NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE 

TO AMERICAN SAMOA

3rd Edition 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE 

 This Guide may be available at: www.nps.gov/npsa 

 

Support was provided by:

 

National Park of 

American Samoa 

Department of Marine 

& Wildlife Resources 

American Samoa 

Community College 

Sport Fish & Wildlife 

Restoration Acts 

American Samoa 

Department of Commerce 

Pacific Cooperative Studies 

Unit, University of Hawaii 

American Samoa Coral 

Reef Advisory Group 

National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration 

 

Natural History is the study 

of all living things and 

their environment.

Cover: Ofu Island (with Olosega in foreground). 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE 

 

National Park of American Samoa Department Marine and Wildlife Resources 

Pago Pago, American Samoa 96799 Box 3730, Pago Pago, American Samoa 

 American Samoa Community College 

 Community and Natural Resources Division 

Box 5319, Pago Pago, American Samoa 

NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

 TO AMERICAN SAMOA

3rd Edition 

P. Craig 

 Editor 

2009
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE 

2

This booklet is the collected writings of 30 authors 

whose first-hand knowledge of American Samoan 

resources is a distinguishing feature of the articles. 

Their contributions are greatly appreciated. 

Tavita Togia deserves special recognition as 

contributing photographer. He generously 

provided over 50 exceptional photos. Dick 

Watling granted permission to reproduce the 

excellent illustrations from his books “Birds of Fiji, 

Tonga and Samoa” and “Birds of Fiji and Western 

Polynesia” (Pacificbirds.com). NOAA websites 

were a source of remarkable imagery. Other 

individuals, organizations, and publishers kindly allowed their illustrations to be reprinted in this volume; 

their credits are listed in Appendix 3. 

Matt Le'i (Program Director, OCIA, DOE), Joshua Seamon (DMWR), Taito Faleselau Tuilagi (NPS), 

Larry Basch (NPS), Tavita Togia (NPS), Rise Hart (RCUH) and many others provided assistance or 

suggestions throughout the text. Dr. George Zug (Smithsonian Inst.) provided an updated list of reptiles. 

Lelei Peau (DOC) spearheaded the effort to translate the Guide into the Samoan language. 

Support to DMWR was provided by the Federal Aid in Sport Fish and Wildlife Restoration Acts. 

Support to ASCC was provided, in part, by a USDA Cooperative State Research, Education, and 

Extension Service grant. Printing was made possible by funds from NPS, the Pacific Cooperative Studies 

Unit at the University of Hawaii, and the American Samoa Coral Reef Advisory Group. 

The use of English, Samoan and scientific names varies among chapters, so the reader is referred to crossreferenced lists in the species checklists in Chapters 33, 34, 56 and Appendix 2. 

Acronyms used above: ASCC (A. Samoa Community College), DOC (AS Dept. Commerce), DOE (AS Dept. Education), DMWR 

(AS Dept. Marine & Wildlife Resources), NOAA (National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration), NPS (National Park Service), OCIA 

(Office of Curriculum, Instruction & Accountability), RCUH (Research Coop., Univ. Hawaii), USDA (US Dept. Agriculture). 

Preface & 

Acknowledgments 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE 

3

GENERAL TOPICS 

 1. Local facts and maps..................... 5 

 2. Seasons and weather.................... 7 

 3. Cyclones.................................... 9 

 4. Volcano we live on........................ 11 

 5. Biodiversity.................................. 13 

 6. Status of local species................... 15 

 7. Environmental overview................. 17 

 8. Early Samoans............................ 19 

 9. Southern night sky......................... 21

MARINE ENVIRONMENT 

10. Our ocean................................... 22 

11. Ocean currents........................... 24 

12. What is coral............................... 25 

13. Coral reefs.................................. 28 

14. Coral bleaching........................... 30 

15. Palolo swarming............................. 32 

16. Giant clams................................. 34 

17. Crown-of-thorns starfish................ 35 

18. Octopus..................................... 36 

19. Sharks........................................ 37 

20. Surgeonfish: alogo........................ 38 

21. Surgeonfish: manini, pone.............. 40 

22. Traditional enu fishing................... 42 

23. Atule fishing................................ 43 

24. Small reef fish............................. 45 

25. Old reef fish................................ 46 

26. Tuna and the canneries................. 48 

27. Pelagic fish................................. 49 

28. Sea turtles.................................. 50 

29. Sea turtle hatchlings..................... 52 

30. Sea turtle identification key............ 54 

31. Humpback whales......................... 55 

32. Dolphins and small whales............ 57 

33. Mammal, reptile checklist................ 59 

TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT 

34. Mammal, reptile checklist................. 60 

35. Flying foxes (fruit bats)................... 61 

36. Vegetation.................................. 64 

37. Banyan trees................................ 66 

38. Wildlife foods............................... 68 

39. Streams: general.......................... 71 

40. Stream fish, shrimps, snails........... 72 

41. Stream species posters................. 74 

42. Snakes......................................... 77 

43. Skinks and geckos........................ 79 

44. Land crabs................................... 81 

45. Land snails................................. 83 

46. Insects....................................... 85 

47. Dragonflies, damselflies................ 86 

48. Household bugs........................... 87 

49. Mosquitoes, filariasis, dengue.......... 89 

50. Fungus...................................... 91 

51. Soil community............................ 93 

 INTRODUCED PEST SPECIES

52. Plant and animal pests.................. 94 

53. Toads........................................ 96 

54. Forest invaders............................ 97 

55. Agriculture pests.......................... 99 

 BIRDS 

56. Bird checklist.................................. 101 

57. Pacific Pigeon.............................. 103 

58. Many-colored Fruit Dove................. 105 

59. Honeyeaters................................ 107 

60. Starlings....................................... 109 

61. Swiftlet (and sheath-tailed bat)........ 111 

62. Rails.......................................... 113 

63. Cuckoo....................................... 115 

64. Owl............................................ 116 

65. Wetland birds............................... 117 

66. Shorebirds..................................... 119 

67. Seabirds..................................... 121 

68. Special birds of Manu'a.................. 124 

69. Christmas bird count..................... 126 

 

 Appendix 1. Noteworthy environmental events by year... 127 

 Appendix 2. Index of plant names used in text............... 128 

 Appendix 3. Figure credits......................................... 129 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

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Marinea Island Highest

 Island km2 mi2 km2 type Pt. (m) Populationb

 American Samoa 

Tutuila 136.2 52.6 volcanic 652 55,400

Ta'u 45.5 17.6 volcanic 965 873

Ofu 7.3 2.8 volcanic 494 494

Olosega 5.4 2.0 volcanic 639 216

Swains 3.6 1.4 atoll 5 37

Aunu'u 1.5 0.6 volcanic 88 476

Rose 0.1 0.1 atoll 5 0

 Totals 199.6 77.1 304,300 57,496

Samoa

Savai'i 1718 663 volcanic 1858 41,826

Upolu 1125 434 volcanic 1100 131,279

Manono 3 1.2 volcanic 107 955

Apolima 1 0.4 volcanic 168 80

 Totals 2847 1099 120,000 174,140

 Land area 

 a EEZ (Exclusive Economic Zone). b Census years: 2000 (American Samoa), 2001 (Samoa). 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

5

1. Local facts and maps 

Samoan Archipelago. This remote chain of 13 islands (9 inhabited) and two atolls is located 140 south 

of the equator near the International Date Line. It is divided into two political entities, the US 

Territory of American Samoa and the neighboring independent country of Samoa, formerly known as 

Western Samoa. The land area of (western) Samoa is approximately 15 times larger than the land 

area of American Samoa. 

Territory of American Samoa. The total land area of 76 mi2

 (197 km2) includes five volcanic islands 

(Tutuila, Aunu'u, Ofu, Olosega, Ta'u) and two distant atolls (Rose, Swains). When marine waters out 

to 200 mi are included, the Territory is 117,500 mi2

 (nearly the size of the state of Oregon). 

Population. Polynesians arrived here about 3,000 years 

ago. The current population (69,000 in 2009) is 

growing about 1.5 % per year, which equates to an 

addition of more than 1,000 babies and/or immigrants 

per year. The median age is 21 years, so continued 

growth is expected. Most people (96 %) live on Tutuila 

Island. The ethnic composition is Samoan (88.2 %), 

Tongan (2.8 %), Asian (2.8 %), Caucasian (1.0 %), and 

mixed or other (5.2 %). There is a sizeable 

demographic shift as (western) Samoans migrate into 

American Samoa and American Samoans migrate to 

the United States. About half of the people currently 

living in American Samoa were not born there. Over 128,000 Samoans live outside the territory. 

Topography. The main islands are steep volcanic mountains that emerge from the ocean floor 2-3 miles 

below the sea surface. Peak elevations are 2,142 feet on Tutuila Island (Matafao Peak) and 3,170 feet 

on Ta'u Island (Lata Mountain). 

Climate. Hot, humid and rainy year-round, but there is a long, wet summer season (October - May) and a 

slightly cooler and drier season (June - September). Total rainfall is 125 inches at the Tafuna airport 

and 200+ inches in mountainous areas. 

Ocean. Nearshore waters are usually warm (82-860

 F, 28-300 C) and 

clear (60-90 ft visibility). Fringing coral reefs surround the islands. 

Tropical cyclones (hurricanes). While very destructive, cyclones are 

a natural but erratic feature of the environment in this part of the 

world. The most recent ones have occurred here at intervals of 1-13 

years: 1981, 1987, 1990, 1991, 2004, 2005. Not all islands were 

damaged each time. 

Native flora and fauna. Most native species are closely related to those in Indonesia, but due to our 

small size and remote location in the Pacific Ocean, the diversity of terrestrial species here is low: 

343 flowering plants, 135 ferns, 25 resident or migratory land and water birds, 20 resident seabirds, 3 

mammals (all bats), 3 skinks, 1 gecko, 2 sea turtles, and other occasional visitors. In contrast, the 

diversity of marine species here is high: 961 coral reef fishes, over 250 corals, and several whales 

and dolphins. Insects and other invertebrate species here are not well known. 

Endemic species. Species found only in the Samoan Archipelago include one bird (the Samoan starling), 

one stream fish, several land snails, and about 30% of local plant species. Five flowering plant 

species are endemic to American Samoa itself. Few marine endemic species have been identified. 

0

20,000

40,000

60,000

80,000

1900 1950 2000

People
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

6

Threatened or endangered species. Federally listed species here include humpback and 

sperm whales, and the green and hawksbill sea turtles. Additional species “of concern” 

in the Territory include the sheath-tailed bat, 3 birds (Spotless Crake, Friendly Ground 

Dove, Many-colored Fruit Dove), several fishes (humphead wrasse, bumphead 

parrotfish, reef sharks), native land snails, and others. 

Pests and weeds (invasive non-native species). There are many: rats, 3 bird species (2 mynas and 

bulbuls), feral pigs, dogs, cats, toads, house gecko, tilapia and molly fishes, African snails, tropical 

fire ants and other insects, about 250 alien vascular plants (many of them weed species), and others.

Dangerous species. Few. On land, no poisonous snakes, but a bite from a large 8-inch centipede can be 

extremely painful. In the ocean, sharks are generally not a problem but stepping on the poisonous 

spine of a stonefish can be a serious medical emergency although 

this rarely happens. Consumers of fish should note that ciguatera 

poisoning has been found (infrequently) in several snappers 

(locally called mu) and a few other fish species. Also, avoid eating 

any fish or invertebrate caught in Pago Pago Harbor, because they 

may be contaminated with heavy metals and other pollutants. 

Tropical diseases. Malaria is not present, but two other mosquito-transmitted diseases can occur here: 

dengue fever (caused by a virus) and filariasis (elephantiasis, caused by a parasitic nematode worm). 

However, the chance of a visitor getting either is slight (see page 89). Leptospirosis, a common 

tropical bacterial disease spread through contact with the urine of infected animals (pigs, dogs, cats, 

rats), is fairly common among local residents; most infected people get mild flu-like symptoms, but it 

can be fatal. 

Noteworthy environmental events by year. See Appendix 1. 

Conservation areas as of 2009: 

 Sitea

 Year Location km2 acres

 Rose Atoll National Wildlife Sanctuary 1973 Rose Atoll 158.8 39,251 

 Rose Atoll National Monumentb

 2009 Rose Atoll 34,838.0b 8,608,470b

 Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary 1985 Tutuila 0.7 161 

 National Park of American Samoa 1988 Tutuila, Ofu, Ta'u 42.6 10,520 

 Vaoto Territorial Marine Park 1994 Ofu 0.5 120 

 Sea Turtle/Marine Mammal Sanctuaryc

 2003 All territorial waters (0-3 miles offshore) 

 Community-based marine protected areas ------- several villages --- ---

 a Fishing is prohibited at Rose Atoll, but traditional subsistence fishing is permitted at most 

 other sites listed. Village marine protected areas have been periodically opened to fishing. 

 b Includes deep ocean waters extending from Rose Atoll seaward for 50 miles. 

 c Governor’s Executive Order No. 005-2003 established the turtle/marine mammal sanctuary. 

 Other “special management areas” in the territory are Pago Pago Harbor, Nu'uuli Pala Lagoon 

 and the Leone wetlands. 

P.Craig, NPS 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

7

2. Seasons, weather and climate change 

Samoa's weather is warm, wet and humid year 

round, but there are two seasons. Not exactly 

summer and winter, because Tutuila is a small dot in 

a vast tropical ocean, so the ocean strongly 

moderates our weather. Our seasons are sometimes 

referred to as tropical wet and dry periods, although 

it is never dry here for very long. The somewhat 

cooler, drier period is also referred to as the 

tradewind season when winds from the southeast 

blow more consistently, causing rougher waters on 

the south side of the islands. 

October through May is our 8-month 

hot and wet summer. Air temperatures 

in recent years have fluctuated from 

nighttime lows around 770

 F to 

afternoon highs in the upper 80s. 

The relative humidity makes it feel 

hotter -- it fluctuates in the 80s (daily 

range 73-90% at the airport). We 

now average 60 days per year at 900

F or above. Record highs and lows 

here have been 960

 and 620 F. 

Average air temperatures (over a 24-

hour period) during the warm season 

are 82-830

 F. Our cold spell occurs 

from June through September when 

average air temperatures plummet to 

810

 F and rainfall is reduced by half. 

In the warmer months, nearshore ocean water 

temperatures are about 84-860

 F in shallow waters 

(0-30 feet deep) and 820

 F in deeper waters (100 

feet). In the cooler part of the year, the ocean is 

about 820

 F. 

If it feels like our climate it is getting warmer, it is, 

but the picture is a bit complicated. We have two 

long-term records of local air temperature, the 

NOAA weather stations at the Tafuna airport and 

Tula. Temperature trends at these two sites are 

quite different due to local conditions where the 

temperatures are actually measured. Temperatures 

measured at the airport weather station have risen 

dramatically over the past 20 years. The airport 

station measures air temperatures at a height of 

about 5.5 feet above the ground and near the 

runway (not an ideal location) on the Tafuna Plains, so it is unclear whether the rise is due to urbanization 

(more buildings and roads that absorb more heat) or to an increasing ground-level temperature. Whether 

other parts of Tutuila are warming in a similar fashion is not known. In contrast, the Tula station is on the 

60

70

80

90

100

Jan Apr Jul Oct

Air Temperature (F)

Highest recorded

Daytime high

(average)

Daily average

Nighttime low

(average)

Low est recorded

80

81

82

83

84

Oct Dec Feb Apr Jun Aug

Air temperature (F) 

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

Rainfall (inches) 

Rainfall Temperature

78

80

82

84

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Air temperature (F)

Airport station Tula station
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

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upwind side of the island, so it is less affected by near-ground conditions. It shows no systematic 

increase in temperature, as would be expected at our remote oceanic location. 

Rainfall at the Tafuna airport weather station is about 6-14 inches per month, but the amount of rainfall 

we receive depends largely on where we are standing (see illustration). The eastern end of Tutuila and the 

Tafuna plains are the drier parts of the island with 125 inches per year or less. The mountains and harbor 

area are very wet -- they receive about 200-250 inches of rainfall per year. Lata Mountain on Ta’u 

receives over 300 inches (25 feet) per year. 

If it seems like it rains every day here, 

it almost does. In most years, the 

airport weather station detects at least a 

trace of rain 300 days per year. A 

noticeable amount of rain (at least one 

tenth of an inch) occurs on about 50% 

of the days of the year. But note that 

the airport, where these measurements 

are taken, is one of the driest parts of 

our island. 

While land temperatures are warming, 

annual rainfall remains highly variable 

with no apparent long-term trend. The 

average rainfall over the past 47 years 

has been 123 inches (range 60-166 

inches). 

Returning to the topic of seasons, some 

plants and animals in American Samoa 

schedule their activities, such as 

flowering or spawning, according to 

the seasons. These biological events 

tend to occur over a much longer 

period in the tropics compared to 

colder regions of the world because the 

distinction between our two seasons is 

not great and growing conditions here 

are generally good year-round. Nevertheless, seasonal patterns of flowering and fruiting mean times of 

abundance or scarcity for some of our native wildlife, particularly the fruit bats (pe'a) and Pacific pigeon 

(lupe). 

A few animals schedule their seasonal 

migrations to these islands to avoid 

winters elsewhere in the world. We 

see more golden plovers (tuli) during 

the October to March period when they 

flee winter in the northern hemisphere, 

while humpback whales (tafolā) visit 

us in August-October when they escape 

winter in the southern hemisphere. 

P.Craig, NPS 

50

100

150

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Rainfall at airport (inches) 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

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3. Cyclones (afā) 

As our tropical summer progresses, the temperature of the ocean’s surface waters increases by about 30 F. 

Warmer ocean temperatures help provide the energy to start tropical cyclones, so the chance of a cyclone 

here is greatest between November and April. Cyclones have hit American Samoa at intervals of 1-13 

years during the past 30 years: 1981 (Esau), 1987 (Tusi), 1990 (Ofa), 1991 (Val), 2004 (Heta) and 2005 

(Olaf). Their severity varied -- Tusi was particularly damaging to Manu’a, the back-to-back cyclones Ofa 

and Val hit Tutuila hard, Heta’s overall impact was moderate, and Olaf slammed into Manu’a with 

Category-5 force. 

A world map of cyclone tracks helps put some perspective on American Samoa’s susceptibility to tropical 

cyclones. This map shows the tracks of all cyclones greater than 74 mph during the 10-year period 1994-

2003. It shows that cyclones are generated primarily in two bands that lie north and south of the earth’s 

equator at latitudes of about 10-300

. American Samoa lies near the edge of the cyclone band in the 

southern hemisphere where cyclone activity begins to fade. 

It is curious that there are no cyclones along the equator or around South America. This occurs because 

cyclones require two general conditions to develop: (1) warm ocean waters at least 800

 F (26.50 C) to fuel 

the cyclone, and (2) enough Coriolis force (caused by the earth’s rotation) to provide stability and spin to 

Tutuila Island after Cyclone Val in 1991. 

Also note loss of forest foods for wildlife. Damage to Onenoa in 2004 (Cyclone Heta). 

Tracks of tropical cyclones during the 10-year period 1994-2003. 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

10

a developing storm. Coriolis force is weakest along the equator, so storms there remain unstable and do 

not develop into cyclones. South America has few cyclones due to cool water temperatures (upwelling 

along the west coast) or other climatic conditions (on the east coast) that are not conducive for cyclone 

development. 

Patchy brown areas stripped of leaves and 

fruit by Cyclone Heta in 2004 (Tutuila Is.) 

Fitiuta after Cyclone Olaf in 2005. In some areas, every 

tree was uprooted, snapped or lost its crown. (Ta'u Is.) 

Cyclones are a regular but erratic feature of the environment in our part of the world, so it is likely that 

native species here are able to cope with cyclone impacts and recover, given enough time and assuming 

that their recovery is not jeopardized by human-related conditions such as habitat loss due to urbanization, 

competition by invasive alien species, or changing environmental conditions due to global warming. 

P.Craig, NPS 

Satellite photo of 

Cyclone Olaf 

(Category 5) moving 

southward through 

the Samoan islands 

(dark red spots) in 

February 2005. 

Samoan 

Islands 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

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4. This volcano we live on 

 The geology of the Samoan islands is surprisingly interesting. First, we are living on a volcano, 

which is resting at the moment. Second, our volcano is on the move -- it's traveling towards China. And, 

finally and most unfortunately, our volcano will eventually sink back into the dark ocean depths. 

 About 1.5 million years ago, our volcano spewed forth enough lava to rise up out of the ocean 

and become “Tutuila Island”. Actually, just the tip of the volcano is visible to us -- most of the mountain 

is underwater. While the tallest mountain peak on Tutuila is about one half mile high, the mountain 

extends another 2-3 miles below the sea surface. 

 It is not much of an exaggeration to call the Samoan islands 'active volcanoes'. These islands 

were formed by volcanism, and the volcanoes are still active, in a geologic timeframe of course, and due 

to some unusual circumstances as described below. The most recent volcanic eruptions were not that long 

ago. In Samoa, major eruptions occurred in 1905 when lava flows destroyed a village. In the Manu'a 

islands, subsurface volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occurred in 1866, causing dense clouds of smoke 

and pumice to erupt from the ocean surface for several months. 100 years ago is just a blink of the eye to 

a volcano, which measures time in the millions of years. We tend to forget how briefly people have lived 

upon these shores. Human habitation on Tutuila, even considering the whole 3000-year period that 

Samoans have dwelt here, represents a mere 0.2% of the time since the sun first shone on this new land. 

 To explain our volcano's slow-motion march towards China, we first need to review the nature of 

the earth's surface or crust. The earth's outer layer, the one we live on, is several miles thick, but that is a 

thin skin compared to the total size of the earth. This outer layer is made up of many separate sections 

that seemingly float on top of the earth's molten core and move about in very slow motion. Geologists 

call these outer sections “plates”. You may recall, for example, that the continents of Africa and South 

America were once joined together when the earth first formed, but the two continents slowly drifted 

apart to where they are today. The same process applies to the 

plates under the Pacific Ocean. The plate we're on is called the 

Pacific Plate and it is moving westward (towards China) at a 

leisurely speed of about 3 inches per year. At this rate, in one 

million years we will be 50 miles closer to China. 

 It is not accidental that the islands of American Samoa 

and western Samoa lie in a rather straight line. Directly 

underneath us is what geologists call a “hot spot” of thermal 

activity in the earth's core. It's a volcano just waiting to happen. 

When the pressure builds up at the hot spot, molten magma bursts 

up through the Pacific Plate and forms a volcanic island. Then the hot spot calms down for awhile, 

perhaps a million years or so. During this peaceful interval, the Pacific Plate keeps marching onward, so 

when the hot spot acts up again, it forms a new volcanic island rather than building upon the previous 

one. In other words, the hot spot stays in one place but the plate above it keeps moving. The islands 

generally lie in a straight line that is oriented in the direction the plate is moving. The new islands form 

on the eastern end of the chain, so the islands become progressively 

older as you move westward. For that reason, the islands in western 

Samoa are about 1 million years older than the islands in American 

Samoa. The newest volcanic eruption in our island chain is forming 

about 30 miles east of Ta'u Island, but it will probably be another few 

hundred years before this sub-surface volcano, named Vailulu'u, breaks 

the sea surface (in 2005 it was 1800 feet below the surface and growing). 

 But something else really exciting happens in our area. As Tutuila Island glides westward, a part 

of our plate collides with another plate to the west of us (the Australian Plate), and our plate actually rips 

in two at this point (see diagram on next page). One piece of our plate continues moving towards China, 

but the other piece slides down into the 6-mile deep Tongan Trench and under the Australian Plate, never 

to be seen again. The collision of these two colossal pieces of the earth's surface causes the seafloor to 

bend and rip, which in turn causes some earthquakes. This is shown on the map (next page) which 

pinpoints all earthquakes (magnitude 6.0 or greater) in the Pacific region in 2004 -- the Samoan islands 

and the Tongan Trench are geologically active areas. Recent surveys suggest how this might be 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

12

happening. Long cracks in the seafloor have been discovered between 

our islands and the Tongan Trench. The cracks are oriented in an eastwest direction and seem to be formed as the seafloor bends southward 

down into the top of the Tongan Trench. Perhaps these cracks make it 

easier for the hot magma beneath the crust to spew upward and emerge 

as young lava on top of our old islands. And all this is happening a 

mere 100 miles south of Tutuila Island. We live in a unique area. 

 Eventually most oceanic volcanoes disappear. As time passes, 

two things happen. The volcano erodes continuously as ocean waves 

attack its shorelines and rivers gouge into its terrain. Additionally, the 

weight of a newly formed volcano is so heavy that it causes the 

volcano to sink slowly back down into the sea. Rose Atoll and 

Swains Island are good examples of sunken volcanoes. In the 

distant past, Rose and Swains may have been magnificent 

mountainous islands with beautiful rainforests and coral reefs. 

But that's ancient history now, because those islands, over a 

period of several million years, eventually sank out of sight. 

All that remains are tiny amounts of coral that grew up from the 

peaks of the mountains as they slipped below the sea surface. 

 There is an additional factor to consider – a major 

change in sea level occurred during the last ice age over 10,000 

years ago. At that time the world's sea level was about 390 feet 

lower than it is today because vast quantities of water were locked up in glaciers and in the polar ice caps. 

We can see evidence of this locally. New benthic mapping by NOAA indicates that Tutuila was 

somewhat larger when the sea level was lower, and it was surrounded by a ring of barrier islands that 

were separated from Tutuila itself by lagoons (see map below). Taema Bank across from Pago Pago 

Harbor was one of these barrier islands. It must have been gorgeous. But later, as the glacial ice melted, 

the growth of these coral reefs was unable to keep pace with the rising water so the reefs "drowned". 

They are now a necklace of submerged seamounts around Tutuila. Not to worry. Tutuila Island should 

be around for a few more million years. 

P.Craig, NPS 

Ring of submerged seamounts (red spots away from shoreline) around Tutuila. 

These were probably barrier islands when sea levels were lower. 

Submerged 

seamounts 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

13

5. Biodiversity in our rainforests and coral reefs 

There's a certain mystique about the word 'biodiversity' that seems to be associated with images of steamy 

jungles or wondrous new medicines, but the word more specifically refers to the number of species or 

'species richness' of an area. One reason why tropical areas are so fascinating is that they contain the 

highest numbers of plant and animal species found anywhere on earth. 

American Samoa sits squarely in the tropics, so we should have a high biological diversity here, but we 

do and we don't. There is a sharp contrast between the number of plant and animal species that live on 

land here (few) versus those that live in our coastal waters (many). Most small islands in the South 

Pacific share this characteristic. 

To start at the beginning, when our islands emerged as fiery volcanoes from the depths of the sea, they 

were devoid of plants or animals. As time passed and the terrain became more hospitable, life for 

organisms became possible, but the plants and animals still had to cross vast ocean distances to get here 

from someplace else. 

A quick look at a map will show one reason why few land 

species got here. We are really quite isolated in the Pacific 

Ocean, far from potential sources of plants and animals. To 

reach our shores, organisms would either have to blow in on 

the wind, drift for hundreds or thousands of miles on some 

piece of floating debris, or be carried in by another organism 

like plant seeds in a bird's stomach. The species that were 

successful probably got here by 'island hopping' across the 

Pacific, spreading from island to island over the course of 

many thousands or millions of years. 

The difficulty in getting here is best illustrated by the sparse 

representation of native mammal species. Over the past 1.5 

million years that Tutuila Island has existed, only 3 mammal 

species (all bats) got here and established viable populations. 

Our native species list also includes about 478 flowering plants and ferns, 18 resident or migratory land 

and water birds, 20 resident seabirds, 3 skinks, 1 gecko, 2 sea turtles, and occasional other visitors (this 

list does not include any species presumably introduced by early Polynesians or all the recently 

introduced non-native species like rats, dogs, pigs, toads, myna birds, and many weeds). 

 

There's a second reason for our low diversity on land -- the small size of our islands. In general, the 

smaller the island, the fewer the species on it. For example, tiny Rose Atoll (0.4 sq mi) supports only 5 

native plant species, 21 birds (virtually all seabirds), 2 geckos, and 2 sea turtles. 

So, although American Samoa technically has 'tropical rainforests' due to our high level of rainfall (200-

300 inches per year in some mountainous areas), we lack the high species richness found in the jungle 

rainforests of Indonesia, Africa or South America that are filled with hooting monkeys, poison dart frogs, 

pythons, and flesh-eating piranhas. 

On the other hand, because of our isolation, some terrestrial species in Samoa have evolved over many 

thousands of years to such an extent that they have become distinctly different species found nowhere else 

but here. For example, 30% of our plant species and the Samoan starling (fuia) occur only in the Samoan 

archipelago (which includes western Samoa); and the Samoan fruit bat occurs only in the Samoan and 

Fijian islands. So, our rainforests may lack diversity, but they contain some species found nowhere else 

on earth. 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

14

Turning to our marine environment, we find the opposite situation. There is an incredibly diverse 

ecosystem just beneath the waves. Coral reefs are among the most species-rich ecosystems in the world. 

We have, for example, 961 nearshore fish species which is an amazingly high number compared to many 

other coastal areas. To get a sense of this species-rich environment, if you were to dive on our reefs once 

a week, you could in theory see a new fish species on every dive for 18 years. 

Although coral reefs are limited to shallow waters, usually around the fringes of islands, most coral reef 

species have eggs and larvae that can survive for weeks or months in the open ocean and get dispersed by 

ocean currents to new locations (see Chapter 11). As a result of this genetic exchange of marine 

organisms between islands, there are probably few marine species that are unique to the Samoan islands. 

Finally, superimposed over the South Pacific region is a large-scale pattern of species distributions. Most 

of our marine and land species can be traced back to the same or related species inhabiting mainland and 

insular southeast Asia. From that center of remarkably high diversity, rainforest and coral reef species 

radiated out, spreading eastward across the South Pacific islands. But like ripples in a pond, the farther 

away one gets from that 'center', the fewer the species (see map below). This same pattern applies to 

corals, fishes, sea turtles, seagrasses, mangroves, land birds, and plants. Very few species reached here 

from the opposite direction (South America) probably due to the much greater distance and fewer islands 

in that direction to facilitate 'island hopping'. 

P.Craig, NPS 

Contours represent the number of tropical fish species (reef, inshore and epipelagic species). 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

15

Ref. 

next 

page

1

1,2

134567

1,8

19

6, 10

11

Introduced & 

invasive* species

rats*, feral pigs*, dogs, 

cats, house mouse

mynas*, Bulbul*, Rock dove, 

Red junglefowl

cane toad*, 4 geckos, 

5 skinks, 2 snakes

Mexican molly, 

mosquitofish, tilapia

probably many

African snail*, rosy wolf 

snail*, 3 slugs, 22 others

over 250 alien species, 

many invasive

none knownnone knownnone known

2 giant clams (Tridacna 

derasa, T. gigas) 

& 30 misc. species

4 algae species

Locally 

extinct3

Sheathtailed bat?

Mao , 

Megapod

Diastole 

matafaoi

giant clam 

(Hippopus 

hippopus)8

Incidental 

species

See bird 

checklist

Leatherback turtle, 

Olive ridley turtle, 

Banded sea snake

whale shark

Rare, threatened or 

endangered species2

Sheath-tailed bat (C1)

Spotless crake (C1), 

Friendly ground dove (C1), 

Many-colored fruit dove (C1) 

Pacific boa snake (R)

coconut crabs rare 

in urban areas 

8 land snails (C1, SC), 

several others rare

109 species (R)

 Humpback, Sperm whales (E) 

Hawksbill turtle (E), 

Green sea turtle (T) 

large species not common

giant clams are rare 

in some areas

Archipelago 

endemics 

(in AS)1 

Samoan 

fruit bat4

Samoan 

starling

Stiphodon 

hydoreibatus

16 land snails

30%

see note in 

Reference 9

Native species

3 bats

18 land/water birds, 

7 regular migrants, 

20 seabirds

1 gecko, 3 skinks

8-12 fishes5

9 stream shrimps, several land crabs

2,523+ insects6

47 land snails, 

17 freshwater snails

343 flowering plants, 135 ferns

11 whales,7 dolphins7

Hawksbill & green sea turtles

961 coral reef species, 

101 deep or pelagic species

250+ corals, 352 snails

 239+ algae, 2 seagrasses, 2 mangroves

Taxonomic 

Group

 Mammals Birds Land reptiles, etc. Fish: freshwater Crustaceans Insects Snails Plants Marine mammals Marine reptiles Fish/sharks Invertebrates Marine plants

P.Craig, NPS

Footnotes: 1Additional endemic species occur in (western) Samoa. 2Abbreviations: E (endangered), T (threatened), C1 (candidate listing), SC (species of concern), R (rare). 3Recent extinctions. 4Distribution includes Fiji. 5Excludes brackish water species near stream mouths. 6Includes (western) Samoa. 7Includes species probably common in region but have not yet been documented in 

Am. Samoa. 8Re-introduced in 1997. *Invasive non-native species that harm native ecosystems. Note: blank spaces mean no known species or no data available. 

6. Status of species in American Samoa 

 TERRESTRIAL FAUNA AND FLORA MARINE FAUNA AND FLORA
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

16

Selected references for “Status of species” table (previous page)

1. General: (1) See checklists in this Guide. (2) Amerson et al. 1982. Wildlife and wildlife habitat of A. Samoa. 

Vol. 1. Environment and ecology. US Fish & Wildlife Service (Wash. DC). 119p. Reptiles: George Zug (pers. 

com., 2008) Sheath-tailed bat: Grant et. al. 1994. Decline of sheath-tailed bats on A. Samoa. Micronesica 

27:133-137. Misc. introduced organisms: P. Tauili’ili & A. Vargo. 1993. History of biological controls in A. 

Samoa. Micronesica Suppl. 4:57-60. 

2. Megapode: D. Steadman. 1993. Bird bones from the To’aga site: prehistoric loss of seabirds and megapodes. 

Chapt. 14. In: P. Kirch and T. Hunt (eds.). The To’aga site [Ofu, Manu'a]: three millennia of Polynesian 

occupation in the Manu’a islands, A. Samoa. Contrib. Univ. California (Berkeley), No. 51. 248p. 

 

3. Stream fish: (1) Stream Water Quality Group. 2009. Stream fauna of A. Samoa. 72p. A. Samoa Comm. College. 

(2) US Army Corps of Engineers. 1981. A. Samoa stream inventory, island of Tutuila. Rept. by USACE for A. 

Samoa Water Resources Study. 121p. (3) I. Burger & J. Maciolek. 1981. Map inventory of non-marine aquatic 

resources of A. Samoa. US Fish & Wildl. Serv. (Seattle). 182p. (4) FishBase 2004 <www.fishbase.org>. 

Introduced fish: L. Eldredge. 1994. Perspectives in aquatic exotic species management in the Pacific islands. 

Vol. 1. Introductions of commercially significant aquatic organisms to the Pacific islands. South Pacific Comm., 

Inshore Fisheries Project Tech. Document No. 7 and SPREP Reports and Studies Series No. 78. 127p. 

4. Freshwater shrimp: (1) Stream fauna of A.Samoa (cited above in #3). (2) R. Cook. 2004. Macrofauna of Laufuti 

Stream, Ta’u [Manu'a], A. Samoa, and the role of physiography in its zonation. Pac. Sci. 58:7-21. 

5. Insects and related arthropods: K. Kami & S. Miller. 1998. Samoan insects and related 

arthropods: checklist and bibliography. Bishop Museum (Hawaii), Tech. Rept. 13. 121p. 

6. Land snails: (1) R. Cowie. 2001. Decline and homogenization of Pacific faunas: the land 

snails of A. Samoa. Biol. Cons. 99:207-222. (2) R. Cowie. 1998. Catalog of the non-marine 

snails and slugs of the Samoan islands. Bishop Mus. Bull. Zool. 3, Bishop Museum Press, 

Honolulu, 122p. Freshwater snails: (1) A. Haynes. 1990. The number of freshwater 

gastropods on Pacific islands and the theory of island biogeography. Malacologia 31:237-248. (2) Stream fauna 

of A.Samoa (cited above in #3). Marine snails: (1) P. Brown. 2008. Marine gastropods of American Samoa. 

Rept. to NPS. 

7. Plants: A. Whistler. 2003. Plants of concern in AS. US Fish Wild. Serv. (Hawaii). 56p. Introduced plant species: 

J. Space. & T. Flynn. 2000. Observations on invasive plant species in A. Samoa. USDA Forest Serv. (Hawaii). 

8. Marine mammals: (1) Reeves et al. 1999. Marine mammals in the area served by the South Pacific Regional 

Environment Programme (SPREP). SPREP (Samoa). 48p. (2) J. Robbins & D. Mattila. 2006. Summary of 

humpback whale research in A. Samoa, 2003-05. J. Cetacean Res. Manage (in review). (3) Johnston et al. 2008. 

Odontocete cetaceans in A.Samoa. J.Cetacan Res. Manage. 10:59-66.

9. Marine fish: (1) P. Brown. 2009. Reef fish of A. Samoa. Rept. to NPS. (2) R. Wass. 1984. An annotated 

checklist of the fishes of Samoa. NOAA Tech. Rept. SSRF-781. 43p. Wass notes that 40 mostly undescribed fish 

species are known only from the Samoan Archipelago but that the majority of these will likely be found 

elsewhere in the region as more extensive surveys are made. 

10. Corals: (1) D. Fenner, DMWR (pers. com., 2008). (2) C. Birkeland. 2004. Draft species list for A. Samoa. (3) 

D. Fisk. & C. Birkeland. 2002. Status of coral communities on the volcanic islands of A. Samoa. Rept. to Dept. 

Marine & Wild. Res. (DMWR). 135p. (4) L. Whaylon & D. Fenner. 2006. Rept. of 2005 AS coral reef program, 

expanded edition, DMWR. Introduced marine invertebrates: (1) L. Eldredge. 1994 (cited above in #3). (2) Cole 

et al. 2003. A survey of introduced marine species in Pago Pago Harbor, Fagatele Bay, and the Natl. Park of AS. 

Bishop Museum (Hawaii). 

11. Algae: (1) P. Skelton. 2003. Seaweeds of A. Samoa. Report to DMWR by Int’l. Ocean Inst. & Oceania Research 

and Development Assoc. (Australia). 103p. (2) P. Skelton. & R. South. 2004. New records and notes on marine 

benthic algae of A. Samoa – Chlorophyta & Phaeophyta. Cryptogamie Algol. 25:291-312. 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

17

7. An environmental snapshot of American Samoa in 2009

How healthy is our environment in American Samoa? We can get a sense of this by looking at the status 

of some parts that make up our island environment in 2009. In the boxes below, an upward arrow 

indicates an environmental improvement. A downward arrow indicates a resource problem. These 

ratings will, of course, change as the years go by.

THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT 

Coral reefs. The status of coral reefs in American Samoa is mixed. One the positive side, the 

corals are currently in generally good condition, having recovered from massive cyclone damage 

in 1991. Some recent damage occurred in Manu’a during cyclones in 2004 and 2005, but given the 

observed resilience of corals in the territory and the generally low level of human stressors here, regrowth 

is expected. There have also been improvements to local reefs: the removal of a shipwreck at Rose Atoll, 

a ban on the export of “live rock” (coral rubble), a ban on scuba-assisted fishing (at night) due to 

overfishing, and the establishment of a sanctuary for sea turtles and marine mammals in all territorial 

waters (0-3 miles offshore). At the same time however, local reefs show signs of fishing pressure (there 

are few large fish or sharks). A major looming issue is global warming which warms nearshore waters 

causing the corals to bleach and/or die. Some warm-water bleaching now occurs annually and significant 

bleaching events occurred in 1994, 2002 and 2003. Recent episodes of coral disease are also of concern. 

Additionally, some coastal pollution continues – high counts of bacteria (mostly from streamside 

piggeries) often make swimming near streams unsafe, and the unsightly dirt and rubbish flowing from the 

streams after heavy rainstorms is harmful to corals. 

Pago Pago Harbor. For decades, our harbor has been an environmental write-off due to its 

degraded condition (frequent fuel spills, toxic fish, contaminated substrates, extensive 

sedimentation, eutrophication, noise, air pollution). In recent years things have gotten better. In 1991 the 

canneries were required to stop dumping their wastes into the inner harbor. Now their fish wastes are 

piped to the outer harbor and discharged in deep water (176 ft depth) where there is better circulation, and 

the cannery's high strength wastes are hauled daily to a dumping zone 5 miles offshore. This has made a 

noticeable improvement in water quality and we are now seeing some corals growing there again. 

Another improvement is that the 9 shipwrecks in the harbor were finally removed in 2000 after rusting on 

the reefs for 9 years. Bear in mind that harbor recovery has a long way to go. Harbor sediments and some 

fish and invertebrates are still contaminated with heavy metals, and an old sunken ship still contains a 

cargo of fuel. Excessive quantities of dirt and plastics flood into the harbor after heavy rainstorms. 

Swimming in the inner harbor is not recommended. 

Reef fish. Our reefs support large numbers of small to moderate-size fish (surgeonfish, 

parrotfish, damselfish, butterflyfish), but large fish and sharks are not often seen. To help reduce 

fishing pressure, the use of scuba-assisted fishing at night was banned in 2001. Consideration now needs 

to be given to developing effective Marine Protected Areas to provide long-term protection to fish stocks. 

Sea turtles. Green and hawksbill turtles are the main species here, but their populations are in 

serious decline, both locally and throughout the South Pacific due to harvest, habitat loss of nesting 

beaches and incidental catches in fishing gear. Surprisingly, "our" green sea turtles are also 

vulnerable to harvest in Fiji. Tagging data show that most green sea turtles nesting at Rose Atoll migrate 

to feeding grounds in Fiji 800 miles away. Sea turtles are now officially listed as "threatened or 

endangered species", and the hawksbill is “rapidly approaching extinction” in the South Pacific, 

according to a scientific review. 

Whales. Humpback whales migrate here to mate and give birth to their young, mostly in 

September and October. Local populations are still few in number, probably because 95% of 

their stock was killed by whalers in the 1800's and 1900's. Although commercial whaling was banned in 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

18

1966, the recovery of southern-hemisphere populations has been slow, probably due to continued whaling 

in the Antarctic by Soviet factory ships as late as 1972. 

THE TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT 

Rainforests. 30% of our plants are endemic to the Samoan Archipelago. The island’s steepness 

currently protects much of the rainforest from ever-expanding human activities, but the lowland 

rainforests that formerly covered the Tafuna plains have been mostly replaced by houses, roads and 

plantations. Tutuila’s rainforests have recovered from severe cyclone damage in 1991, but a growing 

concern now is that invasive, non-native plant species are beginning to out-compete native species in 

some areas. More recently, rainforests in Manu’a took a direct hit by Cyclone Olaf in 2005. Although 

there was massive damage to the landscape, recovery is underway. 

Wildlife. In general, wildlife populations on Tutuila have recovered from previous cyclone 

damage in 1990 and 1991 when birds and fruit bats (flying foxes) were decimated. Their recovery 

was greatly aided by DMWR’s ban on hunting that's been in effect since those cyclones. But some 

terrestrial species are not doing very well. The sheath-tailed bat was wiped out by the 1991 cyclone and 

has not been seen in recent years. Other rare birds include the many-colored fruit dove, friendly ground 

dove and spotless crake. The Pacific boa snake is also rare and now found only on Ta’u Island. Native 

land snails are disappearing due to an introduced species, the pink predatory snail. 

Pest and weed species. Invasive pest and weed species are doing quite well. These are newly 

introduced species that out-compete the native species because the pests and weeds have no natural 

enemies on our islands. Some examples are the tamaligi (Falcataria moluccana) trees that overtop the 

native forests, the noisy myna birds that populate our urbanized areas, the weedy vines that drape over the 

landscape, the toads that are everywhere, tropical fire ants, feral pigs, African snails, rats, etc. 

Wetland loss. Wetlands are special habitats that occur in only a few places around the Territory. 

They support mangroves, fish, shellfish and other species not found elsewhere on the island, and 

wetlands are important in moderating stormwater runoff and sedimentation that would otherwise flow 

onto our coral reefs. The island’s wetland areas continue to dwindle in size as people fill them in for 

other uses. The former mangrove areas in Pago Pago Harbor are long gone, and the other main wetlands 

at Pala Lagoon and Leone are threatened by human activities. 

Population growth. The growth rate of people in American 

Samoa is a significant issue that affects all aspects of life on 

Tutuila Island. The current population of 69,000 (in 2009) is 

growing rapidly at an annual rate of about 1.5%, which equates to 

an increase of 1,000 people, 400 cars, and 300 houses every year. 

This growth rate is simply not sustainable on our small island. 

Environmental issues include: traffic congestion, loss of wetlands, solid and hazardous waste disposal, 

soil erosion and coastal sedimentation, fishing pressure, and potential contamination of drinking water. 

SUMMARY: Island environments in this part of the world are subjected to a continuing cycle of damage 

and recovery from cyclones (hurricanes). These storms occur irregularly here, hitting at intervals of 1-13 

years over the past 30 years. The impact of each one is generally patchy, with small refugia remaining 

here and there, and not all islands in the archipelago are hit at any one time. Because cyclones are a 

predictable feature of the local environment, it is likely that most native species living here can cope with 

this severe disturbance and recover, given enough time, and assuming that their recovery is not 

jeopardized by human activities. A full recovery cycle probably takes at least 10-20 years. But we also 

have other serious environmental issues to deal with over the next decade, such as population growth, 

climate change, coral reef bleaching, invasive pest and weed species, fishing pressure, and land-based 

sedimentation and nutrients that flow onto our coral reefs. 

P. Craig, NPS 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

19

8. The first Samoans: archaeology of Tutuila and Manu’a 

Based on archaeological evidence, the first people in Samoa arrived about 3000 years ago. Archaeology 

is the study of the human past using evidence left by people from those days. This information can take 

many different forms, and archaeologists use many different tools and techniques to investigate them. In 

some ways archaeologists are like detectives, trying to piece together clues over time to figure out what 

happened in the past. This information can be important to Samoans today because this is one method for 

understanding the long-term history of Samoan culture. 

The earliest evidence of people living in Samoa came from 

Mulifanua Village on Upolu Island where many pieces of broken 

clay pots were discovered in the 1960's. These pieces, dated back 

to 2700-2900 years ago, were especially important because they 

bore the distinctive artwork designs that belonged to an early 

Pacific culture called "Lapita". About 2700-3000 years ago, the 

Lapita people spread from the Bismarck Archipelago in Papua New 

Guinea to many Pacific islands. These were the first humans to find 

and settle places like Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Fiji, Futuna, Uvea, 

and Tonga. In the Samoan archipelago, the Mulifanua site is the 

only Lapita site that has been found anywhere, in spite of three decades of searching. 

For about the next 1000 years, the ancient people of Tutuila and Manu’a made undecorated clay pottery 

called Samoan Plain Ware. These were mostly open bowls with round bottoms, similar in size to eating 

and mixing bowls that people use in their kitchens today. Villages or areas with archaeological sites 

where Samoan Plain Ware has been found include: Afono, Aganoa, Alega, Aoa, Asufou, Aunu’u, Auto, 

Faleniu, Fatumafuti, Kokoland, Leone, Malaeimi, Malaeloa, Mesepa, Pavaia’i, Puna (Pava’ia’i/Faleniu), 

Tafuna, Ta’u Village, Toaga (Ofu), Utumea (east), Vaipito (Pago Pago), and Vaoto (Ofu). About 1500 

years ago, people in Samoa stopped making pottery for unknown reasons. 

While pieces of broken pottery scattered over an area give archaeologists a great way to find 

archaeological sites, archaeologist can also look for large features constructed from rock by humans. 

These include house foundations (fale), terraces 

(lau mafola), walls (pa), grinding stones (foaga), 

and platforms (tia) that are visible on the ground 

surface (see example on next page). 

However, for the next 800 years, archaeological 

sites are hard to find in the period after pottery 

use stopped and before big surface constructions 

started. For this reason, these 800 years have 

been called the Samoan “Dark Ages”. We know 

relatively little about this period which is ironic 

because this period is thought to be very 

important to the development of the Samoan 

culture and matai system that was in place when 

Europeans arrived in Samoa. 

The most complete archaeological site from the 

Dark Ages is an ancient village buried under the 

ground at Fatumafuti on Tutuila. People started to use the site about 1500 years ago when sea-levels in 

the Pacific fell to their current level. Before this, Fatumafuti and similar coastal areas would have been 

open reef and water right to the edge of the mountains. It was only after sea-levels fell that sand and coral 

could begin to build up and form the coastal shelf we see today. After a beach developed at Fatumafuti, 

Archaeologists excavate a house 

foundation on Ofu Island. 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

20

people presumably began using the area and eventually they built houses there. We know from the 

remains of their food (shells and bones) that they ate a lot of fish and mollusks from the reef like alili 

(turban snails), faisua (giant clams), and aliao (top snails). The burial sites at Fatumafuti tell us that 

changes must have occurred in people’s belief system, because the early burials are all oriented parallel to 

the beach, but the later burials are perpendicular to the beach. 

About 700 years ago, the people of Fatumafuti were 

involved in manufacturing stone tools, primarily the adze 

which was used for carving wood. An adze consists of a 

stone blade lashed to a wooden handle by coconut twine. 

The grinding stones used to sharpen the adze blade can be 

recognized by the bowl-shaped depressions on their surface (see photo below). Tutuila was a major 

export center for stone tools in the Pacific at this time. Stone tools from Tutuila have been found on 

islands as far away as the Solomon Islands, Pohnpei, and Cook Islands. 

One of the most prominent features of the 

recent archaeological landscape are tia seu 

lupe (or star mounds). These appear to have 

been built mostly in the last 500 years. They 

are raised platforms from 2-15 feet high and 

can have many projections (star-shaped as in 

the illustration) or have few or no 

projections. In the days before Christianity 

came to Samoa, these platforms were used 

for snaring pigeons as part of chiefly ritual 

sport. The Tafuna Plain used to contain 

many of these, but as this area became 

urbanized, most of these ancient 

constructions have been bulldozed or 

dismantled. 

Life was very different in the past on Tutuila and Manu’a. Everything people used had to come from the 

island. People had creative and different ways of doing things like making pots from the clay or making 

stone tools and trading them with people from different islands. Although archaeologists have begun to 

understand some aspects of the ancient history of Tutuila and Manu'a, much remains to be discovered. 

Pacific islands where stone tools 

from Tutuila have been found. 

Grinding stone featuring shallow 

bowls used to sharpen adzes. 

David J. Addison, Samoan Studies Institute, ASCC 

Epifania Suafo’a-Taua’i, NPS 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

21

9. The southern night sky

The southern night sky is simply stunning. 

We get a brighter, richer view of the Milky 

Way in the southern hemisphere due to our 

location on the globe. Earth is part of the 

Milky Way Galaxy. It is our home. 

Earth is one of 8 plants that orbit our star, 

the sun. The sun, in turn, is one of at least 

100 billion other stars that make up the 

Milky Way Galaxy. The galaxy itself is a 

pizza-shaped disk that contains a high 

concentration of stars, planets, asteroids, 

interstellar dust and gas bound together by 

gravity. It looks like a flat pinwheel with 

radiating arms as illustrated below. This 

figure also shows where our sun is located. 

Because we are part of the Milky Way itself, 

when we look up into the night sky, we are 

looking at it on-edge, thus it appears as a 

whitish band across the sky. It's as if we held 

a round hand mirror at arms length and then turned the mirror 

to the right or left, we would then see only its straight edge. 

Some groups of stars called constellations have been given fanciful 

names like the Big Dipper or Orion the Hunter. Several of these 

constellations provide important navigational guides to travelers, 

including the early Polynesians who crossed vast expanses of open 

ocean. But one key reference point is missing in the southern sky -- 

there is no South Pole Star to act as a compass point like there is a 

North Pole Star (Polaris) in the northern hemisphere, so an important 

southern constellation is the Southern Cross (sumu). Its long axis 

always points toward the south celestial pole even as the cross itself 

changes position hourly through the night as the earth rotates and the 

stars appear to pivot around the South Celestial Pole. The pole is found by extending the length of the 

long axis of the cross by 4 lengths, but not all the way to the ground because the South Celestial Pole lies 

above the horizon. At our latitude, the distance above the horizon is equal to about a one-foot ruler held 

upright at arm's length. To help locate the Southern Cross (during the hours that it is visible), two visual 

aids are that it lies within the Milky Way band and it sits adjacent to a rather large dark spot in the Milky 

Way. The Southern Cross is prominently featured on the national flag of Samoa.

To see the Milky Way, choose a clear, moonless night away from the glow of town lights. The size of our 

galaxy is almost beyond comprehension. The Milky Way is 2,000 light years thick and 100,000 lightyears in diameter. A light-year is the distance light will travel in one year at a speed of 186,000 miles per 

second, so one light year equals 6 trillion miles. P.Craig, NPS
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

22

10. Our deep blue ocean (vasa)

 American Samoa is larger than you might guess. The whole Territory covers 117,500 square 

miles, which is about the size of New Zealand or the state of Oregon. The Territory is big because we 

claim jurisdiction of the ocean that surrounds American Samoa, from the shoreline out to 200 miles 

offshore. That is standard procedure around the world because each country with a marine coast wants to 

protect its coastline and marine resources from others. 

Most of the Territory is open ocean, of course 

-- only a minuscule 0.1% of the area consists 

of dry land (all 7 islands total only 76.1 

square miles). The other 99.9% marine 

portion consists of two main habitats -- the 

shallow coastal waters adjacent to the islands 

(a'au, aloalo) and the deep waters offshore 

(vasa). Shallow coastal habitats, with their 

coral reefs and colorful fish, are quite limited 

in total area because our islands slope steeply down into deeper water and depths of 2000 feet are reached 

within 0.5-2 miles from shore. So, most of our coral reefs are restricted to a narrow ring around each 

island. There is also some coral on the tops of several offshore seamounts in the Territory. 

 

The rest of our marine environment consists of deep blue ocean with a fairly flat seafloor 2-3 miles below 

the sea surface (see map on page 4). The reason for the blue color of the ocean is an interesting one and it 

is a key factor to understanding our ocean ecosystem. Water by itself is highly transparent with a bluish 

tinge. What adds other colors to the ocean are, in large part, small marine plant-like cells called 

phytoplankton. The more phytoplankton in the water, the greener the water becomes. Phytoplankton 

require two main ingredients to grow well: sunlight and nutrients (fertilizers). If they have both, they 

grow in abundance. This, in turn, supports a productive food web: phytoplankton provide food for the 

small shrimp-like animals (zooplankton), and the zooplankton provide food for the fish to eat. 

 

Tropical oceans are not green because 

conditions are generally not good for 

phytoplankton growth. Although 

phytoplankton have all the sunlight 

they could ever want in the surface 

layer, nutrient levels in the surface 

layer are too low to support much 

plant growth. This occurs because the 

deep tropical ocean is typically 

stratified into two layers with very 

different temperatures. The sun heats 

up the surface layer, which is about 

300 feet deep, to a pleasant 840

 F, but 

the deeper layer remains a chilly 420

F. Because warm water is lighter than cold water, the warm ocean water generally stays on top, the cold 

water stays on the bottom. The two layers do not mix. 

 

That's the rub. The bottom layer is where the nutrients are, but because of the 2-layer stratification, the 

nutrients can't get up to the surface layer where they are needed to combine with sunlight for plant 

growth. So, conditions for phytoplankton are not very good in the tropical ocean. The surface layer has 

lots of light but few nutrients, while the bottom layer has lots of nutrients but no light. It's pitch black 

down there. This arrangement doesn't support a very productive foodweb, so there are generally fewer 

fish in tropical oceans than in non-tropical oceans. 

Phytoplankton abundance in the oceans: high (green areas) and 

low (blue areas). 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

23

Crown jellyfish

How is it that non-tropical oceans are much more productive? The answer is, again, temperature. Away 

from the tropics, seasonal changes in water temperature cause the water to mix. Winter temperatures cool 

the upper layer causing it to sink and mix with the bottom layer, and when this occurs, some deep 

nutrients are brought up to the surface. The nutrients in shallow sunlit waters stimulate phytoplankton 

growth, thus fueling a more productive foodweb.

In the tropics, the 2-layer stratification of the ocean persists year-round because 

the hot sun keeps the surface layer warm. The tropical ocean has been called a 

‘biological desert’ for this reason. That's an exaggeration, of course, because all 

the tuna out there are finding something to eat. And, many other species live 

out there as well: whales, dolphins, sea turtles, seabirds, and numerous species 

of fish and invertebrates such as jellyfish and shrimp-like crustaceans. 

 

Three ocean resources of potential interest are fish, minerals, and the 

water itself. Several kinds of food and sport fish are present: tuna, 

masimasi, marlin, wahoo, sharks, and flying fish. Surveys indicate, 

however, that the abundance of oceanic fishes within our 200-mile zone is 

probably not high enough to warrant significant commercial development 

of offshore fisheries. That's the main reason why the big tuna boats that 

deliver to our canneries travel far beyond our 200-mile zone to other 

locations where the tuna are more abundant (the canneries are located 

here only to gain duty-free access to US markets). 

 

Another resource mentioned from time to time are mineral deposits, such 

as manganese nodules, that lie on the seafloor. However, these nodules, 

even if present in our waters, are too deep for economic extraction by 

current technologies. Perhaps a more valuable resource in the future 

involves the temperature of the ocean's cold bottom layer. Scientists 

are working on a technology that extracts energy (to produce electricity) 

through a heat-exchange mechanism that is made possible by the large temperature difference between 

the tropical ocean's warm surface and cold bottom layers. A demonstration facility for this technology 

has been operating in Hawaii since the 1970's, but it has not been an economical venture so far. The two 

requirements for this technology -- a large temperature differential in the ocean, and easy access to this 

temperature difference by land-based facilities -- are met in American Samoa. Will our future electricity 

needs be powered by our own blue ocean? 

P.Craig, NPS 

Sea surface temperature (C) showing warm surface waters (red, orange) in the tropics and cooler surface 

waters (green, blue) away from the equator. 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

24

11. Ocean currents in the South Pacific 

 The major pattern of ocean currents in our region is the 

counter-clockwise flow of the South Pacific Gyre. But there is 

considerable variation to this pattern at finer scales of 

resolution. The complexity of surface currents near American 

Samoa is demonstrated by the tracks of 25 drifter buoys 

released by NOAA ships at different times and places within

the territory. Each buoy floated at the sea surface but it was 

tethered to a "sea anchor" so the buoy moved with the surface 

layer of seawater (less than 50-feet deep) rather than where the 

wind was blowing. Most buoy tracks shown below varied from 

1-3 years drifting at sea.

 The high variability of the tracks reveals a strong connectivity among the islands in our region. 

For example, over a multi-year 

period, a piece of driftwood 

from American Samoa could 

eventually run aground almost 

anywhere. This helps to 

explain why our coral reefs 

have similar species to those 

found across thousands of 

miles of the South Pacific 

Ocean. That's because the 

pelagic eggs and larvae of 

many corals and fish can be 

transported among the islands 

by ocean currents. Unique 

species (endemics) would 

generally not develop at any 

one island due to the 

occasional input of marine 

organisms from other islands. 

 However, most coral and reef fish larvae do not live long enough to be spread across the South 

Pacific as easily as suggested by the drifter tracks above. On average, fish larvae live only about 45 days 

before needing to settle down on a new coral reef, so the same drifter tracks are shown below for only 

their first 45-day period after deployment. In this case, most drifters traveled only about 350 miles, 

basically remaining within our isolated archipelago. This indicates that the main supply of coral and reef 

fish larvae needed to replenish 

our reefs originates primarily 

within our own archipelago. In 

some years, American Samoa 

probably receives fish and 

coral larvae from western 

Samoa, and vice versa in other 

years. From this perspective, it 

makes sense to coordinate our 

approach to marine issues with 

neighboring western Samoa. 

P.Craig, NPS, 

R. Brainard & Ellen Smith, NOAA 

 Coral Reef Ecosystem Division 

All tracks 

started 

here. 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

25

12. What is coral?

The islands of American Samoa are blessed 

with an abundance of coral (over 250 

species), so this article presents an 

introduction to these unusual organisms. 

Corals are animals like ourselves, although 

that may not be readily apparent because 

many look like rocks, especially those 

washed up on the beach. In a sense, corals 

are indeed partly rock, because only the outer 

thin layer of the coral is inhabited by the 

coral animal itself. In that way, corals are 

like large trees – the inner part is hard and 

provides structural support, the outer part is 

the living, growing organism. And, like 

trees, most coral animals are permanently 

attached to one spot on the reef. 

 

The coral rubble that Samoans traditionally 

spread outside their houses, and the coral 

rocks along our beaches, are old, dead pieces 

that broke off the reef during a storm, got tumbled around and tossed up on the beach. 

Living corals grow primarily on the outer reef flat and in deeper water. Although they take varied shapes, 

the coral animals inhabiting their surfaces are similar. They look somewhat like miniature sea anemones 

(matamalu, ulumane) or upside-down jellyfish (alualu) with short tentacles that give the coral a slightly 

fuzzy appearance when the tentacles are extended. Each single coral animal is called a polyp, but the 

coral branch or block we see on the reef is actually not a single animal but a colony of hundreds or 

thousands of tiny polyps living side by side, giving the appearance of being a single “coral”. The coral's 

short tentacles can be pulled back into the hard part of the coral when the animal is disturbed or when the 

coral is exposed at low tide, so even a live coral can look like a rock at such times. 

In the coral shown at left, a single polyp lives in each hole, but all the polyps have withdrawn 

into their skeleton (the polyps of many coral species emerge only at night). In the coral at right, 

many fuzzy-looking polyps have emerged to feed. 

Seven kinds of coral growth forms. 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

26

More examples of coral polyps: 

Above: two corals of the same species (Turbinaria 

peltata), one with their polyps retracted (top) and 

one with the polyps extended (top right).

 

Blue coral (Heliopora coerulea) with numerous fuzzy 

white polyps except in the yellow areas where the 

polyps are still retracted within the coral skeleton. 

This is a soft coral (Sarcophyton sp.) with the 

polyps extended in the front half and retracted 

in the back half . 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

27

A coral polyp with tentacles extended. Diagram of a coral polyp. 

 

It seems inconceivable that these tiny coral polyps can build the hard coral ‘rocks’ that we see on the reef. 

They do this by secreting layers of a hard substance (calcium carbonate) beneath their living cells. 

It’s as if each tiny polyp built a rock-solid house for itself but then, as it grows bigger, it decides to closeoff the bottom rooms in its house. Then it grows some more and closes-off another layer of bottom 

rooms, and so on. In this way, the coral polyp always lives in the outer, top layer which has been built 

upon layers and layers of rooms below. Each polyp also cements its house to those of its adjacent 

neighbors which strengthens the whole structure, 

resembling a solidly built high-rise apartment 

complex. 

Adding on these new rooms is a slow process. 

Growth varies from about 0.5-3 inches per year 

depending on the species. The photo on the right 

shows this nicely (it was part of a science project). 

When this particular coral was living on the reef, it 

was stained with a harmless red color that was 

absorbed by the outside layer of living tissue. 

Then, as it grew larger, the living tissue added the 

red stain to the new skeleton it was making, and in 

doing so, it mark the size of the coral at the time it 

was stained. After the stain was used up, the newly laid skeleton was again white. After a one-year 

period, the coral was sawed in half and we can clearly see the pink band inside the coral. The distance 

from the pink band to the new outer edge of the coral is the amount that this coral grew in one year (about 

0.3 inches in this case, as measured on the actual sample).

Over very long time periods, these corals grow into massively strong reef structures that can bear the 

brunt of powerful waves that crash upon them day after day. The very largest corals on our reefs may be 

hundreds of years old. Corals are one of the few organisms on earth that continually build on top of their 

old ‘houses’, forming such large solid structures. This is not like a bird that might build its nest on top of 

another nest, because both of these nests decay and disappear in a short time. In fact, most organisms on 

earth leave little trace after they die as their bones or shells disintegrate (dust to dust). Not corals. They 

build structures much larger and longer-lasting than the Egyptian pyramids. What other organism can do 

this (except modern man with his steel and cement)? 

Consider Swains Island or Rose Atoll. Both are the remnants of old volcanoes that, after millions of 

years, finally sank back down beneath the ocean’s surface and disappeared altogether as volcanic islands 

usually do (see Chapter 4). But as they slowly sank, the coral continued to grow on top of the submerged 

mountain tops, layer by layer, keeping pace with the sinking rate of the mountain. The thickness of the 

coral there now is probably hundreds or thousands of feet thick on top of the old mountain peak and it's 

all that’s left poking above the ocean surface. Were it not for this thick coral formation on top of these 

old mountains, Swains Island and Rose Atoll would not exist today. 

P.Craig, NPS 

Pink 

mark 

made 

1 year 

earlier. 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

28

13. Coral reef community 

Coral reefs are complex structures built by coral organisms and algae that occur in shallow tropical 

waters. The reefs support thousands of species of fish, algae, octopus, shrimps, clams, starfish, and many 

other invertebrates. This article focuses primarily on the corals themselves. Their diversity is highest 

around the Philippines and Indonesia, and decreases with distance from that area, as shown in the map on 

page 14. 

American Samoa has unusual coral reefs in some ways. First, 

many of the reefs are dominated by a marine plant that does 

not even look like it is alive: coralline algae. This is a plant 

that usually grows as a smooth pink coating (it looks like pink 

paint) that slowly spreads a thin layer across reef surfaces. It 

can grow over pieces of dead coral rubble and eventually 

cement them together and stabilize a field of loose rubble that 

was rolling around with the waves. Young corals (larvae) 

that attach to rolling coral rubble get knocked off or 

smothered, so it is hard for coral to get established on loose 

rubble. Some coralline algae also release a chemical that 

attracts coral larvae to settle on it. Coral larvae are tiny ovals, 

about half the size of a grain of rice, that swim around and then settle down and grow into corals. So the 

pink coralline algae help corals to get re-established after hurricane damage to the reefs. American 

Samoa has an unusually large amount of coralline algae for unknown reasons. 

A second unusual thing about our reefs is the abundance of encrusting corals. These are corals that are 

fairly flat and also cover the bottom like a thick layer of paint. Corals compete for space and light (so 

their zooxanthellae can use the sunlight to produce food), and it seems like encrusting corals have a 

strategy of trying to claim as much space as possible before anyone else does. Encrusting corals can be 

found on coral reefs anywhere, but they are more common here than on most reefs. 

Encrusting corals 

(Montipora sp.) 

Finger coral 

(Porites cylindrica) 

Staghorn coral 

(Acropora muricata) 

Coral communities are made up of different species in different places. We have several distinctive coral 

communities in American Samoa. One occurs on the nearshore reef flats in small backreef pools, as well 

as in some larger pools at Utulei, Fagaalu, Alofau, Nuuuli, and the airport that were dredged to build more 

land for airport runways or village roads. There are two main types of corals in the pools, "finger coral" 

and "staghorns". Finger corals have branches that look like fingers with round tips, and staghorns look 

like deer antlers with many branches and sharp tips. 

A second coral community lives on the "reef crest" where the waves crash. Here, corals tend to be sturdy, 

yet even on the reef crest one common species has many small branches about the thickness of a pencil. 

These corals get hit the hardest by waves, yet they have some of the thinnest and most delicate branches 

which seems puzzling. Perhaps the branches being close together reduces the waves’ force. 

A third set of coral communities live on the reef slopes, where the reef drops away into deeper water. 

Coralline algae 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

29

Here encrusting corals and coralline algae are common, but there are some places where other 

communities of corals can be found. In some places along the southeast coast of Tutuila, reef slopes at 

medium depths are dominated by a “flower coral” (Lobophyllia hemprichii) where the coral polyps are 

relatively large, up to 2-3 inches in diameter. Deeper on some slopes on the south side of Tutuila, the 

most common corals (Mycedium sp.) form overlapping plates almost like shingles on the slope. 

Flower coral 

(Lobophyllia hemprichii) 

Table coral 

(Acropora hyacinthus) 

Mushroom corals 

(Fungia sp.) 

Some corals grow in a shape rather like a table -- they have a single stalk, often in the center of the coral, 

and their top is a big flat disk or table-top. Some may even have multiple layers of table-tops. These 

"table corals" are actually related to the staghorns (in the genus Acropora; a common species of table 

coral is Acropora hyacinthus). There is an area on the western side of Fagatele Bay where the reef slope 

is just covered with table corals. In another area, outer Vatia Bay, there are lots of table corals and 

staghorns mixed together on the slope. 

A few corals live to become giants. 

Some of these are called boulder corals, 

often yellow or brown in color. These 

slow-growing corals can be found in all 

sizes on our reefs. One of the world’s 

largest is at Ta’u Island and is over 15 

feet tall -- it may be hundreds of years 

old. Boulder corals are in the genus 

Porites, along with the finger corals. 

Most corals are firmly attached to the 

reef, but a few are not. One common 

type that isn’t attached is the “mushroom 

coral”. These corals, in the genus Fungia, look like a mushroom cap that has been turned over, with 

radiating ridges that look like the “gills” on a mushroom (see photo above). Their larvae settle anywhere 

on the slope, but wave action can move the adults around when it is rough. On a slope, they tend to slide 

downwards when the waves move them, and end up at the bottom of the slope where they accumulate. 

Some tiny young mushroom corals have even been observed to "walk" on their tentacles. 

Coral reefs look like they are the same day after day, but over a longer time span of decades to centuries 

or longer, they can change considerably. They are often impacted by disturbances like hurricanes that 

break the coral, mass bleaching events that kill coral (see next chapter), and crown-of-thorns starfish 

which eat the coral. These events can kill much of the coral present at any one time, but then over the 

years and decades, the coral grows back. Hurricanes are natural disturbances and coral reefs are well 

adapted to deal with them. Individual corals are always growing and competing for space and light. 

Some corals grow over others and take the light. Other corals can attack their neighbors with stingers -- 

they are constantly competing with each other for space and light. Change is constantly occurring on our 

reefs. 

Doug Fenner, DMWR 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

30

14. When corals turn white and die 

Coral reefs in American Samoa have turned pure white on 

several occasions in recent years. They look freshly 

bleached, quite pretty, but that's a clear sign that they are in 

trouble. 

Two very different kinds of stress cause corals to turn 

white: (1) clorox bleach, and (2) warm water temperatures. 

Clorox bleaching happens from time to time when a foolish 

fisherman dumps clorox onto the reef to kill fish. This is 

very short-sighted because it also kills everything else in 

the vicinity -- young fish, crabs, snails and corals -- and that 

harms the reef itself and reduces everyone's catch. 

Unusually warm water temperatures, due either to weather 

events or global warming, can also cause the coral to 

bleach. It only takes a slight increase above normal water 

temperature to bleach the coral. Bleaching can be caused 

by a short-term exposure (1-2 days) at temperature 

elevations of 3-4 degrees, or by long-term exposure (weeks) 

at elevations of only 1-2 degrees. To a diver, this may look 

like a pretty snowfall on the reef, but it indicates that the 

reef is seriously stressed. 

Because most corals live only in warm tropical waters, it 

seems odd that corals will die when the water gets slightly 

warmer. The reason is that corals live close to the hottest 

temperature that they can tolerate, so it doesn't take much to 

push them over the limit. To explain what is happening, recall that corals are animals with colorful plantlike cells (zooxanthellae) living in their tissues. These cells use the sun's light to produce food which is 

also used by the coral animal. Many coral animals receive much of their food this way, so this 

relationship is quite important to the coral animal. The coral, in turn, provides the zooxanthellae with 

nutrients and a secure place to live. Both the coral and the zooxanthellae benefit from this arrangement. 

When the coral is stressed by warmer than usual 

temperatures, the zooxanthellae are released from the coral, 

for reasons known only to them. What's left is a rather 

colorless coral animal overlying a bright white coral 

skeleton (see drawing). The animal portion of the coral 

may eventually recover its zooxanthellae and continue 

living, or it may die, depending on how stressed it gets. It's 

easy to tell when portions of the coral die because they 

become covered with fuzzy green algae. 

A little bleaching now occurs here during most summers, 

but it was particularly bad in 1994, 2002 and 2003. Not all 

coral species were affected then, but those in shallow 

waters were hardest hit, although some bleaching down to 

the 130-foot depth was observed. Bleaching also occurred 

in 1998 when we experienced very low tides due to a strong 

El Nino event. The exposed corals turned white and died. 

Normal coral polyp Heat-stress causes the 

with plant-like cells coral polyp to release 

inside the coral's its plant-like cells and 

tissues. turn white like the 

 photo at top. 

Underwater photo showing several kinds of 

corals that turned white, or “bleached”, due 

to heat stress in 1994. 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

31

As if that weren’t enough, we are also 

seeing more coral diseases on our reefs 

(who would have thought that corals can 

catch diseases?). Presumably the heatstressed condition of the corals makes 

them more vulnerable to diseases that had 

formerly been rare. In the photo at right, a 

white band of death is sweeping across the 

coral, from left to right. Behind the white 

band (to the left), the coral polyps were 

killed about a week or two ago, giving 

time for greenish algae to start growing on 

the dead coral skeleton. The white band 

itself is a zone of freshly killed polyps and 

exposed white coral skeleton. In front of 

the white band (to the right) is the last 

remaining bit of live coral (purplish in 

color). The cause of this disease is not known yet. Although coral diseases have probably always been 

around, they spread rapidly on our reefs beginning in 2002. 

To round-out this rather negative view of the problems coral face in our modern world, an even greater 

threat to them is a projected change in water chemistry in the ocean due to global warming. Just as 

carbon dioxide (the main greenhouse gas causing global warming) is increasing in the air, it also increases 

in seawater in its dissolved form. That makes seawater more acidic which, in turn, may slow the rate at 

which corals build their calcium carbonate skeletons. The result is that coral growth would be slowed and 

there might even be an increased erosion of the reef itself. 

Scientists predict that episodes of warm water temperatures 

will become more frequent due to a general warming of the 

earth. That's bad news for our coral reefs. While it's unlikely 

that all of our corals will die off as the environment gets 

warmer over the next few decades, the number and/or 

abundance of corals may well decline here. That might 

impact American Samoa in two general ways. First, coral 

growth might not keep up with rising sea levels or the reef 

itself may begin to erode, thereby allowing more storm waves to reach our shorelines and cause damage 

to roads and houses. Second, a reduction in coral growth and number of species could reduce the 

diversity of habitats required by fish, so a downturn in reef catches could eventually occur. Both of these 

changes would probably occur at a slow but steady pace over the next 30 years. 

What to do? Well, it's true that American Samoa 

has little impact on the world's changing climate, 

but it makes sense not to worsen the situation by 

further stressing our coral reefs with rubbish, 

sewage from piggeries, or dirt (sediment) from 

land-use activities that flows into streams and out 

onto the reefs. The brown water we see entering 

the ocean from streams after a heavy rainfall is 

harmful to the corals. Additionally, we should 

locate and protect any areas where corals appear to 

be naturally resilient to bleaching events. These 

hardy survivors could then help re-seed other areas 

where the corals had died. 

P.Craig, NPS 

Turbid water from stream discharge after rainfall. 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

32

15. Palolo swarming

Once or twice a year, palolo swarm to the surface 

of the sea in great numbers. Samoans eagerly 

await this night and scoop up large amounts of 

this delicacy along the shoreline with hand nets. 

This gift from the sea was traditionally greeted 

with necklaces made from the fragrant moso’oi

flower and the night of the palolo was and still 

remains a happy time of celebration. The rich 

taste of palolo is enjoyed raw or fried with butter, 

onions or eggs, or spread on toast. 

Palolo is the edible portion of a polychaete worm (Palola viridis) 

that lives in shallow coral reefs throughout the south central Pacific, 

although they do not swarm at all of these locations. This phenomenon 

is well known in Samoa, Rarotonga, Tonga, Fiji, the Solomon Islands, 

and Vanuatu. 

Palolo are about 12 inches long and live in burrows dug into the coral 

pavement on the outer reef flat. They are composed of two distinct sections 

(see drawing). The front section is the basic segmented polychaete with eyes, 

mouth, etc., followed by a string of segments called the “epitoke” that contain 

reproductive gametes colored blue-green (females) or tan (males). Each 

epitoke segments bear a tiny eyespot that can sense light (that may be why 

islanders use a lantern to attract the palolo to their nets). 

 

When it comes time to spawn, palolo will back out of their burrows and release the epitoke section from 

their body. The epitokes then twirl around in the water in vast numbers and look like dancing spaghetti. 

Around daybreak, the segments dissolve and release the eggs 

and sperm that they contain. The fertilized eggs hatch into 

small larvae that drift with the plankton until settling on a 

coral reef to begin life anew. 

The swarming of palolo is a classic example of the 

coordinated mass spawning of a simple marine organism. The 

worms emerge from their burrows during a specific phase of 

the moon, but the actual date is a bit complicated. The 

swarms occur on the evenings of the last quarter moon of 

spring or early summer. In Samoa, this is seven days after the 

full moon in October or November. Swarming occurs for two 

or three consecutive nights with the second night usually 

having the strongest showing. 

Palolo usually appear here in October, but sometimes in 

November or sometimes during both months. This difference is due to the fact that there are about 13 

lunar months in one calendar year and the palolo use primarily the moon to time their spawning activity. 

If instead they always spawned every twelve lunar months, their time of spawning would occur earlier 

every year. After a few years, they would be spawning in August or July. In order to make up for this 

difference, the palolo will delay spawning in some years to the 13th lunar month. 

The fact that palolo adjust their spawning time means that there are other factors beside the moon that 

determine the time of year they begin to mature and are ready to release their epitokes. Several studies on 

Palolo underwater. 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

33

this matter have suggested that rising seawater temperatures, tides, weather, moonlight or other biological 

signals may play a role in starting the maturation and release of the epitokes. Once the swarming begins, 

the presence of the palolo spawn in the water probably stimulates other palolo to release their mature 

epitokes. 

Rules For Predicting Emergence. Everyone seems to have their own methods for predicting when the 

best palolo rising will occur. Several natural clues that preceded the palolo rising enabled islanders to 

predict the correct timing for palolo swarming. These included the flowering of the moso’oi tree, the 

closing of the pālulu flower (a morning glory), a strong smell from the reef, brown foamy scum (from 

coral spawn) on the ocean, toxins occurring in reef fish, and abrupt weather changes or bad weather such 

as thunderstorms or lightning. 

So, will palolo swarm seven days after the full moon in October or 

November? One set of rules used to predict the main night of 

emergence depends on the calendar date of October's third quarter 

moon (seven days after October's full moon). If it occurs: 

1. From October 1 to 8, palolo will not appear 

 until November. 

2. From October 8 to 18, palolo will not appear in 

 October or the swarming will be weak followed 

 by a stronger appearance in November. 

3. From October 19 to November 7, there will be 

 a single, strong swarming centered on this date. 

4. From November 8 to 17, there will be a strong 

 appearance on this date, possibly following a 

 weaker swarming during the previous month 

 (see number 2 above). 

To further complicate matters, the actual time of emergence of palolo in Samoa differs between islands. 

They usually appear around 2 am in the Manu’a Islands and Tutuila, and 4-5 am in western Samoa. This 

difference is somewhat consistent from year to year and cannot be accounted for by difference in tides or 

moonrise. The difference in tides between islands is far less than one hour and the time of moonrise is 

only minutes apart. 

 David Itano, DMWR

 

A good catch of palolo.
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

34

16. Giant clams (faisua)

It's always a pleasure to see one of these beauties on the reef. Giant clams (faisua) are large, colorful and, 

surprisingly, they are part animal and part “plant”. That's because giant clams, like corals, have plant-like 

cells (zooxanthellae) that live in their tissues and produce free food for the clams. When a clam opens its 

shell and spreads out its pretty mantle, it exposes these "solar panels" of zooxanthellae to the sun to make 

food, like a plant unfolding its leaves. 

At the same time, the clam also gets some food by 

drawing water through its siphon and filtering out any 

tiny food particles (zooplankton). Perhaps that's why 

giant clams grow so large – they have two very 

different ways to get food. 

We have two native species of giant clams in our local 

waters, Tridacna maxima and T. squamosa, which look 

fairly similar. They grow to about 12-15 inches in shell 

length, although most found today are smaller because 

the larger ones have been harvested. The largest and 

most famous species of giant clam (T. gigas), which 

grows as big as a large suitcase, is not native here but 

has been recently imported. In the 1990s, mariculture 

efforts by Department of Marine & Wildlife Resources 

(DMWR) introduced T. gigas and T. derasa, and reintroduced Hippopus hippopus, a shallow-water species that was formerly present. 

Because giant clams need sunlight, they inhabit shallow, clear waters down to about 60 feet deep. They 

grow slowly; one local clam was 18 years old. They spawn repeatedly over their life span and release 

millions of eggs each time they spawn, but most young clams do not survive, so the adults have to live a 

long time and spawn many times to insure that the population survives. Larval clams swim in the water 

for about a week, then settle permanently onto the reef to grow. 

The clams are a favorite food item throughout the South Pacific and their accessibility in shallow waters 

and slow growth make them susceptible to overfishing. That is very much the case in American Samoa, 

where few remain on reefs near populated areas. The bright blue clams are the easiest to spot, so many of 

those remaining on the reef are the more cryptically colored brown, tan and green clams. 

 

Due to their popularity, there has been an interest in growing these clams in hatcheries to supply markets 

for food and the aquarium trade. DMWR operated a hatchery here for many years (about 1988-2005) and 

tried to encourage local production by supplying small clams for local "farmers" to grow them on their 

reefs. That effort met with limited success for several reasons. Considerable dedication is needed 

because it takes several years to grow the clams to a commercial size, and the clams have to be protected 

from poachers and predators. And there are always fa'alavelave events that call for contributions of giant 

clams if anyone has some. In general, giant clam mariculture here usually supplemented family needs 

rather than create a commercial business. Periodically, the idea of raising the clams to a small size for the 

aquarium trade is talked about as a possible market. 

Harvest regulations in American Samoa (in 2009) are: giant clams taken for 

personal consumption must be at least 6 inches in shell length, or if sold, a 

license is required and giant clams must be at least 7 inches in shell length and 

sold with the clam still in its shell. 

P.Craig, NPS 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

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17. Crown-of-thorns starfish (alamea)

Our reefs have several kinds of starfish (aveau, fetu). Most have five “arms,” like the brilliant blue 

starfish (Lynkia laevegata), but the crown-of-thorns starfish (alamea, Acanthaster planci) has about 15 

arms. They’re a big starfish, with adults commonly over a foot in diameter. They can be a beautiful dark 

red, or a dark green, often with some red 

markings. This starfish is one to look at, but not 

touch. The upper surface is covered with nasty 

spines. Anything but the very lightest touch, and 

the spines will stick into you, and you will be very 

sorry. There are toxic chemicals in the spines, and 

once you are stuck, it will hurt, and continue to 

hurt for hours if not days. If you get stuck by 

several spines, the area may go numb and stay that 

way for a week or more, and if you get stuck by a 

lot of spines you could become weak or paralyzed 

in that part of your body or even have more 

trouble. 

The underside of a starfish has little suckers at the 

ends of their tube feet. They "walk" on them and hold on to the substrate with these suckers. It is said 

that if you have been stung by a crown-of-thorns, have the tube feet touch or walk on the area where you 

have been stung, and it will reduce the pain. A much better idea is not to get stung in the first place. 

Crown-of-thorns, like most starfish, have an unusual way of eating. They push their stomach out their 

mouth to cover what they want to eat, then their stomach digests their food outside their mouth, and then 

they pull their stomach back inside them. If you think about trying that on your dinner, you’ll realize just 

how amazing that is. Crown-of-thorns are a bit unusual in what they eat: coral. They eat the outer living 

part of the coral, leaving the dead white skeleton. Sometimes little patches of live coral tissue are left and 

the coral survives and can slowly re-grow, other times the coral is completely killed. 

Most of the time, crown-of-thorns are pretty rare on coral reefs. But back in the 1950’s huge numbers of 

them appeared on coral reefs in Japan and ate the corals killing most 

of the reefs there. Then in the 1960’s the same thing happened in 

Australia’s Great Barrier Reef. In 1978-1979, huge numbers of them 

appeared in American Samoa and killed most of the corals here. 

When such outbreaks happen, people may try to save the reef by 

killing as many crown-of-thorns as they can, but cutting them up 

doesn’t kill them, they just grow the missing parts back. It’s best to 

spear them and take them out of the water, where they die quickly. 

One idea about why such huge outbreaks of millions of these starfish 

occur is that humans have killed the predators that feed on them, like 

trumpet triton mollusks and humphead wrasse. So it is best to leave 

those predators on the reef. Another idea that has more evidence to 

support it is that unusually heavy rainstorms wash nutrients from the 

land into the water, which feed the tiny plants and animals that are 

the food of the young starfish, so more juveniles survive and they 

grow up into the invading hordes of coral-killers. From this 

viewpoint, it makes sense to reduce the amount of soil, piggery 

sewage, and high phosphate laundry detergents that flush down our 

streams into the ocean. These nutrients might help more crown-ofthorn juveniles survive and grow up to eat our corals. 

Douglas Fenner, DMWR 
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18. Master of disguise: the octopus (fe’e)

There’s no other reef animal quite like the octopus 

(fe’e). Although it looks like a large, unprotected meal for 

some big fish, it is hardly defenseless. The octopus is the 

“master of disguise” for its superb ability to become invisible 

by changing the color and texture of its skin to match its 

surroundings. With its good eyesight and well-developed 

brain, it is probably the most intelligent of all invertebrates. 

And if camouflage and quick wits don’t suffice, it can either 

squeeze down very small holes or escape by jet propulsion, 

leaving its calling card, an inky cloud that acts as a decoy or 

smoke screen to momentarily confuse a predator while the 

octopus vanishes. 

 The octopus commonly seen locally is the reef 

octopus, Octopus cyanea, which is mottled red-brown in 

color with a large spot beneath each eye. It typically weighs 

2-3 lbs. It is a mollusk, related to squid, snails, and clams, 

but the octopus lacks a shell and has eight strong arms 

covered with suckers. It breathes by sucking water into its 

mantle cavity and over its gills; it then expels the water 

through its funnel. If threatened by a predator, it can expel 

this water forcefully, causing it to jet away. 

Fe’e feed on crustaceans (crabs, shrimps, lobsters) 

and mollusks (cowry snails) by creeping up on them. After 

pouncing on an unsuspecting prey, the octopus holds it tightly 

with its suckers until it can bite the animal with its parrot-like 

beak and inject a toxin to paralyze the prey. It may take its 

meal back to the safety of its den (the reef hole it calls home), 

and that’s why there are often telltale bits of shells around an 

octopus den. Mating occurs year-round. The female lays her 

eggs inside her den and cares for them until they hatch. She 

then dies. When the eggs hatch, out pop miniature octopuses 

that are dispersed by water currents until they settle back onto 

the reef. 

 The octopus is a favorite food of local fishermen who often check particular holes on the reef 

known to be good den sites for fe’e. Octopus are taken by hand or spear and they account for about 5-

10% of all the fish and invertebrates harvested on our reefs. The drooping, pale gray octopus we see hung 

out for sale along the roadside is a ghoulish remnant of this crafty animal. 

 The octopus is also caught by a traditional lure (see photo 

at left) made of a large cowry shell that resembles a rat (isumu). 

That came about due to an event that happened long ago, as 

related in the Samoan legend about the octopus and the rat. It all 

started with a sightseeing canoe trip on the ocean by an owl, a 

snail, and a rat. Their canoe started to sink, so the owl escaped by 

flying away, the snail sank with the canoe to the bottom of the 

ocean (goto uga), and the rat tried to swim to shore but it had a 

long way to go. It saw an octopus and called for help. The octopus agreed and swam to shore with the rat 

on his head. When they got to shore, the rat jumped off and thanked the octopus for saving his life and 

said that he left a little present on the octopus’s head. When the octopus realized that there was a rat 

dropping on his head, he became extremely angry and told the rat, if I ever see you again, I’ll kill you. To 

this day, the octopus is mad about this and is still looking for the rat.

P.Craig, NPS 

Same octopus, different shape and color. 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

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19. Nearshore sharks (malie)

From a safety perspective, American Samoa is fortunate not to have much of a “shark problem”. Based 

on conversations with long-time residents, it appears that there have been very few shark attacks and 

probably no fatalities here in the past 40 years. The few injuries that have occurred were usually related 

to fishing activities, and records from the hospital concur with this. 

The sharks (malie) living in our nearshore 

waters are generally not dangerous to 

swimmers or divers but they may swim close 

by to see who’s in their area. The most 

common species are the blacktip reef shark 

(Carcharhinus melanopterus) and the 

whitetip reef shark (Triaenodon obesus). 

These are not large sharks, usually about 4-5 

feet in length, although everyone swears that 

the one they saw was bigger. They grow 

slowly and give live birth to a few pups who 

swim away and are on their own. Both 

species feed on fish and shellfish. They are attracted to wounded and bleeding fish, which accounts for 

several shark encounters with divers who had tied speared fish around their waists. Need it be suggested 

that this is not a smart thing to do? 

The blacktip will quickly swim away, but on rare occasions small blacktips will sometimes startle a 

person by swimming directly at them. They look like a little torpedo coming straight at you, but other 

than your brief panic attack, no harm is done. The whitetip has an unusual habit of resting occasionally 

on the seafloor or in caves during the daytime. 

From an ecological perspective, we do have a shark 

problem. There are not many of them, indeed it is 

uncommon to even see a shark while snorkeling or diving 

in American Samoa. Reasons for this are not clear. The 

local harvest of sharks is not large -- they are not targeted 

by local fishermen (although sharks will be kept if 

caught) and shark “finning” (taking only fins to make 

shark fin soup) is illegal. Perhaps fishing pressure was 

greater in the past or sharks may simply be unable to 

withstand much fishing at all. It is now well known that 

sharks in general are quite vulnerable to fishing pressure 

and are slow to recover because of their low growth and 

birth rates. The plight of many shark species worldwide 

has become an issue not just because of their decreasing 

numbers but because sharks play a key role in maintaining healthy coral reefs. As top predators, their 

removal disrupts the ecological balance of the reef ecosystem. 

Sightings of more dangerous sharks in our nearshore waters are rare, but over the years, a few tiger sharks 

have been seen or caught around Tutuila. Hammerhead sharks are known to swim into Pago Pago 

Harbor, where some give birth to young and others are perhaps attracted there by the cannery wastes. 

Also, the large but harmless whale shark has been seen near Taema Bank and a juvenile whale shark (4.1 

m total length) washed up on Aunu’u Island in 1989. 

So, yes we have some sharks in our shoreline waters, but most are not of serious concern. It is actually 

very exciting to see one swim by. Someplace deep in our brain yells Danger! and our heart rate jumps, 

but the shark is quickly gone, and our only thought is wow, did you see that? 

P.Craig, NPS 
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20. The alogo surgeonfish -- ruler of the reeftop 

American Samoa's coral reefs are truly a 

wonder of nature. Our sea is home to a 

diverse and colorful assemblage of plants 

and animals. Some 930 species of fish 

occur here, which is about twice the 

number of marine fish species found in 

Hawaii. 

At first glance, the reef seems to be an 

exotic panorama of mass confusion, 

complete with bizarre shapes of fish 

painted in psychedelic colors. It's like 

looking into an overstocked aquarium. But 

as you frequent the reef more often, you 

begin to notice some structure to the 

confusion. Each species is generally found only in certain habitats such as shallow reef flats, sandy 

bottom areas, or deeper waters. 

Many individual fish even take up permanent residence at a particular site rather than roam around. One 

particular fish I watched stayed near the same coral block for 3 years (the fish had a unique markings on 

its body, so I could easily identify it). That coral block was home. Such stay-at-home behavior is 

actually quite common among coral reef fishes. One abundant species on our reefs that does this is the 

alogo (Acanthurus lineatus), also known as the blue-lined surgeonfish because of its knife-like blade 

located near its tail. The blade is usually not visible because it is folded away into a groove in the fish's 

skin. It is a bit poisonous, and careless handling of the fish may cause a puncture and painful swelling in 

your hand. 

The alogo grows about 8 inches long and weighs half a pound. It 

is a very attractive fish, with bold yellow, blue, and black 

horizontal lines on its sides, although its basic color pattern can be 

swiftly altered depending on the alogo's mood. For example, 

when the alogo becomes aggressive and chases another fish, its 

face and fins darken and it looks angry (to me at least). 

The alogo lives in the foamy surge zone where the waves crash against the reef. This is not an easy place 

to live, but the alogo is quite skilled at it. When a really rough wave hits, the alogo darts down into a 

hole or over the reef edge into the safety of deeper water. 

Like a lot of other reef fish, the alogo is a territorial animal, which means that it dwells at a particular 

patch of reef and protects that site from all other fish. The territory of each alogo measures about 5 x 5 

feet. There it feeds on the thin film of plant material (algae) that covers the reeftop and appears as a 

greenish grassy turf. Because of their territorial nature, the alogo space themselves evenly across the 

reeftop, and as they munch away on the algae-covered rocks, they remind me of a herd of miniature cows 

feeding in a distant pasture. 

Many other species of coral reef fish are also algae eaters, and two general patterns of feeding have 

evolved among these species. One is for a species to become territorial and fiercely guard its own algal 

patch, the other is to be non-territorial and roam around the reef looking for an unguarded patch of algae 

to eat. To an underwater observer, this dual approach to feeding is readily visible -- most of the reef is 

picked clean of all edible algae and looks like bare rock, except where a territorial fish guards its lush 

algal plot. 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

39

The feisty alogo defends its plot from all competitors, so the turf algae grows well there and provides all 

the food the alogo needs. Protection of this garden doesn't come cheaply, however. The alogo must 

defend its territory every minute of the day from other fish that lurk nearby, waiting for a chance to sneak 

in and chow down. 

That's where the alogo's sharp blade comes in handy. The alogo will threaten to viciously sideswipe an 

intruder with this weapon. Most other fish heed the alogo's warning and back-off quickly. It's mostly a 

bluffing game played repeatedly through the day, and rarely does anyone get hurt. 

Other aspects of the alogo's behavior are fascinating. Every evening at dusk, all the alogo migrate off the 

reeftop to deeper waters where they will spend the night sleeping in crevices to escape being eaten by 

predators like sharks (malie) and jacks (malauli, ulua). At dawn, they return to their exact same reeftop 

territories by the same route. Their migrations to and from the reeftop look like rush-hour traffic on an 

underwater highway. 

 

The alogo is a popular Samoan food fish and it is one the most important species of reef fish caught, 

accounting in some years for up to 30% (by weight) of all reef fish caught in the nearshore subsistence 

fishery. Most are caught by spear fishermen, particularly at night when the fish are sleeping in reef 

crevices. Daytime spear fishermen have a much harder time catching them, because the alogo tend to 

stay just out of spearing range. 

P.Craig, NPS 

Alogo feeding on turf algae growing on reef top. Iced alogo at a grocery store. 

Alogo swimming on outer reef flat at high tide. 
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21. Manini and pone -- two favorite reef fish

Manini and pone are two food fishes found 

just about everywhere in shallow waters 

around the islands of American Samoa. Like 

alogo, they belong to the family of fishes 

called surgeonfish because of their sharp 

knife blades that fit into grooves near their 

tail. Manini and pone are rather nonaggressive fishes, however, and they do not 

seem to wield their weapons much. 

The manini (Acanthurus triostegus) is a small 

fish about 5 inches long. Its coloration is 

yellow with vertical black bars, which looks 

a bit like a prisoner's uniform and that's why this fish is also called the convict tang. 

Manini often swim in large schools containing hundreds to thousands of individuals. There are two good 

reasons for this schooling behavior -- it helps them escape predators and it also helps them get access to 

food. First, when a large fish attacks a school of manini, the manini scatter in all directions like a shotgun 

blast. This commotion momentarily confuses the predator and the manini get away. Each manini thus has 

a better chance of not getting eaten if it stays in a group. 

The manini also cleverly use their schooling behavior to get food. They like to feed on the thin green 

algae turf that grows on reef rocks, but these algae patches are usually guarded fiercely by alogo

surgeonfish and damselfishes (tu'u'u) who are nasty to intruders. Just the sight of a manini gets them livid 

with rage. A single manini would not stand a chance to get by these guards, but a large group of manini

can succeed. The alogo and damselfishes are simply overwhelmed when hundreds of manini descend into 

their territory to feed. While the alogo futilely chases one manini away, a hundred others are gobbling up 

its garden. 

Manini mob feeding. Spawning coloration at dusk (manini in foreground). 

Manini spawning is a spectacular event. When conditions are right, thousands will assemble to spawn at 

a particular time and place. They often spawn in or near the reef channel (ava) at dusk when the tide is 

high. Their behavior and coloration are noticeably different at this time, as they swim around in an 

agitated fashion and change color to white with wider black bars. This seething mass of fish mills about 

until they can't take the excitement any longer. A group of them will suddenly burst upwards in the water 

column, spawn, and return to the seafloor again, all in a split second. Although this happens fast, you can 

tell that the fish actually spawned because the milt expelled by the male fish looks like a puff of smoke 

from a gun. When the spawning action really gets going, it looks like an underwater version of popcorn 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

41

popping. After spawning, the fertilized eggs drift away with the currents. About one month later, the 

small manini that survived this larval stage are ready to settle back onto the reef. 

Pone (Ctenochaetus striatus, or the lined bristletooth surgeonfish) are a different type of surgeonfish in 

two respects. They are a dull brown color and they have funny teeth. Their lack of spectacular coloration 

is somewhat of an embarrassment in tropical waters which are renown for brightly colored fish. Pone are, 

however, one of the most abundant fishes on the reefs, so they must be doing something right. 

Their teeth have evolved very differently from 

other surgeonfishes because what they feed upon is 

quite different. Instead of having actual teeth to 

bite off algae the way that alogo and manini do, 

pone have a mouthful of bristles which they use as 

a comb or brush to collect the detritus that lies on 

reef surfaces. The detritus they eat includes all the 

small bits and pieces of formerly living plants and 

animals. The detritus in your backyard, for 

example, might include grass clippings, old 'ulu

leaves, decaying coconut husks, rotting papayas, 

and numerous unseen dead insects. Not a pretty 

meal, to be sure. 

Detritus is found everywhere, but few large animals can make a meal 

out of it. Pone can, and that may account for their abundance and 

widespread distribution on coral reefs. 

Every several years or so, pone have a very successful spawning event, 

and uncountable numbers of their young (pala'ia) settle onto the reef. 

Pala’ia are very pretty and look like small dark alogo. But their beauty 

fades as they grow, and in just a few weeks they turn brown in color 

like the adults. 

P.Craig, NPS 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

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22. Traditional fishing methods and the enu basket 

Modern fishing gear has replaced most traditional fishing practices in American Samoa. Fish are now 

caught by rod & reel, metal spears propelled by elastic bands, and monofilament gillnets and thrownets. 

But a few traditional practices persist. Two of these are described elsewhere in this booklet (fishing for 

atule and palolo). A third method called ‘gleaning’ involves the age-old practice of hand-picking the 

reefs at low tide for edible invertebrates like octopus (fe’e), giant clams (faisua), and turban snails (alili). 

Another traditional fishing method still practiced in Manu’a is catching i'asina (small goatfish) in a handwoven funnel trap called enu. I'asina are small fish (about 3.5 inches) that have just completed their 

pelagic existence as eggs and larvae in offshore waters and are now returning to the reefs to live for the 

remainder of their lives. Thousands of i'asina (Mulloidichthys flavolineatus) may appear along sandy 

shorelines during the months of October-April. There is little biological concern in harvesting them for 

human consumption, because their numbers are massive and most will be consumed by predatory fish. 

Ofu i'asina Olosega 

The enu basket is constructed with 'ie'ie vines that are first buried in a beach pit to soak in seawater for a 

week, after which the vines are cleaned and hung to dry. The coconut sennit (afa) used to tie the 'ie'ie

vines together is obtained from the husks of the niusami coconut. The husks are soaked in the sand pit for 

two weeks and then pounded to separate the fibers. Over 100 feet of braided fibers are needed to build 

the basket. The local custom is that the enu must be completed before the fish start running or it cannot 

be used that year. To catch the fish, the trap is buried half way in shallow water along a sandy shoreline. 

The traps are baited with hermit crabs (uga) that have been pounded and mixed with sand. I'asina are 

eaten fresh or deep fried, or they are frozen. 

I'asina are also caught on Tutuila, but by different methods. In Leone, lau (coconut fronds) are used to 

herd the fish over a net laid on the bottom of a shallow pool. Other villages catch the small fish with finemeshed thrownets or wire traps. Note also that Fagasa's enu basket is constructed differently and is used 

to harvest atule fish. 

Taito Fale Tuilagi, James Gurr, P.Craig, NPS 
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23. Traditional atule fishing

In some years, atule (akule) are the most abundant fish species caught in local subsistence and 

recreational catches. Information about the life cycle of this species (also known as the bigeye scad, Selar 

crumenophthalmus) is sparse. We know only that atule appear in some years and usually at specific 

coastal locations. They may reside temporarily on a reef-flat for a few months and migrate offshore each 

night to feed on plankton and small fish. Atule are thought to be a fast-growing, short-lived species that 

reaches 12 inches in length. Local catches of fish 6-10 inches in length consist of both juveniles and 

larger fish that appear to be potential spawners. 

On Tutuila Island, there's a legend about the atule that appear in Fagasa Bay. Years ago, the Polynesian 

navigator Liava'a sailed to Tutuila in search of the pure waters of Fagasa. The boat accidently departed 

while his daughter, Sina, was still ashore collecting fresh water. When Liava'a realized this later, he 

became enraged and threw his entire crew into the sea with orders for them to return to Fagasa, find Sina 

and protect her forever. To expedite their return to Fagasa, the men were transformed into dolphins that 

then herded a school of atule to shore to make certain all who cared for Sina would be well fed. Sina was 

adopted by the family of High Chief Lilio in Fagasa Village. Liava'a, however, never gave up his search 

for Sina and years later they were briefly reunited. Tradition holds that, upon the death of Liava'a and 

Sina, their memories were forever preserved in special stones that are protected to this day by HC Lilio 

Fagasa chiefs with the stones of Liava'a and Sina. Enu and ola baskets 

who is responsible for all events related to the atule harvest, thereby preserving the village's continuing 

appreciation for the generous gift of these fish. The tradition continues. When atule arrive in Fagasa, an 

ava ceremony is held in appreciation for this bounty. The stones are cleaned and when the time is right, 

the villagers carry coconut fronds into the water to herd the fish into the shallows where they are collected 

in enu baskets which are emptied into the ola basket. 

 Atule harvest in Fagasa, 2008 (with malauli jacks in foreground, right photo). 
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In Manu'a, atule school-up in shallow waters in front of Ofu and Olosega villages in some years but not 

others. Their harvest is a major event that involves the efforts of 50-100 villagers coordinated by the 

tautai (master fisherman). The villagers wade onto the reef flat and use the lau (coconut fronds woven 

together) to herd the fish through a V-shaped weir (made of piled stones) and into a large hand-woven 

mat-basket. Now that refrigeration is available, single catches (occasionally over 10,000 fish) can be 

much larger than in the past. The catch is divided up for each family and bountiful harvests are shared 

with other villages. 

In a survey of 35 coastal villages in the Territory in 2007, runs of atule occur 

at 23 of the villages and formerly occurred at 2 others. 

P. Craig, NPS 

Evelyn Lilio, South Pacific Academy 

Taito Fale Tuilagi, NPS 

Atule harvest in Ofu, 2002. 
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24. Small reef fish

People tend to think about fish large enough to eat when 

they think about our reef fish -- the jacks, groupers, and 

parrotfish come to mind, but what about all the other 

species? A lot of fish on our reefs are quite small, some 

being fully grown at less than one inch long. It's not 

surprising that these fish are hardly noticed, but much of 

the high biodiversity in fish life on our reefs comes from 

these smaller fish species. For example, nearly 10% of 

all fish found on our reefs are gobies, most of which 

measure less than 3 inches. Though individually small, 

these fish collectively create a portion of the fish biomass 

on our reefs, forming one of the crucial first links in the 

foodweb for the larger fish we bring to our tables. Not 

only are these small fish important to maintaining a 

healthy reef, many are quite pretty as well. Take time to 

admire these little fish and you can see some 

extraordinary things. 

P. Brown, NPS 

Portenoy’s blenny, Ecsenius portenoyi, is a 

small fish that is currently only known from 

Tutuila, American Samoa. 
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25. Old fish caught locally

This is hard to believe -- an 18 year old alogo was caught in American Samoa. That's old enough to get a 

drivers license. We're talking about the alogo, also known as the blue-lined surgeonfish Acanthurus 

lineatus. Nothing unusual about its size -- it was the typical 8-inch alogo you see in the stores. And I ate 

it. All that remained were the little bones that scientists use to determine the age of the fish. These bones, 

when looked at under a microscope, have concentric circles, one for each year, just like tree rings. You 

just count the rings and that's how old the fish is. 

What's even more astonishing is that an alogo caught in 

Australia's Great Barrier Reef was 44 years old. I am 

not kidding. There were also other alogo in the 

Australian sample that were 20-40 years old, so the 

record age of 44 is believable. These old fish were not 

unusually large, just the standard size alogo. 

Similarly, a pone (lined bristletooth surgeonfish, 

Ctenochaetus striatus) from American Samoa was 36 

years old. It turns out that this is not unusual for coral reef fish. Recent studies show that several other 

species of surgeonfish, unicornfish (ume), groupers (gatala) and snappers (mu) can also live up to 20-40 

years. These findings are beginning to reshape our understanding about the ecology of coral reef fishes 

and their vulnerability to overfishing. The occurrence of many long-lived fish in a population indicates 

that the coral reef fish community is quite stable, with a low replacement of individual fish. Once a 

young fish gets to the reef, it may be there for decades. 

Why would these fish live so long? The answer provides some key information about the environment 

that the fish live in. Fish typically exhibit this type of life cycle (long life span and repeat spawning) 

when few of their young survive. That's certainly the case for coral reef fish – their thousands of eggs and 

larvae drift around with the ocean currents for weeks or months (see Chapter 11). Very few of them make 

it back to any reef. So, if all their young usually die, the adult fish need 

to live a long time and spawn repeatedly to make sure that at least some 

young survive. If the adults lived only a short time, the population 

might disappear altogether. 

Every so often however, during years when the ocean currents and 

conditions are just right, massive numbers of young fish survive and 

appear on our reefs, like pala'ia (young pone surgeonfish) or i'asina

('aloama, young goatfish). 

While this is all very interesting of course, there is an important takehome message. It is easy to overfish populations with these life history 

characteristics. Having a long life span and spawning repeatedly may 

be a successful strategy under natural conditions, but it also makes these 

fish extra vulnerable to overfishing. That's because fishermen tend to 

harvest the larger (older) fish in the population. Under heavy fishing 

pressure, most old fish may be taken, leaving only the smaller, younger 

fish. That would put the population in a precarious situation, because 

the younger fish left may not yet be old enough to spawn. 

That appears to be what has happened in American Samoa because there are relatively few, or small 

sizes, of the species commonly taken for food left on our reefs. The graph (next page) shows the 

combined lengths of all surgeonfish, unicornfish, parrotfish, snappers, emperors, groupers, jacks and 

I’asina in a basket trap (enu). 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

47

sharks sighted during extensive scientific surveys on the reef slope at the 30-ft depth. Very few fish were 

larger than 12 inches. This depressing picture is not a sudden event – surveys in 1996 and 2008 show 

similar results. 

Even though current levels of fishing do not seem excessive, 

the area of our reefs is rather small and consequently it is 

easily fished out. Fish stocks may well have been depleted 

years ago – knowledgeable locals and elder Samoans recall 

seeing far more fish on our reefs 25 years ago. 

A meaningful recovery will require a reduction in the 

harvest of coral reef fishes, with specific protection for the 

larger fish. Additionally, setting aside some areas as marine 

protected areas is an essential component for the recovery of 

fish stocks. To be effective, such areas must provide longterm protection by being permanently closed to all fishing. 

Marine protected areas that are periodically opened up to 

fishing may satisfy short-term goals, but they do not allow the 

fish to grow big and old, and it is these old-timers that produce 

the most fish eggs. For example, one large snapper (mu) 24 

inches long releases as many eggs as 212 snappers that are 17 

inches long. 

So that 18 year old alogo was not just an unusual trophy – it 

was also a vital member of the fish community that spawned 

year after year, thereby insuring that some young fish survived 

to maintain a healthy population of alogo on our reefs. That’s 

what the long life span of the fish is telling us. 

 

Two fisheries in American Samoa currently target coral reef 

fish: the subsistence fishery and the artisanal (small-scale 

commercial) fishery. Subsistence fishing includes the multiple 

ways that Samoans have always caught nearshore fish for food. 

In modern times, this includes rod and reel, bamboo pole and 

line, free-diving, throw nets, gillnets, and gleaning (handpicking clams and octopus). Stone weirs for atule and enu

baskets for juvenile goatfish (i’asina) are still used in Manu’a. 

On Tutuila, subsistence catches appear to be modest 

in size and fishing effort has been steadily declining 

steadily over the past 20 years due to lifestyle 

changes (more people have regular jobs). 

 

The artisanal fishery that sells reef fish to local 

stores is a more recent development. It is conducted 

by teams of night divers who use underwater 

flashlights and spears to catch sleeping fish. In the 

mid 1990s, many of these divers switched from freediving to scuba diving, which greatly increased the 

number of fish they caught. This type of heavy 

fishing had a significant overfishing impact on our 

reef fish populations, so the use of scuba gear while 

spear fishing at night was banned in the Territory in 

2001. P.Craig, NPS 

Roadside fish seller 

0

500

1000

1500

2000

4 8 12 16 20 24 28

Fish length (inches)

Number of fish seen 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

48

26. Tuna & the canneries

The ocean around us supports a variety of offshore fish, 

such as masimasi (mahimahi), swordfish, wahoo and 

marlin, but by far the most commercially important of 

these pelagic fishes are the tunas. The most common in 

our local waters are albacore (apakoa), yellowfin (asiasi), 

skipjack (atu) and dogtooth tuna (tagī) . 

 

Dogtooth tuna are occasionally seen near the reef, but tuna 

prefer the open ocean and are wide-ranging species. These 

ultra-streamlined fish undertake impressive oceanic travels 

-- one skipjack caught here had been tagged near Australia 

over 2000 miles away. But the general movements of tuna 

in our area are not well known. 

Local fishermen catch tuna in our area by trolling at FADs 

(fish aggregation devices), offshore seamounts, or 

wherever seabird flocks are feeding (the flocks indicate the 

presence of baitfish that the tuna are probably also feeding 

upon from below). In recent years, commercial catches of 

locally-caught tuna have increased in the longline fishery 

that targets albacore (see page 49). 

Given that American Samoa has two major tuna canneries 

and is the No. 1 port in the United States in terms of value 

of fish landed (about $200,000,000 per year), it is 

somewhat surprising to realize that relatively few of the 

fish canned here are actually caught within American 

Samoa's waters. That's because tuna are not particularly 

abundant in our area, so deliveries by local fishermen are a 

small fraction of the 200,000 tons of tuna processed at the 

canneries each year. Commercial quantities of tuna are 

generally located 1000s of miles away from American 

Samoa, so the big purse seiners and foreign longliners that 

you see docked in Pago Pago Harbor generally do not fish 

locally. They may travel for about 1 week just to reach 

their distant fishing grounds. The reason why these boats 

deliver their catch to the canneries here is because the tuna 

canned in American Samoa can enter US markets tarifffree, and the US is one of the largest consumers of canned 

tuna. Most tuna processed at the canneries are skipjack, 

yellowfin and albacore. In 2006, the export of canned tuna 

was valued at $431 million, accounting for essentially 

100% of all exports from the territory. 

A rather enjoyable feature about tuna is that their meat 

generally lacks parasites, so people eat raw tuna in a 

variety of forms (oka, sashimi). 

P.Craig, NPS 

Deep 

frozen 

tuna 

"logs" 

for the 

cannery
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

49

27. Longlining for pelagic fish (i’a lapoa)

Pelagic fish are ocean-ranging species 

that usually do not venture close to 

shore. They are handsome, streamlined 

swimmers, but few of us get to see 

them in their prime. Shortly after 

being caught, their colors fade and the 

fish are deep-chilled or frozen for 

delivery to the canneries, at which 

point the fish look rather like grey 

blocks of ice. Many of us know these 

fish only from their pictures stamped 

on little cans purchased at the store. 

In American Samoa's deep, offshore 

waters, most commercially caught 

pelagic fish are taken by longline 

fishing. The longline is a strong 

monofilament line that extends 30-60 

miles in length and contains 3000-4000 

baited hooks. The line is usually set 

about 350-550 feet deep but some may 

be set much shallower or deeper. It 

takes about 6 hours to set the line and 

10 hours to retrieve it. In 2007, the 

longline catch in our waters was 7,000 

tons (mostly albacore), worth $14 

million. This amounted to 98% of the 

value of fish in all local commercial 

fisheries, including those taken by 

trolling, bottomfishing, and reef 

fishing. 

The canneries in American Samoa 

process far greater quantities of fish 

than this, but most of their fish are 

caught beyond local waters (see 

previous page). 

Steve Kostelnik and Evan Casey, NOAA Fisheries Observer Program 

P.Craig, NPS
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

50

28. Turtles In trouble

In Samoan folklore, sea turtles were believed to have the power to save fishermen who were lost at sea by 

bringing them safely to shore. The Samoan word for sea turtle, “I'a sa,” translates literally to “sacred 

fish”, presumably because of this ability. 

In times past, Samoans traditionally harvested sea turtles for food, and 

the shell was often made into bracelets, combs, fishing hooks. It also 

was used in the headpiece worn by a princess during important dance 

ceremonies. Turtles were incorporated into Samoan songs and art, and 

there are even turtle petroglyphs (rock carvings) in Faga'itua and Leone. 

And, there's the legend about the Turtle and Shark that appear in the sea 

at Vaitogi when villagers sing a special song. 

It therefore seems extra unfortunate that turtle numbers in Samoa have 

declined so much that they are now considered endangered species. 

Although it is difficult to determine how many are left, it is clear that 

few females lay eggs each year in the Territory. This drop parallels the worldwide decline of sea turtles 

due to overharvest, loss of nesting beaches, and incidental kills in fishing gear. Pacific populations of 

one of our species (hawksbills) are “rapidly approaching extinction” according to a scientific review in 

1998. 

Two turtle species, the green and hawksbill, are the most frequently found turtles in our local waters. The 

hawksbill or “laumei uga” (Eretmochelys imbricata) is usually the species that nests on Tutuila beaches. 

This is a solitary nester, and perhaps only 1 or 2 hawksbill females now use a suitable beach. The 

hawksbill is occasionally poisonous -- in the late 1950s, people in Aunu'u got very sick after eating one. 

Our other species is the green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas), named after the color of its fat. It is also found 

around our islands, but it nests primarily at Rose Atoll. These long-lived turtles have rather complicated 

life cycles that involve repeated long-distance 

migrations to and from American Samoa. 

They start life as eggs buried in beach sand. 

Once a female has laid her first group of about 

100 eggs, she will return at 2-week intervals to 

lay more. In about 60 days, the eggs hatch and 

the little turtles dart into the ocean. Where they 

go is not known, but eventually they take up 

residence at some feeding area that may be far 

away from American Samoa. 

There they remain for some 20-25 years until 

they become sexually mature, at which time 

they return to the very same beach where they 

came from. After laying eggs there, the adult 

females then turn around and go back to their distant feeding grounds. That's the basic pattern for most 

sea turtle species throughout the world. Swim far away to some nesting beach, then swim back to their 

feeding area, back and forth every few years thereafter. 

We have some interesting migration data for green sea turtles at Rose Atoll (see map on next page), 

where a tagging study was conducted in the mid-1990s. In all, 8 tagged turtles were recovered after 

nesting at the atoll. Seven swam 800 miles directly to Fiji (unfortunately two of them were eaten when 

they got there). The last one went in the completely opposite direction to French Polynesia near Tahiti. 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

51

It's understandable why the adult green turtles do not stay at Rose Atoll after nesting, because their 

favorite food (seagrass) does not grow there. But I wonder why don't they just stay in Fiji where they 

have both seagrass and nesting beaches. 

Anyway, this pattern of large-scale movements between a turtle's nesting area and feeding area means 

that turtle stocks in the South Pacific Ocean are all mixed together. While some of “our” turtles were 

caught in Fiji, the reciprocal is also true -- turtles that feed in our waters probably originated from islands 

elsewhere in the South Pacific. This mixing greatly complicates conservation efforts. It means that 

region-wide cooperation among the island countries of the South Pacific is essential; otherwise, while we 

try to protect turtles in American Samoa, our turtles may be killed later when they migrate to other 

islands. 

Tough federal and territorial laws exist in American Samoa to protect turtles and their eggs, because they 

are an endangered species. Depending on the circumstances, there is a $500 to $250,000 penalty and up 

to one year in jail, for killing a turtle or importing any turtle product into the Territory (shells, stuffed 

turtles, turtle combs, etc.), although citations have been few, if any. And, some turtles drown when they 

are caught by fishing gear in the commercial longline fishery that occurs in offshore waters. 

Fortunately fewer turtles seem to be taken from shoreline waters or beaches in 

American Samoa, probably due to their scarcity but also due to outreach 

programs that inform children and villagers about the endangered status of the 

turtles. In addition to education efforts, we must protect both the turtles and 

their habitat. Sandy beaches are essential for turtle nesting areas, so hauling 

sand away from our beaches results in the loss of critical habitat for these 

species. No beaches, no nesting turtles. 

Although some villagers may still like to eat turtle meat and eggs, the point to 

remember is that turtles are a disappearing resource in American Samoa. They 

are a part of Samoa's heritage and need to be vigorously protected, or they may be lost altogether. It is a 

sad commentary that many young Samoans have never even seen a live sea turtle. 

P.Craig, NPS 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

52

29. Baby turtles: look but don't touch! 

Baby sea turtles. They’re so neat -- perfectly formed miniatures, all racing down the beach together to get 

into the water. Kids think they’re cute and they want to keep them as pets, and plenty of parents think 

baby turtles make great pets. After 

all, they don’t bark or fight, and 

they’re so tiny so they don’t take up 

much space. They don’t eat much, 

either.

Also, some people in American 

Samoa believe that when a nest of 

turtles hatches and all the babies run 

to the sea, their mothers are waiting 

out on the reef to eat them! Because 

of this misguided belief, some people 

collect baby turtles and keep them at 

home or release them on a different 

beach. But the very best thing we can 

do for baby turtles is: LEAVE THEM 

ALONE! 

Many years of scientific research on sea turtles have taught us that mother turtles do not eat their babies. 

Adult turtles eat mostly seagrass, algae (seaweed), and sea sponges (the living kind, NOT the kitchen 

kind). In fact, after the female turtle has laid eggs (sometimes two or three times in the space of a few 

weeks), she goes back out to the sea and leaves the area. For example, after nesting at Rose Atoll, some 

of American Samoa's green sea turtles swam to Fiji – over 800 miles away! So, those of you with good 

intentions out there, rest assured that mom will not be eating her babies, and you do not need to collect the 

baby turtles from the beach to save them from her. 

It is true that baby turtles do have predators, such as large fishes and sharks. Nature provides the turtles 

with some protection however: (1) most turtles hatch at night when predators might have difficulty 

seeing them, (2) baby turtles are dark-colored, and 

this “cryptic coloration” enables them to be 

camouflaged as they swim over the reef, (3) female 

turtles can lay over 100 eggs in a single nest — 

when this many turtles hatch at the same time, a big 

jack (ulua) or shark (malie) can’t possibly catch 

and eat all of them, so some have a chance to hide 

in the reef. This is called “predator swamping” and 

is common among reptiles (lizards, snakes, turtles, 

etc.). For this reason it is a bad idea to take “just a 

few” baby turtles away, and release them later. 

The “predator swamping” effect is lost and those 

baby turtles will probably end up as some fish's 

lunch. 

A critical reason to leave baby turtles on the beach is that THAT EXACT BEACH is very important to 

them. Baby turtles remember or “imprint on” the beach where they hatched. Like many animals, turtles 

have little natural magnets in their brains that allow them to home-in on their native beach. Years later 

when it’s time for them to reproduce, adult turtles, with their internal “homing devices”, will seek that 

same beach. If hatchling turtles are removed from their home beaches and kept in someone’s bathtub or 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

53

bucket, chances are they will become confused and have 

little chances of surviving, let alone finding their home 

beach later (that is, if they don’t just die in the bucket). 

Sea turtles have been around for millions of years and 

survived just fine before humans started taking their 

babies off the beach, whether to “protect” them or 

otherwise. Newly-hatched turtles, just like their gigantic 

moms and dads, are wild animals and are not meant to be 

kept as pets. The ocean provides better food and a 

cleaner, healthier environment for turtles than humans 

can. 

Turtles are far-ranging animals that swim thousands and thousands of miles in the sea during their 

lifetimes. When they go to their nesting islands, they meet with other turtles, mate, lay eggs, and so keep 

their species alive. Every time a female sea turtle finds her way back to the beach where she was born 

and nests there, she completes the ancient, natural cycle that keeps sea turtles alive on Earth. Imagine a 

turtle imprisoned in a bucket, tub, or garbage can, swimming endlessly in tiny circles, never to see the 

open ocean, never to meet another turtle, never to help its species survive. 

Sea turtles all over the world are dwindling in number. All species are listed as threatened or endangered 

under the U.S. Endangered Species Act, including our own green and hawksbill sea turtles. If we want 

our children and grandchildren to be able to see these huge, magnificent sea turtles swimming alive and 

free in the ocean, where they belong, we have to do our best to protect them now. The very best way we 

can to do that is by protecting the beaches where they nest, letting the baby turtles find their own way into 

the sea, and not hunting the big turtles. Future generations of turtles (and people) will thank us. 

Holly Freifeld, DMWR 

Adult 

turtle 

tracks 

on 

beach.

Ofu Island 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

54

30. Sea turtle identification key 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

55

31. Whales Ho ! 

September and October are the peak months when humpback whales (tafolā) visit our balmy waters. It's 

almost impossible not to get excited when one is spotted. Most of us feel inexplicably privileged for a 

glimpse into their mysterious world, and there's an uncontrollable urge to shout 'thar she blows'. 

 Part of our fascination with 

whales is their huge size, of course. 

Adult humpbacks (Megaptera 

novaeangliae) grow up to 50 feet 

long and weigh about 45 tons (which 

equals the combined weight of about 

250 sumo wrestlers). We rarely get a 

chance to see the whole whale, 

except when they make a spectacular 

leap out of the water. We usually see 

only their air spout or their humped 

back as they prepare to dive. 

 Humpbacks are air-breathing 

mammals (like ourselves) that live 

their complete lives in the ocean. 

They reproduce like all land mammals, but they do it underwater. Whales obviously have to make sure 

that their babies don't drown while being born. Mother whales nurse their young for about a year. 

 These whales eat small schooling fishes and krill (small shrimp). They feed by gulping in tons of 

water in a single mouthful, and then strain the food out as they expel the water. The out-going water is 

filtered through specialized structures called “baleen”, which looks (with a little imagination) like a 

mouthful of coconut fronds. Humpbacks lack real teeth because they have no need to bite or chew their 

tiny food items. It seems odd that the whale, which is one of the world's largest animals ever, feeds on 

such small things. 

 The appearance of humpbacks in Samoa is an important segment of their grand migration up and 

down the South Pacific Ocean between their rich feeding areas around Antarctica (blue areas on map) and 

their breeding areas (red areas on map). The movements of "marked" whales indicate that their 

migrations can include extensive east-west movements as well. Individual humpback whales can be 

recognized based on the unique color pattern and shape of their tail fluke. By matching photographs of 

flukes from different regions, general movements of individual whales can be determined. Our 

humpbacks have been re-sighted in Tonga, the Cook Islands, and in French Polynesia. Another one was 

seen in Antarctic Area I, 

one of the feeding areas 

of South Pacific 

humpback whales. 

 When the bitter 

winter in Antarctica sets 

in, humpback migrate 

north to warmer waters. 

In the South Pacific, 

some head towards 

Australia, others migrate 

to destinations in 

Oceania. American 

Samoa lies between two 

Oceania populations 

described by biologists 

as Breeding Stocks E 

and F. Our whales are 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

56

more closely tied to breeding areas east of American Samoa (Breeding Stock F) that include areas such as 

French Polynesia. 

 A few humpbacks might arrive in Samoa as early as July or leave here as late as December, but 

they are most common here in September and October. They occur in small groups of adults or in 

mother-calf pairs. Humpbacks have been sighted around all 7 of the islands in the Territory, but we don't 

know how many are actually here. They migrate here to mate and give birth to their young. And, 

interestingly, they stop feeding while here -- only when they return to the Antarctic do they resume 

feeding. 

 While an occasional spout of whalebreath can be seen in our local waters, you 

can also hear the whales if you stick your 

head in the water. Humpbacks are famous 

for their unique “songs”. Yes, whales sing! 

During mating season, male humpbacks sing 

to either attract females or to defend their 

territory from other male whales, much like 

birds do with their own songs. 

 The whale's song is haunting and 

complex. It sounds like a eerie series of 

chirps, squeaks, whistles, and grunts. I know 

that “grunts” don't seem like they could make 

much of a song, but you just have to take my word for it. It is unlike anything you have ever heard. 

Scuba divers can hear the singing if they hold their breath and pay attention. Snorkelers can also hear the 

songs, but they might have to dive about 10 feet deep to get below the noisy surface layer of water. The 

song lasts about 10-20 minutes, it has a beginning, middle and end, and all males of the same stock sing 

the same song. Biologists can therefore identify where a whale comes from by listening to its song. 

Hawaiian humpbacks sing a different song, because they belong to a different stock of whales that 

migrates between Hawaii and Alaska. The whales' song is one of the world's wonders of nature and it's at 

our doorstep. 

 While humpback whale populations appear to be increasing in some areas of the world, those in 

Oceania are still considered to be endangered since being decimated by whalers in the 1800's and 1900's. 

By the time commercial whaling was stopped in 1966, 95% of the whales in Oceania had likely been 

killed. Their recovery has been unexpectedly slow, probably due to continued whaling by Soviet factory 

ships as late as 1972 and a subsistence harvest of these whales occurred in Tonga up to 1978. In any 

event, whales in American Samoa remain few in number, and in some years hardly any are seen here. 

 Because humpbacks use our waters to give birth to their young, it is important to protect them 

when they are here. Enjoy their presence, but don't pester them. Avoid the temptation to boat right up to 

them or follow them at close quarters. Boaters, divers and swimmers should stay at least 100 yards away, 

and watch from there. 

P.Craig, NPS 

Jooke Robbins, Provincetown Center for Coastal Studies 

David Mattila, Hawaiian Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary 

 BREACHING PEC SLAP TAIL SLAP 

 Leaping partly out of the water 

 and landing with a big splash. 

 Flapping its pectoral fin. Slapping its tail on the water. 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

57

32. Dolphins & small whales (mumua)

Recent surveys for marine 

mammals around Tutuila Island 

have confirmed the presence of 

several species of odontocetes, 

more commonly called toothed 

whales and dolphins (mumua). 

The most common species found 

close to shore (in waters less than 

200 meters deep) are spinner and 

rough-toothed dolphins. Six local 

odontocetes are shown on the next 

page, and a complete listing is 

found on page 59. 

Spinner Dolphins. Spinner 

dolphins (Stenella longirostris) are 

the most common dolphin seen 

around Tutuila throughout the 

year. They may come close to 

shore, even resting within coves 

and bays. They are most often 

found on the east and west ends of 

Tutuila, near Aunu'u and Sliding 

Rock respectively. Fagasa Bay is 

also well-known for its mumua. 

Recent photo-identification of individuals suggests that the groups found around the island are largely 

resident here. However, their genetic diversity is high, indicating that there may be some interchange 

with spinner dolphins from surrounding islands. This pattern of strong residency to an island but with 

high genetic diversity has been documented in French Polynesia 

as well. It suggests that, while most of the local spinner dolphin 

communities are faithful to their islands, some individuals 

probably visit and breed with other island communities. 

Rough-toothed Dolphins. The next most common dolphin 

seen around Tutuila is the rough-toothed dolphin (Steno 

bredanensis). This is unusual because at other locations this 

species is commonly found farther offshore, but here they are 

often seen in relatively shallow water (less than 200 meters 

deep) at least in September & October. Of course they may 

well use the deeper waters to feed, while perhaps “resting” in 

the shallower water. Curiously, they are often found in 

association with humpback whales when the whales visit American Samoa. Neither species is feeding 

nor does the encounter look aggressive. Most often the dolphins just seem to enjoy riding the pressure 

wave created around the head of the whale as it swims through the water, much like riding the “bow 

wave” of a boat. As with the spinner dolphins, recent photo-identification of individuals suggest that at 

least some individuals are residents around the island, with several individuals seen from one year to the 

next. 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

58

David Mattila, Hawaiian Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary 

Jooke Robbins, Provincetown Center for Coastal Studies 

Spinner dolphin (Stenella logirostris) Rough-tooth dolphin (Steno bredanensis) 

Bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) Pantropical spotted dolphin (Stenella attenuata) 

False killer whale (Pseudorca crassidens) Short-finned pilot whale 

(Globicephala macrorhynchus) 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

59

33. Marine mammal & reptile checklist for American Samoa 

Common and Samoan names Scientific name .

 MARINE MAMMALS 

Whales 

 

 Humpback whale (tafolā, ia maanu)

1,2 Megaptera novaeangliae 

 Sperm whale2 Physeter macrocephalus

 Short-finned pilot whale2

 Globicephala macrorhynchus 

 False killer whale2

 Pseudorca crassidens 

 Dwarf sperm whale2

 Kogia simus

 Minke whale3 Balaenoptera acutorostrata

 Killer whale3

 Orcinus orca 

 Cuvier’s beaked whale4

 Ziphius cavirostris 

Dolphins (mumua) 

 Spinner dolphin2,5 Stenella longirostris 

 Rough-toothed dolphin2,5 Steno bredanensis 

 Bottlenose dolphin2

 Tursiops truncatus 

 Pantropical spotted dolphin2 Stenella attenuata 

Striped dolphin6

 Stenella coeruleoalba

Potentially present 

 Bryde’s whale7

 Balaenoptera edeni

 Pygmy sperm whale7

 Kogia breviceps 

 Melon-headed whale7

 Peponocephala electra 

 Risso’s dolphin7

 Grampus griseus

 Fraser’s dolphin7

 Lagenodelphis hosei 

 MARINE REPTILES 

Sea turtles 

 Hawksbill sea turtle (laumei uga) Eretmochelys imbricata 

 Green sea turtle (laumei ena’ena, fonu) Chelonia mydas 

 Olive ridley sea turtle8

 Lepidochelys olivacea

 Leatherback sea turtle9

 Dermochelys coriacea 

Sea snakes 

 Banded sea snake10 Laticauda sp. 

1

Seasonally present (primarily Aug-Oct). 

2

Identifications by D. Mattila, D. Johnston, J. Naughton (NOAA), and/or J. Robbins (Provincetown Center for 

 Coastal Studies) and/or Johnston et al. 2008. J.Cetacan Res. Manage. 10:59-66. Also identified from several 

 skulls of pilot whales that washed ashore (Sita Bay, 1993) and one sperm whale skull (Maloata, 1994). 3Reeves et al. 1999. Marine mammals in the area served by South Pacific Regional Environment Programme. 

 SPREP (Samoa). 4

Stranded on Auto reef in 2008 (DMWR); also a visitor to Pago Pago Harbor in 2002 (identified from 

 photograph by J. Mead (Smithsonian Museum Natural History) and W. Perrin (NOAA). 5

Present year-round. 

6

Stranding (DMWR). 7

Probably present in region but not yet 

 confirmed in American Samoa (Reeves et al. 

 1999 – see reference above). 

 8

Rare: only three recorded occurrences 

 (DMWR). 9

Rare: a single juvenile was caught on 

 longline gear near Swains in 1993 (DMWR). 

 10Rare: one verified occurrence in 2000 

 approx. 12 inches long (NPS). 

P.Craig, NPS 
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34. Land mammal, reptile & amphibian checklist for A. Samoa

Common and Samoan names Scientific name Origin1 

 LAND MAMMALS 

 Bats 

 Samoan fruit bat2

 (pe’a vao) Pteropus samoensis N

 White-naped fruit bat2,3 (pe’a fanua) Pteropus tonganus N 

 Sheath-tailed bat4

 (pe’ape’avai) Emballonura semicaudata N 

 Rodents (isumu) 

 Polynesian rat Rattus exulans PI 

 Roof rat Rattus rattus MI 

 Norway rat Rattus norvegicus MI 

 House mouse Mus musculus MI 

 Others 

 Pig (pua’a) Sus scrofa PI 

 Dogs (maile) Canis familiaris PI 

 Cats (pusi) Felis domesticus MI 

 LAND REPTILES 

 Geckos (pilimo’o) 

 Pacific slender-toed gecko Nactus pelagicus PI 

 Oceanic gecko Gehyra oceanica N 

 Mourning gecko Lepidodactylus lugubris PI 

 Stump-toed gecko Gehyra mutilatus MI 

 House gecko Hemidactylus frenatus MI 

 Skinks (pili) 

 Pacific snake-eyed skink Cryptoblepharus poecilopleurus N 

 Micronesian skink Emoia adspersa N 

 White-bellied or 

 brown-tailed striped skink Emoia cyanura PI 

 Dark-bellied or 

 blue-tailed striped skink Emoia impar PI 

 Lawes skink (pilioua) Emoia lawesii N 

 Pacific black skink (piliuli) Emoia nigra PI 

 Samoan skink (pililape) Emoia samoensis PI 

 Moth skink Lipinia noctua PI 

 Snakes 

 Pacific boa5

 (gata) Candoia bibroni PI 

 Australoasian blindsnake6

 Ramphotyphlops braminus MI 

 AMPHIBIANS 

 Cane or marine toad6 (lage) Rhinella marinus MI 

 1 N = native, PI = Polynesian introduction, MI = modern introduction. 

2

Also known as flying foxes. 

3

Also known as white-necked, Tongan or insular fruit bat. 

4

Few found after cyclones in 1990 and 1991; perhaps locally extinct. 

 5

Ta'u Island; formerly present on Ofu Is. (Tito Malae, pers. com.) and Tutuila Is. (Steadman 

 & Pregill. 2004. Prehistoric vertebrates from Tutuila Island. Pacific Science 58:615-624). 

 6Tutuila Island. 

 Sources: Dr. George Zug, Smithsonian Institute, Wash. DC (pers. com., 2008) for reptiles; 

 Amerson et al. 1982. Wildlife and wildlife habitat of A.Samoa. Vol.1. Environment and ecology. 

 US Fish & Wildlife Service (Wash. DC). 119p. 
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35. Flying Foxes (fruit bats)

Large flying foxes, also know as fruit bats, are one of the more 

unusual animals in American Samoa, especially for visitors 

from areas where bats are small and rarely seen. Three species 

inhabit our islands – two large fruit bats (Pteropus samoensis, 

P. tonganus) and a small insect-eating bat (Emballonura 

semicaudata). These three are the only native mammals in the 

Samoan islands. 

The two flying foxes are especially distinctive: they are renowned for being large (with a wing span up 

to 3 feet wide) and active both day and night. Pteropus samoensis (pe'a vao) is commonly called the 

Samoan flying fox. It is presently found only in the Samoan Archipelago and Fiji. It once occurred in 

Tonga but is now extinct there. The other flying fox, Pteropus tonganus (pe'a fanua), has several 

common names such as the Insular, White-naped, White-necked or Tongan fruit bat. It has a wider 

distribution in the Pacific, ranging from islands near Papua New Guinea to the Cook Islands. 

In American Samoa, flying foxes can be seen flying, soaring, feeding, or just hanging in trees. Although 

individuals of the two species overlap in size (adults weigh 300-600 grams), there are ways to 

differentiate them from a distance. When silhouetted against the sky, the pe'a vao has a more triangular 

shape, with wings that are slightly scalloped and relatively dark and opaque. Their flight appears more 

relaxed, usually with slower wing beats and deeper wing strokes. It is not unusual to observe them 

soaring in the air in the day, taking advantage of rising currents of warm air (thermals) to seemingly float 

up and about without flapping their wings. 

In contrast, pe'a fanua has a more cross-like appearance: the neck and head appear more pronounced, the 

wings are narrower and more scalloped, and the hind legs stretch out like a tail. In flight, pe'a fanua tend 

to have faster wing beats and shallower wing strokes. They are less likely to soar in thermals and 

generally take a directional route to and from roosting sites at dawn or dusk. 

 White-naped flying fox (pe’a fanua) Samoan flying fox (pe’a vao) 

Despite these differences, it takes a keen eye to distinguish the two species from a distance. Close up, the 

pe'a vao may sport a white to yellowish triangular patch that starts from the forehead and extends to the 

back of its head, or it may simply exhibit a generally grayish head with or without flecks of white hair 

(much like a graying man). Its neck and shoulder areas are a beautiful russet brown, while the rest of the 

body has a dusty black appearance. The pe'a fanua, on the other hand, has a basically black head and 

body. These black areas serve to set off a distinctive band of creamy yellow on the back of the neck and 
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62

which extends slightly below its shoulders as if in a cape. This explains why they are called white-naped 

fruit bats although the color is not really white. 

The two species have quite 

different social behaviors. 

During the daytime, pe'a fanua

form large roosting groups or 

colonies of hundreds to 

thousands of bats. These 

colonies are generally organized 

according to their reproductive 

status and may be composed of 

bachelor males, clusters of 

females defended by an adult 

male (suggesting a harem mating 

system), or groups of females 

and their young. In any case, 

individuals appear to be 

relatively “faithful” to their 

roosts, usually returning to their 

respective colonies following 

foraging flights. 

But the pe'a vao does not do this. Instead, these bats usually roost singly on branches, or as pairs of males 

and females (suggesting a monogamous mating system), or as a female with its young. When roosting, 

pe'a vao males tend to hang from exposed or dead branches of trees on ridge tops while females roost in 

more covered positions on forest slopes. 

There is little information on how long flying foxes live, although some held in captivity have lived 20 

years. We assume that they live shorter lives in the wild, because natural catastrophes like tropical 

cyclones may periodically reduce their numbers, as occurred in the early 1990s. With proper 

management and protection from hunting, the populations will generally bounce back, but this requires a 

number of years, because females of both species probably have only one young per year and we do not 

know how many of their young survive to adulthood. 

The care and energy that both bat species put into their 

young is remarkable. Pregnancy lasts approximately 5 

months in both species, and once the young are born, it 

takes at least another 3 months before they are weaned. 

Even after they are capable of flight, the young continue 

to receive parental care, perhaps until they reach adult 

size or become reproductively active themselves. We 

know this from observations of pairs of individuals seen 

to alight independently on the same tree and subsequently 

come together with one individual (presumably the 

juvenile) being wrapped up in the other's wings as they 

settle down to roost. Sightings of pregnant females and 

individuals carrying young in flight indicate that pe'a vao

give birth mostly between April and June. Pe'a fanua

births appear to occur year-round but are more common 

in January and June to August. 

Although their name indicates that they are fruit-eaters, both species also eat nectar, pollen, leaves, and 

sap. They tend to consume only the “juice” of fruits and leaves. To do this, a bat will carefully chew on 
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63

Dime-size ejecta under breadfruit tree. 

food (usually eating around large seeds), press the pulp against the roof of its mouth with its tongue, 

squeeze and suck in the juice, then spit out most of the pulp in pellets called “ejecta.” These ejecta are 

especially abundant under breadfruit trees ('ulu) where the bats 

have been feeding overnight. Among the splatter of mushy bits of 

the fruit, you can find these pellets of drier material that 

sometimes show tooth and palatal (roof of the mouth) 

impressions, much like a dental cast produced at a dentist’s clinic. 

Ejecta pellets help us to identify food items that bats eat even 

when we do not directly observe them feeding. In addition to 

direct observations and analysis of ejecta, their diets are also 

determined through pollen present in facial hair and in feces. 

These data help scientists determine which plants are important 

because they are preferred, nutritious and/or available year-round. 

At least 42 plant species provide food for the pe'a vao and pe'a fanua in American Samoa. These consist 

mostly of forest tree species, such as āoa (Ficus prolixa and Ficus obliqua), asi (Syzigium inophylloides), 

'a'amati'e (Elaeocarpus ulianus), ifi (Inocarpus fagifer), fetau (Callophyllum inophyllum), māmālava

(Planchonella samoensis), and tava (Pometia pinnata). The bats also eat cultivated fruits such as mango 

(Mangifera indica) and 'ulu (Artocarpus altilis), but damage to crops is limited if fruits are harvested 

before they ripen on the tree. Also, when you hear the bats squealing in banana patches at night, it’s 

usually because they are fighting over the banana flowers, not the fruits. Despite the broad similarity in 

their diets, pe'a fanua exploit flower resources and feed on trees (especially domestic ones) closer to 

human habitations more often than do pe'a vao. 

The rewards of the interaction between flying 

foxes and plants are certainly not one-sided, 

because the plants and forest also benefit from 

being visited by bats. When the pe'a fanua visit 

patches of vavae flowers (Ceiba pentandra), for 

example, they help transfer pollen from one tree 

to another and that, in turn, enhances fruit 

formation and production. Flying foxes are also 

important for seed dispersal. When they 

consume fruits with small seeds (such as āoa), 

some seeds that get swallowed do not get 

digested but are carried and deposited away from 

the tree source. In American Samoa, flying foxes 

are the only animals that can carry fruits with 

large seeds, such as ifi, over distances and uphill. 

Studies of bat movements on Tutuila reveal that 

bats may commute between feeding areas up to 

40 km apart during a single night. Seeds that are 

transported can colonize naturally bare or cleared 

areas and aid in the revegetation of gaps in 

forests where trees may have fallen from disease, 

age, or bad weather. 

It may bother us that flying foxes eat some of the 

fruit that we grow for ourselves, but these bats 

are tireless workers that help maintain the health 

of our rainforest, and they are fun to watch. 

Ruth C. B. Utzurrum, DMWR 

Bats flying above their daytime roost. 
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36. The vegetation of American Samoa 

 The Samoan islands are volcanic and oceanic in origin, formed from basaltic lavas rising from the 

ocean floor of the Pacific basin. The archipelago was born in isolation and has never had a connection to 

any other land area. Its tropical climate, fiery origin, isolation from its neighbors, and subsequent erosion 

and sedimentation have created the unique surface of its islands. The combination of factors, simmered in 

a caldron of time, and with the addition of plants arriving by means of long-distance dispersal, has created 

a tropical rainforest that forms a green mantle over the archipelago. Most of the natural vegetation of 

American Samoa (present before the arrival of Polynesians about 3000 years ago) fits into this category of 

tropical rainforest. Tropical rainforests are found throughout the world in areas of warm climates and 

sufficient to plentiful year-round rainfall. The Samoan tropical rainforest originally extended from just 

inland of the shore up to the summits of the highest mountains, except on those peaks where soil factors 

(in montane scrub) or weather factors (in summit scrub) have created scrubby vegetation in which life 

forms other than tall trees are predominant. 

 One of the significant characteristics of tropical rainforests is high species diversity. Tropical 

rainforests are home to the majority of the world’s plant species. The flora of Samoa (the sum of the 

plants occurring in the archipelago) comprises about 550 native flowering plants, 215 fern species, and 13 

fern ally species. About two thirds of these species are found in American Samoa. They can be divided 

into two types: endemic species (restricted to Samoa) and indigenous species (not restricted to Samoa). 

The level of endemism of the native flowering plants in Samoa is estimated to be about 30% at the 

species level. Areas to the west such as Indonesia and Malaysia have much larger floras, a characteristic 

that can be attributed to their much larger areas, older age, and to what is called a “filter effect” in which 

chance and distance limit the number of species successfully reaching (and becoming established in) the 

faraway islands of Polynesia. 

 Another characteristic of tropical rainforests is the 

presence of unusual life forms. One of the most unique is that of 

epiphytes, plants that grow on trees, usually in order to get closer 

to the sunny canopy, but which do no harm to the "host" plant. 

When the conditions in the forest are extremely wet, as they are in 

the montane forest and cloud forest, epiphytes may even cover the 

trees. The most prevalent group of epiphytes is the orchid family, 

which comprises 65 species in American Samoa (many of which 

are not epiphytes but grow on the forest floor). Epiphytic ferns 

comprise the second most abundant group of epiphytes in the 

Territory. 

 Another unusual life form common in the tropical 

rainforest is that of lianas, or woody vines; these are almost 

entirely absent from temperate forests. Lianas ascend into the 

canopy usually attached to growing trees, to which they cling by 

means of tendrils or coiling stems. From there they eventually 

spread to cover much of the canopy. A third unusual life form is 

that of the banyan (āoa) or “strangler.” These are plants whose 

seeds germinate on trees and initially live as epiphytes until their 

roots grow down to reach the soil. Eventually the roots envelope 

the tree and “strangle” it to death, sometimes leaving a hollow 

center where the host tree died and decayed. 

 The vegetation of Samoa is not homogenous, because zones of plant combinations can be 

discerned. It is difficult, however, to make sense of the differences we can see in the pattern of plants, 

and even more difficult to determine where the boundaries are between the different types of vegetation. 

The vegetation can generally be divided into a number of categories called “plant communities.” A plant 

community is a unit of similar vegetation distinguished from other plant communities by its structure and 

habitat. Eight natural plant communities can be recognized in American Samoa: (1) Littoral Strand, 

(2) Marsh, (3) Freshwater Forest, (4) Mangrove Forest, (5) Lowland Forest, (6) Montane Forest, 

Epiphytes on mangrove tree. 
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65

(7) Montane Scrub, and (8) Summit Scrub. Several other disturbed types of vegetation can also be 

recognized. 

Littoral strand forest on north coast of Tutuila. Coastal marsh in Aunu'u Crater. 

 Littoral Strand comprises the forest, scrub, and herbaceous zones growing directly on the 

seashore. Its component species are seawater dispersed and widespread on Pacific shores. Marsh, 

Freshwater Forest, and Mangrove Forest are classified as “wetlands,” but they comprise only a small 

percentage of the overall land area of American Samoa. Lowland and Montane Forest together comprise 

the “tropical rainforest” that once covered over 90% of Samoa. 

 Montane Scrub and Summit Scrub are unique. Montane scrub comprises the vegetation on the 

summits and upper slopes and ridges of Tutuila on geologic areas called “trachyte plugs,” which have a 

characteristic chalky soil that appears to cause stunted vegetation. The most obvious example of this is 

Mt. Pioa (“Rainmaker Mountain”) and Mt. Matafao, the highest peaks on the island. Montane Scrub 

looks superficially like Summit Scrub, but is noted only from the summit of Ta‘u and is quite different 

floristically. Its scattered, stunted trees are embedded in a dense matrix comprising shrubs, ferns, and 

lianas. Epiphytes also abound in this community, sometimes covering the stunted trees. 

 A plant community that is in equilibrium with its environment, when its form and flora change 

little with time (barring major disturbance), is called a “climax plant community.” For example, a coastal 

marsh dominated by Eleocharis dulcis (utu utu) can be expected to remain somewhat constant over short 

periods of time (e.g., decades). “Climax forest” is often confused 

with “primary forest,” which is the natural and undisturbed forest 

in an area. However, nearly all of the mature forests in Samoa are 

better described as climax rather than primary forest, since in 

ancient times much of the interior of the islands was inhabited 

and cleared for cultivation before being abandoned early in the 

European Era (after 1830). 

 Native tropical forests serve several important functions 

in American Samoa and throughout the tropics. First, they 

provide protection from soil erosion, which leads to a higher 

quality of drinking water. Second, they are home to a majority of 

the world’s plant and animal species. Third, they serve as home 

to animals, such as pigeons and flying foxes, and plants, such as 

Tahitian chestnut (ifi), that have traditionally been a major part of 

the local diet. 

 Unfortunately, the forests of American Samoa are 

seriously threatened. The most dangerous threats, direct or 

indirect, are the actions of our people. Due to rapid population 

growth, the existence of communities such as mangroves, 

wetlands, and some kinds of lowland forest have been nearly 

eliminated. Alien plant and animal species also threaten to outcompete and reduce the abundance of some native species. 

W. Arthur Whistler 

 Montane scrub on Mt. Matafao.
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37. Banyan trees (āoa) -- lifeline for Samoa's wildlife

In the complex world of the Samoan rainforest, each of our native plants and wildlife contributes a unique 

and essential part. Just as the beauty of a hymn would be less without the harmonies of different voices, 

so the beauty of the Samoan forests would be less if any of our plants or animals were lost. And yet, as in 

a choir, there are a few natural “voices” that sing out above the rest. These are the plants and animals 

most important for the harmony of Samoa's natural world. 

Foremost among these are the āoa, or banyan trees. 

Banyans are fascinating plants. Now, a lot of people don't think of 

plants as “fascinating”. After all, they just sit there, right? Well, 

not banyans. Although banyans give life to countless animals by 

feeding them with their fruit, all banyans start out as killers -- 

stranglers, to be exact. Another name for the banyan is “strangler 

fig”. 

The āoa is a member of the fig family. They earn the other part of 

their name by their strange way of growing. Most plants sprout 

from seeds that have fallen to the ground, and grow up toward the 

sun. Banyans usually do the opposite: they sprout from seeds that have been left by birds high in a tree, 

and grow down toward the ground. The seedling first anchors itself by sending roots into the little pocket 

of decaying leaves or moss where it has sprouted, then it wraps more and more roots around the tree that 

supports it, called the “host” tree. Soon the banyan's roots are spreading down the trunk, and finally they 

reach all the way to the ground (see photos below). By then the fate of the host tree is sealed. It is 

literally buried beneath the growing banyan -- strangled to death. Eventually the body of the host tree 

decays away, leaving no trace behind, except sometimes a long hollow extending up inside the middle of 

the full-grown banyan. Because banyans will start life on almost any type of host tree, they kill very few 

of any particular kind, and so are no threat to other plant species. Still, they're rather...fascinating, don't 

you think? 

Young banyan tree roots grow down the host tree towards the ground (left). The roots grow 

and tighten around the host tree (center) and eventually engulf it completely (right). 

In Samoa, we have two different kinds of native banyan trees, both called āoa. One kind (Ficus prolixa) 

becomes a huge tree, with an enormous spreading trunk that seems to be a twisted net of many smaller 

trunks. This kind of banyan has green fruit. The stronghold of this kind of banyan in American Samoa 

was the Tafuna Plain, where hundreds of the huge trees used to grow. Today, only a small fraction 

remain. Most have been cut down to make room for the uncontrolled development in this part of Tutuila. 

Fortunately, a few magnificent trees still survive. The other kind of āoa (Ficus obliqua) is usually much 
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smaller and does not have such a spreading form. Its trunk usually looks more “normal”, though it may 

have a hollow inside. This type of banyan seems to favor cliffs and steep slopes, although it can also be 

found on flat land. It doesn't always start life as a strangler, but sometimes grows up by itself. The 

easiest way to recognize this kind of āoa is its fruit, which is orange or red when ripe. 

There is also an introduced kind of banyan tree in Samoa, the pulu. This tree, originally from Asia, is 

usually planted along the coast in villages; a large one grows next to the public market in Fagatogo. Pulu

trees differ from āoa trees by their much larger leaves and larger, fuzzy red fruit. Although pulu are 

handsome trees that are useful for stabilizing our coasts, their fruits are not favored by wildlife, and so 

they do not play an important role in Samoa's natural symphony. 

In contrast, both kinds of native āoa are very important for wildlife. In fact, a good case can be made that 

they are the most important tree species for the fruit-eating birds and bats of Samoa. There are two 

reasons why they are so important. First, they produce enormous amounts of fruit. When one of the huge 

banyans has crop of fruit, its spreading crown has room for a whole army of hungry fruit-eaters. In a 

single tree, I have seen three lupe (Pacific Pigeons), eight manutagi (Purple-capped Fruit-Doves), four 

manuma (Many-colored Fruit-Doves), a dozen fuia (Samoan Starling), scattered iao (Wattled 

Honeyeaters), and miti vao (Polynesian Starlings) -- all at the same time. No other Samoan trees provide 

such a feast. The second reason why banyans are so important is that they fruit at all times of year. Most 

kinds of large forest trees have a definite fruiting season: for example, asi tends to fruit from April to 

July, but some banyans have ripe fruit every month of the year. Between 10-30% of banyan trees have 

ripe fruit in any given month. This means that a fruit-eater can always find banyan fruit, even if all other 

fruits were out of season. 

One Samoan bird has come to depend on the reliable banyan. This is 

the manuma, or Many-colored Fruit-Dove, one of the rarest birds on 

Tutuila. In two years of observation, I have recorded manuma eating 

fruit on 99 occasions. In 98 of these 99 times, the manuma were 

eating banyan fruit (the one exception was berries of the sogā bush). 

One probable reason why the manuma is so rare today is the loss of 

many banyan trees, particularly in the Tafuna Plain. If this bird is to 

survive here, it is essential that banyan trees be protected, and, if 

possible, increased in number. In addition to their important role in 

feeding wildlife, āoa trees also provide homes for many animals. Lulu

(Barn Owls) frequently sleep and nest in the hollow trunks. Tava'e

(tropicbirds) find large nesting shelters, and fuia (Samoan Starlings) 

and ti'otala (White-collared Kingfisher) find protected nest holes. 

From its open, sheltered base to its spreading, fruit-laden crown, a 

banyan tree is a haven for wildlife. 

Sadly, banyans today are under threat in American Samoa. Many were severely damaged by cyclones in 

1990-91. Many others have been cut down, and more are threatened by continued development, 

particularly in the Tafuna Plain. Some of the most magnificent banyans that still stand have been made 

into gigantic trash barrels, their hollow trunks filled with mounds of used diapers and rusting cans. This 

garbage is sometimes burned, which can kill the banyan even if that is not intended. 

What can you do? Give banyans the respect and protection they deserve. If your family is lucky enough 

to have an āoa on your land, please take care of it. Don't cut it, burn it , or use it as a garbage dump. If 

you notice a young banyan getting started, help it along by clearing away vines. If you know someone 

who has a banyan on their land, talk to them about its importance for wildlife. The banyan is a living 

testimony to the bounty and riches of Samoan nature, and is a lifeline for our wildlife. 

Pepper Trail, DMWR
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38. Natural foods for wildlife

 An animal's place in its environment is 

determined, more than anything else, by what it 

eats. By studying what the birds and bats of 

American Samoa eat, and when those different 

foods are available, we are better able to 

develop plans to manage and conserve our 

wildlife and to help these animals in a crisis, 

such as after a tropical cyclone. 

 Most animals can be grouped by what 

and how many kinds of foods they eat. 

Animals that eat many different things are 

called generalists, while those that eat only one 

or a few foods are called specialists. True 

specialization is often a two-way dependency: 

an animal depends on a plant for food, and the 

plant depends on that animal to help it disperse 

its seeds. On remote islands like American 

Samoa, there is often not that much of any one 

kind of food, and cyclones can cause serious 

shortages of the foods that are available, so it is 

usually not a good idea for either a plant or an animal to rely on only one other creature. We have few 

bird or bat species that are specialists in American Samoa. 

 The technical word for the generalist, “omnivore”, literally means “eats everything”. Humans 

probably have the broadest diet of any animal -- we happily eat meat, leaves, seeds, fruit, and fungus -- 

not to mention Bongos. Animals that are most likely to survive in new environments, like when they first 

arrived on Tutuila, are often omnivores. A good example is the rat (isumu), which can eat fruit, eggs, 

crabs, fungi, and probably many other things. 

 “Carnivores” are those species that eat almost exclusively other 

animals. We usually think of carnivores as fierce hunters, like wolves or 

lions, but actually any animal that eats other animals is a carnivore. The 

Barn Owl, or lulu, is the only Samoan animal that hunts other birds and 

mammals, but we have lots of other carnivores, including all our fish-eating 

birds and even our many animals that eat insects. 

 “Herbivore” is a description of those animals that eat only plants. 

This is a very general term, so it is better to specify what part of a plant is 

eaten, whether leaves, fruits, or nectar. Each kind of animal usually is good 

at eating only one, or at most two, of these parts of a plant, because they are 

so different. For example, to rely on leaves, you need strong teeth to grind 

up the tough fibers, and a big stomach to process all that material. Cows and 

horses are well equipped for the job. At the other extreme, to rely on nectar (the sweet liquid inside of 

flowers), you need to be able to zip between lots of flowers and reach inside to suck up the small amount 

of juice in each one. Nectar-feeders tend to be small and energetic, with long beaks or tongues to reach 

inside flowers. Finally, to eat fruit, you need to be able to travel long distances, since trees with fruit are 

often hard to find. 

 There are no native Samoan animals that are specialized for eating leaves (except insects and 

snails). However, leaves are regular parts of the diet of fruit bats (pe'a) and Pacific Pigeon (lupe). 

Perhaps the leaves contain a nutrient that can't be found in fruit, or maybe they help to fill up a hungry 

animal when there is little other food available. 

 Nectar is a very important food for many of our local animals. The beautiful red and black 

Cardinal Honeyeater (segasegamau'u) is our most specialized nectar-eater. Its long bill and tongue 

enable it to reach deep into flowers, and its small size allows it to perch on even the tiniest twigs to reach 
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the blossoms. Other birds that eat lots of nectar are the 

Wattled Honeyeater (iao), and the pretty little parrot 

(segavao, sega'ula) found in Manu'a. It may come as a 

surprise that fruit bats also eat a lot of nectar. Bats eat 

flowers from many different kinds of plants, from those 

with large flowers (such as gatae and futu), medium sized 

flowers (such as fa'i), to those with large numbers of 

smaller flowers (such as asi, maota, and 'a'amati'e). The 

bats lick flowers using their long tongues, or sometimes 

take a shortcut and eat the entire flower. 

 

Fruit is the most common item in the diet of the Samoan 

Starling (fuia), Pacific Pigeon (lupe), Purple-capped Fruit 

Dove (manutagi), and fruit bats (pe'a). Though all these 

animals share many of the same foods, each has its 

favorites. Differences in what each species eats are partly 

caused by the different ways they feed and by their 

different sizes. Since lupe and manutagi swallow fruits whole, this limits the size 

of fruit they can eat. Manutagi seem to eat no fruits larger than moso'oi, but lupe

are not as limited because they have really big mouths and can eat all but the 

largest fruits. Although fuia are smaller than lupe, they have stronger bills. This 

allows them to pry open tough husks, and to poke into very large fruits like esi. 

Pe'a can eat the largest and hardest fruits because of their strong jaws and sharp 

teeth. They have a very unique way of feeding: they take a bite from a fruit, but 

don't really swallow it. Instead, each bite is squeezed in the mouth, the pe'a

swallows the juice and pulp, then flicks its head and spits out a flattened mass of 

leftover fruit called an 'ejecta'. 

 The white-naped fruit bats (pe'a fanua) seem to especially like fruits from 

plantations such as mangos, and those from coastal trees such as fetau, although 

maybe they really like flowers best. Samoan fruit bats (pe'a vao) generally prefer 

fruits found in the forest, both from non-native trees like ifi and native species 

such as 'a'amati'e, asi, and gasu. Both bats like figs, especially the green-fruited 

kind of āoa, and perhaps most of all, 'ulu (breadfruit). But if you see bats in your ulu, you needn't worry 

that they are taking food from your mouth -- they like the overripe fruit that has been left on the tree so 

long that people wouldn't eat it anyway. 

Perfume tree (moso’oi) Nutmeg (‘atone) Fig (mati vao) 

 Our most common Columbiformes (lupe and manutagi) all love the fruit of moso'oi. It's funny to 

watch a little manutagi struggling to choke down a big moso'oi fruit -- but they get it down every time. 

Another large fruit favored by lupe (and sometimes eaten by manutagi) is the nutmeg ('atone). This is an 

interesting 'fruit', since what the birds eat is almost entirely indigestible seed -- the useful part is just a 

thin, brightly colored network (red or orange depending on the species of 'atone) that covers the seed. 

This colored part is very fatty and is a good food for birds even if there is not much on each fruit. 
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Apparently this is a successful way to disperse seeds, since 'atone is the 

most common tree in the mature forests of Tutuila. 

 Fruits preferred by manutagi include āoa, mati, the white berries 

of sogā, and the seeds inside maota and mamala fruits. Lupe eat many of 

the same fruits, but are able to eat a greater variety because they are a big 

bird. They also eat the large fruits of māmālava, mamalupe, 'a'amati'e

and 'ala'a. Mamalupe literally means 'pigeon's mouthful': one lupe once 

took a full 30 seconds to swallow a single mamalupe fruit! 

 Nectar feeders and fruit eaters don't just use their food plants -- 

they can help them as well by fertilizing their flowers. This happens 

when pollen from one flower sticks to a bird's feathers or the fur of a 

pe'a, and then rubs off when the animal visits another flower. Fruit eaters 

also help plants. Most of the time this happens when they eat the fruit 

but don't completely digest the seeds; when the animal defecates, the 

seeds may have been moved far from the parent tree where they have a 

better chance to grow. Many plants actually count on animals eating 

their fruits, and so they coat their seeds with a substance that makes them 

hard to digest. In this way, immobile trees accomplish their most 

difficult task -- dispersing (spreading) their seeds. When a tree species 

has no seed dispersers, its spread to new areas will be limited, it can 

become restricted to only a few places, and it is vulnerable to extinction 

from cyclones, diseases, or cutting by people. A good example of such a 

tree is ifilele, which tends to occur in only a few areas on the north side of 

Tutuila. 

 Probably the most important disperser of fruits in American 

Samoa is the fuia, since it eats a very wide variety of fruits. It is 

particularly important in regenerating (converting back to forest) areas 

that have been cleared for plantations or by cyclones. You can see this 

by noting how quickly a cleared area will become covered with lau pata, 

maota, and masame, or how nonu or pua lulu begin sprouting in a 

clearing deep in the forest. Once an area has these initial forest tree 

species, the area becomes more suitable for tree species that prefer 

mature forests, like māmālava or asi. 

You can play an important role in helping the wildlife on our islands by helping our native trees. First, 

avoid cutting down or burning native trees, especially slower growing species such as 'au'auli or 

important coastal species such as fetau. Other trees are so rare or important that they simply should never 

be cut, including āoa, tava, and togo. Some plantations illustrate a good compromise between the needs 

of people and the needs of the forest. As the plantation is cleared, smaller, fast growing trees like lau 

pata or 'atone are cut, but larger trees are avoided, or only their limbs are pruned (cut off). In this way 

crops like talo (taro) get the sunlight they need, but it does not kill large trees that are adapted to 

recovering from cyclone damage. Such trees may resprout leaves and branches, probably about the time a 

farmer is done harvesting the crops from the plantation. 

 Second, help native trees by planting them. You can request seedlings of native species from the 

Land Grant at the Community College. Always plant native trees instead of exotic (foreign) trees unless 

needed for their fruit. For example, āoa should be planted instead of pulu trees. Flame trees, vae povi

and African tulip trees may look attractive to people, but these trees benefit fewer wildlife species than 

our own native trees. For areas such as lawns where large trees are not wanted, tree ferns (oliolī) are an 

attractive native option, while the various kinds of mati are good choices for wildlife. In places where too 

much shade is undesirable, filimoto is a good choice. 

[See Appendix 2 for scientific plant names] Joshua Seamon, Pepper Trail, DWMR 
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39. Island streams (vai)

 Tutuila Island has about 141 small streams that 

flow year-round along at least a portion of their main 

channel. These streams are steep, shallow and short 

(most are less than a mile long). Stream flows are 

generally low but they can flood quickly in response to 

heavy downpours. But even with the high rainfall in our 

mountains (200-300 inches per year), the water drains 

quickly to sea or percolates into the porous volcanic soil 

to recharge our groundwater supply of drinking water.

Our streams support surprisingly few species -- 

there are only about 8-12 freshwater fish species, and not 

many more freshwater invertebrates. The principal 

species are freshwater eels (tuna), gobies (apofu, 

mano'o), mountain bass (sesele, inato), shrimp (ulavai) 

and snails (sisivai). Additional species may enter the lower ends of streams, but they are not restricted to 

a freshwater stream environment. Three non-native fish species were also introduced here, probably in 

the 1970s: mollies (fo-vai; Poecilia mexicana) and mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) to control 

mosquitoes, and tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) to grow in aquaculture. The impact of these alien 

species on the native populations is not known. Additionally, we can only wonder about the impact of the 

alien cane toad (lage) that sometimes has thousands of its young tadpoles swimming in local creeks. 

The low number of species in our streams is in stark contrast to the many marine species living in 

our coastal marine waters (961 fish species and countless invertebrates). Part of the explanation for this 

difference is simply that our streams are small and offer limited habitat for stream-dwelling organisms. 

But another more interesting aspect of this low diversity is: how did any freshwater species get to 

American Samoa in the first place? We are a small island surrounded by hundreds of miles of deep 

ocean. Freshwater species generally cannot survive in saltwater, so how could these freshwater fish, 

shrimps, and snails cross the ocean barrier to get here? 

The trick is that they all have a marine stage in their life cycle. After they spawn, their newly 

hatched larvae wash out of the stream into the ocean where they drift about as marine plankton for a few 

weeks or months. Some make their way back to a coastline where they seek a stream to live out the rest 

of their lives. It might be expected that the few freshwater species that got to our remote islands have 

evolved over thousands of years into unique (endemic) species found nowhere else in the world, but the 

opposite is generally true. The marine stage of these species allows a wide dispersal and continual 

genetic mixing of populations, so most of the species inhabiting our streams are widely distributed across 

the South Pacific. 

Because streams drain the valleys we live in, they serve as good 

indicators of how well we are taking care of the land. Sad to say the 

message is not good. Our streams once provided food and drinking 

water, but now they are treated as a place for people to throw rubbish 

and piggery waste. There have even been a few deaths in American 

Samoa due to leptospirosis, a bacteria from piggeries and other animals 

that pollutes many streams. And, after a heavy rainfall, some streams 

turn chocolate brown with the dirt that erodes from the landscape. Much 

of this soil erosion is due to poor land-use practices such as the farmer's 

bare-earth clearings for plantations on steep mountain slopes and the 

run-off from inadequately designed construction sites. In the former 

case, the farmer not only loses the soil needed to grow his crops, but the 

eroded dirt fouls our streams and ends up in coastal waters where it 

harms our coral reefs. It does not have to be this way. There are better 

ways to dispose of rubbish and to prevent erosion that can make streams 

a healthier place for fish as well as for the children who play in the streams. 

P.Craig, NPS
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40. Life in a Samoan stream: fish, snails & shrimp

Streams are the plumbing of our islands. They rely solely on rain, which seeps from steep rainforest-clad 

hills and trickles through the porous volcanic soil carrying with it the products of the land. Small streams 

join with others to create a mosaic of channels across the landscape. Waterfalls, cascades, pools, and 

riffles make each stream unique and influence the kinds of animals found there. 

Our freshwater stream animals play an important role in maintaining a healthy stream ecosystem. These 

species might be overlooked because they are shy and rather blandly colored, which might lead you to 

assume they are not there at all, but that of course is not true. The best way to observe them is to find a 

spot on a rock and quietly watch until they emerge from their hiding places. Keep in mind that from the 

animal’s point of view there is a lot going on. Animals are constantly interacting with each other as well 

as with their environment. The presence of a predator, for example, will have a huge influence on the 

behavior of its prey. It is a constant game of cat and mouse, eat or be eaten. Habitat type, or where an 

animal likes to live, is also very important. Certain species prefer pools, others like shallow riffles, and 

for most species, waterfalls are barriers to their upstream movements although a few hardy species can 

climb up them. 

Fish. Predatory fishes, like the freshwater eel 

(Angullia spp.), mountain bass (Kuhlia spp.), and 

dusky sleeper (Eleotris fusca) tend to dominate the 

lower reaches of a stream and feed on smaller fish 

and shrimp. They are only average climbers and 

cannot make it up the steep slopes of a waterfall. 

Instead they rely mainly on their powerful 

swimming and gliding ability to move through 

small rapids and over boulders and rocks. Look for 

eels in crevices and holes. Mountain bass are often seen in pools not far from the ocean. Their silvery 

sides and flag-like tails make them easy to spot. The dusky sleeper uses stealth and surprise to catch its 

prey. It props itself on rocks using its fins and turns darker for camouflage when ambushing prey. For 

this reason this species is not an easy one to spot. 

Herbivorous fishes, like the small gobies (Stiphodon spp. and Sicyopterus spp.), are usually present in 

large numbers. They may be seen in quiet riffles and pools grazing on long green algal strands or the 

slippery brown algae coating the rocks. An 

interesting feature of the goby is that its pelvic fins 

form a suction cup that enables the goby to cling to 

rocks and climb waterfalls. One goby (Stiphodon 

hydoreibatus) is endemic to Samoa and found 

nowhere else in the world. 

Snails. Stream snails, which all belong to the family Neritidae, are herbivores that graze on the algae 

growing on stream rocks. About a dozen species are known locally. Two distinct types of neritid snails 

are present. One is the rounded black/brown shell of the Neritina or Clithon species. The shell of these 

has little or no spire and an interesting device called an “operculum” that acts like a trap door. This 

allows the snail to retract into its shell and literally close the door -- a great mechanism to have when you 

do not want to be eaten. 

The other type of shell is the cap-like Septaria species. It has no visible operculum and therefore the snail 

cannot retract into its shell. Instead it clamps to rocks with its muscular foot, making it very hard to 

detach. This is useful when you live in turbulent rapids or on steep walls. Besides these two differences, 

you may also notice variations in shell color, pattern, and texture. They range from light to very dark 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

73

Neritina variegata Clithon corona Septaria sanguisuga 

brown with zigzag, wavy, or straight lines, or none at all. They may be smooth and shiny or grooved and 

wrinkled. Some even have horns. 

A small turret shaped snail (Melanoides sp.) can also be found near the edge of streams in gravel and 

mud. This species is found throughout the Pacific. 

Shrimp. Probably the most versatile 

freshwater species are the shrimp. 

American Samoa is home to two 

families, Atyidae and Palaemonidae, 

each with 4-5 species. The palaemonid 

Macrobrachium shrimp are possibly 

the most well known and can be seen 

in the lower to middle reaches of our 

streams. They are easy to identify by 

their large pincers. When wading 

through pools and shallow runs, watch 

for these shrimp as they make a quick 

retreat at your approach. Although shy, they will reappear if 

you keep still. These scavengers feed on both plant and animal 

material. They may also dislodge Neritina and Corona snails 

from rocks, open them up and devour them. 

Atyidae shrimp can be found throughout many clean streams. 

Some are excellent climbers and congregate in the lee of rocks 

and boulders of fast flowing streams. Others seek a quiet place 

in the vegetation and roots of plants near a stream edge where 

flow is slow. These shrimp exhibit distinct feeding behaviors. 

In fast flowing water they orient themselves in the direction of 

the current and spread the fine brushes on their front legs to 

form upturned umbrellas. They use these to filter food particles 

carried in the current and then push them into their mouth. In 

slower moving water they use their brushes to pluck food 

items from plants and gravel. 

Stream insects. Although aquatic insects are common 

inhabitants in streams around the world, they are not wellrepresented on our small oceanic islands. Few of the terrestrial 

insects we see in American Samoa have an aquatic stage in 

their life cycle, some exceptions being a few dragonflies (see 

page 86), damselflies, midges, mayflies, and beetles. 

K. van Houte-Howes and Don Vargo 

ASCC Land Grant 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

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41. Stream posters

Lisa Wade, Sharon Fanolua, Agnes Vargo, and Don Vargo 

ASCC Land Grant 
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Lisa Wade, Sharon Fanolua, Agnes Vargo, and Don Vargo 

ASCC Land Grant 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

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Lisa Wade, Sharon Fanolua, Agnes Vargo, and Don Vargo 

ASCC Land Grant 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

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42. Snakes in Samoa ! 

Snakes in Samoa? You bet. Two kinds, one right here on Tutuila Island and the other on Ta'u Island. 

Fortunately, neither is the dreaded brown tree snake (more about that below). Also fortunately, neither is 

poisonous, both mind their own business, and they are no threat to anyone. 

On Tutuila, we have an unusually small black snake that 

looks like an odd earthworm about 6 inches long. A closer 

inspection reveals that it has tiny scales (see close-up 

photo). It's called the Australoasian blindsnake 

(Ramphotyphlops braminus), because it has almost no eyes 

and it burrows through the soil. This secretive nocturnal 

snake is occasionally found by someone digging in their 

garden. It eats small soil creatures like termites and insect 

larvae. 

This harmless snake is widely distributed around the world, 

but it is not native to our islands. It was probably 

introduced here when its eggs were carried in the soil attached to some imported 

plants or machinery. In 1993, it was found in the Tafuna area. Others have been 

found in the Pago Pago and Alega. 

The other snake found infrequently on Ta'u Island is the gata or Pacific boa 

(Candoia bibroni). It also occurs in western Samoa. At one time it inhabited 

Tutuila Island (its bones were found there) but it went extinct for unknown 

reasons. On Ofu, an older resident remembers seeing one there when he was a 

child. 

The Pacific boa is more commonly found on islands closer to Indonesia; American Samoa appears to be 

the eastward limit of its distribution. Rather than being a native species here, it is thought to have been 

introduced by early Polynesians. It can grow to a respectable length of 3 to 6 feet and is tan or darkly 

colored, but its coloration can be variable. This species is usually found in forests, it is active mainly at 

night, and it probably eats lizards, rats, and small birds and bird eggs. 

The Pacific boa looks a lot like another undesirable snake species, the brown tree snake (Boiga 

irregularis), which we don't have in Samoa and hopefully never will. You may have heard that the 

brown tree snake invaded Guam and caused havoc there. It wiped out Guam's native bird species and 

helped decimate their fruit bat 

populations by eating the young bats 

left hanging in the trees when the 

adults flew off to find food. 

Parents in Guam were even advised to 

keep their infants and small children 

away from this snake because it is 

somewhat poisonous and occasionally 

has been caught lunching on a baby's 

arm. How's that for a reptilian 

nightmare! 

Well, not to fear. We do not have the 

brown tree snake in Samoa. So, if you 

Not in American Samoa yet ! 

Brown tree snake 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

78

see a large snake on Ta'u island, don't kill it. However, if you see one on Tutuila Island, it is very 

important that you send it to DMWR for identification. It is essential that we keep the brown tree snake 

out of American Samoa. Several of them have already slipped into Hawaii hidden in air cargo shipments 

from Guam. The snakes will crawl into the cargo or onto the plane's landing gear and then go wherever 

the plane goes. 

A final note. On rare occasions, sea snakes have been seen in our coastal waters. One verified airbreathing banded sea snake (Laticauda sp.) was collected here in 2000. However, most local sightings of 

“sea snakes” are actually fish (eels) that are very snake-like in appearance. It would not be difficult to 

confuse them (see photos below). But sea snakes do occur in our region. We lie at the eastern range limit 

for most of the Indo-Pacific species, and resident populations occur in Niue (2 sea snake species), Tonga 

(2 species), and Fiji (at least 4 species). Niue is located only 330 miles south of American Samoa. 

Additionally, the pelagic yellow-bellied sea snake (Pelamis platurus) is widely distributed in the South 

Pacific and has been recorded both to the east and west of Samoa. 

Banded 

sea snake 

Banded 

snake eel 

(a fish) 

Moray eel 

(a fish) 

P.Craig 

NPS 
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43. Skinks & geckos (pili, pilimo’o)

Because of our islands’ isolation, it is not surprising that the reptile fauna here is small, both in number of 

species and in body size. The most prominent representatives of the land reptiles are the lizards, 

specifically skinks (pili) and geckos (pilimo’o). Both groups are made up of animals that are small, long, 

and four-legged, but that is where the similarities stop. 

Geckos are probably the most familiar group of lizards on the islands because several species will happily 

live with people. These are the lizards that scurry across your ceiling or stalk bugs by your porch light. 

How they are able to run upside down across ceilings or smooth glass has to do with their amazing toes. 

On the bottom of each toe are thousands of microscopic hooked hairs which are able to grip even the 

tiniest imperfection on a surface. Scientists are now coming to realize that the hairs are also sticky due to 

molecular attraction. What is important to us is their seemingly insatiable appetite for small flying 

insects, protecting us from countless mosquito bites each night. 

Geckos are also noticeable to us because of their 

distinct voices. You can’t live here long without 

becoming familiar with the geckos in your house 

by the sounds of their loud chirps. One species 

actually had the same sound as my old phone, so I 

kept waking up at night to gecko “phone calls”. 

Most geckos typically hide on tree-trunks during 

the day, so they are understandably rather cryptic 

and camouflaged, usually in shades of brown and 

often sporting a mottled or blotchy pattern which 

helps to break up their outline aiding their 

camouflage (see photo of stump-tailed gecko at 

right). 

While geckos are nocturnal and noisy, skinks are 

the opposite. Skinks are voiceless and active 

mostly during the day. These are ground-dwelling 

lizards although you may also see them clamoring 

among the bushes, but they are hardly the climbers 

that geckos are. Many skinks are quite content to 

remain concealed under a stone or rotting log, 

eating the many invertebrates drawn to this 

microhabitat. They may dart across your path while walking through the native forest. Skinks are often 

more boldly colored; some even have vividly colored tails in bright shades of red or brilliant blue. 

There are two reasons why a small 

lizard would want to have such a 

wildly colored tail. A brightly colored 

animal may be more attractive to 

mates and may have better 

reproductive success which passes on 

their genes for bright colors. The 

other reason is to escape from 

predators. If caught by the tail, most 

lizards can shed their tails which often 

writhe and squirm, helping to keep the 

House gecko (non-native) 

(Hemidactylus frenatus)

Stump-toed gecko 

(Gehrya mutilatus)
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predator's attention so the lizard has a better chance of escape. So, with a brightly colored tail and a drab, 

more camouflaged body, a predator is more likely to attack the lizard’s tail, which for a lizard is a good 

thing. 

Our island lizards are invaluable, harmless reptiles that provide a beneficial service by eating both 

airborne pests as well as agricultural pests that eat the crops we grow for food. See page 60 for a 

complete list of lizard species in American Samoa. 

Paul Brown, NPS

Brown-tailed striped skink 

(Emoia cyanura) 

Samoan skink 

(Emoia samoensis)

 House gecko with 

 regenerating tail 

 

Black skink 

(pili uli) 

(Emoia nigra) 
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44. Land and shore crabs 

Crabs evolved in the ocean, so it is almost impossible for them to come ashore because their delicate gills 

would dry out and the crab would die. A few hardy species have overcome this hurdle, but none has truly 

broken free from the ocean. Shore crabs require occasional dips in the ocean to wet their gills, and all 

crabs, including the land crabs, must still return to the ocean to lay their eggs. The ocean is where their 

larvae develop before the young crabs crawl back onto land. The life cycle of these crabs is a marriage 

between the marine and terrestrial worlds. 

Local shore crabs include ghost crabs on sandy beaches, shore crabs on rocky shorelines, and hermit crabs 

that blunder about the beaches and forest. Hermit crabs (uga) use empty snail shells to protect their 

abdomen and to provide a moist environment for their gills. When threatened, they withdraw quickly into 

their snail shell with their legs forming a clever protective door (see photo). But they sure seem to pay a 

hefty price for this convenience by having to drag those heavy shells wherever they go. 

Beach hermit crabs (uga) 

There is also a much larger and more terrestrial 

hermit crab occasionally seen crawling around the 

forest floor. This species (Coenobita brevimanus) 

measures up to 8 inches between outstretched legs. 

It is too large to withdraw into its shell and on 

occasion you might see it wearing a plastic or glass 

container instead. Like other hermit crabs, this 

species always requires a snail shell to live in, and it 

does not grow up to become a coconut crab. 

The ama'ama shore crab (Grapsus sp.) shown below 

climbs out of the water for at least three reasons: to 

escape hungry moray eels that like to eat crabs, to 

graze on the algae growing on exposed intertidal 

rocks, and to safely shed its own shell when the crab 

needs to grow larger. Because crabs have an external shell 

(exoskeleton), they can’t grow any larger until they break out 

of their old shell and make a larger one, a process known as 

molting. All crustaceans (shrimp, lobsters, crabs, etc.) have 

the same kind of exoskeleton, so they must molt as well. 

During molting, these organisms are soft-shelled and highly 

vulnerable to predators, so the rock crab climbs high up the 

shoreline rocks where it hopes it won’t be seen while it molts. 

You can occasionally find one of their empty crab shells 

strangely perched high up on a shoreline rock. 
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82

Ghost crabs (Ocypode sp.) are responsible for most of the holes you see on beach where they hide during 

the daytime. They have sharp eyesight and can run fast, although once in a while you might surprise one 

and it freezes still, hoping you will walk on by without noticing it. At night, take a walk on a remote 

beach and spot them with a flashlight. They act like they have some important business going on. 

Ghost crab (avi'ivii) digging its beach tunnel at night (right photo).

Our best known land crab is the large and edible coconut crab (Birgus latro), which weighs 4-7 pounds 

and has a leg span up to about 30 inches. It has developed a special lung-like organ of spongy tissue that 

enables it to breath air. This crab leads a fully terrestrial existence except when it comes time to lay its 

eggs in the ocean. The eggs hatch into larvae that drift in the ocean for about a month before migrating 

shoreward. The youngest coconut crabs use a snail shell for protection during this early period but then 

abandon this practice for the remainder of their long life (up to 40 years). They are nocturnal scavengers 

that eat coconuts, fruit, dead animals, and other organic material. There is some uncertainty about the 

crab's ability to husk and eat coconuts; some observers believe that the crabs are able to do so only if a 

coconut was damaged when it fell from the tree. 

Coconut crab (u, ūū), juvenile (left), adult (right). 

Coconut crabs are easily caught, so few are found in areas where people live. Another liability for these 

crabs must be trying to cross our island roads, both when small coconut crabs migrate inland from the sea, 

and again when large mature female crabs crawl back to sea to release their eggs. During new moon 

nights in summer months, squashed crab road-kills are evidence of an untimely end to their journey. 

P. Craig, NPS 
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45. Disappearing land snails (sisi vao) 

Snails belong to the second largest group of animals on earth, 

the mollusks. Only the arthropods (insects, crustaceans and 

their relatives) have more known species. Snails are found 

just about everywhere – the ocean, streams, lakes, and on land. 

Over 90 native species of land snails (sisi vao) occur in the 

Samoan Archipelago. Of these, 64 occur in western Samoa 

and 47 in American Samoa (many species are found in both 

places). Many are found only on our islands – that is, they are 

endemic to the Samoan Archipelago. Some of them even 

occur only on a single island, so they are endemic to that 

island. Slugs, which are snail-like mollusks that have no shell, 

also occur locally, but none is a native species -- all are recent 

introductions to our islands. 

Snail shells come in all shapes and sizes – flat, tall, rounded or spiraled. 

Some live in trees, where they may eat dying leaves. Others live on the 

ground and probably feed on dead leaves. Together with fungi and other microorganisms that help to 

decompose the leaf debris, snails contribute to the cycling of nutrients through the ecosystem. 

We do not know much about the basic biology of these land snails. Some species have separate males 

and females, but others are hermaphrodites, whereby each snail is both male and female. However, most 

hermaphroditic snails still reproduce by mating with another individual – each snail can act 

simultaneously as a male and as a female, or in some species the snails take turns being males and 

females. Most snails lay eggs, but some give birth to live young – miniature snails that simply crawl 

away. The snails that produce live young tend to grow and reproduce very slowly – some of the tree 

snails may take over a year to reach full size and may live as long as 5-10 years, producing only 10-20 

young per year. This contrasts with egg-laying species that probably grow much quicker, produce many 

eggs, but do not live as long. 

There are three possible ways that land snails might have crossed 

the ocean to get to our remote islands. First, they might have been 

carried over the ocean from a distant continent – or from another 

island – on rafts of driftwood or fallen logs. But salt kills land 

snails, so this seems unlikely. Perhaps they were carried here by 

birds. Sometimes snails get caught up in the feathers of birds, 

especially if they are really small snails. And third, they might have 

been blown by the wind. Scientists have found that very small 

snails can indeed be blown long distances by strong winds. A small 

snail attached to a leaf, caught up in a cyclone, could be blown hundreds, perhaps thousands of miles 

across the ocean. Through evolutionary time (millions of years), these seemingly unlikely events had 

only to happen very occasionally in order for a few land snails to eventually colonize our islands. 

Once the land snails arrived and managed to survive, they began to evolve to local conditions. Some 

species changed and became so different from their ancestors that scientists now identify them as 

different species. Others evolved into more than one species. This is how the Samoan islands came to 

have many land snail species found nowhere else on earth – they evolved after they arrived here. 

Many of the local snail species have attractively colored shells and have often been used in the making of 

ula or lei and for other ornamental purposes. For instance, the hanging light fixtures in the old lobby of 

the Rainmaker Hotel in Pago Pago contained 10,000 or more shells of tree snails that used to be abundant 

in the forests of Tutuila. 
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84

But now many of our local snail species are disappearing. At least 7 species have become extremely rare 

and one of them, Diastole matafaoi from Tutuila, is now extinct. Others are undoubtedly in trouble but 

have simply not been fully evaluated yet. The two main reasons for their decline are the same reasons 

that biodiversity is vanishing all over the world. First is habitat destruction or modification. As native 

forest is cut down for timber or cleared for agriculture or urban development, the habitat of those snail 

species that depend on the forest disappears and so the snails disappear too. Second is the introduction to 

the islands of alien species – species that have been brought to the islands by humans, either on purpose 

or accidentally. These aliens include pigs that degrade the forest by rooting for food and creating 

wallows, plants that grow and reproduce more strongly than the native species and replace them in the 

forest, birds that spread alien plants by carrying their seeds into native forest, rats and ants that prey on 

snails, and many other species that people have introduced to the islands. These alien species also include 

snails and slugs that come from elsewhere in the world. Most people are likely to see only these aliens 

unless they hike into the most pristine native forest. 

Perhaps the most commonly seen are the giant African snail (sisi aferika, Achatina fulica) and the large 

black or brown slugs. But there are many other species that are not so obvious but can be found easily 

just by turning over some leaves on the ground almost anywhere in the islands. The giant African snail is 

a pest of agriculture and in gardens but some of these other less well-known species may also be causing 

problems for the native snail species. Two of the alien species (Subulina octona, Paropeas achatinaceum) 

are now the most abundant snails in the leaf debris of native forest throughout the islands. It is quite 

possible that they are impacting native snails by competing them for the resources they depend upon. 

Another alien snail, the predatory snail known as the 

‘cannibal snail’ or ‘rosy wolf snail’ (Euglandina rosea), 

was introduced in an ill-conceived attempt to control the 

giant African snail by eating it. It was introduced even 

though there is no scientific evidence that it would reduce 

populations of the African snail. The problem is that it 

attacks native snail species that had evolved in the absence 

of such aggressive predators. Some of our local species 

reproduce at a very slow rate and this means that their 

populations are highly vulnerable to sustained predation. 

Euglandina rosea is thought to have been introduced only to Tutuila and Ta’u. In western Samoa it was 

introduced to Upolu in the 1990s. 

An even more voracious predator of snails, the flatworm Platydemus manokwari, 

was unfortunately introduced to Upolu in 2003 to control the African snail. This 

free-living flatworm was also found on Tutuila and Ta'u islands in about 2004. It 

is black or dark brown, with a single line down its back, and it can grow to almost 

3 inches long and 1/4 inch wide. This flatworm is believed to have decimated snail 

populations on other Pacific islands. 

Robert Cowie 

University of Hawaii 
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46. Four large insects: afato, se, alisi, lelefue

Insects are an impressive group. They are immensely abundant and diverse (over 800,000 species 

worldwide), they inhabit almost every terrestrial and aquatic habitat imaginable, and they were on earth 

long before the dinosaurs ever roamed. Over 2,500 species have been recorded in the Samoan 

Archipelago, with many more yet to be documented. Four large but somewhat secretive insects are 

featured here. All are harmless. 

Giant longhorn beetle. These beetles are unusual for two reasons: 

they grow very large and people eat them. The adult beetle 

pictured here was almost 3 inches long from head to tail. What 

does it eat with those large powerful jaws? It lays its eggs in 

standing dead trees (particularly māmālava, tufaso, tavai) and 

after hatching, the larvae feed on the surrounding wood. These 

larvae (afato) grow very large and are collected and eaten in 

Samoa, Fiji and probably throughout the South Pacific. Two 

villages in Savai’i are particularly well known for harvesting 

many afato: Gataivai and Aopo. Afato are fed coconut shavings, 

and then they are often eaten with coconut cream, and they taste like .... 

coconut. But times are changing in American Samoa -- one person 

said he had eaten afato in the past but now he prefers to eat a Big Mac. 

Walking stick (se). These large green or brown insects 

can grow up to 5 inches long. They usually remain 

motionless and look like a branch or small twig, hoping 

that this camouflage will spare them from being eaten 

by a hungry Samoan starling (fuia). These slowmoving ‘sticks’ feed on leaves, most notably coconut 

fronds. Some can fly, although not very gracefully -- if 

one lands on a person, a local belief is that it is a 

messenger announcing that someone will be coming to visit you. 

Katydid (alisi). Here’s one of the insects that makes all that noise at dusk 

(along with the crickets and cicadas). As the sun sets, katydids start the 

evening with a loud screechy chorus that lasts about 20 minutes. After a little 

warm-up noise, they synchronize with their neighbors so that all of them are 

screeching in unison. These are male katydids trying to attract females. The 

sound is produced as they rub special structures on their front wings, back and 

forth. Katydids are green, about 1.5 inches long, and look like a leaf. Just 

like the walking sticks, katydids hope their camouflage make them difficult to 

see. Katydids are related to crickets and grasshoppers and are sometimes 

called long-horned grasshoppers. 

Hummingbird moth (lelefua). At dusk you might be surprised to see 

what looks like a hummingbird hovering in front of a flower, sipping 

its nectar. This is actually a thick-bodied moth with an extremely 

rapid wing beat and a long proboscis that it sticks down the flower 

tubes. This is a good example of convergent evolution, where two 

very different kinds of organisms (a bird and a moth) evolved a 

similar way to extract nectar out of long, delicate flowers. The moth 

is also known as the hawk or sphinx moth. 

P.Craig, NPS 
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47. Dragonflies and damselflies (seemu)

Only a few groups of aquatic insects have managed to successfully colonize the remote islands of the 

Pacific. Among the most successful of these are the Odonata, or dragonflies and damselflies (seemu), the 

adults of which may be commonly seen flying above streams and ponds. American Samoa supports a 

diverse native biota of Odonata, including at least 13 species, all of which are native species and 3 are 

endemic (found only in the Samoan islands). All 13 species occur on Tutuila, but only a single smallsized, widespread damselfly species, Ischnura aurora, is presently known from the Manu’a Islands. 

Odonata are predators in both their immature and adult stages, and they eat mosquitoes and other insects. 

The immature stages of the Samoan species are aquatic and utilize a variety of habitats, ranging from 

standing water ponds, to rocky streams, to wet bedrock seeps. 

The Samoan Odonata represent an interesting component of the islands’ freshwater biodiversity, and one 

well worth conserving. The major threat to these species, as elsewhere in the Pacific, is the introduction 

of invasive freshwater species such as fishes and amphibians. Other invasive species threats include 

insectivorous birds, and the little fire ant, Wasmannia auropunctata, which invades riparian zones (stream 

banks) and has had negative impacts on the stream invertebrate biotas of other Pacific islands, by 

attacking Odonata as they cling to rocks or vegetation while emerging from the aquatic immature stage to 

the flying adult state. This invasive ant is present in the Cook Islands and the Solomons, and has a clear 

potential to spread to American Samoa via ship-borne commerce. 

Dan Polhemus, Div. Aquatic Resources, Hawaii 

Dragonfly, Lathrecista asiatica Dragonfly, Macrodiplax cora

Damselfly, Amorphostigma sp. Damselfly, Ischnura aurora
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48. The bugs in your house 

There will always be some bugs in your house, so relax a little and get used to them. Before you know it, 

you will be sweeping termite droppings off your kitchen counter as if you didn’t have a care in the world. 

Several common household insects (beetles, moths, termites, cockroaches, wasps, ants) and other 

arthropods (centipedes, millipedes, spiders) are described below. 

Centipede (atualoa). The large, 6-inch brown centipede (Scolopendra

subspinipes) is well known locally but not commonly seen. It is fast and 

scary looking as it searches for things to eat at night. Occasionally someone 

gets bitten and it can be extremely painful. The local Emergency Medical 

Services responds to a few calls each month, particularly after a lot of rainfall 

has driven the atualoa to higher grounds. People vary in their response to a 

bite, but for most, there is not much that can be done about it, and the pain 

will usually lessen in a few hours. 

Millipedes (anufesaina). Millipedes are neither insects nor worms but a different 

kind of arthropod. They differ from centipedes in being slower, rounder and 

having two pairs of little legs per body segment. Our local millipedes grow up to 

about two inches long. They are active at night and feed primarily on rotting 

wood and leaves. They are generally harmless and curl up when threatened. 

However, anufesaina have defensive glands along the sides of their body that can 

produce a foul and sometimes poisonous secretion, and they can cause a burn-like 

pain on your skin if you squash one. 

Cockroaches (moga moga). At least give cockroaches some credit for 

inhabiting earth millions of years before we humans ever showed up. 

Nonetheless, it is their fate to be despised insects associated with filth. They 

are extremely hardy scavengers that will eat almost anything. One species 

living here is the large non-native American cockroach, Periplaneta 

americana. Their egg cases look like brown beans, each containing 10-20 

eggs that hatch in 5-7 weeks. Their total life span is probably 2 years or so. 

Cockroaches are nocturnal, so if they are also seen during daytime, your 

house may be heavily infested. 

Ensign wasps. A wasp yes, but a good one, so don’t swat it. You’ll 

occasionally see these spider-like black insects flying around the house. They look 

like they were built out of parts that don’t quite match up. There’s a large head, and 

a boxy middle part (thorax), followed by a tiny posterior (abdomen) hanging off the 

back that bobs up and down like a flag being waved (the “ensign”). These wasps 

don’t sting people. Instead they use their “stinger” to lay their eggs inside cockroach egg cases. Before 

the young cockroaches can emerge from the case, the wasp eggs hatch first and eat all the cockroach eggs. 

All in all, these little “black flag” wasps probably kill a lot more cockroaches than we ever could with our 

spray-can insecticides. 

Termites. There are usually two times when we notice termites in the house. The first 

is when a large swarm of them suddenly appears fluttering around a light bulb in the 

evening. These are male and female termites in love. What identifies them as 

termites is their large, equal-size pair of wings, and that they shed their wings after their 

nuptial flight. It's sad to see them do this – purposely give up the gift of flight for a life 

of eating wood. But that's what they do and they do it well. Wooden structures don't 

last long here. The second time we notice termites is when we see the daily piles of 

their droppings on the kitchen counter or floor. At one point, their droppings in my 
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house were so numerous, I collected them in plastic bags, with the idea that maybe I could market them 

as “South Pacific pollen” to some health food store in California. 

Ambrosia beetles. These irritating little beetles appear in the early evening, fly towards 

the light, and crawl on you like fleas in your hair. If you don’t know what I’m talking 

about, you are one of the privileged people whom these beetles do not bother. These 

wood-boring insects (Xyleborus sp.) are dark brown and 2.5 mm long. They are called 

ambrosia beetles because they carry a fungus (the “ambrosia”) that they use to inoculate 

the tunnels that they drill into a tree. The fungus grows in the tunnels and provides food for their larvae. 

After mating, the female beetles emerge and go in search of another tree to lay their eggs in. 

 

Casebearer moth. At some point you may notice these odd little insects dragging around 

their flat diamond-shaped cases. These are the larvae of the small casebearer moth 

(Phereoeca sp.). The larva is visible when it extends out of the case, but it retreats into the 

case when threatened or it turns around and pops out the other end. They plod on, as if they 

really have someplace to go. The larger cases are about 1-cm in length and are made out 

of silk fibers encrusted with debris such as sand particles, hair, and insect parts. The larva 

lives and grows in the case for about 2 months, feeding on odd things like old spider webs, 

wool fibers, etc. After pupating, the larva develops into a tiny gray moth that measures 

about 5 mm from head to tip of wings. A female moth lives only a week and lays about 200 eggs. 

Spiders (apogaleveleve, fe'euta). We have a variety of web-spinning spiders 

in the house, as well as hunting spiders that don't make webs but actively 

search for their prey. Some are quite big and may give you a fright, but none 

is known to cause us problems. Hunting spiders include jumping spiders 

(which hunt in the daytime and are common in houses), wolf spiders (not 

often seen in houses), and large huntsman spiders that are big enough to catch 

cockroaches. Remember: they are eating the other bugs in your house. 

Ants (loi). Ants are everywhere here. You may not notice them very much until you 

leave some leftover sweets or other food lying around and come back later to find it 

crawling with ants transporting it piece by piece or drop by drop back to their nest. One 

common species is the crazy ant, Paratrechina longicornis. They are black, about three 

millimeters long, and have long legs and antennae. They seem to be running all the time, 

and it’s amazing how fast they can appear by the dozens around some spilled soda or 

juice. When disturbed they run even faster, circling and zigzagging all over -- as if they really are crazy. 

Bug eaters: geckos (pilimo’o). From the abundance of gecko droppings around my house, it’s apparent 

that the geckos hanging on the walls are eating lots of bugs. Think of these droppings as little blessings in 

disguise. 

P.Craig, NPS 

Mark Schmaedick, 

 ASCC Land Grant 

Spiders hatching from egg case. 
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49. Mosquitoes (namu), Filariasis & Dengue Fever

 

Mosquitoes may play a role in the grand scheme of things, but their focus on sucking my blood is not 

endearing. Worse still, they can infect us with two diseases in American Samoa -- more about that 

shortly. 

At least 12 species of mosquitoes (namu) occur here. Most are common 

across the western South Pacific region, but some are endemic to the 

Samoan islands (Aedes upolensis, Coquillettidia samoaensis, 

Ochlerotatus samoanus, Oc. tutuilae) and a few are newly introduced. 

Their life cycle involves several stages -- the adults fly, but their 

juveniles live in water. To reproduce, the adult female needs to obtain a 

blood meal (from you) to develop her eggs. She then lays her eggs in 

quiet puddles of water where they hatch and grow. The larvae must 

breath air, so they generally hang around at the water surface but will 

wiggle quite actively when disturbed. After a week or two, the larvae 

pupate (a resting stage) and then emerge as flying adults. Females may 

live for 2-3 weeks and lay several clutches of eggs (each requires a 

blood meal). Only the female mosquito searches for a blood meal; the 

males (the ones with fuzzy antennae) feed on plant nectar. Also, not all 

the mosquitoes are after you personally -- some species seek out birds 

as their preferred blood meal. 

The female mosquito finds you by following signals given off by your 

body such as odors, body heat, and carbon dioxide. Light and movement also help her zero-in on you. 

She then sinks her long and thin mouth parts into your skin and sucks out a drop of blood, engorging so 

much that she can barely fly away. During the biting process, she secretes saliva into the cut to prevent 

the blood from coagulating. Your body’s reaction to this saliva is what causes the bite to itch and swell. 

Mosquitoes can carry two diseases in American Samoa: filariasis and dengue fever. Both can cause 

serious problems. These diseases are spread by specific mosquito species: dengue (principally Aedes 

polynesiensis and Ae. aegypti) and filariasis (mainly Aedes polynesiensis, and Oc. samoanus). 

Filariasis, also known as elephantiasis (tutupa, mūmū), is caused by parasitic nematode worms called 

filariae. When an infected mosquito bites you, these minute worms crawl from the mosquito’s 

mouthparts onto your body and into the cut. This is not a particularly efficient way to enter your body, so 

the number of them transmitted from a single mosquito bite is probably limited. Multiple mosquito bites 

by infected A. polynesiensis may be needed before a person develops the full-blown disease. The worms 

lodge in a person’s lymphatic system where they can live for 4-6 years and produce millions of minute 

larvae (microfilariae). These larvae circulate in your blood and are sucked up by other mosquitoes that 

bite you and thus can be spread to other people. In severe cases, filariasis can cause a very large swelling 

of arms, legs or genitals. 

The number of people infected in American Samoa has been high. In 1999, people in several villages 

here were examined for filariasis and 17% were found to be currently or recently infected. But not all 

these people have swollen limbs. In general, about half of the people who are infected show no 

symptoms of the disease, but they may develop them as they get older. Our local Public Health 

Department together with the Center for Disease Control has joined a worldwide program to reduce 

filariasis by giving every person on island a medication that kills the microfilariae circulating in your 

blood, thus preventing their further spread by mosquitoes. The cycle of infection can be broken if the 
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number of people carrying this disease is significantly reduced. By 2007, the local infection rate had 

dropped to 2%. 

Dengue fever is also transmitted by mosquitoes. Dengue is a viral disease that is rapidly expanding in 

tropical and subtropical areas of the world. It’s not native to American Samoa but is periodically brought 

here by travelers from other infected areas. It then gets spread around primarily by the daytime-biting 

Aedes polynesiensis and Ae. aegypti mosquitoes. This virus is present in the mosquito’s saliva, so it is 

injected directly into you when an infected mosquito bites you. Symptoms range from mild fevers to 

severe and potentially life-threatening illness. No vaccine is available yet. 

A key point to emphasize here is that filariasis and dengue cannot be spread 

directly from person to person. An intermediate host, the mosquito, is required 

to transmit the disease. 

Three other mosquito-borne diseases are worth mentioning. The most serious 

one, malaria, does not occur in American Samoa. It is found in the western 

region of the South Pacific, but the particular species of mosquito that 

transmits malaria (the Anopheles mosquito) does not occur this far east. A 

different type of malaria does occur here, but it infects only birds (avian malaria). The birds don’t seem 

to be greatly affected by it however, perhaps because they’ve adapted to it over a long period of time. 

There is also a mosquito-borne parasitic nematode on island that affects dogs (heartworm). 

Will tourists to American Samoa pick up these diseases? Not too likely. First, dengue is usually not 

present here; it occurs only when an infected traveler brings the disease here. Second, filariasis probably 

requires multiple bites by specific mosquito species, and probably only a small percent of this species 

actually carries the disease at any given time. 

Scientists predict that we may see an increase in such diseases due to global warming. Although exact 

mechanisms are not known, many pathogens are sensitive to temperature; for example, growth, 

reproduction, and biting rates of insects all increase with higher temperatures. Global warming appears to 

be triggering a number of disease epidemics worldwide, involving a diversity of pathogens (viruses, 

bacteria, fungi, parasites) and a wide range of hosts (humans, corals, oysters, terrestrial plants, birds). 

There are several basic measures that can be taken to reduce mosquito-borne diseases to your family: 

1. Find their breeding sites. Mosquitoes require water to complete their life cycle, so removing 

pockets of standing water around your house will help reduce their numbers. Survey your yard and 

eliminate areas where water can collect, such as discarded tires, buckets, coconut shells, saimin bowls, 

aluminum cans, cemetery urns, clogged roof gutters, etc. Drill holes in the bottom of large containers 

so that the water does not accumulate in them, or cover large objects like rain barrels with screening. 

2. Avoid getting bitten. When the mosquitoes are out, wear long-sleeved shirts and long-pants. Use 

repellants and insecticides safely. Repair window screens on your house, and if needed, sleep under 

mosquito net tents while resting during the day and night. 

3. Take filariasis medicine. Remember, you can be infected with the filariasis worm and not have 

symptoms. The filariasis medicine is effective, but unfortunately it was discontinued in 2007. 

4. Be thankful for the swiftlets (pe’ape’a). They eat mosquitoes (and other flying insects). 

P.Craig, NPS 
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50. Fungus: the vital decomposers (pulouaitu)

What do leaf spots, beer, itchy feet, rotting trees, fresh bread, mold, 

and pizza have in common? Fungus! Different kinds of fungi (the 

pleural of fungus is fungi) can cause diseases in plants and humans, 

make alcohol and raise bread. Certain fungi (mushrooms) are cooked 

and eaten. 

Fungi are sometimes used by Samoans to make fermented drinks, 

such as pulouaitu (ghost hat). This drink is made from mushrooms 

growing out of cattle dung that are boiled, strained, and drunk to 

cause an alcohol-like feeling. Alafa is an interesting forest mushroom 

(Mycena sp.?) that glows in the dark and has actually been used to 

illuminate or mark trails at night. Children also create a strange effect 

by sticking alafa on their faces. Several other unrelated organisms 

also produce this bioluminescence, or biological light, by 

metabolizing a chemical in their bodies called luciferin. Different 

organisms produce different colors of light: green for jellyfish, greenish-yellow for fireflies, red for 

railroad worms, and greenish-blue for glow worms and mushrooms. Scientists continue to study this 

light-producing process, which is extremely efficient (almost 90%). 

People used to think fungi were a kind of plant and placed them in the plant kingdom. But fungi are so 

different from any other organism, they were given their own kingdom. Most fungi (except yeasts and a 

few others) are made up of many cells arranged in long strands called hyphae. All the hyphae together 

make up the mycelium, or body of the fungus. As the hyphae grow through their food, a plant for 

example, they release enzymes. These enzymes dissolve the plant cell walls and the fungus mycelium 

absorbs the nutrients from the plant. 

 

We are usually aware of fungi only when they damage 

something. That’s because they live inside the things they are 

eating. Sometimes we see their white mycelium in rotted 

wood, but most often we don’t see them until they form 

"fruiting bodies" like faleaitu. These fruiting bodies make 

thousands and thousands of spores that grow into new fungi 

wherever they land. Sometimes these spores are brightly 

colored, like the blue, green, or white mold on old food, or 

the black mold in the bathroom shower. Other times we find 

mushrooms, another kind of fruiting body, growing on the 

ground or from trees. Fruiting bodies are an indication that 

the insides of the trees are being eaten. These fungi may be 

thin and delicate, tough and rubbery, or hard as wood. The 

“ear fungus” (Auricularia) is brownish-purple, and thin like 

an ear, while the “tooth fungus” (Flavodon) is bright 

chartreuse with short tooth-like pores on which the spores are 

formed. 

Most wood decay fungi are called conks, or shelf fungi. One 

of the most common “wood rotters” in American Samoa is 

the artist’s conk (Ganoderma australe). This fungus grows 

out from the tree in the shaped of a fan. It has a light brown 

top that is sometimes dusty with spores from the conks above it, and a whitish-gray lower surface. The 

gray surface looks smooth but is actually made up of thousands of very small pores, inside of which the 

spores are formed. If this pore surface is lightly scratched, a brown line remains, and for centuries people 
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have left messages or drawn pictures on them, hence their name, “artist’s conk”. 

Some fungi threaten our food supply. The black leaf streak disease of bananas (lausului, or black 

Sigatoka) is caused by a fungus (Mycosphaerella fijiensis) that you can only see through a microscope. It 

damages the banana leaves, making the fruit small and of poor quality. Farmers have to use special 

chemicals to control this disease, which cost them time and money. The taro leaf blight disease (lega, 

sega) that killed most of the Samoan taro in 1993-1994 was caused by a water mold (Phytophthora 

colocasiae). We used to call water molds ‘fungi’, but scientific tests show they are more closely related 

to certain red algae. They have spores that swim and their mycelium is made of very different 

ingredients. Water molds are no longer in the kingdom Fungi, but have been placed in one of the new 

kingdoms, either Protoctista or Chromista. 

Banana black leaf streak 

disease (lausului). Taro leaf blight (lega, sega). Lichens on tree trunk 

The colorful lichens that grow on trees and rocks are actually fungi and algae living together. This type 

of relationship is called mutualism, where both organisms benefit from the relationship. In severe 

climates, the fungus protects the algae from damaging ultraviolet light and supplies water and dissolved 

minerals. The algae makes food for both organisms through photosynthesis. In other instances, this 

symbiosis could be considered parasitism. In American Samoa, many algae living on leaves or tree bark 

receive enough moisture and shade to exist without the help of a fungus. In fact, the fungus may actually 

damage or kill the algae. 

Fungi fill a very important role in nature by breaking down dead organisms into their basic elements so 

those elements can be used again to build new organisms. This nutrient recycling is especially important 

in the tropics where organisms are born and die at a very fast rate. If it weren't for fungi, bacteria, and 

other small organisms that eat dead plants, dead trees and bushes would soon bury us. 

WARNING! Many fungi are poisonous. Eating them can cause sickness or even death. Don’t eat any 

mushroom unless you are certain it is safe.

Fred Brooks, ASCC Land Grant 
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51. Soil Community (ele’ele)

A poetic definition of soil is “rock on its way to the sea.” While this neatly sums up the origin and the 

fate of most soils, much remains to be told about what happens to the rock while it is “on its way.” In 

short, it undergoes physical, chemical, and biological changes that convert it into the fertile matrix that 

sustains life. Biological changes are brought about by an extremely diverse soil community. Those 

members that are easily visible, such as insects, worms, mites, and snails, form a specific community of 

invertebrates. Microorganisms in the soil (bacteria, fungi, algae, and protozoa) comprise another complex 

community.

Among the insects, ants play a dominant role in our islands’ soil communities. 

They are, according to ant expert E.O. Wilson, “the little creatures that run the 

world.” As social insects, they act in concert to instantly and unselfishly sustain 

and defend their large colonies. A sophisticated caste system allows for labor 

efficiency, with the entire colony functioning as a social unit. There are many 

types of ant in the world (about 9,500 known species), 68 of which are now in 

American Samoa, but only 12 of these are native species. 

Some of the more common members of our ant community are the non-native 

long-legged or yellow crazy ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes, from Asia or Africa), 

the large black trap-jaw ant (Odontomachus simillimus, from Ceylon), and the big-headed ant (Pheidole

spp., from Mauritius). A new invasive ant was discovered in Fagaalu in 2002, the tropical fire ant 

(Solenopsis geminata) which has a painful sting. We suspect that a colony of this ant, native to the 

American tropics, arrived on a shipment of lumber to the village, and unfortunately, it has become 

established on the island. The big-headed ants have a specialized soldier caste with outsized heads and 

powerful muscles that operate sharp, triangular jaws. They are also notorious as a destroyer not only of 

other ants but of whole native insect faunas. Quite likely, many native species have been eliminated by 

these fierce competitors, leaving us with mainly non-native species that are either unaffected by ants or 

have a beneficial relationship with them. 

Vying with ants for importance in our soils are earthworms. In 1881, Charles Darwin first drew attention 

to the great importance of earthworms in the breakdown of dead plant material and the release of essential 

nutrients for new plant growth. Darwin credited “these lowly organized creatures” as playing a major 

part in the history of the world. Over 3,500 earthworm species have been described worldwide. A survey 

of the territory in 1998 found 7 species, all of which were unintentionally brought here from Asia, Africa, 

and the Americas by people. They hid among the banana, taro, and other crops carried on the voyaging 

canoes of early Polynesians. They traveled on ships of European explorers arriving from the New World. 

And they come today in the containers unloaded at Pago Pago Wharf. 

The most common of our earthworm species, 

Pontoscolex corethrurus, is an alien species native to 

Brazil but is now found in tropical regions throughout 

the world. It has recently come under attention for its role in accelerating – of all things – global 

warming. Decomposing soils of the world releases 60 billion metric tons of a major greenhouse gas, 

carbon dioxide, into the atmosphere each year. This is ten times the amount contributed by the burning of 

all fossil fuels combined. It is estimated that P. corethrurus can release carbon from the soil 20 to 30 % 

faster than other worms. 

As we human beings go about our self-important business of attending school, earning a living, and 

making lofty decisions about this and that, we should pause to consider the large army of creatures under 

our feet who are really in charge of our long-term destiny. As part of the “excited skin of the earth,” they 

are the unsung players that maintain the life-giving soil that we all ultimately depend upon for our very 

existence. 

Don Vargo, ASCC Land Grant 
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52. Pest invaders are here

The history of life on islands is a 

story of invasions. Ever since the 

high islands of American Samoa 

rose out of the sea as barren piles of 

volcanic rock, living things have 

been making the long and dangerous 

journey across the Pacific to reach 

this new land. Until a few thousand 

years ago, every plant, insect, and 

bird that lived on our islands was the descendant of a lucky adventurer that had crossed hundreds or 

thousands of miles of open ocean to establish a new colony here. 

The first Samoans were also such lucky adventurers, making the perilous voyage here in their journeying 

canoes. But their arrival marked the beginning of a new way for plants and animals to reach our islands -- 

being carried here, either by accident or on purpose, by people. Ever since then, the environment of 

American Samoa has changed tremendously. 

Some of these changes may have benefited some 

wildlife species. For example, the introduction of 

several important food plants such as breadfruit and 

bananas provide a year-round source of food for 

some birds and fruit bats, rather than seasonally like 

some native plants that are eaten by wildlife. Other 

changes brought by the Polynesians were harmful to 

the environment -- for example, the introduction of 

rats (isumu). And since the arrival of Europeans and 

Americans, the rate of introduction of new plants and 

animals to American Samoa has increased 

tremendously. The results have often been disastrous. 

Some plants brought by the Polynesians “escaped” to spread widely through the natural forest such as ifi

and nonu trees. More recently, about 250 alien plant species (many of them weeds) have also become 

established in American Samoa and some of these threaten our native forest. One that is familiar to 

everyone is the “mile-a-minute” vine, or fuesaina (Mikania micrantha). This was introduced by accident, 

sometime before 1924. It is now a major pest in plantations and forests, and has spread tremendously 

following tropical cyclones in the early 1990s. The vine needs sunlight for its very fast growth, and so 

doesn't do well inside the shade of the mature forest. The cyclones, however, opened up the forests to 

sunlight by knocking down many trees and breaking off the tops of thousands more. Vines like these can 

form layers several feet thick that can choke the seedlings of native trees and slow the recovery of our 

forests from the damage of the cyclones. 

Another well-known pest to agriculture is the giant African snail 

(sisi aferika, Achatina fulica). This was reportedly introduced to 

the Pacific when the governor of Tahiti imported them to satisfy the 

hunger of his mistress for escargot, or edible snails. Bad, bad idea -

- not only were the snails not edible, but they quickly spread 

throughout Polynesia, and became a major pest of taro and other 

crops. Unfortunately, the story does not end there. In the hopes to 

control the giant snails, a predatory snail (Euglandina rosea) native to Florida was deliberately 

introduced here in 1980. The idea was that this new snail -- the one with the long pinkish shell -- would 
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kill off all the giant snails. Instead, it has driven the native land snails of 

the Pacific islands to the edge of extinction. Most of the native snails of 

Tahiti are now extinct, and the Samoan snails, which used to be 

collected by the thousands to make ula, are almost gone. Meanwhile, 

the giant snail continues to thrive despite the new predator. 

Another example is of an invasion that is still under way -- by 

introduced birds. The first bird introduced to American Samoa was, of 

course, the chicken (moa). Although these occasionally nest in the 

forests, they are not truly established as wild birds here, and are no 

threat to our native birdlife. However, we do have three introduced bird 

species on Tutuila. One of these is the manu palagi, or Red-vented 

Bulbul, the black bird with the crest that is common in nearly every 

village. This species became established here in the 1950's. The other 

two species both arrived in the 1980's and there seems to be no name for 

them in Samoan. These are the Common Myna and the Jungle Myna. 

They look almost the same -- both are blackish brown, with big white 

patches in the wings and tail when they fly. They are now abundant 

from Pago Pago to Leone and have spread to the eastern and western 

ends of the island. None of these three introduced birds has made it to 

Manu'a, which is still home to only our native Samoan birds. 

What's wrong with having new kinds of birds to live in our villages and 

gardens? In some parts of the world, including Hawaii, both bulbuls 

and mynas are serious pests on fruit crops such as guava. Second, they 

may spread the seeds of pest plants, like mile-a-minute vine and 

“Koster's curse” weed (Clidemia hirta), that native birds do not eat as 

readily. Third, they may drive out native birds, like the iao or Wattled 

Honeyeater. Although we don't know for sure that this is happening, 

there seem to be more iao around villages in Manu'a than on Tutuila 

where the introduced birds are common. Finally, the introduced birds 

may spread diseases that will attack our native birds. This has happened 

in Hawaii. In fact, on the main islands of Hawaii, the native birds have 

been almost completely exterminated. Every bird you seen in the 

lowlands of Hawaii is an introduced species; the native birds survive 

only in isolated mountain forests. We don't want our Samoan birds to 

share this sad fate. 

The lesson to learn from these examples is that we must be very, very 

careful when thinking about introducing a new plant or animal to 

Samoa. Even species that seem beneficial, like the predatory snail, can 

have bad and unforeseen effects. And once a new species is established, 

it is almost impossible to get rid of. Wisely, the Territory has 

established strict laws against bringing in exotic animals and any plant 

that may become a noxious weed. Flowering plants, like Honolulu rose 

(Clerodendrum chinese), may look pretty in a garden but turn into major 

pests when they run wild. 

American Samoa's forests and wildlife are unique to all the world, 

having developed here over hundreds of thousands of years in isolation. 

We must take care to preserve and protect this special heritage by staying 

alert to keep unwelcome invaders from our shores. 

Pepper Trail, DMWR 
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53. Introduced species: toads everywhere (lage)

 

The cane or marine toad (Rhinella marinus) is a relatively 

recent introduction to American Samoa. It was purposely 

brought here from Hawaii in 1954 to control mosquitoes or 

insect pests that attack taro. Toads (lage) were introduced 

into artificial ponds at Taputimu on Tutuila, and from 

there, stocks were liberated in Tafuna and Utulei. The 

toads then expanded their range to include all of Tutuila, 

from sea level to the top of Mt. Alava. Fortunately, they 

have not yet been transported to Manu'a or to western 

Samoa.

The toads breed year-round here. All they need is standing 

fresh or slightly brackish water in which to lay their eggs. Thousands of eggs that look like a string of 

black and white pearls are laid by each female. Within a week the eggs hatch into small black tadpoles 

that feed voraciously on aquatic plants. The tadpoles look defenseless but are thought to be toxic to birds 

and other animals. Within a month these tadpoles develop legs and change into adult toads. 

As adults, they typically hide under boards or vegetation during the heat of the day and emerge at night to 

feed on insects and other invertebrates. They eat snails, millipedes, centipedes, spiders, roaches, moths, 

flies, caterpillars, termites, beetles, ants, earthworms, grasses, and even an occasional small toad. 

 

How many toads inhabit Tutuila Island and how many bugs do they consume each night? In a wildlife 

study conducted in 1976, biologists estimated that over 2 million toads lived here with us. Some rough 

calculations suggest that these toads consume about 5 tons of bugs every night! 

To some people it might appear that the toad is beneficial. One must keep in mind, however, that many 

of those insects would have been eaten by native birds and perhaps by the small insect-eating sheathtailed bat (pe'ape'avai) that may now be extinct in American Samoa. No one has examined the actual 

impacts the toads are having on our native wildlife, but there are many examples of introduced species 

causing the extinction of native plants and animals by out-competing them for food or other resources. 

Another concern involving the toad is its toxic skin glands. The adults have two large parotid glands on 

their “shoulders” that secrete a creamy white fluid when handled. These secretions are highly toxic if 

eaten, rubbed into the eyes, or brought into contact with mucous membranes. Dogs have died when they 

mouthed these toads. In addition, a high incidence of the salmonella bacteria occurs in toads, thus an 

abundance of toads near drinking water supplies may lead to bacterial contamination. 

Gilbert S. Grant, DMWR 
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54. Forest invaders 

Most rainforests in American Samoa are in generally good 

condition – a diverse set of native trees occupy much of the 

landscape and include many endemic species found only in the 

Samoan archipelago. But there are also non-native plant species 

here and some are beginning to out-complete the native species. 

Several of the worst invasive plants on Tutuila Island 

are shown in this article. 

 One invasive tree of high concern is Falcataria 

moluccana, locally called the tamaligi palagi. Growth of 

tamaligi is extraordinary and trees can reach heights of over 20 

feet within two years. In 2001, about 35% of Tutuila was 

infested with tamaligi. It was particularly dense in Fagasa and 

Pago Pago where villagers began effectively killing the trees by 

stripping off its bark. By taking aggressive action against 

invasive species, control is still possible. 

Villagers kill tamaligi trees by removing the bark. Numerous dead tamaligi trees reveal how they were 

beginning to dominate the rainforest canopy. 

Other invasive trees:

African tulip tree, fa’apisī

(Spathodea campanulata) 

Beautiful flowers, but 

this tree is very invasive, 

capable of displacing 

lowland native rainforests; 

seeds are highly winddispersed; current core area 

is Leone-Malaeloa. 

 Red seed tree, lōpā

 (Adenanthera pavonina) 

 Also known as the 

 “coral bean tree” and 

 formerly grown for food, 

 this tree is rapidly 

 overtaking the native 

 rainforest. 
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More invasive trees and vines on Tutuila Island: 

Luecaena, fue pepe

(Luecaena leucocephala) 

Easily naturalized in coastal 

areas; crowds out native 

species; resprouts vigorously 

after cutting; seeds remain 

viable in soil for 10-20 years. 

Merremia, fue lautetele

(Merremia peltata) 

 This fast-growing vine 

 smothers plantations and 

 forest trees with large heart- 

 shaped leaves. 

Rubber tree, pulu māmoe

(Castilla elastica) 

 Used to make kirikiti (cricket) 

 balls, this tree spreads fast and 

 out-competes native trees. Birds 

 and bats eat the fruits and spread 

 its plentiful seeds. 

Strawberry guava 

(Psidium cattleianum) 

Discovered at Atauloma on 

Tutuila in 2002. This tree is a 

serious pest in Hawaii, forming 

dense thickets. Birds and bats 

eat the fruit, spreading its seeds. 

Nearly eradicated by 2009. 

Cinnamon, tinamoni 

(Cinnamomum verum) 

 Non-native species 

 occasionally found on Tutuila. 

 Cinnamon has invaded ridge 

 forests in Matafao and 

 Maloata. Could become 

 a major problem. 

Feral pig, pua'a 

(Sus scrofa) 

 Feral pigs eat the farmer’s taro 

 and damage native forests by 

 tilling the soil, which creates 

 pockets of water where 

 mosquitoes breed. 

 Tavita Togia, NPS 
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55. Common pests and diseases of local agricultural plants

Gazing up at the beautiful mountains on our islands, we see hillsides of lush green tropical foliage -- a 

picture of botanical health. That's true for the most part, but if we look closer, we notice that some plants 

can get sick and die, or they can be injured when insects, animals, strong winds or landslides damage their 

leaves, stems or roots. Sometimes insect pests or diseases spread fast, injuring or killing many plants 

over a large area. Then we take notice, particularly if we were growing those plants to eat. Here are five 

common plant pests and diseases that can cause serious damage to local agricultural plants. 

Taro leaf blight disease (lega, sega, laumu). Many people became acutely 

aware of this plant disease in 1993-94 when it destroyed most of the 

Samoan taro crop. The disease is caused by a fungus (Phythophthora 

colocasiae) that has been in Fiji for many years, but we don't know how it 

came to American Samoa. Perhaps it arrived here on taro tops (tiapula) 

from another island, or its fungal spores blew in on the winds of Cyclone 

Val in 1991. Taro leaf blight is most severe when the weather is cool and 

wet. Rain splashes spores of the fungus into the air, which are then blown 

by wind from plant to plant. The expanding brown spots made by this 

fungus cause leaves to die faster than normal, so the plant must use its 

energy to make more leaves instead of storing the energy in the taro corm 

(i'o ole talo) that we want to eat. Farmers are now growing taro varieties 

from Micronesia that are more resistant to the fungus. The Palau taro, for 

example, still gets the disease, but less severely, so the leaves live longer 

and corms are of normal size. 

Armyworms (anufe-ailautalo). These insects are more appropriately called cluster caterpillars, because 

they are not worms at all. They are the juvenile stage of a thick-bodied grayish-brown moth (Spodoptera 

litura) that flies about at night. It is a serious pest for many crops and may occur throughout the year. 

The caterpillars are often found on taro leaves in small numbers and if found soon 

enough, they can be picked off by hand before they eat too much of the leaves. 

Sometimes there are so many that they can't be removed fast enough. As with taro 

leaf blight, this has a major impact on the plant, because energy is taken 

from the corm (i'o ole talo) to replace damaged leaves, so the harvest is 

reduced. The female moth lays 200 to 300 eggs in a cluster during the 

night. After the eggs hatch, the young larvae feed together, eating larger 

and larger holes in the leaves as they grow, until only the thick ribs of 

the taro leaf remain. The mature larva falls to the ground, forms a pupa 

which is the resting stage when the caterpillar changes shape and grows 

wings, and afterwards emerges as an adult moth that flies off to lay more 

eggs. The complete life cycle, eggs to adult, takes only about 30 days. 

In American Samoa there are several friendly insects, mainly small wasps, that attack and kill 

armyworms. But if the armyworms are too numerous, the wasps cannot control them and considerable 

damage to the plant may result. Unfortunately, spraying the armyworms with pesticides also kills the 

helpful wasps. 

Banana bunchy top virus (laufeti'iti'i-vaelusi). This is one of the most serious diseases of bananas. The 

virus can be so devastating that some regions of the world affected by it, like parts of Hawaii, are no 

longer able to produce bananas commercially. For unknown reasons, places like American Samoa are 

less severely affected. It may have something to do with the small insect, an aphid (afiti), that carries the 

disease from plant to plant. Perhaps these aphids are less effective virus carriers or they are not very 

abundant here. Banana plants infected with the virus produce small, narrow leaves with yellow, tattered 

edges bunched together, thus the name “bunchy top”. When one plant becomes infected, the virus 

spreads to the rest of the plants growing from the same “root” mat. Infected plants stop producing 
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100

bananas and become shorter and shorter until the plant finally dies. 

During this time, any aphid feeding on an infected plant can carry the 

virus to an uninfected banana plant. Another way the disease is spread 

is by removing suckers from an infected root mat and planting them 

elsewhere. There is some concern in American Samoa that the disease 

could begin to spread more widely, but there is a safe way to control 

bunchy top with a small application of a common herbicide [contact 

Land Grant for details]. 

Burrowing nematode (nematota). This pest attacks the roots of banana 

plants. Nematodes are small, worm-like residents of soil and water. 

Most of them feed on dead plants and other tiny organisms, but some 

attack the roots of living plants. The burrowing nematode (Radopholus similis) enters young banana 

roots and eats the insides. When large numbers of nematodes feed on a plant, the roots are so damaged 

that the plant can fall over. This is one reason why banana plants topple over during strong winds or rain, 

or when they bear a heavy bunch of fruit. Damaged banana plants usually produce fewer and smaller 

fruits than healthy plants. Banana varieties grown in American Samoa have no resistance to this pest. 

The best way to control the nematodes is to remove their source of food (the banana root mat) for one 

year or flood the land, making it unsuitable for the nematode. 

Rhinoceros beetle (manuainiu). These giant beetles cause a 

distinctive diamond-shaped pattern cut out of coconut leaves 

(fronds). The adult beetle burrows into the tops of coconut 

trees, then down toward their center. As it burrows, it cuts 

through the new, unopened leaves, so when the leaves open 

later, large wedges of the leaves are missing. If the midrib is 

cut, the leaf may break on windy days. While this may 

weaken some leaves and make them look unsightly, we don’t 

know if the damage is serious enough to reduce the number of 

coconuts produced by the tree. 

The adult beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros) is amazingly large -- almost two inches long -- black and shiny, 

with a horn on its head, like a rhinoceros. Although it's hard to visualize, the horn apparently helps them 

feed by stabilizing the beetle while it moves its jaws up and down, scraping a hole in the tree. The 

beetles do not eat the wood but live on sap from the damaged plant cells. The 

female lays one egg on the ground, usually in dead coconut trees, logs, piles of 

compost or debris. The young larvae are white with a brown 

head. They grow almost four inches 

long before they pupate and become 

adult beetles. 

Fred Brooks 

ASCC Land Grant 

 

Rhinoceros beetle

Larva
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56. Bird checklist for American Samoa

 

 Ofu - 

Common and Samoan name Scientific name Tutuila Olosega Ta'u Swains Rose

 

 LAND BIRDS 

Crake, spotless Porzana tabuensis E R 

Cuckoo, long-tailed (aleva) Eudynamis taitensis M M M M M 

Dove, friendly ground (tu'aimeo) Gallicolumba stairi R 

Fruit dove, many-colored (manuma) Ptilinopus perousii R R R 

Fruit dove, purple-capped (manutagi) Ptilinopus porphyraceus R R R 

Honeyeater, wattled (iao) Foulehaio carunculata R R R 

Honeyeater, cardinal (segasegamau'u) Myzomela cardinalis R 

Kingfisher, white-collared (ti'otala) Todiramphus chloris R R R 

Lory, blue-crowned (segavao, sega'ula) Vini australis V R R 

Mao (ma'oma'o) Gymnomyza samoensis E 

Owl, barn (lulu) Tyto alba R R R 

Pigeon, Pacific (lupe) Ducula pacifica R R R 

Rail, banded (ve'a) Gallirallus philippensis R R R 

Shrikebill, Fiji (sega o le vau) Clytorhynchus vitiensis R R 

Starling, Polynesian (miti vao) Aplonis tabuensis R R R 

Starling, Samoan (fuia) Aplonis atrifusca R R R 

Swamphen, purple (manu ali'i) Porphyrio porphyrio R R R 

Swiftlet, white-rumped (pe'ape'a) Collocalia spodiopygia R R R 

 

 SHORE AND WATER BIRDS 

Curlew, bristle-thighed (tuli) Numenius tahitiensis M M M M M 

Duck, Australian gray (toloa) Anas superciliosa R V 

Godwit, bar-tailed (tuli) Limosa lapponica M M 

Heron, reef (matu'u) Egretta sacra R R R R R 

Heron, white-faced Ardea novaehollandiae V 

Lapwing, masked Vanellus miles V 

Plover, golden (tuli) Pluvialis dominica M M M M M 

Sanderling (tuli) Calidris alba M M M 

Tattler, wandering (tuli) Heteroscelus incanus M M M M M 

Turnstone, ruddy (tuli) Arenaria interpres M M M M M 

 

 INTRODUCED SPECIES 

Bulbul, red-vented (manu palagi) Pycnonotus cafer I 

Dove, rock (lupe palagi) Columba livia V 

Junglefowl, red (moa) Gallus gallus I I I 

Myna, common (maina fanua) Acridotheres tristis I 

Myna, jungle (maina vao) Acridotheres fuscus I 

 

 

(continued on next page) 

 

 
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 OfuCommon and Samoan name Scientific name Tutuila Olosega Ta'u Swains Rose

 

 SEABIRDS 

Booby, brown (fua'o) Sula leucogaster R R S S R 

Booby, red footed (fua'o) Sula sula R R? S S R 

Booby, masked (fua'o) Sula dactylatra S S R 

Frigatebird, great (atafa) Fregata minor R S S S R 

Frigatebird, lesser (atafa) Fregata ariel R S S S R 

Gull, laughing Larus atricilla S 

Noddy, blue-grey (laia) Procelsterna cerulea R R R 

Noddy, black (gogo) Anous minutus R R R R R 

Noddy, brown (gogo) Anous stolidus R R R R R 

Petrel, collared (ta'i'o) Pterodroma leucoptera R? 

Petrel, Herald (ta'i'o) Pterodroma arminjoniana R R 

Petrel, Tahiti (ta'i'o) Pterodroma rostrata R R R? 

Petrel, white-necked (ta'i'o) Pterodroma externa S 

Shearwater, Audubon's (ta'i'o) Puffinus lherminieri R R 

Shearwater, Christmas (ta'i'o) Puffinus nativitatis R? 

Shearwater, Newell's (ta'i'o) Puffinus newelli S 

Shearwater, short-tailed (ta'i'o) Puffinus tenuirostris * 

Shearwater, sooty (ta'i'o) Puffinus griseus S 

Shearwater, wedge-tailed (ta'i'o) Puffinus pacificus R? R? 

Storm petrel, white-faced Pelagodroma marina S 

Storm-petrel, white-throated Nesofregetta albigularis R? 

Tern, black-naped (gogosina) Sterna sumatrana S S S 

Tern, bridled Sterna anaethetus S 

Tern, crested Sterna bergii S 

Tern, gray-backed (gogosina) Sterna lunata R R 

Tern, sooty Sterna fuscata S S R 

Tern, white (manusina) Gygis alba R R R R R 

Tropicbird, red-tailed (tava'e'ula) Phaethon rubricauda S R 

Tropicbird, white-tailed (tava'esina) Phaethon lepturus R R R R R 

 E - extinct (formerly breeding sp.) 

 H - hypothetical record 

 I - introduced 

 M - migrant 

 R - resident native 

 S - seabird visitor 

 V - vagrant 

 * recorded at sea 

Sources: J. Seamon (DMWR, pers. comm., 2004); Amerson et al. 1982. Wildlife and wildlife habitat of Am. 

Samoa, USFWS; Engbring et al. 1989. A 1986 survey of forest birds of American Samoa, USFWS; Grant et al. 

1994. Notornis 41:215-217; Steadman & Pregill. 2004. Pacific Science 58:615-624. 
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57. The Pacific Pigeon (lupe), Samoa's royal bird 

The lupe, or Pacific Pigeon, is the king of Samoa's 

birds and in many ways it is the most culturally 

important bird in our islands. It is our largest forest 

bird and is the only one able to feed on, and spread, 

the large seeds of some of our most important 

rainforest trees. Its cultural significance is revealed 

by the many Samoan proverbs that relate to the lupe

and the art of lupe-hunting. The importance of lupe

is also shown by the amazing tia seulupe (starmounds) which are massive stone platforms built by 

the ancient Samoans, which served at least partly as 

pigeon-trapping sites. 

 

The lupe is a member of a group of birds called the 

imperial pigeons because of their large size and 

dignified appearance. Most imperial pigeons live in 

the islands of the Pacific, although a few reach the mainland of Asia and one occurs in Australia. These 

birds are closely related to the much smaller fruit-doves, like the manutagi (Purple-capped Fruit Dove) 

but are only distantly related to the common pigeon that waddles around the cities of the world. The lupe

is found from the islands north of New Guinea east through Fiji, Tonga, Samoa, Niue, and the Cook 

Islands. Interestingly, throughout most of this wide range, it is usually found on small islands and atolls, 

not on large 'high islands'. This is most striking in Fiji, where lupe are found on the small islands of the 

Lau group, but not on the large islands of Vanua Levu, Viti Levu or Taveuni. A closely related imperial 

pigeon replaces the lupe on those high islands. 

Lupe are a common sight in forested areas of American Samoa and can be seen flying high over villages 

or bays. They even visit moso'oi and poumuli trees near houses, if those houses are not too far from 

forests. Even when not seen, they announce their presence with easy to hear calls: a low, rising and 

falling moo like that of a cow, or a loud, rolling prrrrrhhh. One of the benefits of American Samoa's ban 

on hunting lupe (and pe'a) after the cyclones in the early 1990s is that they become less scared of people, 

giving us better chances to see and appreciate these spectacular birds. 

Their nests are hard to find. During all our time in the forests, we have seen only a few. We have also 

seen evidence of nest-building (for example, lupe flying with sticks in their bills) on several other 

occasions. All these observations were during the months of January through September. Lupe nests are 

open platforms of twigs, with no lining. They are usually placed in dense clumps of leaves high up in 

trees, making them very hard to see. 

These birds lay only a single white egg. Both parents help incubate the egg and feed the chick once it 

hatches. All members of the pigeon family have an amazing ability: they feed their young a sort of 

“milk”. This is a nutritious liquid that is a combination of digested food and other substances secreted by 

special glands in the bird's digestive system. Both male and female pigeons make this milk, so both 

parents take an equal part in feeding the young. Information from related species of imperial pigeons 

suggests that lupe eggs take about 27 days to hatch, and that the young spend about 28 days in the nest 

after hatching. It seems like lupe could nest more than once a year, but most young birds are seen from 

July to August, so most nesting probably occurs at just one time each year. 

Lupe eat many different rainforest foods, and not just fruits from favored trees like 'atone, ma'ali, mālili, 

mamala, māmālava, moso'oi or āoa. They also eat fruits from vines such as mamalupe (pigeon's 

mouthful) and low shrubs like to'ito'i. Lupe eat leaves from many different trees, including 'au'auli, 
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104

'a'amati'e and ifi, although in almost all cases they like the young 

leaves best. This makes sense, since young leaves are probably 

the most tender and easy to digest, and may have fewer poisonous 

chemicals than old leaves. Lupe also like flowers on occasion, 

both from trees like 'ala'a or ma'ali and from shrubs such as tī. 

Obviously, the lupe is not a picky eater. This may explain why it 

is such a widespread and successful bird, since it will eat food 

from both coastal and mountain areas. In fact, after Cyclone Val 

in 1991, many lupe on the coast near Vaitogi survived by eating 

the fruits of to'ito'i. Thus, in times of limited food, it can find 

food where other birds might not. At other times, lupe may eat 

unusual foods (like leaves and flowers) to get certain nutrients, 

just the way people sometimes take vitamin pills to supplement 

their regular diets. Lupe are also able to eat some fruits that smaller birds cannot, and so may be 

important for spreading these trees to new areas or even among different islands. 

Since the lupe is such an adaptable bird, and has been able to recover both from human activities like 

hunting and from natural disturbances like the tropical cyclones in the early 1990s, it may seem surprising 

that there are many fewer now than in earlier times. The most dramatic evidence for this are the many tia 

seulupe, or star mounds, that were built by ancient Samoans. A survey discovered the remains of over 60 

tia in the eastern part of Tutuila alone. Each tia is a massive stone platform with one or more arms 

extending from it. Pigeon-catching huts were built on top of the platform, and village chiefs competed to 

catch the most birds, using a tame lupe as a decoy, and a long-handled net to sweep up the flocks of 

pigeons that were attracted. Early missionary accounts tell how whole villages would spend weeks 

camping out in the forest around the 

tia, and that pigeon-catching season 

was a time of feasting and partying. 

Lupe must have been very abundant 

to support this elaborate cultural 

activity. While the tia certainly had 

ritual and religious importance in 

addition to their use as pigeoncatching sites, the latest studies 

suggest that pigeon-catching was 

central to their role in ancient 

Samoan society. A well-preserved 

star mound, with explanatory signs, 

can be visited in Ottoville, next to the 

Fatuoaiga Catholic Church 

compound. 

Now, though, the rainforest that once covered the Tafuna Plain have been cut down. This type of lowland 

forest, with its abundant māmālava, tava, maota, mamala, and āoa trees, was almost certainly the best 

habitat for lupe in American Samoa. Today, only scattered āoa remain, and lupe are seldom seen in 

Tafuna. Even though āoa is a valuable food for lupe, we can see that it was the whole forest, and not just 

one kind of tree, that made the Tafuna rainforest so valuable to lupe. However, this large area of habitat 

is gone, and it seems we will never see as many lupe as did the first Samoans. Perhaps more than any 

other animal, the lupe is of irreplaceable importance to Samoa, both because of its natural role in 

spreading rainforest seeds, and its cultural role in the stories, proverbs, and heritage of the Samoan 

people. 

Pepper Trail, Joshua Seamon, DMWR 
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58. The rare Many-colored Fruit Dove (manuma)

One of the rarest birds that nest on Tutuila is also one of the 

most beautiful: the manuma, or Many-colored Fruit-Dove. 

The manuma here is considered a different subspecies than 

those from Fiji and Tonga because they have a slightly 

different color pattern. The male manuma is creamy white 

below and pale yellow above, with a dark crimson band 

across the back, a crimson patch on the forehead, and a 

purplish-red blotch on the breast. The female is very different 

and looks like the much more common manutagi, or Purplecapped Fruit-Dove. She is mostly green above and gray 

below, with a crimson forehead patch. Unlike the manutagi, 

the female manuma doesn't have a yellow band on its tail. 

The manuma was not rare on Tutuila in the 19th and early 

20th centuries, according to the journals of the early scientific 

expeditions. It was usually found in flocks; in 1923 a 

collector killed 10 birds with a single shot into a feeding tree 

on Ta'u. However, when the first modern studies of American 

Samoa's birds were done in mid-1970, only a small number of manuma could be found. Follow-up in the 

mid-1980's confirmed the manuma's rarity. They estimated that the population size on Tutuila was only 

about 80 birds. 

After the cyclones in the early 1990s, even fewer manuma were seen, and perhaps less than 50 remained 

on all of Tutuila. Today, however, manuma are regularly seen at some locations on Tutuila, although not 

in very large numbers. Biologists would call their current distribution rare and local, but they are 

occasionally sighted at many places around American Samoa. Interestingly, manuma are much more 

common in Fiji, Samoa, and Tonga, sometimes being found well away from mature forests. 

We know very little about the biology of manuma in 

American Samoa, or why it is less common here than 

elsewhere. These are social birds, often being seen in 

small flocks, but they are also very protective of 

feeding areas, driving other manuma away from their 

spot in the canopy of a fruiting tree. One odd thing is 

that you rarely see the same numbers of each sex -- 

almost always there are several more males than 

females in any flocks. We do know that they seem to 

have a very strong preference for the fruits of banyan 

(āoa) trees, and in American Samoa it is almost always 

seen near or in these trees. They are also known (from 

Fiji and Tonga) to eat moso'oi, 'o'a and māgele fruits, 

all of which occur in America Samoa. Perhaps there are still so few manuma here that they are seldom 

forced to eat anything but their favorite food, but would eat other fruits if necessary. 

 

It is dangerous for animals to specialize too much on any one food, especially on remote islands like 

American Samoa. This can be shown with an example from business. While a store that sells only 

antique cuckoo-clocks might do fine in New York, Los Angeles, or another big market, it would certainly 

fail very quickly in American Samoa. There isn't enough business here for such a specialized service. 

Similarly, an island animal that concentrates on only one kind of food may find itself in trouble when that 

food supply fails. An animal that lives on a continent can move in search of the food it needs, but island 
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animals have nowhere else to go. On larger islands like Upolu, 

Savai'i or Viti Levu, manuma may be able to travel long distances 

to get the food they like the best. This may be difficult on small 

islands like those of American Samoa, and means that animals can 

only specialize on very reliable food trees such as banyan trees 

(āoa). 

These giant banyan trees, which are so important to manuma, face 

many problems of their own. The Tafuna Plain used to have many 

huge banyans, but most of these have been cut down to make way 

for the exploding human populations in that area. Moreover, 

banyans, with their large size and spreading crowns, are very 

vulnerable to storm damage. Many were killed or severely 

damaged by Cyclones Ofa and Val in the early 1990s. Even those 

that survived the cyclones had their leaves and fruit stripped off, 

leading to a prolonged period of famine for manuma. 

There are two things that must happen if the manuma is to survive 

and remain a special part of Samoa's wildlife. First, the birds must 

be protected from hunting. Although the manuma is too rare to be 

sought by hunters, a few may have been killed every year by 

hunters out for lupe and manutagi. When a population is as small 

as the manuma's, even a few preventable deaths per year are a 

significant problem. 

The second thing that must be done if the manuma is to survive is 

to protect banyan trees on which they depend. Without enough banyans to assure a year-round supply of 

its favorite food, the manuma may well become extinct on Tutuila. People need to protect these 

magnificent trees, which are important food sources for many other Samoan wildlife species, including 

the fruit bats (flying foxes). 

Pepper Trail, Joshua Seamon, DMWR 
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59. The honey-birds

The most familiar birds of Tutuila's villages and 

gardens are the iao (Wattled Honeyeater) and the 

segasegamau'u (Cardinal Honeyeater). Although they 

look different, these birds are members of the same 

aiga, the family of birds called the honeyeaters. 

Honeyeaters are found throughout the Pacific islands, 

New Guinea, and Australia. As their name implies, 

most of them include the sweet nectar of flowers in 

their diet (though none of them eat real honey). 

 

The iao or Wattled Honeyeater (Foulehaio 

carunculata) is the commonest forest bird in Samoa. 

It is also found in Tonga and Fiji. Although not a 

particularly beautiful bird, with its greenish-brown 

feathers and yellow flaps of bare skin on the face, its boundless energy and continuous song enliven our 

islands. Its bold and fearless nature keeps it busy chasing other birds, and its loud alarm calls warn other 

animals of the lulu (Barn Owl) or other danger. Samoan legend tells that when the iao calls at night, it 

means that ghosts (aitu) are near. 

The iao feeds at almost all the flowers of the forest, from small 'atone (nutmeg) flowers to the large 

crimson blooms of gatae (coral tree). Christmastime is the best time of year for iao, because the asi trees 

are in full bloom. These white brushy flowers cover the tree crowns and are rich with nectar. At that 

time, the iao get so full of this nectar that they're like kids full of candy and cake at a party -- they rush 

every which way through the forest, chasing each other and yelling out songs at the top of their lungs. At 

other times when flowers aren't quite so abundant, they eat a lot of insects as well, and also include some 

soft fruits and berries in their diet. 

Even though the iao is our commonest bird, we really don't know very much about its habits. Their nests 

are beautifully woven cups of grass, typically well-hidden in the dense foliage of a tree. Usually only one 

or two eggs are laid. Most nesting appears to take place between September and December. 

The segasegamau'u or Cardinal Honeyeater (Myzomela cardinalis) is the prettiest bird of Samoa's 

gardens. Unlike most Samoan birds, the male and female Cardinal Honeyeater look very different: the 

male is bright red, with black wings and tail, while the female is a dull gray, with a little bit of red on the 

rump. These tiny birds (the smallest in American Samoa) always seem to be active, flitting among the 

'aute (ornamental hibiscus), teuila (ginger), and nonu (Indian 

mulberry) in our gardens, or sampling nectar at flowers high in 

the forest treetops. Like the iao, the segasegamau'u is very 

vocal, though not as loud as its larger cousin. Its sweet 

warbling songs are familiar sounds in our villages and 

plantations. 

The segasegamau'u is 

even more of a honey-bird 

than the iao. Though it will 

occasionally eat small 

insects, it seems very 

dependent on flower nectar 

at all times of year. 
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108

You can see the difference in the beaks of the two birds: the Cardinal Honeyeater has a very delicate, 

sharp beak that is perfect for slipping into flowers but not so good for grabbing big bugs. The beak of the 

Wattled Honeyeater is sturdier, more all-purpose: good both for flowers and insects. 

Perhaps because of its love of flowers, the segasegamau'u seems happy to live close to people, in gardens 

and plantations. Although much less common than the iao in the forest, it is the honeyeater that you're 

likely to see around villages. Around villages on Tutuila, that is; surprisingly, the segasegamau'u doesn't 

occur on any of the islands of Manu'a. Outside of American Samoa, the species is found in western 

Samoa, Vanuatu, and the Solomon Islands, and very close relatives occur in Micronesia and Fiji. 

The nest of the Cardinal Honeyeater is a beautiful, delicate cup of fine grass fibers, often decorated with 

moss. It may be placed high in a tree or almost on the ground in thick foliage. Four to five tiny eggs are 

laid. The segasegmau'u seems to nest in all months of the year. 

 

There used to be a third kind of honeyeater on Tutuila, the very large, blackish ma'oma'o or mao

(Gymnomyza samoensis). This is a real mystery bird. Larger than a fuia (Samoan Starling), with loud 

wailing calls, the ma'oma'o is remembered by some of the elders of Tutuila, 

and was collected by scientists here in the 1920s. However, except for a 

couple of possible sightings in the 1960s and 1970s, it has never been seen 

since. The ma'oma'o is now found only in the remote mountains of 'Upolu 

and Savai'i, where it is rare and little known. We will probably never know if 

this bird was once an important part of our forests, or if it occurred here only 

as a rare visitor from western Samoa. According to legends, hearing the 

wails and screams of the ma'oma'o around a village meant that misfortune or 

a death was about to happen. Sadly, this prophecy seems to have come true 

for the ma'oma'o itself, which is now in danger of the greatest misfortune -- 

extinction. 

Pepper Trail 

DMWR 
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60. Samoa's starlings

Starlings are a group of birds with a real image problem. Over much of the world, “starling” means just 

one thing -- the Common, or European Starling. This plump, short-tailed, oily black bird was originally 

found in Europe, but it has spread across the cool, temperate countries of the world, from the US to 

China, and from Australia to Argentina. Everywhere it goes, this bird becomes a pest in both cities and 

the countryside, often driving out native birds and destroying fruit crops. 

However, starlings are much more than this one obnoxious 

species. Most starlings are found in the tropics, and they are 

a varied, interesting and often beautiful family of birds. In 

the Pacific, starlings are a characteristic and important part 

of our native birdlife. In fact, the most unique of all our 

birds in American Samoa is the fuia or Samoan Starling. 

Why is the fuia so special? Well, not because of its 

appearance. With its dull brownish-black color, the fuia

could hardly be called beautiful. No, the fuia is special 

because it is the only American Samoan bird that is 

“endemic” to Samoa. This is a word used by scientists to 

describe something found in only one place. The fuia is 

found only in the islands of American and western Samoa. 

All our other birds are found in at least one other group of 

islands. Therefore, if the fuia became extinct in the Samoas, 

there wouldn't be a single one left in the world. 

Fortunately, there is little danger that the fuia will become 

extinct. It is a survivor, a real Samoan success story. It is the most adaptable bird we have, equally at 

home in Pago Pago, in small villages, in plantations and in the rainforest. The secret to its adaptability is 

its eating habits -- a fuia will eat almost anything. They gobble down a wide variety of fruit, from the 

hard seeds of the mamala tree to the big stinky fruits of nonu bushes, from the leathery fruits of lau pata

to the soft figs of the mati. They also love insects, including big stick insects, caterpillars, and other 

agricultural pests. Therefore, fuia are friends to farmers, and deserve our protection. Fuia even eat 

lizards, and indulge their taste for sweets with visits to lick up the nectar of gatae flowers. Because of 

their broad diet, fuia can always find food, and can live almost anywhere there are trees. 

As in most Samoan birds, male and female fuia look almost the same. The species seems to nest in all 

months of the year. Fuia nests are usually placed in hollows in trees: snapped-off coconut trunks are 

favorite nest sites. They will also nest among the dense fronds in the top of a coconut, and even use manmade nest sites, like cracked telephone poles. Fuia eggs are pale blue. 

We don't really know very much about the social life of the fuia: for example, do they mate for life? Do 

they defend territories from other fuia? Do they stay in one small area, or do they move all around the 

island? It would be interesting to know more about this most Samoan of our native birds. 

The fuia is not our only native starling; it has a small and shy cousin, the miti vao, or Polynesian Starling. 

Although much less common than the fuia in Samoa, the miti vao has a wider range, being found in Fiji, 

Tonga, and Niue as well as American and western Samoa. Unlike the fuia, the miti vao is almost entirely 

a bird of the forest, rarely seen in plantations, much less villages. The reasons for this aren't clear. It 

seems to have a broad diet, though not quite as accepting as the fuia. It eats both insects and fruit, and is 

often seen feeding on hard-seeded fruit like mamala and taputo'i, though we don't know if this is because 

the miti vao prefers such food or because the more aggressive fuia drives it away from softer, more 

nutritious fruit. 
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110

Across most of Tutuila you may have some difficulty 

finding the miti vao. There are a few places where 

they seem to be more common: Maloata on the west 

end of the island, between Afono and Vatia on the 

north side, and along the Mt. Alava Road. Look for a 

small, short-tailed bird with a grayish back, a pale 

breast with darker streaking, and white eyes. Its quiet 

but musical whistles and trills are very different from 

the harsh screeches and piercing whistles of the fuia. 

Miti vao nests are placed in hollows and holes, as are 

fuia nests. They usually lay two pale blue eggs with 

brown specklings. So few nests have been found 

here that we really don't know what time of the year 

this species prefers to breed, or if they may nest at any time. The miti vao is a species that apparently 

declined after tropical cyclones in 1990-91. We can only hope that populations will increase over time, 

provided that enough good forest remains to give this species the wild habitat it needs. 

One interesting thing about the miti vao is that there is a very different form of this bird in Manu'a. There, 

the miti vao are very dark on both upperparts and underparts, with heavy dark streaking on the breast. To 

become so different, the Manu'a birds must have been separated from those on Tutuila for a long time, 

probably thousands of years. 

Unfortunately, the native fuia and miti vao aren't Samoa's only 

starlings. Since the 1980's, two other members of the starling family 

have invaded Tutuila, and are now among our commonest birds. 

These are the black and white mynas that are common from Pago 

Pago Harbor to Leone. Two species of mynas are established here, 

both of which were originally native to India. The Common Myna is 

brownish black, with a yellow bill and a yellow patch of bare skin 

around the eye. The Jungle Myna is similar, but is darker and 

slimmer, with an orange beak and no yellow skin around the eye. 

Both species have large white patches in the wings and tail. The 

Common Myna is a major pest in many parts of the Pacific, including 

New Zealand, Hawaii, Fiji, Cook Islands, and French Polynesia. The 

Jungle Myna has become established only in Fiji and in the Samoan 

islands. Both species eat almost anything and are very happy in cities 

and villages, where they eat garbage and nest under roofs even in 

occupied buildings. These unwelcome invaders can damage guavas 

and other fruit crops, can spread disease, and may compete with our 

native birds in villages. So far, the mynas have not yet spread to the 

Manu'a Islands. It is important that we prevent their spread, and 

reserve American Samoa, as much as possible, for our native birds, 

including our native starlings, the fuia and the miti vao. 

Pepper Trail, DMWR 
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61. Swiftlets & sheath-tailed bats (o le pe'ape'a): a mosquito's nightmare

High above the villages, valleys, and mountains of Samoa flies a 

deadly predator, as terrifying as a tiger shark -- if you're a 

mosquito (namu), that is. This is the pe'ape'a, the only bird in 

Samoa that lives entirely on a diet of insects. 

But wait a minute -- pe'a means bat: isn't the pe'ape'a a kind of 

small bat? Well, yes and no. Actually two completely different 

creatures share the name pe'ape'a in Samoa. One is a bird, the 

common White-rumped Swiftlet that is seen flying by day all 

over our islands. Like all birds, this pe'ape'a has feathers and 

lays eggs. The other pe'ape'a, more properly called pe'ape'avai, 

is a tiny bat, the Sheath-tailed Bat that is active only at night. This animal may now be extinct in American 

Samoa. Like all bats, this pe'ape'a is a mammal and has fur and gives birth to live young that it feeds milk. 

The confusion arises because both creatures are tiny, active insect-eaters that are almost always in flight, and 

look similar as they dart and swoop after their prey. 

First let's talk about the common pe'ape'a: the bird. It 

belongs to a family of birds that are truly creatures of 

the air, the swifts. They have tiny legs and feet, and 

never land except at nests or in their roosting caves. 

Capturing and eating food, drinking, gathering nesting 

material, and yes, even mating, are all done in flight. In 

fact, it is likely that the pe'ape'a is like many other kinds 

of swifts and actually sleeps while flying. With their 

long, powerful wings and perfectly streamlined bodies, 

pe'ape'a are beautifully adapted for a life of flight. 

As they fly, pe'ape'a are continually hunting for small 

insects, especially mosquitoes, flies, and flying ants and 

termites. These are scooped up in the swift's huge mouth, 

which is made into an even larger trap by long bristle-like 

feathers around the mouth. The swiftlet is a very useful 

bird because of all the insects it eats. 

When the pe'ape'a finally does decide that it's time to land, it heads for a cave or a protected overhang on a 

cliff. There it flutters in to grasp the rock, usually hanging vertically. These caves and sheltered overhangs 

are also the nest site for the swifts. The nest is a small platform made of moss and fine twigs cemented 

together with the bird's saliva, attached to the rock. Some close relatives of the pe'ape'a make their nests 

entirely from dried saliva, which (believe it or not) are collected and cooked up to make that famous delicacy, 

bird's nest soup. The nests of our pe'ape'a are not suitable for this, so anyone with a taste for bird saliva will 

have to look elsewhere. 

Swiftlets lay one or two white eggs, and appear to nest at any time of year in Samoa. Although most nests 

are placed where at least a little light penetrates the cave, some are far back, where it is completely dark. 

How do the swifts find their way in and out? The answer is that these birds, like many small bats, have the 

amazing ability to echo-locate. They give loud clicking calls, and then listen to the echoes to orient 

themselves and avoid the walls of the cave. This ability is fairly undeveloped in birds, and the swiftlets don't 

use it to locate their insect prey, which is why they hunt during the daytime. In many small bats, however, 

echo-location is incredibly advanced, and is used to hunt tiny insects in complete darkness. One bat with this 

ability is the Sheath-tailed Bat, which brings us to our second pe'ape'a. 
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The Sheath-tailed Bat (Emballonura semicaudata) also feeds on 

mosquitoes and other flying insects. But unlike the swift, this small bat 

does not seem to accept sheltered cliffs as roosting or breeding areas, 

inhabiting only deep and protected caves. There are few such caves in 

American Samoa, and therefore few good homes for the bat. Ever since 

Cyclone Ofa in 1990, the known bat caves on Tutuila have been almost 

deserted. Cyclones Ofa and Val swept water and debris into several caves, 

and the days of strong cyclone winds may have made it impossible for the 

bats to find food. Unless more bats survive in caves that we don't know 

about, the long-term survival of this useful and fascinating animal in 

American Samoa is doubtful. There is little we can do to help the bat 

except to stay away from their caves to avoid disturbing the few surviving 

animals. Sadly, the Sheath-tailed Bat seems to be endangered throughout 

most of its range, including in western Samoa and the Marianas, as well as 

here. 

And what about the swift? Although the 

population of these birds was reduced by 

cyclones in 1990-91, the species seems to 

be in no danger of extinction. It is still 

possible to see flocks of hundreds of swifts 

swirling together in areas where winds 

collect large numbers of insects, for 

example in Malaeimi Valley and in such 

highland areas as Aoloau and Afono Pass. 

There is every reason to believe that these 

birds will always enliven the Samoan sky -- 

and strike terror into the hearts of 

mosquitoes everywhere. 

Pepper Trail 

DMWR 

Sheath-tailed bat 

(pe’ape’a)
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62. Familiar and mysterious birds -- the rails

The ve'a, or “roadrunner”, is one of Samoa's most recognizable birds. It is a familiar sight tiptoeing out 

of the grass or running crazily across the road, its neck stretched out and its big feet trying to keep up. 

And its loud, screeching voice is a familiar sound, seeming to complain at the disturbance as we walk to 

the taro patch. However, for all its abundance, the ve'a is still a little-known bird, quickly disappearing 

from view when disturbed and impossible to follow in the thick grass it favors. What's more, the ve'a has 

two even more mysterious cousins in American Samoa, and another in western Samoa that, as we will 

see, is the most mysterious Samoan bird of all. 

The ve'a and its cousins belong to the family of birds known 

as the rails (named from a old English word meaning to 

screech -- many of these birds have loud, harsh voices). The 

ve'a is called the Banded Rail, because of the black and white 

bands on its sides and underparts. It is found all across the 

Pacific from the Philippines and Indonesia to Samoa, Tonga, 

Fiji, and on to Australia and New Zealand. It is usually 

common wherever it occurs, with the exception of Fiji. On 

Fiji this formerly abundant bird has been exterminated on the 

large islands of Vanua Levu and Viti Levu by an introduced 

predator, the mongoose. This shows how important it is to 

keep Samoa free from such destructive introduced animals. 

The ve'a is a very useful bird, eating many insects that can harm crops. In fact, it will eat almost 

anything, including fruit, worms, snails, mice, and even toads squashed flat on the roads. It sometimes 

can be seen deep in the forest, but prefers open areas with dense grass. Therefore, taro and banana 

plantations are some of its favorite places. The nest of the ve'a is very hard to find, being built on the 

ground well-hidden in thick grass. The ve'a lays 4 to 6 eggs. Like young chickens, young ve'a can run 

around almost as soon as they hatch, and they leave the nest immediately. It is common to see one or two 

fuzzy, dark gray chicks being led into the grass by their 

watchful parents. 

The other Samoan rail that most people know is the manu ali'i, 

known as the Purple Swamphen. This large and beautiful bird 

is a dark purple, with a bright red beak that extends up over the 

forehead. It is even more widely distributed than the ve'a, 

occurring from southern Europe through Africa and all the way 

to Australia and New Zealand. It is much less common than 

the ve'a in American Samoa, but occurs in low numbers almost 

everywhere, especially in more remote plantation areas. This 

bird is more often heard than seen; it gives a loud screech with 

an echoing, honking quality. 

Like the ve'a, the manu ali'i prefers areas with thick 

undergrowth rather than true forest. It has a very wide diet, 

including many insects and much plant material. It sometimes 

gets into trouble with farmers because of its fondness for green 

bananas and taro tops. However, usually it does little damage, 

and repays it by eating soldier worms and other crop pests. In former times, the manu ali'i was 

sometimes hunted, and this may be why it is so shy, usually running or flying off with loud screams as 

soon as it sees you. Like the ve'a, it nests in thick vegetation, either on the ground or in a low bush. It 

lays 3 or 4 eggs, and the young leave the nest to follow their parents as soon as they hatch. 
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Our third kind of rail is a real mystery bird, as shown by the fact that it has no 

Samoan name. In English it is called the Spotless Crake. Although its wide 

range in the Pacific is very similar to the ve'a, in American Samoa it has only 

been sighted on the island of Ta'u. The Spotless Crake is very small, only about 

half the size of a ve'a, and is all dark gray except for red legs and eyes. It lives 

in dense grass, almost never flies, and is active at dawn and dusk. All this 

makes it a very hard bird to find. In fact, only a single bird was seen by 

biologists in 1986, and another was sighted in 2001. 

 

There is one more kind of rail to mention, and this is the most mysterious Samoan bird of all. It is the 

puna'e, or Samoan Woodhen. This bird was first described by scientists in 1874, and last seen in 1908. 

In the whole world, only 11 preserved specimens of it exist. It apparently occurred only on Savai'i in 

western Samoa. 

Old stories tell that the puna'e lived in burrows in the mountain forests, and that it was formerly so 

abundant that it was hunted with nets and dogs specially trained to tell which burrows were occupied. If 

these stories are true, the puna'e was a very special bird indeed, since no other rails live in burrows. In 

the last ten years, there has been an unconfirmed report of the puna'e being seen in the mountains of 

Savai'i. These remote forests have been rarely visited by biologists, and we can hope that this unique bird 

may yet survive in the depths of that misty wilderness. 

Pepper Trail, DMWR 

Pago Pago Harbor 
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63. Our strange winter visitor, the Cuckoo (aleva)

The aleva or Long-tailed Cuckoo is a very odd bird, no doubt about it. For one thing, when the weather 

starts to get cold in its summer home, the aleva migrates north for the winter. For another, it has a highly 

unusual home life: it doesn't build its own nest or care for its own young, but abandons its eggs in the 

nests of other birds, to be raised not only by strangers, but by completely different kinds of birds. The 

aleva lives and breeds in New Zealand for half of the year. But when winter approaches, around March 

or April, the aleva leaves its chilly home islands, and flies north into sunny Polynesia. In fact, it is the 

only land bird to migrate north to spend the winter with us (although a few aleva may be found here yearround). The aleva's winter range extends all the way 

from Palau on the west to Pitcairn Island on the east, but 

the largest numbers winter in Fiji, Samoa, and Tonga. 

Here it can be found on any island, from the mountainous 

interiors of the largest high islands to the coastal 

vegetation of tiny atolls. Wherever it ends up, the aleva

feeds mostly on large insects, including caterpillars and 

stick insects, but also small lizards. 

The aleva is a hard bird to see, usually creeping without a 

sound through dense foliage. In fact, we most often see aleva because they are being chased by other 

birds, especially the iao (Wattled Honeyeater). Iao seem to hate aleva, and chase them vigorously, with 

loud scolding cries. It is interesting to try to figure out why they do this. There are at least three 

possibilities. It may be that aleva will eat eggs if they get the chance; however, this has never been 

observed. Second, in flight the aleva looks much like a hawk, with its pointed wings and long tail. 

Perhaps iao mistake the aleva for a hawk, and think they are chasing a dangerous predator away. But 

there are no hawks in Samoa. Therefore, this explanation would mean that iao still have an instinctive 

fear of hawk-like birds thousands of years after they last saw a hawk (which was probably when the 

ancestors of our iao came here from Fiji). The last explanation seems even more far-fetched. This is that 

the iao chases the aleva because it is afraid that the cuckoo will lay its eggs in the iao's nest. To 

understand this possibility, we must discuss the strange breeding behavior of the aleva. 

Like many other members of the cuckoo family, the aleva is a nest parasite. This means that it secretly 

lays its eggs in other birds' nests. The unlucky host birds think that the cuckoo egg is their own, and raise 

it alongside their own babies. Usually the baby cuckoo is much larger than the babies of its hosts, who 

are unable to compete and starve to death. Many New Zealand birds, including honeyeaters related to the 

iao, recognize the aleva and chase it away. This makes a lot of sense in New Zealand, where the aleva

breeds. But the aleva never breeds on its wintering grounds in Polynesia. Therefore, the iao has no 

reason to fear that the aleva will lay eggs in its nest. Could there be an instinctive hatred of cuckoos in all 

members of the honeyeater family? Like many questions in biology, this one would be hard to answer, 

but it's still fun to think about. 

Older Samoans say that aleva used to be much more common than they are today. The aleva is now a 

rare sight on Tutuila. It's hard to know just how rare the bird really is because of its secretive habits. If 

you see one, consider yourself lucky, and take a moment to think about the many mysteries in the life of 

this strange visitor to our shores. 

Pepper Trail 

DMWR 
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64. Barn owls (lulu) -- spirit of the night

The barn owl or lulu is a highly beneficial bird in American Samoa, but some people fear it because they 

associate it with ghosts or aitu. Its ghostly white appearance and its preference for flying at night enhance 

its reputation as a mysterious bird. It is not uncommon when driving around Tutuila at night to see one 

perched on a telephone pole or gliding across the road. Its eerie screech pierces the night and can be 

frightening if you are not expecting it. 

Owls are carnivores that usually swallow their prey whole. A few 

hours after swallowing a rat (isumu) or some other prey, owls 

regurgitate or spit out a pellet of indigestible bones and hair about 

two inches long and one inch in diameter. By examining these 

pellets, we can determine what the lulu eats. In the remains of 482 

meals, rats made up most (81%) of those meals, followed by mice 

(9%), geckos (7%), and bones of a few birds (2%), which 

consisted of White Terns (manusina), Wattled Honeyeaters (iao), 

mynas, and Samoan Starlings (fuia). 

No chicken remains were found, but this was not unexpected 

because owls do not generally attack large prey. Chickens and 

fruit bats (pe'a) are too heavy for an owl to carry and too large to 

swallow whole. Instead, they would typically eat the meat and 

viscera at the site of the kill. Soft tissues such as these would be totally 

digested and not be found in pellets. We have other evidence that one 

flying fox was killed and partially eaten by an owl. 

Even though lulu occasionally take a bird, bat or even a chicken, their 

value in controlling rat populations is tremendous. One pair of owls may 

catch 2-4 rats per day. Without owls, Tutuila and Manu'a would probably 

be over-run with rats. A lulu seen flying through a village should not be 

feared or hated but welcomed, because it will probably mean one less rat 

near your fale. 

Gilbert S. Grant 

DMWR 

 

 
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65. Birds of wetland and reef: Gray Duck and Reef Heron

 

Two very different birds depend on Samoa's shallow water habitats. One is the familiar matu'u, or Pacific 

Reef-Heron, a bird that is seen nearly every day by anyone visiting Samoa's shoreline. The other is Samoa's 

only duck, the toloa or Gray Duck, a bird that is so rare that most young Samoans have probably never seen 

one. 

It comes as a surprise to some people that we don't have more kinds of ducks 

in Polynesia. After all, ducks like water, and we've got plenty of that, right? 

Well, we've got plenty of salt water, but very few lakes, marshes, or large 

streams of fresh water. Almost all ducks prefer fresh water, and even the few 

kinds of “sea ducks” eat mostly seagrass and other plants that aren't found 

around Samoa's coral reefs. Therefore, there aren't many suitable homes for 

toloa in American Samoa. These suitable homes are the fresh and brackish 

(fresh/saltwater mix) water wetlands. 

“Wetlands” is a word that we hear a lot about. It refers to areas of land that are permanently or periodically 

flooded or submerged in shallow water. So much wetland habitat has been lost in the United States, 

primarily through draining and filling, that strict federal laws have been passed protecting wetlands. Locally, 

the Coastal Zone Management Program is responsible for protecting our remaining wetlands, which serve 

vital roles as nurseries for fish and crabs, natural water purification and recharge areas, sites for taro 

production, and homes for rare plants and wildlife. There used to be extensive mangrove (togo) swamps 

bordering Pago Pago Bay, but these were filled in long ago, before the negative environmental consequences 

of such activities were understood. The largest remaining wetland areas here are the pala lagoons in Nu'uuli 

and Leone and the marshes and Pala Lake on Aunu'u Island. There are also many other small but important 

wetlands remaining in both Tutuila and Manu'a.

These areas were once home to toloa. However, as 

wetlands were filled in and as shotguns became 

available, this once-popular game bird became rarer and 

rarer. During a major survey of Samoan birds in 1986, 

not a single toloa was seen, leading to the concern that 

this bird might be extinct in American Samoa. Happily, 

this is not the case. A few toloa still live in the territory, 

mostly on Aunu'u, where the village leaders have taken 

an active role in protecting their ducks. This bird, and 

the wetlands it depends upon, need our continued 

protection if it is ever to recover to healthy population 

levels. 

The toloa is a “dabbling duck”. This means that it doesn't 

dive under the water to feed, but rather tips down, with its tail in the air and its neck stretching under the 

water, to reach the plants and small insects and snails that it feeds on. Although it sometimes swims in the 

sea, it does not feed there, and, like most ducks, it does not eat fish. 

One interesting thing about the toloa is that is doesn't always nest near the water. It may build its nest in tall 

dense grass, or place it in a low tree hollow. Five to ten pale green eggs are laid. The journey of the young 

ducks from the nest to the safety of the water is a dangerous one, and usually only one or two ducklings make 

it. 

The toloa is a great wanderer. The bird is found across a huge geographic area, extending from Indonesia to 

French Polynesia, and south to New Zealand and Australia. The toloa is a strong, fast flier, and commonly 

flies between islands. It seems likely that the small population on Aunu'u, which was apparently absent in the 
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late 1980's, may have recolonized American Samoa from western Samoa, where the duck is slightly more 

common. This gives us reason to hope that the toloa may return to areas that it formerly used, if the wetlands 

are preserved, and the duck is protected from hunting. So ... if you see a toloa, consider yourself lucky, and 

don't disturb it. Perhaps one day Samoa's special duck will once again be a common sight. 

The matu'u, or Pacific Reef-Heron, is a common sight 

today. With its long legs and long neck, often curved 

in an S-shape, the matu'u is one of Samoa's most 

recognizable birds. One interesting fact about the 

matu'u is that it comes in two color forms, either dark 

gray or pure white, although almost all the matu'u in 

Samoa are dark gray. In other areas, particularly atolls 

like Swains Island or Rose Atoll, almost all the matu'u

are white. It seems that in Polynesia the dark forms are 

found on volcanic islands, with dark lava rocks, while 

the white birds occur on atolls with white sandy 

shorelines. In many other parts of its range, however, 

including Fiji, both white and gray forms occur 

commonly in the same area. The reason for the 

matu'u's two color forms remains unclear. 

The matu'u is the master spear fisherman of the bird 

world. It stalks slowly across the reef flat, scanning for 

the slightest movement, and then throws its long neck forward as fast as lightning, catching its prey with its 

long sharp beak. It feeds on a wide variety of reef creatures, including fish, crabs, and snails. 

Although the matu'u usually makes its living feeding on the coral reef, it also uses the freshwater wetlands of 

Samoa. Mangrove areas like the Nu'uuli Pala are frequent feeding sites, and the birds will also hunt for food 

in freshwater streams. These rainforest stream valleys are the matu'u's favored nesting areas, where the 

herons build their large nests high in the trees. Some matu'u also nest on offshore islets, and have even been 

reported to nest on ledges in caves. Usually three pale green eggs are laid. 

Strict protection of Samoa's wetlands is essential if the toloa is to regain its place among our familiar native 

birds and if the matu'u is to continue to be a common resident of our shoreline villages. Please help spread 

the message that landfills kill a very important part of Samoa's natural environment -- our wetlands. 

Pepper Trail, DMWR 
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66. Shorebirds (tuli): incredible voyagers 

April-May is the time of year when some familiar visitors leave American Samoa and begin an incredible 

and perilous journey home. These visitors are the shorebirds, or tuli. Three different kinds of tuli are 

common visitors here between the months of September and April: the Pacific Golden Plover, the 

Wandering Tattler, and the Ruddy Turnstone. 

Golden Plover in breeding (left) and non-breeding coloration (center). Wandering Tattler 

During the northern summer, all three tuli nest in Alaska and northern Canada. The plover and the 

turnstone nest in the tundra, where their neighbors are caribou and grizzly bears. The tattlers nest by icy 

mountain streams, sharing their world with mountain sheep and golden eagles. But when the northern 

days grow shorter and colder, the birds probably begin to dream of the beaches and reefs of Polynesia, for 

they set out on one of the greatest of all animal journeys. From gathering places on the coasts of Alaska, 

the tuli take off to fly non-stop over 3,000 miles of open ocean to the Hawaiian Islands. These birds 

cannot land on the water and take a rest -- their feathers are not waterproof, so if they land in the water, 

they drown. Not only is this flight an amazing physical feat, but it requires tremendous navigational 

abilities to find tiny specks of land lost in the featureless sea. After a well-earned rest in Hawaii, the tuli

take off again for another flight over thousands of miles of ocean to reach Samoa. 

Here, each kind of tuli takes up a slightly 

different lifestyle. The Golden Plover is 

often seen on the beaches, but even more 

commonly can be found searching for food 

on the short grass of the village malae, 

parks, the golf course, and the airport. We 

can only hope it will not be harmed from 

competing with the many myna birds that 

now occupy these areas. Although this 

plover is plain brown during most of its stay 

in American Samoa, it gets a beautiful new 

set of feathers just before it heads north: a 

golden-spangled back and jet black 

underparts. The plover is the commonest 

tuli in Samoa, and it features in many myths 

and legends. Tuli the Messenger is one 

manifestation of Tagaloa, the supreme god of the ancient Samoans, and in one version of the Samoan 

creation story, Tagaloa created the first dry land as a resting place for tuli. 

The Wandering Tattler is a beachcomber. It is almost always seen on beaches or the reef, using its long 

beak to pry small crabs, worms, and other delicacies out of the sand or coral. It is a solitary bird, soberly 

dressed in gray. When disturbed, the tattler's loud cries explain how it got its name. 

Incredible flight of shorebirds (tuli) from 

American Samoa to Alaska and 

Canada, with a stopover in Hawaii.
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The turnstone was named for its way of feeding. 

These small, energetic, sociable birds like to 

vigorously flip over small stones, bits of seaweed, 

or debris in search of food hiding beneath. They 

can be seen either on the beach or in grassy areas. 

The turnstone has a beautiful pattern of black and 

white patches on its back when it flies, and in 

breeding plumage, it is a handsome bird with 

 orange-brown, black, and white patterning. 

All these tuli can usually be seen in such places as Sliding Rock and Pala Lagoon from 

September to April. But in April-May, all but a few stragglers will have left Samoa to 

take their long, long trip back to Alaska. So, the next time you see some tuli, wish 

them a safe journey and try to imagine, maybe with a little envy, their great adventure. 

Pepper Trail 

DMWR

 Other shorebirds occasionally seen here: 

Bristle-thighed Curlew

Bar-tailed Godwit

Sanderling
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67. Samoa's seabirds: tava'esina, gogo and manusina

The islands of Samoa are true oceanic islands: 

they are not riders on the skirts of any continent, 

but are the tops of huge mountains, rising up 

through the great ocean depths. Surrounded as 

they are by thousands of square miles of ocean, it 

is not surprising that the Samoan Islands have 

more kinds of seabirds than any other type of 

native wildlife. In all, 20 species of seabirds are 

known to nest in Samoa (and many more can be 

seen passing through our area), compared to 18 

kinds of resident landbirds and only three kinds of 

mammals (all bat species). 

Our seabirds are a diverse group. Some, such as 

shearwaters and petrels (ta'i'o), are rarely seen, 

but nest in burrows on the tops of mountains like 

Lata and Pioa. Their eerie calls can be heard at night in places such as Afono Pass. Others like 

frigatebirds (atafa) and boobies (fua'o) are seen flying around our coasts, but nest on the high cliffs of 

Pola or in trees on the remote north side of Tutuila. The tern family has many different-looking birds 

living here, including the solid black and brown noddies (gogo), the beautiful blue-grey noddy (laia), the 

white tern (manusina), and the grey-backed tern (gogo sina). Here we will discuss the three most 

common and conspicuous seabirds of Tutuila: the tava'esina, manusina, and gogo. 

The tava'esina (tava'e), or White-tailed Tropicbird, is one of Samoa's most beautiful creatures. The sight 

of a tava'esina soaring overhead is unforgettable, as its gleaming white feathers and graceful tail streamers 

blaze against the deep indigo of the Polynesian sky. Happily, it is also a familiar sight, as these birds are 

common all around Tutuila. 

The tava'esina, so graceful in the air, is comical 

and awkward on land, so much so that Samoan 

legends describe the bird as lazy or dim-witted. In 

fact, tava'esina are probably as industrious and 

intelligent as your average bird. Their awkwardness 

results from the fact that their legs and feet are tiny 

for the size of the bird, and are placed far back on 

the body. Thus, all tava'esina can do on land is to 

shuffle along, bumping their powerful chest muscles 

on the ground. Luckily for them, tava'esina spend 

little time on land. 

They typically nest high in rainforest trees, preferring protected sites such as large hollows or clumps of 

ferns or other plant material. Here they lay a single large egg. At hatching, the young tropicbird is one of 

the cutest of all baby birds -- a completely round ball of silvery fluff. As they grow, they molt into their 

juvenile plumage, with black and white barred feathers across their back. This is their appearance when they 

leave the nest on their first flight toward the sea, often a mile or more away. The fledglings often seem to 

have problems with this flight, based on the number of young tava'e that are brought in to our office, unable 

to fly. These youngsters are usually very gentle, and with several days of feeding with sardines or other 

fish, they often regain their strength and are able to fly away. 

Tava'esina are master fishermen, making plunging dives for squid and a variety of small fish. One of their 
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favorites are flying fish -- I've often wondered whether they catch the flying fish in the air or while they're 

swimming. The tava'esina is well known to Samoan fishermen, who watch its behavior at sea to help them 

locate schools of masimasi and other fish. The tava'e is important to human fishermen for another reason: 

its feathers are prized for fishing lures. The gleaming white breast feathers are tied to hooks and used to 

attract malau (squirrelfish) and other fish. It is a traditional belief that only feathers from living birds stay 

dry and shiny after repeated use, and it was a badge of honor for a Samoan youth to climb a tava'e nesting 

tree and pluck out the plumes. This supplied a lure while causing no harm to the birds. 

The tava'e has a close relative, the Red-tailed Tropicbird, or tava'e'ula, that nests on Rose Atoll. This bird is 

larger and heavier than the tava'esina, with shining pinkish-white feathers and red tail plumes. It typically 

nests on the ground among rocks, roots, or logs. In former times, this bird apparently nested on Tutuila, but 

it no longer does so. The reason may be the abundance of introduced animals such as rats, cats, and dogs 

that attack ground-nesting birds on Tutuila. 

Our next seabird, the manusina or manu sina (also called the 

White Tern or common fairy tern) is perhaps Samoa's most 

familiar bird. At almost any time of day you can lift your 

eyes to the mountains and see these pure white birds circling 

effortlessly over the green forest. I recommend 

contemplation of this lovely sight to anyone feeling burned 

out by the noise and ugliness that sometimes surround us at 

eye level. It's always a nice reminder of the beauty of the 

natural Samoan environment. 

The manusina is found throughout the tropical oceans of the 

world and seems able to adapt to human-altered landscapes 

better than do many seabirds. Those of you familiar with 

Honolulu may have noticed manusina fluttering in the trees along Kalakaua Avenue, where they actually 

nest in the middle of Waikiki. The nesting behavior of manusina is remarkable indeed. In fact, “nesting” is 

being a bit generous, since manusina make no nest at all. Instead, they balance their large single egg in a 

knothole, stub, or other more or less precarious perch in a tree. They will even accept man-made structures 

like rooftops and ledges. It is amazing to see a manusina stubbornly sitting on its egg as a strong tropical 

storm swings its branch wildly. Risky though is seems to us, this nesting strategy certainly works, as the 

White Tern is a common and widespread bird. 

Manusina feed on a variety of small ocean fish, which they pluck from the surface. Unlike all the other 

seabirds of Samoa, the manusina carries fish back to its chick in its beak, rather than swallowing them first. 

In fact, they have the incredible ability to capture several tiny fish in a row, shift them crosswise in their bill, 

and carry them back home, without dropping any. How do they do it? 

The final seabird to be discussed is the gogo, or Brown Noddy. 

Like the manusina, this bird is a member of the tern family, but 

these two cousins are different in many ways. For starters, the 

gogo is as dark as the manusina is light. It is dark chocolate brown 

all over, except for the top of the head, which is a whitish-gray cap. 

It is also more sociable than the manusina, usually nesting in loose 

groups, or colonies. The gogo is very flexible in its nesting 

behavior. On Tutuila, gogo usually nest high in trees in forested 

stream valleys, building bulky nests of dead leaves and other plant 

material. They also sometimes nest on cliffs, for example at 

Fagatele Bay. On Rose Island and other atolls, gogo are happy to 

lay their eggs on the ground, making only a small scrape in the 

coral rubble, which they often decorate with empty seashells and 

even bones. Like other tropical seabirds, the gogo typically lays only a single egg. 
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There is another gogo here, the Black Noddy, which is smaller and blacker than the Brown Noddy, and 

has a different way of flying. In good light they are separated from Brown Noddies that have a distinct 

brown and black pattern on the wings. Black Noddies are more often seen feeding in flocks with 

manusina than are Brown Noddies. The diet of the gogo is apparently similar to that of the manusina, 

since both birds feed on small fish and squid captured near the surface. How do different birds with such 

similar food habits coexist? Maybe each catches just a particular kind or size of fish, or dives to a certain 

depth. 

Red Footed Booby Brown Booby Masked Booby Lesser Frigatebird 

Fua’o Fua’o Manu ula Fua’o Atafa 

One of the most interesting sights in American Samoa is a foraging flock of seabirds. These groups can 

have from five or ten to hundreds of birds. They are a great chance to see the many different ways 

seabirds catch fish: laia flutter above the waves, sometimes dangling their feet into the water, gogo

swoop low over the water, fua'o dive into the water with a huge splash, and atafa wait until a fua'o

catches some fish, then chase it and take the fish from it. The birds you see in such a flock are a good 

indication of which fish are below the water, something Samoan fishermen use to locate schools of fish. 

A flock of small birds like White Terns and Black Noddies usually indicates skipjack or small tuna, while 

large flocks of fua'o indicate larger fish. As fishing partners or simply as beautiful neighbors on our 

islands, Samoa's seabirds are a special part of our wild heritage. 

Pepper Trail, DMWR 

Sooty terns at Rose Atoll 
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68. The special birds of Manu'a

The Manu'a Islands are famous for their history, culture, and spectacular beauty, but the wildlife of Ta'u, 

Ofu, and Olosega is also special. Given that these islands are only 60 miles east of Tutuila, you might 

expect that the same kinds of birds and animals would be found in both places. But in fact there are four 

kinds of birds living in Manu'a that do not occur on Tutuila. 

The most beautiful of these is 

Samoa's only parrot, the 

segavao (sega’ula), or Bluecrowned Lory. This is a tiny 

jewel of a bird, only 7 inches 

long, but colored with emerald 

green back and wings, ruby red 

face and throat, and a sapphire 

blue crown. In historic times, 

these colorful feathers were 

used to decorate fine mats. 

Segavao often come in to 

villages to feed on the nectar of 

coconut (niu) and coral tree (gatae) flowers, but they are not easy to see in spite of their bright colors. 

Your first clue to their presence is often their high-pitched whistles, given as they fly overhead or 

scramble in the top of a coconut tree. This pretty little parrot is also found in western Samoa, but does 

not live on Tutuila. We don't know why. Tutuila seems to have some of the food segavao like, including 

āoa fruits, but perhaps there are not enough flowers all year round. In the forests of Manu'a, segavao

particularly like the flowers of Astronidium pickeringii, a species for which we know no Samoan name. 

This tree of the melastome family is common in the high forests of Manu'a. 

Another special bird of Manu'a is the sega o le vau, the Lesser (Fiji) 

Shrikebill. This is a charcoal-grey bird with tiny white corners on its 

tail, although if you get a very good look you might see a little brown 

along its sides, or its blue-grey legs. Sega o le vau are about the same 

size as iao, but are stockier and have bigger heads and wider beaks. 

This bird is found nowhere else in the Samoan islands. It also occurs in 

Fiji, but birds there look very different and are mostly brown. Sega o 

le vau can be seen on all three islands of Manu'a, but they are not 

closely tied to a particular habitat. They are usually heard before they 

are seen, as they often make a loud chatter as they poke through dead 

vines or 'ie'ie leaves. They also make a clear two-toned whistle, and 

may answer if you imitate this call. These birds seem sociable and often move through the forest in small 

groups of two or three. They often ignore people, and if you sit very still they will sometimes feed within 

arm’s reach. 

The Spotless Crake is a small black bird that looks like a half-grown Banded 

Rail (ve'a). It is extremely rare and has only been found in American Samoa on 

Ta'u Island. It lives in dense grass, is active mostly at dawn and dusk, and is 

very shy. All these habits makes it very hard to see, and only a few birds have 

been sighted in recent years. 

Another rare land bird in American Samoa is the tu’aimeo, the Friendly GroundDove. This bird gets its name because it was first discovered in Tonga, once 
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called the Friendly Islands. A better name would probably be the Shy Ground-Dove, as this bird will sit 

very still on a low branch and hope you do not notice it. Your best chance of seeing one is if it happens 

to be walking in the path you are using, as it may run ahead of you or fly up onto a tree limb. You may 

also hear its call, a single, drawn-out coo that is slightly lower and 

much longer than the rapid, short coos of the fruit-doves 

manutagi or manuma. If you are very close, you can hear a slight 

variation in the tone of the call. Tu’aimeo are mostly dark brown 

birds, although like many doves the males can be very pretty if 

seen in good light. Unlike other doves or pigeons in American 

Samoa, this bird spends most of its time on the ground, where it 

feeds on fallen seeds, fruit, and buds. Tu’aimeo can be seen on 

Ofu and Olosega, as well as in Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa. 

Birds are not the only unique wildlife of Manu'a. For example, Ta'u is home to American Samoa's only 

native snake, the gata, or Pacific Boa. This dark brown snake is harmless to people, apparently living 

mostly on a diet of lizards (pili), birds and bird eggs. It is rare, or at least very hard to find in the deep 

forests of Ta'u, and should be left undisturbed whenever it is found. 

Why is the wildlife in Manu'a so different from that on Tutuila? One reason could be the wildness of 

Manu'a: large areas, mostly on Ta'u, are untouched by villages, plantations, and roads. Another reason 

may be that in Manu'a the native birds have fewer problems caused by introduced birds, animals, 

diseases, or plants. Or, it could be that the terrain in Manu'a, which has many areas with steep yet 

forested ridges that have quite different plants than similar ridges, such as Alava, on Tutuila. Each of the 

special birds of Manu'a may have different reasons for being there, but the absence of all of them from 

Tutuila suggests there might be a single explanation for this pattern, and this remains an interesting 

biological question about American Samoa. 

Joshua Seamon, Pepper Trail 

DMWR 
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69. American Samoan Christmas bird count

 This article gives a snapshot of what birds might have been seen by a visitor to Tutuila in 1992. 

“Christmas counts” are conducted by bird enthusiasts almost everywhere, including American Samoa. 

The survey is conducted on a single day during the period December 14 to January 5. Counts are made 

within a 15-mile diameter circle. The numbers and species of birds seen will depend on the number of 

observer teams. On December 17, 1992, seven observers traveling in three parties recorded 1337 birds of 

30 species on Tutuila Island: 

227 Red-footed Booby 

143 White Tern 

131 Pacific Golden Plover 

118 White-rumped Swiftlet 

116 Wattled Honeyeater 

 97 Samoan Starling 

 91 Red-vented Bulbul (alien) 

 86 Brown Noddy 

 46 Jungle Myna (alien) 

 31 Brown Booby 

 30 Purple-capped Fruit-Dove 

 27 Cardinal Honeyeater 

 25 Common Myna (alien) 

 24 White-tailed Tropicbird 

 23 Ruddy Turnstone 

 21 Banded Rail 

 21 Collared Kingfisher 

 14 Pacific Pigeon 

 13 Reef Heron 

 12 Wandering Tattler 

 9 Polynesian Starling 

 7 Lesser Frigatebird 

 6 Bridled Tern 

 4 frigatebird spp. 

 4 Great Frigatebird 

 4 Many-colored Fruit-Dove 

 3 Sanderling 

 1 Purple Swamphen 

 1 Blue-gray Noddy 

 1 Rock Dove (alien) 

 1 Barn Owl 

 The count circle was centered at the peak of Matafao 

Mountain and included the entire island except the areas west of 

Fagamalo and Nua villages, and east of Aoa and Alofau villages. 

The total viewer-hours were: 3.5 hours on foot and 6 hours by 

vehicle. Participants traveled 2.5 miles on foot and 35 miles by 

vehicle. Percentage of time in each habitat was: 30% villages, 

30% nearshore/reef, 10% plantations, 10% montane scrub, 10% 

rainforest, and 10% shore/scrub. Four species recorded were 

non-native introductions. The Rock Dove has not established a 

breeding population in the territory and the one observed was 

probably an escapee from a small colony of homing pigeons 

maintained by an individual in Tafuna. The Red-vented Bulbul 

has been established on Tutuila since at least the early 1960's. 

Both species of mynas became established here in the 1980's and are currently undergoing rapid range 

expansions in urban areas. 

Gilbert S. Grant, Pepper Trail, DMWR 
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Appendix 1. Events of local interest, by year 

 

1880 Navy stockpiles coal on harbor shoreline from 1880 to 1920. 

1900 Population size in territory: 5,679. Size in 2009: 69,000. 

1938 Outbreak of crown-of-thorns starfish reported. 

1941 Build-up of Navy base in harbor. 

1949 USS Chehalis sinks at fuel dock and still has fuel load aboard in 2009. 

1954 Van Camp tuna cannery built in harbor. 

1963 Starkist tuna cannery built in harbor. 

1973 Rose Atoll National Wildlife Refuge estab.; PO in 1975 expands seaward boundary to 3 miles. 

1974 American Samoa Environmental Protection Agency (ASEPA) established. 

1978 Tutuila hit hard by crown-of-thorns starfish invasion; massive mortality of corals. 

1980 Coastal Zone Management program established; enacted in 1990 (PL 21-35). 

1981 Cyclone Esau 

1982 Nutrient levels from cannery effluent in harbor exceed ASEPA levels from 1982 to 1991. 

1985 Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary established. 

1986 Department of Marine & Wildlife Resources established (originally the Office of MWR). 

1987 Cyclone Tusi (January 19); Manu'a heavily impacted. 

1988 National Park of A.Samoa established (PL 100-571); 50-year lease agreement signed in 1993. 

1988 Public Notification & Review System (PNRS) established to coordinate multi-agency reviews 

 of land-use applications in territory. 

1988 Tuna canneries required to transport high-nutrient wastes daily to dump zone 5 miles offshore. 

1990 Cyclone Ofa (Feb. 3-4). 

1990 Natural Resources Commission established for local endangered species (PL 21-39) but inactive. 

1991 Cyclone Val (Dec. 6-10); major impact to buildings, rainforests, birds, bats, coral reefs. 

1991 Hunting banned to allow birds and fruit bats recover after cyclones (ban still in place in 2009). 

1991 Canneries required to stop wastewater discharge in inner harbor; effluent now piped to outer harbor. 

1992 Rats eradicated at Rose Atoll due to their adverse impact on native flora and fauna. 

1993 Longliner Jin Shiang Fa ran aground at Rose Atoll, spilling full fuel load, with long-term impacts. 

1993 Taro blight (a fungus) wipes out local taro crop. Resistant strains imported from Palau. 

1994 Widespread warm-water bleaching of corals in territory. 

1994 Vaoto Marine Park estab. (PL 23-13, 18.0214) in exchange for dredging Faleasao harbor. 

1994 Sewage treatment plants in Tafuna & Utulei upgraded to increase primary treatment capacity. 

1995 Governor's interagency Coral Reef Advisory Group (CRAG) established. 

2000 9 shipwrecks from cyclone in 1991 were removed from harbor reefs. 

2000 Task Force on Population Growth produces report on unsustainable growth in A.Samoa. 

2000 Collection of "live rock" (corals fragments) was banned to allow reef recovery (EO 002-2000). 

2000 Governor directs ASG establish 20% of territory’s coral reefs as no-take Marine Protected Areas. 

2001 Use of scuba gear while fishing was banned because reefs are overfished (EO 002-2001). 

2002 Sea Grant program established at American Samoa Community College. 

2002 Widespread warm-water bleaching of corals in territory. 

2003 Widespread warm-water bleaching of corals in territory; coral disease (‘white syndrome’) common. 

2003 Sea turtle & marine mammal sanctuary established in all territorial waters, 0-12 mi (EO 005-2003). 

2003 Ocean Resource Management Process established to coordinate nearshore, harbor, offshore, 

 and watershed management plans (EO 004-2003). 

2003 Shark finning (taking fins only) banned in territorial waters (EO 066-2003). 

2004 Cyclone Heta (Jan. 4-5); moderate damage to buildings, forests and coral reefs. 

2005 Cyclone Olaf (Feb. 16); Category 5 cyclone slammed directly into Manu’a. 

2006 Major invasive tree (Falcataria moluccana) removed from National Park (Tutuila Is.). 

2006 Ecosystem damage to Rose Atoll persists 13 years after shipwreck and fuel spill there. 

2009 Rose Atoll National Monument established. 

Abbreviations: EO (Executive Order), PL (Public Law), PO (Presidential Order)
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 Appendix 2. Index of some Samoan plant names used in text

Samoan Common Scientific 

'a'amati'e Elaeocarpus floridanus 

'ala'a Planchonella garberi 

āoa banyan Ficus prolixa/obliqua 

asi, asi toa Syzgium inophylloides 

'atone nutmeg Myristica inutilis (fatua) 

'au'auli Samoan ebony Diospyros samoensis 

'aute ornamental hybiscus Hibiscus rosa-sinensis 

esi papaya Carica papaya 

fa'i banana Musa x paradisiaca 

fetau Calophyllum inophyllum 

filimoto Indian plum Flacourtia rukam 

fue lautetele merremia Merremia peltata 

fue pepe luecaena Leucaena leucocephala 

futu Barringtonia asiatica 

gasu Palaquium stehlinii 

gatae coral tree Erythrina variegata 

'ie'ie Freycinetia spp. 

ifi Polynesian chesnut Inocarpus fagifer 

ifilele Intsia bijuga 

lau pata Macaranga spp. 

lōpā red seed tree Adenanthera pavonina 

ma'ali Canarium vitiense 

māgele Trema cannabina 

mālili Terminalia richii 

mamala Dysoxylum samoense 

māmālava Planchonella samoensis 

mamalupe Faradaya amicorum 

maota Dysoxylum maota 

masame Glochidion ramiflorum 

mati fig Ficus spp. 

moso'oi perfume tree Cananga odorata 

niu coconut Cocos nucifera 

nonu Indian mulberry Morinda citrifolia 

'o'a Bischofia javanica 

oliolī tree fern Cyathea spp. 

pālulu morning glory Operculina turpethum? 

poumuli Flueggea flexuosa 

pua lulu Fagrae berteroana 

 pulu Indian banyan Ficus bengahalensis 

 pulu māmoe Mexican rubber tree Castilla elastica 

sogā Pipturus argenteus 

talo taro Colocasia esculenta 

taputo'i Elattostachys falcata 

tava Pometia pinnata 

tī ti plant Cordyline fruticosa 

togo mangrove Bruguiera/Rhizophora 

to'ito'i scaevola Scaevola taccada 

teuila ginger Alpinia purpurata 

'ulu breadfruit Artocarpus altilis 

vae povi orchid tree Bauhinia monandra 

vavae kapok tree Ceiba pentandra 

 Table source: Tavita Togia 

 and Art Whistler, pers. com. 
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Use of illustrations from the following sources is greatly appreciated.

 Page 

 -- Tavita Togia photos: page 6 (centipede), 43 (bottom), 61 (top), 62, 67-70, 79 (G. multilatus ),

 80 (E. samoensis ), 95, 97, 98, 101-103, 105 (top), 106 (middle), 107, 109-111, 113, 114, 118, 

 119 (center, right), 121, 122, 124 (left), 130.

 -- Bird illustrations used with permission by Dick Watling from “Birds of Fiji, Tonga and Samoa",

 (Pacificbirds.com), on pages: 68, 105, 108, 114-117, 120, 123-125.

 -- Michael Tennant photos: front cover (Ofu), page 2 (Tutuila), 125 (Ta'u), 131 (Ofu, Fitiuta, Ta'u).

2 Bat art used with permission from Posts and Telecommunications Dept., Apia, Samoa.

4 GIS map created by Paul Brown using NOAA PIFSC/CRED bathymetry data.

 7-8 Temperature/rainfall graphs created using data from the NOAA Earth System Research Lab.

8 Rainfall map by PRISM Group, Oregon State Univ., 2007. <www.prismclimate.org>.

9 Map created by F.Riolo, DMWR; data from Unisys Corp, NOAA, Joint Typhoon Warning Center.

10 Satellite photo of Cyclone Olaf adpated from NASA. <visibleearth.nasa.gov>

11 Island chain and Vailulu’u reprinted with permission from S. Hart (Woods Hole Oceanog. Inst.)

 and H.Staudigel (Scripps Inst. Oceanog.).

12 Earthquake map from Incorp. Research Inst. Seismology (Wash.D.C). <http://www.iris.edu/>.

12 Tutuila bathymetry by NOAA, Pacific Is. Fish. Science Center, CRED. <www.pifsc.noaa.gov>.

14 Map used with permission from The Nature Conservancy’s Hawaii Natural Heritage Program.

19 Lapita photo: J. Wagelie, 2000. "Lapita Pottery (ca. 1500-500 BC)". Timeline of Art History, NY,

 Metropolitan Museum of Art. <www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/lapi/hd_lapi.htm>.

20 Adze photo courtesy of Univ. Wisconsin Bd. Regents. <whyfiles.org/shorties/243polynesian_voy>.

20 Starmound after S.Scott. 1969. In: R.Green & J.Davidson (eds.), Archaeology in W. Samoa. 

 Bull. Auckland Inst. & Museum. Vol. 1, 278p.

21 Milky Way photo used with permission, copyright 2007 by Fred Espenak. <www.MrEclipse.com>

21 Southern Cross photo by Marco Lorenzi. <www.astrosurf.com>.

22 Global primary productivity map by NASA SeaWiFS. <oceancolor.gsfc.nasa.gov/SeaWiFS/>.

23 Global temperature map modified from NOAA Satellite & Info. Services <oceanwatch.noaa.gov>.

25 Coral artwork (top) reprinted with permission from J.E.N. Veron, Australian Inst. Marine Science.

25 Coral photos (bottom) by Eva DiDonato.

26 Coral photos (top) by Paul Brown.

34 Giant clam photo by Larry Basch.

35 Crown-of-thorns photo (bottom) by Chuck Birkeland.

36 Octopus photos by Paul Brown.

37 Shark photos by Dan Barshis (top) and Larry Basch (bottom). 

41 Ctenochaetus striatus photo (top) by Rob Myers.

44 Atule photos (top, middle) by Chris Swenson.

46 Acanthurus lineatus photo by Rob Meyers.

47 Fish photo (bottom) by Eva DiDonato.

48 Tuna drawings after Secretariat of the Pacific Community, New Caledonia.

50 Turtles (bottom) after Waller et al. 1996. SeaLife. Smithsonian Inst. Press (Wash. DC).

Appendix 3. Figure credits other than those of authors or editor. 
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

130

Figure credits continued:

 Page 

51 Turtle drawing used with permission from Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary.

52 Turtle hatchling photos from South Pacific Regional Environmental Prog. <www.sprep.org>

 (top), and by Marisa Tinoco (bottom).

53 Turtle photo (top) by Gil Grant.

54 Turtle identification key reprinted with permission by <www.seaturtle.org>.

55-59 Whale and dolphin photos by Jooke Robbins & Dave Mattila, NOAA Fisheries Permit #774-1714.

56 Whale drawings reprinted with permission from Hawaiian Is. Humpback Whale Natl. Mar. Sanc.

61 Bat photos (bottom) by Anne Brooke.

63 Bat roost photo (bottom) by Eric Treml.

66, 106 Banyan tree artwork reprinted with permission from Le Vaomatua (American Samoa).

77 Brown tree snake photo by D.Rodriguez, Dept. Agricult., Animal & Plant Health Inspection Serv. 

78 Sea snake photo (top) used with permission from P.Ryan & Exisle Publ. (Auckland). Snorkler's

 guide to the coral reef. 1994. Banded snake eel photo (middle) by Joey Cummings.

79 Emoia impar photo by Matt Pittman. 

80 Emoia cyanura photo by Mike Wendling.

82 Coconut crab photos by Peter Richardson (left) and Stassia Samuels (right).

83 Snail photos by Rebecca Rundell.

84 Euglandina photo by Ron Heu.

89-90 Mosquito photos by Mark Schmaedick.

93 Ant drawings from: The Ants, B.Holldobler & E.Wilson. 1990. Belknap Press, Cambridge MA.

93 Earthworm drawing from: The World Book Encyclopedia, Chicago, IL. 2008. Vol 6, p 39.

94 Vine photo (middle) by Gail Ackerman.

99-100 Moth and rhinoceros beetle after D.Hill. 1994. Agricult. entomology. Timber Press (Oregon).

104 Starmound after S.Scott. 1969. In: R.Green & J.Davidson (eds.), Archaeology in W. Samoa. 

 Bull. Auckland Inst. & Museum. Vol. 1, 278p.

106 Scenery photo (bottom) by Jim Jacobe.

111 Mosquito after M. Service. 1993. Mosquito ecology field methods. Chapman & Hall (UK).

112 Sheath-tailed bat photos by Jorge Palmeirim (top) and Paddy Ryan (middle).

119 Plover photo (left) by Bryan Harry.

131 Faleasao photo by Elizabeth Pendleton.

Back 2005 Quickbird satellite imagery.
NATURAL HISTORY GUIDE

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Manu’a and Aunu’u: islands and villages 

Olosega Island Ofu Island 

Faleasao, Ta’u Island Ta’u Village, Ta’u Island 

Fitiuta, Ta’u Island Aunu’u Island 
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