National Park Service

Department of the Interior

Midwest Archeological Center

Lincoln, Nebraska

EXPLORING THE 

WILDLAND FIRE AND 

ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE 

IN THE MIDWEST: AN 

EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM 

TO INVESTIGATE 

IMPACTS FROM FIRE 

ON ARCHEOLOGICAL 

RESOURCES.

By

Jay T Sturdevant, 

Rod Skalsky, 

Cody L. Wienk, 

Brennan Dolan, 

Dustin Gonzales, 

and 

David Amrine

Technical 

Report 134

United States Department of the Interior

National Park Service

Midwest Archeological Center

Lincoln, Nebraska

2014


EXPLORING THE WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY 

INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST: AN EXPERIMENTAL 

PROGRAM TO INVESTIGATE IMPACTS FROM FIRE ON 

ARCHEOLOGICAL RESOURCES.

By

Jay T Sturdevant, Rod Skalsky, Cody L. Wienk, Brennan Dolan, 

Dustin Gonzales, and David Amrine

NATIONAL PARK SERVICE

Midwest Archeological Center

Technical Report No.134

United States Department of the Interior

National Park Service

Midwest Archeological Center

Lincoln, Nebraska

2014
This report has been reviewed against the criteria contained in 43CFR Part 7, Subpart 

A, Section 7.18 (a) (1) and, upon recommendation of the Midwest Regional Office

and the Midwest Archeological Center, has been classified as

Available

Making the report available meets the criteria of 43CFR Part 7, Subpart A, Section 7.18 

(a) (1).
i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Tables of Contents.......................................................................................................................i

List of Figures .............................................................................................................................iii

List of Tables ...............................................................................................................................ix

Acknowledgements....................................................................................................................xi

Abstract...................................................................................................................................... xiii

Introduction................................................................................................................................ 1

Overview of National Park Service Study Sites...................................................................... 5

Buffalo National River (BUFF), Arkansas ...................................................................... 5

Effigy Mounds National Monument (EFMO), Iowa .................................................... 7

Pea Ridge National Military Park (PERI), Arkansas .................................................... 11

Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve (TAPR), Kansas .................................................... 13

Voyagers National Park (VOYA), Minnesota................................................................ 16

Wind Cave National Park (WICA), South Dakota ....................................................... 20

Analytical Methods and Prescribed Fire Experiments ........................................................ 25

Pre-Burn Analysis ............................................................................................................. 25

Wildland Fire Experiments ............................................................................................. 26

Post-Burn Analysis ........................................................................................................... 28

Results of Experimental Burns................................................................................................ 33

Buffalo National River (BUFF)....................................................................................... 33

Effigy Mounds National Monument (EFMO).............................................................. 36

Pea Ridge National Military Park (PERI)...................................................................... 39

Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve (TAPR)................................................................... 43

Voyageurs National Park (VOYA)................................................................................... 46
ii

Wind Cave National Park (WICA)................................................................................. 50

Summary of Impacts ........................................................................................................ 53

Fuels Variability................................................................................................................. 54

Firing Technique ............................................................................................................... 56

Experimenting with Artifact Cleaning ................................................................................... 57

Artifact Cleaning Laboratory Methods ......................................................................... 57

Artifact Cleaning Results ................................................................................................. 59

Outdoor Artifact Weathering Experiments .................................................................. 64

Artifact Cleaning Summary............................................................................................. 66

Experimental Program Recommendations ........................................................................... 67

Conclusions................................................................................................................................ 71

References Cited........................................................................................................................ 75
iii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Variables that affect the outcome impacts from 

wildland fire on archeological materials.................................................................................. 2

Figure 2. Map of the NPS Midwest Region illustrating the six

parks included in this study ...................................................................................................... 3

Figure 3. Map of general vegetation types within Buffalo 

National River............................................................................................................................. 6

Figure 4. Fire fuel models within Buffalo National River...................................................... 7

Figure 5. Map of general vegetation types within Effigy 

Mounds National Monument .................................................................................................. 8

Figure 6. Fire fuel models within Effigy Mounds National 

Monument.................................................................................................................................. 10

Figure 7. Map of general vegetation types within Pea 

Ridge National Military Park................................................................................................... 12

Figure 8. Fire fuel models within Pea Ridge National 

Military Park .............................................................................................................................. 13

Figure 9. Map of general vegetation types within Tallgrass 

Prairie National Preserve.......................................................................................................... 14

Figure 10. Fire fuel models within Tallgrass Prairie National 

Preserve ...................................................................................................................................... 16

Figure 11. Map of general vegetation types within Voyageurs 

National Park ............................................................................................................................. 17

Figure 12. Fire fuel models within Voyageurs National Park............................................... 19

Figure 13. Map of general vegetation types within Wind Cave 

National Park ............................................................................................................................. 21

Figure 14. Fire fuel models within Wind Cave National Park ............................................. 23

Figure 15. Illustration showing the arrangement of the electronic 

data logger, thermocouple wires, and artifacts used during the 

experimental burns ................................................................................................................... 26

Figure 16. Research team collecting pre-burn fuel samples at 

Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve.......................................................................................... 27
iv

Figure 17. Pre-burn grassland plot at Effigy Mounds 

National Monument ................................................................................................................. 27

Figure 18. Fire passing through a grassland experimental plot at 

Effigy Mounds National Monument....................................................................................... 29

Figure 19. Research team members recording observations 

on fire behavior during the experimental burn at Voyageurs 

National Park ............................................................................................................................. 29

Figure 20. Team member conducting post-burn data 

collection at Voyageurs National Park.................................................................................... 30

Figure 21. Experimental artifacts in-situ following the 

grasslands burn at Effigy Mounds National Monument...................................................... 30

Figure 22a. Pre-burn photograph of a kaolin pipe bowl 

and stem...................................................................................................................................... 31

Figure 22b. Post-burn photograph of the same kaolin pipe 

bowl and stem after being subjected to the Voyageurs 

National Park burn.................................................................................................................... 31

Figure 23a. Pre-burn photograph of a lead replica Minié ball ............................................ 32

Figure 23b. Post-burn photograph of the same lead minié 

ball following the burn at Pea Ridge National Military Park............................................... 32

Figure 24a. BUFF Experimental Plot A, Oak Woodland, 

flanking fire................................................................................................................................. 33

Figure 24b. BUFF Experimental Plot B, Oak Woodland, 

head fire ...................................................................................................................................... 34

Figure 24c. BUFF Experimental Plot C, Oak Woodland, 

backing fire ................................................................................................................................. 34

Figure 24d. BUFF Experimental Plot D, Pine/Oak Woodland, 

backing fire ................................................................................................................................. 35

Figure 24e. BUFF Experimental Plot E, Pine/Oak Woodland, 

flanking fire................................................................................................................................. 35

Figure 24f. BUFF Experimental Plot F, Pine/Oak Woodland, 

head fire ...................................................................................................................................... 36
v

Figure 25a. EFMO Experimental Plot A, Grassland, 

backing fire ................................................................................................................................. 37

Figure 25b. EFMO Experimental Plot B, Grassland, 

flanking fire................................................................................................................................. 37

Figure 25c. EFMO Experimental Plot C, Grassland,

 head fire ..................................................................................................................................... 38

Figure 25d. EFMO Experimental Plot D, Woodland, 

head fire ...................................................................................................................................... 38

Figure 26a. PERI Experimental Plot A, Grassland, 

flanking fire................................................................................................................................. 40

Figure 26b. PERI Experimental Plot B, Grassland, 

backing fire ................................................................................................................................. 40

Figure 26c. PERI Experimental Plot C, Grassland, 

head fire ...................................................................................................................................... 41

Figure 26d. PERI Experimental Plot D, Woodland, 

backing fire ................................................................................................................................. 41

Figure 26e. PERI Experimental Plot E, Woodland, 

flanking fire................................................................................................................................. 42

Figure 26f. PERI Experimental Plot F, Woodland, 

head fire ...................................................................................................................................... 42

Figure 27a. TAPR Experimental Plot A, Grassland, 

head fire ...................................................................................................................................... 43

Figure 27b. TAPR Experimental Plot B, Grassland, 

flanking fire................................................................................................................................. 44

Figure 27c. TAPR Experimental Plot C, Grassland, 

backing fire ................................................................................................................................. 44

Figure 27d. TAPR Experimental Plot D, Grassland, 

head fire ...................................................................................................................................... 45

Figure 27e. TAPR Experimental Plot E, Grassland, 

flanking fire................................................................................................................................. 45
vi

Figure 28a. VOYA Experimental Plot A, Woodland, 

flanking fire................................................................................................................................. 47

Figure 28b. VOYA Experimental Plot B, Woodland, 

head fire ...................................................................................................................................... 47

Figure 28c. VOYA Experimental Plot C, Woodland, 

backing fire ................................................................................................................................. 48

Figure 28d. VOYA Experimental Plot D, Woodland, 

backing fire ................................................................................................................................. 48

Figure 28e. VOYA Experimental Plot E, Woodland, 

flanking fire................................................................................................................................. 49

Figure 28f. VOYA Experimental Plot F, Woodland, 

head fire ...................................................................................................................................... 49

Figure 29a. WICA Experimental Plot A, Grassland, 

backing fire ................................................................................................................................. 50

Figure 29b. WICA Experimental Plot B, Grassland, 

flanking fire................................................................................................................................. 51

Figure 29c. WICA Experimental Plot C, Grassland, 

head fire ...................................................................................................................................... 51

Figure 29d. WICA Experimental Plot D, Grassland/Pine 

Woodland, backing fire............................................................................................................. 52

Figure 29e. WICA Experimental Plot E, Grassland/Pine 

Woodland, flanking fire ............................................................................................................ 52

Figure 29f. WICA Experimental Plot F, Grassland/Pine 

Woodland, head fire.................................................................................................................. 53

Figure 30. Scatterplot of maximum temperature and 

durations for each plot burned during the experimental project....................................... 55

Figure 31a. Pre-cleaning photograph of a novaculite flake.................................................. 61

Figure 31b. Post-cleaning photograph of the same flake 

with a portion cleansed with the solution of IvoryTM soap 

and warm tap water................................................................................................................... 61

Figure 32a. Pre-cleaning photograph of a bone ischium...................................................... 62
vii

Figure 32b. Post-cleaning photograph of the bone ischium 

after a portion was cleansed with a solution of alcohol and 

distilled water............................................................................................................................. 62

Figure 33a. Pre-cleaning photograph of a bone rib fragment ............................................. 63

Figure 33b. Post-cleaning photograph of the bone rib fragment 

after small area was cleaned with a solution of ethanol and 

distilled water............................................................................................................................. 63

Figure 34a. Pre-burn photograph of a large bone fragment................................................ 64

Figure 34b. Post-burn photograph of the same bone fragment.......................................... 65

Figure 34c. Photograph of the same bone fragment after 

seventeen months of natural weathering ............................................................................... 65

Figure 35. Research team members recording burn conditions 

at Wind Cave National Park..................................................................................................... 72

Figure 36. Research team member observing the burn at Pea 

Ridge National Military Park................................................................................................... 72
viii
ix

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Definition of Analytical Categories........................................................................... 83

Table 2. JFSP Park Fuel Summary ........................................................................................... 84

Table 3. BUFF Post-burn Incident Summary ........................................................................ 85

Table 4. EFMO Post-burn Incident Summary....................................................................... 86

Table 5. PERI Post-burn Incident Summary.......................................................................... 87

Table 6. TAPR Post-burn Incident Summary......................................................................... 88

Table 7. VOYA Post-burn Incident Summary........................................................................ 89

Table 8. WICA Post-burn Incident Summary........................................................................ 90

Table 9. Cleaning Methods....................................................................................................... 91
x
xi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The joint research team would like to acknowledge and thank everyone who 

assisted with this project. This project would not have been possible without the 

financial assistance and support of the Joint Fire Science Program. As a collaborative 

research project, this work was truly a multidisciplinary undertaking with participants 

from cultural resources, natural resources, fire, and many other park programs. Thanks 

to all the park Superintendents and staff who made this project possible. Thanks to 

MWAC Manager, Mark Lynott and Park Program Manager, Jeff Richner for their 

patience and unwavering support for our team. Thanks to former MWAC Archeologists 

Doug Scott and Tom Thiessen for providing guidance and leadership during the planing 

phases for this project. Also, thanks to MWAC Publications Team member Jeff Larson 

for his dedication and patience to see this report to completion. Special thanks go to 

all the Fire Program personnel who conducted the prescribed burns with the utmost 

professionalism and allowed our team to conduct the experimental research.
xii
xiii

ABSTRACT

Today, public land managers must routinely balance the restoration needs 

of natural resources with the preservation of cultural resources. This project was 

designed to provide parks with scientific data on the interface between wildland fire 

and archeological resources at NPS units in the Midwest Region. Between 2006-2009 

experimental research was conducted at six NPS units to record data on fire conditions 

(i.e., fuels, fire temperature, and burn duration) and the impacts on multiple classes of 

archeological materials routinely observed at sites within the region. The experimental 

study of fire conditions in different regional environments addresses questions 

regarding the threats or non-threats to multiple archeological resource types. By 

gaining a more thorough understanding of the fire/archeology interface at select parks 

in different ecosystems, park managers will be able to more effectively coordinate the 

needs of natural resource management with archeological resource preservation.
xiv
1

INTRODUCTION

Natural processes are never distant abstractions influencing the archeological 

record. As a natural and culturally induced landscape modifier and maintainer, fire 

has played a primary role in the evolution of North American ecosystems since humans 

first arrived during the last Ice Age (Pyne 1997; Vale 2002). Fire not only creates many 

of the archeological phenomena routinely investigated by archeologists (e.g., structural 

remnants, hearths, smudge pits, pottery, charcoal, etc.) but it also contributes to the 

ongoing modification of archeological sites and materials available for study.

The interface between wildland fire and archeological resources has become 

a crucial topic of study with ramifications for understanding the formation of the 

archeological record and archeological preservation. Considered a formal undertaking 

that requires an assessment of effect under Section 106 of the National Historic 

Preservation Act, wildland fire-use consistently has a direct linkage to questions of 

archeological site preservation. Today, park managers must routinely balance the 

restoration needs of natural resources with the preservation of cultural resources. 

The use of fire to achieve land management goals is becoming frequently employed by 

government land managers, non-profit organizations (e.g., The Nature Conservancy), 

and private land holders across the country. At the present time, many land managers 

are forced to make decisions about the use of fire and the preservation of archeological 

resources without the benefit of scientific data that would enhance the decision making 

process and allow a more effective use of fire without impairing the preservation of the 

archeological record. With more frequent and widespread applications of prescribed fire 

being used to achieve land management goals comes the need to determine the impacts 

to archeological resources and find ways to reduce or mitigate these impacts. There is 

also a need to begin to understand how, under certain conditions, fire-use may enhance 

archeological resource preservation over the long-term. 

Previous studies have demonstrated that wildland/prescribed fire can have 

significant impacts on the archeological record and potentially lead to the loss or 

destruction of information about past cultural groups. Impacts to archeological 

resources, whether heavy or light, typically are a result of several factors including 

deposition context, burn duration and temperature, amount of fuel consumption, and 

artifact material type (Figure 1) (Buenger 2003). Burn duration and intensity are directly 

related to available fuels and firing technique used (i.e., backing, flanking, or head fire), 

and are a key indicator of potential impacts. Archeological studies on fire effects have 

ranged from pre- and post-burn archeological inventories used to assess the impacts or 

potential impacts on archeological resources (Buenger 2003; Cannon and Phillips 1993; 

Connor, Cannon, and Carlevato 1989; Haines and Schofer 2008; Hester 1989; Hough et 

al. 2005; Tratebas et al. 2004; Traylor et al. 1990) to materials studies that have provided 

baseline information on the specific impacts fire has on archeological materials (Bennett 

1999; Buenger 2003; Cannon, and Carlevato 1989; Cavaioli 2002; Deal 2002; Haecker 

2002; Lentz et al. 1996; Loyd et al. 2002; Picha et al. 1991; Scott 1979; Sayler, Seabloom, 

and Ahler 1989; Switzer 1974; Winthrop 2004). These studies provide useful and relevant 

information concerning fire conditions and effects observed in many areas throughout 

the country and have shown that impacts to the archeological record can range from 
2

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

negligible to severe. However, most previous studies are based on fire conditions and 

archeological resources in areas of the United States where major wildland fires occur 

on an annual basis, primarily the Intermountain and Southwest regions. Most regions 

outside of the western United States have little or no baseline information that can be 

used to evaluate or predict the effects of fire on archeological resources. Prior to the 

current study, most Midwest Region parks lacked specific information concerning the 

local fire conditions and impacts to archeological resources. 

Figure 1. Variables that affect the outcome impacts from wildland fire on archeological materials.

Goals and Objectives

The objective of this project was to conduct experimental burns at six National 

Park Service (NPS) units in the Midwest Region (Figure 2). These experiments addressed 

questions regarding local fire conditions and the potential impacts to archeological 

resources. Each park contains a unique set of conditions and archeological resources 

from which data can be collected and modeled that will be widely applicable to other 

parks in the region. Two parks were selected from three environmental zones in the 

Midwest Region: (1) Great Plains; (2) Great Lakes/Eastern Woodlands; and (3) Ozark 
3

INTRODUCTION

Highlands. Experiments were designed to accurately model the typical fire conditions 

and archeological resources at each park. Outcomes from these experiments include (1) 

accurate data on the temperature and duration of fires, (2) a record of the macro-scale 

impacts on archeological resources, (3) an assessment of the impacts to archeological 

resources, and (4) recommended alternatives for mitigating the impairment of the 

archeological record. 

Figure 2. Map of the NPS Midwest Region illustrating the six parks included in this study.

Study parks were chosen to reflect the regional diversity of environmental 

zones, archeological resources, and burn programs throughout the Midwest Region. 

Experimental burn locations and times were chosen at each park with the following 

criteria: (1) experimental plots were placed at locations that reflect typical burn 

conditions (i.e., fuel types, fuel loads, moisture content, seasonality), (2) experiment 

plots utilized materials representative of archeological resources that are representative 

of each park, (3) experiments were undertaken in conjunction with prescribed burns 

already planned and scheduled by each park, hence meeting all the statutory and 

regulatory requirements of the NPS wildland fire program, (4) test plots were accessible 

and did not require extraordinary efforts to undertake the experimental burns and 

recording of archeological data. 

The fire/archeology interface experiments addressed multiple questions relating 

to the fire conditions and archeological resources at each selected park. Research 
4

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

questions addressed during the experimental study include: (1) what are the fire 

conditions typical for environmental zones within each park, (2) what conditions are 

created when different firing techniques are used (head, backing, flanking), (3) what 

impacts (if any) can be observed on artifacts subjected to different firing techniques 

(head, flanking, backing fires), (4) what environmental/fire conditions produce changes 

in surface archeological materials, (5) what artifact classes are most and/or least 

impacted during the experimental burns, and (6) how permanent are the impacts from 

wildland fire and which impacts can be removed due to natural artifact weathering or 

by conservation cleaning in a laboratory? 

This experimental project is directly related to a pilot study conducted by the 

Midwest Archeological Center (MWAC) in 2005 at Knife River Indian Villages National 

Historic Site (KNRI), North Dakota (Sturdevant 2006). The KNRI study was developed 

to address the prescribed burning of grasslands within medium density archeological 

sites. The 2005 experiments used local fire conditions at the park to evaluate multiple 

firing techniques (head, backing, and flanking) during two different burn seasons 

(Spring and Fall) in an effort to determine the types of burns and techniques with the 

least potential to impact surface archeological resources. The KNRI study benefited 

the park by addressing knowledge gaps regarding fire conditions (i.e. provided data on 

fire temperature/duration for multiple fire types) and the impacts to local archeological 

resources. The park now has current baseline information to move forward with a 

native prairie restoration program that will address issues of archeological resource 

preservation prior to prescribed burning by defining the fire techniques and burn 

season with minimal potential to impact surface archeological resources.
5

OVERVIEW OF NATIONAL PARK SERVICE STUDY SITES

The National Park Service’s Midwest Region covers a vast area of thirteen 

states and includes several distinct regional ecosystems from the Great Lakes to the 

Central Great Plains. Midwest Region parks also include a diverse set of archeological 

resources from 12,000 year old prehistoric sites to homes of former U.S. Presidents, 

historic Euro-American farmsteads, prehistoric mound sites, Civil War battlefields, and 

18th to 19th century Native American villages. This region-wide diversity of ecosystems 

and archeological resources makes a “one size fits all” approach to the fire/archeology 

interface problematic. Therefore, a region-wide, multi-park, multi-environment 

experimental project was developed to provide scientific data specifically relevant to the 

local fire management and archeological resource needs of a wide range of parks. 

Buffalo National River (BUFF), Arkansas

Located in the Ozark Highlands of north-central Arkansas, the Buffalo National 

River covers 135 miles of river encompassing 94,000 acres with numerous ecological 

zones including wooded uplands, riparian lowlands, springs, sinkholes, and small 

creeks and drainages (Figure 3). BUFF has an active prescribed burn program that is 

employed to promote and restore the Ozark woodland ecosystem. The park routinely 

conducts pre-burn archeological inventories prior to each burn in an attempt to locate, 

identify, record, and make recommendations for significant or potentially significant 

archeological resources that may be impacted or destroyed by fire. Currently, there 

are 650 known archeological sites recorded at BUFF. Examples of archeological 

resources include prehistoric bluffshelters and open village sites, historic Euroamerican 

homesteads, and late 19th century mining towns (Catton 2008; Sabo et al. 1990). Impacts 

of fire on the historic sites at BUFF are of particular interest since many have materials 

that can be damaged or destroyed by fire including wood, bone, shell, and leather. Prior 

to this study, there was scant scientific information available to evaluate fire conditions 

and the potential impacts at a local level in different ecozones (e.g., uplands vs. river 

terraces) and on multiple archeological resource types (e.g., prehistoric lithic scatters, 

historic farmsteads, etc.). Consequently, park managers have been forced to consider 

many types of archeological resources susceptible to impacts from fire without any 

scientific data to support their decision making and conclusions. 

The vegetation of Buffalo River is composed mostly of variable (60 to 100% 

cover) canopy mixed-oak forests and dry woodlands which include oak, oak-hickory, 

oak-pine, and pine woodland communities with oak-hickory as the most predominant 

type. Typically the dominant species are white oak (Quercus alba), black oak (Q. 

velutina), mockernut hickory (Carya alba) and sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua). 

Some differences may be on cool moist sites dominated by American beech (Fagus 

grandifolia) or dryer sites with post oak (Q. stellata) and blackjack oak (Q. marilandica). 

South-facing slopes may be dominated by shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata) while species 

such as eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) and honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos) 

may be present in areas recently cleared or having experienced an absence of fire 

(Johnson and Schnell 1988).
6

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

Savannas, or barrens, are grasslands interspersed with trees and maintained by 

fire. They are usually distinguished by a tree canopy cover of 10 to 30 percent, the almost 

complete absence of a shrub layer, and the dominance of prairie grasses and herbs 

(Nelson 2005, R.C. Anderson 1982). This vegetation community comprises a very small 

portion of the park (< 1%). 

The glades of Buffalo River are small and predominantly found on exposed, 

variable-depth soils over sedimentary (limestone) substrates (Hinterthuer 1977, Logan 

1992). Often they will have patches of exposed bedrock or variously sized boulders. 

Generally, the glades (<1% of park) are dominated by grasses, including little bluestem 

(Schizachyrium scoparium), big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), and Indiangrass 

(Sorghastrum nutans) with a rich mixture of forbs. The glades are surrounded by 

transition woodlands which are characterized by a short (to 50’), sparse canopy of 

overstory or understory woody species over sparse to dense grass/herbaceous ground 

cover dominated by post oak, eastern red cedar, winged elm (Ulmus alata), and winged 

sumac (Rhus copallina).

Old field sites are heavily dominated by tall fescue (Schedonorus phoenix), sericea 

lespedeza (Lespedeza cuneata) and Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) (Johnson and 

Schnell 1988). Beginning in 1995, the park undertook a program to identify and manage 

field openings through a combination of prescribed fire, native grass restoration, and 

mechanical treatment. During 1999 fifty-eight of the 125 identified openings along 

Figure 3. Map of general vegetation types within Buffalo National River.
7

OVERVIEW OF STUDY SITES

the river corridor were qualitatively surveyed for vegetation. Twenty-nine of the units 

contained little bluestem and it was found to be the dominant or subdominant species 

within 5 of the units. Additionally, seven of the units were found to have “glade-like” 

qualities and the final recommendation of the survey was for “controlled burns for all of 

those fields surveyed (Logan 1999).

Buffalo National River fuels fall into Fire Behavior Fuel Models 2, 3, 6, 8, and 9 

(H.E. Anderson 1982, Figure 4). Oak, oak-hickory, oak-pine, and pine woodlands are best 

characterized as fuel models 8 and 9 (90% of the park). These mixed oak forest and dry 

woodlands typically have fuel loads around 14 tons/acre. Glades and transition woodlands 

are characterized as fuel model 2 with fuel loads around 10 tons/acre. Old and managed 

field sites are characterized as fuel model 3.

Effigy Mounds National Monument (EFMO), Iowa

Located in the Paleozoic Plateau region of northeastern Iowa, Effigy Mounds 

National Monument lies along the western edge of the Mississippi River. The park 

contains 2,526 acres of high Mississippi River Bluffs, valleys including the Yellow River, 

upland prairie, and wooded hillslopes. EFMO has a prescribed burn program and a 

fire management plan, as well as a program designed to address the Wildland Urban 

Interface by the removal of some trees and brush in interface areas. There are 52 known 

Figure 4. Fire fuel models within Buffalo National River.
8

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

and recorded archeological sites in the park (Benn 2004). These sites include at least 198 

prehistoric Native American mounds. The animal effigy, conical, and linear mounds 

are the main features of the park; however, various prehistoric and historic habitation 

sites also exist and surround some of the mound groups. Other site types within the park 

include rock shelters, petroglyphs, and historic Euroamerican settlements.

Over 80% of the vegetation cover at EFMO is hardwood forest, with another 10% 

in wetlands and marshes, and the remainder in prairie and shrubland (Figure 5). Sugar 

maple (Acer saccharum) and basswood (Tilia americana) dominate some of the remaining 

North-Central Interior Dry Oak Forest with scattered prairie openings on the ridge tops 

and bluff edges. Sugar maple-basswood stands represent climax community forests 

for this area, but historically, prairie openings may have been actively maintained by 

American Indians. Current prairie openings have a recent history of farming activities. 

These old field areas have been restored to prairie through the use of fire or by seeding 

native prairie species. The small goat prairies existing on bluff edges show signs of 

encroachment by woody species.

Vegetation on the wooded hills consists of a mix of hardwoods, such as oak 

(Quercus spp.), maple (Acer spp.), hickory (Carya spp.) and basswood. White oak (Q. alba) 

grows on ridge tops in drier sites. Red oak (Q. borealis) grows on slopes with moist soil 

and can reach impressive sizes. Black oaks (Q. velutina) grow along the bluff edge while 

Figure 5. Map of general vegetation types within Effigy Mounds National Monument. Sny 

Magill unit not included.
9

OVERVIEW OF STUDY SITES

chinkapin oak (Q. muehlenbergii) can be found among the limestone outcroppings. 

Interspersed throughout the area are a variety of less-common species, including 

ironwood (Ostrya virginiana), American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana), and eastern 

red cedar (Juniperus virginiana). Many shrubs grow in the uplands, including American 

hazelnut (Corylus americana), gray dogwood (Cornus racemosa), and common pricklyash 

(Zanthoxylum americanum). In areas previously cleared, maturing stands of trembling 

(Populus tremuloides) and bigtooth aspen (P. grandidentata) are found. Sumac (Rhus spp.) 

is found in the forest-prairie ecotone.

Indian grass (Sorghastrum nutans), big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), switchgrass 

(Panicum virgatum), and little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium) are the dominant grass 

species of the tallgrass prairie. Compassplant (Silphium laciniatum), butterfly milkweed 

(Asclepias tuberosa), blazing star (Liatris aspera), goldenrods (Solidago spp.), asters (Aster 

spp.), and purple coneflower (Echinacea pallida) add color to the open grasslands.

Various species of pondweed along with water milfoil, elodea, watershield, 

duckweed, arrowhead, bulrush, cattail, and wild rice populate the quiet backwaters and 

ponds. When present, filamentous and plankton algae are bio-indicators that identify 

areas polluted with excessive nutrients. The Sny Magill Unit is in the Mississippi River/

Sny Magill Creek floodplain and inundated annually by spring floods. The vegetation 

in this unit is dominated by silver maple, elm (Ulmus spp.), and green ash (Fraxinus 

pennsylvanica). Swamp white oak (Q. bicolor) is well represented.

The combination of topography, longitude, latitude and the climate of northeast 

Iowa have produced unique microhabitats that support island populations of flora 

and fauna. These microenvironments include north-facing algific talus slopes and 

“goat prairies”. The plant communities of the algific talus slopes are remnants of plant 

populations associated with more northern climates. Goat prairies, on the other hand, 

are small prairie remnants found on bluff faces associated with shallow soil, south-facing 

slopes, and rock outcrops. Although the south aspect, shallow soil, and drier conditions 

give drought tolerant prairie species a competitive advantage, fire is needed to discourage 

invasion by trees and shrubs.

In the maple-basswood forest, disturbances are expected infrequently with 

windthrows occurring every 600-700 years and stand replacing fires every 1000 years. 

By contrast, stand replacing fire in the mature North-Central interior Dry Oak Forest 

and Woodland, are likely to occur every 35-200 years while savannas could have burned 

4-7 years on average. Upland prairie openings and goat prairies may have burned every 

5-10 years historically (LANDFIRE).

The fuel models at EFMO are primarily Fuel Model 3 (tallgrass prairie), and Fuel 

Model 8 (closed timber litter, Figure 6). The closed timber litter (Model 8) is typical of 

the timber fuels found here during most of the year. The exception occurs in the fall 

during leaf drop (Model 9). During this period the leaves are light and fluffy, subject 

to rapid wind movement, especially in areas of high relief. Other fuel models that are 

used include Fuel Model 1 (short grass prairie) for goat prairies, and Fuel Model 9 

(hardwood litter) for fall timber conditions (Anderson 1982). The shortgrass (Model 1) 
10

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

and tallgrass (Model 3) fuel models are typical of the prairie and wetland fuels found 

in this area of Iowa.

Community type substantially affects fire intensity, fuel and fire continuity, and 

fire severity. For example, maple and basswood leaves provide a poor fuel bed in that 

the leaves compact and degrade rapidly resulting in low fire intensity and continuity. 

By contrast, fuel beds in oak dominated stands are substantially more flammable and 

sustain more intense fires. As succession continues and maple and basswood trees gain 

dominance, fire becomes a less effective tool to maintain oak stands. Slope and aspect 

play an important role in affecting fuel moisture and fuels accumulations. Slopes range 

from 6% to 70%, which can have a significant impact on fire behavior as the slopes 

become more exposed with the loss of leaf cover. Many of the Monument’s slopes face 

south, west, or east, which results in greater drying of the fuels during the day, especially 

with prevailing south and southwest winds.

Recent fuel loads at Effigy Mounds vary by community type and burn history. 

On average, white oak-red oak forests have 18-21 tons/acre. The maple-basswood forests 

have a wider range of fuel loadings with approximately 13 tons/acre in the disturbed 

Figure 6. Fire fuel models within Effigy Mounds National Monument. Sny Magill unit not 

included.
11

OVERVIEW OF STUDY SITES

hardwoods phase, but the disturbed oak phase has 36 tons/acre (unpublished data, 

Heartland Inventory and Monitoring Network).

Pea Ridge National Military Park (PERI), Arkansas

Pea Ridge National Military Park is located in the Ozark Highlands of northwest 

Arkansas. The park was established to preserve the 4,300-acre site of the 1862 Civil 

War battle between Confederate and Union forces (Carlson-Drexler et al. 2008). The 

landscape is diverse with rolling grassland prairies set in a mixed oak-hickory forest. 

The landforms range from rolling prairies to forested areas with shallow and steepwalled ravines rising to steep rocky hills. In addition to the archeological record of the 

1862 Civil War battle, there are numerous prehistoric Native American sites and historic 

Euroamerican farmsteads that have also been documented at PERI. PERI conducts 

routine prescribed fires for natural resource management purposes. Previous studies 

(Buenger 2003; Sayler, Seabloom, and Ahler 1989) have indicated that, under certain fire 

conditions, battlefield materials, such as lead, can be extensively damaged or destroyed. 

Therefore, it is necessary for PERI land managers to have information available that 

addresses the specific local fire conditions that are encountered during prescribed or 

wildland fires. 

Paramount to the park’s mission is to restore and preserve the landscape and 

cultural features that existed at the time of the Battle of Pea Ridge in March of 1862. The 

sharply contrasting geology and landforms, and a wide range of soil conditions within 

the park, provide an excellent illustration of the prairie-forest transition of the western 

Ozark region. This contrast historically brought together a vegetation assemblage that 

included oak-hickory woodland/forest, pure tallgrass prairie, upland oak savanna, and 

limestone glade. These plant communities, while largely products of climate and soils, 

are all dependent upon large-scale disturbance regimes (fire, drought, and herbivory) for 

maintenance of structural, functional, and compositional characteristics (Nelson 2005, 

Ladd 1991). Fire of anthropogenic origin has existed in the region since humans first 

arrived, around 10-12,000 years ago, and was a key ecological process in the development 

and maintenance of these vegetation associations (O’Brien and Wood 1998).

The vegetation communities within Pea Ridge National Military Park consist 

of four major types: oak–hickory forests, oak woodlands, cultivated fields, and cedar 

forests (Figure 7). Approximately 75% of the park is in the oak woodland or oak-hickory 

forest vegetation type with about 19% in pasture. Approximately 600 acres of open fields 

are maintained in their historic appearance by haying, under special use permit to local 

farmers for agricultural use, and/or prescribed fire. 

In the absence of fire during much of the 20th century, the oak woodland 

community has developed more of a forest structure, with a dense overstory (>300 trees/

ha) and a well-developed midstory of pole-sized trees. It is still possible to distinguish 

the degraded oak woodland communities from the oak-hickory forests since they have 

different species assemblages. Elkhorn Mountain and Round Top support tree species 

similar to those present at the time of the battle. Historical evidence suggests that the 
12

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

density of trees is currently greater than at the time of the battle due to alterations in land 

Figure 7. Map of general vegetation types within Pea Ridge National Military Park.

use and the suppression of fire. The remainder of the battlefield is less forested today. 

Tallgrass prairies were once present in the western quarter of the park and attempts are 

being made to reestablish some prairie.

The park’s oak woodland and hardwood forest vegetation varies with site 

conditions. Distinct forest and woodland types include post oak-blackjack oak 

woodlands and oak-hickory forests. Abandoned field vegetation includes tall grasses 

and mixed shrubs. Eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) is a native, invasive 

species which now dominates old fields that were abandoned at the time of the park’s 

establishment. Areas now dominated by this cedar forest represent the driest sites in the 

park that formerly supported oak savanna and limestone glade. Cedar trees were mostly 

absent at the time of the battle, and were not a significant part of the historic landscape. 

Many areas of the park have stands with a red cedar component heavy enough to affect 

the movement of fire and the effectiveness of prescribed fires. Treatment of these areas 

will include cutting, physical removal and burning as appropriate.

PERI fuels fall into Fire Behavior Fuel Models 2, 3, 8, and 9 (Anderson 1982, figure 

8). Oak woodlands/forests are best characterized as fuel model 9 (62% of the park). The 
13

OVERVIEW OF STUDY SITES

cultivated fields are characterized as fuel model 3 (19% of the park). Oak woodlands 

typically have fuel loads around 10 tons/acre with oak-hickory forests at 15 tons/acre. 

Typically, the period from late September through early April exhibits the greatest fire 

occurrence on or adjacent to the unit. While most fires occur in grassy fuels, leaf litter 

in the forest lands contributes to an increased potential during the winter. Another 

fuel problem that occurs occasionally results from ice storm damage. This causes an 

additional load of 10 and 100-hour fuels which in turn increases the resistance to control 

and mop-up problems. Fires in fuel model 9 generally consume leaf litter and top-kill 

small trees up to five inches in diameter. During extreme weather, most of the overstory 

trees can also be killed, particularly with the large accumulation of 100-hour fuels that 

have developed from years of fire protection.

Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve (TAPR), Kansas

Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve covers roughly 11,000 acres of rolling 

grassland in the Flint Hills of east-central Kansas. A small amount of the Preserve is 

actually owned by the National Park Service, with the majority of land now owned by 

The Nature Conservancy (TNC). The park is managed jointly by the NPS and TNC. 

Until recently, much of the land owned by the prior owner, the National Park Trust, had 

Figure 8. Fire fuel models within Pea Ridge National Military Park.
14

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

been leased for cattle grazing, with the leased lands intentionally burned each spring to 

stimulate new grass growth, a traditional activity that occurs throughout much of the 

Kansas Flint Hills. It is likely that some of the Tallgrass pastures have been intentionally 

burned upwards of 70 times over the past 100 years. Archeological resources within 

TAPR include abundant prehistoric quarry sites where chert was obtained for stone 

tool manufacture, together with a number of historic farmsteads dating to the late 

nineteenth century (Jones 1999). 

The preserve contains a nationally significant remnant of the once vast tallgrass 

ecosystem (Figure 9). Nearly 500 species of vascular plants have been identified within 

the Preserve as of 2007. The unplowed upland tallgrass prairie is dominated by big 

Figure 9. Map of general vegetation types within Tallgrass Prairie 

National Preserve.
15

OVERVIEW OF STUDY SITES

bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), little bluestem 

(Schizachyrium scoparium), sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), buffalograss 

(Buchloe dactyloides), ironweed (Vernonia baldwinii), and leadplant(Amorpha canescens). 

Other common species include ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), white heath aster 

(Symphyotrichum ericoides), light poppymallow (Callirhoe alcaeoides), and sedges (Carex

spp.). Other community types such as the Bulrush-Spikerush Marsh and Limestone 

outcrops are very narrow and found in small patches (Lauver 1998). Riparian forests are 

found along Palmer and Fox Creeks.

Prairie occupies most of the acreage of the Preserve (39 km2

) and is found in all 

of the pastures and on gentle rolling slopes, terraces, and some stream drainages. From 

1995 to 2006, the prairie vegetation was burned every spring, usually around April 1st

as a condition of the 35-year grazing lease. During that period, intensive early stocking 

was applied as the grazing system. Cattle were stocked at an average of two acres per 

550-pound steer for approximately 90 days (April 15th and July 31st). The cattle were 

then removed allowing a period of regrowth until the next spring. In 2006 the preserve 

began to shift management towards reduced disturbance intensity. Pastures have been 

periodically rested from grazing or fire and stocking rates were reduced. Furthermore, 

one pasture has been devoted to a novel grazing system called patch burn grazing 

(3813 ac). This system builds in rest from grazing and fire while meeting ecological and 

production goals.

The riparian forests along Fox and Palmer creeks are characterized by nearly 

level bottoms and terraces along the creeks (Lauver 1998). This floodplain community 

has been called the rarest in the state of Kansas because of the tendency, historically, 

to plow these deeper soils and to replace native vegetation with agricultural or 

grazing crops (National Park Service, 1998 Enhancement Report). The bottomland 

along Fox Creek was planted in smooth brome (Bromus inermis) and was cut for hay 

annually. Park staff has been working to restore these brome fields to native prairie. 

The riparian forests are a mixture of oak (Quercus spp.), plains cottonwood (Populus 

deltoides), American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), and eastern red cedar (Juniperus 

virginiana) with other shrubs as a minor component. Understory species include 

coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus), eastern woodland sedge (Carex blanda), 

Canada wildrye (Elymus canadensis), rice cutgrass (Leersia oryzoides), and Kentucky 

bluegrass (Poa pratensis). 

TAPR is predominantly tallgrass prairie, FBPS (Fire Behavior Prediction 

System) models 1 and 3 (Figure 10). Short grass species, model 1, tend to dominate 

in areas of shallow soil often found on ridge tops while tallgrass species, model 3, 

are more dominant on low lands and deeper soils. Intense fire and grazing practices 

applied in the past may have encouraged expansion of short and mid-grass species 

over time. Along the stream bottoms and near springs, woody plant communities 

represent FBPS fuel models 8 and 9. 
16

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

Voyagers National Park (VOYA), Minnesota

Voyageurs National Park is positioned in the Border Lakes Region along the 

U.S./Canadian border where the northern hardwood forest merges into the northern 

boreal forest. The park is within the vast (18,000 square mile) Rainy River drainage 

system and consists of over 218,000 acres of forests and lakes. Characteristics of both 

forest types are visible in the park, although boreal species predominate in about 70% 

of park lands (Figure 11). The park area has been subject to the effects of fire since the 

end of the Pleistocene and fire continues to shape the character of the park’s vegetation. 

The effects of natural ignitions and prescribed burns on park vegetation have been 

intensively studied for many years, but the impacts of these frequent and numerous fires 

on archeological resources remain largely unknown. 

Figure 10. Fire fuel models within Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve.
17

OVERVIEW OF STUDY SITES

Figure 11. Map of general vegetation types within Voyageurs National Park.

Over 400 archeological sites are formally recorded within the park and many 

more remain to be discovered (Richner 2008). They range in age from Late Paleoindian 

(circa 10,500 BP) through the early 20th century. Prehistoric sites contain rich artifact 

deposits, usually including numerous prehistoric pottery sherds and faunal elements 

in addition to large numbers of chipped stone artifacts. The park’s numerous historic 

sites include more than four dozen Ojibwe occupation and special use sites and a variety 

of Euroamerican sites ranging from logging and fishing camps to gold mines and 

homesteads. Due to the typically shallow soil conditions encountered in the bedrockdominated landscapes of VOYA, most archeological deposits occur within 50 centimeters 

of the ground surface, and in many cases the artifacts are positioned immediately under 

the forest duff zone. At the historic sites, artifacts are typically exposed on the ground 

surface and/or incorporated into the forest humus zone. 

Voyageurs National Park encompasses 218,055 ac (88,247 ha), of which 84,000 

ac (34,000 ha, 38%) are water in the form of lakes and ponds, and 134,000 ac (54,000 

ha, 62%) are burnable vegetation (Hop et al. 2001). The park is on the western extent of 

the Canadian Shield and soils are thin and overlie bedrock. The climate is continental 

with approximately 100 frost-free days a year and 24 inches of annual precipitation. 

The forests are considered sub-boreal and major tree species include red pine (Pinus 

resinosa), eastern white pine (Pinus strobus), jack pine (Pinus banksiana), black spruce 

(Picea mariana), white spruce (Picea glauca), balsam fir (Abies balsamea), red maple 
18

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

(Acer rubrum), paper birch (Betula papyrifera), arborvitae (Thuja occidentalis), and aspen 

(Populus tremuloides and P. grandidentata).

Approximately 20,500 ac (8,300 ha) of the park’s forests and woodlands are 

classified as jack pine. At Voyageurs this type is common on dry to very dry, nutrient 

poor sites, particularly on ridges having shallow soils. Jack pine is a pioneer species and 

typically grows in monotypic, even-aged stands. It is considered a short-lived species 

typically living as intact stands for 100 – 200 years. It regenerates by seed only and can 

store viable seeds in its serotinous cones for approximately 20 years. Being very shade 

intolerant, exposed mineral soil and a high light environment are necessary for seed 

germination and seedling survival (Ahlgren 1960, Chrosiewicz 1974, Carroll and Bliss 

1982, Carey 2007). Fire provides these conditions by opening serotinous cones, removing 

litter and duff, and eliminating the overstory.

Red and white pine species covers approximately 15,902 ac (6,440 ha) at 

Voyageurs. Within the park, red and white pines often occur together and pure stands of 

these species are uncommon. They are often found on islands and along the north, east, 

and southeast shores of lakes, streams, and wetlands, where they are protected from 

severe fires commonly approaching from the southwest (Heinselman 1973, Swain 1973). 

Generally, this stand type is more common to the south and eastern portions of the park 

were soils are shallower. 

The mixedwood community described for Voyageurs encompasses a variety 

of communities including aspen-birch, aspen-birch-boreal conifer, birch-fir, mapleaspen-birch, spruce-fir-aspen, and spruce-fir-birch-cedar. Many stands in these types 

once contained scattered super-canopy and canopy white, red, or jack pines prior to 

logging. Whether these stands were once dominated by pine and underwent conversion 

via removal of the pine seed source and succession, or were always mixedwood stands 

containing scattered pines, is debatable.

Aspen-birch and spruce-fir-aspen community types are the most abundant types 

in the park due in part to soil type, the park’s logging history, and the lack of recent fire 

on the landscape. Together they cover approximately 51,000 acres (20,500 ha) in the 

park, occurring under nearly all site conditions except for the very driest and wettest. 

Both types have similar species assemblages. Major deciduous species are trembling 

and big-tooth aspen, paper birch and red maple. Trembling aspen is often the most 

abundant species in early successional stages while big-tooth aspen, paper birch, and 

red maple are common minor associates. Species considered late successional such as 

balsam fir, northern white cedar, and black and white spruce are usually present, though 

not abundant, during the early successional stages. By the later successional stage, 

stands consist mainly of balsam fir with lesser components of aspen, birch, spruce, 

and sometimes cedar. White pines naturally occurred as isolated super-canopy trees, 

though their presence is now quite rare. Isolated red and jack pines may also occur in the 

overstory as remnants of previously logged stands. Shrub cover is often dense, especially 

on rich sites, with beaked hazel (Corylus cornuta) being the most abundant tall shrub 

followed by mountain maple (Acer spicatum), round-leaf dogwood (Cornus rugosa), and 

green alder (Alnus viridis). Low shrubs are not always abundant and consist of northern 

bush honeysuckle (Diervilla lonicera), blueberry (Vaccinium spp.), and dewberry (Rubus
19

OVERVIEW OF STUDY SITES

spp.). Depending on shading and site physiography, the ground layer varies in abundance 

and diversity. Moist and more open sites are more abundant, containing numerous herbs. 

Bigleaf aster (Eurybia macrophylla) is normally most abundant with wild sarsaparilla 

(Aralia nudicaulis), bluebead (Clintonia borealis), star flower (Trientalis borealis), twisted 

stalk (Streptopus lanceolatus), threeleaf false lily of the valley (Maianthemum trifolium), 

ground pine (Lycopodium dendroideum), and club moss (Lycopodium spp.) being very 

common. As conditions become drier and more nutrient poor, blueberry, western 

brackenfern (Pteridium aquilinum), veiny pea (Lathyrus venous), and bunchberry 

dogwood (Cornus canadensis) become the most abundant species.

Six wetland groups have been identified at Voyageurs (Hop et al. 2001). These 

include bogs, northern shrub and graminoid fens, wet meadows, marshes, and northern 

conifer and hardwood swamps. These wetland groups cover approximately 32, 000 acres 

in the park.

Fuels in the park can best be divided into four broad categories: conifer, mixed 

conifer/hardwood, hardwood, and wetland species (Figure 12). Live fuel flammability 

in the park is generally limited to conifer species. These species affect fire spread by 

torching, spotting, and crowning. 

Figure 12. Fire fuel models within Voyageurs National Park.
20

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

Conifer stands found in lowland sites (generally black spruce, balsam fir and 

white cedar) are best described by fuel model 8 and normally act as a fuelbreak. During 

very dry years, however, fire spread can occur and organic soils can pose a mop-up 

problem as well as add to fuel availability. Upland stands of jack pine, red and white pine, 

and spruce-fir are most flammable while in immature stands. High flammability and 

the presence of ladder fuels can cause torching and intense crowning, better represented 

by fuel model 4. In well-stocked mature stands, however, needle litter is the main carrier 

of fire with less of a fuel ladder in the pine species to carry fire to the crowns; fuel models 

8 and 9 are representative. Older stands and stands damaged by windthrow or insect 

infestations can contain large amounts of dead and down fuels and when present on 

shallow soil sites or during dry years can be susceptible to high intensity fires, best 

described by fuel model 10.

Mixed conifer/hardwood stands include aspen, birch, spruce, and fir in any 

combination. Depending upon fuel loading, stands of mixed conifer/hardwood are 

represented by fuel models 8 or 10. Surface and/or crown fires can occur in any of these 

types. Spruce-fir areas provide ladder fuels with low-hanging branches and birch bark 

provides the ideal vehicle for spotting long distances. Periodic insect infestations create 

jackpots of dead aerial and surface fuels. Mop-up efforts can be hampered by the heavy 

fuels and soil conditions.

During the leaf-off period, dead grass, leaf litter and other surface fuels provide 

the primary means for fire spread in hardwood stands. Increased solar radiation and 

unrestricted wind movement accelerate the drying of dead and down fuels. Fires are 

normally surface fires better represented by fuel model 2. When hardwood leaves are 

present, however, surface fuels are generally unavailable due to shading and the resultant 

higher fuel moistures. At this time, fuel model 8 is more representative.

Wetland includes such areas as marsh, meadow, slough, stream course, 

leatherleaf bog, shrub carr, and black spruce bog. Fires rarely occur during the summer 

unless the water table is low, thus allowing ground fire in the organic soil or surface fire 

in fine fuels. Cured marsh grasses can support fire throughout the snow-free season. For 

fires burning in marsh, meadow, slough, stream course, leatherleaf bog, or shrub carr 

communities, fuel models 2 or 3 will be used. Black spruce sphagnum bog is generally 

too wet to burn except during extreme drought when fire is essentially a ground fire 

burning slowly through the organic soil. However, under the right circumstances, an 

independent crown fire can carry through a lowland black spruce stand if there is no 

break between the canopy of upland conifer and the lowland black spruce. Where there 

is significant leatherleaf and/or feather mosses present under the black spruce, fuel 

model 5 would be used.

Wind Cave National Park (WICA), South Dakota

Wind Cave National Park was created on January 3, 1903, as the seventh national 

park and the first to protect a cave. While the original legislation applied only to the 

cave and surface developments needed for its management and care, the purpose of 

Wind Cave National Park has since evolved to protection of both subsurface and surface 

ecosystems and has grown to encompass 28,295 acres. The park is located in the Black 
21

OVERVIEW OF STUDY SITES

Hills of western South Dakota. WICA incorporates four major topographic features 

(the Hogback Ridge, the Red Valley, the Limestone Plateau, and the Central area), each 

with its characteristic vegetation, fauna, and natural resources. The Black Hills are also 

a sacred place for most Northern Plains Native American tribes (Galindo 2004; Spence 

2010). Wind Cave itself is of major cultural significance for the Lakota whose traditions 

and oral history identify the park area and the cave in particular as their place of origin. 

The vegetation communities within Wind Cave National Park consist of four 

major types with approximately 57% mixed-grass prairie, 28% ponderosa pine forest, 

8% shrublands, and 5% prairie dog towns (Cogen et al. 1999, Figure 13). These major 

types can be further divided into several plant communities or association types which 

include upland grasslands, riparian/wet meadows, shrublands, coniferous forests, 

hardwood forests, rocky outcrops/sparse vegetation, landscaped areas and other types. 

Figure 13. Map of general vegetation types within Wind Cave National Park.
22

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

Mixed-grass prairie is the dominant vegetation community and occurs in a 

mosaic with other communities, including ponderosa pine, shrubland, riparian, and 

woodland communities. The mixed-grass prairie is dominated by species such as 

western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), 

and blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis). These species are interspersed with short grass 

species such as buffalo grass (Buchloe dactyloides) and tallgrass species such as 

big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), Indian ricegrass (Oryzopsis hymenoides) and 

switchgrass (Panicum virgatum). Threadleaf sedge (Carex filifolia) is common to dry 

open prairies and rolling hills. A wide variety of forbs and shrubs are interspersed 

throughout the park. 

Ponderosa pine forest comprises about 28% of the vegetation communities. The 

overstory is nearly a ponderosa pine monoculture, although Rocky Mountain juniper 

(Juniperus scopulorum) and bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa) are occasionally found 

in the mid-story. The understory is largely made up of grass and forbs species found 

in the mixed-grass prairie with the addition of shrubs such as chokecherry (Prunus 

virginiana), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), common juniper (Juniperus communis) and 

currants (Ribes spp.).

Deciduous trees grow along stream courses and canyon bottoms, and include 

green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), boxelder (Acer negundo), bur oak, plains cottonwood 

(Populus deltoides), American elm (Ulmus americana), and paper birch (Betula papyrifera).

In addition, the park has approximately 8% of its lands in shrublands, these being 

dominated by mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus), creeping juniper (Juniperus 

horizontalis), chokecherry, and serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia).

Finally, about 5% of the park is covered with prairie dog towns. These tend to 

be dominated by purple threeawn (Aristida purpurea) and fetid marigold (Dyssodia 

papposa), while bigbract verbena (Verbena bracteata) is also common. Many other 

mixed-grass species occur, but tend to be very short in stature because of the constant 

grazing by prairie dogs.

Many exotic plants have established in the park and pose a threat to native 

vegetation. Starting in 2002, horehound (Marrubium vulgare) became established 

in some of the prairie dog towns within the park. It has since increased in abundance 

and is outcompeting many of the native prairie grasses. To date, over 100 species of 

exotic plants have been identified within park boundaries. These include, but are not 

limited to: Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense), bull thistle (Cirsium vulgare), scotch thistle 

(Onopordum acanthium), spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa), common mullein 

(Verbascum thapsus), and field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis).

Wind Cave’s fuels fall into Fire Behavior Fuel Models 1, 2, 6, 8, and 9 (Anderson 

1982, Figure14). Nearly 90% of the park can be characterized as fuel model 1, 2, or 9. 

Mixed-grass prairie is generally described as fuel model 1 (59% of the park). Fuel loads 

tend to range from 1 to 4 tons per acre in this fuel type, depending on precipitation, time 

since last fire, and level of bison grazing.
23

OVERVIEW OF STUDY SITES

The ponderosa pine forests of Wind Cave are characterized as fuel model 2 (26% 

of the park) or model 9 (4% of the park); model 2 if the primary carrier of fire is grass fuel 

and model 9 if the primary carrier is pine needles and small-diameter woody fuels. This 

distribution between fuel models 2 and 9 may be weighted too heavily toward model 2, 

Figure 14. Fire fuel models within Wind Cave National Park.
24

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

but that could be debated. Fuel loads in ponderosa pine stands range from fewer than 2 

tons per acre in a recently burned open stand to more than 34 tons per acre in a dense, 

unburned stand. In dense stands that have not burned in many years, more than half the 

fuel load can consist of litter and duff. Prescribed fire has on average reduced fuel load 

by slightly more than 50% in burn units of the park.

The remainder of the park has been described as fuel model 6 (shrublands) or 

fuel model 8 (prairie dog towns and deciduous forest). Fuel model 6 occurs on about 4% 

of the park and generally is interspersed within fuel model 1 or 2. Even though prairie 

dog towns are modeled as fuel model 8, they tend to carry fire only under extreme 

conditions and even then not particularly well.
25

ANALYTICAL METHODS AND PRESCRIBED FIRE 

EXPERIMENTS

In order to address questions regarding the fire and archeology interface, 

researchers developed methods to assess the condition of archeological materials and 

measure burn conditions typical of Midwest Region ecosystems. The experimental fire 

effects study utilized a multi-step comparative analytical approach to identify and assess 

macro-scale impacts to archeological resources. Information on fuel types, fuel loads, 

fire temperatures, and burn durations provided a measure of fire conditions that could 

be linked to individual artifacts and impacts observed on each item. By employing these 

experimental techniques, the qualitative artifact analysis was linked to burn conditions 

that would assist in assessing the impacts from a prescribed burn. 

Experimental “replica” artifact assemblages were compiled to approximate 

prehistoric and historic archeological resources at each study park. Each study 

assemblage contained a sample of both prehistoric and historic objects that may 

be found at each park. Prehistoric artifacts included stone tools (both flaked and 

ground stone), prehistoric pottery, bone, and shell. The sample of historic objects 

was typically much more diverse and includes whiteware ceramics, stoneware, kaolin 

tobacco pipe fragments, bottle glass, lead munitions, buttons, cans, leather, metal tools, 

domestic wares, and other objects that may be unique to a particular park or site type. 

Artifact assemblages at each park typically contained a mix of items obtained via deaccessioned collections, replica manufacture, or purchased replica items that are a close 

approximation of actual archeological objects such as brass Civil War belt buckles, 

kaolin tobacco pipe fragments, and lead munitions. 

Pre-Burn Analysis

The initial task for researchers was to procure an assemblage of replica and 

un-provenienced or de-accessioned artifacts that could be subjected to prescribed 

fire. It was acknowledged in the initial planning stages of this study that all NPS units 

involved have separate cultural resource needs. Some units have higher proportions of 

prehistoric sites; others have higher proportions of historical sites. This research project 

was designed to customize artifact assemblages to reflect the cultural resources of 

each park. This meant that observations needed to span a wide range of materials (i.e., 

prehistoric to historic) and characteristics (e.g., cracking on prehistoric bones to crazing 

on historic ceramics). These artifacts were used to assess the impacts of prescribed fire 

on material items that have not been affected by weathering or the impacts of previous 

fires. A key component of analysis was making the pre-burn observations on the artifacts 

that would be subjected to fire experiments in the field.

Identifying the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of each artifact 

was a critical task that was completed before any artifacts were placed into test plots. 

The pre-burn analysis was necessary in order to describe all the changes observed on 

artifacts after they had been burned by prescribed fire. A representative assemblage of 

192 artifacts was accumulated for each park. This allowed for an arrangement of four 

artifacts per thermocouple or 32 artifacts per plot (Figure 15). A recent study on fire 

effects (Buenger 2003) had outlined similar methodologies for assessing the impacts to 
26

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

archeological resources and provided a basis for analytical methods used during this 

project. All artifacts were analyzed for previous wear, damage, and condition prior to 

being subjected to prescribed fire experiments. Artifacts were also measured, weighed, 

and photographed with a digital camera prior to burning.

Figure 15. Illustration showing the arrangement of the electronic 

data logger, thermocouple wires, and artifacts used during the 

experimental burns.

Wildland Fire Experiments 

Between 2006 and 2009, the Midwest Region project team conducted the 

wildland fire experiments at all the parks participating in this study. Experimental plots 

were established in sets of three at two locations representative of typical archeological 

and environmental conditions for each individual park. Prior to each experimental burn, 

weather, soil moisture, fuel type, and fuel load data were collected (Figure 16). Data on 

fire temperature and burn duration was recorded from the center of each plot using 

an Omega OM_CP_OMTTEMP eight channel thermocouple data logger with Type K 

thermocouples. The eight-channel data loggers collect simultaneous readings for each 

of the eight thermocouples at five second intervals. The collection points for each data 

logger were located at the ends of eight 12-foot thermocouple wires arranged in a radial 

pattern from the center of the plot (Figure 17). Ignition of individual experimental plots 

(head, flanking and backing) allowed fire monitoring data such as flame length, flame 

depth, and rate of spread to be calculated. 
27

ANALYTICAL METHODS AND PRESCRIBED FIRE EXPERIMENTS

Figure 16. Research team collecting pre-burn fuel samples at Tallgrass Prairie 

National Preserve. 

Figure 17. Pre-burn grassland plot at Effigy Mounds National Monument. 
28

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

Each plot was ignited to simulate the burn conditions of a head, flanking, or 

backing fire (Figure 18). A head fire is one that is traveling with the wind and can 

generate intense fires with large flames driven by the increased air/wind effect. A 

backing fire generally produces small flames and low intensity fires relative to a head 

fire. The backing fire burns into or “backs” into the wind. A flanking fire incorporates 

two flame fronts that essentially converge at a point and burns against or perpendicular 

to the prevailing wind direction. Flanking fires can create a mix of fire behaviors that 

mirror both backing and head fires. The direction of each burn was based on the 

situational wind conditions that were needed to produce the particular type of firing 

within each unit. Generally, fires were ignited outside the experimental plots and 

allowed to burn through the plot, thus exposing the artifacts and thermocouples to the 

desired fire type (Figure 19). 

Post-Burn Analysis

Post-burn analysis was conducted using similar methods and analytical 

categories that were used during the pre-burn analysis (Figure 20). An initial recording 

and photographs were made in the field when artifacts were collected from the burn 

plots (Figure 21). All materials were then re-analyzed in the laboratory and compared 

against the pre-burn analysis. Impacts such as cracking, charring, sooting, combustive 

residue, fracture, scorching, and melting were recorded for artifacts where changes 

occurred during the burn experiments (Figure 22 a-b). Artifact weight, dimensions, and 

color change were also measured and samples of items were photographed to document 

the impacts sustained during a burn. The post-burn analysis created a comparative data 

set that would demonstrate the amount and types of changes that were introduced to 

artifacts during a prescribed burn (Figure 23 a-b). Linking these variables with the data 

on burn temperature and duration will allow researchers to assess the impacts on the 

replica artifact assemblages under multiple burn conditions. 

Table 1 lists the major categories used to describe individual artifact impacts and 

conditions. Several of the terms have been adapted for this study from Sayler et al. (1989) 

and Buenger (2003:105-106). Due to the subjective nature of these terms, a listing and 

definition of each usage is necessary. Each descriptive term was viewed as independent 

of the others, hence individual artifacts could have multiple impacts listed in order to 

describe its condition.
29

ANALYTICAL METHODS AND PRESCRIBED FIRE EXPERIMENTS

Figure 18. Fire passing through a grassland experimental plot at Effigy Mounds 

National Monument. 

Figure 19. Research team members recording observations on fire behavior during the 

experimental burn at Voyageurs National Park. 
30

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

Figure 20. Team member conducting post burn-data collection at Voyageurs National Park.

Figure 21. Experimental artifacts in-situ following the grasslands burn at Effigy Mounds 

National Monument.
31

ANALYTICAL METHODS AND PRESCRIBED FIRE EXPERIMENTS

Figure 22a. Pre-burn photograph of a kaolin pipe bowl and stem.

Figure 22b. Post-burn photograph of the same kaolin pipe bowl and stem 

after being subjected to the Voyageurs National Park burn. 
32

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

Figure 23a. Pre-burn photograph of a lead replica minié ball.

Figure 23b. Post-burn photograph of the same lead minié ball following the 

burn at Pea Ridge National Military Park. 
33

RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL BURNS

Buffalo National River (BUFF)

All six of the BUFF experimental plots were successfully burned on March 20, 

2009. Experimental burns at BUFF were conducted exclusively in woodland fuel types 

typical of Ozark upland landforms. One set of archeology plots (A, B, C) was located in an 

oak woodland community type and had an average fuel load of 10 tons/acre. The other 

three plots (D, E, F) were located in pine-oak woodland with a fuel load of 25 tons/acre. 

All plots were located in fuels that are characterized as fuel model 9 (Anderson 1982).

Burn durations ranged between 22 minutes 45 seconds to 83 minutes 45 seconds 

(Figure 24 a-f, Table 2). Maximum temperatures recorded ranged between 833oC and 

545oC with average plot temperatures between 102oC and 116oC (Table 2). BUFF 

experimental plots exhibited some of the highest maximum temperatures and average 

temperatures recorded for any parks included in this study.

The adherence of combustive residue and minor scorching on objects accounts 

for the majority of impacts observed on the BUFF collection (Table 3). Significant 

impacts including fracturing, cracking, spalling, melting, and color change were 

observed on less than a quarter of the collection (Table 3). Bone and shell objects were 

most susceptible to significant impacts and generally did not withstand the effects of fire 

as well as non-perishable materials such as ceramics, metal, and glass.

Figure 24a. BUFF Experimental Plot A, Oak Woodland, flanking fire. 
34

Figure 24b. BUFF Experimental Plot B, Oak Woodland, head fire.

Figure 24c. BUFF Experimental Plot C, Oak Woodland, backing fire.
35

Figure 24d. BUFF Experimental Plot D, Pine/Oak Woodland, backing fire.

Figure 24e. BUFF Experimental Plot E, Pine/Oak Woodland, flanking fire.
36

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

Figure 24f. BUFF Experimental Plot F, Pine/Oak Woodland, head fire.

Based on the summary of impacts from BUFF, the higher fuel loads did increase 

the occurrence of significant impacts when compared to experimental units in lower 

fuel load experiment plots. The successful burning of all six experimental plots at BUFF 

provided a good measure of impacts for an upland fuel setting in the Ozark Highlands. 

However, this baseline sample does not address the numerous other fuel types and 

landscape settings that may contain archeological resources. Additional sampling of 

other fuel types is needed to address impacts in other areas of the park, particularly 

lowland river terraces and open-field settings.

Effigy Mounds National Monument (EFMO)

The three grassland and one woodland fuels plots at EFMO were successfully 

burned on April 19, 2007. The fuel models at Effigy Mounds National Monument are 

primarily Fuel Model 3 (tallgrass prairie), and Fuel Model 8 (closed timber litter) 

(Anderson 1982). Burn durations for the EFMO grassland fuels plots ranged between 

17 minutes 30 seconds and 31 minutes 25 seconds (Figure 25 a-c,Table 2). Maximum 

temperatures recorded within grassland fuels plots ranged between 536oC and 649oC 

with average temperatures of 81oC to 91oC (Figure 25 a-c, Table 2). The single woodland 

fuels plot was fired using a head fire that would sustain the burn across the plot. The 

woodland fuels plot recorded a burn of 14 minutes fifty seconds with a maximum 

temperature of 368oC and average temperature of 53oC (Figure 25 d, Table 2).

The adherence of combustive residue to the archeological objects accounts 

for nearly half (48%) of observed impacts at EFMO (Table 4). There were also high 
37

RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL BURNS

Figure 25a. EFMO Experimental Plot A, Grassland, backing fire.

Figure 25b. EFMO Experimental Plot B, Grassland, flanking fire.
38

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

Figure 25c. EFMO Experimental Plot C, Grassland, head fire.

Figure 25d. EFMO Experimental Plot D, Woodland, head fire.
39

RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL BURNS

incidences of scorching and color change recorded for the EFMO experiments (Table 4). 

Significant impacts were confined to cracking and fracturing but represent only 1% of 

the total impacts observed. 

Conclusions based on the results of the experimental burns at EFMO are 

considered tentative since burn conditions did not facilitate the successful burns of two 

out of three woodland fuels plots. Because of a paucity and thinness of leaf litter in the 

woodland zone, the backing and flanking fire plots did not burn and yielded no results. 

The head fired woodland plot did burn and was included in our analysis. All three 

grassland plots were completed and provided data to evaluate grassland fuels within 

the park.

Pea Ridge National Military Park (PERI)

Experimental burns at PERI utilized two distinct Ozark Highland contexts and 

are a good representation of the Ozark old-field grassland and woodland fuel types. 

Oak woodlands/forests are best characterized as fuel model 9 (62% of the park). The 

cultivated fields are characterized as fuel model 3 (19% of the park) (Anderson 1982). 

The grassland plots did contain some woody brush vegetation. The woodland plots 

included a uniform cover of hardwood leaf litter and woody vegetation. 

All six PERI experimental plots were burned on March 18, 2007. Grassland fuels 

plots recorded relatively uniform burn durations of between 26 minutes 50 seconds 

and 31 minutes 45 seconds (Figure 26 a-c, Table 2). In comparison, woodland fuels 

plots burned relatively quickly with burn times of 7 minutes 5 seconds to 15 minutes 55 

seconds (Figure 26 d-f, Table 2). Woodland fuels plots also exhibited lower maximum 

temperatures ranging between 254oC to 383oC with the grassland fuels ranging between 

459oC to 630oC (Figure 8 d-f, Table 2). 

Non-permanent impacts dominated the effects recorded on artifacts from 

PERI (Table 5). Combustive residue accounted for 75% of the observed changes in the 

PERI collection. More significant impacts such as fracturing, melting, and spalling 

together accounted for 8% of the total impacts observed (Table 5). The dominance of 

non-permanent, less significant impacts at PERI suggest that its relatively short burn 

durations reduced the incidence of significant impacts observed on the PERI materials. 
40

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

Figure 26a. PERI Experimental Plot A, Grassland, flanking fire.

Figure 26b. PERI Experimental Plot B, Grassland, backing fire.
41

RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL BURNS

Figure 26c. PERI Experimental Plot C, Grassland, head fire.

Figure 26d. PERI Experimental Plot D, Woodland, backing fire.
42

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

Figure 26e. PERI Experimental Plot E, Woodland, flanking fire.

Figure 26f. PERI Experimental Plot F, Woodland, head fire.
43

RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL BURNS

Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve (TAPR)

The grassland fuels at TAPR are a very uniform fuel type with less variability 

than woodland plots in other parks and consist primarily of fuel models 1 and 3. The 

TAPR grasslands are characterized by a frequent burn schedule and intensive cattle 

grazing, both of which tend to reduce fuel loading in a grassland environment. One 

backing fire plot did not produce any results because fire did not carry across the plot 

during the burn 

Experimental plots at TAPR were burned on March 26, 2007. Grassland fuels 

at TAPR exhibited the lowest burn durations of the parks included in this study. Burn 

durations between 4 minutes 20 seconds and 9 minutes 25 seconds produced maximum 

temperatures of 208oC to 492oC (Figure 27 a-e, Table 2). Average temperatures across all 

TAPR plots varied between 47oC and 106oC (Figure 27 a-e, Table 2). 

Impacts observed at TAPR were the most minimal of the experimental program 

(Table 6). No change was recorded on 22% of the objects subjected to the prescribed 

burn. Combustive residue and scorching account for 58% and 7% respectively of the 

total impacts observed (Table 6). A small percentage of objects (11%) did exhibit some 

color change following the prescribed burn (Table 6). 

Figure 27a. TAPR Experimental Plot A, Grassland, head fire.
44

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

Figure 27b. TAPR Experimental Plot B, Grassland, flanking fire.

Figure 27c. TAPR Experimental Plot C, Grassland, backing fire.
45

RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL BURNS

Figure 27d. TAPR Experimental Plot D, Grassland, head fire.

Figure 27e. TAPR Experimental Plot E, Grassland, flanking fire.
46

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

Voyageurs National Park (VOYA)

The prescribed burns at VOYA were logistically the most difficult of the project. 

Coordination of the VOYA prescribed burn experiments was complicated by the fact 

that the VOYA fire program tends to have narrowly defined prescribed burn parameters 

and is remote enough that achieving a successful burn at the park took multiple attempts 

during a three-year period. 

VOYA experimental plots were placed in a 200 year-old red and white pines stand. 

Except for a prescribed burn conducted by VOYA in 2004, the site had not burned since 

the early 1900s. As a result, there was a dense growth of beaked hazel and round-leafed 

dogwood. The coarse woody debris on the site consists of scattered jackpots from wind 

thrown trees, with a low to moderate fuel load across the majority of the site. Although 

the overstory is mostly pine, it is sparse in areas and the litter is often dominated by leaf 

litter rather than needle cast. The duff layer ranges widely in depth from near zero on 

the exposed ridges and openings to nearly 15 cm in the dense brush. The site is best 

described as fuel models 8 and 9 (Anderson 1982).

The experimental plots were placed in two areas, one of dense brush that had 

been cut the year prior (fuel model 8) and one in an exposed area with scattered woody 

fuels (fuel model 9). The litter layer was composed of mainly needle cast with a mix of 

leaf litter from the surrounding brush. The duff layer was up to 10 cm thick in the former 

brushy area and was minimal in the latter exposed area.

All VOYA plots were successfully burned on August 13, 2009. Because of the 

variability in fuels at VOYA, two plots burned as a combination backing and flanking 

fire (Table 2). VOYA exhibited the longest burn durations of the project and a high 

degree of variability with the maximum recorded burn temperatures. Burn durations 

were as long as 188 minutes with none under 70 minutes (Figure 28 a-f, Table 2). 

Maximum temperatures ranged between 47oC and 622oC with average temperatures 

recorded between a project low of 26oC and 109oC (Figure 28 a-f, Table 2). Fire data 

from VOYA underscore the highly variable nature of the fuel types and loads contained 

within the park.

Similar to the other woodland fuels plots at other parks, the VOYA collection 

exhibited a higher incidence of significant impacts to certain material types. Bone and 

shell items were found to be more susceptible to fracturing, cracking and spalling (Table 

7). Combustive residue accounted for 55% of the impacts observed at VOYA (Table 7). 

Scorching (15%) and color change (14%) combined for nearly 30% of the total impacts. 

One lead object did show evidence of melting during the burn. Prehistoric stone tools 

and pottery exhibited incidences of combustive residue, minor-medium scorching, and 

some color change after the prescribed burn. 
47

RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL BURNS

Figure 28a. VOYA Experimental Plot A, Woodland, flanking fire.

Figure 28b. VOYA Experimental Plot B, Woodland, head fire.
48

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

Figure 28c. VOYA Experimental Plot C, Woodland, backing fire.

Figure 28d. VOYA Experimental Plot D, Woodland, backing fire.
49

RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL BURNS

Figure 28e. VOYA Experimental Plot E, Woodland, flanking fire.

Figure 28f. VOYA Experimental Plot F, Woodland, head fire.
50

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

Wind Cave National Park (WICA)

The mixed pine litter and grass fuels from experimental plots at WICA are unique 

to the JFSP research project. This was the only park in the study to have a primarily 

pine litter and grass fuel type. This fuel type tends to reflect ecosystems found in the 

western United States and stands in contrast to other areas in the Midwest. Nearly 

90% of the park can be characterized as fuel model 1, 2, or 9. Mixed-grass prairie is 

generally described as fuel model 1 (59% of the park). Fuel loads tend to range from 

1 to 4 tons per acre in this fuel type, depending on precipitation, time since last fire, 

and level of bison grazing. The ponderosa pine forests of Wind Cave are characterized 

as fuel model 2 (26% of the park) or model 9 (4% of the park); model 2 if the primary 

carrier of fire is grass fuel and model 9 if the primary carrier is pine needles and smalldiameter woody fuels. 

All six plots at WICA were successfully burned on October 29, 2008. Grassland 

plots recorded burn durations of 19 minutes 30 seconds to 35 minutes 35 seconds and 

maximum temperatures of between 439oC to 745oC (Figure 29 a-c, Table 2). Average 

burn temperatures for the grassland plots were between 55oC and 129oC (Table 2). The 

grassland/woodland fuels plots exhibited much longer burn duration times between 66 

minutes 10 seconds and 161 minutes 5 seconds and higher maximum temperatures of 

747oC and 768oC (Figure 29 d-f, Table 2).

Incidence of minor to heavy combustive residue account for 54% of all impacts 

observed on the WICA artifacts (Table 8). Charring and minor to medium scorching 

were observed on 15% of objects. No Change was recorded on 19% of the WICA 

collection on a broad range of material types. Significant impacts, such as fracturing and 

melting, were observed infrequently on bone, glass, and lead objects (Table 8). 

Figure 29a. WICA Experimental Plot A, Grassland, backing fire.
51

RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL BURNS

Figure 29b. WICA Experimental Plot B, Grassland, flanking fire.

Figure 29c. WICA Experimental Plot C, Grassland, head fire.
52

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

Figure 29d. WICA Experimental Plot D, Grassland/Pine Woodland, backing fire.

Figure 29e. WICA Experimental Plot E, Grassland/Pine Woodland, flanking fire.
53

RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL BURNS

Figure 29f. WICA Experimental Plot F, Grassland/Pine Woodland, head fire.

Summary of Impacts

Analysis of data from the six parks has shown both expected and surprising 

results. The majority of artifacts subjected to fire during prescribed burns did not exhibit 

any significant impacts. A significant macro-scale impact to an artifact was defined 

as an irreversible change to an object and a loss of its inherent information potential, 

destabilization of an object that would lead to degradation and loss of information 

potential, or the complete destruction of an object. The adherence of combustive 

residue to artifacts was the most frequent impact observed. Between 48% and 75% of 

artifacts exhibited low to high amounts of combustive residue. Significant impacts to 

artifacts such as scorching, fracturing, cracking, spalling, or melting were typically 

observed in only 5% to 10% of assemblages. However, experimental plots with higher 

fuel loads or longer burn residence times did increase the occurrence of these impacts 

into the 20 – 25 % range. Parks with experimental plots that yielded more significant 

impacts include BUFF, VOYA, and WICA. The incidence of major or significant impacts 

to the artifact assemblages was likely a combination of fuel type/fuel load and artifact 

material. Artifacts such as bone, shell, leather, wood, and lead exhibited more frequent 

significant impacts when compared to materials such as ceramic, stone, metal, and glass. 

The majority of impacts observed are reversible, did not destabilize an object, did not 

lead to a loss of information potential, and did not completely consume the object. 

When available fuels have the potential to increase burn duration and intensity, 

increased incidence of significant impacts to archeological resources may result. For 

example, grass fuels typically are of short burn duration and lower temperature (Table 

2), resulting in minor impacts such as the adherence of combustive residue. In plots 

where fuels increased burn duration and intensity, the potential for impacts increases, 
54

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

especially on artifact materials that are susceptible to modification at lower temperatures 

and shorter burn duration such as lead, leather, wood, and shell. 

Historic archeological assemblages may be particularly susceptible to impacts 

from wildand fire. In the Midwest, historic sites frequently include surface scatters or 

shallow deposits with perishable materials that are vulnerable to significant impacts 

from wildland fire. As the current study demonstrates, surface expressed historic 

archeological resources need to be considered along with prehistoric sites when 

evaluating wildland fire programs. In fact, these may be of primary concern with 

evaluating burn programs and alternatives for mitigating impacts from fire. 

Fuels Variability

This study demonstrated that there is significant inter- and intra-park variability 

in fuels and corresponding burn durations and temperatures (Figure 30). Our study 

has produced a measure of burn conditions at each park, but the variability in fuels at 

several of the parks could produce varying impacts to archeological resources. Because 

the type and amount of fuels are two of the primary components related to fire impacts 

on archeological resources, understanding the fuel conditions at each park is key to 

predicting potential impacts to archeological resources. Using burn temperature and 

duration as a relative measure of burn conditions clearly indicates that parks with higher 

loads of woody fuels have increased potential to impact archeological resources. The 

parks with the highest combined temperatures and durations also included plots with 

lower temperatures and durations. The parks that showed higher burn temperatures 

and longer durations also correlate with increased incidence of significant impact to 

archeological resources. Grassland plots consistently recorded lower temperatures and 

shorter durations than woodland plots. This directly correlated with minor or minimal 

impacts in grassland plots.

The amount, moisture content, and consumption of fuels on the ground surface 

(e.g., duff and leaf litter) also influence the impacts observed on artifacts. In some cases, 

leaf litter and duff served to insulate the artifacts lying underneath because the fuels 

were not entirely consumed by fire. In other cases the leaf litter/duff layer did not contain 

the density of fuels necessary to sustain fire through an experimental plot. Hence, the 

amount of ground surface fuel buildup has direct consequences for archeological sites 

with surface components. Cyclical burn programs in many instances are intended to 

reduce the amount of litter and surface fuel buildup which may begin to increase the 

number and severity of impacts to archeological resources by reducing the amount of 

litter materials that serve to insulate archeological materials lying on the ground surface. 

Additional data collection is needed in order to account for some of the fuels variability 

observed in parks with mixed fuels environments.
55

RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL BURNS Figure 30. Scatterplot of maximum temperature and durations for each plot burned during the experimental project. 
56

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

Firing Technique

The results of using three separate firing techniques to manipulate burn 

conditions varied between parks and fuel types. In areas with a uniform fuel type (e.g., 

grass fuels), firing technique can be used to alter burn duration and intensity. In areas 

with more variable fuels the use of a different firing technique was either masked by 

fuels that burn for an extended period once the flame front had passed or did not result 

in any significant difference in fire conditions. Separate firing techniques could not be 

used on several plots during the study because of logistical reasons during some of the 

prescribed burns. Additional research is needed to better understand the relationship 

between firing technique and fire conditions in a variable fuel environment.
57

EXPERIMENTING WITH ARTIFACT CLEANING

A sample of eighteen artifacts was selected for an experimental study of artifact 

cleaning techniques to measure the permanence of fire-related impacts. The artifacts 

are a representative collection of different materials that are typical of the parks in the 

JFSP study. Artifacts were stored in plastic storage bags contained in plastic storage 

boxes for four to twenty-eight months after burning and before their removal for this 

study. Artifact materials include bone, brass, ceramic (stoneware and whiteware), 

kaolin pipe clay, ferrous metal, glass, lead, flaked stone, pewter, aboriginal pottery 

(unglazed), shell, and tin (enamel-ware). Artifacts were selected that had medium to 

heavy combustive residues on their surface in order to allow cleaning effectiveness to be 

determined on those artifacts that were most heavily affected by fire. Each burn location 

contained a particular fuel type (grassland, grassland/woodland, and woodland) in 

order to determine what effects different fuels might have on the post-burn condition 

of the artifact. Three bone artifacts and three flaked stone artifacts were selected from 

each fuel-type in order to determine if fuel-type would influence the effectiveness of 

different cleaning methods. 

Cleaning methods were determined using the experimental cleaning steps 

outlined in Roberts (1988) and Spafford-Ricci and Graham (2000). Both of these articles 

recorded, in careful detail, the methods and procedures used to restore items burned 

or otherwise affected by structural fires in the Huntington Library and Art Gallery 

in Pasadena, CA and the Royal Saskatchewan Museum, respectively. Although it is 

understood that structural fire fuel types in a museum would be quite different from 

wildland fire in the Midwest National Parks, the clear steps and guidelines used in 

these articles provided a basis on which to clean a sample of artifacts from the Joint Fire 

Science Project. 

Artifact Cleaning Laboratory Methods

The methods chosen were separated into two categories: dry cleaning and wet 

cleaning. Dry cleaning methods involved the use of a soft, dry brush, groom/stick (a 

gummy material that adheres to soot, dirt, or other loose materials), and soot sponges 

(latex sponges that are meant to be used dry). Wet cleaning methods included a mixture 

of warm tap water and IvoryTM soap, a 50:1 solution of distilled water and OrvusTM Paste, 

a 50:1 (2%) solution of ammonium hydroxide mixed with IvoryTM soap, mineral spirits, 

50:50 solutions of alcohol and ethanol, and a 3:1 solution of warm tap water and GojoTM. 

Dry methods were attempted on every artifact. Wet methods were attempted following 

the suggestions of Roberts (1988) and Spafford-Ricci and Graham (2000) about which 

solutions to use on which artifact material. In addition, some wet methods were 

attempted that were not suggested in the articles above, especially with artifacts that 

were particularly difficult to clean.

Cleaning methods were tested one at a time with dry methods being followed 

by wet methods. Cleaning ceased when one or more effective methods were found. All 

methods were applied to a small area of the artifact in order to allow further cleaning 
58

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

attempts and to retain a fire-damaged surface for future comparative and research 

purposes. The dry methods were applied to artifacts as follows:

•	 Dry, soft-bristle jeweler’s brushes were used to remove loose particles from the 

artifact. Artifacts were gently brushed in a parallel or circular motion. 

•	 Groom/Stick was applied to the surface of the artifact for 1-2 minutes in the 

desired area then peeled off. It was then dabbed or rolled along the surface of 

the artifact. 

•	 Soot sponges were used with a gentle to vigorous (depending on the artifact) 

circular motion on the area to be cleaned. 

Wet methods for the artifacts varied according to material type and to cleaning 

suggestions found in the Roberts (1988) and Spafford-Ricci and Graham (2000) articles. 

Wet methods were applied as follows: 

•	 A mixture of IvoryTM soap and warm tap water was applied using cotton swabs. 

Generally, a saturated cotton swab was gently rubbed onto the surface of the 

artifact. Following this, a dry swab was used in the same manner. This was 

repeated a number of times, depending on effectiveness of the solution (until 

the swabs were coming off clean or the solution showed no effect). The area 

cleansed was then rinsed using swabs soaked in water. Final drying was also 

done with a cotton swab. This technique was used on a number of material 

types, including ceramics, kaolin pipe clay, glass, lead, flaked stone, pewter, 

aboriginal pottery, shell, and tin enamel-ware. 

•	 A 50:1 solution of distilled water and OrvusTM Paste was applied using the same 

swabbing procedure for the IvoryTM soap/warm tap water solution. This solution 

was used on brass, ceramics, kaolin pipe clay, ferrous metal, glass, lead, flaked 

stone, pewter, and shell. 

•	 A 50:1 (2%) solution of distilled water and ammonium hydroxide, mixed with 

IvoryTM soap, was used on glass, stoneware, whiteware, and kaolin pipe clay. 

This technique required the use of a vapor hood. Objects were rubbed and 

dried with cotton swabs, as in the IvoryTM soap/tap water method (usually 

repeated 2-3 times), with intervening periods in which they were allowed to 

soak in solution for 1-2 minutes. The ammonium hydroxide showed a strong 

tendency to destroy cotton swabs quickly, especially where rubbed surfaces 

were irregular. 

•	 Mineral spirits were applied to artifacts in undiluted concentrations using a 

similar wet swab/dry swab method. This technique also required the use 

of a vapor hood. Rinsing was done with distilled water, followed by drying 

with tissue paper. Only lead, brass, and ferrous metal were cleaned using 

this method.
59

EXPERIMENTING WITH ARTIFACT CLEANING

•	 A 50:50 solution of alcohol and distilled water was used on all three bone 

artifacts. The solution was applied using the wet swab/dry swab method. The 

cleansed area was dabbed with a swab using warm tap water followed by drying 

with another cotton swab.

•	 A 50:50 solution of ethanol and distilled water was used on one of the bone 

artifacts in the study. It was applied in the same manner as the 50:50 alcohol/ 

distilled water solution, but was rinsed with distilled water instead of tap water. 

•	 A 3:1 solution of warm tap water and GojoTM was used on a single lithic artifact 

(chert) in the study. It was applied with the swab method detailed above and 

rinsed with tap water.

After cleaning, artifacts were allowed to air dry and were re-packed in plastic ziplock bags with an MWAC artifact card. The steps and effects of cleaning were recorded 

on MWAC Artifact Cleaning Worksheets. These worksheets were filed and placed with 

before and after photographs of the artifacts which show the cleansed area on each 

artifact. The effectiveness of each cleaning method used on each artifact was described 

using five categories: not attempted, ineffective, somewhat effective, effective, and very 

effective. Artifacts on which a cleaning method was not used received a designation of 

not attempted. Ineffective was used when there was no visible effect on the combustive 

residue found on the artifact. Somewhat effective was used when some visible effect 

occurred, but the results were heavily limited (for instance, some material might come 

off on a cotton swab, but continued cleaning removed only minor to negligible amounts 

of residue). Effective was used when cleaning of the artifact surface occurred with effort 

(multiple episodes of cleaning might be used, resulting in eventual removal of residues 

on the surface). Finally, very effective was assigned to cleaning methods that showed 

removal of residues with a minimum amount of work (for example, the alcohol and 

ethanol used on bone removed residue with the first or second round of cleaning with a 

cotton swab). 

Artifact Cleaning Results

Table 9 shows the results of the cleaning experiment by method. As can be seen, 

the dry methods (dry brushing, groom/stick, and soot sponges) were, for the most part, 

ineffective. They removed some loose residue, but typically had little to no effect on the 

heavier combustive residues found on the test artifacts. A summary of the effectiveness 

of specific methods follows: 

•	 Dry brushing seemed to be most effective on pieces of bone or pottery with a 

significant amount of loose, dry residue. However, its effectiveness seemed less 

dependent upon material type and more on the presence or absence of loose 

residue (combustive residue, large pieces of plant material, etc.). 

•	 Groom/stick seemed to have the most effect on burned bone artifacts with 

large amounts of loose residue and charred/scorched areas (it is possible that 

it was actually removing some of the charred/scorched bone in addition to 

the loose residue). The designation of somewhat effective was given when the 
60

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

groom/stick removed some loose material, but had very little visible effect on 

the artifact itself. 

•	 Soot sponges were the least effective dry method, only having a mild effect on 

loose residue found on bone artifacts and possibly removing charred/scorched 

bits of bone when used. It seemed to have little effect on other materials. 

Wet methods were much more effective than dry methods, except in cases where 

the artifact surface was quite rough or porous (unglazed ceramic surfaces, corroded 

ferrous metal) and combustive residues had penetrated into the body of the material. A 

summary of the effectiveness of different methods follows:

•	 The IvoryTM soap/warm tap water solution was effective to very effective on 

flaked stone surfaces and pewter, removing heavy combustive residues very 

quickly and clearly (Figure 31a-b). It was somewhat effective on the rest of the 

artifacts on which it was attempted on, removing a portion of heavy residues 

but not the more stubborn, thickly covered areas. There were no cases in which 

this solution was completely ineffective. 

•	 The OrvusTM paste/distilled water solution was most effective on smooth 

surfaces such as brass, pewter, flaked stone, lead, and glazed whiteware, 

removing most if not all of the combustive residue on the artifact. It was only 

somewhat effective on rougher surfaces like unglazed stoneware and shell, 

removing a small portion of residue from the surface of the artifact. The swabs 

used on rough materials were discolored in many cases, but seemed to have 

minimal effectiveness. This solution was ineffective on corroded ferrous 

metal, kaolin pipe clay, and glass. The results for kaolin clay and ferrous metal 

were anticipated because of extremely rough surface texture (in the case of 

the corroded metal) and absorption of the combustive residue (in the case of 

the kaolin clay). The glass seems an anomaly because of its smooth surface. 

However, the combustive residue on the glass was especially thick and difficult 

to remove. 

•	 The 50:1 (2%) solution of ammonium hydroxide mixed with IvoryTM soap was 

very effective on smooth surfaces such as glazed ceramics and glass. It removed 

the residues that were difficult to remove with other methods, especially after 

artifact surfaces were soaked in the solution for 1-2 minutes. However, it had 

no effect on rough and porous surfaces like kaolin pipe clay and the unglazed 

surfaces of stoneware. Even at 2% concentration, this solution was particularly 

caustic, destroying the cotton swabs as they were used. Rough materials made 

this situation worse, requiring the use of more cotton swabs. Because of this, 

rinsing and drying on all artifacts was done quickly to prevent damage.

•	 Mineral spirits, used exclusively on metals (brass, lead, and ferrous metal), 

were very effective for lead and brass, removing any combustive residues in a 

short period of time. The corroded ferrous metal, however, proved resistant to 

cleaning and this method had no effect. This is likely due to the roughness of 

the material surface, which literally tore cotton swabs apart as they were used. 
61

EXPERIMENTING WITH ARTIFACT CLEANING

Figure 31a. Pre-cleaning photograph of a novaculite flake.

Figure 31b. Post-cleaning photograph of the same flake with 

a portion cleansed with the solution of IvoryTM soap and 

warm tap water.

•	 The solution of alcohol and distilled water was used exclusively on bone and 

was very effective in all cases. It removed any residues present (although 

it could not clean the scorched or charred portions of the bone) and left the 

bone’s surface in a clean state with a smooth surface texture (Figure 32 a-b). 

•	 The solution of ethanol and distilled water was tried on a single bone artifact 

in order to see if it was better or worse than alcohol (which had already been 
62

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

shown to be effective). It performed just was well, removing combustive 

residues completely and leaving the bone surface in a clean state with a smooth 

surface texture (Figure 33 a-b). 

•	 The solution of GojoTM and warm tap water was tried on a single flaked stone 

artifact in order to aid in its cleaning, which was proving difficult (although 

effective, the ivory and tap water solution was requiring a substantial amount 

of scrubbing with swabs). After five repetitions, it proved effective at removing 

combustive residues. It should be noted that Gojo is abrasive and care should 

be taken in its use. 

Figure 32a. Pre-cleaning photograph of a bone ischium. 

Figure 32b. Post-cleaning photograph of the bone ischium 

after a portion was cleansed with a solution of alcohol and 

distilled water.
63

EXPERIMENTING WITH ARTIFACT CLEANING

Figure 33a. Pre-cleaning photograph of a bone rib fragment.

Figure 33b. Post-cleaning photograph of the bone rib fragment after small area 

was cleaned with a solution of ethanol and distilled water.

The amount of time involved in cleaning portions of these artifacts ranged 

from about 30 minutes to 2 hours, depending on how many methods were tested 

until an effective one was found. The need to use the vapor-hood and other safety 

precautions for potentially harmful chemicals (namely, ammonium hydroxide), the 

destructiveness of certain wet methods on the cotton swabs being used for cleaning, 

and repetition of certain processes could extend the time significantly. However, one 

or two of these methods applied to material on which they are effective would take less 

time than what is listed above, further indicating that cleaning fire-damaged artifacts 

is not beyond the means of National Parks or other agencies that deal with potential 

fire damage to cultural resources. All of the materials used in this study suggested by 

Spafford-Ricchi and Graham (2000) and Roberts (1988) are relatively safe to handle and 

are fairly easily and cheaply acquired. With this, and the short amount of time that it 

takes to clean artifacts using the effective methods, most fire-damaged artifacts can be 

cleaned with a minimum of money, time, and effort. Another important item that may 

affect the cleansing of objects is the amount of time that passes between the moment of 

fire damage and the time when the artifacts are cleaned. Many of the artifacts in this 

study had been stored for from a couple of months to over two years. This seemed to 

have little effect on the cleaning of combustive residues on the surface of the artifacts. 

However, it is possible that this lengthy storage period allowed artifacts with porous 

properties (unglazed ceramic, clay, bone) to absorb greasy combustive residues, 

staining them permanently. Although further study is needed in this regard to confirm 

this supposition, it is recommended that artifacts be cleaned as soon as possible after 

recovery from a burned area. 

Overall, the results of this study show that cleaning of fire-damaged artifacts 

can be accomplished, especially since the impacts on some material types appear to be 
64

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

non-permanent (e.g. combustive residues). Porous materials such as unglazed ceramics 

and kaolin pipe clay, very rough materials such as corroded iron or unglazed stoneware, 

and highly combustive materials such as bone are exceptions to this statement. Porous 

materials tend to absorb the combustive residue from a fire and become stained. Rough 

materials provide a surface that is full of small ruts, pits, and other features that are 

destructive to tools and prohibitive to cleaning the entire surface (residue gets trapped 

in areas that cannot be easily reached by tools). Finally, organic materials such as bone 

can be scorched or charred, resulting in fire damage to the structure of the bone itself. 

This cannot be cleaned without removing the burned portions of the artifact altogether. 

Aside from these exceptions, however, many historic and prehistoric materials can be 

cleansed with minimally invasive techniques. 

Outdoor Artifact Weathering Experiments

A select group of twenty-seven artifacts from the PERI experimental burn were 

chosen to gather baseline information on post-burn artifact weathering. A sample 

plot was established in Lincoln, Nebraska, to expose the burned artifacts to seasonal 

weathering and monitor the changes on a longer-term scale to assess the permanence of 

impacts resulting from fire. The weathering plot was designed to contain a representative 

sample of material types and post-burn conditions that would demonstrate the effects of 

natural weathering on burned artifacts. The plots were allowed to weather for seventeen 

months (2007-2009) and then re-analyzed and photographed using post-burn methods. 

Seasonal weathering processes proved effective at removing most non-permanent 

impacts such as combustive residues (Figure 34a-c). The majority of objects placed in 

the weathering plot did not exhibit evidence of burn impacts after seventeen months of 

seasonal weathering. This initial study seems to indicate that natural weathering will 

eliminate many impacts over a relative short period of time.

Figure 34a. Pre-burn photograph of a large bone fragment.
65

EXPERIMENTING WITH ARTIFACT CLEANING

Figure 34b. Post-burn photograph of the same bone fragment.

Figure 34c. Photograph of the same bone fragment after seventeen months of natural weathering.
66

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

Artifact Cleaning Summary

Artifact weathering and conservation experiments have demonstrated that a 

majority of the macro-scale impacts observed during the post-burn analysis are nonpermanent and removable. For example, both weathering and cleaning of artifacts 

were able to remove combustive residue from the surface of an artifact. Impacts of a 

more permanent nature such as cracking, fracturing, melting, or spalling could not be 

reversed but were observed infrequently on burned artifacts. This indicates that many 

of the impacts observed during this study are of a non-permanent nature and can be 

removed via natural weathering or cleaning in a laboratory.
67

EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM RECOMMENDATIONS

Following the completion of this project, a host of questions remain and will need 

to be addressed through future research endeavors. This project did not address impacts 

to microscopic, chemical, or geophysical properties of archeological objects, features, 

or sites. Nor did it attempt to account for the entire range of impacts that may occur 

as a result of wildland fire. Additional research efforts are encouraged to address other 

aspects of the interface between wildland fire and archeology. It is recommended that 

each park’s fire program work with their archeological advisor(s) to carefully consider 

the impacts and long-term effects of wildland fire on archeological resources and tailor 

their programs accordingly to ensure that the condition of all resources are maintained 

or enhanced by a park’s actions. The Midwest Region fire effects research is only the 

first step to establish baseline data for the region. Future studies will be able to use this 

baseline to explore numerous other questions regarding the fire/archeology interface in 

the Midwest. 

A practical outcome of this research project will be the application of the results 

to assessments of fire program undertakings under Section 106 of the National Historic 

Preservation Act by providing a better understanding of the potential to adversely 

impact archeological resources. Data from this research project indicate that there are 

fire conditions within the Midwest Region that will not adversely impact archeological 

resources while other conditions may cause serious damage to the archeological record. 

The information generated from the experimental burns will provide managers with the 

flexibility to concentrate efforts on fire conditions that have the potential to adversely 

impact archeological resources and develop solutions to mitigate or reduce those 

negative impacts. 

The experimental research program has resulted in a better understanding 

of the relationship between wildland fire and impacts to archeological resources 

in the Midwest Region. In many cases, fire conditions within the region do not pose 

a significant threat. Conversely, we have identified a combination of wildland fire 

conditions and archeological resource types that could lead to the loss or degradation 

of archeological information during both single and possibly multiple burn events. 

Archeological sites that include surface components with perishable objects and soft 

metals, including bone, shell, wood, leather, cloth fabric, lead, and copper were found 

to be most susceptible to damage from wildland fire in the Midwest Region. These 

resources were found to be particularly vulnerable to damage when wildland fuels 

included heavier 100 and 1000 hour woody fuels at such parks as Buffalo National River 

(BUFF), Pea Ridge National Military Park (PERI), Voyageurs National Park (VOYA), 

and Wind Cave National Park (WICA). 

The buildup of wildland fuels above historic levels is viewed as the most 

significant threat to the preservation of archeological resources relating to wildland 

fire. However, not all applications of wildland fire should be considered a threat to the 

preservation of archeological resources. Maintaining reduced fuel loads and healthy 

forests are considered the best methods to reduce impacts to archeological resources. 

Based upon the results of the experimental burn program, a combination of recording 
68

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

archeological resources, wildland fuels reduction, and additional research is viewed as 

the preferred strategy for preserving surface and near-surface archeological resources 

in the Midwest Region. In order to reduce the incidence of damage to archeological 

resources, general recommendations are provided to guide applications of fire within 

the Midwest Region and are followed by specific recommendations for parks that 

participated in this study. 

•	 It is recommended that land managers, with the advice and assistance of 

their archeological advisor(s), conduct pre-burn archeological inventories 

of the prescribed burn units to identify surface archeological resources with 

particular attention paid to the most vulnerable materials listed above. 

•	 Exclusion of archeological sites should be avoided whenever possible as this 

may lead to future undesirable conditions that may cause catastrophic damage 

to many types of archeological materials. If temporary exclusion of an area is 

the preferred alternative, the park should employ a strategy of mechanical and 

hand fuel reduction and removal in order to reduce the possibility of adverse 

wildland fuel accumulations in the future. 

•	 Ultimately, land managers may wish to employ a strategy of fuel reductions 

combined with recording and/or collecting of the most vulnerable 

archeological materials in order to reduce significant impacts from wildland 

fire to archeological resources. 

•	 Until research is conducted that will lead to a better understanding of 

impacts from repeat burns, land managers should minimize the exposure 

of archeological resources to wildland fire to the greatest extent possible by 

reducing the number of cyclical burns to the minimum required to achieve 

the needs of the natural resources program and do not pose a serious threat to 

archeological resources. 

•	 Land managers should conduct post-burn assessments of selected archeological 

resources in order to confirm or revise findings of the experimental research 

study discussed in Sturdevant et al. (2009). 

Because of the mix of heavy fuels and the prevalence of sites that include the 

most threatened types of archeological materials located on the ground surface, it is 

recommended that BUFF, VOYA, and WICA employ the following steps to reduce 

impacts to archeological resources.

•	 Conduct pre-burn surface archeological inventories of prescribed fire units 

and areas with the potential for future uncontrolled wildland fire. 
69

EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM RECOMMENDATIONS

•	 Identify, record, and collect (when necessary) the archeological materials 

most threatened by wildland fire including wood, bone, shell, leather, and soft 

metal objects. 

•	 At archeological sites threatened by uncontrolled wildland fire, it is 

recommended that parks develop a plan to identify and protect sensitive 

resources. In addition, employing a strategy of fuels reduction utilizing a 

combination of prescribed fire, mechanical, and hand removal of fuels will 

reduce the long-term threats to archeological resources.

•	 Although the potential for permanent damage from wildland fire to historic 

cemeteries is thought to be low, the chance of damage increases as the fuel 

loads increase. It is recommended that the culturally sensitive nature of 

cemeteries be considered and that exclusion from wildland fire be employed 

with a strategy of manual fuel reduction at all historic cemeteries. 

•	 Exclude archeological sites that are threatened with loss from wildland fire 

and employ a follow-up strategy of fuels reduction. A park’s archeological 

advisor will be able to assist with the identification of threatened 

archeological resources. 

•	 It is recommended that fire programs control burn conditions to the extent 

possible by reducing burn temperatures and durations during prescribed 

burning of archeological sites. Reductions in burn temperatures and durations 

can be achieved by burning during cool seasons, reducing the 10, 100, and 1000 

hour fuels within archeological sites, and minimizing “explosive” or extreme 

fire behavior resulting from wind-driven head and flanking fires. 

Wildland fuel accumulation that may lead to high-intensity fire conditions is 

considered a threat to archeological resources at EFMO, PERI, and TAPR. The following 

recommendations will contribute to enhanced preservation of archeological resources 

in these parks.

•	 Conduct pre-burn inventories of prescribed fire units with the potential 

to contain surface archeological resources most susceptible to damage by 

prescribed fire. 

•	 Identify, record, and collect (when necessary) the archeological materials 

most threatened by wildland fire including wood, bone, shell, leather, and soft 

metal objects.

•	 EFMO should conduct a research study of the effect of wildland fire on 

geophysical signatures of buried archeological features. EFMO is particularly 

suited for a research study of this kind, because the geophysical properties of 
70

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

mounds and other archeological features have been examined in the past and 

are better understood than archeological resources at other parks.

•	 It is recommended that fire programs control burn conditions, to the extent 

possible, by reducing burn temperatures and durations during prescribed 

burning of archeological sites. Reductions in burn temperatures and durations 

can be achieved by burning during cool seasons, reducing the 10, 100, and 1000 

hour fuels within archeological sites, and minimizing “explosive” or extreme 

fire behavior resulting from wind-driven head and flanking fires.

•	 Exclude archeological sites that are threatened with loss from wildland fire 

and employ a follow-up strategy of fuels reduction. A park’s archeological 

advisor will be able to assist with the identification of threatened 

archeological resources.
71

CONCLUSIONS

This multi-park research program has provided data for assessing the impacts 

and potential for damage to the archeological record from applications of prescribed fire 

throughout the Midwest Region. The intent of the experimental research program was 

to build on previous studies (Buenger 2003; Sayler et al. 1989) and provide land managers 

with specific information to identify archeological resources that are susceptible to 

significant impacts from wildland fire. Identifying and protecting cultural resources is 

defined as one of the primary goals of the National Wildland Fire Management Policy 

(USDA and USDOI 2009:6). This will allow managers to focus efforts on resources 

threatened by fire and devise treatments to reduce or mitigate anticipated negative 

impacts. There may also be cases where the preservation of archeological resources 

could be enhanced by the use of wildland fire including fuel reduction, ground clearing, 

and reducing vegetation for archeological investigations.

Without the effective collaboration between the NPS Fire and Archeology 

programs this project would have not been possible (Figure 35). The JFSP research 

project facilitated the first integrated research effort between the Fire and Archeology 

programs in the Midwest Region. The collaborative effort that was necessary for the 

successful completion of our research also led to a better understanding of broader 

program goals and how fire and archeology staff can work together to achieve 

effective fire-use and preservation of archeological resources. Continued dialogue and 

collaboration will strengthen both the Archeology and Fire programs and will help meet 

the needs of NPS units throughout the Midwest Region. 

Experimental studies have the potential to provide valuable data for assessing 

the impacts and potential for damage to the archeological record from applications 

of prescribed fire throughout the Midwest Region (Figure 36). By producing data 

specific to the many environmental zones in the Midwest, park managers will be 

better equipped to evaluate the fire/archeology interface than if they relied solely on 

data generated from other parts of the country. However, following the completion 

of this project, a host of questions will remain and can be addressed through future 

research endeavors, including impacts to geophysical investigations and the long-term 

cumulative effects from prescribed burning. The Midwest Region fire effects research 

is only the first step to establish baseline data for the region. Future studies will be able 

to use this baseline to explore numerous other questions regarding the fire/archeology 

interface in the Midwest.

The current study represents a starting point for inquiries into the wildland fire 

and archeology interface in the Midwest Region. Many questions remain unresolved and 

require additional research to understand and clarify the processes and modifications 

to the archeological record. For instance, what are the impacts for cyclical burn 

episodes when fuel loads and insulating factors are reduced over time? What effect does 

wildland fire have on geophysical and micro-scale archeological data sets? Under what 

circumstances are buried archeological resources threatened by wildland fire? Does 

wildland fire enhance the preservation of certain types of archeological resources when 

fuel loads become heavy and have the potential to cause catastrophic impacts from fire? 
72

Figure 35. Research team members recording burn conditions at Wind Cave National Park.

Figure 36. Research team member observing the burn at Pea Ridge National Military Park. 
73

CONCLUSIONS

When comparing types of archeological resources (e.g., prehistoric vs. historic) are 

different impacts reflected and what are the management implications for each type 

of resource? These are only some of the questions that could be addressed by future 

studies. One area of particular importance is providing more data on regions of the 

country where the wildland fire/archeology interface is poorly understood (Sturdevant 

et al. 2009:20). Studies in other regions should be designed to account for both fuel 

conditions and archeological resources typical of an area. Additional research efforts 

are crucial to archeological site preservation and management if archeological resources 

are to coexist unimpaired with increasingly frequent wildland fire use.
74

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST
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Boundaries of Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve. National Park Service, Midwest 

Regional Office, Omaha, Nebraska.

Nelson, P. W. 

2005 The terrestrial natural communities of Missouri. Missouri Department of 

Conservation, Jefferson City, Missouri.

O’Brien, M.J., and R. W. Wood. 

1998 The Prehistory of Missouri. University of Missouri Press, Columbia Missouri.
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Picha, Paul R., Stanley A. Ahler, Rodney D. Sayler, Robert W. Seabloom

1991 Effects of Prairie Fire on Selected Artifact Classes. Archaeology in Montana

32:15-28

Pyne, Stephen J.

1997 Fire in America. Reprinted. University of Washington Press, Seattle, Washington. 

Originally published 1982, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. 

Richner, Jeffrey J.

2008 Expressions of the Past: Archeological Research at Voyageurs National Park. 

Midwest Archeological Center Technical Report No. 104. National Park Service, 

Midwest Archeological Center, Lincoln, Nebraska.

Roberts, Barbara

1988. An Account of the Conservation and Preservation Procedures Following a Fire 

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1990 Human Adaptation in the Ozark and Ouachita Mountains. Arkansas 

Archeological Survey Research Series No. 31. Arkansas Archeological Survey, 

Fayetteville, Arkansas. 

Sayler, Rodney D., Robert W. Seabloom, and Stanley A. Ahler

1989 Impacts of Prescribed Burning on Archeological and Biological Resources of the 

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Scott, Douglas D.

1979 Don’t Burn that Wickiup! A Value at Risk Some Considerations of Cultural 

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Spafford-Ricci, Sarah, and Fiona Graham

2000. The Fire at the Royal Saskatchewan Museum, Part 2: Removal of Soot from 

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Conservation 39(1).

Spencer, Mark D.

2010 Passages through Many Worlds: An Historic Resource Study of Wind Cave 

National Park. National Park Service, Midwest Regional Office, Omaha, Nebraska. 
80

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST

Sturdevant, Jay T.

2006 Initial Recommendations for Treatment of Medium Density Archeological Sites 

During Prescribed Burns Based on Data from the 2005 Experimental Prescribed 

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Superintendent, Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site, dated May 

9, 2006. Memorandum on file, National Park Service, Midwest Archeological 

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Sturdevant, Jay T., Rod Skalsky, Cody L. Wienk, Brennan Dolan, Dustin Gonzales, and 

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2009 Experimental Study of Local Fire Conditions and Effects on Surface or NearSurface Archeological Resources at National Park Service Units – Midwest Region. 

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Swain, A. M. 

1973 A history of fire and vegetation in northeastern Minnesota as recorded in lake 

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1974 The Effects of Forest Fire on Archeological Sites in Mesa Verde National Park, 

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2004 The Effects of Fire on Rock Art: Microscopic Evidence Reveals the Importance 

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2002 Fire, Native Peoples, and the Natural Landscape. Island Press, Washington, D.C.

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2004 Bare Bones Guide to Fire Effects on Cultural Resources for Cultural Resource 

Specialists. Bureau of Land Management.
82

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST
83

TABLES

Table 1. Definition of Analytical Categories.

This list provides the impact categories used to conduct the artifact analysis during the post-burn 

phase of the experimental project. The following terms have been adapted for this study from 

Sayler et al. (1989) and Buenger (2003:105-106). The definitions provide a clear statement that 

was used by laboratory personnel to identify and qualify impacts that were observed on individual 

artifacts. In many cases, individual artifacts demonstrated the presence of multiple impact 

categories. 

Charring – Defined as heat oxidation of the object with consumption of the material or artifact by 

fire as observed through weight change, as well as color change that penetrated the body of the 

object. Charring was often displayed on bone and other consumable materials. 

Color Change – A marked change in the majority of surface color when compared to the pre-burn 

analysis of an object. Color changes were observed on the entire range of artifacts from shell to 

metals and ceramics. 

Combustive Residue – This is observed as adhesive or tacky build up on the surface of an artifact 

(Buenger 2003:105, Sayler et a. 1989:44). The residue appears to change the texture of the 

surface, however, it may be removed from some artifacts without significantly altering the material. 

Combustive residue was displayed on most artifacts.

Cracking – A change introduced into the body of the material where intrusive fissures are 

observed, without complete separation (in that case, the term would be fracture). Cracking may 

have been present in the pre-field assessment but is more numerous or larger in the post field 

assessment, resulting in observable change. Cracking was frequently observed on bone but can 

also be seen on materials such as shell or ceramics. 

Crazing – This was observed on historic ceramics during the pre-field analysis and is defined as the 

observable cracks or lines in/on the glaze, where the glaze does not expand or stretch at the same 

rate as the body of the vessel. Crazing can be exaggerated by the sustained application of fire. 

Generally only recorded on glazed artifacts such as historic ceramics. 

Fracture – A complete separation of one portion of the artifact from another, completely altering 

the shape of the artifact, for example a single lithic flake becoming two or more pieces of lithic 

material as a result of being exposed to sustained heat from fire. Fracturing significantly affects 

the shape of the object and was observed as seen on prehistoric pottery, as well as lithics, historic 

ceramics, historic glass, and bone. 

Melting – This occurs when the artifact is reformed or broken-down, or a portion (at least 50%) 

of the shape has been altered. This is separate from charring in that, not only has the material been 

consumed, but a percentage of the shape has been changed. Melting is typically observed on soft 

metal or glass artifacts. 

Scorching – Defined as heat oxidation of the object with no consumption of the material, this is 

observable through weight change and also through color change (this definition is much different 

than Sayler et al. 1989:44) that penetrates the body of the object. Scorching was observed on 

several types of materials including on historic ceramics, metals, and bone.

Spalling – Also a complete separation of a portion of the artifact from the rest of the object, 

however, this typically occurs with a small portion of the surface material, for example glaze on 

historic ceramics or surface “potlid” spalling on lithics where the removed material does not 

significantly affect the shape of the object. Spalling typically does not penetrate the entire object 

and is generally a cone or teardrop shape. Spalling can be observed on lithic tools and both historic 

and prehistoric pottery. 
84

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST Table 2. JFSP Park Fuel Summary. Park Fuel Type Avg. Fuel Load (tons/ acre) Burn Duration Max. Temp (°C) Avg. Temp (°C)

B F H B F H B F H

VOYA

WoodlandWoodland

6.73.5

1:24:35 (C)2:46:05 (D)

1:10:15(A)1:10:55 (E)

1:27:30 (B)3:08:00 (F)

513 (C)477 (D)

449 (A)47 (E)

57 (B)622 (F)

47 (C)92 (D)

41 (A)26 (E)

29 (B)109 (F)

BUFF

WoodlandWoodland

10.025.4

0:43:40(A)1:23:45 (D)

0:33:20 (B)1:14:35 (E)

0:25:25 (C)0:22:45 (F)

545 (A)833 (D)

577 (B)694 (E)

671 (C)679 (F)

115 (A)112 (D)

106 (B)109 (E)

102 (C)116 (F)

WICA

GrasslandGrass/Wood

9.819.5

33:55 (A)1:23:05 (E)

19:30 (B)2:41:05 (F)

35:35 (C)1:06:10 (D)

439 (A)747 (E)

579 (B)768 (F)

745 (C)100 (D)

55 (A)142 (E)

108 (B)97 (F)

129 (C)25 (D)

TAPR

GrasslandGrassland

2.41.7

9:25 (C)n/a (F)

7:15 (B)4:20 (E)

6:15 (A)4:50 (D)

492 (C)n/a (F)

208 (B)451 (E)

403 (A)375 (D)

96 (C)n/a (F)

47 (B)106 (E)

83 (A)66 (D)

PERI

GrasslandWoodland

4.416.2

28:35 (B)15:55 (D)

31:45 (A)8:55 (E)

26:50 (C)7:05 (F)

462 (B)254 (D)

 459 (A) 383 (E)

 630 (C)377 (F)

57 (B)56 (D)

91 (A)94 (E)

95 (C)

77 (F)

EFMO

GrasslandWoodland

8.411.0

31:25 (A)n/a (F)

22:30 (B)n/a (E)

17:30 (C)14:50 (D)

649 (A)n/a (F)

649 (B)n/a (E)

536 (C)368 (D)

85 (A)n/a (F)

91 (B)n/a (E)

81 (C)53 (D)

n/a = plots did not burnBurn method = B backing fire, F flanking fire, H head firePlots shown in parentheses.*-no data provided
85

TABLES

Table 3. BUFF Post-burn Incident Summary.

Material Class

Bone Ceramic Glass Nonferrous Pottery Shell Stone Incident

Brass Copper Lead Tin Pewter Flaked Total %

IncidentNo Change - - - - - - - - 1 - 1 2 1

CharringMinor 4 - - - - - - - - - - 4 1

Medium 1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 0

Heavy 1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 0

Color Change 5 - - 2 - - 1 1 1 - 3 13 5

Combustive ResidueMinor 2 3 1 - - 1 - - 15 8 4 34 12

Medium 10 10 7 - 1 4 - 1 7 2 4 46 17

Heavy 17 25 12 9 - - 4 2 4 8 29 110 39

Crazing

Minor - 1 - - - - - - - - - 1 0

Medium - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Heavy - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Fracturing 10 - 3 - - - - 1 - 7 1 22 8

Cracking 4 - - - - - - - - - - 4 1

Melting - - - - - 1 - - - - - 1 0

ScorchingMinor 15 - - - - - - 1 - - - 16 6

Medium 6 - - - - - 1 - - - - 7 3

Heavy 3 1 - - - - - - - - - 4 1

Spalling 1 - - - - - - - - 16 - 17 6

Incident Total / Material Class 79 40 23 11 1 6 6 6 28 41 42 283 100
86

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST Table 4. EFMO Post-burn Incident Summary. Material Class Bone Ceramic Glass Ferrous Nonferrous Pottery Shell Stone Incident Brass Lead Pewter Flaked Ground Total

%

IncidentNo Change 1 1 2 1 1 - - 4 1 4 - 15

6

CharringMinor 7 - - - - - - - - - - 7 3

Medium 1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 0

Heavy 1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 0

Color Change 19 13 3 2 4 3 1 4

4 26 - 79 33

Combustive ResidueMinor 5 6 1 - 1 1 1 8 1 3 - 27 12

Medium 11 5 3 1 3 - 1 8 - 3 - 35 15

Heavy 7 7 4 1 1 2 - 1 4 23 1 51 21

Crazing

Minor 1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 0

Medium - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Heavy - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Fracturing 1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 0

Cracking

4 - - - - - - - - - - 4 1

Melting - - - - - - - - - - - -

ScorchingMinor 7 3 - - - - - 1 1 - - 12 5

Medium 10 - - - - - - - - - - 10

4

Heavy 3 - - - - - - - - - - 3 1

Spalling - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Incident Total /Material Class

78 35 13 5 10

6 3 26 11 59 1 247 100
87

TABLES

Table 5. PERI Post-burn Incident Summary.

Material Class

Antler Bone Ceramic Glass Leather Ferrous Nonferrous Pottery Shell Stone Incident

Brass Compound Lead Tin Flaked Total %

IncidentNo Change - - 1 - - 1 - - - - 2 - 1 5 2CharringMinor - 1 - - 1 - - - - - - - - 2 1Medium - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Heavy - - - - 3 - - - - - - - - 3 2Color Change - 1 - - 3 - 1 - - 3 - - - 8 4Combustive ResidueMinor - 3 6 5 - 5 7 - 2 - 7 1 5 41 21Medium 1 4 11 5 - 4 8 - 7 1 3 4 6 54 27

Heavy - 7 7 4 4 4 9 1 6 2 2 4 4 54 27

CrazingMinor - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0Medium - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0Heavy - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0Fracturing - - - - 3 - - - - 1 - 2 - 6 3Cracking 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 0Melting - - - - 4 - - - - - - - - 4 2ScorchingMinor - 8 - - - - - - - 1 - 2 - 11 5Medium - 1 - - - - - - - 1 - - - 2 1

Heavy - - - - 4 - - - - - - - - 4 2Spalling - - - - - - - - - - - 6 - 6 3Incident Total / Material Class

1 26 25 14 22 14 25 1 15 9 14 19 16 201 100
88

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST Table 6. TAPR Post-burn Incident Summary. Material Class Antler Bone Ceramic Glass Ferrous Nonferrous Pottery Shell Stone Incident Brass Pewter Tin Flaked Total

%

IncidentNo Change 1 10 5 2 8 2 4 - 4 2 15 53 22CharringMinor - 5 - - - - - - - - - 5 2Medium - - - - - - - - - - - - -Heavy - - - - - - - - - - - - -Color Change - 7 7 1 - 1 2 1 - 2 4 25 11Combustive ResidueMinor - 18 23 11 3 2 - - 9 3 22 91 38Medium - 9

6

4 - - 2 1 2 - 3 27 11

Heavy - 3 5 1 - 1 4 - - 2 4 20

9

Crazing

Minor - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Medium - - - - - - - - - - - - -Heavy - - - - - - - - - - - - -Fracturing - - - - - - - - 1 1 0Cracking - - - - - - - - - - - - -Melting - - - - - - - - - - - - -ScorchingMinor - 11

4 - - - - - - - - 15 7

Medium - 1 - - - - - - - - - 1 0Heavy - - - - - - - - - - - - -Spalling - - - - - - - - - - - -

Incident Total / Material Class

1 64 50 19 11

6 12 2 15 10 48 238 100
89

TABLES

Table 7. VOYA Post-burn Incident Summary.

Material Class

Bone Ceramic Glass Leather Ferrous Nonferrous Pottery Shell Stone Incident

Brass Pewter Lead Tin Copper Flaked Ground Total %

IncidentNo Change 1 1 - - 4 3 - 2 - - 1 1 4 - 17 6

CharringMinor 4 - - - 1w - - - - - - - - - 5 2

Medium 3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3 1

Heavy 2 - - - - - - - 1T - - - - - 3 1

Color Change 6 7 - - - 4 1 1 3 - 6 4 10 1 43 14

Combustive ResidueMinor 12 25 8 2 2 7 1 1 1 1 14 3 24 - 101 33

Medium 2 7 5 - - 3 1 1 2 - 5 2 7 - 35 11

Heavy 5 3 2 - 3 3 1 3 2 - 1 1 9 2 35 11

CrazingMinor - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0

Medium - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0

Heavy - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0

Fracturing 2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2 1

Cracking 4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4 1

Melting - - - - - - - 1 1 - - - - - 2 1

ScorchingMinor 7 6 - - 1 - - - 1 1 1 - 2 - 19 6

Medium - 5 - - - - - - - - 5 1 1 - 12 4

Heavy 5 1 - - 1w 2 - 1 4 - - 1 - 1 16 5

Spalling 2 - - - - - - - - - - 2 4 - 8 3

Incident Total /Material Class

55 55 15 2 12 22 4 10 15 2 33 15 61 4 305 100

tcejbs ouorren fe o

n

ldnan h

a n tin c

e

o i

d

cc

oo

ba

w

o

=

t=

wT
90

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST Table 8. WICA Post-burn Incident Summary. Material Class Bone Ceramic Glass Ferrous Nonferrous Porcelain Pottery Shell Stone Incident Brass Copper Lead Flaked Ground Total

%

IncidentNo Change 5 5 5 2 3 - 5 - 6 3 12 - 46 19

CharringMinor 7 - - - 4 - - - - - - - 11 5

Medium 2 - - - 1 - - - - - - - 3 1

Heavy - - - - 5 - - - - - - - 5 2

Color Change 12 1 - - 1 - - - 1 - 4 - 19

8

Combustive ResidueMinor

6 15 7 3 1 2 1 - 6 1 14 1 57 23

Medium 5 5 5 2 2 - 1 - 3 - 3 - 26 11

Heavy 13 2 6 - 3 - 4 1 3 4 12 1 49 20

CrazingMinor - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Medium - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Heavy - 1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 0

Fracturing 3 - 1 - - - - - - 3 - - 7 3

Cracking - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Melting - - - - - - 1 - - - - - 1 0

ScorchingMinor 7 - - - - - - - 1 - - - 8 3

Medium 7 - - - - - - - - - - - 7 3

Heavy - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Spalling 1 - - - - - - - - 2 1 - 4 2

Incident Total / Material Class

68 29 24 7 20 2 12 1 20 13 46 2 244 100
91

TABLES

Table 9. Cleaning Methods.Artifact Location Fuel DB G/S SS I/TW OP/DW AH/I MS A/DW E/DW Go/TW

Bone Ischium BUFF-PBC7 W NE SE NE NA NA NA NA VE NA NA

Bone Rib TAPR-PAC5 G E E E NA NA NA NA VE NA NA

Bone Rib WICA-PEC4 G/W E E SE NA NA NA NA VE VE NA

Brass Bullet Casing EFMO-PBC7 G NE NE NE NA E NA VE NA NA NA

Brass Compund Button EFMO-PAC8 G NE NE NE NA VE NA NA NA NA NA

Ceramic Stoneware Sherd BUFF-PEC3 W NE SE NE SE SE NE NA NA NA NA

Ceramic Whiteware Sherd BUFF-PEC3 W NE NE NE SE E VE NA NA NA NA

Clay Pipe Stem Fragment BUFF-PEC3 W NE NE NE SE NE NE NA NA NA NA

Ferrous Metal Fragment EFMO-PBC7 G SE NE NE NA NE NA NE NA NA NA

Glass BUFF-PEC3 W NE SE NE SE NE VE NA NA NA NA

Lead Bullet EFMO-PEC2 G NE SE NE SE E NA VE NA NA NA

Lithic (Chert) EFMO-PAC1 G NE NE NE VE NA NA NA NA NA NA

Lithic (Chert) BUFF-PBC3 W NE SE SE E E NA NA NA NA E

Lithic (Novaculite) WICA-PFC3 G/W SE SE SE VE NA NA NA NA NA NA

Pewter Button TAPR-PEC2 G SE NE NE VE VE NA NA NA NA NA

Pottery Sherd BUFF-PDC6 W E SE NE SE NA NA NA NA NA NA

Shell Button WICA-PCC4 G NE NE NE SE SE NA NA NA NA NA

Tin Enamel Ware Bowl BUFF-PFC4 W SE NE NE SE NA NA NA NA NA NA

fective

fective

Key:

NA-not attempted

NE-not efSE-somewhat ef

fectiv

fectiveE-ef

VE-very ef

ood

ater 

Cleaning Method:

ater

oom/Stick

DB-Dry BrushG/S- GrSS-Soot Sponge

ap W I/TW-Ivory/T

OP/DW-Orvus Paste/Distilled W

oxide/Ivory AH/I-Ammonium Hydr

MS-Mineral SpiritsA/DW-Alcohol/Distilled WaterE/DW-Ethanol/Distilled Water

aterap W Go/TW-Gojo/T
92

WILDLAND FIRE AND ARCHEOLOGY INTERFACE IN THE MIDWEST