This guide is designed to prepare you to deploy to culturally 

complex environments and achieve mission objectives. The 

fundamental information contained within will help you 

understand the cultural 

dimension of your assigned 

location and gain skills 

necessary for success. 

The guide consists of 2 

parts: 

Part 1 “Culture General” 

introduces the foundational knowledge you need to operate 

effectively in any global environment – Southeast Asia in 

particular (Photo: US and Vietnamese Airmen demonstrate 

chemical decontamination techniques). 

Part 2 “Culture Specific” describes the unique cultural features 

of Vietnamese society. This section is designed to complement 

other pre-deployment training. It applies culture-general 

concepts to help increase 

your knowledge of your 

assigned deployment 

location (Photo: 

Vietnamese and US

Defense POW/MIA 

Accountability Agency 

personnel screen soil).

For further information, 

visit the Air Force Culture and Language Center (AFCLC) 

website at http://culture.af.mil/ or contact AFCLC’s Region 

Team at AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the expressed permission 

of AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the US 

government, Wikimedia, and other sources as indicated. 

About this Guide

Vietnamese Culture Guide
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes 

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to 

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the 

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that 

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture, 

and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs 

and values. 

Members of a culture also usually assign the same meanings 

to the symbols in that culture. A symbol is when one thing – an 

image, word, object, idea, or story – represents another thing. 

For example, the American flag is a physical and visual symbol 

of a core American value – freedom. At the same time, the 

story of George Washington 

admitting to having chopped 

down a cherry tree is also 

symbolic, representing the 

importance Americans place 

on personal honesty and 

leadership integrity. 

Force Multiplier

The military services have 

learned through experience the importance of understanding 

other cultures. Unlike the 20th-century bipolar world order that 

dominated US strategy for nearly half a century, today the US 

military is operating in what we classify as asymmetric or 

irregular conflict zones where the notion of cross-cultural 

interactions is on the leading edge of our engagement 

strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive 

feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on 

influencing constructive change through peaceful means where 

possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local 

nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

GENERAL

CULTURE 
economic institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and 

traditions. 

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build 

relationships with people from other cultures, positively 

influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success. 

Cultural Domains 

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry internally, 

but also by our behaviors and by the systems members of a 

culture create to organize their lives. These systems, such as 

political or educational institutions, help us to live in a manner 

that is appropriate to our culture and encourages us to 

perpetuate that culture into the future. 

We can organize these behaviors and systems into categories 

– what the Air Force refers to as “cultural domains” – in order to 

better understand the primary values and characteristics of a 

society. A cross-culturally competent military member can use 

these domains – which include kinship, language and 

communication, and social and political systems among others

(see chart on next page) – as tools for understanding and 

adapting to any culture. For example, by understanding the 

ways different cultures define family or kinship, a deployed 

military member can more 

effectively interact with 

members of that culture. 

Social Behaviors Across 

Cultures 

While humankind shares basic 

behaviors, various groups 

enact or even group those 

behaviors differently across 

cultural boundaries. For example, all societies obtain food for 

survival, although agrarian societies generally produce their 

own food for limited consumption using very basic techniques. 

Conversely, industrialized nations have more sophisticated 

market economies, producing foodstuffs for universal 

consumption. Likewise, all cultures value history and tradition, 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
although they represent these concepts through a variety of 

unique forms of symbolism. While the dominant world religions 

share the belief in one God, their worship practices vary with

their traditional historical development. Similarly, in many kinbased cultures where familial bonds are foundational to social 

identity, it is customary for family or friends to serve as 

godparents, while for other societies this practice is nearly nonexistent. 

Worldview

One of our basic human 

behaviors is the tendency to 

classify others as similar or 

different according to our 

cultural standard. As depicted 

in the chart below, we can 

apply the 12 cultural domains 

to help us compare similarities 

and differences across 

cultures. We evaluate others’ behavior to determine if they are 

“people like me” or “people not like me.” Consequently, we 

assume that individuals falling into the “like me” category share 

our perspectives and values. 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
This collective perspective forms our worldview – how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider 

your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for our actions and a logical 

explanation of why we individually or collectively act in a certain 

manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system sets its universal standards of what 

is good and bad, defines right and wrong behavior, and assigns 

a value of meaningful or meaningless. Our beliefs form the 

fundamental values we hold to be true – regardless of whether 

there is physical evidence to support these ideas. Beliefs are a 

central facet of human culture. They are shared views about 

world order and how the universe was physically and socially 

constructed. 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, right or wrong depends on our deeplyheld beliefs we started developing early in life that have help 

shape our characters. Likewise, 

these values are ingrained in our 

personalities and shape our 

behavior patterns and our selfidentities. Because cultural beliefs 

are intensely held, they are 

difficult, though not impossible, to 

change. 

Core Beliefs 

Core beliefs shape and influence 

certain behaviors and also serve to 

rationalize those behaviors. 

Therefore, knowledge of individual 

or group beliefs can be useful in 

comprehending or making sense of their activities. We will use 

the iceberg model for classifying culture to illustrate two levels 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
of meaning, as depicted. Beliefs and values, portrayed by the 

deeper and greater level of the submerged iceberg, are seldom 

visible, but are indicated / hinted at / referenced by our 

behaviors and symbols (top level). It is important to recognize, 

though, that the parts of culture that are not visible (under the 

waterline) are informing and shaping what is being made 

visible (above the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews may present behaviors that 

are contrary to our own beliefs, particularly in many regions 

where US forces deploy. Your ability to suspend judgment in 

order to understand another perspective is essential to 

establishing relationships with your host-nation counterparts. 

The ability to withhold your opinion and strive to understand a 

culture from a member of that culture’s perspective is known as 

cultural relativism. It often involves taking an alternate

perspective when interpreting others’ behaviors and is critical 

to your ability to achieve mission success. 

As you travel throughout Southeast Asia, you will encounter 

cultural patterns of meaning that are common across the 

region. What follows is a general description of 12 cultural 

domains which are used to frame those commonalities. 

1. History and Myth 

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of 

the past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can 

act as a type of historical record, although it is usually a story 

which members of a culture use to explain community origins 

or important events that are 

not verifiable or which 

occurred prior to written 

language. 

Southeast Asia includes 5 

countries on the mainland 

(Burma, Thailand, Laos, 

Cambodia, and Vietnam)

and 5 maritime countries in 

CULTURAL DOMAINS

GENERAL

CULTURE 
the North Pacific Ocean and the South China Sea (Malaysia, 

Singapore, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Brunei). As early as 

150 BC, the scattered communities on the mainland traded 

with and paid tribute to the dominating kingdoms of China and 

India. China maintained a presence in Vietnam for over 1000 

years, while’s India’s influence was felt mainly as its inhabitants 

spread Hinduism, Buddhism, and later Islam across the region. 

Southeast Asia’s most famous ancient empire, the Khmer, 

ruled for 4 centuries beginning around 800 AD from its center 

at Angkor in Cambodia. Later, Thai kings expanded across the

mainland, while a Hindu kingdom from India united the 

Indonesian archipelago. 

China began to halt its 

expeditions to the region 

in mid-15th century, just 

as European nations 

began sending theirs. The 

Portuguese were the first 

to conquer a Southeast 

Asian settlement in 1511, 

although their influence in the region was short-lived. 

Observing their success, the Dutch and English moved into the 

area as well. The Europeans sought to acquire trade routes 

and territories, and from the 17th through the 19th centuries the 

Dutch worked to consolidate their power in today’s Indonesia, 

the Spanish their control of the Philippines, the English their 

hold over Burma and Malaysia, and the French their control 

over Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. By the beginning of the 

20th century, virtually all of Southeast Asia was controlled by 

colonial powers; only Thailand remained independent. 

During World War II, Japan invaded and occupied portions of 

Malaysia, Burma, Thailand, and the Philippines. After the war, 

independence movements regained traction, and following 

years of struggle against the occupying Americans, the 

Philippines became the first country in Southeast Asia to gain 

its independence in 1946. Other countries endured years of 

instability and conflict on their way to independence. In 

Vietnam, communist rebels battled and defeated the French 

but then engaged the US in a controversial war. A civil war in 

Cambodia ended in the rise to power of the Khmer Rouge, 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
during whose reign in the late 1970s almost 2 million people 

died. A few years after the Dutch ceded power in Indonesia, a 

dictator took control in a coup and ruled for 32 years before 

resigning in 1998. Similarly, a military junta wielding absolute 

power has ruled Burma since 1962. Since the 1990s, 

Southeast Asia has largely enjoyed renewed stability. Both 

Thailand and Malaysia now have an affluent, educated middle 

class; Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam are well on the road to 

recovery from decades of conflict; and even Burma has 

recently held elections and initiated reform to a civilian 

democracy. 

2. Political and Social Relations 

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to 

others in their community. 

Differences in the physical 

environment affected the 

social and political structures 

that historically developed in 

Southeast Asia. Where 

people were nomadic or 

semi-nomadic, systems of 

government were less permanent and bureaucratic. In areas 

where populations were more settled, a reliable tax base 

allowed the development of more elaborate and permanent 

governing structures. These early states, though, often found it 

difficult to extend their authority into the remote highlands, 

where small tribal groups resided, and the islands, where some 

groups lived permanently in water communities of small boats. 

Significant changes occurred in Southeast Asia around 2000 

years ago as peoples from China and India began to move into 

the region (see History and Myth). New leaders formed new 

empires and states, and spiritual beliefs and practices changed 

as religious leaders introduced new religious traditions (see 

Religion and Spirituality). 

Many colonial-era governments, fearing the threat that an 

educated class might hold, largely denied education and civil 

liberties to most Southeast Asians and discouraged political 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
activities. Political participation swelled around the time of 

independence, although many post-independence political 

structures in the region were dictatorial and repressive. While 

most countries are healing from their 20th century conflicts, 

many governments continue to reflect authoritarian elements. 

Elites across the region continue to seek to control access to 

the political system. They are typically from the country’s 

dominant class, which is often comprised of members of a 

particular ethnic group. 

Some countries, such as Vietnam and Cambodia, are 

somewhat ethnically homogenous, while others, such as the 

Philippines and Indonesia, are much more diverse. Many 

countries also have minority communities of ethnic Chinese 

and Indians. So-called hill tribes, minority groups with distinct 

ethnic and linguistic identities, are found in Burma, Laos, 

Thailand, Vietnam, and the Philippines. 

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), formed 

in 1967, is a regional intergovernmental organization whose 

goal is to promote economic and political cooperation among 

its members, including the creation of a free trade community 

by 2015. ASEAN priorities include fostering economic and 

diplomatic relations with India and China, which have been 

strained due to longtime territorial disputes in the region. The 

European Union has a strong relationship with the organization 

and has taken steps to deepen trade and business links. The 

US also has close political, 

security, and economic 

relations with most of the 

member states. 

The relationship between 

Japan and the countries of 

Southeast Asia has 

improved significantly since 

World War II, and Japan is 

a crucial economic and aid 

partner today. 

3. Religion and Spirituality 

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They 

also create social unity by defining shared identity, offer 

individuals peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in 

a society. 

The earliest populations of Southeast Asia were animists, 

which means they believed that many different spirits inhabited 

elements in the natural environment, such as trees and rocks, 

or were represented in natural phenomena, such as thunder 

and lightning, or represented deceased ancestors. In many 

areas today, these traditional beliefs are still very important, 

and many Southeast Asians incorporate them in their practice 

of Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity. 

Indian traders and priests first brought Hinduism to Southeast 

Asia in the 1st century AD, where it eventually became the 

dominant religion in several kingdoms. In the 14th century the 

influence of Hinduism began to wane as people turned to 

Islam. Today, although there remain only small communities of 

Hindus in Indonesia, the Hindu principles of absolutism and 

hierarchy remain significant in politics across the region. 

Indian merchants also brought Buddhism to Southeast Asia 

beginning in the 1st century AD where it became well 

established in Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Indonesia, 

and Malaysia. Later, Chinese immigrants introduced Buddhism 

to Vietnam and Singapore. Many Southeast Asian mainlanders 

are Buddhist today, 

although their beliefs and 

practices may also include 

some animist and Hindu 

traditions. 

Chinese people spread the 

teachings of Confucius 

primarily in what is today 

Vietnam and Singapore. 

These teachings embody a complex belief system emphasizing 

stability, consensus, hierarchy, and authority that still 

influences ideas of social harmony across the region. 

Islam reached Southeast Asia beginning in the 10th century 

through Muslim traders from the Middle East, China, and India, 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
with a large number of Southeast Asians converting to Islam 

beginning in the 14th century to escape the Hindu caste 

system. The largest population of Muslims in the world, 

approximately 234 million, lives in Indonesia today. Muslim 

minority communities in Thailand and the Philippines have 

historically suffered economic and political marginalization. 

Christianity was introduced to the region by European 

colonizers beginning in the 16th century. Today, although parts 

of Indonesia have Christian communities, the Philippines is the 

only predominantly Christian country in Southeast Asia. 

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong 

emotional bonds that influence them to treat each other like 

family members (often called 

“fictive kin”). 

Family life is very important 

to Southeast Asians and 

relationships among family 

members are highly valued. 

As in the US, kinship is 

generally traced through both 

parents. Children are 

generally very respectful of their parents, and parents are 

devoted to their children, making economic or other sacrifices 

as a matter of course to ensure their well-being. 

Traditionally, close proximity of kin was a valuable resource in 

Southeast Asia’s agriculturally-based villages. Families were 

large and close-knit as individual members supported each 

other economically and socially and the rhythms of family and 

village life mirrored those of the agricultural cycle. 

Family life in Southeast Asia has changed in recent decades as 

societies have become more economically and socially diverse 

due to industrialization and urbanization. Today, a much wider 

variety of occupations is open to both men and women, and the 

middle class is growing in cities across the region. Women 

have fewer children today than they did 3 decades ago, and 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
many households in the cities no longer contain 3 or 4 

generations of extended family but are mostly nuclear families. 

Many Southeast Asian countries that have large rural 

hinterlands, such as Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand, 

also have large metropolises, such as Jakarta, Manila, and 

Bangkok. In these sorts of countries, there is a sharp ruralurban divide in economic and educational opportunities that 

results in stark differences in rural and urban family life. In rural 

villages, extended families may remain intact whose activities 

revolve around agricultural production, while in urban centers 

the household is usually much smaller and family structures 

are much more diverse. 

Although arranged marriages are much less common today, 

most Southeast Asians depend on their family’s input when 

choosing a marriage partner. The ages of both the bride and 

groom have increased as young people postpone marriage to 

pursue economic and educational opportunities, and divorce 

rates have risen in recent decades. Of note, in Indonesia and 

Malaysia Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny, or have 

more than one wife, if they can afford to support them all. For 

these Southeast Asians, matrimony and divorce are under the 

jurisdiction of Islamic law. 

5. Sex and Gender 

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive 

differences between males and 

females, while gender is a more flexible 

concept that refers to a culture’s 

categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. 

Southeast Asia’s dominant philosophies 

and religions (Confucianism, Daoism, 

Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity) 

privilege the male’s role as provider and 

stress female subordination. Despite most countries’ 

commitment to gender equality, women across Southeast Asia 

may find participation in the business and political spheres 

difficult, and in some countries there is still a marked 

preference for sons over daughters. 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
Despite these challenges, there is widespread acceptance of 

women in the workplace, though women usually receive less 

pay than men. Industrialization has provided new opportunities 

for women, and many Southeast Asian women continue to 

work beyond marriage and children. Hundreds of thousands of 

Southeast Asian women even relocate to other countries to 

work as nurses and domestic workers. 

Within the agricultural sector, women produce about 50% of 

food in the region and represent a significant share of the 

agricultural labor force. They are particularly involved in 

harvesting rice, tea production, and working on rubber and fruit 

plantations. Women generally have access to education and 

training, and in Thailand and the Philippines there are actually 

more post-secondary female graduates than males. 

Opinion on sexual orientation and gender identity is most 

liberal in the Philippines, where homosexuality is legal and 

there have been attempts to pass anti-discrimination legislation 

to protect sexual minorities. But in many parts of Southeast 

Asia homosexuals suffer discrimination and stigmatization. 

Malaysia criminalizes homosexuality and cross-dressing, and 

in Indonesia transgender individuals are often the victims of 

violence and exploitation. 

6. Language and Communication 

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural practice of sharing meaning in 

interaction, both verbally and non-verbally. 

Southeast Asia is linguistically very diverse; of the 

approximately 6000 

languages spoken in the 

world today, about 1000 

of them are found in 

Southeast Asia. Many of 

the ancient indigenous 

languages that were 

present in the region 

have become extinct as 

a result of war, cultural 

and economic domination, and small population size. 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
The languages of mainland Southeast Asia belong to 3 groups:

Austro-Asiatic (such as Cambodian and Vietnamese), Tai 

(such as Thai and Lao), and Tibeto-Burmese (including 

highland languages and Burmese). Languages that belong to 

these 3 groups are also found in India and China. Conversely, 

most of the languages spoken on the islands of Southeast Asia 

belong to the Austronesian family, a group of languages 

originating from southern China and Taiwan. 

The colonial powers that controlled Southeast Asia until the 

20th century primarily promoted and used their own languages 

including French, Dutch, English, and Spanish. Since 

independence, several states have named one local linguistic 

variety as the “standard,” such as Bahasa Indonesian and 

Bangkok Thai, and promoted its use over both European and 

other local languages. Recently, after years of aggressively 

promoting their national languages, many Southeast Asian 

countries have re-introduced English as a language of 

instruction in school and 

allowed ethnic Chinese 

and Indians to attend 

school in their own 

languages. 

Ancient Southeast 

Asians developed their 

own writing systems 

based on scripts from 

India and China. Today, 

Vietnamese, Malaysian, Indonesian, and Filipino, like English 

and most western European languages, use the Latin alphabet, 

while Burmese, Laotian, Thai, and Cambodian use writing 

systems derived from ancient Indian scripts. 

Southeast Asians are rarely confrontational or highly 

demonstrative and emotional in their communication. They 

value respect as a key component in maintaining social 

harmony, and conveying respect is a significant aspect of both 

verbal and non-verbal communication. For example, proper 

greetings, such as pressing the palms together and slightly 

bowing as is common in Thailand, are extremely important 

across Southeast Asia. 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
7. Learning and Knowledge 

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and 

health requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, 

behaviors, and symbols that have meaning to the community). 

This knowledge transfer may occur through structured, 

formalized systems such as schools or through informal 

learning by watching adults or peers. 

Throughout their history, the cultures of Southeast Asia have 

willingly borrowed and adapted ideas, practices, and 

institutions from beyond the region. This willingness is evident 

in the history of education. Prior to colonization, both Hindu and 

Muslim traders and migrants from India and beyond brought 

their own traditions of education to the region, and local 

Southeast Asian communities adopted these curricula and 

educational methods to 

their needs. 

Later, during the colonial 

period, the European 

powers were largely 

uninterested in providing 

education to Southeast 

Asians because they 

viewed them principally as 

agricultural laborers. If the 

colonial powers did provide educational opportunities, they 

were largely confined to members of privileged groups. 

Still later, as populations across the region began to resist 

colonization, the lack of educational opportunities became a 

topic around which to rally. In many countries, local activists 

adopted western educational methods but also drew on local 

traditions to devise new educational opportunities through 

which they articulated their arguments for independence. 

Today, education in Southeast Asia is viewed as both a tool for 

developing the region and as a human right. Consequently, in

most countries education is open to every citizen regardless of 

race, ethnicity, religion, or socio-economic background. Rapidly 

growing populations challenge most national governments in 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
their goals of providing 12 years of basic education to all, often 

forcing a sacrifice in the quality of services. Students in both 

urban and rural areas often suffer from a lack of adequate 

classrooms, teachers, and good text books, although primary 

school enrollment averages an excellent 93% in the region. 

8. Time and Space 

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that 

are not directly linked to physical survival. In most western 

cultures, people tend to be preoccupied with strict time 

management, devoting less effort to relationship-building. 

Conversely, in most Southeast Asian cultures establishing and 

maintaining relationships within the group can take precedence 

over accomplishing a task in the most efficient manner. 

Southeast Asians’ emphasis on the well-being of the group and 

maintaining social 

harmony often 

means people will 

deliberately avoid 

embarrassment of 

themselves and 

others, a strategy 

often referred to 

as “saving face.” 

Many Southeast 

Asians try to 

manage their time 

efficiently while still showing respect to their co-workers and 

maintaining “face.” 

Time is maximized by multi-tasking, and engagements usually 

start when scheduled. Networking is very important in 

Southeast Asia, and new contacts are often best made through 

a high status third party who knows both parties well. Only after 

the establishment of a good rapport can business negotiations 

proceed. 

Public and private spaces often overlap in a way that is 

unfamiliar to Americans. Shop owners may also live at their

place of business, so entering into a public space can also 

mean entry into an individual’s private space. Consequently,

customers and clients should always show proper respect. 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
9. Aesthetics and Recreation

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Most of Southeast Asia’s forms of creative expression, 

such as art, architecture, dance, music, and theater, reflect the 

diversity of cultures and ethnicities of the region as well as the 

influence of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam. Ancient and 

elaborate Hindu temples and highly symbolic statues of 

Buddha are found in many countries. Similarly, across 

Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines, Islamic art and 

architecture intermingle with examples of Hindu and local 

animist traditions. 

Traditional classical 

dance and theater 

are enjoying a 

revival after some 

forms came close to 

extinction during the 

wars and conflicts of the 20th century. These traditions trace 

back to the ancient kingdoms of the region and often include 

dancers dressed in elaborate masks and costumes. Ancient 

forms of shadow-puppet theater, in which paper puppets are 

manipulated against a lighted backdrop, are also popular in 

several countries. 

Combat sports of Asian and Western origins are popular in 

Southeast Asia today. With the end of the colonial-era ban on 

martial arts, indigenous forms such as Pentjak Silat and 

Bersilat combined with other Asian forms to make up Muay 

Thai, Pencak Silat and Kali, the main components of today’s 

Mixed Martial Art fighting. 

The Southeast Asian Games are an important regional sporting 

event. These biennial games bring together over 4,000 athletes 

for 11 days of competition in the Olympic sports and promote 

regional cooperation and understanding. 

10. Sustenance and Health 

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures and economics. Theories of disease 

GENERAL GENERAL

CULTURE CULTURE 
and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness. 

As expected from Southeast Asia’s location on the water, more 

fish is consumed than any other form of animal protein. Rice, a 

grain that has been cultivated in the region for thousands of 

years, is the primary food staple. Everyday meals are typically 

simple, consisting of chopped pieces of meat and vegetables 

that are fried or steamed and served with rice, often 

accompanied by spicy chili condiments. Influences from India 

and China are obvious in popular dishes such as spicy curries 

and rice noodle soups. Members of Muslim communities in 

Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines typically do not eat 

pork or drink alcohol. 

Malaria, HIV/AIDS, and the lack of clean drinking water are the 

main health concerns in Southeast Asia. With an estimated 

15% of worldwide cases coming from the region, malaria is a 

major problem. The HIV/AIDS epidemic was delayed in 

reaching Southeast Asia 

but turned into a major 

cause of death 

throughout the 1980s 

and 1990s. Since then, 

due to successful HIV 

prevention programs 

including those aimed at 

sex workers and their 

clients, transmission 

rates have steadily declined, and recent HIV/AIDS incidence 

rates have been similar to those of the US. Access to clean 

water has increased in most regions but in Cambodia and Laos 

half of the population still lacks access to clean drinking water. 

All countries are faced with the rise of non-communicable 

diseases among their aging populations, and most face the 

threat of emerging infectious diseases, such as the avian flu. 

The countries of Southeast Asia confront many challenges in 

providing health care for their growing populations. Rapid but 

unequal socioeconomic development has resulted in significant 

disparities in health and access to healthcare. Despite these 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
challenges, most countries have experienced a continual 

increase in life expectancy since the 1950s. 

11. Economics and Resources 

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and 

services. Most Southeast Asian communities practiced wet-rice 

and slash-and-burn agriculture for centuries before the arrival 

of Europeans in the 16th century. In addition, Southeast Asia’s 

geographical location between China and India as well as its 

position on navigable waterways which connect the West and 

Middle East with Asia and Australia made the area an 

important center of trade well before European presence. 

With European expansion into the area came the introduction 

of plantations and the mechanization of agriculture as well as 

the entry of the region into the global marketplace. Worldwide 

demand for rice increased dramatically in the 19th century, 

further changing the agricultural landscape of the region. 

Today, all 3 agriculture types – wet-rice, slash-and-burn, and 

plantation – are still practiced in the region and all have caused 

serious ecological damage such as massive deforestation and 

an increase in the production of greenhouse gases. 

Beginning in the 20th century the region experienced a 

dramatic industrialization process with growth rates exceeding 

even those of developed 

nations. Explosive growth 

in exports such as textiles, 

electronics, auto parts, 

and petroleum lead to 

double-digit economic 

growth, greatly increasing

local GDPs. Though 

roughly 1/3 of the 

population currently lives 

below the poverty line, 

regional economies have grown and now supply both skilled 

and semi-skilled workers to other countries. 

The 2008 global financial crisis caused damage to the 

economies of Southeast Asia. While the financial sector did not 

engage in high-risk lending practices, there was a severe drop 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
in exports due to a global reduction in spending from which the 

countries are still recovering. 

12. Technology and Material 

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. After the colonial period, the countries of Southeast 

Asia have expanded at different rates and currently experience 

varied levels of economic development. Their places in the 

global market range from 

Singapore, which has the 

third-highest GDP worldwide, to Burma and 

Cambodia which are 

ranked among the poorest 

countries in the world. 

Prior to colonial rule, the 

region’s inhabitants were 

expert farmers, having adopted domesticated rice from India

and China and developed complex rice-farming techniques, or 

mariners who traded across the region. European colonists 

brought additional skills in metalworking, agriculture, sailing, 

and navigation. The introduction of commercial agriculture, 

mining, and an export-based economy during the colonial 

period placed Southeast Asia on its current technological path. 

Southeast Asian nations are generally open to trade and 

investment, having transformed from inward-looking economies 

dominated by agriculture to outward-looking, market-oriented 

economies in just a few years. As China’s “backyard,” 

Southeast Asia is often seen as the site of economic 

competition between China and the US and between India and 

Japan. Despite lingering mistrust of China because of several 

unresolved maritime territorial disputes, some Southeast Asian 

nations welcome China’s investment in infrastructure, energy, 

agriculture, and mining. About 15% of Southeast Asia’s total 

trade is conducted with China. By comparison, about 12% of 

Southeast Asia’s trade is conducted with the US. 

Now that we have introduced general concepts that 

characterize Southeast Asian society at large, we will focus on 

specific features of Vietnamese society. 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Overview 

Since the rise of ancient kingdoms around 4,000 years ago,

Vietnam’s history has been shaped by wet-rice cultivation, trade, 

and conflict. For millennia, Chinese rule influenced society and 

culture as a series of Vietnamese kingdoms expanded 

southwards. In the late 19th century, France colonized much of 

the area. The Socialist Republic of Vietnam was united as an 

independent nation in 1976 following decades of war. After a 

period of massive emigration, social upheaval, and slow growth, 

Vietnam presently has one of the world’s fastest-growing 

economies, even amidst ongoing social and political repression. 

Reflecting the historical expansion of the Vietnamese people 

southward, Vietnam’s 3 primary regions include the North 

(around the Red River delta and the capital Hanoi), Central 

(narrow stretch of coast near Da 

Nang including the south-central 

highlands), and the South (the 

Mekong Delta and area around 

Ho Chi Minh City) (Map: 

Present-day Vietnam). 

Early History 

Archaeological evidence from 

present-day northern Vietnam 

suggests that early humans 

inhabited the region as early as 

500,000 years ago. Although 

much of Vietnamese early 

history is shrouded in myth (see “Myth” below), scientists believe 

nomadic hunter-gatherers from southern China entered the 

region and mixed with native inhabitants. By about 12,000 years 

ago, residents began forming semi-permanent settlements in the 

Ma and Red River valleys in the North. 

1. HISTORY AND MYTH

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC
HISTORY &

MYTH

Around 2900 BC, Hung kings of southern China and northern 

Vietnam founded the Van Lang Kingdom in the Red River Delta 

(see “Myth” below). Meanwhile, the migratory Lac Viet, or 

“people of the valley” also settled this area, developing irrigated 

wet-rice agriculture and bronze casting as early as 2000 BC. For 

over 2,000 years, the Lac Viet maintained a highly organized 

feudal society, raising livestock while also constructing complex 

canal and dike irrigation systems to produce high yields of rice 

and other crops. The Lac 

Viet were also skilled 

craftsmen, making pottery, 

baskets, and other goods 

from leather, silk, bamboo, 

hemp, and jute fiber. 

Around 258 BC, the 

powerful leader of the Au 

Viet tribe of southern China 

united with Van Lang to 

form the Au Lac Kingdom. Ruler An Duong Vuong subsequently 

built a capital and citadel in Co Loa, about 10 mi from presentday Hanoi. A strong leader, An Duong Vuong ruled for decades 

before his kingdom fell to the powerful army of the Chinese Qin 

Dynasty around 208 BC (Photo: Ancient bronze drum from Co 

Loa). 

Nam Viet and a Millennium of Chinese Rule

Internal revolts brought the fall of the Chinese Qin Dynasty just 

a year later. Soon afterwards, the Trieu Dynasty of southern 

China invaded Au Lac, subsequently founding Nam Viet, an 

independent kingdom comprising much of southern China and 

northern Vietnam with a capital in present-day Guangzhou, 

China. During the brief Trieu rule, the Lac Viet people 

maintained much of their own culture and social hierarchy. For 

protection, Nam Viet paid tribute to the Han Dynasty that 

replaced Qin rule in northern China. In 111 BC, the Han Chinese

expelled the Trieu, instituting direct rule of Nam Viet and 

beginning more than 1,000 years of Chinese control of the 

region. 

The Chinese introduced their Confucian social philosophy and 

ethics system (see p. 2 of Religion and Spirituality), establishing 
HISTORY &

MYTH

a hierarchical feudal society dominated by an imperial Chinese

mandarin class. Through their frequent interactions with Han 

Chinese, some Lac Viet adopted aspects of Chinese culture and 

language. The Chinese also brought improvements to silk 

production and rice irrigation, as well as writing and educational 

systems and new artistic styles. 

The Trung Sisters’ Rebellion: Over the years, Lac Viet 

opposition to Chinese rule grew, helping to forge a common Viet 

identity. In 39 AD, the Trung sisters, Trac and Nhi, led a rebellion 

resulting in a 4-year period of independence that ended when 

the Han Chinese emperor sent in troops. To escape capture, the 

Trung sisters threw themselves into a river, ending their lives 

and their rebellion, yet eternalizing Viet resistance to Chinese 

domination. Even today, the Trung sisters are national heroes, 

symbolizing Vietnam’s historical resistance to China while 

underscoring the significance of powerful women in Vietnamese 

society (Photo: An elephant procession at a parade celebrating 

the Trung sisters in 

Saigon, the present-day 

Ho Chi Minh City, in 1957).

After a few centuries of 

Chinese rule, Han settlers 

and indigenous Viet 

people likely intermarried, 

forming a Han-Viet 

landowning class that 

identified more with its land 

of residence than with China. Generally, Chinese rule was 

repressive, exemplified by the name the Chinese gave the 

region: Annam, or “Pacified South.” Even after the fall of the Han 

Dynasty in 220, the harsh rule of subsequent Chinese dynasties 

provoked revolts among the Viet and Han-Viet, which were 

typically met with further repression. 

South Asian Influence in the South

Chinese control extended only as far south as Champa, a large 

Hindu kingdom on Vietnam’s central and southern coast, 

founded by traders from South Asia around the 2nd century. For 

centuries, Champa’s kings ruled by divine right, worshipping the 

Hindu god Shiva before later converting to Buddhism. By the 3rd 
HISTORY &

MYTH

century, peasants in Champa generally adopted Buddhism (see 

p. 2-4 of Religion and Spirituality), while the Lac Viet elite 

residents primarily adhered to Confucianism. Champa became 

a wealthy kingdom based on fishing, agriculture, and maritime 

trade with India, China, Japan, and the Middle East. 

Consequently, some Lac Viet embraced aspects of Cham 

culture, such as its music and dance (see p. 4-5 of Aesthetics 

and Recreation). 

The Founding of Dai Viet Kingdom

In the early 10th century, the Chinese grip on much of the region 

began to loosen. In 938, General Ngo Quyen defeated the 

Chinese at the Battle of Bach Dang River. As Chinese 

administrators withdrew, 

Ngo Quyen established 

the Dai Viet Kingdom at 

the citadel in Co Loa. 

When Ngo Quyen died 

just 5 years later, infighting initially delayed 

the rise of a successor. In 

968, Dinh Bo Linh took 

the throne, uniting the 

Viet people and securing Dai Viet’s independence through the 

payment of tribute to China (Illustration: Woodblock print of the 

Battle of Bach Dang River). 

In 1009, Ly Thai To became Emperor of Dai Viet, moving the 

capital to Thang Long (present-day Hanoi) and beginning the Ly 

Dynasty. Dai Viet faced opposition on all fronts, including the 

Chinese in the North, Champa in the South, and the Khmer of 

Cambodia in the West. Nevertheless, the Ly dynasty eventually 

consolidated its rule, bringing peace and establishing Buddhism

as the state religion (see p. 3 of Religion and Spirituality). The 

Ly Dynasty also introduced significant reforms such as 

centralizing the administration, instituting civil service exams, 

and founding a scholarly shrine and archive called the Temple 

of Literature (Van Mieu) (see p. 1 of Learning and Knowledge).

During the 13th century, Mongols from north-central Asia led by 

Kublai Khan invaded the region 3 times. Although Dai Viet’s new 

Tran Dynasty repelled the invaders, the economy was nearly 
HISTORY &

MYTH

destroyed, significantly weakening the kingdom. Meanwhile, 

Champa sought to extend its influence, gaining some Dai Viet 

territory after several skirmishes. 

In 1400, General Ho Quy Ly toppled the Tran Dynasty and 

seized the Dai Viet throne. He subsequently implemented 

significant reforms, such as limiting the size of landholdings, 

revising the tax and 

public administration 

systems, opening ports to 

new trade, and 

converting coins to paper 

money. While his Ho 

Dynasty lasted just 7 

years, it also introduced a 

form of public healthcare, 

broadened education to 

include math and science

and replaced Chinese with Vietnamese in some official 

documents (Photo: Early Ho Dynasty coins).

Ming Chinese Intervention: Privileged landowners unhappy 

with land reform appealed to Chinese Ming Dynasty rulers, who 

subsequently intervened under the pretense of restoring the 

toppled Tran Dynasty. Instead, the Ming established direct 

control in 1407. While the Ming ruled Dai Viet for just 20 years, 

their impact was perhaps greater than the previous 1,000 years 

of Chinese rule. Unlike Chinese rulers before them, the Ming 

sought to directly undermine Viet culture, seizing or burning 

historical texts, literature, and art. 

The Le Dynasty of Dai Viet

The Chinese Ming rulers soon faced significant resistance. 

Based in the mountains of north-central Dai Viet, nobleman Le 

Loi led guerrilla forces that for years pressured the Ming army 

before finally defeating it in open battle in 1427. For the next 350 

years, the Dai Viet Kingdom expanded as indigenous traditions 

and language flourished. 

The reign of Le Loi’s grandson, Le Thanh Tong (r. 1460-97), is 

widely considered Dai Viet’s golden age. In addition to 

commissioning a national history of the Viet, Le Thanh Tong 

revised the tax and civil service systems, gave additional civil 
HISTORY &

MYTH

rights to women, improved math and science education, and 

increased rice production. Further, he led expansion southward, 

conquering Champa in 1471, while suppressing Lao and Khmer 

incursions from the West and South. Le Thanh Tong gave some 

of the newly-acquired lands to peasants and soldiers, creating 

new Viet settlements in the South. 

During this period, population pressures in the North drove the 

Viet into the Mekong Delta in a movement known as nam tien

(southward movement). While still placating China with tribute, 

the Le Dynasty attempted to distinguish and separate itself from 

China. Nevertheless, the Le Dynasty government and society 

was based on Confucianism, a doctrine that advocated a divine 

mandate as justification for imperial authority and taxation. 

Similarly, the Le dynasty’s legal code combined Chinese law

with certain Viet features, such as 

equal inheritance rights for men 

and women.

European Missionaries Arrive 

In the early 16th century, 

Portuguese Catholic missionaries

arrived in the region. Although the 

Le dynasty banned missionary 

work in the 1630s, French 

Catholics soon joined the effort, 

gaining a significant number of 

converts by the 18th century (see 

p. 5 of Religion and Spirituality). 

The efforts of French missionary 

Alexandre de Rhodes and others to codify a writing system for 

the Vietnamese language formed the basis of chu quoc ngu, 

Vietnam’s present-day writing system (see p. 1 of Language and 

Communication) (Pictured: A 17th-century catechism in Latin 

and Vietnamese written by Alexandre de Rhodes).

The Nguyen and Trinh Families Divide Dai Viet

In the early 16th century, in-fighting significantly weakened the 

Le Dynasty. Soon, 2 families, the Nguyen and the Trinh, 

emerged as the leading factions. Throughout the 17th century, 

the 2 families fought for control of Dai Viet while reducing 

successive Le emperors to mere figureheads. The Nguyen 
HISTORY &

MYTH

steadily expanded to the South and West, driving the Cham and 

Khmer further from their traditional territories. As high taxes and 

violence forced many Viet from communal lands, tax-exempt 

nobles seized the properties. Reduced property taxes required 

new sources of income, such as taxes on staples like salt and 

charcoal, causing widespread impoverishment. Then, neglect of 

irrigation systems resulted in famine and flooding. Between

1730-70, widespread suffering across Dai Viet caused peasant 

revolts to erupt. 

The Tay-son Brothers: Amidst this discontent, 3 brothers from 

Tay-son village in central Dai Viet spread a message of justice 

and equality that soon attracted a following. By 1778, Tay-son 

rebels had won control of the South, killing all the ruling Nguyen 

family except for 16-year-old Nguyen Anh, who escaped to Phu 

Quoc island off the southern coast. By 1786, the rebels had also 

routed the Trinh family. As each Tay-son brother took control of

a region, they allowed the Le Dynasty to continue to rule from its 

capital in Dong Kinh (present-day Hanoi) (Illustration: A Viet 

delegation makes a peace offering to the Qianlong Emperor of 

the Chinese Qing 

Dynasty).

The Le Dynasty leaders 

were unhappy with this 

arrangement. In 1788, 

Emperor Le Chieu 

Thong asked China to 

remove the Tay-son 

brothers. In response, 

the Chinese Qing Dynasty invaded the Dai Viet capital. Tay-son 

brother Nguyen Hue then declared himself Emperor Quang 

Trung and marched almost 400 mi North with 100,000 men and 

100 elephants to fight the Qing. Attacking at night, Quang 

Trung’s army defeated some 200,000 Qing troops. Despite this 

success, the Tay-son brothers soon faced another challenge to 

their authority. 

Gia Long Founds Viet Nam 

From his exile on Phu Quoc island, Nguyen Anh schemed to 

remove the Tay-son brothers. With support from some French 

traders and former soldiers, he invaded the Mekong Delta in 
HISTORY &

MYTH

1788, quickly establishing himself as a powerful ruler with a new 

government administration and military based in the southern 

city of Gia Dinh (present-day Ho Chi Minh City). 

In 1789, Nguyen Anh took advantage of disunity and corruption 

among the Tay-son brothers to advance and by 1802 had 

captured much of the North. Adopting the name Gia Long, he 

founded the new Kingdom of Viet Nam (“Viet of the South”) with 

an imperial capital at Hue, chosen for its central location. 

Following the annexation of the southernmost part of the 

Mekong delta traditionally belonging to the Khmer, the Kingdom 

of Viet Nam comprised the territory of 

present-day Vietnam (Illustration: 

Emperor Gia Long). 

As Emperor, Gia Long established a 

harsh Confucian feudal order under 

which some residents fared even 

worse than before. He adhered more 

strictly to Confucian principles than 

previous leaders, ignoring 

Buddhism, Taoism, Christianity, and 

traditional Viet customs. In addition 

to being forced to perform unpaid 

labor under the traditional corvée system for some 60 days per 

year, often on public works projects, peasants also lost some of 

their communal lands. Moreover, Gia Long reversed Le Dynasty 

improvements to the status of women and levied high taxes to 

be paid in rice. He also cut off much of Viet Nam from the outside 

world, limiting trade and focusing on domestic affairs. 

The Nguyen Dynasty: For the next 6 decades, subsequent 

rulers in Gia Long’s Nguyen Dynasty maintained his 

administrative system. During this period, small scholarly and 

royal classes concentrated in the capital Hue, while around 80% 

of Vietnamese lived in rural areas primarily subsisting on rice 

cultivation. Although some Vietnamese women worked as small 

retailers, a powerful Chinese commercial class dominated trade 

(see p. 1 of Economics and Resources), wielding significant 

influence. Over time, Nguyen rulers began exerting more 

authority over their neighbors, demanding tribute from Laos and 

Cambodia. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

The French Invade and Take Control

Meanwhile, several European countries raced to establish 

colonies in Asia. Despite ongoing repression in Viet Nam, the 

French had continued their missionary work, converting around 

450,000 Vietnamese to Christianity by the mid-19th century (see 

p. 5 of Religion and Spirituality). Seeking to expand their 

influence even further, the French used the pretext of a captive 

French priest to bomb the central coastal city of Da Nang in 

1847, killing around 10,000 people. As persecution of Christians 

continued under Emperor Tu Duc, French President Napoleon 

III sent a fleet of warships and some 2,500 soldiers to protect 

French missionaries in 1858. Over the next 3 years, the French 

acquired control of much of the Mekong Delta and the city of Gia 

Dinh (which they renamed Saigon). As the Kingdom weakened, 

Emperor Tu Duc signed a treaty in 1862 formally granting 

France certain territories, as well as the rights to continue their 

missionary work and engage in trade (Illustration: Newspaper 

drawing of the 1859 

French capture of Gia 

Dinh, which they 

renamed Saigon).

The French continued 

to acquire territory, 

and by 1867 had 

annexed the entire 

South, renaming the 

region Cochinchina. The 1874 Treaty of Hanoi formally granted 

France full sovereignty over Cochinchina, access to the Red 

River and northern ports, and veto power over Viet Nam’s 

foreign relations. The Kingdom continued to weaken. Following 

Emperor Tu Duc’s death in 1883, his army lost an important 

battle to the French at Hue. The subsequent Treaty of Hue gave 

France control over all of Viet Nam, with a colony in Cochinchina 

and protectorates in Central and North Vietnam, respectively 

named Annam and Tonkin. 

French Indochina

In 1893, France merged the 3 Vietnamese regions with 

Cambodia and Laos to form the colony of French Indochina, led 

by a Governor General based in Hanoi. French rule was initially 

felt most directly in Cochinchina, where colonists seized 
HISTORY &

MYTH

communal land and collaborated with some landed Vietnamese 

elite to create large, export-oriented rice plantations. Even if they 

did not seize land directly, the French acquired it in other ways. 

For example, the government imposed heavy taxes, compelling 

some Vietnamese to 

borrow money using land 

as collateral. Those 

unable to repay their 

loans lost their holdings, 

becoming tenant farmers 

and wage laborers. As 

Indochina became the 

world’s largest rice 

exporter, the French grew rich as the average Vietnamese

became impoverished (Illustration: Palace of the Governor 

General in Saigon). 

France gradually increased its control over the entire region, 

expanding its export industry to coffee and rubber in Annam and 

minerals and tea in Tonkin. To get these products to market, the 

French forced Vietnamese laborers to build roads, railways, and 

ports, working mostly under wretched conditions. Although 

Vietnamese generally suffered under French rule, some 

welcomed the change from the repressive Nguyen Dynasty and 

benefited from cooperation with the French. For example, some 

Vietnamese Catholic collaborators received confiscated land. 

Early Nationalist Movements 

In the early 20th century, the stark contrast in living conditions 

between the poor Vietnamese masses and French and 

Vietnamese landowners helped spark a nationalist movement.

This nationalism had roots in centuries-old traditions of 

resistance to Chinese forms of authority. Inspired by Sun Yatsen’s Chinese Revolution that overthrew the Qing Dynasty in 

1911, Vietnamese nationalist Phan Boi Chau began planning the 

expulsion of the French from Indochina from his residence in 

China. Nevertheless, when counterrevolutionaries regained 

power in China in 1914, the Chinese arrested him and other 

nationalist leaders at France’s request. 

The French maintained their hold on Vietnam as World War I 

(WWI) broke out in Europe in July 1914. During the war, France 
HISTORY &

MYTH

conscripted some 100,000 Vietnamese troops and workers to 

support its European war efforts. Within Indochina, the French 

significantly increased taxes to help finance the war (Photo: 

Nationalist leader Phan Boi Chau, 

right, with a fellow revolutionary in 

1907). 

Following victory in WWI, France 

increased its development efforts in 

Indochina. In Vietnam, the colonial 

government initiated a massive 

infrastructure program primarily 

financed by taxes on alcohol, opium, 

and salt, building transport systems 

and draining much of the Mekong 

Delta to create new farmland. By 

1925, some 5,000 French colonial 

administrators ruled an Indochinese population of about 30 

million. As the colonial government continued to repress 

nationalist movements and jail their leaders, fragmentation 

within the movements prevented the development of a unified 

opposition. 

At a 1930 conference in Hong Kong, Vietnamese activist Ho Chi 

Minh and other leaders merged various nationalist factions to 

form the Indochinese Communist Party (ICP), dedicated to 

toppling French rule and fostering the growth of socialism in the 

region. In response to this threat, the French tightened their 

control, prompting strikes which, in turn, provoked further French 

repression. By 1932, the French had imprisoned around 10,000 

activists and executed at least 80 suspected communists. 

World War II (WWII) and Japanese Occupation

In 1940, Nazi Germany invaded and occupied France, installing 

the puppet Vichy government loyal to the Axis Powers of 

Germany, Italy, Japan, and others. The French colonial structure 

remained intact under the German Vichy regime in exchange for 

resources in support of the ongoing war in East Asia. 

The Viet Minh: In response, Ho met with other liberation leaders 

in a cave in Pac Bao near the Chinese border in 1941, where 

they founded the League for the Independence of Vietnam, 

better known as the Viet Minh. Though dominated by the ICP, 
HISTORY &

MYTH

the Viet Minh enjoyed support from noncommunist groups as 

well as China and the US, which promised limited arms for the 

new Vietnamese Liberation Army. From rural camps in the 

northern mountains, the Viet Minh carried out guerrilla attacks 

against Japanese and French troops, provided intelligence on 

Japanese forces to the US and its Allies [the United Kingdom 

(UK) and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), 

among others], and rescued Allied pilots shot down over 

Vietnam. 

After the Allied liberation of France in spring 1945, Japan seized 

all of Vietnam, installing Nguyen Vinh Thuy (known as Bao Dai) 

as the leader of an “independent” Vietnam under Japanese 

guidance. During this brief occupation, the Japanese interned 

French administrators, arrested Vietnamese opposition leaders, 

and seized rice harvests to feed their troops across Asia and the 

Pacific. From March-May, 

over a million primarily rural 

Vietnamese died from famine, 

while unemployment was 

rampant in cities (Photo: 

Japanese troops enter Saigon 

by bicycle in 1945). 

Meanwhile, the Viet Minh’s 

power grew with the aid of 

armed propaganda units as 

the ICP dissolved. By June, it had gained control of territory in 

the North, where it established people’s committees, opened 

schools, abolished the corvée system (though it required military 

service), distributed French-owned land to the poor, and 

declared universal suffrage. In the South, the Viet Minh united 

large opposition groups of students, women, peasants, and 

soldiers. While the Viet Minh rewarded its supporters with land 

and other aid, it often imprisoned or killed opponents. 

The August Revolution: In mid-August 1945, the Japanese 

surrendered to the Allies, ending WWII. Two days later, Ho Chi 

Minh led a Viet Minh march on Hanoi, where he was welcomed 

as a hero. In the subsequent unrest, known as the August 

Revolution, the Viet Minh occupied administrative offices and 

declared a provisional government with Ho as President. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Democratic Republic of Vietnam 

By late August, the Viet Minh controlled both Hue and Saigon, 

yet its progress in the far South was much slower. Despite his 

lack of complete control, Ho declared independence for the new 

Democratic Republic of Viet Nam (DRV) on September 2, 1945.

Notwithstanding this declaration, the DRV received no 

international recognition. Instead, treaties ending WWII granted 

the British control of the region south of the 16th parallel (near 

the central city of Da Nang) and China control of the North. As a 

result, some 200,000 Chinese troops entered the North. 

Threatened by the Chinese troops, Ho gave up his claims in the 

North, signing a treaty allowing French forces to replace the 

Chinese in 1946 and making the DRV a “free state” within the 

French Union. Meanwhile, both sides agreed to a referendum to 

decide whether the southern region of Cochinchina would join 

Ho Chi Minh: Vietnam’s Revolutionary Leader 

Before becoming a founding member of the 

Indochinese Communist Party in 1930, Ho Chi Minh 

had already had diverse experiences. Born Nguyen 

Sinh Cung in 1890, Ho worked as a cook on a French 

ship, in the New York dockyards, and as a hotel cook 

in London before helping establish the French 

Communist Party in Paris in 1920. 

In 1923, Ho traveled to Moscow to train as a 

communist agent. He then returned to Asia in 1925, 

settling in Guangzhou, China, where he founded the 

Vietnamese Revolutionary Youth League. Under 

French bidding, authorities in Hong Kong arrested Ho 

in 1931 but released him a year later. 

After spending some time teaching in Moscow, he 

returned to southern China in 1940. After 30 years in 

exile, Ho returned to Vietnam in 1941. Ho Chi Minh 

died in 1969 before he could see his comrades win the 

Vietnam War and rename Saigon in his honor. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

the new state or become independent (Photo: Ho Chi Minh, 

right, and DRV military strategist Vo Nguyen Giap in 1945). 

The First Indochina War

Despite these agreements, 

opposition to the French continued. 

Following skirmishes between 

Vietnamese and French troops, 

France bombed the northern port city 

of Haiphong in late 1946, killing 

thousands of civilians and beginning 

the First Indochina War. In response, 

Viet Minh forces attacked the French 

before retreating to the mountains. 

While the Viet Minh regrouped, 

France acquired control of most 

cities. Although the Viet Minh lost 

influence in the South after executing unaligned religious 

leaders, it reinforced its position in the North, accumulating some 

250,000 troops. Wary of this growing power, the French 

declared a nominally independent State of Vietnam in 1948 and 

then reinstalled Bao Dai to office. In 1949, the Chinese 

Communist Party took control of China, promising support and 

arms for Ho’s DRV. When the USSR also formally recognized 

the DRV, the communist threat appeared dire. In 1950, the US 

recognized the French-sponsored State of Vietnam. Meanwhile, 

with support from China and the USSR, the Viet Minh 

resurrected the ICP, renaming it the Vietnamese Worker’s Party 

in 1951. 

The Viet Minh increased its activities, using guerrilla tactics and 

Chinese arms to slowly acquire control of the northern border 

areas. Meanwhile, the French relied on growing US aid to 

combat the perceived communist threat. As the human and 

financial costs of the war mounted, both sides agreed to 

consider negotiations. The French finally surrendered after a 

mid-1954 Viet Minh attack at Dien Bien Phu on the Laotian 

border where the French lost 1,500 soldiers and the Viet Minh 

suffered 25,000 casualties. During the war at large, an estimated 

500,000 people, primarily Viet Minh and civilians, died. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

An Unsatisfactory Peace Agreement: Following 2 months of 

negotiations, Ho’s DRV and France signed the Geneva Accords 

of 1954 that divided the country into 2 zones: the pro-Western 

State of Vietnam in the South and the Viet Minh-controlled DRV 

in the North. A demilitarized zone (DMZ) divided the 2 along the 

Ben Hai River near the 17th parallel, just north of Hue. Civilians 

were given 300 days to move 

between zones under supervision 

of an international commission 

that would also oversee elections 

set for 1956 (Photo: Viet Minh 

soldiers in a trench near Dien 

Bien Phu). 

The Domino Theory and US 

Intervention

This uneasy truce worried the 

US. In 1954, US President 

Eisenhower warned that 

communism was like a “falling 

domino,” and now that China and 

the DRV had adopted communism, it would continue spreading 

across Indochina. In an effort to stop this spread, the US had 

funded nearly 80% of France’s war efforts in the final years of 

the First Indochina War. Following the partition, the US 

continued its support, helping nearly a million primarily Catholic 

Vietnamese flee to the South, while the CIA distributed anticommunist leaflets supporting State of Vietnam leader Bao Dai. 

The Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam): In 1955, the US 

began sending direct aid and military advisors to the State of 

Vietnam. With US support, Ngo Dinh Diem ousted Bao Dai from

power, becoming President of the renamed Republic of Vietnam, 

popularly known as South Vietnam. A Catholic, Diem favored 

Catholics, marginalized the Buddhist majority, and often jailed or 

killed political opponents. Further, he seized land from peasants 

and opponents, favoring Catholics in his resettlement and land 

tenure policies. With US support, Diem canceled the scheduled 

1956 elections and consolidated his power. Meanwhile, northern 

guerrillas continued to attack South Vietnam, assassinating 

South Vietnamese government officials. In response, Diem 

ordered the arrest of some 65,000 suspected communists 
HISTORY &

MYTH

(Photo: US troops aboard the HMS Warrior help evacuate 

Vietnamese from 

Haiphong to Saigon in late 

1954). 

The DRV, the National 

Liberation Front (NLF), 

and the Viet Cong: 

Meanwhile, in the North, 

the DRV struggled to build 

a socialist society. In 

1955, the DRV avoided 

famine only with help from 

China and the USSR. Like 

Diem in the South, the DRV’s leaders were intolerant of 

opposition groups, sending large landowners and other 

perceived opponents to labor camps or to face execution.

Despite these internal preoccupations, the DRV still sought to 

acquire control of the South. In 1960, the DRV created the NLF

specifically to infiltrate South Vietnam and consolidate 

opposition to Diem. Nicknamed the Viet Cong (a contraction of 

the Vietnamese term for “Vietnamese communists”) by Diem, 

the NLF also included non-communist Buddhists, Catholics, 

nationalists, and others. 

The Build-Up to War 

Although the Viet Minh had formally disbanded, by 1960, over 

90,000 former Viet Minh troops had entered South Vietnam to 

support the NLF in its struggle against the Diem government. In 

1961, US President Kennedy increased military and economic 

aid to the South, including sending 3,200 advisors. In response, 

about 15,000 armed guerrillas in South Vietnam united as the 

People’s Liberation Armed Forces (PLAF) to provide local 

military support for the NLF. 

In 1962, support for Diem in the South declined after an attempt 

to consolidate villages into more secure “hamlets” protected by 

the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) failed. As the NLF 

and PLAF distributed land to peasants to win their support, Diem 

grew even more unpopular. After the South’s ARVN fired on 

unarmed Buddhist protestors in 1963, demonstrations erupted 

with Buddhist monk Thich Quang Duc burning himself to death 
HISTORY &

MYTH

in Saigon, gaining worldwide attention. As repression of the 

Buddhist movement continued and additional Buddhist monks 

committed self-immolation, the US supported a coup in South 

Vietnam that resulted in 

Diem’s execution in late 

1963. 

With Chinese support, the 

DRV increased its 

activities. By 1964, the 

NLF administered 1/2 of 

South Vietnam, especially 

rural areas. On the socalled Ho Chi Minh trail 

through Laos and Cambodia, the NLF discreetly transported 

troops and supplies from the DRV to South Vietnam. As the 

South struggled with successive coups, the NLF continued to 

gain support in the countryside (Photo: DRV troops carry 

supplies along the Ho Chi Minh trail). 

The Vietnam War (Second Indochina War)

In August 1964, a DRV ship allegedly attacked the USS Maddox 

as the American ship was patrolling the Gulf of Tonkin off 

Vietnam’s northern coast. Just 2 days later, further attacks were 

reported. Within days, the US Congress passed the Gulf of 

Tonkin Resolution, enabling President Johnson to take “all 

necessary measures...to prevent further aggression.” 

Subsequently, the US bombed northern coastal bases. In 

response, the USSR increased its support to the DRV. Evidence 

later showed that the Maddox had been conducting covert 

surveillance of DRV installations, and the subsequent attacks 

likely never occurred. 

In 1965, the US began Operation Rolling Thunder, a bombing 

campaign that eventually totaled some 350,000 bombs, twice 

the total tonnage dropped in WWII. By the end of the year, 

almost 200,000 US troops were stationed in Vietnam. Despite 

US support, South Vietnam continued to suffer battle losses. By 

mid-1966, the US increased its total troops to 350,000 and 

occupied all major cities in the South as PLAF and DRV troops 

retreated to the mountains. In 1967, the US continued to 

increase its troop-strength, reaching a total of 500,000 by the 
HISTORY &

MYTH

end of the year. Despite this surge, the US and South Vietnam 

could not achieve their objectives of dispelling DRV influence in 

the South, and the war reached a stalemate. In the 1967 

elections, General Nguyen Van Thieu became South Vietnam’s 

President amidst accusations of widespread election fraud. 

The Tet Offensive: In early 1968, about 40,000 DRV troops 

besieged a US military base near the DMZ. While the US killed 

over 10,000 DRV troops, it was sufficiently distracted when a 

week later some 70,000 DRV and PLAF troops violated a Tet

(Vietnamese New Year) truce by simultaneously attacking over 

100 cities and towns across South Vietnam. Nearly 40,000 DRV 

troops were killed or captured as US and ARVN troops attacked 

and bombed urban areas, causing widespread destruction. 

Although the Tet Offensive failed in its goal to cause a popular 

uprising, it demonstrated the DRV’s total commitment to winning 

the war. Meanwhile, with over 20,000 US casualties thus far, 

opposition to the war among Americans began to grow (Photo: 

Vietnamese sort 

through the remains 

of their homes in 

Saigon in 1968). 

As the US became 

increasingly mired in 

the war, President 

Johnson announced 

he would not seek 

reelection in 1968. 

Further, he vetoed requests for additional troops to boost the 

540,000 American soldiers already in Vietnam. When the US 

halted its major bombing campaign, DRV troops remained on 

the offensive for the rest of 1968, maintaining their gains. 

In June 1969, the NLF and its allies formed the Provisional 

Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam, 

recognized by the DRV and most communist bloc countries, 

even though the US-backed State of Vietnam still existed. 

Meanwhile, newly-elected US President Nixon began a process 

of “Vietnamization” of the war in 1969, withdrawing US 

servicemen and replacing them with ARVN troops. By 1970, 
HISTORY &

MYTH

about 280,000 US forces remained, while the ARVN increased 

from about 640,000 to over 1 million troops. 

In 1970, Nixon resumed the bombing campaign, including secret 

attacks on the Ho Chi Minh trail and parts of Cambodia. About 

30,000 US and ARVN troops then invaded Cambodia. Following 

massive US protests, the US withdrew its troops from Cambodia 

later that year. As the South Vietnamese government made 

some gains, the US continued to reduce its troops. Negotiations 

in 1971-72 to end hostilities were unsuccessful. 

The Paris Accords: In March 1972, the DRV began a major 

offensive. While South Vietnam did not capitulate, mutually 

heavy losses compelled both sides to resume negotiations. In 

the Agreement on Ending the War and Restoring Peace in 

Vietnam (known as the Paris Accords) signed in January 1973, 

the DRV agreed to accept the South Vietnamese people's right 

to self-determination through elections in exchange for a 

complete US withdrawal. By April 1973, the US had withdrawn 

from direct military involvement in Vietnam, retaining just a few 

thousand civilian authorities in the South. 

The My Lai Massacre 

In March 1968, US intelligence alleged that NLF 

soldiers had taken refuge in the My Lai hamlet of the 

Song My village in South Vietnam. A company of US 

troops was ordered to enter and destroy the village. 

Even when the soldiers found no NLF presence, they 

rounded up primarily women, children, and elderly 

men, brutally executing them and using rape and 

torture as weapons. Facing no lethal resistance, the 

US troops killed up to 500 civilians before other US 

soldiers stopped them. 

After the massacre, high-ranking US officials sought 

to cover up the event until a reporter broke the story in 

November 1969. Of the 14 officers charged in 1971, 

only 1 was convicted. He was later paroled in 1974. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Fall of Saigon: After the accord, the South Vietnamese 

government had some success, reducing total land controlled by 

the NLF in South Vietnam to about 20%. But by 1974, the US 

withdrawal had caused high inflation and unemployment in the 

South, made worse by 

rampant corruption (see 

p. 2 of Economics and 

Resources). Some 

ARVN troops felt 

abandoned by the US 

and were resigned to 

eventual defeat. In late 

1974, the rapidly 

weakening ARVN lost 

territory in the central highlands, and by early 1975, DRV troops 

had advanced well into South Vietnam, surrounding Saigon by 

April. On April 21, South Vietnam’s President Thieu resigned. 

On April 30, DRV forces entered Saigon and set up a provisional 

government in the South until reunification with the North could 

be completed (Photo: Discarded uniforms left by retreating 

ARVN soldiers near Saigon). 

After over 3 decades of war, Vietnam was in ruins. Nearly 60% 

of southern villages were destroyed, while all large communities

in the North had been severely bombed. Although estimates 

vary widely, total deaths likely included about 2 million civilians, 

1 million North Vietnamese 

combatants, 200,000 South 

Vietnamese combatants, 

58,200 American soldiers, 

and additional South Korean, 

Australian, Thai, and New 

Zealand troops. Between 12-

15 million Vietnamese 

became refugees because of 

the war, and untold numbers 

suffered psychological and 

physical injuries, notably from US use of Agent Orange, a 

chemical weapon employed to clear densely forested areas and 

destroy enemy crops (Photo: Vietnamese refugees flee the 

country on a US aircraft carrier in 1975 as part of Operation 

Frequent Wind, the final US operation in Saigon). 
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Socialist Republic of Vietnam

On July 2, 1976, DRV leaders announced the formal 

reunification of North and South, declaring the formation of the 

Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Bureaucrats from the former DRV 

flooded the South’s former capital Saigon, officially renamed Ho 

Chi Minh City, to take positions in the new administration. The 

newly formed Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) led by 

General Secretary Le Duan became the only legal political party. 

It did not establish the reconciliation council stipulated by the 

Paris Accords. Instead, the CPV retaliated against those 

perceived as threats to the regime, such as monks, priests, 

intellectuals, and anyone with a connection to the US. 

For example, the regime sent some 400,000 people to 

“reeducation” (labor) camps, while those thought to have 

benefited economically from the US presence were sent to new 

“special economic zones,” typically in rural areas with harsh 

conditions. Some prisoners remained confined for over a 

decade. The regime also targeted ethnic Chinese who had 

dominated commerce for centuries, claiming they were disloyal 

(see p. 14 of Political and Social Relations). 

Vietnam War Terminology

The military tactics utilized in Vietnam made the war 

unlike any other. The US military devised terminology 

that reflected the war’s unique conditions. Search and 

destroy operations sought to root out NLF soldiers 

from villages. 

Free-fire zones were areas cleared of civilians to 

enable bombing of enemy occupants. Fire bases were 

highland areas where US troops could launch artillery 

fire. The soldier body count became a metric to judge 

the success or failure of a mission. 

Later, the war was publicized widely in the media, 

movies, and video games, making Agent Orange,

Operation Rolling Thunder, and the My Lai 

massacre household terms. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Conflict with Cambodia

After years of border disputes, the Cambodian Khmer Rouge 

Army invaded southwestern Vietnam in 1978, killing over 3,000 

civilians. In response, Vietnam sent 120,000 troops to oust Pol 

Pot, Cambodia’s genocidal leader who Vietnam initially helped 

rise to power. As a result, China, a close ally of Cambodia, 

invaded northeastern Vietnam in 1979, though it withdrew within 

a few weeks following significant losses. Although Vietnam 

successfully expelled Pol Pot and installed a new government, 

Pol Pot continued to control some areas of Cambodia from his 

new base in Thailand. Consequently, Vietnamese troops 

remained in Cambodia until 1989, suffering some 50,000 

casualties over the decade. Meanwhile, border skirmishes 

between Vietnam and China continued until 1990. 

“Boat People” Flee Vietnam 

As the new regime consolidated power, millions of refugees fled 

Vietnam. Called the world’s largest peacetime exodus, these 

refugees left primarily via small fishing boats to Hong Kong, 

Malaysia, or the Philippines. From 1975 until the mid-1990s, 

most of these “boat people” arrived safely in other countries, 

though hundreds of thousands more died at sea or were robbed 

and killed by pirates. By the end of the crisis, resettled 

Indochinese boat people and 

refugees totaled over 2 million. The 

US welcomed nearly 800,000 (Photo: 

Vietnamese boat people in 1984). 

Post-war Challenges 

The new country struggled to recover 

from the war and its after-effects. The 

refugee exodus left Vietnam few 

educated and skilled workers. 

Further, the remaining population 

was deeply scarred by decades of 

war, the infrastructure and economy 

were in ruins, and corruption and 

mismanagement were widespread. 

Finally, the 1980 constitution’s socialist policies, such as 

centralized planning, nationalized industry, and collectivized 

farming, resulted in an inefficient and slow-growing economy. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

By the early 1980s, Vietnam was surviving primarily on Soviet 

aid totaling over $2 billion per year. Forced to import rice, the 

government rationed food at state-run stores. By the mid-1980s, 

the failing economy and several natural disasters resulted in 

widespread famine. 

Doi Moi Economic Reforms

In 1986, new Communist Party General Secretary Nguyen Van 

Linh initiated a series of economic reforms. Known as Doi Moi

(renovation), the reforms included the abandonment of 

collectivization in favor of a slow 

process of privatization and 

decentralization (see p. 2-3 of 

Economics and Resources). 

When Vietnamese troops 

withdrew from Cambodia in 

1989, some foreign investment 

began to trickle into Vietnam. By 

the mid-1990s, the US had lifted 

both its trade embargo and UN 

veto on aid to Vietnam, fully 

restoring diplomatic relations. 

Meanwhile, the economy began to show signs of growth 

(Illustration: Coat of arms of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam). 

Despite this economic liberalization, Vietnam’s political 

institutions remained closed and social life tightly controlled, 

particularly following the end of communism in the USSR in 

1991. The Vietnamese government soon launched a campaign 

against Western “social 

evils” such as gambling, 

drugs, pornography, 

karaoke, and some music 

genres. 

Contemporary Vietnam

In the 21st century, 

Vietnam has continued to 

pursue economic liberalization, while avoiding major political 

and social reforms. Nevertheless, endemic corruption led to 

widespread protests in 2001, forcing Communist Party leaders 

to replace Secretary General Le Kha Phieu with Nong Duc Manh 
HISTORY &

MYTH

(see p. 5-6 of Political and Social Relations) (Photo: Manh with 

former US President George W. Bush). 

During Manh’s two 5-year terms, Vietnam sought rapid 

infrastructure and economic development (see p. 3 of 

Economics and Resources). Manh also presided over some 

significant political changes, replacing some senior officials with 

younger leaders and allowing corruption investigations into highranking bureaucrats. 

Nevertheless, the Communist Party retains a tight grip on 

society, repressing the media and online dissent, jailing 

opposition members, and maintaining control over large 

segments of the economy. In 2011, the Communist Party 

Congress elected Nguyen Phu Trong as Secretary General. 

Trong amplified the campaign against corruption after scandals 

surfaced at state-run firms in 2012. Meanwhile, the government 

further restricted the media, including implementing strict

regulations for published content (see p. 3 of Technology and 

Material) (Photo: Former US Vice President Biden meeting 

General Secretary Trong). 

When China moved an oil 

rig into waters claimed by 

Vietnam in 2014, protests 

erupted across the 

country. Some Vietnamese 

attacked Chinese and 

other foreign-owned 

businesses (see p. 15 of 

Political and Social Relations). As a result of the violence, 

thousands of Chinese fled Vietnam. 

In 2016, Trong was reelected Secretary General. Under his rule, 

Vietnam continues to closely control the media, while quelling 

dissent and fighting some high-level corruption. Although the 

Communist Party has maintained its relatively liberal economic 

policies, it controls nearly all aspects of society and politics in 

order to preserve its monopoly on power. As Vietnam continues 

to develop within an increasingly turbulent region (see p. 9-11 of 

Political and Social Relations), the Communist Party faces 

difficult choices between sustained economic growth, political 

control, and peace in the greater Southeast Asia region. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Myth Overview

In contrast to history, which is supposed to be an objective 

record of the past based on verifiable facts, myths embody a 

culture’s values and often explain the origins of humans and the 

natural world. Myths are important because they provide a sense 

of unique heritage and identity. In Vietnam, myths and folklore 

often reflect how Vietnamese endured and defeated foreign 

occupiers. 

The Dragon Lord and the Mountain Fairy

The 2 main characters of the legend of the Vietnamese people’s 

origins are King Lac Long Quan, a dragon lord of the sea, and 

Princess Au Co, a northern mountain fairy descended from 

immortals. According to the legend, Lac Long Quan and Au Co 

married and had 100 sons. Their union 

also gave rise to the Kingdom of Viet, 

whose vast territory stretched from the 

Yangtze River in present-day central 

China to the northern Indochinese 

Peninsula. While the kingdom grew 

prosperous, both Lac Long Quan and Au 

Co dearly missed their childhood homes.

Consequently, Au Co took 50 of her sons 

to live in the mountains of present-day 

China, while the remaining 50 sons 

followed Lac Long Quan to live near the 

South China Sea, known to the 

Vietnamese as the East Sea. Since this 

separation, the Vietnamese people have 

continued to live either by the sea or in the mountains (Pictured: 

A 17th-century Le dynasty wooden panel displaying fairy and 

dragon motifs). 

Around 2900 BC, myth tells that the eldest of the 100 sons, Hung 

Vuong I, traveled from his home by the sea to the Red River 

delta, where he founded the Van Lang kingdom in present-day 

northern Vietnam. Some Vietnamese consider Hung Vuong I the 

founder of Vietnam. Hung Vuong I learned rice irrigation 

techniques from his father, Lac Long Quan, which each of the 

subsequent 18 generations of Hung kings (see p. 2 above) used 

to feed their people. 
Official Name

Socialist Republic of Vietnam 

Cộng Hòa Xã Hội Chủ Nghĩa Việt Nam

(Vietnamese) 

Political Borders

China: 806 mi 

Laos: 1,343 mi 

Cambodia: 720 mi 

Coastline: 2,140 mi

Capital 

Hanoi 

Demographics 

With a population of over 95 million, 

Vietnam is Southeast Asia’s 3rd most 

populous nation after Indonesia and the 

Philippines and the world’s 15th most populous country. 

Nevertheless, Vietnam’s annual population growth rate of 0.95% 

and fertility rate of 1.82 children per woman are among the 

world’s lowest. Some 2/3 of the population lives in rural areas, 

predominantly along the Red and Mekong River deltas and 

coastal regions. Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi are Vietnam’s 

largest cities. Due to Vietnam’s mountainous geography, the 

population is concentrated on 

just 20% of its territory. 

Flag 

Known as the co do sao vang

(red flag with a gold star), the 

Vietnamese flag consists of a 

red field with a large, 5-

pointed yellow star in the 

center. Designed in 1940 during revolts against French colonial 

rule (see p. 9-12 of History and Myth), the flag’s red background 

represents blood and revolution, while each of the star’s 5 points 

symbolizes a socioeconomic group of the Vietnamese populace: 

soldiers, workers, peasants, traders, and intellectuals. 

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Geography 

Located in Southeast Asia, Vietnam shares borders with China 

in the North and Cambodia and Laos in the West. Vietnam’s long 

coastline borders the Gulf of Tonkin in the Northeast and the 

South China Sea (known in Vietnam as the East Sea) in the 

East, before curving around the Gulf of Thailand in the 

Southwest. Vietnam has a total area of 127,881 sq mi, making it 

slightly larger than New Mexico and about the size of Norway. 

Hills and mountains comprising the eastern extension of the 

Himalaya Mountain range dominate the terrain in the far North. 

Much of this northern territory lies above 6,600 ft and includes 

Vietnam’s highest peak, Mount Fansipan at 10,312 ft. The 

Truong Son Mountain range (also known as the Annamite 

Cordillera) extends north-south along Vietnam’s western border 

with Laos and Cambodia. Here, a network of passageways 

collectively known as the Ho Chi Minh trail connected Vietnam’s 

North to its South during 

the Vietnam War (see p. 

18 of History and Myth). 

Narrow, central highlands 

separate the flat and fertile 

Red River Delta in the 

North from the marshy 

Mekong Delta in the 

South. Often described as 

the nation’s rice baskets, these 2 deltas comprise Vietnam’s 

primary agricultural regions and serve as vital economic centers. 

Densely populated and fertile lowland plains follow Vietnam’s 

meandering coastline. Over 45% of the country is covered by 

tropical and highland forests (Photo: Lam Dong Province, part of 

Vietnam’s central highlands). 

Climate 

Although weather patterns vary with altitude, topography, and 

sea proximity, Vietnam generally divides into 2 climactic zones 

separated by the central highlands. In the North, Vietnam 

experiences a moderate, temperate climate with 4 distinct 

seasons. Here, winters tend to be brief and chilly, with January 

temperatures dipping as low as 41°F in Hanoi. Summers are 

typically hot, humid, and long, with August temperatures rising 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
to 95°F. Rainfall is heaviest October-April, when cyclical 

monsoons (gio mua) and tropical storms originating in the 

Pacific Ocean intermittently bring rains. 

By contrast, Vietnam’s South experiences a moderate tropical 

climate dividing roughly into 2 seasons: dry and rainy. The dry 

and warm season runs October-April, with temperatures 

averaging 77°F. By contrast, May-September is hot and rainy, 

with temperatures averaging 86°F and southern monsoonal 

winds bringing brief yet

intense daily rain 

showers. 

Natural Hazards

Vietnam is vulnerable to 

several types of natural 

hazards. As many as 12 

cyclones (tropical storms 

characterized by strong, 

spiraling winds) strike Vietnam’s coasts annually, damaging 

infrastructure, inundating coastal areas with torrential rains, and 

often resulting in deaths. In addition, monsoonal rains regularly

cause widespread and destructive flooding, particularly in the 

low-lying river deltas and along coastal areas. Notably, floods 

affect approximately 70% of the population annually, damaging

millions of homes and worsening water pollution (see 

“Environmental Issues” below) (Photo: Shops and homes line 

the Mekong River). 

Environmental Issues 

The clearing of land for agriculture, timber production, and 

housing has led to extensive deforestation, causing soil erosion 

that aggravates already severe and chronic flooding. Agent 

Orange, a chemical defoliant widely used by the US military 

during the Vietnam War (see p. 20 of History and Myth) 

continues to contaminate certain areas and adversely affects the 

health of some residents (see p. 7 of Sustenance and Health). 

Recent and rapid industrial growth has resulted in increased 

levels of air and water pollution. As many as 80% of Vietnamese 

factories regularly disregard environmental regulations, causing 

industrial and agricultural runoff that pollutes rivers, lakes, and 

coastal waters, damages ecosystems, and threatens 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
biodiversity. In urban areas, vehicle emissions contribute to poor 

air quality. Since 2011, the US has provided over $44 million in 

aid to enhance Vietnam’s environmental protection 

mechanisms, remediate Agent Orange contamination, and 

assist affected and vulnerable populations. 

Government

Vietnam is a communist state consisting of 58 provinces (tinh) 

governed by local administrators who report to the central 

government. The latter directly controls 5 municipalities (thanh 

pho truc thuoc truong uong) (Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh, Can Tho, 

Da Nang, and Hai Phong). Provinces further subdivide into 

districts (quan), hundreds of rural districts (huyen), and 

thousands of communes 

(xa). Vietnam’s most recent 

constitution was adopted in 

1992 and amended several 

times, most recently in 2013.

Executive Branch 

A President, Prime Minister 

(PM), and 19-member 

Government Council (GC) 

head the executive branch. The President, who is head-of-state 

and commander-in-chief of the military, is elected by the 

National Assembly (NA, see “Legislative Branch” below) from 

among its members to serve a single 5-year term. With the 

approval of the NA, the President appoints the PM and all GC

members, who also must be members of the NA. The PM is 

head-of-government and leads the GC to run the nation’s daily 

affairs. President Tran Dai Quang and PM Nguyen Xuan Phuc

took office in 2016 (Photo: Former US Secretary of State Kerry 

with former Vietnamese President Truong Tan Sang in 2015). 

Legislative Branch 

Vietnam’s legislature consists of a single-chamber NA (Quoc 

Hoi) with 500 members who serve 5-year terms. While all 

members are elected by popular vote, they are screened and 

approved by the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) (see 

“Political Climate” below) before assuming their positions. The 

NA’s responsibilities include making laws, approving budgets, 

impeaching public officials, and declaring war. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Judicial Branch

The judiciary is based on a mixed system of civil law and 

communist legal theory. The system’s highest court is the 

Supreme People’s Court, comprised of 13 judges and a chief 

justice who is nominated by the President and appointed by the 

NA to serve a 5-year, renewable term. Subordinate courts 

include a Court of Appeals and a system of administrative, civil, 

criminal, labor, and economic courts that adjudicate a variety of 

cases. A Central Military Court oversees matters pertaining to 

defense personnel. Generally, the courts serve as an extension 

of state power and maintain little autonomy.

Political Climate

Vietnam’s government recognizes only a single political party,

the Communist Party of Vietnam (Dang Cong san Viet Nam, or 

CPV), forbidding the activities of all other political groups. The 

CPV leads the Vietnam Fatherland Front (VFF), a large coalition 

of political and social organizations that develops government 

policies and trains future CPV members. Although candidates 

unaffiliated with the CPV or the VFF may run for the NA, 

generally the CPV must first approve their application. As a 

result, the CPV and its leader, currently Secretary General 

Nguyen Phu Trong 

(pictured, with former US 

Secretary of Defense 

Ash Carter), retain 

significant control over

Vietnam’s political 

landscape (see p. 23-24

of History and Myth).

Indicative of the CPV’s 

extensive influence in

Vietnamese society, affiliation with the CPV typically affords vital 

economic, political, and social opportunities. By contrast, those 

who refuse to join the party face significant barriers to economic 

and social success. Although the CPV includes some ethnic 

minorities among its ranks, they rarely attain leadership 

positions. 

The Vietnamese government stifles virtually all political dissent 

by outlawing political protests, strictly monitoring Internet usage,

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
and restricting freedom of speech (see p. 3 of Technology and 

Material). In addition, corruption continues to permeate the 

government, courts, and police (see p. 24 of History and Myth), 

despite recent efforts to curb its existence. The payment of 

bribes to authorities in exchange for various services is a feature 

of daily life for some Vietnamese. This practice poses significant 

hurdles in poor, rural communities, where local officials favor 

friends and family or expect payments for the delivery of already 

scarce public goods and services. Further, the CPV heavily 

influences the actions of the judiciary, while police may employ 

torture to elicit forced confessions from suspected criminals. 

Although the government strictly controls political expression, 

some groups advocating political freedom, transparency, and 

rule of law have recently gained modest followings. In addition, 

human rights activists and some ethnic minorities, such as the 

Khmer Krom and Hmong (see “Ethnic Groups” below), have 

organized protests to call for increased political representation, 

protection of human rights, and an end to corruption (Photo: The 

CPV headquarters in 

Hanoi). 

Defense

Vietnam’s military 

includes an Army, 

Navy, and Air Force 

with a joint strength of 

about 482,000 activeduty and 5,000,000 

reserve personnel. Over the last several years, Vietnam has 

dramatically increased its defense spending amid a series of 

territorial disputes with China (see “Security Issues” below), 

making substantial procurements to better equip both the Navy 

and Air Force. 

Vietnam’s military is charged with defending against foreign and 

domestic threats and participating in peacekeeping and disaster 

relief efforts. Military service is compulsory for men aged 18-25. 

Conscription occurs twice annually, with service obligation 

lasting 2 years for the Army and Air Defense and 3 years for the 

Navy and Air Force. While service is not compulsory for women, 

they may volunteer from age 18. 

POLITICAL & 

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RELATIONS
Army: Vietnam’s Army is a well-equipped, well-trained force of 

412,000 active-duty troops organized into 8 military regions. The 

Army divides into 4 command corps; a special forces brigade;

34 maneuver brigades, regiments, and divisions (including 

armored, mechanized, and light); 42 combat support brigades, 

regiments, and units; 12 combat service support divisions, 

regiments, and units; and 9 reserve light maneuver divisions

(Photo: US Navy Cmdr 

Meagher bids farewell 

to Vietnamese military 

and civilian officials). 

Navy: Consisting of 

40,000 active-duty 

personnel (including 

27,000 Navy Infantry 

personnel), the 

Vietnamese Navy is 

equipped with 4 tactical submarines, 2 principal surface 

combatants, 68 patrol and coastal combatants, 13 mine warfare 

and mine countermeasures vessels, 8 amphibious landing 

ships, and 30 logistics and support vessels (Photo: US and 

Vietnamese Navy 

personnel converse 

during a naval 

exchange in Vietnam). 

Air Force: Vietnam’s 

Air Force consists of 

30,000 active-duty 

personnel divided into 

4 fighter regiments, 4 

fighter/ground attack 

regiments, 2 transport 

regiments, 2 training regiments, 2 attack/transport helicopter 

regiments, and 4 air defense brigades. The Air Force is 

equipped with 97 combat capable aircraft, 61 helicopters, and 

numerous air defense guns and missiles. 

Paramilitary: Vietnam’s Paramilitary consists of more than 

40,000 active-duty personnel organized into the Coast Guard 

and Fisheries Surveillance Force. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
POLITICAL & 

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RELATIONS
Security Issues

Relations with China: Vietnam and China have historically 

bitter and volatile relations, overshadowed by over 1,000 years 

of Chinese occupation and most recently by China’s 1979 

invasion of northern Vietnam (see p. 22 of History and Myth). 

Despite their hostile past, the 2 nations established diplomatic 

ties in the 1990s. Over the last 2 decades, both countries have

encouraged the 

development of bilateral 

economic and political 

relations (Photo: 

Vietnamese Navy 

members tour the USS 

Chung-Hoon).

Although Vietnam 

enjoys prosperous 

bilateral trade with 

China today, ongoing territorial disputes and maritime 

sovereignty issues lead to friction. Occasionally, these disputes 

ignite nationalist demonstrations in Vietnam, where some 

residents continue to harbor deep anti-Chinese sentiment and 

fear China’s regional domination. Notable territorial disputes 

include the Paracel and Spratly islands in the South China Sea, 

both claimed by China, Vietnam, and other countries. In May 

2017, Vietnam and China agreed to avoid further actions to 

complicate or enlarge the disputes and committed to maintaining 

peace in the South China Sea. 

Besides its territorial claims, China’s increasing ability to project 

military power abroad is a source of concern for Vietnam. 

Looking to balance China’s regional power, Vietnam has

recently sought to enhance its maritime and air military 

capabilities, as well as build closer military ties with Japan, India, 

and the US (see “Foreign Relations” below). 

Internal Tensions: While Vietnam is generally free of internal 

conflict, some low-level tensions exist over land-use rights. The 

government owns all Vietnamese land and occasionally forcibly 

evicts farmers or other rural inhabitants. Disputes between 

authorities and affected communities often escalate to violence, 

with the government occasionally using force to quell even 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
peaceful protests. While some rural residents have formed small 

and informal unions to resolve land disputes, land use remains 

a controversial issue. 

Foreign Relations 

After unifying under communist rule in 1976 (see p. 21 of History 

and Myth), Vietnam aligned economically and politically with the 

Soviet Union, also a communist state. By the late 1980s, as 

Vietnam’s economy stagnated (see p. 2 of Economics and 

Resources) and the Soviet Union’s influence in the region began 

to wane, Vietnam was forced to readjust its orientation. 

Subsequently, as part of a larger effort to integrate into the global 

economy, Vietnam sought to mend historically contentious 

relations with the US, China, and Cambodia (Photo: Former US 

Secretary of State Kerry poses with Foreign Ministers from 

Vietnam, Laos, 

Cambodia, and 

others). 

Today, Vietnam’s 

foreign policy is still

largely driven by 

economic interests, 

even though relations 

with major trading 

partners can be tense. 

For example, China constitutes an important trade partner (see 

p. 7 of Economics and Resources), yet its assertive foreign 

policy and expanding military capabilities are considered 

problematic. Consequently, Vietnam’s desire to curb Chinese 

influence shapes its policies towards other countries, such as 

the recent development of closer military ties with Japan, India, 

and the US. 

Regional Cooperation: Vietnam is a member of the Association 

of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Comprising Indonesia, 

Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Brunei, Thailand, Laos, 

Myanmar, Cambodia, and Vietnam, ASEAN was created in 1967 

to promote regional stability and development. While it is not a 

base for insurgent groups or terrorists itself, Vietnam works with 

fellow ASEAN members to limit the growth of terror networks 

within Southeast Asia. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
In November 2017, Vietnam hosted the Asia-Pacific Economic 

Cooperation, a forum of 21 member states who collectively 

advocate for economic integration, peace, and sustainable 

development in the Asia-Pacific region. Vietnam also 

participates in several global organizations, such as the United 

Nations, International Monetary Fund, World Bank, World Trade 

Organization, and the Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear 

Terrorism. 

Relations with Cambodia: Vietnam has an improving but 

troubled relationship with Cambodia. The 2 nations’ security 

interests align closely, and they engage in significant bilateral 

trade and other activities. Nevertheless, anti-Vietnamese 

sentiment persists in Cambodia due to Vietnam’s long history of 

territorial rivalries with and recent occupation of the country (see 

p. 22 of History and Myth). Other contentious issues include an 

unresolved maritime dispute and the illegal movement of drugs 

and people across the 

porous border (Photo: 

Vietnamese Honor 

Guard walk in formation 

in Hanoi).

Relations with the US:

The US first established 

diplomatic relations with 

the pro-French State of 

Vietnam (South 

Vietnam) in 1950. Yet, within a few years, conflict had engulfed 

the country (see p. 14 of History and Myth). Over the following 2 

decades, the US never recognized North Vietnam’s communist 

government, supporting instead the southern Republic of 

Vietnam. When the South surrendered to the North at the end of 

the Vietnam war, the US evacuated all US personnel from the 

country, severed diplomatic relations, and imposed a crippling 

economic embargo on Vietnam that would last for nearly 20

years (see p. 21-23 of History and Myth).

By the early 1990s, tensions slowly eased as both nations 

worked to normalize relations and addressed various political 

and humanitarian concerns, such as prisoner of war/missing in 

action (POW/MIA) issues. In 1995, the US and Vietnam formally 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
reestablished diplomatic relations, and in 2015, celebrated 20 

years of continued bilateral progress. 

Today, the US and Vietnam engage in a Comprehensive 

Partnership fostering bilateral economic, social, and political 

ties. Specifically, the US supports Vietnam’s development of 

human rights, trade and economic ties, disaster relief efforts, 

defense and security, science and technology, environment and 

health, and education and social programs. In 2016, the 2 

nations entered into a bilateral agreement to promote good 

governance and strengthen Vietnam’s rule of law, with the aim 

of bringing Vietnam’s justice system up to international 

standards. Finally, US-Vietnamese bilateral economic 

agreements have resulted in a dramatic growth in trade, from 

$451 million in 1995 to 

about $45 billion in 

2015. 

Despite the US’s 

involvement in the 

Vietnam War (known 

as “The American 

War” in Vietnam– see 

p. 17-18 of History and 

Myth), today little antiAmerican sentiment exists. Instead, Vietnamese generally 

express interest in American culture and support closer relations 

with the US. Further, some Vietnamese see a close alliance with 

the US as a deterrence to Chinese aggression and a source of

regional stability (Photo: A Vietnamese military policeman 

directs traffic). 

Ethnic Groups

Vietnam is a multi-ethnic country, where the government 

officially recognizes 54 ethnic groups. Ethnic minorities account 

for over 40% of the poor, reflecting their historically inferior 

status in society. 

Kinh: According to the 2009 census, the Viet ethnic group, also 

known as the Kinh, comprise about 86% of the population. 

Historically settling in North and Central Vietnam, the Kinh today 

live throughout the country, primarily concentrating in urban 

areas and lowland delta regions. While the Kinh traditionally 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
practiced wet-rice cultivation and animal husbandry, an 

increasing number now work in industrial or services jobs. Most 

Kinh speak Vietnamese as their native language. 

The remaining 53 ethnic groups collectively comprise over 12 

million people, or 14% of the population. (Photo: Vietnamese 

children). 

Tay: Vietnam’s 2nd-largest ethnic 

group, the Tay, also known as Tho, 

comprise about 2% of the 

population. Settling the region as 

early as 500 BC, today Tay primarily 

live in the hills and valleys of the far 

northeastern provinces, where many 

practice wet-rice cultivation and 

raise livestock. The Tay typically 

speak Tay, a member of the TaiKadai language family, or 

Vietnamese. 

Thai: The Thai (also spelled Thay or Tay) ethnic group, distinct 

from the Thai people of Thailand, comprises just under 2% of 

the population. The Thai likely entered Vietnam from southern 

China between the 7-13th centuries. Today, Thai live throughout 

Vietnam but concentrate in the north-central and northwestern 

provinces. Thai typically practice wet-rice or slash-and-burn

cultivation and live in unique houses built on stilts. Most Thai 

speak the Thai language, also a member of Tai-Kadai language 

family and related to Tay. 

Muong: Muong account for around 1.5% of the population and 

mostly speak a Vietic language similar to Vietnamese, although 

they are culturally closer to the Thai. The Muong traditionally live 

in the northern mountains, where they primarily grow rice, raise 

livestock, and trade goods such as wood and cinnamon. 

Because the Muong remained isolated in the mountains for a 

long period, experts believe they may have more in common 

with early Vietnamese than the Chinese-influenced Kinh. 

Khmer Krom: Comprising about 1.5% of Vietnam’s population, 

the Khmer Krom traditionally live in the Mekong Delta, where 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
they primarily practice wet-rice cultivation and maritime trade. 

Originally part of the Cambodian Khmer Empire until Vietnam 

absorbed the region in the 19th century (see p. 8 of History and 

Myth), Khmer Krom speak a southern dialect of the Khmer 

language of Cambodia. 

Hoa: The Hoa are ethnic Chinese comprising over 1% of the 

population. The Hoa dominated commerce in Vietnam from the 

15th century until the end of the Vietnam War, when the 

government confiscated many businesses (see p. 21 of History 

and Myth). Many Hoa remain active in commerce in urban areas

while others practice wet-rice cultivation, primarily in the South. 

Most Hoa speak a southern Chinese dialect along with

Vietnamese. 

Nung: Closely related to the Tay, the Nung account for around 

1% of the population. The Nung primarily live in the far northern 

and northeastern provinces, where many trade goods in local 

markets and practice slash-and-burn cultivation. Most Nung 

speak a Tai-Kadai language similar to Tay. 

Hmong: The Hmong comprise about 1% of Vietnam’s 

population. Also present in China, Laos, Myanmar, and 

Thailand, Vietnam’s Hmong traditionally live in the north-central 

mountainous region, where they raise livestock and practice 

terraced and slash-and-burn cultivation of rice, corn, and wheat. 

Most Hmong speak Hmong, a member of the Hmong-Mien 

language family (Photo: 

Hmong youth in Sa Pa). 

Other Groups: Other 

notable ethnic groups

include the Dao, Gia 

Rai, Ba Na, Cham, Xo 

Dang, Co Ho, San Diu, 

Hre, Mnong, and several 

others account for about 

4% of the population. Located throughout Vietnam, these ethnic 

minorities primarily live in rural or mountainous areas. 

Social Relations

Kinship and family are the governing principles in Vietnamese 

society. Regardless of ethnic identify, Vietnamese typically 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
identify first with their immediate kin, then their ancestors and 

often their village. Family connections are important in most 

political and economic activities, and Vietnamese typically share 

their resources with their extended family (see p. 1-3 of Family 

and Kinship) (Photo: 

Women selling fruit 

and flowers at a 

market). 

Vietnamese society 

traditionally prioritizes 

the collective over the 

individual. Further, 

centuries of Chinese 

Confucian influence 

(see p. 2 of Religion and Spirituality and p. 2-5 of History and 

Myth) entrenched respect for elders and ancestors among 

Vietnamese. Consequently, Vietnamese typically believe 

successes and misdeeds alike reflect not just the individual but 

also one’s family and ancestors. Consequently, the maintenance 

of family honor is vital to stable social relations in Vietnam. 

Due in part to its hierarchical Confucian past, Vietnamese 

society tends to reflect clear divisions. Urban dwellers, males, 

and the wealthy typically enjoy greater access to educational 

and economic opportunities and hold the most prestige. Women 

tend to experience relatively high levels of domestic violence 

and face discrimination in the workplace (see p. 1-2 of Sex and 

Gender). Differences between rural and urban residents have

grown in recent years, intensified by unequal access to public 

services.

The most evident social cleavage is between the majority Kinh

population and ethnic minority groups. Some minorities, such as 

the Hmong, face discrimination for perceived collaboration with 

US troops during the Vietnam War (see p. 16-21 of History and 

Myth). Kinh have seized land from, harassed, and beaten some 

minorities. Anti-Chinese and anti-Hoa sentiment is also 

substantial and tends to reflect territorial disputes and the status 

of relations between Vietnam and China. While the government 

has implemented some programs to improve the livelihoods of 

ethnic minorities, major disparities persist. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Overview

According to the 2009 census, about 8% of Vietnamese are 

Buddhists, another 8% Christians, with nearly 82% claiming no 

religious affiliation. Nevertheless, the Committee for Religious 

Affairs (CRA), Vietnam’s federal agency responsible for 

implementing religious law, reports that over 95% of the 

population subscribe to a system of religious belief. Specifically, 

the CRA states that over half of the population are Buddhists, 

about 9% Christians, 3-

4% practitioners of Cao 

Dai, and 2-3% followers 

of Hoa Hao (Photo: 

Vietnamese Buddhist 

pagoda). 

Vietnam’s government 

extended its longstanding policies of restricting religious practices to the South 

after reunification in 1976 (see p. 21 of History and Myth). Over

the course of subsequent decades, the government eased 

religious restrictions somewhat yet continues to monitor and 

control religious practice. While Vietnam’s constitution 

guarantees freedom of religion, it also prohibits citizens from 

engaging in religious activities that undermine peace, national 

security, and social unity. Consequently, the government 

permits some religious groups to practice relatively freely, while 

significantly restricting the activities of others, particularly those 

suspected of engaging in political activism. Moreover, 

government treatment of religious groups varies widely across 

geographic regions and among central, provincial, and local 

administration levels. 

Religiously diverse, Vietnam is home to a variety of pagodas, 

temples, shrines, churches, and mosques located throughout 

the country. Although there has been some historic religious 

tension and intolerance (see p. 9, 14-17, 21 of History and Myth), 

interfaith relations are usually peaceful, and Vietnam generally 

remains free of interreligious conflict. 

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Early Spiritual Landscape 

Early inhabitants throughout Southeast Asia practiced animism, 

the belief that a spiritual presence resides in all objects, both 

animate and inanimate, notably animals, trees, rivers, and rocks. 

Animism promotes the notion that all natural objects are sacred, 

a conviction that establishes a close connection between 

animists and their environment. 

Some local religious traditions also recognized guardian spirits 

that inhabited homes, gardens, and rice fields, while others 

acknowledged spirits of their ancestors who could guide or 

obstruct the living, causing sickness, family discord, and other 

forms of misfortune. Today, some members of Vietnam’s ethnic 

minorities primarily adhere to traditional beliefs while other 

Vietnamese incorporate aspects of traditional religion into their 

devotional practices (see Tam Giao below). For example, 

Vietnamese experiencing 

misfortune may seek counsel 

from diviners, ritual specialists 

who identify the source of the 

hardship and offer mediation 

(Photo: The Thien Mu Pagoda in 

Hue). 

Confucianism

Based on the teachings of 

Confucius, a 6th-5th-century BC 

Chinese philosopher, 

Confucianism teaches that social 

relations should promote social 

harmony rather than individual happiness. Since it does not 

involve deity worship, Confucianism is not usually considered a 

religion. Instead, it is better described as a social philosophy and

system of ethics that prescribes specific rules of conduct and 

courtesy for every relationship. Confucian principles of fairness, 

harmony, and ancestor veneration pervade Vietnamese society.

Taoism

This system originated in China around the 6th century BC from 

the teachings of Lao-Tze, a Chinese philosopher and 

contemporary of Confucius. Like some traditional animist 

religions, Taoism emphasizes harmony with nature and 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
recognizes a variety of nature gods. But unlike animism, Taoism 

acknowledges a singular great force behind all things in the 

universe, the tao. Adherents of Taoism believe harmony with the 

natural world is achieved by minimizing the desire for material 

gain and by living a compassionate, frugal, and humble life that 

is balanced within the tao. 

Although Taoism’s influence on Vietnamese society was much 

more subtle than that of Confucianism, its effects continue to 

linger. For example, some Vietnamese follow certain rituals for 

telling the future or choosing the appropriate placement of 

buildings. In addition, some Vietnamese households feature a 

Taoist 8-symbol diagram above the front door intended to

protect the home from evil forces. 

Buddhism

This practice traces its beginning to around 500 BC when 

Siddhartha Gautama, a South Asian prince, attained spiritual 

insight through meditation. Buddhists believe that humans are 

fated to suffer, that suffering is caused by greed or desire, and 

can be stopped by following a spiritual path of unselfish living 

and meditation. Buddhists’ ultimate goal is to achieve nirvana, a 

state of peace and unity 

with the universe. 

Vietnamese follow 2 

different Buddhist 

traditions – Mahayana and 

Theravada Buddhism. 

Mahayana differs from 

Theravada in its view of 

Gautama: while adherents 

of Theravada believe that Gautama is the only enlightened 

being, the Mahayana school teaches that Gautama was one of 

many. Mahayana further teaches that all followers may attempt 

to reach nirvana, while the Theravada school stipulates only 

ordained monks may do so (Photo: A statue of the Buddha). 

Mahayana Buddhism gradually spread from southern to central 

Asia and then was introduced to Vietnam’s northern Red River 

Delta region via China in the 2nd century BC. In the South, 

Buddhism spread between the 3rd-6th centuries, when Indian 

monks and traders introduced Theravada Buddhism to the 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
region’s indigenous Khmer population. As Mahayana flourished 

across northern and central Vietnam, Theravada remained 

mostly confined to the southern delta region, where today it 

continues to be predominant among the Khmer Krom ethnic 

minority group (see “Religion Today” below). 

Buddhism spread rapidly between the 7-14th centuries, when 

various rulers adopted it as the official religion (see p. 4 of 

History and Myth). As it spread, Buddhism mixed with 

indigenous traditions, flourishing among the lower classes. 

During that time, Buddhist monks enjoyed significant social and 

political influence, while Buddhist architecture, scholarship, and 

art flourished. In the beginning of the 15th century, imperial 

leaders began to favor Confucian ideals of social relations as

Buddhism lost its official status and much of its political 

influence. Although royal interest in Buddhism waned, Buddhism 

remained popular among the 

masses. 

With diminished access to 

the ruling class, some monks 

retreated to rural areas 

where they tended to stray

from traditional Buddhist 

teachings by incorporating 

mysticism, animism, 

polytheism, and tantric 

rituals into their Buddhist practices. By the early 20th century, 

however, religious movements to purge Buddhism of such 

outside influences successfully restored the religion to a more 

traditional form. By the 1950s, Buddhist organizations and 

scholarship flourished in the South, where Buddhism emerged 

as a powerful political force, playing a key role in deposing the 

religiously restrictive government of President Ngo Dinh Diem 

(see p. 16-17 of History and Myth) (Photo: Diem shakes hands 

with US President Eisenhower in 1957). 

After unifying under communist rule in 1976, Vietnam’s 

government restricted religious activity and imprisoned Buddhist 

leaders who resisted the government’s efforts to control religious 

practices. Authorities also banned the socially and politically 

influential Unified Buddhist Church of Vietnam (UBCV), South 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Vietnam’s primary Buddhist organization famed for its social 

activism and involvement in national independence movements 

during the Vietnam War.

Christianity 

While Christianity was first 

introduced to Vietnam in 

the 16th century by 

Portuguese, Spanish, and 

French Catholic 

missionaries, it differed 

fundamentally from the 

Asian religious traditions

and consequently was initially slow to take root. For example, 

some Vietnamese were suspicious of the Catholics’ refusal to 

perform ancestor veneration rituals. Further, Christianity’s 

clearly defined doctrine, church membership requirements, and 

organizational structure starkly contrasted with traditional 

Vietnamese religious practices (Photo: Notre Dame Cathedral in 

Ho Chi Minh City, established in 1880). 

Despite these challenges, French missionaries had some 

success, converting around 300,000 Vietnamese by the end of 

the 18th century. The Vietnamese Catholics formed small, closeknit communities that initially enjoyed some religious freedom. 

Beginning in the 19th century, the Catholic communities were 

subjected to waves of persecution by various Vietnamese rulers

(see p. 9 of History and Myth). Escalating violence against 

Catholics provided justification for France to intervene in the 

region (see p. 9-10 of History and Myth). 

Christianity grew considerably following French colonization in 

the late 19th century (see p. 9-15 of History and Myth). For over 

50 years, the colonial government suppressed the activities of 

indigenous religious groups, while allowing Christian 

denominations to practice freely, significantly swelling Vietnam’s 

Catholic community. In 1933, the first ethnic Vietnamese 

Catholic was consecrated as a Bishop. 

In 1945, the abrupt end of French colonialism and the 

establishment of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) in 

the North (see p. 13 of History and Myth) prompted nearly 

650,000 Catholics to flee south to avoid religious persecution. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
The DRV’s communist government repressed religious activity, 

appropriated church property, arrested church officials, and sent 

priests to labor camps for 

reeducation. Meanwhile in the South, 

the Catholic Church continued to 

freely operate its 870 parishes and 15 

dioceses, with followers in Saigon 

(present-day Ho Chi Minh City) alone 

numbering some 1/2 million. 

Following reunification with the South 

in 1976, North Vietnam’s communist 

government formally dissolved 

diplomatic relations with the Vatican in 

Rome. In subsequent years, the 

government continued to confiscate 

church property as Catholics 

throughout Vietnam faced increasing discrimination in 

education, employment, and government appointments (Photo: 

Interior of the Notre Dame Cathedral). 

Religion Today 

Today, Vietnamese generally avoid identification with a single 

religious tradition. Instead, they incorporate elements of 

Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism along with traditional 

animist beliefs in their spiritual lives in a practice known as Tam 

Giao (three religions). 

Within Tam Giao, Confucianism promotes benevolent behavior, 

virtue, and morality within a strict social hierarchy that enforces 

respect for parents and ancestors. Meanwhile, Buddhism 

similarly emphasizes ethical and moral instruction, offering its

adherents a system of practice to prepare for enlightenment or, 

failing that, a favorable rebirth or reincarnation following death. 

Finally, Taoism stresses the importance of living in harmony with 

nature and shares some common aspects with traditional 

indigenous animist belief systems. 

Vietnamese often include various features of Tam Giao in their 

daily religious practices. For example, they may conduct prayers 

at Buddhist pagodas and visit local diviners who communicate 

with nature spirits. Meanwhile, Confucian traditions and 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
principles of virtue, morality, and respect for parents and 

ancestors permeate daily life. For example, some Vietnamese 

believe deceased ancestors can help or hinder the living. 

Consequently, families regularly conduct elaborate ceremonies 

and acts of reverence in memory of deceased loved ones. These 

acts typically occur before an ancestral altar in the home where

family members place morsels of food, tea, and small gifts to 

venerate the deceased (see p. 6 of Family and Kinship). 

Vietnamese may also burn incense, offer prayers, and perform 

other rituals on holidays and anniversaries to honor their 

ancestors and encourage good luck. 

Buddhism

The government 

estimates that about 

1/2 of the population, 

primarily members of 

the dominant Viet (or 

Kinh – see p. 12 of 

Political and Social 

Relations), are 

followers of 

Mahayana Buddhism. About 1.2% of Vietnamese, almost all 

from the Khmer Krom ethnic minority, practice Theravada 

Buddhism. Vietnam has more than 17,000 Buddhist pagodas

and temples, some 40,000 monks, and 36 Buddhist training 

institutes. Of note, Vietnam’s Buddhist pagodas typically include 

halls or altars devoted to animist spirits (Photo: The Buddhist 

Buu Long Pagoda in Ho Chi Minh City). 

Although the government allows most Buddhists to practice their 

faith relatively freely, it maintains strict control over the 

community’s religious affairs. For example, monks are required 

to register with the Vietnamese Buddhist Church (VBC), which 

replaced the UBCV in 1981. Notably, monks associated with the 

banned UBCV and other unsanctioned groups like the Buddhist 

Youth Movement face continued government harassment (see 

“Religion and Politics” below). 

Cao Dai: Cao Dai is a syncretic movement rooted in Buddhism, 

founded in 1926 by Ngo Van Chieu, a civil servant of the French 

colonial government (see p. 9-13 of History and Myth). Based on 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
the belief that all religions are one, Cao Dai places Buddhism, 

Taoism, Islam, Confucianism, and Christianity under one 

supreme being, the Cao Dai (“Holy See”). Cao Dai’s structure 

mirrors that of the Catholic Church with a strict ecclesiastical 

hierarchy headed by a Pope supported by female cardinals. Cao 

Dai followers worship a variety of religious and historical figures, 

notably Confucius, Jesus Christ, Gautama Buddha, Joan of Arc, 

and Winston Churchill. Approximately 2-4 million Vietnamese 

practice Cao Dai (Photo: The Cao Dai Great Temple in Tay Ninh 

incorporates French, 

Chinese, and Islamic 

architecture).

Hoa Hao: Hoa Hao was 

founded in 1939 by 

Huynh Pho So in the 

southern Mekong Delta. 

Rooted in Theravada 

Buddhism, Hoa Hao 

relies on 4 religious volumes collectively known as the Oracles 

(Sam Giang), which are written in vernacular Vietnamese and 

easily accessible to Vietnam’s less educated residents. Today, 

the ancestral home of founder Pho So is a pilgrimage destination 

for Hoa Hao’s estimated 1-3 million adherents, who venerate 

Pho So as a mystic believed to eventually return to earth to lead 

his followers.

Christianity 

In recent years, Vietnam’s policy toward Catholic communities

has somewhat shifted. Numerous Catholic churches have 

reopened, and Vietnamese are once again training for 

priesthood. Since 2007, Vietnam has engaged in annual talks 

with Catholic leadership at the Vatican in Rome to reestablish 

diplomatic relations and discuss reforms of Vietnam’s religious 

freedom laws. 

Today, Vietnam is home to over 6 million Catholics, the 2nd 

largest Catholic population in Southeast Asia after the 

Philippines. Some 1-2 million Vietnamese, or about 1% of the 

population, attend Protestant churches. Protestants are

primarily members of minority ethnic groups residing in 

Vietnam’s northwestern and central highlands. Vietnamese 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Christians of all denominations often incorporate elements of 

Tam Giao in their religious practices, such as burning incense 

and presenting offerings of fruit, flowers, and candy to Catholic 

saints (Photo: A Catholic 

church in Hanoi). 

Islam 

As of 2015, Vietnam is

home to an estimated 

100,000 Muslims

scattered throughout the 

country. Some, like ethnic 

Cham communities in the 

southern Mekong Delta, 

are native to Vietnam, while others are more recent migrants 

from the Middle East and Asia.

Other Religious Movements 

Like other Southeast Asian countries, Vietnam is home to a 

variety of other religious movements. Comprising less than 0.2% 

of the population, these groups include a small Christian sect 

known as Duong Van Minh, Baha’i, Mormons, and Falun Gong, 

as well as local religions and other traditional forms of worship. 

About 50,000 ethnic Cham practice a devotional form of 

Hinduism. New religious groups originating in the country during 

the last century include Buu Son Ky Huong, Tu An Hieu Nghia, 

and To Tien Chinh Giao, together comprising about 1.3 million 

followers. 

Religion and Politics

While the Vietnamese government has gradually lifted 

restrictions on religious activities over the last several decades, 

freedom of religion varies across the country. Generally, statesponsored religious organizations enjoy considerably broader 

freedom than independent and unregistered groups. For 

example, the government has increasingly allowed registered 

religious organizations to perform charitable work, approved the 

construction of new houses of worship, and fostered dialogue 

with leaders of religious communities. 

By contrast, the government continues to curtail the activities of 

unregistered groups or religious organizations it deems 

subversive or threatening to the central government, accusing 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
them of transgressions against national security and regularly 

detaining and harassing their provincial affiliates. The severity of 

abuses varies across provinces, where local officials may not 

fully understand central government religious policies and 

consequently implement them in an inconsistent manner. 

Religious groups that promote controversial topics such as 

democracy and human rights or that have been historically 

linked with the West are the most vulnerable to intimidation and 

violence.

Followers of certain Christian denominations have relatively little 

freedom to practice their faith and been subjected to ill 

treatment. Since 2001, the government has closed several 

Protestant congregations, blaming the clergy for inciting interethnic violence and organizing government opposition groups. 

Since 2014, up to 300 Vietnamese Protestants have fled to 

Cambodia to escape persecution. Similarly, in 2015 members of 

an unregistered Mennonite Church were arrested, beaten, and 

forced to renounce their faith. Further, members of the Christian 

sect of Duong Van Minh were attacked and their places of 

worship destroyed. Moreover, followers of Buddhist sects 

outside of the statesanctioned VBC also 

face discrimination 

and harassment.

Vietnam recently 

ratified a new “Law on 

Belief and Religion,” 

which will take effect in 

2018. Initially, 

observers hoped the 

law would provide equal treatment of religious groups and 

improve training mechanisms for local authorities. Instead, some 

now fear that the law will increase government control of

religious activity, its ability to prosecute individuals for religious 

infractions, and its tendency to ban groups that threaten national 

unity. As of 2017, the US classifies Vietnam as a “country of 

particular concern” or CPC, listing Vietnam among other nations 

that allow government-sanctioned religious persecution (Photo: 

Vietnamese monks receive alms and offerings of food from lay 

practitioners).

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Overview 

Confucian values such as social harmony, obedience to elders, 

and ancestor veneration strongly influence family life. 

Vietnamese typically prioritize their family obligations over 

personal desires. From a young 

age, children learn to obey and 

respect their parents. Despite 

recent changes accompanying 

economic modernization and 

urbanization, family remains at 

the center of Vietnamese life. 

Residence 

In rural areas, multiple 

generations (extended family) – 

including grandparents, 

parents, unmarried children, 

and married sons and their 

wives and children – typically comprise a household. In some 

cases, extended families occupy multiple dwellings on a single 

plot of land. In urban areas, nuclear families (2 parents and their 

children) have become more common, although extended family 

members often live nearby. Vietnamese own no property, as all 

land belongs to the state (see p. 9-10 of Political and Social 

Relations), but they may purchase dwellings. Consequently, 

home ownership is a goal for many Vietnamese despite high 

housing costs, especially in urban areas. The government’s 

household registration system (ho khau) regulates residence 

changes, effectively restricting and controlling migration to urban 

areas (Photo: Rural dwelling). 

Rural: Most Vietnamese reside in rural areas (see p. 1 of 

Political and Social Relations). Today, Vietnamese rural people 

typically live in houses built of bricks, stucco, concrete, and other 

modern materials, topped with tiles or aluminum. Vietnamese in 

even more remote areas live in bamboo huts with thatched roofs.

Traditional home styles exhibit significant variation according to 

available materials and local custom. For example, members of 

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
the Kinh ethnic group (see p. 12 of Political and Social Relations) 

traditionally built homes 

with wood or bamboo, 

while Nung and Tay 

groups typically use mud 

brick. Across the region, 

roofs usually have been

made of thatched 

bamboo leaves. 

Some communities 

preferred large homes 

sheltering several 

families. For example, the Ede constructed dwellings over 300 ft 

long that stood on short stilts (pictured). By contrast, the 

towering stilted communal homes of the Bahnar and Giarau 

were shorter in length but stood as tall as 65 ft. 

Rural homes typically have a main room for gathering, working, 

and in some cases, sleeping, if the home has no additional 

bedrooms. This room may also house the family’s ancestral altar 

(see p. 7 of Religion and Spirituality). The kitchen is usually

located next to the main room or in a separate structure. Homes 

in remote areas often lack 

basic amenities such as 

running water.

Urban: About 34% of 

Vietnamese live in urban 

areas. Since reforms in the 

1980s (see p. 23 of History 

and Myth), economic growth 

has intensified the income 

gap between rich and poor, evident in the range in housing 

quality seen in urban areas. While some residents of Hanoi and 

Ho Chi Minh City enjoy a high standard of living in modern 

apartments, the poorest urban inhabitants live in squatter 

settlements on city outskirts lacking access to clean water and 

sanitation services (Photo: Hanoi, Vietnam’s capital).

Vietnamese cities typically exhibit a range of housing structures 

and styles, from colonial-era apartment blocks and French 

colonial detached homes to apartments built over family-run 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
stores. Some older buildings are 4 or 5 story walkups with

shared kitchen or bathroom facilities. By contrast, modern, highrise apartment buildings are serviced by elevators. 

Family Structure

In line with Confucian teachings (see p. 2 of Religion and 

Spirituality), Vietnamese families typically honor the oldest male 

as head of the household. Elder family members are highly 

respected and serve as a source of advice for younger

members. Females traditionally defer to male family members. 

The eldest son usually inherits the family home and is expected 

to care for his elderly parents. By contrast, a daughter usually

joins her husband’s family. Of note, some groups exhibit other 

patterns of gender relations. For example, the Degar and Ede

are traditionally matrilineal, whereby inheritance, property, and 

the family name passes from mother to daughter. 

Children 

As in other societies, Vietnamese treasure their children. 

Parents traditionally nicknamed children after ferocious animals 

to protect them from evil spirits. Throughout their youth, children 

learn the importance of 

familial piety (hieu) and 

the moral debt (on) they 

owe their parents. 

Children understand 

their duty is to help the 

family, make their 

parents proud, and fulfill 

their parent’s wishes. 

Consequently, children 

typically perform various household chores such as washing 

dishes as soon as they are old enough. In rural areas, children 

help care for livestock and harvest crops. When they are grown, 

children expect to care for their elderly parents or parents-in-law 

(Photo: Vietnamese boys). 

Birth: Vietnamese practice a variety of childbirth customs. 

Because a baby’s birth year can influence his life path, some 

Vietnamese try to plan their child’s birth so that it occurs during 

a promising year. During pregnancy, women begin educating 

their babies by speaking to them, believing that children can 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
comprehend everything the mother says. Historically, fathers 

rarely attend their child’s birth, but that tradition is changing. 

After birth, some mothers 

dress their newborns in 

second-hand clothes to avoid 

the attention of harmful 

spirits. During the 1st month 

after birth, only close family 

members may visit the 

mother and newborn. After 

that, the family holds a 

naming celebration and 

chooses a godmother. In a special ritual, the godmother allows 

water to drip from a flower to the baby’s mouth, ensuring that the 

child’s first words are sweet (Pictured: Vietnamese toddler). 

First Birthday Celebration: Vietnamese celebrate a child’s 1st 

birthday with the Thoi Noi ceremony. During this event, the child

is presented numerous items, such as pencils, books, money, or 

tools. Tradition holds that the item the child chooses first 

indicates his future career path. During the celebration, family 

members typically place flowers on the family’s shrine and ask 

the ancestors to protect the child’s health. Following this first 

birthday celebration, few Vietnamese celebrate their actual 

birthdays. Instead, they add a year to 

their age during Tet, the new year 

celebration (see p. 2 of Time and 

Space). Middle class, urban families 

increasingly hold Western-style 

birthday celebrations. 

Dating and Marriage 

Traditionally, the primary purpose of 

marriage was to continue the family 

name and ensure future descendants 

who would honor the family’s 

ancestors. While most marriages

were historically arranged, today 

young people typically pick their own mates and consider 

romantic love to be an important component of marriage. 

Nevertheless, parents are still heavily influential in the decisionmaking process (Photo: Young people in Saigon). 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
The legal age of marriage for women is 18. Most women marry 

in their late teens and early twenties while most men wait until 

their mid-20s. Child marriage is relatively uncommon: less than 

1% of girls are married before age 15, and some 11% marry 

before age 18. 

Young people typically begin socializing in their late teenage 

years. In urban areas, couples often visit coffee shops or go to 

the movies, while in rural areas young people are more likely to

socialize in groups. If a couple wishes to consider marriage, they 

inform their parents. Upon their approval, the families hold an 

engagement ceremony during which a trusted family member or 

friend represents the families in engagement negotiations. Later, 

the groom’s relatives travel to the bride’s home to present qua, 

gifts of wine, food, or jewelry exhibited on special red trays 

marked with the Chinese character for “double happiness.” 

Wedding: The couple typically consults a religious leader or 

family elder to choose a wedding date likely to bring good 

fortune. The ceremony begins when the 

groom and his relatives travel to the 

bride’s home bearing wine or tea for the 

bride’s parents. Their consumption of 

the beverage symbolizes the families’ 

union. The groom then asks the bride’s 

parents for permission a final time. After 

granting it, the bride’s family presents 

their daughter to the groom. 

Next, the couple prays at the bride’s 

ancestral altar and exchanges wedding 

rings. At this point, the couple travels to 

the groom’s family home, where the 

same series of ceremonies is repeated. 

Depending on the couple’s religious affiliation (see p. 6-9 of 

Religion and Spirituality), an additional ceremony may take 

place at a church or temple. Following the ceremonies, family 

and friends typically dine on a large meal and listen to music at 

a local restaurant or at the groom’s family home. Traditional 

bridal wear comprises a red ao dai, the Vietnamese national 

costume (pictured – see p. 1-2 of Aesthetics and Recreation), 

while the groom wears a blue version. 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Divorce: Men and women have equal rights to divorce under 

Vietnamese law, yet women face greater social stigma following 

the separation. Generally, divorce has become more common in 

recent decades. While 2000 saw just 0.66 divorces per 1,000 

inhabitants, by 2010 that rate had increased to 1.12, a significant 

increase yet still lower than the US rate of 3.6. A variety of factors 

likely contributed to the increase, such as women’s increased 

economic independence.

Death 

Following a death, family members engage in a series of rituals 

intended to allow the deceased to qua doi (move on to another 

existence). Before the funeral, family members wash the body 

and place rice, salt, and a coin in the deceased’s mouth. These 

items ensure that the deceased lacks nothing on his journey. 

Family members then wrap the body in a white cloth and place 

it in a coffin, sometimes along with a few treasured belongings. 

At home, families typically erect an altar adorned with photos of 

the deceased. Family and friends gather before the altar to burn 

incense, offer prayers, and share memories. Guests may bring 

flowers or envelopes of condolence money. In cities, these 

gatherings may take place in 

a funeral home or mortuary 

instead of a private home. 

On the day of the burial, the 

family usually wears white 

clothing and gathers for a 

funeral procession (le dua 

tang) to a cemetery 

(pictured). During the 

journey, mourners scatter paper money to distract evil spirits. 

Upon arrival, the coffin is buried. The family returns to visit the 

grave and ensure the spirit’s safe passage (le mo cua ma) after 

3 days, then again on the anniversary of the death and around 

the Tet new year. For several weeks after a death, family 

members offer rice on the family altar in honor of the deceased. 

Immediate family members may wear mourning attire, like a 

black patch pinned to their shirt, for up to 2 years. Members of 

Vietnam’s ethnic minority groups (see p. 13-14 of Political and 

Social Relations) sometimes follow different funeral customs. 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Overview 

While Vietnamese women are recognized for their role in 

historical struggles (see p. 3 of History and Myth), traditional 

values privilege men over women in most spheres. Despite their 

widespread participation in higher education and the workforce, 

women continue to face challenges to their full participation in 

society. 

Gender Roles and Work

Domestic Labor: Traditionally, women performed most 

household tasks, notably managing the family budget and caring 

for children and family elders. Even if they work outside the 

home, women continue to perform most domestic chores. 

Labor Force: In 2014, about 73% of Vietnamese women 

worked outside the home. This rate has remained relatively 

steady since 1990 and 

is slightly less than

rates in Laos (76%) 

and Cambodia (79%), 

yet significantly higher 

than the US rate (56%).

Women are employed 

in all economic sectors, 

including agriculture, 

manufacturing, and 

services. Of note, 

Vietnamese law prohibits women from work such as mining

categorized as harmful to child-bearing or parenting (Photo: 

Female street vendor selling flowers). 

Vietnamese women face significant barriers to their equal 

participation in the workforce. They typically earn less than their 

male colleagues, despite laws requiring employers to pay men 

and women equal salaries for the same work. Between 2008-

2011, this pay gap grew. Women often experience 

discrimination in hiring and promotion and are forced to take 

society’s lowest-status jobs, such as small vendors (tieu 

thuong) and positions in the low-paid apparel industry. 

5. SEX AND GENDER

SEX &

GENDER
Furthermore, women are required by law to retire at the age of 

55, while the retirement age for men is 60. Although this 

regulation is unenforced in many sectors, it signifcantly reduces 

opportunities for women in some areas. 

Gender and the Law

The 2006 Law on Gender Equality aims to ensure gender 

equality in all areas of social and family life. In practice, 

discriminatory gender bias and stereotypes are widespread in 

the media and educational materials. Further, lack of 

enforcement of laws and policies combined with traditional 

patriarchal attitudes limit women’s rights. Women regularly 

encounter discrimination that hinders their access to healthcare, 

education, employment, and land. For 

example, the law stipulates that men 

and women inherit equally, though in 

practice, sons typically inherit the 

parental home, while women inherit

items of lesser value. Further, the 

household registration system (ho 

khau – see p. 1 of Family and Kinship) 

disproportionately restricts women’s 

access to public services (Photo: 

Vietnamese girl in Quang Tri). 

A traditional preference for male 

children over female results in some 

cases of sex-selective abortions (see 

“Sex and Procreation” below). While 

the law forbids prenatal sex selection (methods to control the sex 

of babies before birth), it is difficult to enforce. Consequently, 

Vietnam’s male-female sex ratio at birth is skewed and 

continues to increase, with 112 boys born for every 100 girls in 

2016. The government has developed various initiatives in an 

attempt to reverse this imbalance. 

Gender and Politics 

Since the Trung sisters’ rebellion against the Chinese in the 1st

century (see p. 3 of History and Myth), women have played 

prominent positions in Vietnam’s national struggles. Recently, 

Vietnamese women have achieved leadership positions in 

government, with several serving as Vice President. 

SEX &

GENDER
The government continues to encourage women’s increased 

political participation and has set a target of 35% women in the 

National Assembly (see p. 4 of Political and Social Relations). 

Currently, about 27% of legislature members are female, a 

higher rate than in the US (19%) and Cambodia (20%) but about 

the same as Laos (28%). The Assembly elected its first female 

chairwoman, Nguyen Thi Kim Ngan (pictured with former US 

Secretary of Labor Thomas Perez), in March 2016. Of note, the 

government’s enforcement of the early retirement requirement 

for women in civil 

service significantly 

reduces their leadership 

opportunities. 

Gender-Based 

Violence (GBV) 

Despite various legal 

protections outlawing 

rape, domestic violence, 

and sexual harassment, 

GBV remains 

widespread. In 2010, 58% of surveyed married women stated 

they had experienced domestic violence, with about 50% never 

reporting the crime. Even if crimes are reported, prosecutors

sometimes file only minor charges against perpetrators. 

Currently, the Vietnamese government, international 

organizations, and charities are working to raise awareness of 

GBV and improve access to resources for victims. 

Vietnam is a source country for men, women, and children 

subjected to sex and labor trafficking. While adults of both 

genders become victims when they migrate abroad for work in 

the fishing, mining, logging, and manufacturing sectors, women 

and children in particular are targeted for sex work. Other

Vietnamese women enter in internationally-brokered marriages 

in China, South Korea, Malaysia, and Singapore, where they are 

sometimes subjected to domestic servitude or forced 

prostitution. Within Vietnam, homeless and disabled children are 

vulnerable to forced labor. Despite a 2012 law criminalizing sex 

and labor trafficking and efforts to provide anti-trafficking training 

to government officials, the country does not yet meet the 

minimum international standards for trafficking’s elimination. 

SEX &

GENDER
Sex and Procreation 

Vietnamese consider sexual intimacy a private matter and tend 

to avoid public displays of affection. Since 1994, the government 

has alternately encouraged or mandated a limit of 2 children per 

married couple. Likely in part due to this policy, Vietnam’s 

birthrate in 2015 was 1.82 children per woman, down from a rate 

of 6.3 in 1960. In 2017, the government began urging couples to 

have 2 children in an attempt to reverse the downward trend. 

Although the government provides some support for family 

planning, a lack of appropriate and accurate sex education in 

schools and a general lack of 

information regarding 

reproductive health results in 

high rates of unwanted 

pregnancies. To avoid the

social stigma associated with 

bearing children outside of 

marriage, some women choose 

abortion. Legal in the first 22 

weeks of pregnancy, the 

procedure is widely available in 

both public and private clinics.

Vietnam’s abortion rate is Asia’s

and one of the world’s highest. 

For every 1,000 live births each 

year, Vietnam counts around 591 abortions, significantly higher 

than the US rate of 200 per 1,000 live births (Photo: Mother and 

child on a motorbike in Ho Chi Minh City). 

LGBT Community: Vietnam’s first gay pride parade occurred in 

Hanoi in 2012 and has since become an annual event that has 

spread to other cities. In 2015, the government abolished a ban 

on same-sex marriage. Although such unions are now legally 

permitted, the government neither fully recognizes them nor 

provides legal protection for same-sex spouses. A hallmark step 

for the transgendered community came as a result of the 

government recently legalizing sex reassignment surgery. 

Despite these affirmative measures, members of the LGBT 

community still face widespread discrimination and abuse. 

LGBT youth experience particularly significant bullying in school.

SEX &

GENDER
Language Overview

While Vietnam’s official language is Vietnamese, the country’s 

54 officially-recognized ethnic groups collectively speak over

100 other languages. 

Vietnamese 

A member of the Mon-Khmer branch of the Austro-Asiatic 

language family, Vietnamese is the native language of the 

dominant Viet (or Kinh – see p. 12 of Political and Social 

Relations) ethnic group. During the almost 1,000 years of 

Chinese domination in Vietnam’s early history (see p. 2-3 of 

History and Myth), scholars and administrators used a Chinesebased writing system called chu nho or chu Han. Even after 

Chinese domination ended in 938 (see p. 4 of History and Myth), 

various Viet kingdoms 

continued to use chu Han for 

official business, education, 

and literature. 

Beginning in the 13th 

century, Viet scholars 

developed a new writing 

system called chu nom that 

adapted Chinese characters 

for Vietnamese words and 

sounds. While chu Han was 

still predominant for official purposes, chu nom had become 

widely used for popular literature and unofficial documents by 

the 15th century (Photo: A page from The Tale of Kieu, an early 

19th-century epic poem written in chu nom).

Because both systems required knowledge of thousands of 

characters, mastery took years to develop. Seeking a faster way 

to learn to write Vietnamese, European missionaries arriving in 

the 16th-17th centuries developed a 3rd writing system based 

on the Latin script called chu quoc ngu (see p. 6 of History and 

Myth). For the next 2 centuries, only Catholic missionaries and 

Vietnamese Christian converts (see p. 5-6 of Religion and 

Spirituality) used this script. 

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
In the late 19th-early 20th centuries, the French colonial 

government (see p. 9-12 of History and Myth) introduced chu 

quoc ngu in their schools (see p. 2 of Learning and Knowledge), 

then banned the Chinese-based chu nom in 1920 in an attempt 

to shield the Vietnamese population from potentially 

revolutionary ideas in Chinese-language materials (see p. 10-11

of History and Myth). 

Some nationalists 

opposed the change, 

fearing that the lack of 

knowledge of the old 

scripts effectively 

detached Vietnamese 

from their own written 

history. Nevertheless, 

other activists, 

particularly communists (see p. 11-13 of History and Myth), 

welcomed chu quoc ngu as a means of quickly increasing 

literacy and widening their popular support. With the end of 

colonialism in 1954, chu quoc ngu became the official script for 

government, business, and education and remains so today

(Photo: Sign for Cam Ly Church in the city of Dalat).

Today, there are 3 main dialects of spoken Vietnamese: 

northern, central, and southern, which are also known as the 

Hanoi, Hue, and Saigon “languages.” The 3 varieties exhibit 

minor differences in pronunciation and vocabulary, and 

Vietnamese generally prefer the Hanoi version. Due to centuries 

of interaction (see p. 2-7 of History and Myth), Vietnamese also 

includes many loanwords from Chinese. 

Vietnamese is a monosyllabic language, which means that each 

syllable is a word, but multi-syllabic words may be formed by 

combining separately-pronounced syllables. For example, the 

word thanh (fresh) joins with nien (years) to make thanh nien

(youth). Vietnamese is also a tonal language, with each word 

having a vowel that is voiced with either a constant or changing 

(rising or falling) pitch. For example, the syllable “ma” can mean 

ghost, cheek, but, tomb, horse, or rice seedling depending on 

the tone used. Tone is indicated by the use of diacritics, symbols 

placed above or below a letter. 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Other Languages

Vietnam’s linguistic landscape reflects significant diversity, with 

over 100 other languages belonging to 5 language families. 

Several languages such as Hmong-Daw of the Hmong-Mien 

language family, Khmer and Muong, both of the Austro-Asiatic 

family (like Vietnamese), and Tày and Nung of the Tai-Kadai 

family have over 1 million speakers. Similarly, around 1 million 

Vietnamese speak Chinese, while much smaller numbers speak 

other Sino-Tibetan varieties. Other prominent languages, such 

as 2 Cham varieties and Jarai, belong to the Austronesian 

language family. 

Due to Vietnam’s colonial history (see p. 6-16 of History and 

Myth), some residents speak French. Others speak Russian due 

to their work abroad in European communist bloc countries 

during the 20th century (see p. 21-23 of History and Myth) 

(Photo: Vietnamese 

student at the Model 

East Asia Summit). 

English: In recent 

decades, English 

has become 

increasingly popular

and is taught at both

the primary and 

secondary levels (see p. 6 of Learning and Knowledge). English 

is also the most popular 2nd language studied in Vietnamese 

universities. 

Communication Overview

Communicating effectively in Vietnam requires not only 

knowledge of Vietnamese but also the ability to use the 

language to interact effectively. This broad notion of competence 

includes paralanguage (rate of speech, volume, intonation), 

nonverbal communication (personal space, touch, gestures), 

and interaction management (conversation initiation, turntaking, and termination). When used properly, these forms of 

communication help to ensure that statements are interpreted as 

the speaker intends. 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Communication Style

Vietnamese typically place great value on courtesy and modesty 

during communications. Above all, Vietnamese try to avoid 

showing irritation and anger, since shouting or other emotional 

outbursts could cause participants to “lose face,” or experience 

shame and embarrassment that would result in a loss of social 

standing. Consequently, they avoid openly insulting, criticizing, 

or disagreeing with others in public, preferring to settle disputes 

in private. 

Vietnamese ideals of polite behavior favor indirect methods of 

communication. For example, subtle facial expressions, tone of 

voice, and posture sometimes are used to convey negative 

intentions instead of giving an outright refusal. In general, foreign 

nationals should follow the lead of Vietnamese counterparts in

determining the appropriate level of formality. 

Greetings and Forms of Address

Vietnamese greetings generally vary between rural and urban 

settings and depend on the formality of the occasion and age of 

the participants. In the countryside, Vietnamese typically bow 

while bringing the palms together before the chest. By contrast, 

urban-dwellers and younger Vietnamese across the country 

prefer to shake hands. Of note, some Vietnamese women may 

refrain from shaking 

hands with men, 

preferring instead to 

bow. Close friends and 

family members 

typically hug or simply 

exchange verbal 

greetings. During 

religious and other 

formal events, people 

of all ages and backgrounds are more likely to bow (Photo: 

Former US Secretary of State Kerry greets former Vietnamese 

Assembly Chairman Nguyen Sinh Hung). 

Vietnamese typically follow a simple “Hello” (chao), using a term 

that expresses the differences between speakers’ gender, social 

status, age, and profession. While the terms themselves 

translate literally as family roles, Vietnamese also use them with 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
non-family. For example, they typically refer to elderly or higher 

status men as ong (grandfather) and women as ba

(grandmother). These terms may also be used with casual 

acquaintances or business associates. Similarly, they usually 

address slightly older men as anh (older brother), women as chi

(older sister), and younger or subordinate people as em (junior). 

Vietnamese often drop the given name in informal speech, 

replacing it with a number indicating birth order. For example, a 

younger sibling might address her older sister as chi hai 

(second elder sister)

(Photo: Vietnamese 

students discussing a 

project). 

Names 

Vietnamese typically 

have 3 names: a given 

name, middle name, 

and family name. 

Unlike in most Western 

societies, Vietnamese 

order the family name first, then the middle name, and the given 

(or “first”) name last. Middle names typically have a meaning (for 

example, Ngoc means “precious stone”) and may be genderspecific or gender-neutral. Given names frequently have genderspecific meanings. Common female given names include Hong 

(rose) and Huong (fragrance), while the names Hung (heroic) 

and Tien (progress) are reserved for males. Other names, such 

as Loc (prosperity) and Phuc (happiness), may be used by either 

sex. 

Vietnam counts only around 100 family names. Common last 

names include Nguyen, Le, Tran, Pham, and Phan. Some 40% 

of Vietnam’s population carries the family name Nguyen. 

Vietnamese customarily address others by their given rather

than their family names. For example, a government official 

named Nguyen Ngoc Tho would be addressed as “Ong Tho.” 

Vietnamese women retain their names upon marriage. 

Conversational Topics 

Following greetings, Vietnamese prefer to engage in light

discussion before moving on to the business at hand. Common 

COMMUNICAT

LANGUAGE &

ION
conversational topics include family, work, hobbies, soccer, and 

life outside Vietnam. Some Vietnamese ask personal questions 

concerning a person’s background, education, age, and marital 

status to show interest in their conversation partners and to 

determine their social positions. 

While Vietnamese appreciate humor, foreign nationals should 

exercise caution in using it in order to avoid offense. They should 

also refrain from discussing politics, especially communism and 

Vietnam’s revolutionary leader Ho Chi Minh (see p. 13 of History 

and Myth), religion, and comparisons between Vietnam and 

China (see p. 9-10 of Political and Social Relations). Foreign 

nationals should avoid using profanity and vulgarity. Vietnamese 

typically appreciate foreign nationals’ attempts to speak

Vietnamese. 

Gestures 

Vietnamese are typically restrained during interactions, making 

few gestures when speaking. They sometimes smile and nod as 

gestures of courtesy, even if they do not understand the 

conversation. Further, Vietnamese typically consider speaking 

with hands in pockets or on the hips as disrespectful, preferring

instead to cross their arms. Most Vietnamese consider it impolite 

to point with the 

index finger or 

beckon with fingers 

facing upward. 

Instead, they

typically point and 

beckon with the 

entire hand facing 

downward (Photo: 

Former US President 

Barack Obama 

shakes hands with Vietnamese President Tran Dai Quang in 

Hanoi). 

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center website

at http://culture.af.mil for language training resources. Click on 

the Resources tab on the upper toolbar then Language 

Resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Words and Phrases

English Vietnamese

Hello Chào

Hello (polite) Xin chào

My name is ____ Tôi tên là____

What is your name? Bạn tên gì?

How are you? Anh / Chị khỏe không?

I'm fine, thanks Khỏe, cám ơn

Please Xin

Thank you Cảm ơn

You're welcome Không có gì

Yes / No Vâng / Không

Goodbye Tạm biệt

Good night Chúc ngủ ngon

See you later Hẹn gặp lại sau

I am American Tôi là người Mỹ

Do you speak English?

Anh có nói được tiếng Anh 

không?

I don't understand Tôi không hiểu

I’m sorry Xin lỗi

I don't know Tôi không biết

I only speak a little 

Vietnamese. Tôi nói được một chút tiếng Việt.

Excuse me Xin lỗi

Cheers! Chúc sức khoẻ!

What? Cái gì?

Where? Ở đâu?

Who? Người nào?

How? Làm sao?

When? Khi nào?

Help! Cứu giúp!

Bathroom Phòng tắm 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy 

• Total population aged 15 and older who can read and write: 

94.5% 

• Male: 96.3% 

• Female: 92.8% (2015 estimate) 

Early History of Education

Vietnam has a long history of formal education, first developing 

during 1,000 years of Chinese domination of the North beginning 

in 111 BC (see p. 2 of History and Myth). This initial education 

system focused on instruction in Confucian and Buddhist 

classics for elite males. Following the expulsion of the Chinese 

in 938 AD (see p. 4 of History and Myth), subsequent 

Vietnamese kingdoms opened formal institutes and inaugurated 

Chinese-style civil service exams to staff their growing 

bureaucracies. Scholars often held lessons in their homes, 

providing males 

instruction using the 

Chinese-based chu 

Han writing system (see 

p. 1 of Language and 

Communication). 

This early education 

system was open only to

very few elite males. 

With rare exceptions, females were excluded. Traditionally, 

formal education involved the transmission of values, skills, and 

historical knowledge through oral means such as songs, 

storytelling, and epic poems. Formal education also promoted a 

widespread respect for learning, scholars, and teachers (Photo: 

Imperial Academy of Hue, founded and operational during the 

Nguyen dynasty – see p. 8 of History and Myth).

Education in Colonial Vietnam

European missionaries established schools in the 18th century 

(see p. 6 of History and Myth) but with limited influence. The 

situation changed during late 19th century, when France 

acquired control over much of the South (see p. 9 of History and 

7. LEARNING . LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Myth). Even before the French colony of Cochinchina was 

formalized in 1867, the French began opening schools with the 

aim of assimilating locals to French language and culture. By 

1869, some 126 French schools were educating around 4,000 

mostly male students in the South. Development was slower in 

other regions. For example, in 1887, there were just 42 French 

schools in the North. Of those, 13 were primary schools, with 

only 4 open to girls, while the rest provided training for adults to 

become clerks and interpreters in the colonial administration. Of 

note, these schools used a writing system based on the Latin 

alphabet called chu quoc ngu (see p. 1-2 of Language and 

Communication) rather than the Chinese-based system used in 

the traditional Confucian 

education system. 

In the early 20th century, 

the French emphasis on 

using education primarily 

to develop clerks for its 

colonial administration 

(among other purposes – 

see p. 9-14 of History and 

Myth) began to generate significant anti-colonial sentiment. 

Following tax revolts in 1908, the French closed the newlyopened University of Indo-China and some secondary schools 

for a decade. French reforms beginning in 1917 intensified 

rather than eased tensions. By the 1920s, just 3% of the 

population had completed primary school, equivalent to a 4th 

grade education. Between 1920-38, only about 10% of children 

attended school. Further, some regions and minority populations 

had no access to education at all, fueling regional inequalities 

and tensions between North and South (Photo: US Navy sailors 

play a game with Vietnamese school children). 

Education and the Struggle for Independence

At this time, Vietnam had just 3 upper secondary schools. One 

of the few students, revolutionary leader Ho Chi Minh (see p. 13

of History and Myth), rejected both the traditional Confucian 

system and the colonial administration. Consequently, Ho and 

other revolutionaries traveled overseas to further their studies, 

returning to form new political parties, such as Ho Chi Minh’s 

Indochinese Communist Party (see p. 11 of History and Myth).

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
In the subsequent struggle for independence, education played 

a key role. Besides conducting guerilla attacks against the 

French and Japanese in the 1940s, the Viet Minh (see p. 11-12 

of History and Myth) launched a widespread and successful 

literacy campaign and announced its support for compulsory 

primary education. Throughout the 1940s, literacy classes also 

helped spread the Viet Minh’s communist ideals. After declaring 

Vietnam’s independence 

in 1945 (see p. 13 of 

History and Myth), the 

Viet Minh made literacy 

classes compulsory in its 

occupied regions. As the 

French fought to regain 

Indochina between 

1946-54, the Viet Minh 

and sympathizers 

provided literacy training to some 10 million Vietnamese (Photo: 

A US Navy musician plays for Vietnamese school children). 

Education and the 20th-Century Wars

In the subsequent decades of war and division of Vietnam into 2 

states (see p. 16-21 of History and Myth), separate education 

systems developed. In the northern communist Democratic 

Republic of Vietnam, enrollment increased significantly as the 

government opened new schools and developed new curricula 

in line with its socialist ideals. Nevertheless, dwindling resources 

and ongoing conflict eventually led to reduced quality and 

access. In the southern Republic of Vietnam, a new education 

system based on the French model also saw rapid growth. 

Between 1960-70, the proportion of children completing primary 

education doubled from 30% to 60%, and by 1973, more than 

100,000 students attended over 15 colleges and universities. 

Nevertheless, the prolonged impact of the Vietnam War (see p. 

21-23 of History and Myth) gradually eroded the South’s 

education system. 

Education in Re-Unified Vietnam

Following reunification and the 1976 formation of the Socialist 

Republic of Vietnam (see p. 21 of History and Myth), the 

communist state nationalized all private schools, extended its 

literacy programs to the South, and adopted a unified national 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
education system in 1981. The imposition of a Soviet-style 

education program required the exclusion of former teachers, 

who were sent to “re-education” camps. Despite a shortage of 

teachers and resources, enrollment increased, with almost 1/4 

of the entire population enrolled in primary or lower-secondary 

school in 1981. Nevertheless, the lack of resources was severe, 

particularly in remote areas where daily instruction was limited 

to 2-3 hours in overcrowded classrooms equipped with few 

supplies. 

As part of its Doi Moi reforms of the late 1980s (see p. 23 of 

History and Myth), the government significantly increased 

investment in education while allowing some private initiatives. 

Since 1998, the government has instituted several waves of 

educational reform to improve quality and access. 

Modern Education System

The Vietnamese education system today consists of 12 years 

beginning at age 6, divided into 5 compulsory years of primary 

school, 4 compulsory years of lower secondary school, and 3 

optional years of upper secondary school. The curriculum is fully 

standardized, and Vietnamese is the language of instruction. 

The school year typically consists of 2 semesters from 

September-May or June. Schools usually hold classes MondaySaturday, though daily schedules may vary significantly, with 

many schools providing instruction in morning and afternoon 

shifts. In 2012, Hanoi’s primary and lower secondary schools 

standardized their hours 

from 8am-5pm (Photo: A 

US Navy Lt Cmdr draws 

flags with a Vietnamese 

student). 

Today, the government 

recognizes 4 types of 

schools: public, semipublic, “people-founded,” 

and private. In the last 2 decades, non-public institutions have 

grown more common, particularly for pre-primary, technical, and 

vocational programs. Semi-public schools receive partial 

funding from the government, while people-founded and private 

schools are run by organizations or individuals. 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Over the last several decades, the government has significantly 

increased its education budget while decentralizing control of the 

education system. Further, the government has made efforts to 

define and enforce minimum quality standards, thus reducing 

regional differences. As of 2013, Vietnam spent a greater 

percentage of its budget on education (18.5%) than the US

(13.1%) or neighboring Laos (12.8%) and Cambodia (9.9%). 

Due at least in part to these measures, Vietnamese students 

perform very well on international tests, typically outranking 

developed countries such as the US and Australia, as well as 

some European nations. Despite this strong performance, critics 

observe that Vietnam’s curriculum favors rote memorization over 

problem-solving skills. Further, employers complain graduates 

often lack specific skills required in the labor force (Photo: 

Secondary school 

students). 

Grades 1-9 are officially 

compulsory, yet some 

children drop out. While 

primary schooling is free, 

some poor students quit 

due to the high costs of 

uniforms and books. 

Further, some ethnic 

minority children who 

speak languages other than Vietnamese (see p. 3 of Language 

and Communication) leave because they are unable to 

comprehend the mandatory Vietnamese-language instruction. 

In 2017, the government introduced a new curriculum with a 

wider array of compulsory subjects designed to ensure the 

progression of all students from primary to secondary school. 

At the secondary level, almost all schools charge fees to cover 

the costs of supplies, facility upkeep, sanitation services, and 

traffic guards. Recent protests have reduced these fees in some 

areas, but they remain a hurdle for many families. 

Pre-Primary: Preschool and kindergarten levels are optional but 

widespread, although quality and access vary greatly. In 2015, 

some 83% of children of the appropriate age attended preprimary programs. 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Primary: The 5 years of primary education typically include 

instruction in Vietnamese, math, morality (civics and ethics), 

arts, physical education, history, geography, and science. As of 

2013, some 98% of children of the appropriate age were 

enrolled. English-language instruction of variable quality is 

available in some areas. 

Secondary: Lower secondary school typically includes many of 

the same subjects as primary school. By contrast, upper 

secondary education comprises separate academic and 

vocational/technical paths. Students on the academic path 

usually study Vietnamese, math, biology, physics, chemistry, 

history, geography, civics, and a foreign language (usually 

English). Vocational/technical schools offer specialized 

instruction in a range of fields. In 2013, just 63% of children of 

the appropriate age were enrolled in upper secondary school. 

Post-Secondary: To enter post-secondary studies, students 

enrolled in the academic track must pass a national examination. 

As of 2010, Vietnam was home to 163 universities and 223 

colleges, enrolling some 2 million students in 2013. In 2015, 

Vietnam partnered with the German, French, and Japanese 

governments to open 3 new public universities, while Fulbright 

University Vietnam opened as the country’s first independent, 

nonprofit university in 2016 with US support. Nevertheless, 

because their postsecondary programs 

do not prepare them 

adequately for the 

workforce, some 

graduates remain 

unemployed. Further, 

the 60,000 students 

who study abroad 

annually struggle 

because their 

previous schooling 

has not given them the team-building and problem-solving skills 

that foreign universities require. As an alternative to academic 

higher education, the government encourages vocational 

training (Photo: Vietnam National University in Ho Chi Minh 

City).

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Overview

Vietnamese value loyalty and hierarchy in the workplace, taking 

time to build lasting relationships with business partners. While 

public displays of affection are common among Vietnamese of 

the same sex, social touching between unrelated Vietnamese of 

the opposite sex is typically considered inappropriate. 

Time and Work 

The Vietnamese workweek runs Monday-Friday. To avoid the 

midday heat, the workday tends to begin early in the morning. 

While hours vary by establishment, most businesses are open 

from 7:30-11:30am and 

1:30-4:30pm, closing for 

at least an hour for 

lunch. 

Banks typically open 

from 8:00am-11:30am 

and 1:00pm-4:00pm. In 

some tourist areas, 

banks may stay open 

later or operate on weekends. Post offices remain open later, 

some until 9:00pm. Shops and marketplaces usually operate 7 

days-per-week, often remaining open until 8:00pm. Along with 

other businesses, shopkeepers often take a midday break 

(Photo: Vietnamese vendor washes cups in the Mekong River). 

Working Conditions: Labor laws limit the Vietnamese 

workweek to 48 hours, with an 8-hour day and a 6-day week. 

Additional work requires overtime pay, which is capped at 200 

overtime hours per year. Workers under age 18, pregnant 

women, and mothers with infants are not permitted to work 

overtime. Workers are entitled to 12 days of paid vacation per 

year. Despite these regulations, some manufacturing and 

agricultural workers do not receive these protections, and forced 

labor, child labor, and other abuses occur. Human rights 

observers recently denounced conditions in Vietnam’s state-run 

drug rehabilitation centers, accusing the government of 

subjecting detainees to forced labor. 

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
Time Zone: Vietnam adheres to Indochina Time Zone (ICT), 

which is 7 hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) and 12 

hours ahead of Eastern Standard Time (EST). Vietnam does not 

observe Daylight Savings Time. 

Lunar Calendar: Although Vietnam’s official calendar is the 

Western (Gregorian) calendar, the Chinese-based lunar 

calendar marks important holidays. Lunar cycles determine each 

month, which results in 11 fewer days per year than the Western 

calendar. Leap months are added approximately every 3rd year 

to keep the lunar calendar synchronized with the seasons. The 

Lunar New Year (Tet) is the largest of Vietnam’s traditional 

festivals (see p. 3 of Aesthetics and Recreation). Life events 

such as weddings and births are often timed to coincide with 

lucky times on the lunar calendar. 

Time and Business 

Vietnamese typically prefer to build trust and develop personal 

relationships prior to conducting business. While meetings do 

not often begin on time, foreign nationals should attempt to be 

punctual. Meeting participants usually spend an extended period 

conversing about family, health, and recent activities (see p. 5-6 

of Language and Communication) before conducting business. 

Of note, the business process is often facilitated by a personal 

recommendation or introduction. 

National Holidays

These holidays occur on fixed dates: 

• January 1: New Year’s Day 

• April 30: Liberation/ Reunification Day 

• May 1: International Workers/Labor Day 

• September 2: Independence/National Day 

These festivals occur on variable dates according to 

the lunar calendar: 

• Tet: Multi-day celebration of the Lunar New Year 

• Hung Kings Temple Festival 

SPACE

TIME &
Seniority, status, and respect guide most business interactions 

in Vietnam. Most meetings begin with the exchange of business 

cards, with visitors offering their cards to the most senior official 

first. The host also typically offers tea, which guests should 

accept. It is acceptable for meetings to overrun their scheduled 

times, although guests should acknowledge the situation to 

indicate their respect for their hosts' time (Photo: Former US 

Secretary of State Kerry 

meets Vietnamese 

educators). 

To “save face” or avoid 

embarrassment to 

themselves or others, 

Vietnamese prefer to offer 

criticism in private rather 

than public. Further, 

Vietnamese typically avoid openly rejecting an idea or admitting 

their lack of comprehension. Instead, they may remain silent, 

preferring indirect methods of communication (see p. 4 of 

Language and Communication). 

Personal Space

As in most societies, the use of personal space depends on the 

circumstances and nature of the relationship. In general, 

Vietnamese tend to 

stand at least one 

arm’s length from 

one another, 

although this 

distance may be 

closer with friends 

and family. 

Touch: While close 

friends and relatives 

may touch one another during conversation, social touching 

between members of the opposite sex is considered 

inappropriate. Because they view it as the most sacred part of 

the body, Vietnamese avoid touching another’s head (Photo: US 

Navy Capt receives a wreath from a Vietnamese local during 

Pacific Partnership 2017). 

SPACE

TIME &
Eye Contact: Vietnamese generally consider prolonged direct 

eye contact with a member of the same sex as a challenge or 

sign of aggression. By contrast, direct eye contact with a 

member of the opposite sex signals 

romantic interest. Consequently, 

Vietnamese tend to avoid prolonged 

direct eye contact. Especially when 

interacting with elders or other people 

of high status, the avoidance of direct 

eye contact symbolizes respect and 

modesty (Photo: Vietnamese workers 

assist in the recovery of remains of a 

US pilot shot down during the Vietnam 

War).

Photographs

Foreign nationals should always 

obtain permission before taking a 

Vietnamese’s photo. Photographs of military installations, 

military camps, bridges, airports, and other similar areas 

typically are prohibited. 

Driving 

Like Americans, Vietnamese drive on the right side of the road. 

Cars, motorcycles, mopeds, and bicycles are popular methods 

of transportation (see p. 1 of Technology and Material). Some

operators do not 

adhere to traffic 

laws, and roads are 

often chaotic with 

many unmarked 

intersections. 

Honking is a 

common way of 

signaling to 

pedestrians and other vehicles. Some drivers ignore posted 

speed limits and traffic signals, habits that result in almost 25 

traffic deaths per 100,000 people per year. This rate is 

significantly above regional averages and more than double the 

US rate of 11 (Photo: Vietnamese on motorbikes in traffic in 

Hanoi).

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

Vietnam is known for its rich artistic traditions inspired by nature 

and emphasizing the principles of balance, precision, and 

harmony. Over the course of thousands of years, indigenous 

cultures blended with foreign influences to produce unique styles 

of dress, music, dance, theater, and fine arts. In the 20th century, 

Vietnamese art incorporated some Western influences, and 

styles continue to evolve today, primarily due to urbanization and 

globalization. 

Dress and Appearance

Vietnamese typically prefer Western-style clothes for daily wear, 

often pairing light-weight, loose-fitting pants with a casual cotton 

or synthetic knit blouse or shirt. Generally, Vietnamese are 

vigilant about protecting themselves from sun exposure. If 

working outdoors, Vietnamese, especially women, tend to cover 

all exposed skin with long sleeves, scarves, and sometimes 

large, conical hats (non la – pictured) woven from palm leaves. 

In urban areas, some women carry brightly-colored patterned 

umbrellas to shield 

themselves from the sun. 

Generally, older 

Vietnamese prefer more 

conservative styles. By 

contrast, young people 

tend to wear modern 

styles reflecting a mix of 

fashion trends from both 

the West and other Asian 

countries. In business contexts, Vietnamese men wear black or 

brown dress shoes, dark trousers, and a white dress shirt, often 

with a tie. Women typically wear a dress or pants and a blouse. 

Traditional: Vietnam’s national women’s dress is the ao dai, a 

2-piece outfit comprised of wide-legged satin trousers worn 

under a long-sleeved, knee-length fitted tunic with slits along 

each side cut to just below the waist. Young girls often wear 

white ao dai to symbolize their purity, while young women

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

RECREATION

AESTHETICS &
typically wear pastel 

tunics with white pants

(pictured). Meanwhile, 

older and married 

women typically wear 

dark colors or white 

tunics with black pants. 

Similar to the ao dai, 

male traditional wear 

(ao the) also consists 

of a long tunic worn 

over loose-fitting pants. Historically, the tunic’s color indicated 

an individual’s social standing: yellow garments were reserved 

for the emperor; purple and red for high court officials; blue for a 

court official of lower status; while black, brown, and white were

for the peasantry. Although traditional clothing is more common

in rural areas, Vietnamese usually reserve traditional garments 

for special occasions, such as holidays, festivals, children’s 

birthdays, weddings, and funerals (see p. 4-6 of Family and 

Kinship).

Recreation and Leisure

Vietnamese generally prefer to spend their leisure time with

friends and relatives. Vietnamese men typically socialize in 

coffee shops, restaurants, and bars. Women tend to visit with 

friends at home or while shopping. In urban areas, karaoke is a 

popular recreational activity, particularly among the youth. 

In both rural and urban areas, gardening is a favorite pastime. 

Notably, some Vietnamese maintain elaborate bonsai gardens 

(the Japanese art of cultivating miniature trees and plants). 

Outdoor enthusiasts enjoy camping, hiking, and swimming at 

beaches along Vietnam’s long, winding coastline. 

Festivals: Vietnam hosts a variety of public festivals to celebrate 

popular cultural, historical, and religious events. Various 

communities hold parades to celebrate Liberation/Reunification 

Day, which commemorates the 1975 capture of Saigon (presentday Ho Chi Minh City) and the end of the Vietnam War (see p. 

16-21 of History and Myth). Independence/National Day 

recognizes Vietnam’s 1945 declaration of independence from 

France and Japan (see p. 13 of History and Myth).

RECREATION

AESTHETICS &
Other festivals mark events in the lunar calendar (see p. 2 of 

Time and Space), such as the widely celebrated Lunar New 

Year (Tet Nguyen Dan), when Vietnamese enjoy socializing 

and feasting with relatives and friends over the course of several 

days. In one Tet Nguyen Dan tradition, families provide food 

offerings to kitchen guardian spirits believed to provide 

protection from evil influences over the subsequent year. 

During the Tet Trung Nguyen (“Wandering Souls” Day), a lunar 

holiday rooted in Buddhist traditions (see p. 3-5 of Religion and 

Spirituality), Vietnamese celebrate their ancestors by preparing 

special offerings of food. Other popular festivals include the King 

Hung festival and Tet Trung Thu (the Mid-Autumn Festival), and 

numerous celebrations of the harvest, the hunting season, and 

various other occasions. Most celebrations include feasting, 

music, and dance. 

Sports and Games

Soccer: Soccer is 

Vietnam’s most 

popular spectator 

sport. Fans follow 

their favorite teams in

the national 

professional league, 

the Vietnam Football 

Federation, or cheer for the men’s and women’s national teams 

in international competitions. In 2008, the men’s national team 

won its first international title in a Southeast Asian 

championship. Until his 2016 retirement, Le Cong Vinh was a 

prominent Vietnamese soccer star and was considered one of 

Southeast Asia’s best players (Photo: Vietnamese soccer 

players practice on a field in Quy Nhon). 

Other Sports: Basketball and volleyball are also popular team 

sports. Badminton, tennis, table tennis, swimming, yoga, and 

cycling are other favorite sports activities. Some Vietnamese 

practice martial arts, such as tai chi, which is particularly popular 

among the elderly, and taekwondo, a Korean martial arts form. 

In the 2000 Summer Olympics, Tran Hieu Ngan earned a silver 

medal in women’s taekwondo, becoming the first Vietnamese 

athlete to win an Olympic medal. 

RECREATION

AESTHETICS &
Traditional Sports: Traditional sports include vovinam, a

Vietnamese martial art developed in the early 20th century that 

combines elements of Japanese, Korean, and Chinese forms; 

dau vat, a traditional form of wrestling; and ba trao, competitive 

boat racing using as many as 80 paddlers. Children enjoy 

spinning tops carved from guava fruit, playing with jacks made 

from bamboo, and flying kites. 

Music 

Traditional: Unlike Western music, traditional Vietnamese 

music is distinctively non-harmonic. Songs often feature 

elaborate rhythms and melodies, with performers playing 

several variations of a melody on multiple instruments

simultaneously. While some traditional musical styles were 

reserved for the royal court or Buddhist rituals, others were 

popular among common people and performed during festivals, 

games, weddings, work, 

and other daily activities.

The melodic 3rd-person 

narratives known as ca 

tru in the North and 

vong co in the South 

remain particularly 

popular. 

Traditional music

features string, wind, 

and percussion instruments, such as the trung (bamboo 

xylophone), dan vọng co (modified guitar), dan tranh (16-

stringed zither), dan bau (single-stringed zither), and a variety 

of drums, gongs, flutes, pan pipes, and mouth organs. Notably, 

one of the world’s oldest known instruments, the dan da, traces 

its origins to Vietnam’s central highlands. Similar to a xylophone, 

the dan da consists of 6 or more rocks of varying sizes, which a 

performer hits with a wooden mallet to produce ringing tones 

(Photo: US Navy musicians learn to play the trung). 

Modern: Vietnamese appreciate a variety of musical styles, 

particularly rock, pop, jazz, and classical music. They often sing

at social events, including both formal and informal impromptu 

performances. Vietnamese artists often blend traditional musical 

elements with modern, Western-style pop and rock. Notable 

RECREATION

AESTHETICS &
Vietnamese musicians include composer and activist Trịnh 

Cong Son, composer of Vietnam’s national anthem Van Cao, 

and prolific songwriter and folk singer Phạm Duy (Photo: 

Vietnamese pop singer Hien Thục performs in Japan in 2008). 

Dance and Theater

Theater and dance have a long 

history in Vietnam. For example, 

water puppetry (mua roi nuoc) is a 

unique theater form that first 

emerged in northern Vietnam during 

the 11th century and uses a pool of 

water as the stage. Traditionally, 

communities staged water puppet 

performances in local shallow ponds 

or lakes to mark important seasonal 

events, such as a harvest. 

Today, water puppetry remains a

prominent theater form, with 

numerous groups performing throughout the country. Ranging in 

size from 12-40 in and weighing up to 10 lbs, puppets (pictured) 

are manipulated with poles held by puppeteers who stand in the 

waist-deep water. Performances 

typically consist of several short 

skits depicting rural life, historical 

events, and folklore, often with a 

comedic touch. 

Other popular performing arts

include traditional Chinese opera 

(hat boi or hat tuong), which 

typically explores Confucian 

principles (see p. 2 of Religion and 

Spirituality) or love and nature; 

Vietnamese operettas (hat cheo), 

originally performed by farmers in 

the 10th century, fusing dance, 

song, and comedic miming; and cai 

luong, a type of musical drama-comedy first developed in the 

early 1900s, blending Vietnamese folk music, Chinese opera, 

and French influences. 

RECREATION

AESTHETICS &
Literature

Early regional folklore and folk poetry were transmitted primarily 

orally as legends, verses, and stories, often featuring spirits and 

ghosts. One common theme involves the protagonist consulting 

ancestors to resolve a moral dilemma. A popular form of oral 

poetry still recited today is the lyrical, 1st-person folk ballad

called ca dao. Other oral traditions include tuc-ngu proverbs. 

Written literature evolved after the 2nd century BC, when 

regional residents began to use Chinese to record literary works 

(see p. 1 of Language and Communication). After the ouster of 

the Chinese in the 10th century (see p. 4 of History and Myth), 

scholars developed a new writing system called chu nom (see 

p. 1 of Language and Communication) that adapted Chinese 

characters for Vietnamese words. Chu nom was widely used for 

popular literature beginning in the 15th century. Poets, in 

particular, often used chu nom to compose folklore and intricate 

texts that had different interpretations depending on the direction 

of reading. A prominent example is a poem by Emperor Thieu 

Tri (1841-47) that 

could be read 

backwards or forwards 

in 12 distinct 

interpretations (Photo: 

15th-18th century 

books). 

Perhaps Vietnam’s 

most famous piece of 

literature is the early 

19th-century narrative poem Truyen Kieu (“The Tale of Kieu”). 

Written in chu nom, Truyen Kieu explores themes of individual 

freedom, Confucian and Buddhist obligations, destiny, and love. 

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, some authors adopted 

the Latin-based chu quoc ngu writing system (see p. 1-2 of 

Language and Communication), while others began to 

incorporate Western ideas and produced new literary forms, 

such as novels, short stories, and travelogues. 

Despite government censorship, some Vietnamese writers in 

recent years have focused on interpreting the social, political, 

and historical events that have shaped modern Vietnam. For 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
example, People’s Army of Vietnam veteran Bao Ninh’s novel 

“The Sorrow of War” explores war’s trauma and its effects on 

family relations. While it was initially banned, Ninh’s work was 

eventually published following the widespread distribution of 

illegal copies. A number of contemporary Vietnamese authors 

living abroad explore Vietnam’s postwar period and enjoy 

international commercial success. 

Visual Arts and Handicrafts

First introduced to Vietnam in the 2nd century BC (see p. 3 of 

Religion and Spirituality), Buddhism historically influenced 

various artistic 

forms. For example, 

Vietnam is home to

thousands of 

Buddhist pagodas

that house

paintings, stone and 

bronze sculptures, 

murals, and rock 

carvings related to 

Buddhist rituals and 

concepts (Photo: A 

dragon sculpted from jade adorns a Buddhist pagoda in Hoi An). 

Vietnam also has a notable arts and crafts tradition. Various 

artisans today follow traditional production methods in 

woodwork, pottery, 

and stone carving. 

Other traditional 

handicrafts include 

weaving, woodblock 

printing, mosaics, and 

silk painting (pictured). 

Folk art often reflects 

common themes, such 

as rural life, nature, 

folklore, and historical 

events. Modern artists 

often incorporate traditional themes into their work, with some of 

them also drawing on recent political and social issues for 

inspiration. 

RECREATION

AESTHETICS &
Sustenance Overview 

Traditional cuisine and dining etiquette play an important role in 

Vietnamese culture. Friends and families gather frequently for 

meals, traveling long distances on holidays, anniversaries, and 

other special occasions to meet loved ones. Dishes tend to be 

low in fat, prominently feature vegetables and other fresh,

seasonal ingredients, and juxtapose cooked and raw elements 

for balance, texture, and dramatic effect. 

Dining Customs

Most Vietnamese eat 3 meals per day, with the largest in the 

afternoon or evening. Guests typically arrive on time, often 

bringing small gifts, such as candy, bread, tea, or fresh produce. 

Upon entering the 

home, guests remove 

their shoes. In 

wealthier households, 

hosts provide indoor 

sandals or slippers for 

their guests. Before 

dining, hosts may 

offer guests tea and 

light snacks. During a 

meal, hosts generally 

serve dishes all at once. After finishing their first serving, guests 

usually must decline several offers of additional servings if they 

do not want more food (Photo: A Vietnamese farmer sifts rice). 

Although Vietnamese traditionally dine while sitting on bamboo 

mats on the ground, urban families increasingly use chairs at 

Western-style tables. Vietnamese prefer chopsticks (doi dua) to 

forks or knives, although they use spoons to eat soup. At most 

meals, Vietnamese use their chopsticks to take small morsels of 

food from communal bowls, placing them in individual rice bowls

before consuming them. Diners usually finish all food in their 

individual bowls, but typically refrain from taking the last portion 

from communal dishes as a sign of respect. Vietnamese never 

use chopsticks to point nor leave them lodged vertically in food 

– a custom reserved exclusively for offerings to ancestors. 

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Diet 

Vietnamese cuisine varies by region, often reflecting the 

country’s history of foreign contact (see p. 2-20 of History and 

Myth). Influenced by Chinese traditions, many northern dishes 

are stir- or deep-fried with salty soy, fish, or prawn sauce. 

Northern dishes 

typically incorporate 

less meat than 

recipes in Vietnam’s

central and southern 

regions. In the 

South, Indian, 

Cambodian, and 

Thai culinary 

traditions greatly 

influence the 

cuisine. Here, many dishes are sweetened with sugar and 

coconut milk or liberally spiced with chili paste, garlic, and other 

fragrant spices. Notably, elements of French traditions prevail in 

dishes across the country, including the use of beef in Vietnam’s 

signature dish, pho (a rich noodle soup with broth made from 

beef stock – pictured) and French bread in the banh mi (a 

sandwich of meat, cabbage, and other fillings). 

As Vietnam’s main staple grain, rice (com) is featured at almost 

every meal, usually alongside meat, seafood, or vegetables, and 

is used in a variety of desserts. Noodles, typically made with rice,

are also popular, especially in soups. The most common forms 

of protein are beef, pork, chicken, and fish. Popular vegetables 

include green and white onion, ginger, bean curd, cabbage, 

spinach, kale, bean sprouts, and bamboo shoots. A variety of 

fresh herbs such as parsley, mint, and basil offer distinctive 

flavors in many dishes. 

Meals and Popular Dishes 

Common breakfast foods include sticky rice (xoi) wrapped in 

banana, coconut, or bamboo leaves, and pho. Both lunch and 

dinner commonly include steamed white rice mixed with 

vegetables and meat; soups; noodle dishes served with meat or 

seafood, fresh herbs, and vegetables; or banh xeo (rice flour 

crepes with various fillings).

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
For dessert, Vietnamese enjoy sweet sticky rice (pictured, 

steamed with banana), puddings, a variety of baked goods, or

fresh fruit such as watermelon, papaya, bananas, and thanh 

long (dragon fruit – a 

member of the cactus 

family known for its sweet, 

subtle flavor). 

Other popular dishes 

include thit kho (pork 

cooked in fish broth); rau 

luoc (boiled vegetables); 

canh ca (vegetable and 

fish soup); lau (a large bowl of seasoned broth placed over hot 

coals used by diners to cook meat and vegetables); and cha ca

(grilled fish with dill). Some dishes are seasoned with or dipped 

in nuoc mam (a salty, fermented fish sauce) or nuoc cham

(nuoc mam mixed with chili, garlic, 

sugar, vinegar, and fresh lime). 

Beverages 

In addition to drinking tea multiple 

times throughout the day, 

Vietnamese also enjoy ca phe

(coffee – pictured). Introduced to 

the region in the late 19th century 

by the French, ca phe may be 

served hot or poured over ice and 

mixed with sweetened condensed 

milk. Popular alcoholic beverages include beer, wine, and 

several rice-based drinks, such as ruou quoc lui (in the North) 

and ruou de (in the South), rice wines similar to Japanese sake. 

Restaurants

Vietnamese, particularly urban residents, eat out regularly, with 

restaurant visits frequently lasting hours. Restaurants range 

from upscale establishments offering global cuisines to street 

stalls selling a variety of snacks (an vat) and meals, such as 

banh mi, pho, fried breads, fish, goi cuon or cha gio (fresh or 

fried rolls filled with shrimp, thin noodles, mushrooms, and 

onion). While tipping is relatively uncommon in Vietnam, some 

upscale restaurants may add a small service charge to the bill.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Health Overview

The Vietnamese population’s overall health has improved 

considerably since the end of the Vietnam War (see p. 17-20 of 

History and Myth), when the newly unified government extended 

the North’s better-developed health services to comparatively 

underdeveloped areas in the South. Nearly all Vietnamese have 

access to clean water, while about 80% have access to modern 

sanitation facilities. In addition, instances of malaria have 

reduced considerably in 

recent years, following 

aggressive government 

efforts to control and treat 

the disease. 

Between 1975-2015, 

Vietnamese life expectancy 

at birth increased from 62 to 

76 years, about the same 

rate as in the US. 

Meanwhile, infant mortality 

(the proportion of infants who 

die before age 1) decreased from 52 to 17 deaths per 1,000 live 

births. In addition, maternal mortality fell from 139 deaths per 

100,000 live births in 1990 to 54 in 2015, although it remains 

high compared to rates in China (27) and the US (21) (Photo: A 

mother bathes her baby in a stream in rural Vietnam). 

Despite these gains, Vietnam’s healthcare system is 

inadequate, suffering from insufficient funding; a lack of 

hospitals, clinics, and medical personnel; and significant 

disparities in the quality of care offered by urban, rural, public, 

and private facilities. Moreover, socioeconomic change has 

increased the prevalence of non-communicable diseases, with

demographic trends likely to burden the healthcare system with 

rising demand and costs in coming years. 

Traditional Medicine

Used primarily to protect or restore health, traditional medicine 

consists of knowledge, practices, and skills derived from the 

beliefs, experiences, and theories of the native population.

Traditional medicine has a rich history in Vietnam and centers 

on using non-surgical methods to identify and treat the basic 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
causes of illness. Due to heavy Chinese influence starting in the 

early centuries BC, today Vietnamese methods include Thuoc 

Bac (“Northern Medicine”), referring to Chinese traditional 

medicine, and Thuoc Nam (“Southern Medicine”), or 

Vietnamese traditional medicine. 

Today, some Vietnamese supplement modern treatments with 

traditional therapies by growing or gathering their own medicinal 

herbs or purchasing herbal treatments from pharmacies and 

other vendors. Besides herbal medicine, common traditional 

treatments include mineral baths and mineral ingestion, food 

therapies, massage, acupuncture (a process of a practitioner

inserting very thin needles into a patient’s skin), cupping (giac 

hoi – the process of applying suction cups to draw blood and 

pathogens to the skin’s 

surface), and herbal 

steam therapy (xong 

hoi – a patient inhales 

medicated vapors). 

In some areas, specialty 

clinics offer unique 

treatments combining 

modern techniques with traditional cures to treat illnesses such 

as cancer, respiratory diseases, and HIV/AIDS. Notably, some

communities in remote rural regions, and residents unable to 

afford modern procedures, rely entirely on traditional medicine 

(Photo: A hospital in Southeast Vietnam). 

Modern Healthcare System

Vietnam offers free or low-cost medical care in public facilities to 

civil servants, public sector employees, the poor, and ethnic 

minorities living in remote or disadvantaged areas. Significant 

investment in national insurance programs over the last 3 

decades to cover the remaining population has increased 

participation rates significantly from 10% of the population in the 

early 1990s to 72% today. 

Despite expanded insurance coverage and federal healthcare 

spending, the healthcare system remains underfunded and 

struggles to meet growing demand. Physical infrastructure, 

particularly Vietnam’s 935 public hospitals, is dilapidated, with 

many facilities poorly equipped and operating far above capacity 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
levels. On average, Vietnam has about 21 hospital beds for 

every 1,000 citizens – a rate well below the World Health 

Organization’s minimum standard of 33. 

Moreover, public facilities are understaffed. In 2013, Vietnam 

had just 10 physicians per 10,000 people, significantly lower 

than the US rate of 250. This shortage in medical professionals 

is more extreme in rural areas, where the ratio dips to as low as 

1 physician per 10,000 people. Rural facilities are often unable 

to treat serious illnesses, 

forcing rural residents to 

travel long distances and 

incur significant costs to 

receive proper care. 

Finally, medical facilities fail 

to adequately address the 

special needs of Vietnam’s 

aging population. For 

example, there are less 

than 3,000 geriatric care 

beds across the entire country, while the nation’s few mental 

healthcare facilities struggle to care for Vietnam’s approximately 

3 million Alzheimer’s patients. Private hospitals and clinics tend 

to offer high quality services but are available only in urban areas 

and unaffordable for most Vietnamese (Photo: A member of the 

US Navy listens to the lungs of an elderly Vietnamese woman). 

Health Challenges

Today, the leading causes of death and illness are so-called 

“lifestyle” diseases, such as diabetes, heart disease, respiratory 

disease, and cancers. In 2015, these chronic and noncommunicable diseases accounted for 76% of all deaths. 

Preventable “external causes” such as accidents, suicides, and 

drug use result in about 11% of all deaths annually, significantly 

higher than rates in the US (6%) and China (7%). 

Communicable diseases, such as tuberculosis, dengue fever, 

hepatitis, typhoid fever, and bacterial diarrhea contribute to 13% 

of all deaths, a notably higher prevalence than in the US (5%). 

Intermittent outbreaks of avian influenza resulted in 65 deaths 

from 2003-16, one of the world’s highest avian flu fatality rates. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Regular flooding (see p. 3 of Political and Social Relations) puts 

millions of rural residents at risk of illness from polluted 

groundwater and facilitates the spread of communicable 

diseases. Notably, about 12% of children under age 5 are 

underweight, a rate significantly higher than in the US (0.5%). 

Malnutrition disproportionately affects rural children (Photo: 

Children in the sparsely 

populated northwestern 

Lai Chau province). 

HIV/AIDS: About 255,100 

people, or about 0.5% of 

the population, 

predominantly sex 

workers and drug users, 

are infected with 

HIV/AIDS. While the 

overall prevalence rate is low, cases of infection are rising. Since 

carriers and victims of HIV/AIDS suffer from severe 

discrimination and stigmatization within Vietnamese society, 

many cases go unreported. 

Agent Orange: Agent Orange, a chemical defoliant widely used 

by the US military during the Vietnam War (see p. 20-21 of 

History and Myth), continues to contaminate certain areas and 

adversely affects 

residents’ health. 

Besides killing crops 

and other plants, 

Agent Orange 

contaminated soil and 

groundwater, leading 

to high rates of birth 

defects, stunted 

growth, and other 

medical issues. Despite efforts to clean contaminated areas and 

address the needs of victims, as many as 3 million Vietnamese 

continue to suffer from Agent Orange-related health issues. The 

US has provided aid to remediate Agent Orange contamination 

(see p. 3-4 of Political and Social Relations) (Photo: A US Navy 

doctor instructs Vietnamese nurses and doctors at Khanh Hoa 

General Hospital in Nha Trang). 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Overview 

For thousands of years, the Vietnamese subsisted in a rural 

agrarian economy, utilizing canals and dikes to irrigate rice 

paddies while farming other crops. Others made silk clothing or 

handicrafts such as woven baskets and woodcarvings to trade 

at small inland and larger coastal markets. Most commerce was 

controlled by the Chinese, first as occupiers then as merchants, 

many of them remaining in the region following the rise of native 

kingdoms (see p. 2-6 of History and Myth).

French colonization in the 19th century (see p. 9-12 of History 

and Myth) significantly altered Vietnam’s economy. France 

sought to exploit rich soil in both the South and the northern Red 

River delta to grow rice for export. In the North and Central 

regions, the French invested in mining and cash crops such as 

coffee, tea, and rubber, grown on large plantations. France also 

maintained the traditional corvée system requiring Vietnamese 

to labor on infrastructure and other projects for many days per 

year without pay (see p. 8, 12 of History and Myth). While most 

Vietnamese suffered when the French took communal lands, 

providing only meager wages on plantations or in mines in 

exchange, some members of the elite benefited from large 

landholdings or low-level 

positions in the colonial 

bureaucracy.

In the early 20th century, 

the French began to

industrialize the North 

while investing in light 

industries in the South.

Meanwhile, the Chinese 

Hoa ethnic group (see p. 14-15 of Political and Social Relations) 

worked with the French to dominate retail and trade. Internal 

trade grew as the North sold the South industrial products, coal, 

and minerals in exchange primarily for rice and other foodstuffs.

The Japanese occupation during World War II and war against 

the French (see p. 11-15 of History and Myth) halted economic 

progress (Photo: Farmers working in terraced rice paddies). 

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Economic ideology in the North diverged significantly from the 

South’s, particularly after the country officially partitioned in 1954

(see p. 15 of History and Myth). The North followed a socialist 

model supported by China and the Soviet Union (USSR) that 

centralized planning, collectivized farmland, and promoted 

industrial development. Meanwhile, the South largely 

maintained its capitalist export-based economic model, backed 

by the US. In the subsequent Vietnam War (see p. 16-21 of 

History and Myth), both economies suffered major disruptions 

due to extensive bombings and 

labor shortages. The South 

primarily relied on foreign aid since

most housing, farmland, and 

livestock were ravaged. By the 

end of the war, the regional 

economy was in ruins (Photo: A 

mother carries her child through 

terraced mountain fields). 

After reunification in 1976 (see p. 

21 of History and Myth), the 

government began to implement 

the North’s socialist economic 

model throughout the country. Nevertheless, structural 

inefficiencies, corruption and mismanagement, emigration, and 

international isolation caused the economy to stagnate (see p. 

22-23 of History and Myth). In 1982, the regime initiated a “family 

economy” policy allowing peasants to sell excess products to the 

government or at local markets, while increasing industrial 

development. Despite these efforts, inefficient policies and 

inaccessible foreign development loans forced Vietnam to rely 

primarily on Soviet aid for survival. By 1985, resultant famine 

and hyperinflation had severe social and economic effects. 

In 1986, new leadership initiated Doi Moi (renovation) reforms 

(see p. 23 of History and Myth) to improve the economy by 

allowing market forces to play a larger role, privatizing land and 

state-owned companies, curbing price controls, and reforming 

banks. Further, the government closed some of its most 

inefficient public companies and sought foreign direct 

investment (FDI). By the mid-1990s, investment from Asia and 

the West poured in, causing per capita GDP growth to average 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
6% from 1992-97. As inflation and unemployment fell, 

investment in the oil industry, manufacturing, and tourism 

increased. In 1995, Vietnam became a member of the 

Association of Southeast 

Asian Nations (see p. 10

of Political and Social 

Relations), facilitating its 

regional integration. 

By 1997, the rapid rate of 

economic growth began 

to slow as investors 

rejected excessive 

bureaucracy and 

regulations. State-owned firms still dominated the economy as 

corruption continued unabated. Nevertheless, when a sudden 

devaluation of Thailand’s currency triggered the Asian financial 

crisis in mid-1997, domestic private consumption and some 

sustained FDI enabled Vietnam to maintain the highest growth 

rate in Southeast Asia, averaging over 5% in 1997-98 (Photo: A 

street-vendor selling soup in Hanoi). 

In the 21st century, Vietnam has sustained a positive economic 

trajectory, with average annual per capita growth above 5.2% 

from 2000-15. Its export orientation and cheap labor force have 

helped Vietnam become one of the world’s fastest-growing 

economies. In 2007, Vietnam joined the World Trade 

Organization, formally committing to a more market-based 

economy. Since then, the

government has continued 

to restructure public 

investment and the 

financial sector, reduced 

the number of state-owned 

firms, improved 

infrastructure, and began 

to combat high-level 

corruption. Unemployment and inflation are low, and there are 

fewer child laborers than in the past. Most significantly, the 

poverty rate has fallen significantly: just 12% of the population 

subsisted on $3.10 or less per day in 2014, compared to 77% in 

1992 (Photo: A boy selling fruit from a boat in Ha Long Bay). 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Despite these gains, Vietnam remains poorer than its similarlysized regional neighbors, Thailand and Malaysia. Corruption is 

still a major concern, and the oversized public sector is inefficient 

despite controlling such lucrative industries as oil, coal, and 

cement. Moreover, rapid improvements to standards of living 

have been uneven. Rural dwellers and ethnic minorities have 

benefitted far less than city dwellers and the Kinh majority (see 

p. 12 of Political and Social Relations). Finally, Vietnam’s tradebased economy remains highly vulnerable to global economic 

shocks. Consequently, further reforms are required to sustain 

Vietnam’s recent rapid economic growth and deliver its rewards 

to all citizens. 

Services 

Accounting for about 44% of GDP and 31% of employment, the 

services sector is the largest and fastest-growing segment of 

Vietnam’s economy. Significant sub-sectors include wholesale 

and retail trade, transportation and storage, banking, public 

administration, communications, and tourism. 

Tourism: The tourism industry is one of Vietnam’s fastest 

growing services subsectors. In 2015, tourism accounted for 

almost 7% of GDP and 5.2% of total employment, or 2.8 million 

jobs. Vietnam hosted 7.9 million tourists, who visited attractions 

such as the islands of Ha Long Bay (pictured), mountain rice 

terraces, and historical sites in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Hue, 

and Nha Trang. 

Tourists primarily 

come from China, 

South Korea, Japan, 

the US, Taiwan, and 

Russia. 

Industry

As the 2nd largest 

component of the 

economy, the 

industrial sector accounts for about 39% of GDP and 21% of the 

labor force. The most significant sub-sectors include 

manufacturing, mining, oil and gas production, and construction.

Manufacturing: Accounting for nearly 20% of GDP and 14% of 

the labor force, Vietnam’s diversified manufacturing sector has 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
been a catalyst for the country’s rapid economic growth in recent 

years. Significant manufacturing components include textiles, 

shoes, electronics, furniture, machinery, and fertilizers. 

Mining: Vietnam has large reserves of coal, nickel, iron, lead, 

zinc, and the world’s 4th-largest reserves of bauxite, an 

aluminum ore. Mining, which also includes the extraction and 

production of oil and gas, 

accounts for around 10% 

of GDP and just 1% of 

employment. 

Oil & Gas: Vietnam has 

the world’s 26th largest 

oil and 28th largest 

natural gas reserves, 

with new discoveries likely with additional exploration. Though a 

net exporter of crude oil, Vietnam imports refined petroleum 

products due to limited domestic refining capacity. State-owned 

PetroVietnam controls the industry and plans to more than 

double its refining capacity after completing the new Nghi Son 

refinery in 2018 (Photo: An oil rig in Vung Tau Oil Field). 

Construction: Construction has been a vital component of the 

rapid post-war economic growth, since much of Vietnam had to 

be rebuilt. Construction 

accounts for around 5% of 

GDP and provides over 

3.2 million jobs, or about 

6% of the labor force 

(Photo: Construction of 

the Hanoi metro in 2011). 

Agriculture

The agricultural sector 

includes farming, 

livestock, fishing, and forestry. Although agriculture is the 

smallest component the economy, accounting for about 17% of 

GDP, it employs around 48% of the labor force. 

Farming and Livestock: About 35% of Vietnam’s land area is

dedicated to cultivation. Since the end of farm collectivization in 

the late 1980s (see p. 23 of History and Myth), Vietnam has 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
made significant improvements in agricultural efficiency, yields, 

and exports. Nevertheless, family plots are typically small and 

rural farmers often struggle to make a living, as large 

agribusinesses dominate farm exports. Vietnam ranks 1st in the 

world for cashew and black pepper exports, 2nd for coffee, 3rd 

for rice, 4th for rubber, and 5th for tea. Rice is by far the major 

crop, produced by efficient irrigated (wet-rice) cultivation or by 

slash-and-burn techniques. Other notable crops include 

sugarcane, corn, cassava (starchy, tuberous, tropical root), 

soybeans, peanuts, bananas, and coconuts. Poultry, pigs, cows, 

and buffalos are common livestock varieties (Photo: Flooded 

rice fields in Sa Pa, 

northeastern Vietnam). 

Fishing: Vietnam has a 

huge fishing industry, 

consisting of about 

100,000 vessels of 

various sizes. Vietnam 

harvests over 7 million 

tons of fish and related products each year. Aquaculture 

production, in particular, accounts for around 65% of seafood 

exports. In 2015, Vietnam was one of the world’s top seafood 

exporters, selling about $7 billion of catfish, shrimp, tuna, and 

other varieties to Japan, China, South Korea, the US, and other 

countries. The fishing 

industry accounts for 

about 5% of GDP and 

employs over 5 million 

people, or over 9% of the 

labor force (Photo: 

Fishermen bring their 

catch to shore on Phu 

Quoc Island). 

Forestry: With over 48% of its territory covered by woodlands in 

2015, Vietnam has a highly-developed forestry industry. Stateprotected forests account for nearly 50% of Vietnam’s total 

forested area. Timber, woodchips, furniture, paper, and other 

wood products comprise nearly 2% of GDP. Commercial yields 

primarily consist of eucalyptus and acacia trees. 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Currency 

Vietnam’s currency is the dong (đ), issued in 12 banknote 

values (100; 200; 500; 1,000; 2,000; 5,000; 10,000; 20,000; 

50,000; 100,000; 200,000; and 500,000). While a dong formerly 

subdivided into 10 hao and 100 xu, neither these nor any coins 

are still in circulation. With fluctuations in exchange rates, $1 has 

been worth between đ20,800-đ22,900 in recent years. Although 

some larger businesses accept credit cards, smaller vendors 

typically accept only cash in small denominations (Photo: A 

street vendor in Hoi 

An counts her

earnings in dong). 

Foreign Trade

Vietnam’s exports, 

which totaled $169 

billion in 2016, 

primarily consisted of 

clothes, shoes, 

electronics, seafood, 

crude oil, rice, coffee, wooden products, and machinery sold to 

the US (21%), China (13%), Japan (8%), South Korea (6%), and 

Germany (4%). In the same year, Vietnam imported $161 billion 

of machinery and equipment, petroleum and steel products, raw 

materials for the textile and shoe industries, electronics, plastics, 

and vehicles from China (34%), South Korea (14%), Singapore 

(7%), Japan (6%), Hong Kong (5%), and Thailand (5%). 

Foreign Aid

Every year, Vietnam typically receives around $3-4 billion of

official development assistance. In 2014-15, Vietnam’s largest

donors were Japan ($1.65 billion), the World Bank ($1.13 

billion), the Asian Development Bank ($444 million), South 

Korea ($206 million), France ($196 million), Germany ($115 

million), and the US ($97 million). Although US aid to Vietnam 

decreased to about $33 million in 2016, Vietnam receives more 

US aid than most countries in the greater East Asia and the 

Pacific region. US aid primarily supports programs for the

environment, health, economic development, education, and 

social services. 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

Although Vietnam devotes a larger share of public investment to 

infrastructure than other Southeast Asian countries, residual war 

damages and mismanagement afflict transport and 

telecommunications networks, particularly in rural areas. The 

government suppresses freedoms of speech and media, while 

monitoring Internet 

content. 

Transportation

Bicycles and motorbikes 

are Vietnam’s most 

common forms of 

transport. Although the 

number of Vietnamese 

families using a privatelyowned vehicle is growing rapidly, travel by bus, xe om

(motorbike taxi), boat, train, pedicab, and foot are common. 

While buses are the primary form of public transport in cities, 

metro systems are under construction in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh 

City, with completion scheduled for 2019. Buses and trains are 

the most common forms of transport between cities. Boats and 

ferries connect Vietnam’s islands and delta regions (Photo: 

Downtown Ho Chi Minh City). 

Roadways: In 2014, Vietnam had over 131,800 mi of roads, with

about 51% of them paved. National Route 1A is the primary 

highway connecting Ca Mau in the far Southwest to Lang Son 

on the northeastern border with China. Vietnam plans to 

construct a 1,100 mi North-South Expressway to relieve 

congestion on Route 1A. The recently completed Noi Bai-Lao 

Cai Expressway connects Hanoi to Lao Cai on the northwestern 

border with China. Although roads connect remote villages to 

urban areas, many are unpaved, in disrepair, or subject to 

variable conditions due to flooding and other issues. 

Railways: Vietnam has around 1,640 mi of railways, primarily 

built during the colonial era (see p. 6-15 of History and Myth). In 

1976, state-owned Duong Sat Viet Nam (Vietnam Railways) re12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
opened the North-South Railway as the “Reunification Express,” 

a single-track railway connecting Hanoi to Ho Chi Minh City. In 

2010, Vietnam canceled plans for a high-speed railway between 

these 2 cities that would have reduced the journey time from 30 

hours to under 6, although the government was reconsidering 

the plan again in late 2016. Vietnam also has connections to 

China via Dong Dang (East) and Lao Cai (West). Corruption and

an investment shortfall have caused a reduction in railway traffic, 

which reached a recent low of 11.2 million passengers in 2015. 

Ports and Waterways: Vietnam has over 24,800 mi of inland 

waterways primarily in the Mekong and Red River deltas, 

enabling the transport of about 162 million passengers and 20% 

of total cargo traffic in 2015. Saigon Port in Ho Chi Minh City is 

Vietnam’s largest, located on the Saigon River. Major sea ports 

include Haiphong, Da Nang, Nha Trang, and Quy Nhon. 

Airways: Vietnam has 45 airports, 38 with paved runways. Tan 

Son Nhat International Airport in Ho Chi Minh City is Vietnam’s 

largest airport, serving over 32 million passengers in 2016, 

compared to over 50 million served in both Bangkok, Thailand 

and Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Vietnam Airlines is the national 

flag carrier, accounting for over 42% of the domestic market 

share, yet budget carrier VietJet Air comprised over 41% of the 

market share and is poised to become Vietnam’s busiest 

domestic carrier by 2018 (Photo: Secretary General Trong 

arrives at Joint Base 

Andrews on Vietnam 

Airlines in 2015). 

Energy 

Vietnam has a rich and 

diversified mix of energy 

resources, with 

significant reserves of 

coal, oil, and natural gas. In 2014, over 98% of rural households 

had access to the electric grid, although electricity shortages 

occur throughout the country. In 2015, coal accounted for 36% 

of electric-generating capacity, followed by hydroelectric plants 

(33%), oil and natural gas (25%), and other fuels (6%). Over the 

next decade, Vietnam expects the shares of coal and renewable 

resources to increase. Although Vietnam exports crude oil and 

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
coal, growing energy demands also require imports of coal and 

large amounts of refined petroleum products.

Media 

While Vietnam’s constitution recognizes freedom of expression, 

the criminal code prohibits speech critical of the government or 

that threatens vaguely defined national interests. Vietnam has 

one of the harshest environments for journalism and media in 

Asia, jailing more journalists than any other country except 

China. In 2013, the government enacted a law preventing 

Vietnamese from sharing news stories online. The authorities 

frequently censor, arrest, attack, or imprison journalists reporting 

on state-sensitive issues, causing widespread self-censorship. 

Print Media: The Vietnamese press includes hundreds of local 

and national periodicals published in Vietnamese, English, 

French, and other languages. Tuoi Tre, Thanh Nien, Nhan Dan, 

Tien Phong, and Sai Gon Giai Phong are popular national daily 

newspapers. While Viet Nam News and the Saigon Times Daily 

are popular English-language dailies, the monthly Vietnam 

Economic Times has more in-depth English-language coverage. 

Radio and TV: Vietnam has a wide range of public and private 

radio and TV broadcasters. Vietnam Television (VTV) and Voice 

of Vietnam (VoV) are state-run broadcasters. Many households 

subscribe to satellite, 

Internet, or cable TV 

services that provide 

international content in 

Vietnamese, English, 

French, Russian, and 

other languages. 

Telecommunications

Vietnam has a relatively underdeveloped yet rapidly growing 

telecommunications network. In 2015, Vietnam had about 6

landlines and 131 mobile phone subscriptions per 100 people

and about 49.7 million Internet users, up from just 500,000 users 

in 2000. The government approves content for all Vietnamese 

websites, blocks sites deemed critical of the government, closely 

monitors social media accounts, and has imprisoned online 

activists (Photo: Two Vietnamese surf the web on their mobile 

phones). 

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL