JAPAN

Tokyo

EastSea/SeaofJapan

Ryukyu

Islands

Kyoto• Hiroshima•

•Nagasaki

•Fukuoka

•Nagoya

•Misawa

•Sendai

Sapporo•

USForcesPaciĕc

CultureGuide

Okinawa•
This guide is designed to prepare you to deploy to culturally

complex environments and successfully achieve mission

objectives. The fundamental information it contains will help

you understand the decisive cultural dimension of your

assigned location and gain

skills necessary for achieving

mission success (Photo: US

Forces member discusses an 

explosive device with 

Japanese Maritime SelfDefense Force Petty Officer).

The guide consists of 2 parts:

Part 1 is the “Culture General” section, which provides the

foundational knowledge you need to operate effectively in any

global environment with a focus on East Asia.

Part 2 is the “Culture Specific” section, which describes

unique cultural features of Japanese society. It applies 

culture-general concepts to 

help increase your

knowledge of your assigned

deployment location. This

section is meant to

complement other predeployment training. (Photo:

Sushi restaurant in historic 

city of Kamakura, Japan).

For more information, visit

the Air Force Culture and Language Center (AFCLC)

website at https://wwwmil.maxwell.af.mil/afclc or contact the

AFCLC Region Team at AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be

reproduced in its current format with the express permission of

the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the

US government, Wikimedia, and other sources as indicated.

About this Guide

Japan

Cul

t

ure Guid

e
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture,

and individuals within a culture

share a general set of beliefs

and values.

Members of a culture also

usually assign the same

meanings to the symbols in

that culture. A symbol is when

one thing—an image, word,

object, idea, or story—represents another thing. For example,

the American flag is a physical and visual symbol of a core

American value—freedom. At the same time, the story of

George Washington admitting to having chopped down a

cherry tree is also symbolic because it represents the premium

Americans place on personal honesty and leadership integrity.

Force Multiplier

The military services have learned through experience the

importance of understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20thcentury bipolar world order that dominated US strategy for

nearly half a century, today the US military is operating in what

we classify as asymmetric or irregular conflict zones, where the

notion of cross-cultural interactions is on the leading edge of

our engagement strategies.

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the

political system or physical environment, as the decisive

feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on

influencing constructive change through peaceful means where

possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local

nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and

economic institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and

traditions.

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

GENERAL

CULTURE
Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively

influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success.

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented

by the beliefs we carry internally,

but also by our behaviors and by

the systems members of a

culture create to organize their

lives. These systems, such as

political or educational institutions, help us to live in a manner

that is appropriate to our culture and encourages us to

perpetuate that culture into the future.

We can organize behaviors and systems into categories—what

the Air Force refers to as “cultural domains”—in order to better

understand the primary values and characteristics of a society.

A cross-culturally competent military member can use these

domains—which include kinship, language and communication,

and social and political systems, and others (see chart on next

page)—as tools for understanding and adapting to any culture.

For example, by understanding the way a culture defines family

and kinship, a US military member operating overseas can

more effectively interact with members of that culture.

Social Behaviors across Cultures

While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact

or even group those behaviors differently across cultural

boundaries. For example, all societies obtain food for survival,

although agrarian societies generally produce their own food

for limited consumption using very basic techniques.

Conversely, industrialized nations have more sophisticated

market economies, producing foodstuffs for universal

consumption. Likewise, all cultures value history and tradition,

although they represent these concepts through a variety of

unique forms of symbolism. While the dominant world religions

share the belief in one God, their worship practices vary with

their traditional historical development. Similarly, in many kinbased cultures where familial bonds are foundational to social

GENERAL

CULTURE
identity, it is customary for family or friends to serve as

godparents, while for other societies this practice is nearly nonexistent.

Worldview

One of our most basic human

behaviors is the tendency to

classify others as similar or

different based on our cultural

standards. As depicted in the chart below, we can apply 12

cultural domains to help us compare similarities and

differences across cultures. We evaluate others’ behavior to

determine if they are “people like me” or “people not like me.”

Usually, we assume that those in the “like me” category share

our perspectives and values.

This collective perspective forms our worldview—how we see

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider

your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an

accountability standard for actions, and a logical explanation of

why we individually or collectively act in a certain manner.

GENERAL

CULTURE
Cultural Belief System

An important component of any worldview is a belief system. A

community’s belief system assigns meaning, sets its universal

standards of what is good and bad, defines right and wrong

behavior, and assigns a value of meaningful or meaningless.

Our beliefs form the fundamental values we hold to be true—

regardless of whether there is evidence to support those ideas.

Beliefs are a central aspect of human culture. They are shared

views about world order and how the universe was physically

and socially constructed.

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to

vary depending upon respective world views. What people

classify as good or bad, right or wrong depends on our deeplyheld beliefs we started developing early in life that have help

shape our characters. Likewise,

these values are ingrained in our

personalities and shape our behavior

patterns and our self-identities.

Because cultural beliefs are intensely

held, they are difficult, though not

impossible, to change.

Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence

certain behaviors and also serve to

rationalize those behaviors.

Therefore, knowledge of individual or

group beliefs can be useful in

comprehending or making sense of their activities. We will use

the iceberg model for classifying culture to illustrate two levels

of meaning, as depicted. Beliefs and values, portrayed by the

deeper and greater level of the submerged iceberg, are seldom

visible, but are indicated / hinted at / referenced by our

behaviors and symbols (top level). It is important to recognize,

though, that the parts of culture that are not visible (under the

waterline) are informing and shaping what is being made

visible (above the waterline).

In many cases, different worldviews may present behaviors

that are contrary to our own beliefs, particularly in many

regions where US forces deploy. Your ability to suspend

GENERAL

CULTURE
judgment in order to understand another perspective is

essential to establishing relationships with your host-nation

counterparts. The ability to withhold your opinion and strive to

understand a culture from a member of that culture’s

perspective is known as cultural relativism. It often involves

taking an alternate perspective when interpreting others’

behaviors and is critical to your ability to achieve mission

success.

As you travel throughout East Asia, you will encounter cultural

patterns of meaning that are common across the region. What

follows is a general description of 12 cultural domains which

are used to frame those commonalities.

1. History and Myth

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of

the past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can

act as a type of historical record, although it is usually a story

which members of a culture use to explain community origins

or important events that are not verifiable or which occurred

prior to written language.

East Asia includes the present-day countries of China, Japan,

Mongolia, North Korea, and South Korea. By the 700s AD,

ancient East Asian tribes and

peoples had consolidated into

unified Chinese, Japanese, and

Korean states; Mongolia formed a

state in the 13th century.

China has played a central role in

East Asian history, influencing the

region’s culture, philosophy, and

politics. Between the 8th and 11th

centuries, the people of Japan and Korea adopted several

aspects of Chinese culture, including clothing and architecture

(Photo: The Great Wall of China).

Despite its predominance, China remained vulnerable to

nomadic Mongol tribes living along its northern border. In the

CULTURAL DOMAINS

GENERAL

CULTURE
12th and 13th centuries, Mongol forces under the command of

Genghis Khan swept through Asia and parts of Europe,

conquering China and Korea. Though vast and diverse, the

Mongol Empire was ultimately short-lived.

Over the next 500 years, East Asian societies advanced along

differing paths. Japan developed largely in isolation, while

Korea—a Chinese tributary state—had some limited outside

connections. After the Mongol Empire’s demise in the 14th

century, Mongolia came under Chinese control, which lasted

until Mongolia aligned with the Soviet Union (USSR) in 1924.

Europeans established interactions with China in the 1500s.

Although trade with Europe initially allowed China to thrive, it

eventually helped Europeans expand their control in East Asia.

As Japan industrialized in the mid-19th

century, it competed with European

powers to colonize other parts of Asia

(Pictured: 1898 political cartoon

depicting European and Japanese

rulers dividing China over the protests

of a Chinese official). By the mid1900s, Japan had colonized Korea,

northeastern China, and Taiwan. This

colonial activity led to power struggles

with other powers, angering Japanese

colonial subjects.

World War II (WWII) left a lasting mark on East Asia. Japan’s

surprise attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 led to a long struggle

between Japan and the US. Similarly, Japan committed

atrocities that inspired hatred throughout East Asia. In 1945

Japan surrendered and was forced to give up its colonies.

Following WWII Cold War politics shaped East Asia’s destiny.

In China, USSR-backed communists seized control of

mainland China, forcing US-backed nationalists to retreat to the

island of Taiwan off the Chinese coast. Korea was divided into

the US-controlled South and USSR-controlled North as part of

a postwar transition. In 1950 North Korea invaded South

Korea, sparking the Korean War and permanent separation.

During the second half of the 20th century, Japan and South

Korea became wealthy, democratic societies with developed

GENERAL

CULTURE
economies. China liberalized its economy but did not reform

politically. Mongolia followed communist economic policies until

the 1990s, when it liberalized both politically and economically.

North Korea remains communist and isolated.

2. Political and Social Relations

Political relations are the ways in which members of a

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social

relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to

others in their community. Despite the longevity of its societies,

East Asia has experienced substantial political change since

the mid-1900s.

Following WWII, Japan rebuilt its economy, aligned with the

US, and democratized, although retaining its emperor as a

symbol of national unity. While the same party has ruled for all

but 5 years since 1955, Japan today enjoys economic

prosperity and political freedom.

Once it established a communist stronghold in China, the

USSR reasserted Chinese sovereignty although at the expense

of several million casualties from political purges and avoidable

famines. In 1978 China’s government introduced market

reforms that lifted millions out of poverty. Nevertheless, the

communists have maintained a tight rein on power, denying the

Chinese people their autonomy.

Arriving in 1949, Taiwan’s Chinese nationalists established an

authoritarian rule that has promoted rapid economic growth.

Today Taiwan has a thriving economy and a vibrant, multiparty

democracy. Although China

claims sovereignty over

Taiwan, the island functions as

an independent country.

The two Koreas have followed

vastly different paths since their

division (Photo: South Koreans

protest for North Korean

freedom near the border

between the Koreas). During the 1960s and 1970s, South

Korea was ruled by authoritarians who favored economic

GENERAL

CULTURE
growth over political freedom, prompting the country to

industrialize rapidly. Having democratized in the late 1980s,

South Korea now has an open, democratic political system and

one of the world’s most developed economies. North Korea, by

contrast, remains militaristic, repressive, and economically

weak.

Long a communist state, Mongolia transitioned to democracy

after a peaceful revolution in 1990. Although the communist

Mongolian People’s Party continued to win elections in the

early 1990s, several new parties have

won majorities in the Mongolian

Parliament in subsequent elections.

Regional security threats and mutual

distrust motivate military posturing in

East Asia. Having the largest military

in the region, China lays claim to

several disputed territories and

defends a wide range of commercial

interests. A well-equipped force,

China’s military has advanced

technologically in recent years. The

Japanese, South Korean, and Taiwanese militaries are

substantially smaller than China’s but are professional and

well-resourced. Technically still at war with South Korea, North

Korea has a massive but poorly trained and equipped military

of more than a million troops. Mongolia has no international

disputes and only a small military. While nationalism and

historical animosity threaten East Asian security, most

countries in the region trade or engage diplomatically. All East

Asian countries apart from North Korea have US embassies.

Japan and the Koreas are ethnically homogeneous societies.

Similarly, 94% of Mongolians are ethnic Mongols, while Turkic

people constitute the rest of the population. Although 91% of

China’s population belongs to the Han ethnic group, the

Chinese government also recognizes 55 other ethnic groups.

No countries in East Asia have substantial foreign-born or

immigrant populations.

Many differences exist among social groups within East Asian

countries. Wealth, age, educational attainment, employment,

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CULTURE
family background, and marital status factor into a person’s

social status. In most East Asian countries, city dwellers tend to

regard their rural counterparts as backwards, less cultured, and

less educated. While some generational differences exist, most

East Asians consider social and familial harmony paramount.

Thus, young people tend to respect elders’ wishes.

3. Religion and Spirituality

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help

preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They

also create social unity by defining shared identity, offer

individuals peace of mind, and

explain the causes of events in a

society.

Early East Asians were animists,

believing that gods or ancestral

spirits inhabited various natural

objects and expressed their will

in daily life. Today East Asians of

many different faiths still follow

certain ancient religious practices, such as making offerings to

ancestral spirits. Japan’s indigenous animist religion,

Shintoism, stresses the spiritual connection between Japan’s

land and its people (Photo: Japanese temple). Similarly, beliefs

about shamans and their connection to a spiritual realm persist

among some Chinese, Mongolians, and Koreans.

Multiple belief systems historically have coexisted peacefully in

East Asia, many of which originated in China and are not linked

to specific gods. East Asians typically observe practices from

several belief systems simultaneously. In the 6th and 5th

centuries BC, Chinese philosophers Confucius and Laozi

developed Confucianism and Daoism, respectively. As these

philosophies spread, they shaped regional ideas about social

harmony. Whereas Confucianism describes how various types

of social relationships should function ideally, Daoism

emphasizes balance, simplicity, compliance with the natural

order, and reverence for ancestors and Laozi.

Around 150 AD, Buddhism spread from the Indian subcontinent

into China, eventually reaching other parts of Asia. East Asian

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CULTURE
Buddhism has many variations because its adherents have

adapted the faith to their cultures, philosophies, and traditions.

Many East Asians practice some form of Buddhism today.

While Islam and Christianity have been present in East Asia for

centuries, their influence has been limited to certain places.

Arriving in China in the 7th century AD, Islam has a long history

in western China and Mongolia and has undergone a modest

expansion in recent years. Christianity also was introduced to

East Asia in the 7th century AD and eventually gained converts

among some Mongol tribes. Beginning in the 1500s, European

missionaries expanded Christianity’s reach. Today most East

Asian Christians live in South Korea, where roughly 30% of the

population is Christian.

During the 20th century, communist East Asian governments

often curtailed religious practice in favor of atheism. China is

still officially atheist, and the Communist Party of China forbids

party members from following any religion. The North Korean

government takes a different approach by promoting Juche, a

state-sponsored faith that combines aspects of Eastern and

Western belief systems with reverence for Kim Il-sung, the first

North Korean President, and his family. Despite these recent

examples of religious suppression, East Asians have tended to

resume open religious practice as the government permits. For

example, Buddhism has thrived in Mongolia since the country

abandoned communism in 1990.

4. Family and Kinship

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong

emotional bonds that influence

them to treat each other like

family members (often called

“fictive kin”).

Most East Asians highly value

family relationships. Individuals

are expected to subordinate

their desires to those of their

families as a means of

promoting harmony and the best interests of the family as a

whole (Photo: A Japanese family in 1928). Children are taught

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CULTURE
to respect and obey their elders from a young age. In return,

parents devote themselves to their children and make many

sacrifices for their wellbeing. These sacrifices enable

children’s success, preserve the family legacy, and ensure that

parents will have a caretaker in old age.

Traditionally, East Asian families have been large, close-knit,

multi-generational kin groups whose members support each

other. Members of the same extended family traditionally have

lived in close proximity, an arrangement that provided many

benefits in the rural, agricultural villages that once were

widespread in East Asia. Although family life still revolves

around farming or herding in some rural areas, family life has

changed as East Asia has industrialized and urbanized. While

caring for elderly relatives is still common, some modern East

Asian households, especially in urban areas, consist of nuclear

families (2 parents and their offspring) that live far from their

ancestral homes.

East Asian dwellings vary widely. In large urban areas like

Beijing, Seoul, Tokyo, Ulaanbaatar, and Shanghai, people

typically live in either older homes or modern, high-rise

apartment buildings. By contrast, rural East Asians typically live

with their extended families in freestanding houses. China and

Mongolia have especially

extensive rural hinterlands. A

number of Mongolians continue

to live seasonally as nomadic

herders in collapsible huts

(pictured).

Marriage is a key milestone for

East Asians, who typically date

and select their own spouses with the advice and approval of

elders. Since many young East Asians today delay marriage to

pursue educational or career opportunities, the average

marriage age has increased. Nevertheless, the traditional

expectation that young East Asians will marry, bear children,

and care for their elderly parents remains deep-seated.

East Asians commemorate major life stages through a range of

ceremonies and celebrations. The birth of a healthy child, for

example, is a joyous occasion that prompts parties, gift-giving,

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CULTURE
and welcoming and naming ceremonies. Conversely, funerals

and other death customs are more somber and demonstrate

respect for the deceased.

5. Sex and Gender

Sex refers to the biological and reproductive differences

between males and females. Gender is a more flexible concept

that refers to a culture’s categorizing of masculine and feminine

behaviors, symbols, and social roles.

While most East Asian countries provide for legal gender

equality, women are subordinate to men in practice. Moreover,

cultural norms tend to entrench traditional roles, whereby

women remain underrepresented in both business and

government. Many of East Asia’s predominant philosophies

and religions, such as Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism,

establish men as family providers and direct women to behave

subserviently. Nevertheless, East Asian women still make

important contributions to society,

having enjoyed expanding rights

over the past 50 years.

In states under communist

influence, women have been

allowed to work outside the

home, although also expected to

continue performing domestic

duties. By contrast, women in Japan and South Korea gained

social rights more gradually. Today, most East Asian women,

particularly in urban areas, have access to training and

education equal to that of their male peers.

While women typically receive less pay than men and rarely

reach senior levels of leadership, East Asians generally accept

women in the workplace. Many women balance career and

family responsibilities, although they are more likely than men

to leave the workforce to care for children or elderly relatives.

Due to family planning policies and increased use of

contraceptives, among other factors, East Asian countries have

low birthrates. Of note, China’s birthrates have declined more

than 40% since the government introduced a One-Child Policy

in 1979. Due to an enduring cultural preference for sons, the

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policy has driven many Chinese couples to abort female

fetuses or give up their daughters for adoption in hopes that

their lone child will be a son. These practices have skewed

China’s gender ratio.

East Asians historically have not regarded homosexuality as an

acceptable practice. Consequently, homosexuals in the region

typically have assumed heterosexual family roles.

Nevertheless, gay rights are beginning to gain traction mostly

in China, South Korea, and Japan, although same-sex

marriages remain taboo.

6. Language and Communication

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically,

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication

refers to the cultural practice of sharing meaning in interaction,

both verbally and non-verbally. In East Asian countries, most

inhabitants speak the official language or a similar dialect. For

example, more than 99% of people in Japan and the Koreas

speak the official state languages, while more than 90% of

Mongolians speak Khalkha Mongolian, the official language.

China is East Asia’s most linguistically

diverse country having 292 spoken

languages. A majority of China’s

population speaks the official Mandarin

(Sino-Tibetan) language, although a

number of groups continue to speak

ethnic languages as a means of

preserving their unique identities

(Pictured: A Chinese dictionary).

Speakers of Mandarin, Cantonese, and

other Chinese languages use an ancient, character-based

writing system to record sound and meaning. Developed

around 1200 BC, the Chinese writing system has tens of

thousands unique characters. Historically, Mongolians,

Japanese, and Koreans also transcribed their languages using

Chinese characters. While the Japanese and Koreans

eventually devised their own writing systems, their languages

still use some words and characters borrowed from Chinese.

Mongolians have used many scripts to write their language,

although they, like Russians, now use Cyrillic.

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East Asians typically avoid confrontation, seek consensus, and

refrain from displaying emotions in public. In order to maintain

social harmony, East Asians often try to “save face”—avoid

embarrassment to themselves or others. They tend to begin

conversations by discussing neutral topics, such as health,

family, and hobbies. While specific greeting customs—such as

bows, handshakes, and forms of address—vary by country, all

East Asians tend to use both verbal and non-verbal cues to

convey respect and reinforce social hierarchy.

East Asians typically are reserved when meeting new people

for the first time, particularly foreign nationals. Eventually, they

become more comfortable and candid as they get to know a

new acquaintance. Being introduced through a well-respected

mutual contact alleviates these reservations to some extent.

7. Learning and Knowledge

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important

information to the younger generation. This information can be

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and

health requirements) or culturally traditional (the beliefs,

behaviors, and symbols that have meaning to the community).

This knowledge transfer may occur through structured,

formalized systems like schools

or through informal learning by

watching adults or peers.

Most East Asian cultures value

education. Historically reserved

for young male elites, formal

education was an essential

qualification for prestigious civil

service jobs in ancient China, Japan, and Korea, where

students often took personal lessons from famous scholars.

Scholars and teachers historically have been and continue to

be highly respected in East Asia, typically receiving high

salaries and esteem.

Today East Asian children across social and economic ranks

have access to basic education. Primary education is

compulsory throughout East Asia, where literacy rates reach

95%. Although East Asian students tend to be among the

world’s top performers on international achievement tests,

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some observers criticize East Asian schools for their emphasis

on memorization over critical thinking and creativity.

Urban schools tend to be better resourced and staffed than

those in rural areas, particularly in China and Mongolia. Unlike

their wealthier urban peers, many rural students cannot afford

additional tutoring and tend to lag behind on national

examinations.

8. Time and Space

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that

are not directly linked to physical survival. In most Western

cultures, people tend to be preoccupied with strict time

management, devoting less effort to building lasting

relationships. Most East Asian cultures consider personal

relationships and efficient time management equally essential

and not mutually exclusive in professional and social settings.

East Asians typically adhere to deadlines and schedules and

may multitask to maximize efficiency. While they typically

refrain from taking time to build relationships during meetings,

they often use after-work social events to build and maintain

personal relationships with coworkers. Accordingly, socializing

over meals or drinks helps foster

relationships.

East Asians occupy public and

private space in ways that may

be unfamiliar to Americans. For

example, since East Asian cities

tend to be crowded, personal

space is at a premium. Similarly,

people tend to stand in close proximity in social contexts. East

Asians keep inside spaces clean, removing shoes and wearing

slippers after they enter a home, school, or temple (pictured).

9. Aesthetics and Recreation

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill, and

style. A country’s clothing, games, music, theater, literature,

and artwork reflect a variety of historic, cultural, and religious

influences as well as its geographic features, climate, and

global interconnectedness.

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East Asia is known for its rich artistic traditions that emphasize

principles such as balance, precision, and harmony, although

these traditions vary by culture and time period. While the

region has a long tradition of classical dance and music using a

range of musical instruments, more recently, some musicians

have adopted modern Western styles, particularly pop music.

East Asia also has a long, rich, and well-preserved tradition of

literature and folklore. East Asian classics, such as Sun Tzu’s

The Art of War, are well-known even in the US. Historically,

East Asia’s religions and philosophies, particularly Buddhism,

Daoism, and folk beliefs, have influenced its arts, crafts, and

architecture. Today modern secular influences tend to inspire

East Asian artists. By contrast, North Korean art, music, and

cinema are limited to themes that honor its leaders.

East Asians enjoy soccer and table tennis. Baseball is popular

in Japan and South Korea, while basketball is common in

China. Mongolians excel at archery, wrestling, and horseback

riding. Martial arts, such as Japan’s judo and karate or Korea’s

taekwondo, are popular throughout the region. Many East

Asian athletes have excelled in

worldwide sports competitions. Notably,

China, South Korea, and Japan have

hosted the Olympics, collectively

earning hundreds of medals.

While traditional clothing varies among

and within East Asian countries, it is

typically colorful and elaborately

decorated. Most East Asians reserve

traditional clothing for special occasions.

For instance, Koreans wear hanbok or

choson-ot, a 2-piece garment with a

short jacket for weddings or funerals. Japanese people often

wear the kimono, an ankle-length, long-sleeve robe, for

special occasions. Across East Asia, Western-style clothing is

the most common style for daily wear.

10. Sustenance and Health

Societies have different methods of transforming natural

resources into food. These methods can shape residence

patterns, family structures, and economics. Theories of

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disease and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as

adaptive responses to disease and illness.

East Asian cuisine varies widely even within single countries.

Rice is East Asia’s main staple grain featured at most meals as

a complement to meat, seafood, or vegetables. Rice is also an

ingredient in many desserts. Many East Asian cuisines also

include noodles, dumplings, and soups. Although the Koreas

share a culinary heritage, North Koreans’ diet has less variety

and more corn since it is cheaper than rice. Mongolia’s cuisine

consists largely of meat and dairy from sheep, cows, camels,

yaks (indigenous Asian long-haired ox), and goats, with few

vegetables or spices due to a lack of arable land.

East Asians regularly drink teas

and also enjoy a number of

indigenous alcoholic beverages,

including Japanese saké, made by

fermenting rice, and Mongolian

airag, which comes from

fermented horse milk.

Although most East Asian countries have experienced gradual

increases in life expectancy as they have industrialized,

accessibility and affordability of modern medical care vary

widely. Preventative care is considered important to maintain

health. Many East Asians rely on traditional medicines such as

acupuncture and herbal medicines to cure their ailments. Some

mainstream medical practitioners have incorporated traditional

practices into their clinical healthcare. Of concern is the use of

toxic herbal treatments that can harm patients, rare animal 

species like rhinos and tigers, and the environment.

While most communicable diseases have been eradicated or

controlled in East Asia, less healthy lifestyles have contributed

to an increase in non-communicable illnesses, such as cancer

and cardiovascular diseases. Emerging infectious diseases,

such as “bird flu” (avian influenza), can threaten public health

and spread rapidly in densely populated cities. In addition to

purely medical concerns, China, Japan, and South Korea also

face the common problem of financing healthcare for their

growing elderly populations. Meanwhile, Mongolia and North

Korea still grapple with malnutrition.

GENERAL

CULTURE
11. Economics and Resources

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and

services. It details how countries allocate their resources by

sector, trade with other countries, give or receive aid, and pay

for goods and services within their borders.

East Asian economic systems range from communism to free

market capitalism. With the exception of North Korea, East

Asian countries have benefited from industrialization and global

trade and investments. China, Japan, and South Korea, in

particular, have some of the world’s largest economies, ranking

2nd, 3rd, and 15th in the world by nominal gross domestic

product (GDP), respectively.

China’s shift from planned to free

market economics enabled it to

realize dramatic economic gains.

Since liberalizing its economy,

China has experienced economic

growth averaging 8% annually,

largely due to its exports. This

expansion so far has freed 500

million people from poverty,

although wealth remains primarily in the hands of China’s

elites. While China continues to grow, the pace has slowed

(Photo: Shanghai skyline).

Japan and South Korea have industrialized, highly developed

economies. Since World War II, both countries have achieved

large economic gains. In the 1990s, Mongolia abandoned its

planned economy and privatized many industries, leading to

substantial economic growth and social change. By contrast,

North Korea’s economy struggles under international sanctions

and relies heavily on China to boost its failing economy.

12. Technology and Material

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and

culture heavily influences the development and use of

technology. While technological development is often seen as

purely positive, governments can also harness technology to

monitor their citizens and crackdown on dissent.

GENERAL

CULTURE
Technology has enabled development throughout East Asia,

although it has occurred at different rates. For example, while

Japan and South Korea have adopted a range of industrial and

Internet-enabled technologies, North Korea purposely shuns

many of those technologies in order to remain isolated. China,

Japan, and South Korea have well-developed physical and

telecommunications infrastructures that enable transportation,

trade, and connectivity with the entire world.

Transport infrastructure varies widely throughout East Asia. For 

example, high-speed trains crisscross much of Japan

(pictured), while only about 6%

of Mongolia’s roads are

paved. Consequently, most

Mongolians travel by foot, on

animals, or on motorcycles.

While Japan and South Korea

have relatively few mineral

resources, Mongolia, China,

and North Korea have large

mineral deposits. Most East

Asian countries use diverse energy sources such as coal and 

oil, importing substantial quantities of oil and natural gas from

other regions. China is the world’s 2nd largest oil importer and

largest producer and consumer of coal. Apart from North

Korea, East Asian countries have sought to develop nuclear

power and hydropower as alternative energy sources.

Freedom of the press and Internet vary substantially in East

Asia. China and North Korea lack these freedoms, sponsoring

state-controlled media outlets. Japan, Mongolia, and South

Korea, by contrast, have relatively few restrictions on the

press and Internet. While the number of Internet users in

China alone exceeds the entire US population, China’s

government heavily censors online content and monitors its

citizens’ Internet use. Japanese and South Korean residents

are avid Internet users, enjoying some of the world’s fastest 

Internet connections.

Now that we have introduced general concepts that

characterize East Asian society at large, we will focus on

specific features of Japanese society.

GENERAL

CULTURE
HISTORY &

MYTH

Overview

Japan traditionally traces its mythical beginnings to the 

coronation of its first emperor in 660 BC. After a long period of 

Chinese cultural influence, shōgun (military leaders) supported 

by samurai warriors ruled for hundreds of years as Japan tried 

to isolate itself from most foreign contact. For the first half of 

the 20th century, Japan pursued a course of imperial 

aggression that brought it into violent conflict with both its 

neighbors and the US. Since the US occupation following 

Japan’s defeat in World War II, Japanese society has been 

marked by its pacifism and pursuit of 

stability and economic development.

Early Japan

Scientists believe that immigrants from 

mainland Asia and Polynesia populated 

the Japanese islands as early as 35,000

BC. During the Jōmon period (ca. 10,000 

BC–300 BC), communities of hunters and 

gatherers produced distinctive pottery. 

Some scholars believe that the Ainu

people, who live mainly on Hokkaidō

today, are descendants of these early 

inhabitants (see p. 11 of Political and Social Relations) (Photo: 

Late Jōmon period Dogū figurine).

Chinese Influence

A long period of Chinese cultural influence began during the 

Yayoi period (ca. 300 BC–300 AD). During the Kofun period

(ca. 300-500), militaristic rulers led a rudimentary state-level 

society, and Japan’s indigenous religion, Shintō, emerged (see 

p. 2-3 of Religion and Spirituality). In about 405, the Japanese 

officially adopted the Chinese writing system. Later in this 

period, Chinese and Korean emissaries introduced Buddhism 

to Japan (see p. 2-3 of Religion and Spirituality). 

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

1. HISTORY AND MYTH
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Yamato Period: Contact with Chinese technology and 

ideas reached its height during the Yamato period (ca. 300-

710) and resulted in the transformation of Japan’s agricultural 

systems, calendar, philosophy, 

architecture, poetry, medicine, and law. In 

addition, the Japanese court, now led by 

an emperor, adopted the ways of the 

Chinese imperial court. Japan’s oldest 

written historical records date to this 

period (Photo: 5th century iron armor).

The Heian Period: Japanese rulers

moved the capital from Nara to Kyōto in 

794. From Kyōto, the emperor named a 

member of the Fujiwara family to rule on 

his behalf, an arrangement that would hold for the next 300 

years. Although contact with China continued to influence 

Japanese culture during the Heian period (794-1185), Japan 

also developed its own aesthetic, literary, and artistic styles. 

The Rise of the Shōgun

Beginning in the Kamakura period (1185-1333), the state 

named a shōgun, a supreme military commander, to act for 

the imperial court. Although the emperor continued to be head 

of the state, the shōgun actually held supreme political 

authority. Regional warlords supported the shōgun, while 

samurai warriors swore allegiance to the warlords. 

Mongol Invasions: As part of a massive imperial expansion 

that stretched from the Pacific Ocean to Eastern Europe, 

Mongols from Central Asia attempted to invade Japan twice in 

the 13th century. Both times the invasion forces withdrew after 

typhoons scattered their fleets. The Japanese referred to these 

storms as kamikaze, or a “divine wind” protecting the country.

Contact with the West

First contact with the West occurred in 1549 with the arrival of 

Portuguese Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier, whose ship was 

blown off-course on its way to China. Soon, traders from 

several European countries arrived along with other Catholic

missionaries (see p. 7 of Religion and Spirituality). Japan’s 

warlords adopted the new European weapons as their 

struggles for dominance escalated to civil war.
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Tokugawa Shogunate

In 1603, a group of warlords led by 

Tokugawa Ieyasu (pictured) 

consolidated power and proceeded to 

defeat and unify the various factions 

through civil war. It ended in the 

creation of a shogunate or military 

government that would last until 1868.

The shogunate moved the capital from 

Kyōto to Edo (renamed Tokyo in 1868) 

from which the regime ruled through a 

network of alliances with over 200 

daimyo (regional lords). For more than 250 years, Japan 

experienced relative stability and prosperity.

Period of Isolationism: Believing that European traders and 

missionaries were preparing for a European military conquest 

of Japan, the shogunate began to curtail diplomatic ties. 

Westerners were allowed access only to special zones called 

“treaty ports.” By 1639 the shogunate expelled almost all 

foreigners, allowing just a few Dutch and Chinese traders to 

operate from Nagasaki.

During this time, the regime brutally suppressed Japanese 

Christians (see p. 7 of Religion and Spirituality), while installing

an array of mechanisms to control its citizenry. Notable 

measures included banning armaments and establishing strict 

household registration requirements and roadside checkpoints.

These and other policies reflected Confucian ideals of social 

stability, specific paths to authority, and collective responsibility

(see p. 12 of Political and Social Relations). 

Membership in strict hereditary social classes dictated all 

aspects of social life. In addition to the nobility and a small 

group of outcasts, these classes included the samurai warriors, 

farmers, artisans, and merchants. Membership conveyed 

certain privileges. The samurai, for example, enjoyed the right 

to carry swords, use a family name, and wear silk garments. 

Due to these policies and mechanisms, Japanese culture and 

society became somewhat unified across the country. Urban 

areas enjoyed a flowering of arts, literature, and sports forms 
HISTO 

MY

HISTORY &

MYTH

still popular today. These include kabuki drama, bunraku

puppet theater, sumo wrestling, ukiyo-e woodblock prints, and 

geisha entertainers (see p. 3-5 of Aesthetics and Recreation).

By the late 18th century, Edo (Tokyo) was the world’s largest 

city, with a population of about 1 million.

The End of Isolation: The 1853 appearance of US Navy 

Commodore Matthew Perry and a squadron of warships

(known to the Japanese as Black Ships) effectively ended 

Japan’s 200 years of isolation and initiated a serious political 

crisis. While factions debated how to respond to the Western 

presence, the Tokugawa shōgun entered into treaties and 

agreements that opened Japanese ports to foreign trade and 

allowed foreigners the right of residence. These acts spurred 

an anti-Tokugawa movement. 

In 1863, the emperor ordered the shōgun to report to him at the 

imperial palace and explain his actions – the first time a shōgun 

had visited an emperor since 1634. Recognizing his lack of 

support, the shōgun submitted his resignation when a group of 

Bushidō: the Way of the Warrior

An unwritten code of behavior characterized the 

proper role of the samurai class and came to be 

known in the Tokugawa period as bushidō, the way 

of the warrior. Based in the values of Shintō, 

Buddhism, and Confucianism (see p. 2-3 of Religion 

and Spirituality), the code stressed honor, courage,

politeness, and reserve.

According to bushido, a samurai and his family must 

be willing to sacrifice themselves to protect the life 

and honor of their lord. If they failed to do so, their 

suicide by sword was the only appropriate response. 

Some lords lost their holdings and their ability to 

retain samurai in the late Tokugawa period. 

Consequently, many samurai became rōnin, or 

masterless samurai, whose lives have been 

romanticized in countless books and movies.
HISTORY &

MYTH

allied samurai seized control of the court and announced the 

restoration of direct rule under Emperor Meiji in 1868.

The Reforms of the Meiji Restoration

Although Emperor Meiji (illustrated) ostensibly headed the new

government, the group of samurai who had led the Meiji 

Restoration actually ruled. Looking to the European nations as 

models, these leaders implemented reform and modernization 

policies that radically transformed society. These policies 

included reform of the landholding system, elimination of the 

samurai ranks, and creation of a centralized state with a 

parliamentary system based on a Western-style constitution. 

Other changes included the creation of a single national dialect

(see p. 1 of Language and 

Communication) and the formation 

of a modern military based on 

compulsory military service (military 

service was formerly a privilege of 

the samurai only). 

An important part of the Meiji 

leaders’ efforts to form a stable

state involved emphasizing the 

imperial family as the sacred and 

divine foundation of the country. 

These efforts included the teaching of Japan’s mythological 

origin (see “Myth” below) as historical fact and the declaration 

of Japan’s indigenous religion, Shintō, with its focus on 

emperor-worship, as the official state religion (see p. 5 of 

Religion and Spirituality). 

The Emergence of Japan as a Regional Power

In the midst of these reforms, Meiji leaders began to consider 

imperialist expansion. Because it regarded China’s influence in 

the Korean peninsula as a potential threat, in 1876 Japan used 

the threat of force to compel the Korean government to accept 

an uneven treaty. Among other terms favorable to Japan, the 

treaty declared Korea a sovereign, independent state equal in 

status to Japan – a strategy that ultimately ended Korea’s 

historic subordination to China.

The Sino-Japanese War: These and other territorial spats 

developed into a war between China and Japan (the Sino-
HISTORY &

MYTH

Japanese War) which Japan won in a decisive victory in 1895. 

The subsequent treaty granted Japan the Ryukyu Islands

(present-day Japan’s southernmost islands) and Taiwan, and 

forced China to renounce its claims in Korea. In addition, Japan 

took control of Port Arthur, 

a Chinese-controlled port 

on the Yellow Sea in Korea 

(Pictured: Chinese generals 

surrender in 1894).

Meanwhile, Russia grew 

concerned about Japan’s 

expansion in the region. Just days after Japan took control of 

Port Arthur, Russia, along with France and Germany, 

pressured Japan into returning the port to China. In 1898, 

however, Russia itself took control of Port Arthur amid other 

expansionist efforts.

The Russo-Japanese War: Russian and Japanese 

expansionism eventually led to the Russo-Japanese War of 

1904-1905, which was fought in Korea and adjacent regions in 

northeastern China. Japan took control of Korea during the war 

and eventually prevailed over Russia. In addition, Japan took 

possession of the Kuril Islands north of the Japanese island of 

Hokkaidō as well as Russia’s interests in Manchuria (China)

(see p. 9 of Political and Social Relations). Japan made Korea 

a protectorate (a state protected and partly controlled by 

another state) in 1905 and a full colony in 1910. 

Japanese Nation-Building

Through the 1920s, Japan progressed slowly toward a more 

democratic form of government. However, when Emperor 

Hirohito (the father of current Emperor Akihito) took the throne 

in 1926, a reemphasis on the sanctity of imperial institutions

emerged, with military leaders gaining greater influential.

Increased Imperial Aggression: In the 1930s, Japan pursued

expansionist goals. First, it invaded and occupied Manchuria in 

northern China in 1931. In 1937, Japan launched a full-scale 

invasion of China during which Japanese soldiers committed 

atrocities and massacres against Chinese soldiers and 

civilians. This invasion eventually became part of the greater 

World War II conflict which began in Europe in 1939.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Strongly opposed to Japan’s expansionist activities in Asia, the 

US tightened existing economic sanctions against Japan, 

including banning shipments of oil. Requiring new sources to 

fuel its expansion, Japan made plans to secure Southeast 

Asia’s oil reserves. Believing that Germany’s swift successes in 

the European theater would divert the Allies’ attention from its 

activities in Asia, Japan began moving troops into northern

Vietnam in 1940. However, to fully accomplish its plans, Japan

realized it would have to neutralize the US Navy.

The Pacific War

On December 7, 1941 Japan launched a surprise air attack on 

US naval forces at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. This event triggered 

the Pacific War, a term that refers to World War II events in the 

Pacific and East Asia. Although the US had expected an attack 

in the Philippines, it had not anticipated an assault on Hawaii. 

Consequently, the attack caught US forces off guard. Although 

devastating (the Japanese sunk 4 battleships, destroyed many 

aircraft, and killed over 2,000 people), the attack caused little 

significant long-term damage to US capabilities. 

Mobilizing all its assets, Japan was initially successful, 

capturing the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaya, and Burma. 

Japan tried to gain support for its aggressions by declaring that 

its victory would benefit all Asian nations. Instead, Japan’s 

brutal and exploitative treatment of the residents of its occupied 

territories prevented it from 

making any regional allies.

The tide began to turn in 

June 1942 when US forces 

sank 4 Japanese aircraft 

carriers and won the Battle 

of Midway. By 1944 Allied 

ground forces had 

recaptured areas in the 

Western Pacific. Similarly,

Allied naval forces were destroying the Japanese fleet, while 

Allied bombing raids were razing Japanese cities. Meanwhile, 

the Japanese leadership grew desperate, sending kamikaze

pilots to fly suicide missions into enemy ships and airplanes 

(Photo: US soldiers approach a Japanese dugout in 1943).
HISTORY &

MYTH

Germany surrendered to the Allies in May 1945, ending the war 

in Europe. Yet Japan failed to respond to the Allies’ July 1945 

call for its unconditional surrender. Consequently, the US 

dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 

6 and 9, 1945. Both cities were destroyed and about 340,000 

Japanese died during the bombings and in their aftermath.

Surrender: The Japanese heard their emperor’s voice for the 

first time on August 15, 1945 as he announced Japan’s

surrender in a radio broadcast. Japan’s aggressions in World 

War II resulted in the loss of over 3 million Japanese lives and 

the destruction of its cities, towns, and infrastructure. Japan 

also lost all of its overseas possessions. Manchuria reverted to 

China, while Japan renounced its claims to Taiwan and Korea.

The Soviet Union (USSR, later Russia) occupied the islands

north of Hokkaidō, while the US became sole administering 

authority on the Ryukyu Islands, returning them in 1972.

Occupation

From 1945-1952, Allied troops led by the

Supreme Commander for the Allied 

Powers in Japan, US Army General 

Douglas MacArthur, occupied Japan. The 

Occupation government initiated major 

reforms, including demilitarization, a 

revision of the constitution and political 

system, the separation of state and 

religion, and land and education reform. 

Although the Occupation government 

punished or executed other leaders, it 

allowed the emperor to remain on the 

throne, requiring only that he renounce his divinity (see p. 5 of

Religion and Spirituality) (Pictured: 1947 illustration of US 

military checkpoint in Japan). 

A New Constitution: In 1947 Japan adopted a new 

constitution that renounced war, proclaimed respect for basic 

human rights, and declared Japan a democracy. Significantly, 

Article 9 of the constitution forbade the maintenance of any 

military war potential and allowed only self-defense forces (see 

p. 5-6 of Political and Social Relations). 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Consequently, Japan signed a 1960 treaty with the US stating

that the US must come to Japan’s aid in the event of invasion.

In addition, it guaranteed the US the right to maintain military 

bases on Japanese soil.

By the time Japan regained its sovereignty in 1952, initial 

reconstruction was complete. The conservative Liberal 

Democratic Party (LDP) emerged as the dominant political 

party, prioritizing economic growth and social stability. 

Modern Japan

Throughout the 1950s and 1960s Japan experienced rapid 

industrialization and swift economic recovery due largely to a

stable political situation and close cooperation between

business and government (see p. 1 of Economics and 

Resources). By the 1970s Japan’s products began to dominate 

overseas markets, and its citizens enjoyed unprecedented 

prosperity as a large, urban 

middle class developed. (Photo:

A high-speed train passes 

Mount Fuji). 

In 1989 Emperor Hirohito died 

and his son, Akihito, ascended 

the throne, assuming the title 

Emperor Heisei (“achievement 

of universal peace”). Despite some criticisms that the elaborate 

Shintō rites at his coronation represented prewar imperialism 

and nationalism, the emperor remains a revered symbol of the 

nation (see p. 3 of Political and Social Relations).

Political stability was threatened in the 1980s and 1990s, first

when corruption scandals resulted in high-level resignations 

and the founding of several splinter parties. To remain in 

power, the ruling LDP joined a coalition with other parties, while 

the new center-left Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ), emerged. 

The government responded poorly to a 1995 earthquake that

devastated the city of Kobē. Same year, a nerve gas attack on 

the Tokyo subway by a religious cult group further distressed 

the populace. Finally, a precarious economic situation starting

in the 1980s worsened in 1998 when Japan slid into a severe 

recession related to a wider Asian economic crisis. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Political Upheaval

Junichiro Koizumi of the LDP became Prime Minister (PM) in 

2001, instituting badly-needed economic reforms that helped to 

restore citizens’ confidence in the political system and enable a 

partial economic recovery. While in 2006 the LDP chose 

Shinzō Abe to supersede Koizumi, various scandals plus the 

LDP’s loss in parliamentary elections forced Abe to resign just 

a year later. Two other LDP politicians held the PM office over 

the next 2 years. 

In September 2009 voters expressed their frustration with the 

LDP by electing a DPJ majority in Parliament, resulting in 

Japan’s first non-LDP PM. Nevertheless, political stability was

as elusive for the DPJ as it had been for the 

LDP: in the 3 years that the DPJ held the 

majority, 3 different PMs held office. Voters

returned the LDP to power in 2012. 

As leader of the LDP, Shinzō Abe (pictured)

became PM for the second time in 

December 2012 and immediately began to 

pursue “Abenomics,” a set of policies 

intended to revitalize the economy. In 2013, 

voters expressed their broad approval for 

these reforms, awarding the LDP additional 

parliamentary seats. Poor economic performance prompted 

Abe to schedule new elections for December 2014, which the 

LDP won handily, maintaining LDP’s hold on parliament and 

keeping Abe in power. 

Focus on Peace

National self-identity since the war has focused on peace. Due 

to the country’s tragic experience with a military-controlled 

government during World War II followed by a half century of 

strong pacifism, many Japanese oppose the military. 

Consequently, Abe’s vocal support for a more robust military 

has sparked major debate in Japan. Despite the controversy, 

Abe continues to press for Japan’s participation in collective 

self-defense activities including combat cooperation in the 

defense of another country. These actions currently are 

interpreted as illegal under Japan’s constitution (see p. 5 of

Political and Social Relations).
HISTORY &

MYTH

Myth

In contrast to history, which is supposed to be an objective 

record of the past based on verifiable facts, myths embody a 

culture’s values and often explain the origins of humans and 

the natural world. Myths are important because they provide a 

sense of unique heritage and identity. 

Japan’s earliest myths were passed down both orally over the 

generations and also recorded in writing. Chronicles from the 

early 8th century include stories about mythological beginnings 

of the universe and the adventures of the gods. Japan’s most 

significant myth describes the creation of the Japanese islands 

and the source of the Japanese emperor’s divinity. These

stories became a foundational part of State Shintō, Japan’s 

official religion in the late 19th and early 20th centuries (see p. 

5 of Religion and Spirituality).

Izanagi and Izanami Create the Universe

In the beginning the world was formless. Then, a reed grew 

and 8 generations of gods were born from it. Two of the gods –

the male Izanagi and the female Izanami –

stood on a floating bridge between heaven 

and earth and stirred the ocean with a jeweled 

spear. When they raised the spear, droplets of 

water fell and formed the islands of Japan

(Pictured: A 19th century depiction of this 

myth).

The couple then built a home on an island and 

had several children, including the gods of the 

wind, mountains, rivers, seas, and trees. 

Although Izanami died while giving birth to the 

god of fire, Izanagi produced Amaterasu, the 

Sun Goddess and ruler of the universe. 

Amaterasu then sent her grandson, Ninigi, to 

rule Japan, presenting him with 3 treasures: a 

bronze mirror (signifying purity), a sword 

(courage), and a curved jade necklace (generosity and 

kindness). Ninigi’s grandson Jimmu (“Divine Warrior”) became

the first human emperor of Japan. All subsequent emperors are 

descended from Jimmu, and the mirror, sword, and necklace 

remain the imperial symbols of Japan today.
Official Name

Japan

Nippon/ Nihon

日本 (Japanese)

Political Borders

Coastline: 18, 486 mi

Capital

Tokyo

Demographics

Japan has a 

population of about 

127 million, making it 

the world’s 11th most 

populous country. 

Significantly, Japan’s population is declining at a rate of -0.13%

annually. This lack of population growth, coupled with Japan’s

high life expectancy (see p. 4 of Sustenance and Health), result 

in a swiftly aging population. Currently, almost 25% of the 

population is over the age of 65, compared to 14% in the US, a 

situation that results in significant healthcare and economic 

challenges (see p. 4-5 of Sustenance and Health and p. 1 of

Economics and Resources). Over 91% of the population lives 

in urban areas, and almost half are concentrated in the major 

metropolitan areas of Tokyo, 

Osaka-Kobē, and Nagoya.

Flag

Known as Nisshōki, the 

Japanese flag consists of a 

large red disk representing 

the sun set against a pure 

white backdrop. The red disk, 

known as Hinomaru, is an 

ancient sun motif that samurai and daimyo (see p. 1 and 3 of 

History and Myth) historically used on their flags. The white 

background represents honesty and purity.

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Geography

Japan is an island nation 

located to the east of the 

Korean peninsula. Comprising 

over 4000 islands, the country

is surrounded by the Pacific 

Ocean to the East and South, 

the East China Sea to the 

Southwest, the Sea of Japan 

to the West, and the Sea of Okhotsk to the North. Japan’s total 

land area is about 146,000 sq mi, which is slightly smaller than 

Montana (Photo: Mount Yari on the island of Honshū).

Sometimes called the “Home Islands,” Japan’s 4 main islands 

are Hokkaidō, Honshū, Shikoku, and Kyūshū. Together, these 

islands form almost all of Japan’s land area. The largest, 

Honshū, is home to about 80% of Japan’s population as well as 

the cities of Tokyo, Yokohama, Nagoya, Osaka, and 

Hiroshima. South of Kyūshū is a chain of volcanic islands 

called the Ryukyu Islands (known in Japanese as the Nansei 

Islands), which includes Okinawa. 

Much of the country is forest-covered and mountainous, with 

the highest peaks located on Hokkaidō and Honshū. Japan’s 

highest point is Mount Fuji, which rises 12,388 ft on Honshū’s

southeastern shore. 

Climate

Japan experiences all 4 seasons, although the North is 

significantly cooler than the milder South. The northern island 

of Hokkaidō, for example, experiences freezing temperatures 

and heavy snowfall in winter. By contrast, the southern islands 

of Shikoku and Kyūshū have warmer average winter 

temperatures of 46°F. Summers tend to be warm and humid 

across the country, with average August temperatures of 70°F 

on Hokkaidō and 82°F on Kyūshū.

Japan has a monsoonal climate characterized by distinct wet 

and dry seasons. Known as the baiu or tsusy (“plum rain”), 

Japan’s rainy season occurs in the early summer months of 

June and July. Winter is typically Japan’s driest season, with 

the exception of the coastline along the Sea of Japan which 

experiences heavy snowfall from November through April.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Natural Hazards

Japan is vulnerable to several types of natural hazards, 

including typhoons, volcanic activity, and earthquakes. 

Typically occurring in August and September, typhoons can 

cause flash floods and landslides. Japan has 108 active 

volcanoes, some of which erupt frequently, endangering

nearby infrastructure and populations. Japan’s location at the 

intersection of several major tectonic plates means that it is

especially vulnerable to earthquakes, averaging 1,500 seismic 

activities per year. Tsunamis (large ocean waves caused by

earthquakes), volcanic eruptions, and other geologic 

disturbances threaten Japan’s densely populated coasts. In 

March 2011, a massive earthquake and subsequent tsunami 

struck Honshū’s northeastern shore, killing 20,000 people and

displacing another 500,000. The quake also damaged several 

nuclear reactors at power plants, resulting in radiation leaks 

(see p. 2 of Technology and Material). 

Environmental Issues

Rapid industrialization following World War II resulted in 

widespread pollution in the 1950s. Despite implementing strict 

environmental regulations in subsequent decades, Japan still 

experiences severe air pollution. Acid rain is especially 

pervasive, degrading natural water supplies, negatively 

affecting biodiversity, and damaging infrastructure. Recently, 

the depletion of marine resources through overfishing has 

become a concern as Japan’s population relies heavily on its 

coastal waters for food (see p. 

2 of Sustenance and Health &

p. 3 of Economics and 

Resources). 

Government

Japan is a constitutional 

monarchy with a parliamentary 

government. The country 

divides into 47 prefectures or 

districts of varying sizes administered by local governors and 

assemblies. Adopted in 1947, the constitution designates the 

Emperor as the official head-of-state yet denies him any real 

power (see p. 8-10 of History and Myth) (Photo: Emperor 

Akihito and Empress Michiko). 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Executive Branch

Executive power is vested in the Prime Minister, who forms and 

leads the Cabinet (naikaku), is head-of-government, and acts 

as commander-in-chief of Japan’s Self-Defense Forces (see 

“Defense” below). Elected by the national legislative body and 

formally appointed by the Emperor, the Prime Minister is 

typically the leader of the majority political party at the time of 

the election. As President of the popular Liberal Democratic 

Party (LDP), current Prime Minister Shinzō Abe took office in 

December 2012, becoming Japan’s 

57th Prime Minister (see p. 10 of 

History and Myth).

Legislative Branch

Japan’s legislature is a 2-chamber 

Parliament, the National Diet 

(Kokkai, pictured), consisting of a 

480-seat House of Representatives 

(lower house) and 242-seat House 

of Councillors (upper house). Both 

houses are filled through a 

combination of majoritarian and proportional representation. 

Because voter loyalty often rests with local political families, 

more than 100 seats in the Diet are held by 2nd and 3rd

generation members. Representatives serve 4-year terms, 

while Councillors serve 6-year terms. Both houses together are 

responsible for making laws, approving the annual national 

budget, initiating amendments to the Constitution, conducting 

investigations on the government, and formally selecting the 

Prime Minister. Because it holds certain additional powers and 

authorities, the lower house is the more powerful. The Prime 

Minister has the authority to dissolve the Diet with the Cabinet’s 

agreement and call for new elections.

Judicial Branch

The judiciary includes a Supreme Court, appellate courts, 

district and family courts, and informal (summary) courts that 

oversee minor civil cases. As the highest court, the 15-member 

Supreme Court has the power to constitutionally review all 

laws, orders, and official acts of the government. Although the 

Cabinet appoints all justices, the Emperor must approve the 

nomination for Chief Justice. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Political Climate

Although Japan has many active political groups, the Liberal 

Democratic Party (LDP) and the Democratic Party of Japan 

(DPJ) have historically competed for power (see p. 9-10 of

History and Myth). The dominant force in politics since the end 

of World War II, the conservative LDP’s platform includes 

support for business, export-based economic growth, and 

administrative reform. The latter includes simplification of 

government bureaucracy, privatization of state-owned 

corporations, and tax reform. 

As the LDP’s more liberal opponent, the DPJ supports 

government’s decentralization, reduced economic regulations, 

and increased government transparency. Although politicians

generally identify with their party’s platform, they frequently 

express diverging opinions on important issues such as 

Japan’s nuclear energy program (see p. 2 of Technology and 

Material), population-related challenges (see p. 4-5 of Health 

and Sustenance), and the constitution’s Article 9, which limits 

Japan’s military activities (see “Defense” below).

Defense

Japan’s Self-Defense Forces (SDF) are a unified military force

consisting of ground, maritime, and air branches. Japan’s 

constitution, ratified during the US Occupation following World 

War II (see p. 8-9 of History and Myth), required a massive 

reduction to Japan’s once powerful military as well as a 

fundamental shift from its 

aggressive wartime stance 

to a defensive posture.

Japan’s national defense 

since World War II has also 

been upheld through 

arrangements that permit 

the US to operate military 

bases in Japan (see p. 8-9

of History and Myth) (Photo: SDF members drive armored 

personnel carriers during bilateral training exercises with the 

US military). In spring 2015, the US and Japan finalized a new 

agreement that broadens Japan's ability to defend the US if 

attacked by a 3rd party.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
The Japanese government historically interpreted Article 9 of 

the constitution to mean that military force may be used solely 

for self-defense purposes. In 2014 Prime Minister Abe 

suggested a new interpretation of Article 9 that would allow for

an expansion of the SDF’s historic mandate. This proposal 

would permit the SDF’s participation in an array of collective 

self-defense activities, including combat operations in defense 

of another country. This new interpretation reflects a desire 

among some factions to make the SDF a more robust military 

force, a controversial stance in a country that has focused on 

peace since World War II (see p. 8-9 of History and Myth). 

Consequently, Prime Minister Abe’s proposal has sparked 

major public debate.

Although the SDF is among the smaller regional militaries with 

just 247,450 active duty troops and 56,400 reserves, it has 

access to cutting-edge technology in both equipment and 

infrastructure. Its small size is based on a comparison to China, 

North and South Korean, Russia and the US. In actuality, the 

SDF is a top 10 military globally (twice as big as Australia).

Ground Self-Defense Force: Japan’s Ground SDF is a wellequipped, well-trained force of 151,350 active-duty troops. The 

Ground SDF has 5 regional commands, 1 special forces unit, 

14 maneuver divisions and brigades (including armored, 

mechanized, light, air maneuver, and aviation), and numerous 

combat support brigades.

Maritime Self-Defense Force: Consisting of 45,500 activeduty personnel, Japan’s Maritime SDF is also a capable force 

organized into 4 escort 

flotillas, each having 7 to 8 

assigned warships. Marine 

bases are located on 

Yokosuka, Kure, Sasebo, 

Maizuru, and Ominato. 

Air Self-Defense Force:

Japan’s Air SDF consists of 

47,100 active-duty personnel and has 769 fighter aircraft and 

29 squadrons (Photo: Air Force Chief of Staff Gen. Mark A. 

Welsh III is welcomed by Gen. Harukazu Saitoh, Japan Air Self 

Defense Force Chief of Staff in 2013).

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Security Issues

Japan’s security concerns focus on 2 main issues: a rising and 

occasionally aggressive China and the nuclearization of North 

Korea, both of which have prompted Japan to adjust its 

defense posture. Although ongoing territorial disputes with 

South Korea, Taiwan, and Russia provide some tensions, they 

rarely escalate. Similarly, Japan suffered acts of domestic 

terrorism in past decades but none recently. After the last

incident, a 1995 poison gas attack in the Tokyo subway (see p. 

9 of History and Myth), the government instigated new

emergency response training programs, designated disaster 

centers, and established a national anti-terrorism office.

Foreign Relations

Despite some regional tensions, Japan enjoys cooperative 

trade relations with South Korea, China, Taiwan, and Russia 

(see p. 4 of Economics and Resources).

Relations with South Korea:

Japan has a strong but uneasy

relationship with South Korea. 

Despite shared security interests 

and good trade relations, antiJapanese sentiment persists in 

South Korea due to the 

countries’ difficult history (see p. 

5-8 of History and Myth). 

Similarly, some animosity 

towards Koreans exists in Japan 

(see “Ethnic Groups” below). 

The relationship is further strained by an ongoing territorial 

dispute over the Liancourt Rocks (called the Takeshima Islands 

in Japan and Dokdo in Korea) and occasional nationalist 

demonstrations in South Korea (Photo: A watchtower on the 

Liancourt Rocks). 

Relations with China: Although China and Japan are closely 

linked through strong economic ties (see p. 4 of Economics 

and Resources), China’s growing military and increased

regional dominance concern Japan. In addition, an ongoing 

territorial dispute heightens tensions.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
There exists a territorial dispute among Japan, China, and 

Taiwan concerning a group of uninhabited islands in the East 

China Sea known in Japan as the Senkaku Islands and in 

China the Diaoyu Islands. Currently controlled by Japan, the 

islands lay close to important shipping lanes within rich fishing 

grounds and near significant oil and gas reserves. The dispute 

escalated in 2012 when the Japanese state bought 3 of the 

islands from a private Japanese owner, triggering public and 

diplomatic protests in China. Further, in 2013 China announced 

the creation of an air-defense zone over the islands within 

which aircraft must adhere to Chinese laws. Since then, 

occasional and potentially hostile interactions between Chinese 

and Japanese military aircraft have occurred. 

Relations with Taiwan: As with South Korea and China, 

Japan maintains good trade but strained political relations with

Taiwan. In a strategic effort to build a relationship with the 

People’s Republic of China in 1972, Japan announced it would 

cut all diplomatic ties with Taiwan. Thereafter, Japan 

maintained only private and informal relations with Taiwan. 

Although the dispute over the Senkaku Islands further strained 

relations, in 2014 Japan and Taiwan reached a cooperative 

fishing agreement for 

adjoining waters, somewhat 

decreasing the tensions

between the 2 nations. 

Relations with Russia: A

territorial dispute over the

Kuril Islands (pictured –

known as the Northern 

Territories in Japan) poses

a key issue in Russian-Japanese relations. While the Russians 

originally settled the islands beginning in the 17th century,

Japan took control of them in the late 19th and early 20th

centuries (see p. 6 of History and Myth). Although Russia 

regained sovereignty following World War II, Japan claims the 

4 southernmost islands just north of Japan’s Hokkaido Island. 

Consequently, Japan and Russia still have not signed a peace 

treaty formally ending World War II. Despite this dispute, 

Russia and Japan maintain an important trade relationship (see

p. 4 of Economics and Resources).

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Relations with North Korea: Japan views North Korea’s

development of nuclear weapons and recent investment into 

missile capabilities as threats to Japan and potentially 

destabilizing to the entire East Asian region. Although 6-party 

negotiations between Japan, North Korea, South Korea, China, 

Russia, and the US began in 2003, the talks failed to attain 

their goal of ending North Korea’s nuclear program. In 2014 

Japan began to upgrade its defense preparedness in response 

to the possible implications of North Korean missile launches 

toward Japan. Further straining the relationship is Japan’s 

attempt to resolve the status of several Japanese citizens that 

North Korea kidnapped from Japan in the 1970s and 1980s. 

While North Korea allowed 5 of the victims to return to Japan in 

2002, the others have remained in North Korea. In a July 2014

attempt to resolve the matter, Japan eased several sanctions 

against North Korea. In return, North Korea agreed to reopen 

investigations into the abductions. 

Relations with the US:

The US-Japan alliance is 

strong and stable. A

1960 treaty grants the 

US the right to maintain a 

military presence on 

Japanese soil in 

exchange for aid in the 

event of Japan’s invasion 

(see p. 9 of History and 

Myth). Japan participated 

in its first overseas military operation in 2001, supporting US 

forces in the Gulf war. In 2003 Japanese forces supported 

postwar reconstruction efforts in Iraq. Following the 2011 

earthquake/tsunami that devastated Honshū, SDF and US 

forces conducted the largest bilateral rescue mission in alliance 

history (Photo: President Obama and Prime Minister Abe).

As of 2013, the US had 36,700 active duty service members 

stationed in Japan, including personnel from the Army (2,500), 

Navy (6,750), Air Force (12,500), and Marine Corps (14,950). 

Major US installations include naval bases in Tokyo Bay and 

near Nagasaki and the Yokota Air Base near Tokyo and 

Misawa Air Base on northern Honshū. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
The US military’s largest presence is on Okinawa, consisting of 

37 facilities that occupy 19% of the island’s surface area. The 

US military’s presence there has historically been a source of 

tension since some Okinawans resent the burden of hosting 

US forces. In an attempt to relieve this pressure, the US began 

negotiations in 1996 to relocate the Futenma Air Station, 

currently situated in a heavily urbanized area, to a more remote 

location. The site selection process has been contentious and 

is still unresolved. 

Ethnic Groups

Japan’s population is 

ethnically homogeneous –

over 98% of the 

population is ethnic 

Japanese. Koreans and 

Chinese make up about 

0.5% and 0.4% of the 

population, respectively. Before World War II, Japanese tended 

to distinguish Okinawans from other Japanese due to cultural 

and physical differences. Today, because perceptions of 

Okinawan heritage have shifted, the Japanese generally 

accept Okinawans as part of the larger Japanese culture.

Ainu: Thought to be descendants of migrants from northern 

Asia (see p. 1 of History and Myth), the Ainu are an indigenous 

culture whose members formerly occupied Japan’s Hokkaidō

Island and Russia’s Sakhalin and the Kuril islands. Today, 

about 25,000 Ainu live on Hokkaidō. Despite a language 

revitalization program initiated in the 1980s, very few people 

still speak the Ainu language today.

Resident Aliens: During World War II, the Japanese forcibly 

relocated many Koreans to Japan to work as laborers. 

Following the war, many Koreans remained and today 

constitute the largest foreign community in Japan. Although 

born and raised in Japan, these second and third generation 

Korean-Japanese are denied citizenship, instead classified as 

permanent residents. While discrimination against them 

remains a problem, there are also other issues such as

tensions between Koreans who pledged support to either 

South Korea or North Korea during the Korean War.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Social Relations

Traditionally, Japanese social relations 

reflected Shintō’s (Japan’s indigenous 

religion–see p. 2 of Religion and Spirituality) 

focus on harmonious relations. Likewise, 

Japanese society was ordered hierarchically 

in accordance with the teachings of 

Confucius (pictured), a 6th-5th century BC 

Chinese philosopher. According to Confucian 

ideals, social relations should promote social 

harmony rather than individual happiness 

and support social stability, specific paths of 

authority, and collective responsibility. 

During the 17th-19th century Tokugawa period (see p. 3-4 of

History and Myth), the bulk of the population was divided by 

heredity within a hierarchy of 4 classes. At the top were

Samurai warriors followed by farmers, artisans, and merchants. 

Ideal samurai behavior was characterized by the concept of

bushidō (see p. 4 of History and Myth), an unwritten code that 

emphasized honor, courage, politeness, and reserve as well as 

unswerving loyalty and a willingness to sacrifice. Below the 

merchants was a small class of so-called “outcasts” 

(burakumin), people who worked as butchers or with leather. 

Today, hereditary social classes no longer exist, and the once 

rigid social rules have relaxed. Nevertheless, Japanese remain

mindful of their own and others’ positions within social, family, 

and work hierarchies. Children use certain terms to differentiate 

older schoolmates from younger ones. Sinilarly, employees 

typically act respectfully and deferentially toward elder 

colleagues and remain loyal to their career-long employers.

The Japanese continue to show respect for each other based 

on group identity: they may be least courteous to strangers, 

members of different social circles, or those labeled gaijin

(foreigner.) Minority group members, including Ainu, 

Okinawans, and Korean-Japanese are sometimes the victim of

outright discrimination in housing and employment. Although

the government forbids discrimination against burakumin

descendants, some Japanese hire investigators to determine if

a potential marriage partner’s family tree includes burakumin.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Overview

In 2011 the Japanese government estimated that Shintō 

shrines had 100 million members; Buddhist temples 84 million;

Christian churches about 2 million; and other religious 

communities (Muslim, Baha’i, Hindu, and Jewish) together 

about 9 million. Significantly, the government estimated 

Japan’s population in 2013 at just 127 million, well below the 

estimated total of 195 million members of religious 

organizations. This differential indicates that many Japanese 

associate with more than one religion.

In fact, exclusive religious affiliation is traditionally uncommon 

in Japan. In their daily lives, Japanese typically rely on different 

religious rituals to mark important life events, such as engaging

in Shintō rituals to mark births and marriages and Buddhist 

ones to respond to illness and death (see p. 4-5 of Family and 

Kinship). This flexibility is reflected in the common Japanese 

saying “Born Shintō, die Buddhist.”

Of note, many Japanese who observe Shintō or Buddhist 

practices and rituals do not consider themselves to be

“religious.” This outlook stems from the fact that people do not 

“join” a Shintō or Buddhist community by a profession of faith 

like they might join a Christian congregation. Instead, they are 

automatically considered a member of the nearest Shintō 

shrine and/or Buddhist 

temple that houses their 

family’s burial vault. In 

this way, Japanese are 

born into Shintō and 

Buddhist communities 

and grow up attending a 

variety of rituals,

ceremonies, and festivals, 

identifying with them in 

the same way they identify with their hometown and country

(Photo: A Shintō priest reads a prayer during a US Navy 

groundbreaking ceremony).

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Shintō

Shintō, or the “Way of the Gods,” is Japan’s indigenous 

religion. Its focus is the cultivation of a harmonious relationship 

with nature through the veneration of spiritual beings. 

According to Shintō, all things in nature, both living and nonliving, embody kami, a spiritual energy or force. Because every 

natural phenomenon may embody kami, Shintō followers

traditionally have great respect for the natural environment.

Unlike many other religions, Shintō has no set of written 

scriptures or ethical directives, no central figure of worship, and 

no founder. Instead, it consists of invocations, ceremonies, 

rituals, stories, and myths that have been handed down for 

centuries. Despite its lack of dogma, Shintō does provide a 

code of values and way of thinking that pervades Japanese 

society even today. For example, Japanese living spaces and 

hygienic practices reflect Shintō’s emphasis on cleanliness and 

purification (see p. 1-2 of Family and Kinship). In addition, 

Japanese social relations and etiquette norms reflect Shintō’s 

focus on respect for elders and leaders (see p. 12 of Political 

and Social Relations). 

Buddhism

First brought to Japan from China via Korea in the mid-6th

century, Buddhism traces its beginning to around 500 BC when 

Siddhartha Gautama, a South Asian prince, attained spiritual 

insight through meditation. Buddhists believe that humans are 

fated to suffer because of the human 

inclination towards greed or desire. 

They also believe that suffering can 

be stopped by following a spiritual 

path that includes unselfish living 

and meditation. Buddhists’ ultimate 

goal is to achieve nirvana, a state of 

peace and unity with the universe. 

Unlike Shintō, Buddhism is based on 

a set of scriptures and ethical/moral instruction which offer an 

explanation of life after death. Followers recognize figures of 

worship called buddhas and bodhisattvas – compassionate 

enlightened beings – that provide them help and support in 

their lives (Pictured: 17th century depiction of Buddhist monks). 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Religion and Spirituality in Historical Perspective

The Emergence of Shintō

Between the 5th-8th centuries, Japan’s exposure to China’s 

philosophical and religious traditions (Confucianism, Taoism, 

and Buddhism) collectively influenced the development of 

Shintō (see p. 1 of History and Myth). This belief system 

emerged early in Japanese history as people began to perform 

rituals to commemorate birth, death, the agricultural cycle, and 

the rhythms of the natural world. First recorded in the 8th 

century, ancient prayers formed the foundation of Shintō 

ceremonies, while ancient stories related the mythological 

beginnings of the Japanese 

islands and its imperial 

family (see p. 11 of History 

and Myth) (Photo: 

Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū 

shrine in Kamakura).

Confucianism: Based on 

the teachings of Confucius, 

a 6th-5th century BC 

Chinese philosopher, Confucianism teaches that social 

relations should promote social harmony rather than individual 

happiness. Confucianism is not a religious belief system, but 

rather a system of ethics having specific rules of conduct and 

courtesy for every relationship. Confucianism had profound 

effects on Japanese society (see p. 12 of Political and Social 

Relations). Recognizing similarities between Confucianism and 

Shintō, such as the importance of fairness, harmony, and 

ancestor worship, the Japanese incorporated many Confucian 

principles in their practice of Shintō.

Taoism: Like Shintō, Taoism emphasized harmony with nature 

and recognized a variety of nature gods. But unlike Shintō, 

Taoism acknowledged a singular great force behind all things 

in the universe, the tao. Although Taoism’s influence on the 

practice of Shintō was much more subtle than that of 

Confucianism, its effects were felt in a variety of ways. These 

include the Japanese adoption of a Chinese calendar of “good” 

and “bad” days, certain rituals for telling the future, and a 

process for choosing the appropriate placement of buildings.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
The Spread of Buddhism

Buddhism flourished in Japan for several reasons. Japanese 

appreciated the similarity of Buddhism’s deities to Shintō’s 

kami, Buddhism’s elaborate rituals and colorful pageantry, and 

its tolerance of other beliefs. Unlike Shintō, Buddhism provided 

an explanation of life after death that involved passage to a 

better place, an idea many Japanese embraced. Finally, the

perceived value of Buddhist 

practices in curing illness and

protecting against evil spirits 

appealed to many Japanese.

In 604 Japan’s court adopted a 

constitution based in Buddhist 

and Confucian concepts. 

Although officially still Shintō, the 

court also embraced Buddhism. 

As authorities built temples with great statues of Buddhist 

divinities, many people continued to worship at Shintō shrines

(Photo: The Great Buddha at Kōtoku-in Temple in Kamakura).

As it evolved, Japanese Buddhism split into sects. While some 

sects emphasized that followers could achieve salvation 

through faith by reciting certain phrases, Zen Buddhism taught 

that enlightenment comes intuitively through meditation. Zen 

Buddhism also emphasized simplicity and discipline, appealing

to the samurai (see p. 1 of History and Myth) and greatly 

influencing Japan’s traditional arts (see p. 4 of Aesthetics and 

Recreation). Eventually, Buddhist and Shintō priests, temples, 

shrines, rituals, and ceremonies intermixed, a state that 

persisted through the Tokugawa Shogunate (1603-1868 – see

p. 3 of History and Myth). 

Shintō and Japanese Nationalism

Japan’s native Shintō religion enjoyed renewed support as part 

of the larger Japanese reaction to a 19th-century wave of 

foreign influences (see p. 4-6 of History and Myth). Following 

Emperor Meiji’s 1869 restoration to power, the government 

sought to bolster the court’s authority and promote a sense of 

national pride and unity. Consequently, the government named

“State Shintō” the national religion and effectively ended the 

centuries-long intermingling of Shintō and Buddhism.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
State Shintō: State Shintō emphasized the emperor’s divine 

right to rule and the superiority of the kami over other religions’

deities. In addition to requiring his veneration as a living kami, 

the emperor demanded the separation of Shintō and Buddhist 

places of worship. Although the government later declared 

State Shintō to be nonreligious, it required its observance as a 

patriotic duty, required schools to teach a blend of Shintō and 

Confucianism, and founded new shrines dedicated to the kami

of the imperial family.

State Shintō facilitated the rise of Japanese militarism in the 

late 19th and early 20th centuries (see p. 5-6 of History and 

Myth). Specifically, Japanese leaders used the teachings of 

Shintō to rationalize Japan’s expansionist plans and justify its 

right to rule over other peoples. From birth, the Japanese were 

taught that their emperor was descended from the gods and 

that their death in his service would result in their becoming 

kami. Due to these and other teachings, Japanese soldiers 

were especially tenacious during World War II, even willingly 

sacrificing themselves as kamikaze (see p. 7 of History and 

Myth). The worship of the emperor as a living kami ended only 

when Emperor Hirohito was forced to renounce his divinity 

following Japan’s defeat in World War II. Japan’s 1947 

constitution stipulated the 

separation of religion and state.

Shintō Today

Stressing gratitude, sincerity, 

cooperation, and harmony, 

Shintō is an important part of 

Japanese culture. While Japan’s 

81,000 Shinto shrines come in all 

shapes and sizes, they all feature torii, a symbolic gateway 

consisting of 2 slanting upright supports connected by 2 cross 

pieces (pictured). Many shrines are also recognizable by the

small wooden tablets tied to nearby trees on which the faithful 

inscribe their prayers and wishes. Open to worshippers of all 

religious traditions, Shintō shrines do not hold regular services. 

Instead, followers visit shrines to worship individually, to take 

part in life-event commemorations, such as weddings, or to 

attend annual shrine festivities.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Many Japanese homes and businesses have their own small, 

personal Shintō shrine or kamidana. Usually an altar or high 

shelf, it may contain talismans (objects believed to have 

magical powers) or other symbols of worship. Businesses may 

dedicate their shrine to the worship of the Inari, a kami

traditionally associated with the rice harvest but now seen as 

the god of good fortune for 

business (Photo: A Japanese 

family’s personal Shintō shrine). 

To perform individual worship,

followers first ritually wash their 

hands and rinse out their mouths. 

They then stand before the shrine, 

bow twice, ring a bell, and then clap twice to summon the kami. 

Worshippers then bow again and pray, either thanking the kami 

for their goodness or requesting their blessing. It is customary 

to leave a small offering, such as a few coins or a bit of 

wrapped food for the kami. 

Shinto priests dressed in elaborate robes modeled on ancient 

Japanese styles conduct ceremonies at shrines. Intended to 

facilitate worshippers’ communication with the kami, these 

ceremonies usually include offerings, prayer, communion or 

feast, and some purification actions (such as when a priest 

waves his wand over the heads of a bridal couple to keep away 

misfortune and bad spirits).

Although their Shintō meaning may be obscured today, many 

of Japan’s most famous festivals are of Shintō origin. Of note, 

sumo wrestlers (see p. 3 of Aesthetics and Recreation) 

traditionally performed as entertainment for the kami. Today,

sumo wrestling still includes purification by washing and the 

sprinkling of salt, hand clapping to attract kami, and feet 

stamping to drive bad spirits away.

Buddhism Today

Although Buddhist temples exhibit different architectural styles, 

they all feature a main hall containing an image of Buddha and 

a table for offerings. While many temples have imposing entry 

gates, Buddhist temples often contain elaborately landscaped 

rock gardens intended to aid meditation.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Although many Japanese 

participate in Buddhist services 

only when they attend funerals

(see p. 5 of Family and Kinship), 

some Japanese have a 

Buddhist altar (butsudan) in 

their homes that contains 

Buddha’s image and tablets 

commemorating deceased 

family members. The most significant Buddhist celebrations 

honor ancestral spirits. During Obon, Buddhist families gather 

to celebrate ancestral spirits’ return to earth (see p. 5 of Family 

and Kinship) (Photo: Nanzen-ji Zen Buddhist temple).

Christianity

Christianity first arrived during a period of political upheaval in 

1549 (see p. 2 of History and Myth). Jesuit missionary Francis 

Xavier and the missionaries who followed him faced challenges

in their quest for converts. First, Christianity was very different 

from Shintō and Buddhism. Second, because the Japanese

were used to practicing more than one religion simultaneously, 

the Christian requirement that they abandon all other religious 

beliefs and practices baffled most potential converts. Despite 

these challenges, by the early 1600s, about 300,000 Japanese 

had converted as Nagasaki became Japan’s Catholic center.

Although initially welcoming, the government eventually came 

to view the Europeans’ presence as a threat. Persecution 

began in 1587, reaching its peak in 1637-1638 when 

authorities killed some 37,000 Christians near Nagasaki. 

Shortly thereafter the government banned Christianity and 

expelled all foreigners, ushering in a long period of isolation 

(see p. 3 of History and Myth). 

When Christian missionaries arrived again in the late 1850s 

following Japan’s re-opening to the West, they found that their

religion had stayed alive with about 20,000 so-called “hidden 

Christians.” Japan’s first Protestant church was established in 

1872. Following Emperor Meiji’s removal of the ban on 

Christianity in 1873, missionaries from several countries and 

traditions, including Russian Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and 

various Protestant congregations, began to arrive. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Although there were about 960 Protestant missionaries in 

Japan by 1908, Christian church growth slowed in the early 

20th century as State Shintō received official support. Under 

government pressure, 30 Protestant churches banded together 

in 1941 to form the United Church of Christ in Japan. Following 

World War II, Christian churches experienced some growth

with another influx of foreign missionaries into Japan.

Although Christians make up only 1-2% of the population

today, almost all Christian denominations have a presence in 

the country. While they may not be members of Christian 

churches, many young Japanese have adopted certain 

Christian customs, such as celebrating Christmas and marriage 

in a Christian church (see p. 4 of Family and Kinship).

New Religions

Japan’s government recognizes several hundred so-called 

“new religions.” One example with distinctly Shintō roots is

Tenrikyo (“Religion of the Heavenly Truth”), founded in 1838 by 

a woman who claimed she had been visited by the creator 

deity. Other “new religions” arose later, reviving ancient folk 

traditions (see text box below) or incorporating aspects of 

Buddhism or Confucianism. For example, Sōka Gakkai (“Value 

Creation Society”), which is based on a form of Buddhism, was 

founded in 1930 and later suppressed during World War II for 

its opposition to State Shintō.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY

Japan’s Folk Gods

In addition to its organized religious traditions, Japan is 

also home to localized, ancient belief systems that tell 

of guardian and demon spirits. Although few Japanese 

express belief in their powers, these gods are wellknown and popular. For example, New Year’s greeting 

cards often depict the Seven Lucky Gods. These 

include, among others, the gods of longevity, 

prosperity, and happiness, the last identifiable through 

his fat belly and wide smile. The oni or demons, such 

as the red-faced mountain goblins and trolls who dwell 

under bridges, are considered unlucky.
Overview

Although traditional values like harmony, honor, and duty still 

infuse Japanese family life, profound societal changes since 

World War II have altered the family’s structure and function. 

Rapid urbanization, the diminished extended family structure,

and a decreased marriage rate changed traditional housing 

patterns. Likewise, an increase in life expectancy combined 

with a decreased birth rate resulted in more elderly and fewer 

children. Meanwhile, post-World War II society’s emphasis on 

work and career has imposed stress on many families. 

Residence

Over 91% of Japanese live in urban areas where housing 

shortages are common. While most urban-dwellers live in 

danchi (rented, block-style apartments) or manshon

(condominiums), others occupy detached homes in suburban 

neighborhoods. 

Traditional: Traditional

Japanese homes feature

white plaster walls with wood 

paneling, topped by a steep 

pitched roof made from thatch 

(pictured) or tiles. Slightly 

elevated and surrounded by walls and fences, a traditional

home is distinctly separate from community life outside. The

genkan, or entryway, typically sits on a lower plane than the

rest of the house. At the genkan, visitors announce their arrival 

and residents and visitors alike change from street to house 

shoes. To facilitate the use of space, interior rooms are 

multipurpose and divided by sliding doors and fusuma

(movable folding screens). Consequently, privacy among family 

members in traditional homes is usually limited.

For meals and socializing, family members traditionally sit on 

zabuton (floor cushions) laid over tatami (thick straw mats)

before a kotatsu, a low table covered in a quilt. Family 

members may sleep on futons (folding mattresses) which are

kept in cupboards during the day. 

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Modern: While city living conditions are usually cramped, 

homes today are made from a variety of modern materials.

Apartments typically have Western-style beds and tables, plus

a more traditional room with tatami, tokonoma (an alcove with 

paintings, flowers, and other décor), or other time-honored

elements. Every apartment or house has some type of genkan

where residents and visitors change to house shoes.

Gardens: Japan is well-known for its tranquil and manicured 

gardens that often include elaborate water and rock features. 

Carefully-tended gardens are often an important part of Zen 

Buddhist temples (see p. 4 of Religion and Spirituality). 

Family Structure

Japanese traditionally view the family as a single unit rather 

than a group of individuals. Family members value the good of 

the family unit over their own needs and are expected to assist 

each other. Traditionally, extended families consisting of

parents, children, grandparents, and even great-grandparents

lived together in a single residence. Today, most households

consist of small nuclear families (parents plus offspring). While

many women work outside the home, Japanese typically 

regard men as the primary breadwinners and household 

heads. They expect women to manage the household affairs 

and take responsibility for childrearing (see p. 1 of Sex and 

Gender).

Japanese Bathrooms

In most Japanese homes, residents use separate 

slippers to visit the toilet and bathing room, typically 

located in separate rooms. When bathing, Japanese 

first scrub clean in a shower and then soak in steaming 

water in the ofuro, a deep bathtub located next to the 

shower. Since the same bathwater may be used by the 

entire household each day, members must be fully

clean before entering the ofuro. Many Japanese

bathrooms feature high-tech components such as 

toilets with automated bidets and heated seats.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Children

Japanese treasure their 

children as the perpetuators 

of family heritage. Japanese

believe that a child’s

upbringing and education, not 

just his individual personality, 

significantly shapes his 

character and intelligence.

From a young age, children 

learn by example and through group work how to be 

cooperative and work harmoniously with others. Harsh

discipline or punishment for disobedience is uncommon. 

Mothers are typically highly involved in their children's lives

while fathers are often absent due to lengthy work hours and 

commutes (see p. 1 of Time and Space).

Names: When naming their children, Japanese carefully 

consider all aspects of a name, such as the characters used to 

write it, its pronunciation, and its harmony with the surname. 

While many girls’ names find inspiration in nature, such as 

Yukiko (“child of snow”), boys often receive names based on

abstract concepts, such as Noboru (“abundance”). 

Traditionally, parents give their children a name 7 days after 

birth in the Oshichiya (baby naming) celebration, then present

them at a Shintō shrine (see p. 5 of Religion and Spirituality) for

a blessing after 100 days.

Youth Milestones: Many Japanese celebrate particular age 

milestones for their children such as Shichigosan for children 

age 3 and 7 (girls) and 5 (boys). These children are dressed in

traditional clothing and taken to the local Shintō shrine for 

prayers. They also receive candy bags decorated with

turtledoves or cranes which symbolize a long life. 

Coming of Age Day: This ceremony is held the second

Monday in January to honor all Japanese youth who turn 20 

that year. This age marks adulthood in Japan when young 

people attain the legal right to vote, drink alcohol, and smoke

tobacco. On this festive day, Japanese 20-year-olds wear 

formal attire, listen to speeches by government officials, and 

attend parties in their honor.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Marriage

Traditionally, Japanese marriages were omiai (arranged) as a 

union of 2 families. A nakodo (go-between) assisted families in 

finding suitable spouses for their children based on education, 

social status, and wealth. Today, Japanese more commonly 

choose their own spouses, meeting prospective partners 

through family, friends, or coworkers, or even the use of a 

nakodo. Singles also meet through gokon (small group blind 

dates) or in matchmaking parties organized by local 

governments. Recently, dating apps have grown in popularity.

Weddings: Japanese weddings 

may blend Shintō, Buddhist, and 

Christian elements, depending 

on the preference of the couple. 

In a traditional Shintō ceremony 

(pictured), both the bride and 

groom wear traditional clothing –

the bride a white kimono (see p. 

1 of Aesthetics and Recreation) 

and the groom a black one. Beside the shrine attendants, only 

the couples’ parents and the nakodo (or, often today, someone 

akin to a best man) traditionally attend the ceremony, which

includes prayers, the burning of incense, and sips of sake (rice 

wine – see p. 4 of Sustenance and Health). 

Other couples choose to marry in a more elaborate Western

style. The groom may wear a black suit with a white shirt and 

tie and the bride a white gown. Couples may exchange vows in 

professional wedding halls or hotel banquet rooms. Festivities 

often include large receptions during which family, friends, and 

the couple’s employers give speeches. Both families typically 

split the wedding costs, although guests often contribute cash 

gifts to offset the families’ expenditures.

Divorce: With a rate of just 1.84 divorces per 1,000 people in 

2013, Japan has one of the industrialized world’s lowest 

divorce rates. This fact is often attributed to women’s economic 

dependence, social stigma, and ideals of cooperation and 

harmony, among others. After increasing annually since the 

late 1960s and hitting a peak in 2002, divorces have declined 

slightly every year since 2003.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Death

Japanese usually memorialize the death of a loved one with 

the burial of cremated remains in a cemetery following a wake 

and funeral service. Although usually based in Buddhist 

traditions, ceremonies may contain some Shintō elements (see 

p. 3-4 of Religion and Spirituality). 

According to Buddhist tradition, upon death the deceased is 

dressed in a white kimono, placed in a casket, and returned 

home. There, the casket may remain for overnight while a 

Buddhist priest prays and burns incense. Certain ritual

elements are believed to facilitate the deceased’s way into the 

afterlife, such as the ceremonial items placed in the casket and

the posthumous name the priest gives the deceased. Other 

elements emphasize the deceased’s departure from the land of 

the living, such as the reverse folding of his kimono.

Family members, friends, and colleagues gather for the funeral

service, during which the priest again prays, burns incense, 

and lights candles. Other attendees may read a eulogy or 

messages of sympathy. Funerals are usually very expensive. 

Guests typically present koden (a cash gift in a special black 

and white envelope) and receive in return koden gaeshi, a 

small gift, such as a dish or other small memento from the 

deceased’s possessions. 

Following the funeral, the 

casket is transported to the 

cremation facility. Following 

cremation, family members

use special chopsticks to 

gather the bones, placing

them in a box and the 

ashes in an urn. Families 

may keep the remains at home for up to 49 days, during which 

time a Buddhist priest comes by at regular intervals to perform 

certain rituals. After this period, the family may inter the 

remains in a family vault at a cemetery or scatter them at a 

meaningful location. On the anniversary of the death and 

during the Obon Festival (see p. 7 of Religion and Spirituality), 

family members typically visit and clean the graves (Photo:

Film director Kurosawa Akira’s grave in Kamakura).

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Overview

Traditional gender roles in Japan have been shaped by

Confucian values (see p. 12 of Political and Social Relations)

which grant men higher status than women. Effort, dedication, 

and perseverance, especially in work and career, generally are

seen as important qualities for men. Social norms of marriage, 

childbirth, and child-raising continue to 

shape modern expectations of women.

They should be dedicated to their 

families, reserved in public, and 

respectful toward men. While the 

government and some businesses 

promote equality measures, gender 

disparities are common (Photo: Girls in 

traditional dress).

Gender Roles and Work

Domestic Labor: Women in Japan today continue to hold 

primary responsibility for their children’s care and education, 

the housework, and the care of elderly parents. In fact, the

average time per day that Japanese men devote to household 

chores is one of the lowest among industrialized nations.

Workforce: About 48% of Japanese women work outside the 

home, compared to 57% in the US. While about 60% of US 

women return to work after childbirth, the same percentage of 

Japanese women workers leave the labor force at that time. 

This departure is due mainly to Japan’s long working hours 

(see p. 1 of Time and Space), unavailability of part-time or 

flexible schedules, and a shortage of childcare. Even after their 

children are grown, many women are reluctant to return to the 

workforce. Unlike the US, Japan supports maternal and 

paternal leave, yet few take advantage of these benefits. Prime 

Minister Shinzō Abe’s so-called “womenomics” goals of his 

“Abenomics” policies (see p. 10 of History and Myth) include an 

increase of women in business leadership positions to 30% by 

2020, the provision of more childcare opportunities, and the 

adoption of merit-based promotion policies.

5. SEX AND GENDER

SEX &

GENDER
Gender and the Law

Women received voting, equal inheritance, and equal 

education rights in the 1947 constitution (see p. 8 of History 

and Myth). While gender discrimination is illegal, yet some laws

create gender disparities. For example, a law designed to 

clarify paternity in post-divorce pregnancies requires women, 

and not men, to wait 6 months to remarry after divorce. Other

laws discriminate against men, such as in child custody cases. 

For example, divorced couples may not hold joint physical 

custody of their children. Most often, courts grant custody to 

women because judges view them as the “natural” caregivers. 

Gender and Politics

Despite government measures to 

increase women’s participation in political 

life, their involvement remains relatively 

low. In 2014, just 8% of Japan's lower

parliament members were women, 

compared with 18% in the US House of 

Representatives. Participation was higher 

in the upper house, where about 18% 

were women, compared with 20% in the 

US Senate. Although the 2014 cabinet 

included 5 women, many Japanese 

women complained about a lack of political advocacy for 

women's issues. Female office-holders often experience sexual 

harassment and even public sexist taunts from their male 

colleagues at all levels of governance, from local assemblies to 

the national parliament (Photo: Japan’s First Lady Akie Abe).

Domestic Violence and Sexual Harassment

Japan passed its first domestic violence law in 2002 and in 

2011 improved its system for reporting and investigating 

domestic violence. Consequently, the number of reported 

cases increased dramatically, with authorities recording 46% 

more cases of domestic violence over the first 6 months of 

2012 than the entire previous year. 

Not prohibited by law, sexual harassment is widespread in the 

workplace and common in public places. Over time, the 

Japanese term for sexual harassment (seku hara) increasingly

has become recognized, and most workplaces have rules 

SEX &

GENDER
regarding appropriate and inappropriate behaviors between 

male and female coworkers. Nevertheless, sexual harassment 

continues to occur (Photo: Women-only train car designed to 

protect women from sexual harassment). Manga (comics – see 

p. 5 of Aesthetics and 

Recreation) and video games 

often depict women in sexually

demeaning or violent situations, 

while sexual innuendo is 

common in the media.

Sex and Procreation

Although Japanese consider 

sex and intimacy a private matter, they regard nudity as natural

and appropriate in certain contexts, such as public bathhouses. 

At 1.4 births per woman, Japan’s birthrate is one of the world’s

lowest and well below the ratio required to maintain the 

population. Alarmed by this low rate, the government created a 

cabinet post to raise fertility. 

HIV/AIDS: Japan has a relatively low HIV/AIDS prevalence 

rate of less than 0.1%, ranking it 120 out of 170 countries. 

Nevertheless, there were an estimated 1,500 new HIV/AIDS 

cases in 2012, bringing the country’s total to around 21,000 

cases. Due to entrenched habits and lack of effective 

education, some high-risk Japanese fail to take measures to 

stop the virus’ spread. For fear of social exclusion or loss of 

their jobs, many afflicted members avoid testing for the virus.

As a result, over 30% of new diagnoses occur when the patient 

is in the advanced stages of AIDS, making treatment difficult.

Homosexuality

Although legalized in 1880, homosexual activity remains a 

controversial subject in Japan. Its traditional emphasis on the 

perpetuation of the family influences some Japanese to view

homosexuality as inappropriate even though the primary

religions do not prohibit it. Same-sex couples cannot legally 

marry nor receive the same legal protections as heterosexual 

couples. Although discrimination based on sexual orientation is 

banned in several cities, it is not prohibited by national civil 

rights laws. Some homosexuals experience discrimination 

while others suffer bullying and violence.

SEX &

GENDER
Language Overview

Japanese is the first language of most Japanese people. 

Although Japanese bears similarities to several Asian 

languages of the Altaic language family, including Korean and 

Mongolian, linguists dispute its origin and relation to other 

language groups. Unlike Chinese, Japanese is not a tonal 

language – it does not use tone or pitch to convey meaning. Of 

note, Japanese pronounce all syllables fully and evenly: the 

city “Nagano” is Na-ga-no, not Na-GA-no.

Japanese was standardized in the late 19th century as part of

the Meiji Restoration reforms (see p. 5 of History and Myth). 

Seeking to create a centralized state like the European nations, 

government leaders designated Tokyo the new capital and its 

dialect as the Japanese language standard. Although standard 

Japanese dominates the media and education system, many

regions still maintain their own dialects. Similarly, special 

groups and classes of people such as the 

Yakuza (Japan’s organized crime syndicate) 

have their own jargon. These dialects and 

jargons are often so different from the 

standard that an outsider has difficulty 

understanding them.

Japanese Writing Systems

Japanese combine 3 systems to write their 

language (kanji, hiragana, and katakana). 

Although spoken Japanese is not related to 

Chinese, Japan’s oldest writing system, 

kanji, consists of Chinese characters or 

ideograms first adopted by the Japanese 

beginning in the 5th century (see p. 1 of

History and Myth). Over time, the Japanese expanded the use 

of kanji characters to represent Japanese words. Later, the 

Japanese began to use kanji characters to signify something 

other than their literal meanings, such as sounds or 

grammatical elements. In this way, they developed 2 distinctly 

Japanese writing systems, hiragana and katakana (Pictured: 

“Nihongo” or “Japanese” written in kanji). 

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Each of these systems consists of 46 symbols that depict either 

a vowel sound or a vowel/consonant combination, such as the 

sound “na.” Japanese use hiragana to write Japanese words in 

combination with or as substitutes for kanji characters. By 

contrast, Japanese use katakana mainly to write words

borrowed from other languages, including foreigners’ names. 

Modern written Japanese typically incorporates elements from

all 3 systems. Each kanji character often has 2 pronunciations–

one is close to the original Chinese and the other is a 

Japanese pronunciation. While Japanese usually use kanji for 

nouns, verb stems, adjectives, and adverbs, they use hiragana

to indicate inflectional endings, suffixes, function words, and 

grammatical particles. About 3,000 kanji are in common use

today. Although Japanese traditionally write in vertical columns

and read from right to left, the Western method of writing 

horizontally from left to right is 

increasingly common (Pictured: 

Japanese road sign in kanji

and English).

Japanese use a script called

rōmaji to write Japanese 

words using the Latin alphabet. 

To aid pronunciation, this system places small bars over

vowels to signal the speaker when the vowel sound is long, 

such as in the word shōgun.

English

English is popular in Japan due to its widespread use in 

international business. Despite this popularity, Japan’s Englishlanguage programs are not as effective as those of its 

neighbors, particularly South Korea and China. Amid fears that 

Japan will lose its competitive edge unless it addresses the 

“English deficit,” Japan is striving to improve its Englishlanguage programs. After the Japanese business community 

lobbied for a new curriculum in 2011, English became a 

compulsory subject at Japanese primary schools (see p. 3 of

Learning and Knowledge). This new program augments 6 

years of foreign language instruction given to students in 

secondary school, with the goal of improving Japan’s low 

ratings in international English proficiency standings.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Communication Overview

Communicating competently in Japan requires not only 

knowledge of the Japanese language, but also the ability to

use it to interact effectively. This broad notion of competence 

includes paralanguage (rate of speech, volume, intonation), 

nonverbal communication (personal space, touch, gestures), 

and interaction management (conversation initiation, turntaking, and termination). When used properly, these forms of 

communication help to ensure that statements are interpreted 

as the speaker intends.

Communication Style

Confucian ideals (see p. 12 of Political and Social Relations) 

still influence Japanese communication styles. In particular, 

Japanese typically treat people of different ages, genders, and 

backgrounds with varying levels of respect. They tend to be 

deferential toward people of high status and usually make 

decisions (both in business and in daily life) through group 

consensus rather than relying 

on individual judgment (Photo: 

US military and Japan SDF 

planners meet).

Japanese use specific forms of 

speech to express varying

levels of politeness required by differences in social status and 

context. These forms include so-called “honorific” and “humble” 

speech. Traditionally, women speak more politely and with a 

softer tone than men. Although Japanese do not expect nonJapanese speakers to understand the intricacies of these forms 

of speech, foreign nationals should understand that these 

habits may influence the way Japanese speak English. 

Due to their emphasis on courtesy and a desire to “save face” 

(avoid embarrassment to themselves or others), Japanese 

prefer indirect communication, especially in public contexts. 

They often talk around contentious issues or avoid them 

entirely. Similarly, they may avoid conveying bad news or keep 

negative opinions to themselves. Japanese may hesitate to 

offer frank opinions, providing more sincere replies to openended questions (not requiring a definitive answer) or asked 

within the context of a trust-based relationship. Typically, they 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
refrain from using specific responses such as “yes” and “no,” 

preferring more ambiguous language, such as “maybe.”

The Japanese tend to avoid prolonged direct eye contact, 

especially in conversations with an elder or superior. They also 

may use silences and pauses as communication tools to signify

either reflection or the desire to move on to a new topic. 

Greetings

Bowing is Japan’s most common greeting. The Japanese bow, 

ranging from a slight inclination to a deep bend, can 

communicate a range of messages, from greetings and 

farewells to apology, gratitude, affection, and 

acknowledgement of social status. People with similar social 

status bow slightly for about a second. To express deep 

feelings of humility, apology, or sorrow, or to express respect to 

a person of greater social status, a Japanese bows more 

deeply, holding the position longer. The person of lower social 

status usually initiates the 

bows (Photo: US and 

Japanese sailors bow after a 

softball game).

When Japanese meet in

professional contexts, they 

typically exchange business cards or meishi. Foreign nationals 

should exchange meishi the Japanese way by using both 

hands, bowing slightly, and looking at the received card briefly 

to demonstrate interest and respect. Some Japanese have 

adopted the handshake with friends or foreign nationals.

Names

Japanese family names (last names/surnames) and given 

names (first names) usually contain 2 or more syllables. As in 

China and Korea, family names precede given names. 

Although widely referred to as Shinzō Abe in the Western 

world, the Prime Minister is Abe Shinzō in Japan. Unrelated 

adults typically address each other using family names, even in 

casual and intimate situations. By contrast, parents address 

their children using given names, as do teenagers who are 

close friends. Even if they referred to each other by given 

names as children, friends often switch to family names as they 

get older.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Forms of Address

Japanese use specific forms of address to indicate respect and 

solidarity. As noted earlier, Japanese are always aware of their

own and others’ positions within social, family, and work 

hierarchies (see p. 12 of Political and Social Relations).

Japanese strive to ensure that they address others

appropriately and formulate their messages with suitable

formal/informal, polite/plain, and masculine/ feminine terms. 

In business contexts, Japanese tend to address both peers and 

superiors by family (last) name. Alternatively, they may use 

titles as forms of address at work. They also often add the 

gender-neutral suffix -san to both names and titles to show 

respect. Even workplace peers may use polite titles with each 

other, such as sensei (“teacher”) with the last name. 

Conversational Topics

Japanese typically begin conversations with general questions 

about family, hobbies, marital status, occupation, and 

education before moving on to the main subject. These initial 

queries help to establish common ground among speakers. 

They also help speakers to determine each other’s social 

status and, if the conversation occurs in Japanese, appropriate 

pronouns, titles, and other honorifics. Foreign nationals should

feel free to discuss these and 

similar topics, such as health, 

food, and positive observations 

about Japan, but avoid local 

politics, North Korea, World 

War II, and personal topics. 

Gestures

The Japanese gesture for 

“come here” involves waving fingers with the palm down. The 

gesture for “money” resembles the American “OK” sign.

Japanese consider pointing with the index finger rude and 

instead “point” by extending an arm with the palm up (Photo: 

Japanese Lt Gen Yamamoto greets US Army Col Rallis).

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil/resources/index.aspx for 

language training resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Words and Phrases

English Romanized 

Japanese Kanji/Hiragana

Hello konnichiwa 今日は

How are you? o genki desu ka? お元気ですか?

I am fine, thank you. 

And you?

o kagesama de 

genki desu

お蔭様で元気

す

What is your name? o-namae wa nan 

desu ka?

お名前はなんで

すか?

My name is ___ ... desu ...です

Pleased to meet 

you hajimemashite 初めまして

Yes hai はい

No iie いいえ

Thank you arigatō gozaimasu ありがとうござ

います

How do you say... 

in Japanese

... wa nihongo de 

nanto īmasu ka?

... は日本語でな

んと言いますか

。

Excuse me sumimasen すみません

Do you speak 

English?

Eigo wa dekimasu 

ka?

英語はできます

か?

Goodbye/ See you 

later jā mata ne じゃあまたね

Please speak more 

slowly

yukkuri hanashite 

kudasai

ゆっくり話して

ください

What does this 

mean?

kore wa dōiu imi 

desu ka?

これはどういう

意味ですか?

I don't understand wakarimasen わかりません.

Write it down, 

please Kaite kudasai 書いてください

How much is this? Kore wa ikura 

desuka?

これはいくらで

すか?

Can you help me? Tetsudatte 

kuremasuka?

伝ってくれます

か?

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy

• Total population over age 15 who can read and write: 99%

• Male: 99%

• Female: 99% (2002 estimate)

Early History of Education

Japan has a long history of formal education dating to the 6th

century, around the time Japan adopted the Chinese writing 

system (see p. 1 of History and Myth). Open only to the 

aristocracy, early schools primarily taught Confucianism and 

Buddhist thought (see p. 2-4 of Religion and Spirituality).

Granted an official charter in 701 and based on the Chinese 

educational model, Japan’s first university taught Chinese 

history and Confucian ideals to young elites to prepare them for 

government service. During this period, the government also 

founded local colleges to teach medicine, Confucianism, and 

Chinese to aristocrats living beyond the capital. Meanwhile, the 

non-elite received religious education focused on personal, 

moral, and spiritual development at Buddhist temples.

A 12th century shift in state leadership to a shōgun, a supreme 

military commander, along with the rise 

of the samurai warrior class (see p. 1 of

History and Myth) resulted in curriculum

expansion. Schools began to prepare

young men’s minds and bodies for 

national defense, including training in 

weaponry and horseback riding. 

By the 17th century the education

system had grown to include several 

different types of schools. While 

previously only male elites received an 

education, these new schools were 

open to members from a range of social classes and offered a 

variety of subjects including arithmetic, reading, medicine, and 

penmanship. For example, the terakoya were provincial

schools for non-elite girls and boys housed in Buddhist temples 

(Pictured: A 19th-century terakoya school for girls). 

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Education in the Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries

The Japanese education system grew rapidly following the late 

19th-century Meiji Restoration (see p. 5 of History and Myth). 

As Japan reopened to foreign influence after 200 years of 

cultural isolation, the government implemented Western-style 

reform and modernization processes intended to position 

Japan alongside other major global powers. 

Consequently, the government integrated the different school 

types into a new public education system that granted equal 

scholastic opportunities to both genders and reduced the 

traditional emphasis on Confucianism. The terakoya, for 

example, were transformed into primary schools which formed 

the core of the new system. By the end of 19th century, primary

school was compulsory, and about 500 secondary schools and 

a network of universities had been established.

Education before and during World War II: In the decades 

prior to and during World War II, Japan’s curricula and teaching 

methods were intended to support Japan’s imperial 

expansionist goals. Schools provided instruction in military

service-related vocational skills and promoted nationalist state 

goals. Students were taught the mythological origins of Japan 

as fact (see p. 11 of History and Myth) with emphasis on the 

Emperor’s divine right to rule as specified by State Shintō (see

p. 5 of Religion and 

Spirituality). 

Education after World War II: 

Following Japan’s defeat in

World War II, the US-led

Occupation government sought 

to demilitarize the country in 

part by reforming its education 

system to emphasize academic freedom for faculty and equal 

opportunity for all students (Photo: A Tokyo high school in 

1945). These reforms also created the current academic 

structure of 6 years of compulsory primary school, followed by 

3 years of compulsory lower secondary school, 3 years of 

optional upper secondary school, and 4 years of university. 

Japan today has one of the world’s best-educated workforces, 

with near-perfect (almost 100%) literacy.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Modern Education System

The Japanese education system’s reputation as one of the 

world’s finest is based on graduation rates, post-secondary 

enrollment rates, and national literacy scores, among other 

factors. Some observers attribute the system’s success to the 

population’s historical respect for education (see p. 3 of Family 

and Kinship) and its strong support for teachers, who are 

typically well-paid and highly respected. Others ascribe 

students’ success to the importance of school-based peer and 

alumni networks in finding employment for graduates.

Despite its reputation for success, some experts criticize 

Japan’s education system for its emphasis on memorization

rather than the cultivation of analytical and creative skills. Still 

other critics suggest that the system is inefficient, claiming that

public schools fail to prepare students adequately for rigorous 

entrance examinations (see “Examination Hell” below).

Primary: Consisting of 6 grades and starting at age 6, primary 

school is both compulsory and free. Consequently, almost all 

children of the appropriate age enroll. Subjects include math, 

science, Japanese, social studies, ethics, music, art, and 

physical education. Students also begin learning English in 3rd

grade (see p. 2 of Language and 

Communication).

Secondary: Lower secondary or 

middle school (grades 7-9) is 

compulsory and free. Required

courses include math, science,

social studies, Japanese, art, 

music, ethics, and physical 

education. Students not 

planning to attend upper secondary school and college may 

also take vocational and technical classes. Elective courses 

include several foreign languages, although most students 

elect English (Photo: A Japanese secondary school 

classroom). 

Not compulsory, upper secondary or high school (grades 10-

12) provides either general or specialized education. While 

over 96% of middle school graduates enroll in high school, 

competition for the best schools is extremely rigorous. 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Japan has 3 types of high schools: general academic, special 

purpose, and vocational. Most high school students attend 

general academic schools which prepare them for university

entrance exams. Students who enroll in special purpose or 

vocational schools complete a specialized curriculum, often 

taking on part-time employment while in school. 

Post-Secondary: Around 54% of Japanese high school 

students eventually pursue higher education at technical 

colleges, junior colleges, or universities. Technical colleges 

enroll students directly from middle school and offer 5 year 

vocational programs in subjects such as industrial chemistry, 

mechanical engineering, and metalwork. Traditionally enrolling 

primarily women, junior colleges offer 2-3 year degrees in 

home economics, humanities, education, and social sciences.

Most universities offer 4-year undergraduate degrees to high 

school graduates, while some also offer medical, dental, 

veterinary, or other graduate degrees. After rigorous middle 

and high school years, many Japanese consider university as a 

“leisure land” where they can focus on extracurricular activities 

instead of academics. During 

their final years at university, 

students shift their focus to

shuushoku katsudou or job 

hunting, attending recruitment 

events and job fairs (Photo: 

Japan’s Doshisha University).

“Examination Hell”: All levels 

of schools, from primary to 

university, require entrance exams. Because admission is 

highly competitive, many students suffer stress and anxiety as 

they struggle to balance rigorous academic schedules with 

their personal lives. 

Juku: These are private facilities that offer after-school classes 

designed to prepare middle and high school students for 

entrance exams. Although most parents and students consider 

juku attendance essential, critics argue that these “cram”

schools put too much pressure on students. Some also claim 

that this type of excessive studying is inefficient, since 

exhausted students study poorly.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Overview

Most Japanese value punctuality and efficient time 

management and are known to devote long hours to work and 

school. Although Japanese traditionally avoid physical contact 

in public, this preference is difficult to uphold in the bustle of 

Japan’s congested cities.

Time and Work

Japan’s work week runs from Monday-Friday, with hours 

varying by establishment type. Most banks are open from 

9:00am-3:00pm, while private businesses and post offices are 

accessible from 9:00am-5:00pm. A number of stores are open 

from 10:00am-8:00pm 7 days a week, although department 

stores may close 2-3 weekdays a month. Convenience stores 

are open 24 hours, 365 days a 

year. Most museums are 

closed on Mondays (Photo: An 

indoor shopping center).

Working Hours: Since the 

rapid growth of Japan’s 

economy beginning in the late 

1950s, the Japanese 

salaryman or male salaried 

employee typically work long days with little or no overtime pay.

Although conditions have improved in recent years, men still 

work on average 44 hours-per-week, compared with 40.5 in the 

US. Almost 9% of workers average 60 or more hours-per-week 

while overwork-induced deaths and suicides remain a serious 

issue. Of note, the average worker has devoted himself to one 

employer for his entire career.

A number of Japanese women work outside the home, along 

with caring for children and housework (see p. 1 of Sex and 

Gender). Women commonly hold “part-time” jobs that in fact 

exceed 40 hours per week and offer little or no employment 

benefits.

Time Zone: Japanese Standard Time is 9 hours ahead of 

Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) and 14 hours ahead of Eastern 

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
Standard Time (EST). Japan does not observe daylight savings 

time. 

Date Notation: When writing dates, Japanese record the year

first, with the appropriate Japanese characters for “year,” 

“month,” and “day” inserted after the numerals. For example, 

they would record the last day of 2014 as 2014年12月31日. 

When Emperor Akihito took the throne in 1989, the Japanese 

adopted the imperial calendar, currently called Heisei (see p. 9

of History and Myth). This parallel system is based on the 

number of years the emperors have reigned. In this system, 

2014 corresponds with Heisei-26. Accordingly, the last day of 

that year is annotated as 平成26年12月31日.

Time and Business

Japanese value punctuality and typically respect deadlines. It is 

therefore appropriate for foreign nationals to arrive at meetings 

and finish work on time. Generally, business tends to move

more slowly in Japan than in the US, primarily because

Japanese prefer to establish personal relationships before 

doing business. It may take several meetings for Japanese to 

become comfortable with new acquaintances. 

Also a time-consuming process is the Japanese preference for 

group decision-making, usually involving a blend of seniority 

preferences and group consensus. To build and maintain 

business relationships, Japanese often engage in after-work 

socializing at bars and restaurants and exchange seasonal 

greeting cards. Of note, Japanese employees are typically 

evaluated by the effort and dedication they exhibit in their work. 

Consequently, there is less casual socializing among 

employees during the workday 

as compared to the US, 

especially in the presence of 

customers or clients (Photo: 

Japanese chefs instruct US 

sailors).

Personal Space

In social settings, Japanese

usually stand about an arm’s length or more apart while 

conversing, which is typically greater than Americans are used 

SPACE

TIME &
to. While strangers may stand slightly farther apart, friends 

typically stand closer. 

Japanese typically form orderly lines to board public 

transportation except for rush hour, when attendants tend to

push patrons into overcrowded subway cars. Similarly, 

pedestrians navigating congested city sidewalks often push 

and elbow. This behavior is 

socially acceptable and does 

not require an apology 

(Photo: Crowded Tokyo).

Touch

Traditionally, Japanese prefer 

to avoid physical contact 

while in public with the

exception of small children and in the case of general tolerance

of sexual harassment (see p. 2-3 of Sex and Gender). This 

contact avoidance is changing somewhat among young 

people, who may hold hands in public places or walk with 

intertwined arms. Close physical contact also may occur 

among same-sex classmates at school.

Although conversational touching between family and friends is 

common, foreign nationals should wait for Japanese to initiate 

contact during greetings and conversations. Japanese 

generally consider back-slapping or holding another’s arm 

while conversing inappropriate behavior with the exception of 

some all-male social events. 

Eye Contact

As a sign of respect, Japanese traditionally made little eye 

contact during conversations, particularly with older people or 

those of higher social status. This tradition has relaxed

somewhat, although eye contact remains impolite for some.

Photographs

Foreign nationals are advised to request permission before 

photographing Japanese. Although photography is usually 

permitted on the grounds of Buddhist temples and Shintō

shrines, it may be prohibited inside. Some banks, stores, and 

government offices may display signs prohibiting photography.

SPACE

TIME &
Driving

Despite the density and congestion of Japan’s metropolitan 

areas, the public transportation systems are highly efficient 

(see p. 1 of Technology and Material). Since residents must 

have proof of an appropriate parking space before purchasing 

a vehicle, a number of urban dwellers do not own cars. 

Driving in Japan is challenging for some foreign nationals due 

to the congestion, aggressiveness of taxi drivers, and custom 

of operating vehicles on the left side of the road. As is common 

in the US, the police rigorously enforce drunk-driving laws and 

are known to make frequent traffic checks. Tolls based on the 

distance traveled are enforced on a number of highways.

Holidays

National Holidays

• January 1: New Year’s Day

• 2nd Monday in January: Coming-of-Age Day

• February 11: National Foundation Day

• March 20: Vernal Equinox Day

• April 29: Showa Day (honors Emperor Hirohito, 

see p. 6 & 9 of History and Myth) 

• May 3: Constitutional Memorial Day

• May 4: Greenery Day

• May 5: Children’s Day

• 3rd Monday in July: Maritime Day

• 3rd Monday in September: Respect for the 

Aged Day

• September 23: Autumnal Equinox Day

• 2nd Monday in October: Health and Sports Day

• November 3: Culture Day

• November 23: Labor Thanksgiving Day

• December 23: Emperor Akihito’s Birthday

Note: The period of holidays between April 29 

and May 5 is known as the “Golden Week.” 

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

The Japanese enjoy diverse artistic and recreational traditions

ranging from engaging martial arts to the serene tea ceremony. 

Over the centuries, the Japanese adapted cultural elements

from Korea, China, and the 

West to form a uniquely 

Japanese sense of refinement, 

subtle beauty, power, strength, 

and discipline. 

Dress and Appearance

Traditional: The traditional 

Japanese attire is the kimono, a long V-neck robe worn by 

both men and women. Although originally a Chinese fashion,

kimono evolved over the years to have a distinctive Japanese 

style. All kimono have similar tailoring yet vary in fabric, color, 

and pattern depending on the season, occasion, or wearer’s 

age (Photo: Women in kimono).

Beneath the kimono Japanese wear special undergarments 

and use an obi (sash) of varying width, color, and design to 

hold it in place. On their feet, Japanese traditionally pair tabi

(white socks slit at the big toe) with thonged sandals, such as 

zōri (flat sandals made of plant fibers or wood) or geta (raised 

wooden sandals). Today, Japanese wear kimono mostly on

special occasions such as weddings, festivals, or funerals (see

p. 3-5 of Family and Kinship). It is stylish for some women to

wear kimono as an outer garment for Western-style clothing.

Modern: Japanese commonly wear Western-style clothing. 

Youth in particular are fond of the latest fashions from Europe

and the US, as well as Japan. At home, older Japanese may 

wear the yukata, a simple cotton kimono. Hotels often offer this 

garment to their guests as leisure attire. At work, men usually 

wear dark suits, dress shirts, and ties in conservative colors.

Women wear dresses or pant suits in the workplace but

generally avoid low-cut or sleeveless blouses and bare legs. 

Government workers and school children typically wear

uniforms. 

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Recreation and Leisure

Although long working hours leave some Japanese little time 

for leisure (see p. 1 of Time and Space), many Japanese enjoy 

a variety of recreational activities. Hiking and mountain 

climbing in one of Japan's national parks is popular, as is

vacationing abroad to other parts of Asia, Europe, or the US.

Festivals: Japanese celebrate a variety of national holidays as

well as regional and national festivals. Widely-celebrated

festivals mark the change of seasons, honor deceased 

ancestors, or observe youth’s coming-of-age (see p. 3 of

Family and Kinship). Known as the “Golden Week,” the days

between April 29 and May 5 includes 4 major holidays (see p. 4

of Time and Space).

Tea ceremony: The Japanese tea ceremony, sadō orchado

(or chadou), is an intricate and serene ritual. Originally a time 

for solitary reflection for Zen Buddhists (see p. 4 of Religion

and Spirituality), the tea ceremony remains popular for those

Japanese desiring to delay their worldly pursuits and focus on 

simple, aesthetic details. The popularity of the tea ceremony

has encouraged the reinvigoration of other traditional arts 

associated with the ceremony, including ikebana, an ancient 

tradition of floral arrangement and design.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION

Geisha

The term geisha emerged in the late 18th century to 

refer to female singers, dancers, and actors who

catered to the samurai and other elite clientele. 

Although some geisha were prostitutes, many were 

simply highly-trained entertainers.

Geisha today also perform traditional music and

dance, lead games, or demonstrate calligraphy during

tea ceremonies, parties, banquets, or business 

meetings. They are forbidden from engaging in 

prostitution. Young geisha wear heavy white make-up,

bright red lipstick, and elaborate hairstyles. Older 

geisha display a more subdued appearance.
Sports and Games

Baseball: Widely popular in Japan, baseball, known as yakyu,

was introduced in the late 19th century and varies slightly from 

the American version in its use of smaller balls and a wider 

strike zone. While the Central and Pacific national leagues

have millions of fans, Japan’s high school league is equally 

popular, especially its annual national tournament. 

Sumo: Sumo (wrestling) is Japan’s most popular traditional 

sport, originating in the Shintō traditions of the 8th century (see 

p. 2-3 of Religion and Spirituality). It is a match of wits in which

massive athletes (each averaging 300 lbs) clad only in loin 

cloths attempt to force their opponent to step outside the ring or 

touch any body part other than the feet to the ground. Matches 

are typically brief yet involve a high degree of preparation. 

Wrestlers follow a strict diet and particular lifestyle within

communal training facilities called heya (stables). The

yokozuna (grand champions) of the 6 annual championships 

are major celebrities in Japan. 

Martial arts: Popular selfdefense sports include judo

(pictured) and karate, as well as

kendo (Japanese-style fencing), 

and aikido, a non-combative 

martial art in which fighters

attempt to use their opponent’s 

strength against them. 

Other sports: Sakkā or futtobōru (soccer) has increased in 

popularity since professional leagues were created in 1993 and 

Japan co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup with South Korea.

Japan also favors volleyball, basketball, golf, and tennis.

Olympics: Japan has hosted the Winter Olympics twice, in 

1972 in Sapporo and in 1998 in Nagano. After hosting the 

Summer Games in 1964, Tokyo will again act as host in 2020. 

Games: As the birthplace of the popular Nintendo, PlayStation, 

and the Wii gaming systems, Japan is an important center of

the video-gaming world. Popular board games include shogi (a 

Japanese chess game), go, and mahjong.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Performance Arts

Music: Musicians at Japan’s imperial court (see p. 2 of History 

and Myth) traditionally performed gagaku (orchestral music) 

with a variety of instruments, including shamisen (a 3-stringed 

guitar), shakuhachi (a bamboo flute), and koto (a large 13-

stringed wooden instrument). Today, religious rituals, 

weddings, and festivals often incorporate traditional music.

Some modern ensembles, such as the Oki Dub Ainu Band,

blend traditional and rock music. Singing enka, emotionally 

charged ballads, in karaoke clubs is also popular.

Modern Japanese music comprises a variety of genres. Jpop

or Japanese pop music stars include Hamasaki Ayumi and the 

all-male band SMAP. International styles such as reggae, rap, 

and hip-hop are also popular.

Theater and Dance: Nō (pictured) is a form of classical 

musical drama in which actors in elaborate costumes sing and 

dance mai, a combination of slow shuffles and quick circles. 

Although kyogen, or comedic 

theater, originally developed as 

an interlude during nō

performances, troupes today 

often perform it alone. Kabuki

theater involves all-male 

troupes in elaborate costumes

who perform rhythmical dancing 

called odori. Bunraku or 

traditional puppet theater performances include chanting 

accompanied by a biwa (lute) and shamisen.

Cinema: Since cinema’s arrival in 1896, Japan has produced 

many internationally-recognized films and filmmakers. While 

the monster Godzilla terrorized Tokyo in the 1950s, the decade 

also produced award-winning films by director Kurosawa Akira, 

including Rashōmon and The Seven Samurai. In 2009 Yōjirō

Takita’s film Departures won an Academy Award. 

Since its 1958 debut, anime has become one of the most 

sophisticated and recognized forms of animation in the world. 

Genres range from children's television cartoons such as 

Pokémon to full-length dramas such as Battleship Yamato.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Literature

Poetry is Japan’s oldest form of literature. In the 6th century, 

the Japanese composed poems in Chinese called kanshi. 

Later they developed Japanese forms, waka. Over the 

centuries, Japanese developed particular styles, including 

renga, a collaborative verse form, and haiku, a non-rhyming 

poem with 3-line, 5-7-5 syllable pattern. 

The Golden Age of Japanese prose literature occurred during 

the Heian Period (794-1185, see p. 2 of History and Myth). 

Written by female author Murasaki Shikibu in the early 11th

century, Genji monotagari, (The Tale of Genji) is one of the 

world’s earliest novels and a Japanese literary masterpiece.

Japanese are avid readers, featuring one of the world’s highest 

book and periodical consumption rates. Adults and children 

alike purchase hundreds of millions of manga (Japanese 

comics) each year. Available in all subjects and topics, from 

science fiction and romance to history and instructional

manuals, manga may have violent or sexually explicit content.

Visual Arts and Crafts

According to Shintō, Japan’s indigenous religion, all things in 

nature embody a spiritual energy or force (see p. 2 of Religion 

and Spirituality). Many Japanese artists traditionally strived to 

depict spirituality in their work, while others were heavily 

influenced by Buddhist philosophy and traditions. Some of 

Japan’s most widely-recognized

paintings are ukiyo-e or “pictures of the 

floating world.” In these paintings, artists

depicted mountains, forests, or kabuki

performers with minimal brush strokes

(Pictured: A 19th century ukiyo-e

depiction).

Craftwork varies by region, including

colorful imari porcelain from Kyūshū

and weaving techniques in Okinawa.

Japan is famous for its variety of dolls 

including hakata-ningyo (clay dolls)

from northern Kyūshū and papier-mâché dolls from Darum. 

Other crafts include washi (traditional paper), bambooware, 

toys, masks, calligraphy, and lacquerware. 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Sustenance Overview

Japan’s traditional diet centers 

on rice and fish. Japanese 

value cooking methods that 

showcase a food’s freshness as 

well as its innate flavor and 

texture (Photo: An assortment 

of sushi).

Dining Customs

Japanese traditionally ate their meals while seated on the floor

at low tables (see p. 1 of Family and Kinship). Today, they 

often sit in chairs at Western-style tables. Before the meal, 

hosts or restaurant staff may provide guests a small, hot towel 

(o-shibori) to cleanse their faces and hands. Japanese meals 

do not consist of a succession of courses. Instead, all dishes 

are served at once. Patrons may express their gratitude for the 

food by bowing slightly and uttering itadakimasu (“I humbly 

receive”) and following a meal with gochisō-sama deshita or 

“thank you for this feast.”

Japanese eat 3 meals daily, with the main meal in the evening. 

As a staple, rice is traditionally a part of almost every meal. The 

importance of rice is evident in the Japanese language: the 

Japanese word for “rice,” gohan or meshi, also means “meal.”

Unlike Americans, Japanese rarely mix rice with other food. 

Instead, they alternate bites of rice with bites of other foods, 

usually holding the rice bowls near their mouths. 

The Japanese consider it polite for a person to finish all his

food, which serves as an indicator that he is full. Leaving food

in one’s bowl suggests the person would like more. Of note, 

slurping noodles and drinking soup directly from the bowl are 

acceptable practices.

In Japan a person does not customarily pour or refill his own 

drink. Typically, a dining companion or host would do the 

honors. Before the first sip of a drink in social contexts, 

members customarily enjoy a toast (kanpai). By finishing his 

beverage, an individual signals he would like a refill. 

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Chopsticks Etiquette

Japanese never use their chopsticks (hashi) to pass 

food or to serve themselves from a communal bowl. If 

other utensils for the communal bowl are unavailable, 

the member reverses his chopsticks and transfers the 

food with the clean ends. During pauses to speak or 

drink, Japanese place their chopsticks on a small 

chopstick rest, never crossing the chopsticks on the 

rest or placing them on a bowl or plate. Nor do they

pierce their food with chopsticks, use them to point, or 

leave them lodged vertically in rice – a custom 

reserved exclusively for offerings to ancestors (see p. 

7 of Religion and Spirituality). Japanese oftentimes 

pick up sushi with their fingers, not chopsticks.

Diet

Like rice, fish traditionally is eaten at almost every meal, 

providing up to 50% of Japanese protein intake. Local catches 

include squid, shrimp, king crab, and a variety of fish and deep 

sea varieties such as tuna. While Japanese consume more red 

meat and dairy that before, many of them still eat at least one

meal centered on rice and fish each day. 

Breakfast traditionally includes a variety of savory foods, such 

as miso (fermented soybean paste) soup, dried fish, pickled 

vegetables, noodles, or a bowl of rice topped with a raw egg 

and soy sauce. Some Japanese prefer a Western-style 

breakfast of cereal, fruit, bacon, eggs, or toast. Many Japanese 

eat their mid-day meal from a bentō or boxed lunch. Prepared 

at home or purchased ready-made, an elaborate box may have 

individual compartments for fish, meat, vegetables, rice, 

noodles, and cake. A simpler bentō may consist of a single

dish, such as pickled plum with rice. 

The large evening meal traditionally consists of soup, rice, and 

accompanying dishes such as seafood, beef, pork, chicken, 

eggs, soybean products, and vegetables. Japanese did not 

traditionally eat dessert after a meal. Instead, sweets made of 

beans, sea plants, and rice powder were part of the main meal.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Popular Traditional Dishes

Traditional Japanese cuisine does not include the array of 

spices prevalent in some other Asian traditions. Instead, 

Japanese chefs customarily rely on just a few flavor enhancers, 

such as sesame oil and dried seaweed and fish, or sauces and

relishes made from soybean or the Japanese radish. Japanese 

cuisine also emphasizes umami, a taste distinct from sweet, 

salty, sour, and bitter tastes and relatively unknown in Western 

foods. Japanese chefs tend to consider a food’s consistency 

and presentation to be as important as its taste. As a result, 

chefs may serve certain dishes simply for their visual appeal.

Sushi, Japan’s most famous culinary export, consists of bitesized portions of rice seasoned with vinegar and served with 

vegetables, tōfu (bean curd), or raw or cooked seafood. 

Sashimi consists of small pieces of thinly-sliced raw seafood, 

such as tuna, squid, mackerel, and octopus, served without 

rice. Tempura is made by deep-frying pieces of battered 

vegetables, seafood, or meat. At some restaurants, patrons

use hotplates at their tables to prepare teppanyaki, a dish of 

cubed steak, or okonomiyaki,

beef, pork, prawns, or 

vegetables prepared like an 

omelet or pancake. 

Noodles in a variety of styles are 

very popular. Thin, brown soba

(pictured) are made from 

buckwheat while thick, white 

udon are made from wheat. 

Japanese instant ramen noodle soup is popular worldwide. 

Other dishes have rice as the primary ingredient. Two 

examples include unagi domburi, rice topped with broiled eel,

and o-ya-ko domburi (“parent and child”), rice topped with 

chicken and egg.

Traditional Beverages

Served hot without milk or sugar, green tea has been a central 

part of Japanese culture for centuries. Although the preparation 

and drinking of tea can have profound meaning, such as during 

a formal Japanese tea ceremony (see p. 2 of Aesthetics and 

Recreation), tea-drinking is also a normal everyday pastime. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Served either warm or cold in small porcelain cups, sake is an 

alcoholic beverage made from fermented rice. Often enjoyed at 

meals, sake is also an important part of many celebrations, 

such as weddings (see p. 4 of Family and Kinship) or the 

opening of a new business. 

Eating Out

Japanese cities feature restaurants serving both local and 

international cuisine in all price ranges. Many restaurants 

feature window displays of plastic 

replicas of their most popular dishes 

along with their prices, making ordering 

easy. Tipping is not customary in 

restaurants, although a service charge 

may be included in the bill.

Japanese traditionally considered eating 

and drinking while walking in public illmannered although less so today. Street 

food vendors (yatai – pictured, courtesy 

of Culture Grams, Pro Quest 2015) are 

popular, particularly during festivals (see p. 2 of Aesthetics and 

Recreation), as are fast food restaurants.

Health Overview

The Japanese population’s overall health is one of the region’s 

best. Maternal and child mortality rates are lower than regional 

averages, and at 84 years, Japan’s life expectancy at birth is 

well above the regional average of 76 and the global average 

of 70. Japanese enjoy universal health insurance.

Despite this overall positive situation, the country faces several 

unique health challenges. Japanese suffer a variety of healthrelated problems associated with stress (see p. 1 of Time and 

Space and p. 4 of Learning and Knowledge). Due at least in 

part to Japan’s history of “honorable” ritual suicide (see p. 7 of 

History and Myth) and society’s tolerant attitude toward suicide 

today, some Japanese, especially men, react to stress by 

taking their own lives. Although Japan’s suicide rate has 

declined slightly in recent years, it remains one of the highest in 

the world and is double that of the US. Preventive measures to 

reduce suicide rates are hampered by a cultural resistance to 

open discussion of mental health issues.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Japan also faces serious societal burdens in providing 

healthcare to its shrinking but aging population (see p. 1 of 

Political and Social Relations), a trend that is unlikely to 

reverse in the future. While in 2014 almost 25% of Japan’s

population was aged 65 or older, scientists estimate that by

2060 it will shrink from today’s 127 million to about 87 million, 

with almost 40% of the population aged 65 or older.

Traditional Medicine

Traditional medicine consists of the knowledge, practices, and 

skills derived from a native population’s beliefs, experiences, 

and theories. Japan’s traditional medicine divides into 2 types:

kampo, the use of herbal formulas based on ancient Chinese 

remedies, and a variety of other “hands-on” treatment 

practices, such as acupuncture and massage.

Although kampo almost disappeared in the 19th century, it 

experienced resurgence after World War II and is practiced 

extensively today, usually in conjunction with conventional 

therapies. Of note, Japan has the world’s only healthcare 

system that integrates both conventional and traditional 

practices. While licensed medical doctors may provide both 

therapy types, the national health insurance reimbursement list 

includes both conventional and kampo prescription medicines. 

About 84% of Japan’s physicians use kampo in their daily 

practice. For example, surgeons often use kampo formulas to 

accelerate postoperative recovery 

while oncologists use them to 

counteract the negative side-effects 

of conventional cancer treatments.

“Hands-on” traditional treatment 

options include massage; 

acupuncture, a process of inserting

very thin needles into various parts 

of a patient’s skin; moxibustion, 

which involves burning or 

massaging herbs into acupuncture 

points; and judo therapy, the 

treatment and manipulation of bones, joints, and muscles

(Pictured: Moxibustion treatment depicted in a medical book 

from 1853).

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Modern Healthcare System

Legislation in the 1920s and 1930s established Japan’s health 

insurance system which by the 1960s covered the entire 

population. Although there is some inequity between rural and 

urban areas regarding the quality of services, Japan’s health 

insurance system strives to ensure equal access to medical 

treatment. It also attempts to minimize expenditures by offering 

the same medical services at the same prices to all citizens. 

Both private and public facilities offer “free access” medical 

services that ensure patients may choose their preferred 

provider and facility. 

Although Japanese hospitals offer advanced diagnostic and 

treatment equipment with cutting-edge technology, they often 

suffer a lack of healthcare personnel to serve the burgeoning 

population of elderly. In 2010 Japan had about 2.3 physicians 

per 1,000 people, 

slightly lower than the 

US ratio of 2.5 (Photo: 

Red Cross Hospital in 

Mie Prefecture).

Health Challenges

As in most other 

developed countries, 

communicable diseases like malaria and tuberculosis are no 

longer the leading causes of death and illness in Japan. 

Instead, Japan’s aging population suffers a variety of noncommunicable diseases, such as diabetes, heart disease, and 

cancer. These types of chronic and non-communicable disease 

now account for about 60% of all deaths in Japan. In 2011 the 

top causes of death were cancer, heart disease, circulatory 

diseases, and pneumonia and bronchitis. Although rare, 

tuberculosis and infectious diseases like HIV and new types of 

influenza also threaten public health.

As a key strategy for keeping its aging citizens healthy, the 

government strives to establish an environment conducive to a 

healthier lifestyle. Current public health initiatives include the 

early detection and treatment of disease; improvement in 

dietary habits; the promotion of adequate physical activity, 

exercise, rest, and sleep; and the cessation of smoking. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Overview

In the aftermath of World War II, Japan sought to rebuild its 

fractured economy primarily by expanding industrial production

in support of aggressive export policies. To this end, the 

government encouraged manufacturers, suppliers, distributors, 

and bankers to form close-knit corporate groups known as 

keiretsu.

The keiretsu system provided several advantages to Japanese 

industry, including allowing members to collaborate on longterm corporate strategies, providing a hedge against short-term 

market fluctuations. As a result, Japan experienced rapid 

economic growth in the 1950s and 1960s, eventually becoming

one of the world’s wealthiest and most industrialized countries

(Photo: Tokyo cityscape).

Japan’s rapid economic 

growth slowed considerably in 

the 1990s after highly inflated 

real estate and stock prices

collapsed. In subsequent 

years, the economy remained 

stagnant while suffering recessions related to the 2007-2008 

global financial crisis and the 2011 earthquake and tsunami 

(see p. 3 of Political and Social Relations). This last event was 

uniquely harmful as it damaged much of Japan’s manufacturing 

infrastructure and disrupted Japan’s fishing industry. 

Since Prime Minister Abe initiated an aggressive stimulus 

package commonly known as “Abenomics” in 2012 (see p. 10

of History and Myth), Japan’s economy has rebounded

somewhat. Although unemployment has decreased and 

companies have seen record profits, household income is 

down as wages have lagged and prices have risen. Japan’s

main challenges remain its huge government debt in excess of

230% of GDP; continued reliance on exports to drive growth; 

and aging and shrinking population. Despite its fragile state, 

Japan remains the world’s 3rd largest economy, after the US 

and China. 

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Services

Accounting for 73% of GDP and 70% of employment, the 

services sector is the largest and fastest-growing component of 

the Japan’s economy. Important services industries include 

wholesale and retail sales, tourism, insurance, and financial 

services. While large department stores have opened in recent 

years, small shops still account for a large portion of retail 

sales. Since the 1990s, the Japanese government has worked 

to reform the financial services industry by facilitating mergers 

and introducing new regulations.

Tourism: Japan’s natural beauty and unique historical and 

cultural sights drew over 10 million tourists in 2013. Korean, 

Taiwanese, and Chinese people accounted for the majority of 

visitors, while Hong Kongese, Americans, Thai, and British 

accounted for much of the remainder.

Industry

Although Japan has few natural resources and must import 

most raw materials, the industrial sector is the 2nd largest 

component of Japan’s economy. This sector accounts for 26% 

each of GDP and employment. 

Manufacturing: The driving force behind Japan’s post-World 

War II economic growth, manufacturing is the most important 

component of Japan’s industrial sector. Japanese companies 

make a variety of products in 

some of the world’s largest and 

most advanced factories and 

plants. Sold both domestically 

and exported around the world, 

products include motor vehicles, 

electronics, iron and steel, ships, 

chemicals, textiles, and 

processed foods. Of note, Japan 

was the world’s 3rd largest manufacturer of both motor vehicles 

and ships in 2013 (Photo: A steel plant on Hokkaidō). 

Construction: Construction currently accounts for about 10% 

each of GDP and employment. About 58% of construction 

projects represent private sector development. Public sector 

development accounts for the remainder and encompasses the 

construction of medical, healthcare, and welfare facilities.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Agriculture

The agricultural sector is Japan’s smallest economic 

component, accounting for only 1% of GDP and about 4% of 

employment. Key agricultural 

activities include farming, 

livestock, fishing, and forestry

and occur primarily on small

rural farms (Photo: Scarecrows 

protect a rice paddy).

Farming: About 11% of 

Japan’s territory is suitable for 

cultivation. Primary food crops 

include rice, sugar beets, vegetables, and fruit. Although Japan 

is completely self-sufficient in rice production, limited arable 

land requires it to import about half of other foods.

Fishing: Japan’s fishing industry is well developed and 

accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch. Despite recent 

decreases in national consumption patterns, Japan continues 

to be one of the world’s largest seafood consumers. Experts 

criticize Japan’s excessive demand as unsustainable and a 

cause of the depletion of global fish stocks such as Bluefin 

tuna. Recently, the Japanese government has moved to curb 

overfishing, tightening quotas and imposing stricter supervision 

over the industry.

Japan’s 2000-year-old whaling tradition faces ongoing 

controversy. Although it signed a 1946 treaty that limited whale 

hunts to scientific research, Japan continued to kill up to 850 

whales annually under the auspices of a research 

organization. After disputing the scientific significance of the 

organization, in 2014 the United Nation’s International Court of 

Justice ordered an immediate halt to the organization’s whaling 

activities. Despite the ban, Japan has announced plans to

resume its whaling activities even though public demand for 

whale has reduced significantly in recent years.

Forestry: Although forests cover about 70% of Japan, there is 

little demand for domestic lumber. Consequently, Japan’s

timber industry is small and unprofitable, fulfilling only 29% of 

Japan’s lumber needs. Instead, Japan depends heavily on 

imported lumber for woodchip, plywood, and pulp material.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Currency

Japan’s currency is the Japanese yen (¥), issued in 4 banknote 

values (1,000, 2,000, 5,000, 10,000) and 6 coin values (1, 5, 

10, 50, 100, 500). Although exchange rates vary, $1 has been 

worth an average of about ¥155 since 1972, between a high of 

¥307 in 1975 and a low of ¥76 in 2011. Japanese typically use 

cash for everyday purchases. Although many businesses, such 

as taxis and large department stores, now accept credit cards, 

many other vendors, including small shops, flea markets, the 

metro system, and some restaurants do not.

Foreign Trade

In 2013 Japan’s exports totaled $697 billion and imports $767 

billion. Exports primarily included cars, semiconductors, iron 

and steel, auto parts, plastic materials, and heavy machinery. 

The largest buyers of Japanese goods included China (18%), 

the US (18%), South Korea (8%), Thailand (6%), and Hong 

Kong (5%). Japan’s top imports included petroleum, liquid 

natural gas, clothing, semiconductors, coal, and computer

equipment. Japan purchases these goods from China (21%), 

the US (9%), Australia (6%), 

Saudi Arabia (6%), UAE (5%), 

South Korea (5%), and Qatar

(4%) (Photo: The Bank of 

Japan, Japan’s central bank). 

Trans-Pacific Partnership

In 2013 Japan joined the US, 

Canada, and 9 Asia-Pacific 

countries in negotiations surrounding the Trans-Pacific 

Partnership (TPP). The TTP is intended to create regional free 

trade and investment opportunities among partner countries. 

Foreign Aid

In the wake of World War II, Japan received substantial US aid

for relief and reconstruction (see p. 9 of History and Myth). In 

the years since, Japan transformed into an aid provider, 

disbursing over $10 billion in Official Development Assistance 

(ODA) in 2012 and becoming the world’s 5th largest contributor 

behind the US, UK, Germany, and France. Japan provides

ODA to various countries in sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, and the 

Middle East and North Africa.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

Japan has one of the world’s most advanced physical 

infrastructures, including efficient public transit systems and an 

extensive highway network. In addition, Japanese enjoy 

affordable and high-quality communications such as mobile 

phone service and some of the world’s fastest Internet speeds.

Transportation

In addition to private modes of transit, such as walking, cycling, 

and driving, Japanese have access to modern, efficient public 

travel. In and around Tokyo, travelers use a rechargeable 

“PASMO” or “JR Suica” card to board subways, buses, and 

trains. Japan also has a comprehensive network of bus 

companies, some of which offer routes to rural areas served by 

few or no trains. Ferries are a common means of transit, linking 

all Japanese islands and providing transport to neighboring 

China, South Korea, and 

Russia. Finally, taxis are 

widely available. Of note, 

taxi drivers do not usually 

expect tips. 

Roadways: Japan had 

about 752,000 mi of 

roadways in 2014, of 

which about 604,700 mi (80%) were paved. A network of 

national expressways (typically high-speed, multiple lane toll 

roads) serve Japan’s 4 main islands and Okinawa. The signs 

on major routes normally include both rōmaji (Latin alphabet –

see p. 2 of Language and Communication) and Japanese 

scripts (pictured). With 588 cars per 1,000 people in 2011,

Japanese car ownership levels are below the US rate of 786

but well above China’s rate of 69.

Railways: An important means of Japanese transport, railways 

comprise approximately 16,900 mi, extending across most of 

the country. Japan’s leading rail company, the Japan Railways 

Group (JR Group), operates 6 regional commuter train systems 

on an extensive rail network. 

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
The JR Group also runs the shinkansen, high-speed bullet 

trains that provide rapid transportation between cities on 6

main lines. In addition, all major cities operate extensive 

subway systems (Photo: 

Tokyo’s commuter-rail 

trains).

Ports and Waterways: 

Due to its long coastline 

and strategic location near

China, North and South 

Korea, and Russia, Japan

is a Northeast Asian 

shipping hub with the world’s 16th largest fleet of commercial 

ships. Major ports include Kobē, Nagoya, Osaka, Tokyo, and 

Yokohama. Japan also has 1,100 mi of inland waterways 

navigable by small boats.

Airways: Japan has 175 airports and airstrips, of which 142

have paved runways. Japan’s primary air transit hub is Narita 

Airport (Tokyo), followed by Kansai Airport (Osaka), Haneda 

Airport (Tokyo), and Central Japan Airport (Nagoya). Other 

major Japanese airports include Fukuoka Airport, linking Japan 

to its Asian neighbors, and Itami Airport in Osaka, which 

handles domestic traffic. Japan is home to 2 major airlines: 

Japan Airlines, the national carrier, and All Nippon Airways.

Energy

Prior to the 2011 earthquake and tsunami that destroyed the 

Fukushima nuclear reactor (see p. 3 of Political and Social 

Relations), nuclear power accounted for 30% of Japan’s 

energy needs. Following the disaster, as public hostility toward 

nuclear energy grew, the government began closing all of 

Japan’s 48 nuclear reactors. Despite ongoing public anxiety, 

Prime Minister Abe revitalized a controversial energy policy 

that supports reopening about half of the country’s reactors

under new safety standards. 

Internationally, Japan is the 5th largest energy producer and 

the 5th largest consumer. Since shutting down its nuclear 

plants, Japan is now the 3rd largest oil importer, generating

most of its electricity (about 95%) from fossil fuels and the 

remainder from alternative (3%) and renewable sources (2%).

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Media

Japan’s constitution guarantees freedom of the press, although

cooperative efforts among the media, government, and 

business at times prompt media self-censorship. Newspapers 

are popular among Japanese, who have access to more than 

100 local and national newspapers in Japanese and other 

languages. With more than 10 million copies sold daily, the 

conservative Yomiuri Shimbun (“Japan Daily Press”) 

newspaper has the world’s largest circulation. Other popular 

national dailies include Asahi Shimbun (“Morning Sun 

Newspaper”) and Mainichi Shimbun (“Daily News”). Popular 

English-language newspapers are

The Japan Times and Asia & 

Japan Watch (Photo: The 

Mainichi Shimbun building in 

Nagano).

Radio and TV: The publiclyowned Japan Broadcasting 

Corporation (NHK) is the largest 

Japanese broadcaster. Private broadcasters, such as Nippon 

Television and Tokyo Broadcasting System (TBS), also have 

extensive reach. These and other large broadcasters typically 

offer both radio and TV programming. As of 2014, over 52% of 

households subscribed to cable or satellite TV, while Internetbased TV services also attract viewers. Popular radio 

programming is syndicated across the nation and rebroadcast 

by affiliates and local stations.

Telecommunications

Japan’s telecommunications infrastructure is among the world’s 

best, with universal mobile phone coverage and pervasive 

broadband Internet access. Of note, Japan has more mobile 

phone subscriptions (150 million) than people (127 million). 

Mobile carriers include NTT Docomo, AU (KDDI Corporation), 

SoftBank Mobile, and Y!Mobile (Yahoo Japan Corp).

Internet: More than 82% of Japanese are regular Internet

users. Most (58%) access the Internet using computers at 

home, while 42% use mobile phones. As of 2012, Japan had

the world’s 3rd highest number of fixed (wired) broadband

subscribers after China and the US.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
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