 3.5%), the calculated lateral displacements (LD)

are obtained from: 

LD/LDI = S + 0.2 (%) 

For free-face conditions (see Figure C.2), the geometry of distance from the CPT sounding

location to the face location (L) and the height of the free face (H) are used to obtain the amount

of lateral displacements (4 < L/H < 40): 

LD/LDI = 6 (H/L)0.8

A number of case studies presented by Zhang et al. (2004) are used to develop these relations.
C-3

Figure C-3 Relation of maximum cyclic shear strain (γMAX) with sand relative density (DR) 

and calculated safety factor (FS) against liquefaction (after Zhang et al., 2004: 

Ishihara and Yoshimi, 1992).

D-1

APPENDIX D 

SITE DESCRIPTION FOR PALEOLIQUEFACTION STUDY

Site Name-Number: 1:24,000 Topo Map: 

GPS Waypoint: Geographic Location: 

Latitude (degrees): Longitude (degrees):

Easting: Northing: 

Access: Permission:

Logs: Photographs: 

Exposure Length (m): Exposure Height (m): Exposure Quality: Ex Gd Fr Pr

Geological Setting: 

Liquefaction Features:

Number of sand blows ( ) sand dikes ( ) sand sills ( ) SSD structures ( )

Other features ( ), briefly describe:

Diagram: 

Samples Collected (see diagram): 

Artifacts Charcoal OSL Soil Wood 

Information Supplied By: Name:

Affiliation: Date: J F M A M J J A S O N D 2015
Liquefaction Feature Number: Site Name-Number:

Type of feature: blow dike sill diaper basal erosion load cast pseudonodule fold

Depth of termination or deformation below surface (or above water level) (m):

Thickness and length (cm):

Termination of dikes (blow, sill, pinch, truncation):

Widths of dikes (cm):

Strikes and dips of dikes (degrees):

Sediment type (grain-size, clasts):

Internal sedimentary structures (flow lamination, vertical/horizontal bedding):

Soil development or chemical weathering: 

Distance between similar deformation features (m):

Cross-cutting relations:

Additional Notes (e.g., seismic vs non-seismic origin; relative age of features):

Information Supplied By: Name:

Affiliation: Date: J F M A M J J A S O N D 2015

D-2
E-1

APPENDIX E 

ARCHEOLOGICAL EXCAVATION PROTOCOL DEVELOPED FOR 

PALEOSEISMIC INVESTIGATIONS AT ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN 

ARKANSAS

Documentation of archaeological features found during the excavation of a sand blow should 

begin with mapping and photographing the features as they appear on the surface of the sand 

blow once the plow zone has been removed. Archeological features are numbered sequentially 

for identification purposes and recorded on a feature log (Figure E.1). Features, such as post 

molds and pits, are usually cut in half and excavated with a 41⁄2 inch masonry point trowel and 

other small hand tools. One half of the feature is excavated so that its cross section can be drawn 

and photographed. The features are documented on feature forms that standardize the 

observations made and samples collected.

Figure D-1 Archeologist, Robert Lafferty, documenting artifacts recovered from features 

intruding top of sand dike at archeological site 3MS557 in northeastern 

Arkansas. Photograph by M. Tuttle.

Observations include: feature dimensions (width, length, and depth), Munsell colors and textures 

of each stratum, and temporally diagnostic artifacts observed /collected in excavations. 

Documentation includes scaled, plan view and cross-sectional drawings on the grid paper (usually 

on the back of the form). The plan view drawing shows the north direction, feature limits and 

textures/color, as well as profile locations (Figure E.2). The cross sections show the position of 

the level line, feature limits, and soil descriptions of the feature fill and host. Other data shown on 

forms include: state site number, field serial number (FSN), excavator, date excavated, volume 
E-2

excavated in liters. The excavated matrix is retained in large polyethylene bags and taken to the 

laboratory for flotation recovery of artifacts and charred botanical material. All of the exposed 

features intruding into the sand blow should be either excavated, if that part of the sand blow is to 

be excavated, or left in place and protected.

Figure D-2 Cross-sectional drawing G-G’ to J-J’ of archeological excavation at the East 

site (3PO610) in northeastern Arkansas (from Tuttle et al., 2011). Location of 

G-G’ to J-J’ profile indicated on plan view shown in lower left. Stratum 7 is 

sand blow indicated with stipple pattern.

The sand blow is excavated until the buried soil or sediment layer is encountered. The buried 

surface is examined by the archaeologist using a trowel, shovel, and/or a short-handled hoe. If 

there are intact archaeological deposits, one or more square meter test units (TU) are excavated 

through the deposit. Test units are excavated in 10-cm, or thinner, levels. Excavations are 

carried out with razor sharp shovels and trowels. A level is taken down in thin horizontal cuts of 

1⁄2- to 1-cm thick shovel cuts. The matrix is put through 6.25 mm (1⁄4 inch) screens and all 

recovered artifacts are placed in cloth bags that are labeled with site number, date, collector, 

depths, unit number, and field serial number. The excavation level is stopped at a depth of 10 cm 

and the whole unit floor is cleaned with a trowel. Stains or large artifacts are mapped at a scale of 

1:10 or 1:20. Often, a flotation column (that is typically 25 x 25 x 10 cm; a volume of 6.26 liters for 

each 10-cm level) is taken from a corner of the unit. During excavation, artifacts and large 

samples of carbon may be point plotted and collected, and assigned an unique FSN. A level form 

is filled out for each excavation level. The soil matrix description, FSN’s from the level, artifacts 

observed/collected, name, date, and a drawing of the level showing point-plotted artifacts, soil 

staining, and features are systematically recorded on the form. When the base of the excavation 

unit is reached, typically one or two levels below artifact bearing levels, one or more profiles are 

cleaned, photographed, and drawn. The profile drawings show soil strata and or horizons with 

colors and textures, feature staining, point-plotted artifacts, and any liquefaction features (Figure 

E.2). See Carmichael et al. (2003) for a more detailed discussion of techniques.
E-3

The profile of the sand blow is logged by a paleoseismologist. These large scaled (1:10) drawings 

show the sand blow layers, flow structures, soil textures, and colors, cultural deposits, including 

point-plotted artifacts, and collected samples.

NUREG/CR-7238

M. Tuttle, L. Wolf, P. Mayne, K. Dyer-Williams, R. Lafferty

M. Tuttle & Associates, P.O. Box 345, Georgetown, ME 04548

Sarah Tabatabai 

The primary goal of this document is to provide detailed guidance for conducting paleoliquefaction studies in order to 

generate high-quality data for use in seismic source characterization and seismic hazard assessment. This document 

presents background information on paleoseismology, earthquake-induced liquefaction and related ground failures, and 

soft-sediment deformation structures that form as a result of liquefaction. It also provides guidance on all aspects of 

paleoliquefaction studies, including selection of study areas and the various types of information that should be 

consulted, performance of site investigations and surveys of river cutbanks and other exposures, relative and absolute 

dating techniques used to constrain ages of liquefaction features and thus important for estimating the timing and 

recurrence of paleoearthquakes, and geological and geotechnical approaches to estimating source areas and 

magnitudes of paleoearthquakes. The report identifies factors that contribute to uncertainty in paleoliquefaction data and 

observations and analyses that can help to reduce those uncertainties. The report also includes a discussion of the use 

of paleoliquefaction data in seismic hazard assessment through the development of regional seismic source models and 

presents recent examples of the use of paleoliquefaction data in seismic source models of the New Madrid seismic zone 

in the central U.S. 

Paleoliquefaction, earthquake-induced liquefaction, soft-sediment deformation, 

paleoseismology, paleoearthquakes, seismic source characterization, seismic hazard 

assessment. 

January 2018

Technical

Division of Engineering

Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Washington, DC 20555

Guidance Document: Conducting Paleoliquefaction Studies for

Earthquake Source Characterization



NUREG/CR-7238 Guidance Document: Conducting Paleoliquefaction Studies for

Earthquake Source Characterization 

 January 2018