U.S. Department of Labor 

Employment and Training Administration Occasional Paper 2004-09

Evaluation of Labor 

Exchange Services in a 

One-Stop Delivery System 

Environment 

Louis Jacobson 

Ian Petta 

Amy Shimshak 

Regina Yudd 

Final Report 

February 2004 

Prepared for: Prepared by: 

U.S. Department of Labor WESTAT 

Washington, DC Rockville, Maryland

This report has been funded, either wholly or in part, with Federal funds from the U.S. 

Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration under Contract Number X-6879-

8-00-80-30. The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of 

the Department of Labor, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or 

organizations imply endorsement of same by the U.S. Government. 

The authors greatly appreciate the support and counsel provided by three Employment and Training 

Administration (ETA) officials who helped us with this work from start to finish—Stephen Wandner, 

Director, Division of Research and Demonstration; David Balducchi, Chief, Pilots and Demonstrations; 

and the Federal Project Officer, Richard Muller. We also appreciate the help we received from numerous 

other officials within ETA including John Beverly III, Gerri Fiala, Gay Gilbert, David Morman, Alison 

Pasternak, Tara Smith, and Amanda B. Spickard. Perhaps most important, we are exceedingly grateful to 

the many state, local, and America’s Job Bank officials who graciously gave us the information, insights, 

and data that made drafting this report possible. 

Finally, we would like to express our appreciation to our colleagues at Westat who also contributed to the 

project: Alex Ratnofsky, Nina Blecher, Andrea Wilson, Betty Chang, and the staff of Westat’s Editorial 

Department. We also thank Dr. Robert LaLonde of the University of Chicago and Dr. Harry Holzer of 

Georgetown University for their outstanding contributions as consultants. 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................. 1 

1.1 Overview............................................................................................. 1 

1.2 PLX Configurations............................................................................ 2 

1.3 Benefit-Cost Analysis......................................................................... 4 

1.4 Performance Monitoring..................................................................... 6 

1.5 Improved Performance Monitoring .................................................... 7 

2 BACKGROUND ............................................................................................. 9 

2.1 Introduction......................................................................................... 9 

2.2 PLX’s Mission and Core Service........................................................ 10 

2.3 PLX Services ...................................................................................... 12 

2.4 WIA Services...................................................................................... 13 

2.5 Integration of WIA and PLX Services into One-Stop Centers........... 15 

2.6 Performance Data ............................................................................... 16 

2.7 PLX Evaluations................................................................................. 19 

2.7.1 Informal Analyses............................................................... 19 

2.7.2 Formal Analyses.................................................................. 20 

2.7.3 Random Assignment Evaluations of Reemployment 

Services for Claimants ........................................................ 29 

2.7.4 Summary ............................................................................. 31 

2.8 GAO Studies of Factors Influencing PLX Job-Matching Efficiency . 36 

3 PROCESS EVALUATION ............................................................................. 43 

3.1 Introduction......................................................................................... 43 

3.1.1 Background ......................................................................... 44 

3.1.2 Methods............................................................................... 45 

3.1.3 Timing of Visits .................................................................. 47 

3.2 Governance ......................................................................................... 47 

3.2.1 Historical Background in the Study States.......................... 47 

3.2.2 Organizational Structure at the State Level......................... 52 

3.3 Budgets and Funding .......................................................................... 54 

3.3.1 Federal and State Funding Sources and Allocation 

Methods............................................................................... 54 

3.3.2 The Problem with Obtaining Funding Data ........................ 56 

3.3.3 Local Level Funding ........................................................... 59 

iii 
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) 

Chapter Page

3.4 Operations........................................................................................... 61 

3.4.1 Physical Layout................................................................... 61 

3.4.2 Partnerships......................................................................... 62 

3.4.3 Staffing................................................................................ 64 

3.5 Two Key Labor Exchange Activities: Registration and

Job Matching ...................................................................................... 68 

3.5.1 Registration ......................................................................... 68 

3.5.2 Job Matching....................................................................... 69 

3.6 The Information Infrastructure of PLXs............................................. 71 

3.6.1 Measuring One-Stop Center Activity.................................. 71 

3.6.2 State Management Information Systems............................. 72 

3.6.3 Types of Data Collected...................................................... 73 

3.6.4 Performance Measurement in the One-Stop Center 

Environment........................................................................ 75 

3.7 Services to Job Seekers: Self-Help and Staff-Assisted One-Stop 

Center Services................................................................................... 76 

3.7.1 Self-Help Job Matching ...................................................... 78 

3.7.2 Facilitated Self-Help Job Matching..................................... 79 

3.7.3 Staff-Assisted Job Matching ............................................... 80 

3.7.4 Provision of Labor Market Information .............................. 81 

3.7.5 Workshops .......................................................................... 82 

3.7.6 Referrals to Training and Supportive Services ................... 85 

3.7.7 Assessments ........................................................................ 86 

3.7.8 Counseling .......................................................................... 86 

3.7.9 Individualized Employment Plans ...................................... 87 

3.7.10 Case Management ............................................................... 89 

3.7.11 Services to Special Populations .......................................... 93 

3.8 Services to Employers ........................................................................ 95 

3.8.1 Job Matching (Obtaining Job Listings from Employers 

and Identifying Job Candidates).......................................... 97 

3.8.2 Job Fairs.............................................................................. 98 

3.8.3 Labor Market Information................................................... 98 

3.8.4 Space for Employers: Interviewing and Information 

Resource Rooms.................................................................. 99 

3.8.5 Seminars and Training ........................................................ 99 

3.8.6 Incumbent Worker Services................................................ 99 

3.8.7 Other Employer Services .................................................... 100 

iv 
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) 

Chapter Page

4 BENEFITS/COST EVALUATION................................................................. 101 

4.1 Introduction......................................................................................... 101 

4.2 Results for Washington and Oregon from Earlier Studies.................. 106 

4.3 Results for North Carolina.................................................................. 108 

4.3.1 Regression-Based Estimates of Reductions in 

North Carolina Joblessness and UI Claims Duration.......... 111 

4.3.2 Total Annual Increases in Earnings and Reductions in

North Carolina Benefit Payments ....................................... 115 

4.3.3 Computation of North Carolina Benefit-Cost Ratios.......... 118 

4.4 Results for Colorado ........................................................................... 119 

4.4.1 Regression-Based Estimates of the Effects of Colorado 

Referrals and Placements.................................................... 123 

4.4.2 Colorado Benefit-Cost Ratio Estimates .............................. 127 

4.4.3 Colorado Summary ............................................................. 128 

4.5 Results for Massachusetts................................................................... 128 

4.5.1 Characteristics of the Massachusetts Claimants Studied .... 130 

4.5.2 Services Received by Massachusetts Claimants................. 135 

4.5.3 Effect of Massachusetts PLX Services on the Duration 

of Joblessness and UI Claims.............................................. 135 

4.5.4 Estimating the Total Benefits of Massachusetts 

PLX Use.............................................................................. 145 

4.5.5 Comparing Massachusetts Costs to Benefits ...................... 147 

4.5.6 Benefits and Costs in Competitive versus Traditional 

PLXs in Massachusetts ....................................................... 149 

4.5.7 Summary and Conclusions: Massachusetts......................... 153 

4.6 Analysis of Michigan Job Seeker and Employer Surveys.................. 154 

4.6.2 Details of the Michigan Job Seeker Mail Survey................ 156 

4.6.3 Details of the Michigan Employer Mail Survey ................. 158 

4.6.4 Assessment of the Value of Michigan’s Surveys................ 160 

5 CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................. 163 

5.1 Overview............................................................................................. 163 

5.2 Implications for Improving PLX and One-Stop Performance ............ 169 

v 
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) 

List of Tables 

Table Page

2-1 PLX – WIA comparisons 2002........................................................................ 14 

2-2 Comparisons among results from the National, Pennsylvania, and 

 Washington ES studies .................................................................................... 32 

2-3 Comparisons between OLS and selection-adjusted results for the 

National and Washington ES studies............................................................... 34 

2-4 Statistically significant administrative and environmental coefficients 

from ES performances regressions using a Nationally Representative 

Sample of 456 Offices for Program-Year 1986 from the 1991 GAO study .... 40 

3-1 State-by-state similarity and variation in structure for managing One-Stops.. 53 

3-2 Annual state-level One-Stop Center funding provided during original 

interviews, unless otherwise specified............................................................. 58 

3-3 Annual funding to support local One-Stop Centers......................................... 60 

3-4 WIA legislation regarding required and voluntary partners ............................ 63 

3-5 Typical staff functions and responsibilities in a One-Stop Center................... 65 

3-6 State Employment Service management information systems........................ 72 

3-7 Services to job seekers under Wagner-Peyser Act and WIA........................... 77 

3-8 Suppression status of employer contact information in job listings ................ 80 

3-9 Types of workshops offered ............................................................................ 83 

3-10 Eligibility for creating individualized employment plans1.............................. 88 

3-11 Dimensions of case management..................................................................... 91 

4-1 PLX activity in program year 1997, employment and unemployment 

in the six states................................................................................................. 103 

4-2 Study characteristics and measures of PLX benefits in Washington 

 and Oregon....................................................................................................... 107 

4-3 Specification of the model ............................................................................... 109 

vi 
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) 

List of Tables (continued) 

Table Page

4-4 Characteristics of North Carolina Claimants 1994-1998................................. 110 

4-5 Estimates of the effect of referrals and placements on North Carolina 

 claimants 1994-1998........................................................................................ 113 

4-6 Estimates of the total annual increase in earnings and reduction in

benefit payments for North Carolina claimants for 1994-98 ........................... 117 

4-7 Benefit-cost ratios for North Carolina claimant placements 1994-1998 ......... 118 

4-8 Characteristics of Colorado claimants 1996-1997........................................... 122 

4-9 Estimates of the effect of referrals and placements on Colorado claimants 

 1996-1997 ........................................................................................................ 124 

4-10 Estimates of the total annual increase in earnings and reduction in benefit 

payments for Colorado claimants 1996-97 ...................................................... 126 

4-12 Characteristics of Massachusetts claimants Program Year 1998..................... 131 

4-13 Per-week probability of ending a UI-covered spell of unemployment 

in Massachusetts Program Year 1998.............................................................. 134 

4-14 Sample size and distribution by period, for Massachusetts 

 Program Year 1998.......................................................................................... 136 

4-15 Estimates of the effect of Massachusetts PLX services on the duration of 

joblessness Program Year 1998....................................................................... 137 

4-16 Estimates of the effect of Massachusetts PLX services on the claim 

durations Program Year 1998 .......................................................................... 139 

4-17 Estimates of the total annual increase in earnings and reduction in

benefit payments for Massachusetts PLX referrals and placements

 Program Year 1998.......................................................................................... 146 

4-18 Benefit-cost ratios for Massachusetts claimant placements and referrals 

 Program Year 1998.......................................................................................... 148 

4-19 Referrals and placements to Massachusetts claimants in sample by area........ 150 

4-20 Demographics and earnings of PLX-users in Massachusetts by area.............. 152 

vii 
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) 

List of Tables (continued) 

Table Page

5-1 Average per-claimant effect of placements and referrals on weeks

 of joblessness................................................................................................... 166 

5-2 Benefit-cost ratios............................................................................................ 166 

List of Figures

Figure

3-1 Generic organizational structure for One-Stop administration ........................ 52 

3-2 Typical configuration of a One-Stop Center office ......................................... 62 

3-3 Labor exchange services for employers........................................................... 96 

List of Appendixes 

Appendix Page

A Bibliography .................................................................................................... A-1 

B Synopses of Site Visits .................................................................................... B-1 

C America’s Job Bank (AJB): An Electronic PLX in a No-Stop Environment.. C-1 

D State and Local Interview Questions ............................................................... D-1 

E Lists of Persons Interviewed............................................................................ E-1 

F State-Level Organizational Structure............................................................... F-1 

G Lead Agencies, Required and Other Partners Present in One Stops Visited ... G-1 

H Characteristics of Job Orders in North Carolina.............................................. H-1 

I Michigan’s Job Seeker and Employer Surveys................................................ I-1 

viii 
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

1.1 Overview 

This 5-year study shows that public labor exchanges (PLXs), first established in the 1930s

under the Wagner-Peyser Act, continue to provide valuable job-matching services by referring job seekers 

to openings employers list with PLXs. Today, PLXs annually place upwards of 3 million workers at the 

over 6 million jobs they list. Another 6 million workers use PLXs to search for work, but are not directly

placed. To provide these services PLXs receive about $1 billion in Federal funds, or $330 per placement.

The PLX resources are supplemented by state funds and mostly in-kind contributions from One-Stop 

Center partners. Moreover, PLXs have effectively adopted new technology and new configurations that

allow them to continue to expand their reach with smaller staffs and declining budgets. Thus, this report 

suggests that PLXs have become a highly cost-effective cornerstone of the work-first approach widely

adopted in the 1990s as part of the movement toward One-Stop Centers. 

This study also shows that One-Stop Centers’ governance affects PLX service delivery. In

particular, the most effective One-Stops have single managers who unify operations and seamlessly

deliver services. In most cases, these managers’ effectiveness is aided by having the authority to select 

staff and evaluate their performance. Overall, we find that there is much to be gained from melding the

efforts of agencies that have different perspectives about which groups should be served and how they

might be helped. On balance, however, there also is much to be gained by maintaining the agencies’

separate identity and funding structures. Finally, we show that accurately tracking PLX referrals and

placements is a major, and growing, problem that may dramatically affect perceptions about the

effectiveness of PLXs. We, therefore, describe several highly feasible ways to remedy tracking problems

by using computer systems, such as those developed by Oregon, and by initiating surveys to supplement 

existing data systems that exclusively track delivery of One-Stop intensive services. 

More specifically, this study covers four main topics: 

 How public labor exchanges (PLXs) have partnered with other agencies to establish 

One-Stop Centers. 

 How the benefits derived from job-matching services (referrals to jobs openings listed 

with PLXs) compare to the costs. 

1 
 How changes in the provision of job-matching services, particularly growing use of 

automated systems with unsuppressed contact information, affect monitoring 

performance.

 What steps the Employment and Training Administration (ETA) could take to 

improve performance monitoring. 

1.2 PLX Configurations 

To examine how PLXs have adapted to a One-Stop environment we visited 22 PLXs in six 

states and the headquarters of America’s Job Bank (AJB) in Albany, New York. Two of the states,

Colorado and Michigan, devolved PLX operations from state to local control, and largely eliminated

separate local funding “silos” for Wagner-Peyser Act and Workforce Investment Act (WIA) programs. 

One of the states, Massachusetts, devolved PLX operations to local control in Boston, CambridgeWoburn, and Holyoke-Springfield, while maintaining state control in other areas. (In this report we refer 

to all three of these states as non-traditional.) 

Three of the states, North Carolina, Oregon, and Washington, maintained the traditional

governance system for their PLXs. Each of these states made major efforts to establish effective 

collaborations among One-Stop partners, however, and used state funds to improve services and 

management information systems. In particular, Oregon developed systems to monitor performance; 

Washington developed systems to facilitate job matching; and North Carolina devoted special attention to

using its PLXs to deal with skill mismatches where textile and other older industries were shedding

workers, while service and high-tech manufacturing firms were having trouble hiring sufficient workers. 

With respect to the way PLXs are configured our process evaluation determined that: 

 Many of the One-Stop Centers we visited had well-integrated staffs from several 

agencies and provided a broad range of services in modern facilities. 

 High-quality services and a high degree of integration were found in states with, and 

without, the traditional funding silos. 

 The key to effective integration was giving authority to a single manager to unify

operations and to develop a team spirit where staff from different agencies worked

together to seamlessly deliver services. Important aspects of this authority include 

allowing local managers to select staff and evaluate their performance. 

2 
With respect to differences in the type and quality of job-matching services we determined that: 

 A much higher fraction of state job vacancies were listed in the computerized jobmatching systems in the traditional states than in the non-traditional states, and 

further, these differences had a major impact on the ability of PLXs to place job

seekers. 

 Traditional states frequently added advanced features to their computerized jobmatching systems that greatly enhanced the probability of finding a suitable match, 

ease of use, and availability of outcome information. In particular, Washington

developed a system that automatically identified suitable job orders for individual job 

seekers, and then automatically notified them when a suitable opening was found. 

 Devolving control to local areas greatly diminished use of statewide computerized

systems, and increased job development geared to the needs of WIA target groups

rather than the general population of job seekers and employers. 

 Maintaining a high-quality, statewide, or national, job-matching system with large 

numbers of diverse listings provides very valuable services to employers and job 

seekers who otherwise would have difficulty obtaining good matches, and who 

increasingly are looking beyond their own communities to find and fill vacancies.

 Improvements in computer technology make it possible to increase quality and lower 

cost of state job-matching systems. These improvements also make pooling resources 

across states an even more attractive option. Indeed, we were especially impressed

with the high quality, enormous capacity, and low cost of the systems developed at the 

Albany, New York Center, the technical arm of America’s Job Bank. 

 Effective job-matching systems linked high-quality technology with well-trained staff 

dedicated both to ensuring that employers were appropriately listing their jobs and job 

seekers were able to effectively use the technology. 

In assessing why these differences exist we concluded that: 

 Non-traditional PLXs governed by the local workforce investment boards that ran

WIA-funded programs selected One-Stop Center operators that tended to use the casemanagement approach common within WIA. These operators devoted more resources

to helping the special populations targeted by WIA intensive services and emphasized 

targeted job development over more general employer outreach. 

 One-Stop Centers in the traditional states showed diversity in the way they were 

organized and run, as well as in the populations they focused on serving. In several 

cases, the Wagner-Peyser Act agency was not the lead organization, but worked 

harmoniously with other groups. 

3 
In summary, we concluded that: 

 Having a high-quality, computerized job-matching system, well-stocked with job 

orders, was essential to providing low-cost, effective, core services to a wide range of 

job seekers and employers consistent with the work-first model adopted by most OneStop Centers. 

 All three traditional states in our sample had high-quality matching systems, but the 

quality of the job-matching systems greatly suffered in the non-traditional states as 

emphasis shifted to helping the “hard-to-serve” who are the traditional focus of WIA 

and its predecessors. Such a shift previously occurred during the “War on Poverty” in 

the 1960’s, and greatly reduced the effectiveness of PLXs by crippling their ability to 

obtain job listings. 

 Thus, in the final analysis, separate funding silos serve the useful purpose of striking a 

balance between providing low-cost services that meet the needs of a broad range of 

job seekers and employers, while also providing intensive counseling and training 

services to those unable to find work or improve their career paths with the low-cost 

services. 

 Finally, we concluded that not all One-Stop Centers are equally effective, but 

improving One-Stop management at the local and state level is the key to improving 

their quality. In our view the Employment and Training Administration can play a 

major role in improving service quality by: 

1. Reestablishing the excellence of the ETA Form 9002 reporting system. 

2. Helping states and local areas to establish effective measures and standards. 

3. Using these measures to reward excellence and ensure that steps are taken to 

identify and deal with problems. 

As noted in section 1.4, restoring the accuracy of ETA Form 9002 counts of referrals and 

placements can greatly improve the reputation of PLXs by avoiding misperceptions of their effectiveness.

Having accurate measures of key performance indicators are also essential for setting reasonable 

standards and rewarding excellence. 

1.3 Benefit-Cost Analysis 

The second major component of this study was obtaining and analyzing administrative data 

covering job seekers’ employment and earnings, as well as their receipt of PLX services and collection of

4 
unemployment insurance (UI) benefits. Ultimately, we estimated reductions in joblessness, increases in

earnings, and reductions in UI payments accruing to UI claimants in five of the six states in our sample. 

Our main conclusions from the benefit-cost analysis are that: 

 The benefits stemming from UI claimants’ reviewing jobs listed with the PLXs and

obtaining referrals to those jobs were considerably greater than the costs of providing 

those services in every state we studied. 

 Even under highly conservative assumptions, benefits outstripped costs by more than 

20 percent in every state. Upper bound estimates using reasonable, but less 

conservative, assumptions suggested benefits were at least 80 percent greater than 

costs, and in many cases two to three times costs. 

 A key reason for the high benefit-cost ratios is that the PLXs studied served large

populations with low-cost programs. Because per-person costs were low, small

reductions in joblessness produced high benefit-cost ratios. 

 Benefits were especially large in the three traditional states, in the neighborhood of

$25 million per year per state. This is because about one-third of all PLX registrants 

were UI claimants. Oregon PLXs served about 28 percent of the labor force, while 

Washington and North Carolina PLXs served about 20 percent of their labor forces. 

 In contrast, the total benefits in Colorado, the only non-traditional PLX system for 

which we were able to estimate benefits, were only about $8 million per year. Even 

though Colorado had a considerably larger labor force than Oregon, only 16 percent 

of its PLX registrants were UI claimants, and registrants were only 10 percent of the 

workforce. 

 Massachusetts data did not adequately cover its non-traditional PLXs. As a result, 95 

percent of all the services we analyzed were provided by traditional PLXs. Not only 

were we unable to assess the performance of the non-traditional PLXs, but because 

non-traditional PLXs were located in large population centers, data inaccuracies 

precluded using statewide statistics to obtain basic information about overall PLX use. 

 Michigan’s administrative data did not track referrals, in part due to extensive use of

self-service job-matching. However, Michigan did conduct surveys, which provide a 

promising means to assess job-matching performance, if the representativeness of the 

samples is improved. 

 A major limitation in our study was that we only examined the value of referrals (jobmatching services) to UI claimants (while they were collecting benefits). A pilot study 

we conducted in Washington, however, suggests that use of surveys could produce 

highly accurate assessments of the value of referrals to a broad range of PLX users.

On the other hand, our Massachusetts study suggests that it is unlikely that any nonexperimental design could accurately assess the effect of services other than referrals. 

5 
We conclude that, despite this study’s limitations, we have produced clear-cut evidence that 

PLX job-matching systems provide highly effective reemployment services to claimants, and most likely

to other groups of job seekers. In addition, firms share in these benefits because reductions in UI 

payments reduce experience-rated tax rates. We consider benefits to job seekers to be of particular 

relevance because job-matching systems are the key service PLXs bring to One-Stop Centers and it is

hard to see how any other means could serve large, diverse populations at low cost. Thus, we regard the 

PLX job-matching systems as the cornerstone of the work-first approach. 

1.4 Performance Monitoring 

The third element of our study was combining the administrative data we assembled with

official statistics to assess how changes in job-matching systems affected the ability of managers and

researchers to analyze One-Stop Center performance. Our major conclusions are that: 

 Counts of referrals and placements are systematically understated in most states. 

Between PY94 and PY97 the ETA Form 9002 reporting systems indicates that 

placements declined by 17 percent in North Carolina and by 8 percent in Washington,

but increased by 5 percent in Oregon, the only state to use a special computerized

system to track referrals to jobs with unsuppressed contact information. 

 In contrast, counts of job openings and registrations are much more accurate. Job 

openings increased by 15 percent and applicants increased by 41 percent in 

Washington between PY94 and PY97. Thus, we estimate that placements are

understated by 40 percent or more in some states, largely because of expanded use of 

listings with unsuppressed contact information. 

 Declines in counts of referrals, placements, job openings, and registrations were far 

greater in the non-traditional states than in the traditional states. Placement counts

declined by over 60 percent in Michigan and Massachusetts, and by 33 percent in 

Colorado. Applicant counts fell by more than 30 percent in Michigan and Colorado,

but rose by more than 30 percent in Washington and Oregon. 

 The declines in the non-traditional states partly reflect increased use of unsuppressed

listings, but much of the effect stems from a breakdown in use of statewide matching 

systems. 

 This loss of information is a serious matter because (1) it dramatically understates the

positive benefits produced by One-Stop Centers in providing core and intensive 

services, and (2) it precludes assessing the impact of changes in technology,

management, and other factors on the cost-effectiveness of PLX job-matching

systems. 

6 
 More broadly, our benefit-cost estimates indicate that each placement boosts 

claimants’ earnings by as much as $2,500 and reduces UI payments by as much as 

$850. Thus, dramatic underestimates of key statistics are likely to adversely affect the 

perceptions of PLX benefits among workforce program managers, elected officials, 

and the general public. Further, these misperceptions could substantially reduce 

support for adequately funding One-Stop Centers, and lead managers to give too little 

support to the provision of job-matching services. 

1.5 Improved Performance Monitoring 

The fourth element of this study was determining how performance monitoring could be 

improved by reducing major information deficits. In the course of conducting this and related studies, we 

encountered three ways to fill information voids: 

 A computerized system that allows voluntary registration and then identifies the

“unsuppressed” job orders to which individual registrants request contact information 

that is used in Oregon. 

 In-office surveys with mail follow-up to assess usage and outcomes that was tested in

Washington. 

 Employer and job seeker surveys to obtain information about use of job-matching 

systems and satisfaction which are used in Michigan. 

With respect to the automated referral identification system used in Oregon we concluded that: 

 The system is highly effective because over 75 percent of Oregon PLX users 

voluntarily identify themselves. 

 The system is exceptionally inexpensive to run because computers conduct the initial 

tracking as well as assess outcomes through wage-record matching. 

 It would be inexpensive for other states to adopt the system because Oregon is willing 

to make it available to any state at no cost. 

With respect to the test of in-office surveys with mail follow-up in Washington we concluded that: 

 The in-office surveys could determine which PLX users obtained referrals and collect 

other information at low cost that would be highly useful for assessing the value of 

services obtained. 

 Mail follow-up would produce exceptionally useful information at low cost. Because 

the response rate would be low, however, some expensive telephone follow-up would 

be needed to validate the results. 

7 
With respect to employer and job seeker surveys used in Michigan we concluded that: 

 The employer survey produced unusually detailed and valuable information about the 

number and quality of job seekers responding to listings at low cost. Some expensive 

telephone follow-up would be needed to validate the results, however. 

 It would be easy to make small modifications in the job seeker survey to provide very

valuable information, but as was shown in Washington, telephone follow-up is needed 

to validate the results. 

In summary, an automated referral identification system, such as Oregon’s, can quickly 

provide highly accurate and highly valuable information at low cost. Given the defects in the current data 

collection system, ETA should consider offering funding sufficient to encourage several states to 

voluntarily test Oregon’s system. If those tests produce positive results, ETA should consider ensuring

that all states adopt similar systems. 

While fostering adoption of Oregon’s system might seem to be a “no-brainer,” a careful 

assessment of the costs of developing a survey-based monitoring system is warranted. Surveys could

produce extremely valuable information and largely fill the enormous information gaps in the running of

One-Stop Centers, but their cost would be substantial. Thus, ETA should consider conducting a feasibility

study that would weigh costs against the value of monitoring One-Stop core services, especially in light 

of the unbalanced view provided by the substantial funds currently spent on tracking intensive services 

alone. If such a study suggested that the benefits outweigh the costs, a field test should be undertaken. 

8 
2. BACKGROUND

2.1 Introduction 

This report examines how the organization of public labor exchanges (PLXs) funded under 

the Wagner-Peyser Act changed as they became integrated into One-Stop Centers mandated by the 

Workforce Investment Act (WIA). It also assesses the benefits and costs of the key service provided by 

PLXs—the direct referral and placement of job seekers to openings employers list with PLXs. 

To produce this report, we conducted site visits and phone interviews with officials 

responsible for overall PLX and One-Stop Center operations in six states and staff of 22 One-Stop

Centers in these states. We also conducted similar visits and interviews with officials responsible for 

overall operations of America’s Job Bank (AJB) in Albany, New York, and Washington, DC. In addition,

we assessed changes in PLX service delivery in six of the states using published statistics, and estimated 

benefit-cost ratios for PLXs in five of the states using large micro-databases we assembled. 

Three of the states studied—Colorado, Massachusetts, and Michigan—were selected

because, at the point the study began, they were the only states that integrated Wagner-Peyser Act and 

WIA services into a single organization with a single local funding stream. More specifically, these states 

transferred responsibility for running at least some PLXs to local agencies, usually workforce investment

boards (WIBs) that previously ran WIA programs alone. They also transferred state PLX staff to local

government agencies or terminated their employment. Finally, they often contracted out the operation of

One-Stop Centers through competitive bids usually to consortia that included government agencies, nonprofits, and in one case, a for-profit firm. 

Three of the states studied—North Carolina, Oregon, and Washington—also were selected

because they made major efforts to integrate services into local One-Stop Centers, but maintained the 

traditional division between state-run and staffed Wagner-Peyser Act programs, and locally-run WIA 

programs. In addition, these states made major efforts to improve PLX operations and develop highquality data (that they shared with us for this study). 

9 
Thus, the central goal of our selection was to make it possible to assess what would be

gained and lost by integrating service delivery with, and without, completely breaking down the divisions

between the state-controlled Wagner-Peyser Act programs and the local-controlled WIA programs. 

Chapter 3 describes the diverse ways PLXs have partnered with other agencies to establish

One-Stop Centers and analyzes how these changes have affected the delivery of workforce development 

services. Chapter 4 describes the benefits and cost of PLX job-matching services, details the data

problems stemming from technological and organizational change that limits this analysis, and suggests 

ways to dramatically improve data systems. 

This chapter, however, sets the stage for these detailed discussions by describing: 

 The history of PLXs; 

 The services provided under the Wagner-Peyser Act and WIA; 

 The data reporting systems that were created under each Act; and 

 The methodological issues that need to be resolved to measure the effectiveness of 

job-matching and related services under each Act. 

2.2 PLX’s Mission and Core Service 

The primary focus of this report is the nature and consequences of changes in the provision 

of state job-matching services resulting from the integration of PLXs into One-Stop Centers. 

Traditionally, job-matching services in states were provided by the Employment Service (ES) funded 

under the Wagner-Peyser Act of 1933. The ES is a labor market intermediary that brings together 

individuals looking for jobs with employers looking for workers to fill job openings. 

Originally, the state-Federal ES helped Depression-era workers find jobs, many of which 

were created by New Deal agencies. During World War II, the ES turned to funneling workers into 

defense industries, often by linking specific rural areas in the South or West to specific industrial areas in

the Northeast or Far West. During the post-war years, the ES assisted returning veterans to reenter the

civilian labor force. Providing services to veterans continues to be an important ES task, which is 

separately funded and staffed. During the “War on Poverty” in the 1960’s the ES helped economically

disadvantaged individuals find jobs. 

10 
The Kennedy-Johnson years were a watershed era for the ES because (1) the challenges 

facing the US in reducing poverty were fundamentally different from those of the depression and World 

War II where the ES played an important role in Federal efforts to deal with problems strongly affecting

all Americans, (2) the ES’s role was diminished by the creation of new Federal organizations to provide a

broad array of employment and training services to groups of social concern such as the economically

disadvantaged and workers dislocated by technology or trade, and (3) the ES’s attempts to contribute to 

the “War on Poverty” created widespread dissatisfaction among employers with the perceived shift from

finding the best candidate for a given opening to placing individuals of social concern. 

As a result, the value of the ES began to be questioned. Starting in the 1970’s, there was a

series of calls to devolve ES operations to the states, with and without ending Wagner-Peyser Act 

funding. Each of these efforts failed, somewhat to the proponents’ surprise, as employer groups, 

especially those representing small employers; elected officials, particularly those in more rural states; 

and labor unions, especially those representing state workers; rallied to the support of the ES. 

A contributing factor to the demise of devolution attempts is that the analysis used to support

the view that PLX services were not cost-effective were seriously flawed, while a growing number of

carefully conceived random-assignment demonstrations consistently showed that various forms of lowcost job search assistance was highly cost-effective. The culmination of the research and policy debates

was that during the 1990’s, there was a general acceptance of the “work-first” approach in helping the

economically disadvantaged, especially welfare mothers, dislocated workers, new entrants, and

incumbent workers improve their earnings and job satisfaction. 

Today, the cornerstone of the work-first approach is universal access to low-cost PLX

services through One-Stop Centers. As will be discussed in the next section, low-cost, high-capacity, jobmatching and other forms of job search assistance are the core services provided at these centers. A

subsequent section indicates that these services are cost effective. Thus, PLXs make it possible to achieve 

a key aim of the WIA—providing effective, low-cost services to virtually all those needing workforce 

help. Indeed, it is hard to see how this key goal could be achieved by other means. Importantly, the

provision of effective and low-cost services frees resources to help individuals who need additional aid to

reach their career objectives, but lack the resources to help themselves. 

11 
2.3 PLX Services 

As its name suggests, the unique service provided by PLXs is the referral and placement of 

workers to jobs employers list with the ES. Years ago, job seekers had to review books of job listings or

walls covered with listings that were obtained from employers by ES staff. When a suitable listing was

found the job seeker had to talk to a staff member who provided contact information (or directly set-up an

interview) once it was determined the job seeker was well qualified for the job. Alternatively, staff could 

look through listing on behalf of job seekers in what usually looked like an old-style library card catalog. 

In some cases, staff would look through job seeker registration files to identify well-qualified job seekers 

when a new job order came in. 

Today, the system for cataloging and searching through job order files has been automated to 

the point that job seekers largely conduct searches by themselves, and often retrieve the contact

information without ever talking to a staff person. Moreover, job seekers do not have to visit ES offices as 

they can access job listings over the Internet, and often can set up computer searchers that automatically

identify suitable jobs each time they log onto the job-listing web site. Similarly, employers can call in job 

orders in the traditional manner, or in many cases, directly enter their orders into ES computers. In

addition, staff can use computers to identify well-qualified candidates, and in some cases, employers can

search the resumes of job seeker registrants to identify well-qualified candidates. 

Currently, state PLXs annually list over 6 million openings, and place upwards of 3 million 

job seekers at those openings, at an average cost in Federal funds of about $330 per placement. America’s 

Job Bank (AJB), which is a federally supported, Internet-based, public labor exchange lists most of the 

jobs posted by state PLXs plus an additional 4 million jobs AJB independently obtains. 

PLX computers also provide links to private-sector job-matching systems such as

monster.com and The Washington Post’s automated want ads, as well as a host of related web sites, such 

as those providing information about current labor market conditions, projections of growth and pay in 

various career fields, training required to enter various fields and where to obtain that training, and types 

of help provided by a wide range of agencies and how to obtain that help. 

In addition to the computerized services available over the Internet, at ES and One-Stop 

offices and at libraries, specialized kiosks and other public facilities, visitors to PLXs can obtain a wide

range of additional technology-based services such as use of resume writing software, fax and Internet 

12 
access to send out resumes, phones to call employers, as well as low-tech libraries with information about 

effective job-search and career development. 

PLX visitors also can obtain help from staff in using the various job-search tools, as well as

attend job-search workshops lasting from a few hours to several days, and obtain individualized 

assessment, counseling, and referrals to training and other social services. However, PLXs’ mandate to

offer universal access to diverse populations with limited funds places great emphasis on developing

computerized systems that are user friendly, and can deliver a variety of aid without staff intervention.

Indeed, the increased capabilities of computers coupled with the ability of states to share ideas and

software makes it increasingly possible to lower cost and increase quality of the services provided to

growing numbers of clients. These same technological improvements also free staff from clerical and 

other tasks so they are more able to provide individualized services when they are needed. 

A final traditional ES function is helping to monitor the job-search of unemployment

insurance (UI) claimants. This role stems from claimants being required to actively search for work, as 

well as apply for and accept job vacancies that are similar to former jobs. One of the best ways to perform

the “work test” is to provide a claimant with a referral to a suitable job opening, and then see if the

claimant adequately follows up on this lead. PLXs are ideally suited to conduct such tests. Recently, the

claimant monitoring role has gained added emphasis as several demonstrations produced convincing

evidence that it is cost-effective to require claimants likely to have trouble finding new jobs to attend

workshops that acquaint them with PLX and other agency services as well as how to effectively conduct 

their job search on their own. Currently, all states call in substantial numbers of claimants under the 

Worker Profiling and Reemployment Service (WPRS) program created in the 1990’s. Many states, such

as North Carolina, complement the WPRS program, which is aimed at providing help near the start of a

UI claim, with periodic eligibility reviews that require one-on-one interviews to assess and improve job 

search as the duration of claim lengthens. 

2.4 WIA Services 

In contrast to the universal access and low per-person cost of the PLX services discussed

above, WIA aids specific target groups but has resources to serve only small segments of those 

populations. WIA provides expensive services, such as basic and vocational training, that last much

longer than PLX services. In order to best serve their clients, WIA service providers usually adopt a staff13 
intensive, case-management, approach. WIA programs also provide direct job placement services to its

clients through use of targeted job development and referral. Thus, in distinct contrast to PLXs, which list 

jobs from any employer and offer referrals to any qualified person, targeted job development is designed

to identify employers that have openings especially well suited to the needs of specific clients, and WIA 

staff often work with the employers to help them accommodate to their clients’ special needs, monitor

performance, and assist employers to solve problems that develop with clients. 

Because of the narrow targeting of WIA services, the costliness of the services, and funding 

limitations, considerable resources are devoted to establishing eligibility and determining which potential 

clients are likely to benefit most from the services offered. More specifically, WIA programs recruit and 

carefully screen applicants prior to enrolling them to ensure that the program offers appropriate 

treatments, and the enrollees will do their part in securing benefits from the program. 

As shown in Table 2-1, during program-year 2003 (July 2002 through June 2003) WIA

served about 475,000 economically disadvantaged adults, about 380,000 dislocated workers, and 400,000 

economically disadvantaged youths at a per capita cost of $2,000, $3,250, and $2,850, respectively. In

contrast, the ES served almost 15,000,000 people at a per capita cost of $53 over the same period. While 

these figures do not include all funds spent on WIA and ES programs, nor include all clients, they clearly

show the dramatic differences in access and per capita cost. 

Table 2-1. PLX – WIA comparisons 2002 

FY2002 

Federal appropriation 

($ millions) 

PY2003 

Persons served 

Federal spending 

per person 

WIA

Adults $945.3 475,209 $1,989

Dislocated workers $1,233.7 379,798 $3,248 

Youth $1,128.0 396,470 $2,845

Total $3,307.0 1,251,477 $2,642

Wagner-Peyser Act 

PLX $796.7 14,948,928 $53

Ratio

PLX/WIA 0.24 11.9 0.02

WIA/PLX 4.2 0.08 49.6

Source: Workforce System Results. USDOL/ETA, June 2003 

14 
In summary, the WIA programs’ main focus is providing training and case-management.

PLX primary focus is direct job placement mainly through self-referral to the millions of jobs listed by

employers. Both PLX and WIA programs supplement their primary services with various forms of job 

search assistance (JSA). JSA provides information designed to make job search more effective. In

addition to information, JSA can also include individualized assessment and counseling. WIA expends 

substantial resources on outreach, enrollment, and to a much lesser extent, targeted job development;

while PLXs provide referrals to WIA and other personalized services. 

2.5 Integration of WIA and PLX Services into One-Stop Centers 

The differences between PLX and WIA services discussed above suggests several reasons 

why integrating the delivery of these services might increase overall benefits. The most obvious 

advantage is determining if inexpensive services can meet job seekers’ needs before offering costly 

services. For example, initially, job seekers could be encouraged to review PLX job orders to determine if 

any suitable jobs are available. Job seekers unable to find suitable work after a reasonable period could 

then be offered individualized assessment and counseling as well as participation in job search

workshops. If these approaches fail, job seekers could then be offered various forms of training. The 

essence of the work-first approach is using PLX staff as gatekeepers to progressively more expensive 

services. 

A second advantage of integration is that PLX staff can improve referrals by becoming more 

familiar with the services available through WIA programs. Third and less obvious, is that information 

about the pay and availability of jobs in different fields obtained through use of PLX computers can serve 

as the basis for deciding what types of training would best increase earnings. Fourth, information about 

the openings listed with PLXs that are being filled by target populations provides a starting point for job 

developers to find employers willing to hire WIA participants. 

PLXs’ role as gatekeepers to the more expensive WIA programs and as providers of highly

useful labor market information to clients and staff probably are the most important benefits of service

integration. However, there also could be major economies of scale through integration into One-Stop 

Centers of the full array of employment and training programs for veterans, senior citizens, the

handicapped, welfare recipients, UI claimants, and ex-offenders. Many of these economies stem from 

15 
eliminating duplicative efforts to reach and register clients, assess and refer clients to appropriate staff,

supervise staff, and maintain facilities. 

Finally, melding of PLX and WIA services can take advantage of WIA’s governance 

structure that brings together local officials from various levels of government, non-profit social service 

agencies, unions, and especially businesses. A major strength of WIA is that it gives considerable power 

and a strong voice to local leaders in the running of WIA and integration of other workforce development 

programs through its 620 or so local WIBs (Workforce Investment Boards). While not all WIBs are 

equally effective, there is little doubt that their oversight plays a major role in ensuring community needs

are met and in developing support for WIA programs. In distinct contrast, PLXs are run by state officials

who make key decisions with limited local input. PLXs have local job service employer committees 

(JSECs) but these committees do not have the power or play an analogous role to WIBs in managing 

PLXs. Indeed, PLXs’ difficulty in developing cooperative working arrangements with WIA and other 

local social service agencies probably is a key factor motivating calls for its devolution. 

Thus, a major focus of Chapter 3 is on how well various service configurations complement 

each other. In particular, we examine the advantages and disadvantages of integrating Wagner-Peyser Act

and WIA services into a single organization with a single local funding stream. Even this brief discussion

suggests that, because WIA programs are restricted by funding limitations, a likely outcome of making 

Wagner-Peyser Act funds available to the workforce investment boards (running WIA programs) would 

be an increase in services provided by local WIA programs at the expense of statewide PLX programs. 

2.6 Performance Data 

While a strong theoretical case can be made for integrating PLX and WIA services into a

One-Stop environment, demonstrating the practical benefits depends on having the right data.

Unfortunately, there is not a single integrated database available for examining the performance of PLX 

and WIA programs, let alone the performance of One-Stop Centers that involve many additional partners. 

Four factors affect the availability of suitable data. Differences in: 

 The nature of PLX versus WIA services. 

 Staff involvement in providing these services. 

16 
 Incentives to create effective management information systems. 

 The Federal role in overseeing PLX and WIA operations. 

Because PLX services are primarily aimed at shortening the duration of job-search and

improving the quality of job matches for many job seekers and employers, PLX published statistics 

measure the number of job seekers registering for service and the number of openings listed by 

employers, as well as the number of job seekers placed and referred. Similarly, special PLX evaluations 

primarily measure reductions in jobless duration and short-term earnings gains of program participants. 

In contrast, as its name suggests, WIA funds programs that often make investments that 

build skills to boost long-term earnings, but at the cost of lengthening periods of joblessness. Thus, WIA

published statistics focus on measuring the percentage of clients who enter employment, how long they 

hold jobs, and changes in earnings, while formal evaluations focus on measuring long-term increases in 

earnings and hourly wages of program participants. 

A second major difference between WIA and PLX data is that the accuracy of key PLX

statistics have dramatically declined as self-referrals to job orders have increased through use of

unsuppressed contact information. Because traditional data systems depend on staff recording each 

referral made to each job seeker, if staff stop making the referrals, data systems must be altered or the

ability to track referrals and placements will plummet. Use of unsuppressed contact information varies 

across the states, but we estimate that it is above 80 percent in many states, and rarely less than 50 

percent. 

In stark contrast, the WIA system has evolved an elaborate, well-funded, staff-dependent 

system for enrolling clients and tracking the services provided. In large part this system evolved from the 

need to ensure that services are going to eligible individuals and that the large per-person training 

payments are appropriately spent—functions that are difficult to automate. 

Third, there are weak incentives to accurately report PLX statistics to the Federal

government, mainly because there are no performance standards and no financial awards or sanctions 

associated with the performance measures. In the past, however, PLXs developed an elaborate

performance measurement system because Federal payments were directly tied to the amount and type of 

services provided. Today, efforts to establish systems to accurately measure performance and use these

17 
measures to monitor and improve PLX services largely are confined to a few states. In distinct contrast, 

WIA programs have explicit standards that are carefully monitored and tied to financial rewards. 

A major reason for these incentive differences is that the Federal government plays a much 

larger role in administering WIA programs than PLX programs. Differences stem from (1) WIA funds 

going to about 620 local workforce investment boards, largely, but not exclusively, as state pass-throughs;

(2) WIA receiving far more funds than PLXs, (3) strong interest among several constituencies in boosting

WIA funding, and (4) funding for WIA programs coming from annual appropriations from general 

revenue. In contrast, almost all Federal PLX funding comes from a portion of the payroll taxes used to 

support the Unemployment Insurance system. Because of WIA’s special governance structure, and

greater interest in addressing workforce problems through WIA, it is natural that there also would be 

greater interest in securing high-quality information about WIA programs. 

Not surprisingly, differences in the ways PLX and WIA program performance are monitored 

have enormous effects on this study. We were able to quantify the effect of referrals and placements made 

by traditional PLXs by selecting traditional states that had high-quality administrative data. North 

Carolina and Washington did not make extensive use of unsuppressed listings in the years examined, and

Oregon developed a computerized system to track referrals to unsuppressed listings. However, we were

largely unable to quantify the effects of devolving PLXs to local control. In particular, the WIBs in 

Massachusetts and Michigan, which assumed responsibility for running PLXs, dramatically reduced

listing jobs statewide and largely stopped recording placements from any source in state data systems. 

These WIBs followed the Federal WIA mandate to record intensive services and training, 

while they ignored measurement of core services (mainly provided by PLXs). However, these practices

precluded the use of administrative data to analyze the effectiveness of the PLXs run by WIBs.

Importantly, Michigan attempted to develop statewide survey-based performance measures for its PLX, 

which is documented in section 4.6. However, Michigan lacked the resources to validate its system, and

probably would have needed to spend more funds to expand the sample and increase the survey response

rate to develop accurate statistics. In contrast, Oregon devoted millions of state and Federal dollars to 

developing a highly effective computerized system to accurately measure performance of its PLX, which 

also is discussed in section 4.6. 

Overall, not having adequate PLX performance data is a major and growing problem. This 

problem is serious, not just for one-time evaluations, but also because the General Accounting Office 

18 
(GAO) concluded in the late-1980’s that maintaining high-quality monitoring systems, rewarding 

excellence, and developing the means to identify and solve problems are hallmarks of cost-effective PLXs 

(GAO, 1989). Integration of PLX services into One-Stop Centers increases the value of having adequate 

information about core services as well as intensive services and training. Thus, we describe how the data 

measurement problems can be resolved, and several of our most important and easily implemented

recommendations relate to improving data systems. 

2.7 PLX Evaluations 

The sparse literature assessing the performance PLXs falls into five categories: 

 Informal analyses of PLXs benefits and costs based on published statistics; 

 Formal evaluations of the benefits and costs based on large person-level databases; 

 Commentary on the formal and informal evaluations; 

 Assessment of factors that influence referrals, placements, and cost, but do not assess

net benefits; and 

 Random-assignment demonstrations of the value of job search assistance services of

the type provided by PLXs. 

2.7.1 Informal Analyses 

Several informal papers supporting devolution failed to provide evidence that could

convince technical experts PLX benefits are less than their costs. Part of the problem was that these 

papers did not reference rigorous studies indicating (but not providing direct evidence) that the ES was 

cost effective. Part of the problem was that the informal discussions used a faulty conceptual framework

that ignored the ES’s extremely low per-person cost and the substantial declines (in real terms) of Federal 

allocations over the last 25 years. What these papers suggest to researchers is that the ES was used by

very large numbers of workers having difficulty finding work and large numbers of these workers were

being placed at jobs by the ES. Moreover, many firms listed jobs with the ES that were highly suitable for 

workers having difficulty finding work by other means, and most of these firms were unlikely to use more

expensive means to recruit workers, especially through private employment agencies. 

19 
Thus, experts reached the key conclusion that it is extremely difficult to assess the value of

PLX services precisely because it is difficult to create a comparison group of job seekers who do not use 

PLX services, but face the same difficulties finding suitable work. Indeed, there is general recognition 

that simple comparisons tend to understate the value of ES services, often to the point it appears that use 

of the ES makes job seekers worse off. This is because ES users, in the absence of ES use, would have

had worse job-search outcomes than seemingly similar non-users. 

Because the informal studies did not use an appropriate conceptual framework they did not 

convince technical experts that the uniformly positive estimates of the effect of PLX referrals and 

placements from the formal analyses were negative as the informal studies claimed. At best, they focused 

attention on whether the formal studies adequately controlled for differences between users and nonusers. Indeed, technical debates still focus on whether the more sophisticated analyses overstate “true” 

effects, while accepting the view that simple comparisons understate the “true” value of PLX referrals and 

placements. 

2.7.2 Formal Analyses 

In this subsection, we discuss the three major studies of the effect of PLX referrals and 

placements that preceded this effort—a national study published by ETA in 1982, a study of Pennsylvania

UI claimants completed in 1993, and a study of Washington and Oregon UI claimants published by ETA 

in 2000—paying particular attention to their relevance to the new work reported in Chapter 4. 

2.7.2.1 The JDW National ES Study 

Prior to ETA commissioning the new analysis presented in this report, there was only one

attempt to provide a comprehensive assessment of the value to jobseekers of PLX referrals and 

placement. This is the National Evaluation of the Impact of the U.S. Employment Service by Terry

Johnson, Katherine Dickerson, and Richard West (JDW) issued by ETA in 1983 (Johnson, et al., 1983). 

This work, which also was published in a refereed journal, concluded that the benefit-cost ratio for the ES

was 1.6 for men and women together, using highly conservative estimates of overall cost and the benefits

accruing to men. 

20 
Nevertheless, researchers regard this study as only suggesting PLX services might be cost

effective, and generally emphasize the need for better evidence to be certain that this is the case. This 

view is based on careful analyses that have shown that it is generally not possible to obtain unbiased 

estimates of program effects without using an experimental design where some program applicants are

randomly assigned to a control group and denied services. Implementing random assignment designs are 

possible with social programs, such as those funded under WIA, where many more individuals want to

participate than funds allow. But experimental designs are extremely difficult to implement with PLX and

other programs that are required to provide universal access. It is our view, however, that when all sorts

of evidence is taken into account, the JDW study is quite helpful in assessing a plausible range for

program benefits, and also in providing guidance to improve PLX benefit estimation. 

Recent reviews of the JDW study methodology focus on JDW’s attempt to reduce adverse 

selection bias by (1) surveying registrants to assess their motivation to find work and expectations about 

likely outcomes, and (2) using statistical adjustments to control for unobserved factors that 

simultaneously influence ES use and job-search outcomes. The consensus of the reviewers is that the

JDW study demonstrated that after holding a host of observable factors constant, ES registrants with a 

stronger motivation to return to work and greater expectations of successful job search were more likely

to obtain referrals. Since it is reasonable to believe stronger motivation and higher expectations would

decrease the duration of job search even if ES referrals were not obtained, failure to control for 

differences in motivation and expectations could lead to substantial over-estimation of the value of the

referrals and placements. This is the case even though the adjustments met a necessary, but not sufficient

condition for accurate estimation—that differences in earnings and other factors between ES users and 

comparison groups were statistically insignificant during the period prior to ES use. 

Importantly, JDW did not directly estimate the effect of stronger motivation and higher 

expectations on job-search outcomes, but they did show that the statistical corrections made to take 

selection bias into account increased measures of success. For men, program effects (decreases in jobless 

duration) increased from 0.64 weeks to over 9.00 weeks, and for women, program effects increased from 

2.79 weeks to over 6.00 weeks. This evidence suggests that, while reviewers focus on the possibility

unobservable factors lead to over-estimation of the true effects, omission of factors not directly measured 

by JDW led to substantial under-estimation of the true effects. The precise degree of underestimation in

using simple ordinary least square (OLS) regression estimates is uncertain, but it is reasonable to believe 

that the under-estimation of true effects is 2 weeks or more. 

21 
Another finding that had a strong effect on the approach used in this report is that OLS

estimates, which were small and sometimes not statistically significant, became much larger and were

statistically significant when the timing of the referral (relative to registration) was taken into account. 

Reductions in joblessness for referrals made in the first month of registration were 2.12 weeks for men,

and 4.85 weeks for women (compared to the 0.64 and 2.79 week reductions estimated for referrals made 

at any point). Because two-thirds of the placements were made within 1 month of registering, the net 

benefits of the referrals are greater when PLX aid after the first month is ignored. There are several

possible reasons for the measured effects being much smaller for placements occurring more than 

1 month after registration, including the 6- to 9-month follow-up period being insufficient, and those

referred who do not return to work relatively quickly being more likely to stop searching. 

A second data issue is that the statistical adjustments to the OLS estimates produced results 

with large confidence intervals (relative to the point-estimates), and therefore, may have led to the point 

estimates being substantially greater than the “true” effect (even if the estimators, themselves, were

unbiased). A closer look at the JDW sample suggests that the key problem was that a far larger group of

placed registrants was needed to substantially shrink the confidence intervals. 

JDW obtained suitable data for 4,564 applicants from a nationally representative sample of

25 ES offices. However, only 30 percent were referred to jobs, and 30 percent of those referred were

placed. A far more powerful statistical design would have used equal proportions of those (1) placed, (2) 

referred but not placed, and (3) not referred; (and then weighted the results to reflect the probability of 

being referred and being placed). This design could not be implemented, however, because baseline data

on motivation and expectations was obtained before applicants were referred and placed. 

Thus, we conclude that the JDW national study provides strong evidence that OLS

regressions with readily available administrative data most likely led to substantial under-estimation of 

the true referral effect. While the underestimation is large, the sample was too small to estimate the bias

with much precision. 

In terms of lessons learned for use in subsequent attempts to assess ES benefits, we 

concluded that the accuracy of referral effect estimates could be increased by (1) using large samples that

include many placed registrants, (2) measuring joblessness over a long period, (3) controlling for recall

and labor force withdrawal, factors that probably were well captured by the JDW survey, and (4) 

controlling for elapsed duration of unemployment at the point a referral is made (not just when 

22 
registration occurred). Point 4 is especially important in our study of UI claimants because most claimants

were required to register with the ES but not required to obtain ES referrals, and as is discussed in more

detail below, lengthened unemployment duration is a good indicator of difficulty finding work. 

More specifically, we concluded that controlling for the timing of referrals relative to the 

start of unemployment spells is critically important in reducing selection bias for claimants. The logic 

here is that referrals only have an effect after they are obtained, and individuals who have characteristics 

that lead to quickly finding new jobs by other means do not obtain referrals. Thus, it makes sense to hold

constant “elapsed duration” by comparing the job search of referred individuals subsequent to obtaining

the referral to that of individuals who have reached the same point in their jobless spells, but did not 

obtain a referral. However, it makes no sense to include in these comparisons individuals who have found 

new jobs or been recalled before reaching the point in their jobless spells that others obtained referrals. By 

limiting comparisons to claimants who have been jobless for similar periods, we eliminate from the

comparison many claimants who have measured or unmeasured characteristics that lead to a quicker 

return to work. 

A key reason for expecting that this approach will substantially reduce selection bias in 

practice is that recall probabilities sharply decline with jobless duration, and workers expecting recall are 

unlikely to obtain referrals or placements. Similarly, job seekers with superior sources of vacancy 

information also are likely to quickly return to work without obtaining referrals. Thus, estimates of the 

effect of referrals made after about 10 weeks of joblessness are likely to be much freer of selection bias 

than those for referrals made sooner. 

Nevertheless, non-recalled registrants obtaining referrals after being unemployed for similar 

periods still may have greater motivation to find jobs or superior prospects than non-referred registrants. 

Thus, ignoring these differences still could lead to over-estimation of the true effects. However, these 

effects are likely to be far smaller than the selection bias in the opposite direction introduced by not 

controlling for the duration of unemployment in the first place. (As just discussed, this is because 

whatever those omitted factors are, they are likely to have strongly affected the probability of returning to 

work in the preceding weeks of joblessness.) 

Following the above logic, a strong case can be made for further reducing selection bias by 

comparing referred registrants to registrants placed at jobs. The logic here is that unmeasured factors that

simultaneously affect obtaining referrals and the success of job search by other means are likely to be 

23 
more similar among referred registrants who are and are not placed, than between those referred and those 

not referred. 

Importantly, the referred/placed comparisons also reduce bias stemming from the inability to 

find a suitable referral being an indicator that the type of job a given registrant is looking for is scarcer 

than those referred registrants are trying to obtain. This bias is greater the more likely it is that registrants

have searched job listings. Thus, eliminating this bias is especially important when there are no surveybased or other good measures of the probability of finding a new job, and when registration is voluntary 

and done in person so that it is especially likely that registration and a review of job orders takes place at

the same time. 

Some commentators suggest that the referred/placed comparisons overstate the value of 

placements because those placed may have unmeasured attributes that make them more attractive to the 

employers to which they are referred by PLXs (and other employers) than those referred but not placed. If

this supposition is correct, the value of placements would be overstated. However, the Washington study

discussed in section 2.7.2.3 suggests that it may be as likely for referred job seekers with superior

attributes to reject job offers as for employers to reject referred job seekers with inferior attributes. 

Of at least equal importance, the size of the over-estimation is a key determinant of whether

the total reduction of joblessness stemming from PLX placements plus referrals not leading to placements

is over-estimated. This is because, as shown in equation 2-1, T—the total reduction in joblessness

stemming from referrals and placements, equals, re—the referral effect (without placement), times R—

the number referred (but not placed), plus, pe—the placement effect, times P—the number placed. Since

we know that about one out of three referred registrants are placed, the value of PLX referrals and

placements would be under-estimated as long as the over-estimate of the placement effect is less than

one-third of the under-estimate of the referral affect. 

T = re x R + pe x P Equation 2-1

The experimental evidence presented in section 2.7.3 shows that forms of job search 

assistance delivered by PLXs that are likely to be less potent than referrals, nevertheless have small

positive effects. This evidence provides crucial support for the view that the true effect of referrals not 

leading to placements is positive, and also makes it unlikely that the overestimation of placement effects 

is greater than three times the referral effects. Thus, it is reasonable to believe that comparisons between 

24 
those placed and those referred but not placed multiplied by the number placed produce conservative

estimates of the value of referrals and placements taken together. 

2.7.2.2 The KJ Pennsylvania Claimant Study 

The methodological improvements noted above were tested in work conducted by Arnold

Katz and Louis Jacobson for the Upjohn Institute which was reported in Job Search, Employment, 

Earnings and the Employment Service: Comparisons of the Experience of Unemployment Insurance 

Beneficiaries in Pennsylvania 1979-87 (1994). This study used administrative data to examine the effect 

of placements, referrals not leading to placements, and other services (mainly counseling and workshops)

on 30,000 UI claimants who were 25 to 53 years old when laid off and were not recalled by former

employers. The study was limited to claimants because (1) administrative UI data for this group provides 

precise estimates of unemployment duration until benefits are exhausted after about 26 weeks, (2) 

administrative wage records were able to identify the timing of reemployment within 13 weeks, and (3) 

claimants are unlikely to withdraw from the labor force. 

An estimating technique based on the Cox-Proportional Hazard function was used to control 

for unemployment duration at the point ES services were obtained and for fixed effects of factors such as

education that were not explicitly observed in the data. Substantial reductions in selection bias and/or

confidence intervals were anticipated through (1) using large samples, (2) eliminating recalled claimants,

(3) focusing on individuals unlikely to withdraw from the labor force, (4) following unemployment for 

long periods, (5) confining comparisons to ES users and non-users unemployed for nearly identical

periods, and (6) controlling for fixed effects. The estimates did have exceptionally small confidence 

intervals, but there is no way to know whether the true effects were over or under-estimated by large or 

small amounts. 

The key results were that (1) placements increased the probability of reemployment over 13-

week periods by 52 percent for men, and 71 percent for women, (2) referrals increased reemployment

probabilities by 22 percent for men and 32 percent for woman, and (3) other services had no discernable 

effect on the reemployment probabilities of men and increased the probability of reemployment by 9 

percent for women, but that effect was not statistically significant. 

25 
A rough translation of these probabilities is that a 50 percent reduction in reemployment 

probabilities results in about a 4.5 week decrease in the duration of joblessness, and 20 percent reduction 

results in about a 1.8 week reduction in joblessness. Thus, these results fall roughly midway between the 

OLS and selection adjusted results obtained by JDW. A separate analysis of earnings effects suggested

that the quicker return to work did not come at the expense of reducing earnings in the short- or long-run. 

Why the effects were stronger for women than men was not directly assessed. However, the

women in the study held lower paying jobs before and after their unemployment spells than the men.

Thus, the larger effects for women could stem from (1) lower wage workers having poorer information to

locate new jobs on their own, such as tips from professional contacts and relatives, than higher wage 

workers, and (2) employers offering lower wage jobs being more likely to hire referred ES applicants than 

employers offering high-wage jobs. 

Direct evidence that job seekers increasingly turn to the ES as a “backstop” after other

methods of job search failed comes from the study’s findings that the probability of obtaining a referral 

and being placed rises with unemployment duration. These results also reinforce the view that controlling 

for jobless duration at the point of referral is an effective way to take into account differences in the 

ability to find work by other means, and thereby, limit selection bias. 

As with the JDW study, or any non-experimental design where selection bias is likely to 

strongly affect estimates, it is unclear to what extent the results are biased. Switching comparison groups

from those obtaining no service to those referred but not placed produces estimates of the residual 

selection bias of about 2.0 weeks, and “real” reductions in joblessness of about 3.0 weeks for men, and 

about 6.0 weeks for woman.

Finally, subsequent analysis indicated that use of separate OLS regressions on claimants

unemployed for similar periods produced nearly identical results to those based on the hazard models

used in the Pennsylvania study. We, therefore, used OLS regressions in Chapter 4 because they are far 

easier to compute and directly translate into reductions in weeks of joblessness that are needed for 

estimating net program benefits. 

26 
2.7.2.3 The JP Washington and Oregon Claimant Study 

While the Pennsylvania results are similar to those produced by JDW, it still would be

highly desirable to obtain more definitive measures of the bias in comparing placed claimants to referred 

but not placed claimants. This was precisely the goal of one of four separate analyses presented in

Measuring the Effect of Public Labor Exchange (PLX) Referrals and Placements in Washington and 

Oregon (Jacobson and Petta, 2000). The analysis discussed in this section was based on combining 

information from a mail survey with administrative data. The separate analyses of representative samples 

of UI claimants in Oregon and Washington are discussed in Chapter 4 because they used the same 

estimation techniques as our new work, but do not provide evidence about the bias in the techniques used,

the topic of this subsection. The fourth analysis examined “crowding out” effects which create a potential

source of bias, independent of selection bias, that is rarely examined in the literature. This study was 

conducted by Stephen Woodbury and Carl Davidson, and is briefly discussed at the end of this

subsection. 

The mail survey included 3,000 individuals placed at jobs by Washington PLXs from 

January through July 1998 and 3,000 individuals referred to the same jobs but not placed. Despite use of

multiple mailings and a variety of incentives, the response rate was only 20 percent, and overall 587 

respondents provided sufficient information for use in the analysis. Despite having a small, and 

unrepresentative, sample, the survey provided the first look at a key issue—why those referred were not 

placed. For the sample that most closely resembled the claimants studied in this report we determined

that: 

1. 15.0 percent were placed; 

2. 4.3 percent accepted jobs, but did not report to work; 

3. 5.9 percent were offered jobs, but did not accept the offers; 

4. 15.0 percent interviewed for the jobs, but did not receive an offer; 

5. 33.1 percent applied for the jobs, but did not receive interview offers; and 

6. 26.7 percent did not follow up receipt of the referral information by contacting the 

employer. 

The combination of survey and administrative data then allowed us to compare the

“conservative” estimator we use in Chapter 4 to an estimator that more closely resembles one derived 

27 
from an experimental design. Estimator-1—the non-experimental conservative estimator used in 

Chapter 4—compares the effect of being placed (being in group 1) to the effect of being referred but not 

placed (being in groups 2 through 6). Estimator-2—which we will call the quasi-experimental estimator—

compares the effect of being interviewed (being in groups 1 through 4) to being unsuccessful in obtaining 

an interview for the job (being in group 5). Estimator-2 resembles the results of an experimental design 

where employers agreed in advance to randomly deny interviews to a fixed proportion of referred

claimants. As is discussed below, the similarity with a true experiment hinges on whether or not inability 

to obtain an interview was a random event, as would be the case if those denied an interview had obtained 

the referrals and applied for the jobs after they were already filled. 

The actual calculation used to create estimator-2 takes the estimated difference between 

being in groups 1 through 4 to being in group 5, and then divides this figure by .40— the probability of 

being placed given the referred claimant is interviewed. This adjustment is based on the assumption that 

all of the positive effect of obtaining an interview comes from being placed; and has the key effect of 

making estimator-2 comparable to estimator-1 (because estimator-1 already is based on the assumption

that only being placed creates a positive effect.). Importantly, making the adjustment has no effect on the 

net benefit measure, which is the per-person effect times the number of persons affected. This is because 

we divide the per-person effect by .40 and multiply the number of people affected by .40. 

The central finding of this study was that placements reduced the duration of joblessness by 

4.5 weeks using the non-experimental estimator (also used in Chapter 4), but the reduction of joblessness

was 7.2 weeks using the quasi-experimental estimator that could only be produced with survey 

information. Again, these estimates are quite similar to those obtained in JDW’s National study and the

Pennsylvania study. Thus, we believe that these results support our view that estimator-1 produces 

conservative estimates. 

An expert panel concluded that the results would be valid if it was certain that claimants who 

tried but failed to obtain interviews simply applied after the jobs were already filled, or were not being 

screened out because employers felt they would be inferior workers. However, if employers were

screening out “inferior” applicants, estimator-2 would over-state the true-effects because screened out 

claimants most likely also would have more difficult finding work by other means. Thus, this panel (and

all technical experts that have reviewed research on PLX effectiveness) concluded that it would be highly

worthwhile to validate this promising technique using a larger and more representative sample of placed 

28 
job seekers and job seekers referred to the same jobs who were known to have applied too late to obtain 

interviews or who otherwise were known to not be screened out by employers. 

Indeed, we planned to survey employers as part of this project to assess the extent of prescreening. Unfortunately, we were unable to get our survey instrument cleared by OMB in time to execute

this survey and include its results here. However, preliminary work in developing the survey instrument

suggested that employers listing jobs with PLXs generally grant interviews to referred job seekers without

any prescreening, and extensive interviews with PLX staff suggest that most job seekers referred to 

listings are well qualified for the jobs. Also, we suspect that if pre-screening occurred it would be as 

likely to lead well-qualified candidates to screen themselves out as to lead employers to screen out poorly 

qualified candidates. 

In summary, the expert panel agreed that there does not appear to be a better alternative for 

mimicking an experimental design. However, in the absence of more concrete evidence, they were 

unwilling to speculate on whether the potential over-estimate of the true effect stemming from employer 

screening would be greater than our 2.7-week figure for the under-estimate of the true effect based on 

using estimator-1 instead of estimator-2. In other words, they wanted better information before accepting

the results derived from use of estimator-1, which compared those placed to those referred but not placed,

as a conservative estimate of the true placement effect. 

The Washington and Oregon study also included a unique analysis by Carl Davidson and

Stephen Woodbury of the possible “crowding out” effects stemming from some of the benefits accruing

to placed claimants coming at the expense of those not using PLX services. This analysis concluded that 

benefits were over-estimated by about 20 percent if the crowding out effects were ignored, while 80

percent of the effect of placements stemmed from increased efficiency of claimant job search. 

2.7.3 Random Assignment Evaluations of Reemployment Services for Claimants

Studies using experimental designs to measure the cost effectiveness of subjecting UI 

claimants to additional work-test screening and/or requiring claimants to obtain additional job search

assistance are a third type of study that bears on the measurement of PLX referral effects presented in

Chapter 4. Christopher O’Leary provided an excellent summary of the eight best executed and most 

important of these studies. Most of the studies primarily focused on determining whether the savings in 

29 
UI funds were greater than costs because, if the treatments were made permanent, the services often 

would be paid for using UI payroll taxes. However, some of the studies also examined the effect on

claimants’ jobless duration and earnings. 

With one important exception discussed below, the studies did not explicitly measure the 

effect of referrals and placements from the PLXs that usually provided the services examined in the 

studies. Similarly, the extensive experimental literature on the effect of employment and training 

programs delivered to diverse populations, surveyed by Professor LaLonde, also did not isolate the effect

of PLX job matching services. This is unfortunate because it is likely that many program participants

were placed through PLX referrals. 

Overall, the studies concluded that the effect of the treatments on the duration of UI claims

were in the range of 0.5 to 1.0 weeks. However, when studies separated out the effect on claimants who 

reported for screening and/or services versus the effect on claimants who did not report (but did receive

letters requiring them to report) it was determined that much of the effect stemmed from claimants

deciding to not report. 

The effects would be expected to be small per-person either because many claimants 

received a service likely to have only a small per-person effect (such as participation in a mandatory 3-

hour job search workshop), or a few claimants received a highly potent service (such as obtaining a 

referral that led to a placement). Nevertheless, while small, all of the studies suggest that receipt of the

services decreased claimants’ duration of unemployment, and it is this evidence that is essential for

concluding that referred/placed comparisons produce conservative estimates of the benefits of PLX direct

job placement services. 

The Evaluation of the Charleston Placement and Work Test Demonstration (Corson, et al., 

1985) is the one study that provides information about the value of referrals, with and without, job

development on claimants obtaining these services. This evaluation showed that claimants called in to 

obtain an enhanced work-test plus referral and job development were 6.6 percentage points more likely to

be referred and 30.8 percentage points more likely to obtain targeted job development (compared to

claimants called in for enhanced work-test alone). While the study authors did not calculate the value of 

these services, it is possible to do so using an instrumental variable (IV) approach. Under the assumption

that job development had no effect the IV estimate of job referrals is about $8,000 after 6 months, which 

seems excessively high. In contrast, the IV estimate of the effect of job development is about $1,750,

30 
which while large, is close to the effect of similar treatments reported in the literature. Thus, we regard

this approach as providing an indication of the high value of staff time spent on targeted job development,

while not telling us much about the value of referrals. 

A key reason for this view is that any claimant called in for an enhanced work-test (with or 

without other services) can easily obtain referrals. Thus, we would expect many claimants in the control 

group to obtain referrals, particularly those who believe they will benefit most from reviewing job orders. 

As a result, this “control group contamination” will lower the measured value of obtaining a referral as 

well as lower the difference in the probability of obtaining a referral between those required to obtain 

referrals in addition to submit to an enhanced work-test. In contrast, the high job-development differential 

suggests that claimants called in for the enhanced work-test alone are most unlikely to obtain targeted job 

development, even if they requested that service. This is in keeping with expectations because, outside of 

the experiment, ES staff generally does not have the time to perform this service. Thus, the Charleston 

Demonstration suggests that the ease of obtaining referrals makes it unlikely that a “true” experiment

could be designed that would accurately measure the value of referrals. 

A second study, also reviewed by O’Leary and LaLonde, that is especially relevant to 

assessing the accuracy of the estimates displayed in Chapter 4 is the recently published study. Is the 

Threat of Reemployment Services More Effective Than the Services Themselves?: Evidence from the UI

System (Black and Smith, 2003). This is the only analysis of a UI demonstration that compares the 

random-assignment results to the results derived from using non-experimental estimators. The authors

conclude that the non-experimental estimates of unemployment duration closely match the experimental

estimates, while the non-experimental results substantially deviate from the experimental estimates of 

earnings affects. We regard this as an especially important result because reductions in unemployment 

duration are the key PLX effect measured in Chapter 4, and equally important, estimation of increases in 

earnings and hourly wages are the program effects that convinced experts that non-experimental evidence 

is severely biased and non-experimental estimators can not produce accurate results. 

2.7.4 Summary 

Several important conclusions emerge from this literature review that bear on the accuracy

of the results presented in Chapter 4. Table 2-2 summarizes the results of the three major PLX studies that 

preceded this study. The results are presented in a way that facilitates comparing one study to another. 

31 
Table 2-2. Comparisons among results from the National, Pennsylvania, and 

Washington ES studies 

Effect on weeks of joblessness 

Referrals+ placements Placements Referrals

(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F)

A. National versus PA Study

A. National Study

 1st month (OLS) 

 1. Men/women 2.1 4.9 

 2. Men and women 3.5 

B. Pennsylvania Study

 3. Men/women 2.9 4.0 4.7 6.4 2.0 2.9 

 4. Men and women 3.5 5.5 2.4 

 5. Difference (line 4 – line 2) 0.0 

B. PA versus WA Study

C. Pennsylvania Study

 6. Placement – referral 1.0 3.1 

D. Washington Study

 7. Placement – referral 1.5 4.5 

 8. Difference (line 7 – line 6) 0.5 1.4 

Unfortunately, there are several differences across the studies that make it difficult to interpret these

results. The most important difference is that the studies compared different groups of job seekers. JDW’s 

National PLX Study compared referred registrants to non-referred registrants. The Pennsylvania Study 

compared placed UI claimants and referred claimants to non-referred claimants. The Washington Study 

compared UI claimants who obtained interviews following referral to claimants who tried but failed to 

secure interviews following referral. However, even if all three studies made comparisons among the 

same types of job seekers, they examined different PLXs, in different labor markets, at different times,

using different estimating techniques, follow-up periods, and sample sizes (which affects the confidence 

intervals surrounding the point estimates). 

Despite these differences, the general pattern of the results are quite similar in both the

National and Pennsylvania studies when looking at the effect of all referrals (those that did and did not 

lead to placements). First, in both studies women had considerably larger reductions in weeks of 

joblessness than men. Second, the reduction for men and women together was about the same, 3.5 weeks.

32 
Thus, it is reasonably to conclude that the “true” effect of obtaining a referral is in the neighborhood of

3.5 weeks. 

In comparing the effect of placements relative to referrals (not leading to placements) in both 

the Pennsylvania and Washington studies we see the estimated joblessness reductions are quite similar,

3.1 weeks for the Pennsylvania sample and 4.5 weeks for the Washington sample. Importantly, as

previously discussed in conjunction with equation 2-1, both these estimates are likely to produce highly 

conservative estimates of the total referral effect because they assume that there is no benefit from 

referrals not leading to placements, and that the selection bias in the placement effect is equal to the effect

of referrals (not leading to placements). Thus, these estimates suggest that the “true” effect of a placement

is in the neighborhood of 3.5 weeks, but probably greater than that amount, because the measurement bias 

is likely to be considerably less than the referral-effect estimate of about 2.5 weeks. Using the more

conservative estimates reduces the per-person effect of a placement by about 45 percent, and reduces the

total effect by an additional two-thirds since only about one-third of those referred are placed (and total 

benefits equal the per-person effect times the number affected.). 

Finally, column A lines 6 and 7 show the average effect of a referral under the above 

assumption that only placements have value and the measured effect of referrals not leading to 

placements is a measure of selection bias. In this case the effects fall by about one-third to 1.0 weeks in

the Pennsylvania Study and 1.5 weeks in the Washington Study. These results are important because 

similar comparisons were made in the random-assignment demonstrations assessing the effect of various 

types of job search assistance on claimants. Thus, it is significant that the estimates in Table 2-2 are 

similar to those derived from the random assignment studies. This is especially true because estimates of

the reduction in weeks of joblessness were quite similar in the one case where non-experimental

estimators similar to those used here were compared to experimental estimators.

We believe, however, that the effect of placements on the duration of job search is

considerably greater than the effect of the job search assistance examined in the demonstrations. The key 

reason for this view is that it is likely to take a week or so on average to apply the lessons learned from a

JSA workshop to obtain a lead worth following up, while the placement effects stem from referrals that 

are equivalent to occurring at the point the workshops take place. Thus, we think that it is reasonable to

believe the estimates shown on lines 6 and 7 substantially underestimate the “true” effect. 

33 
The information presented in Table 2-3 supports the above view by comparing the

differences in results in cases where OLS estimators used in Table 2-2 can be compared to estimators that

adjust for selection bias. Line 5 shows that the adjustments in the National study increase the referral

effect by 6.9 weeks. Line 8 shows that using an estimator that may resemble an experimental estimator

increases the placement effects in the Washington study by 2.7 weeks. While we do not claim that the

Table 2-3. Comparisons between OLS and selection-adjusted results for the National and 

Washington ES studies 

Effect on weeks of joblessness 

Referrals+ placements Placements

(A) (B) (C)

A. National Study

 All months (OLS) 

 1. Men/women 0.6 2.3 

 2. Men and women 1.5 

 All months (adj) 

 3. Men/women 9.7 7.0 

 4. Men and women 8.3 

 Difference 

 5. Men and women (line 4 – line 2) 6.9 

B. Washington Study

 6. Placement – referral (OLS) 1.5 4.5 

 7. Placement – referral (adj) 2.4 7.2 

 8. Difference (line 6 – line 7) -0.9 -2.7 

adjusted point estimates are precisely correct, we believe that they provide an indication of the direction

and magnitude of the bias in the estimators used in Chapter 4. In particular, we feel that the more modest

Washington estimates are especially relevant because the confidence intervals surrounding the estimates

are relatively small. Indeed, when the size of the confidence intervals are taken into account the two

estimates are not statistically different. 

Thus, in the final analysis, we feel that the literature supports the view that the estimators 

used in Chapter 4 that compare those placed to those referred but not placed substantially under-estimate

the “true” effect, especially when estimating total benefits. This is because we believe that referrals not 

leading to placement reduce the duration of joblessness by improving recipients’ information about labor

34 
market conditions, and we have over-stated the bias in the estimates of placement effects. However, we 

agree with the experts who reviewed the Washington Study that the comparisons between referred

claimants and non-referred claimants are likely to over-estimate the effects of referrals. We further agree 

that the best way to reduce the uncertainty about the accuracy of the estimates in Chapter 4 would be to

conduct a new survey aimed at testing the validity of the quasi-experimental design using a larger and

more representative sample. 

Conducting a validity test would be especially useful because there is a large difference 

between what we regard as conservative (lower-bound) estimates and upper-bound estimates in 

Chapter 4. Additional uncertainty about the total effect of PLX services stems from omitting the effect of 

the receipt of other forms of PLX-delivered job search assistance by the comparison group that random 

assignment studies suggest had considerable value, but were too small per person for our estimating 

techniques to measure. These omitted benefits may just about balance the over-statement of referral

effects. On the other hand, the upper-bound estimates presented in Chapter 4 do not take into account

crowding out effects which reduce the total effect by about 20 percent. 

While recognizing that the upper bound estimates over-state the value of referrals, it still 

may be reasonable to view the estimates as being close to the effects of the full array of PLX services for

the claimants studied. This is because many of those in the comparison group obtained other forms of job

search assistance that random assignment studies suggest had considerable value, but were too small per

person to produce statistically significant results. Thus, we suspect that the bias in our referral estimates 

using non-referred claimants as the comparison group are about the same size, but in the opposite 

direction as the bias from not being able to exclude from the comparison group claimants who received a 

various forms of job search assistance, but were not referred. 

Finally, Section 2.7 has focused on measurement of the per-person reduction of joblessness

stemming from receipt of PLX job-matching services (referrals and placements) because these estimates

are the backbone of the net-benefit measures used in previous ES studies and in Chapter 4. We noted that

estimates of the total reduction in joblessness stem from multiplying the potentially flawed per-person

effects times measures of the numbers receiving a given service, which is known with certainty. However, 

the benefit-cost estimates require translating estimates of the effect of PLX services on weeks of

joblessness into the effect on earnings. This usually is done by multiplying the reduction in weeks times a 

measure of actual weekly earnings. 

35 
While actual earnings is known with certainty, the measure may not reflect the change in

earnings associated with ES use because ES use could raise or lower hourly wage rates relative to what 

they would otherwise be. Attempts to disentangle wage-rate and employment duration effects suggest that 

the quicker return to work does not come at the expense of accepting jobs that lead to lower wages in the

short or long run. Moreover, since wage effects are measured only for employed job seekers and ES-use

appears to reduce labor-force withdrawal, wage effect are likely to be under-estimated. Perhaps even

more importantly, there is substantial evidence that non-experimental earnings effect estimates are 

strongly biased, while there is some evidence that non-experimental estimates of jobless duration are 

much less seriously biased. In a recently published study (Black et al., 2003), the non-experimental

estimator under-estimated earnings differences by about 52 percent, but over-estimated jobless duration

by about 8 percent. This evidence suggests that the approach used in Chapter 4 of translating duration 

measures into earnings measures is likely to produce estimates that are far closer to the “true” effect, than

attempting to directly measure earnings affects. 

2.8 GAO Studies of Factors Influencing PLX Job-Matching Efficiency 

In this section we look at studies directed at determining the effect on placement rates of 

factors within and outside the control of local PLX offices. These studies do not tell us if benefits exceed

costs, but they provide valuable information about (1) how to improve benefit-cost ratios by placing more 

registrants at lower costs, (2) what specific administrative practices lead to greater effectiveness, and 

(3) how effective local office management is in taking into account factors outside the manager’s control,

which can be used as a key measure to reward excellence. 

The two studies discussed here were conducted by the GAO (General Accounting Office) 

under the direction of Robert Rogers (GAO, 1989 and 1991). The GAO, which is the U.S. Congress’

audit and evaluation agency, assembled a nationwide database on the operations of 1,550 out of the

universe of 1,772 ES offices, and then collected more detailed data on a representative sample of 438

offices. Both databases cover Program Year 1986 (PY86), July 1, 1986 through June 30, 1987. 

The GAO studies measured the effect of environmental factors, such as local labor market

conditions and the population mix, on the ability of the ES to make placements. However, the most

relevant part of Rogers’ studies is their discussion of the effects of specific administrative practices on

placements and cost. This material is particularly valuable because it complements what we observed in

36 
conducting the process evaluation by statistically assessing the role of a variety of practices directly

bearing on why PLXs are likely to be more effective in a One-Stop Center environment. Indeed, this

study strongly reinforces many of the conclusions we developed in our new work, especially those 

surrounding the need to improve the ES’s performance measurement system. 

The motivation for the GAO work stemmed from the Federal government substantially 

loosening its control over the ES and slashing its budget in 1981, while boosting expenditures on Job

Training Partnership Act (JTPA)-provided training. At that time there was considerable support for the 

“devolution” of the ES to the states, but, as noted by William Gainer, Director Of Employment Issues for 

the GAO in the late 1980s, the negative view of the ES began to be challenged: “... it is generally

acknowledged that over the last two decades the position of the Employment Service in the nation’s 

employment and training strategy has eroded. Recently, however, experts on employment and training

issues have questioned the limited role of ES in the nation’s employment policy.” 

Thus, the GAO studies were particularly important because they focused on assembling 

relevant data, statistically testing key hypotheses, and providing constructive suggestions to improve the 

ES’s performance. In contrast, much of the informal literature focused on the ES’s alleged deficiencies 

and often called for abolishing the ES without rigorously assessing ES effectiveness. 

The first GAO study, Employment Service: Variation in Local Office Performance (1989), 

examined the performance of 1,550 local offices The key conclusion was that: “... even after adjusting for 

differences in economic and demographic conditions, local offices and states varied greatly in their ability 

to place applicants in jobs. ... [L]ocal office performance is more than a random occurrence and the 

policies and practices of individual states may contribute to the variation in performance.” 

Eleven of the 47 states providing adequate data placed 23 percent or more of their

applicants. Yet 24 states placed 16 percent or fewer of their applicants. The cost of ES services per 

applicant averaged about 92 inflation adjusted dollars (in Wagner-Peyser Act funds ) for both above and 

below average performing states, but the cost per placement was about $506 in above average states 

compared to $657 in below average states. Importantly, these large differences persisted even after

adjusting for cross-state differences in labor market conditions and characteristics of ES registrants. 

After determining that policies and practices matter, the GAO launched a second study,

Employment Service: Improved Leadership Needed for Better Performance (1989), using detailed data on

37 
management procedures in all states and 438 local offices to find out precisely what was the effect of 

factors under the control of the ES on productivity. This study reached the following conclusions: 

1. Setting measurable performance goals reinforced by awards for achieving results, and 

assessing local office performance through annual on-site visits boosted placement

rates by 100 percent. 

2. Having managers involved in many client services raised placement rates by 44

percent. 

3. Using individual intake interviews instead of group intake sessions boosted placement 

rates by 24 percent. 

4. Using self-service systems for job seekers to review listings and obtain contact

information increased placement rates to permanent jobs by 20 percent. 

5. Locating ES offices apart from the UI office raised placement rates by 20 percent 

(apparently because the ES was regarded as an “employment” office, and became

more attractive to job seekers and employers). 

6. Spending more time communicating with employers increased the ratio of permanent

to temporary placement by 12 percent. 

7. Strongly interacting with JTPA service providers increased the placement-wages for 

economically disadvantaged applicants by 7 percent. 

8. Spending more funds on the ES led to employing more practices associated with

better performance. In particular, supplementing Wagner-Peyser Act funding, which

declined by 14 percent in real terms between 1984 and 1991, with other funds played

a key role in securing the management and staff needed to boost effectiveness. State 

supplements were over 50 percent of total expenditures in some states, but less than

20 percent in others. 

The overall conclusions were that: “the Secretary of Labor should work with the states to

identify and solve problems affecting ES program quality and performance. In addition, Labor should 

increase technical assistance activities to promote program quality and share information on effective 

local practices. This leadership role should recognize the states as equal partners in program management, 

yet spur state action to improve program performance, when needed.” GAO also recommended that: “the 

Secretary assist states in the development of measurable goals and performance standards for their ES

labor exchange functions. Meaningful goals and standards should be state-driven and tailored to local 

conditions and needs.” 

38 
To reach these conclusions the GAO examined the importance of close to 50 different 

variables describing ES operations and the external environment. The analysts did a credible job in 

describing key interactions, but in some cases lacked the time and resources to delve deeply into causal

relationships. For example, they did not rule out the possibility that JTPA-ES collaborations led to 

increased wages of disadvantaged participants because JTPA operators chose to collaborate only with 

highly effective ES offices. If this is the case, the policy prescription of increasing collaboration (through 

creation of One-Stop Centers) might not generate increased benefits as large as might be anticipated. 

Table 2-4 shows regression-based results that were presented in the report’s appendix 

describing the statistically significant factors associated with variations in (1) local office placement rates,

(2) permanent placement rates (the ratio of placements at jobs expected to last more than 150 days to all 

placements), and (3) placement-wage ratio (the ratio of the average hourly wage of placements to the 

local area’s average wage for all jobs). These are not the regressions used to draw the above conclusions, 

but results that were adjusted to make the figures directly comparable. We, therefore, assume that the

figures represent elasticities (the effect of a 1 percent change in each independent variable). 

The adjustments make it easier to assess the power of the information obtained to shed light 

on key issues. For example, it is clear that management involvement in many facets of ES operations had

a powerful effect on placements and wages. A separate regression (not shown) showed that management 

involvement was strongest where there were more managers, more staff, and where the state ES set 

performance goals. Similarly, it is clear that ES offices devoting more resources to working with 

employers are much more effective in obtaining vacancies for permanent positions. Additional evidence 

(not shown here) suggests that “job development” activities are highly effective, but most offices simply

do not have the resources to perform that task. 

Table 2-4 also shows that labor market conditions, measured by the unemployment rate, had 

a powerful influence on placements and wage levels of placements. Applicant characteristic also are

important. As expected, economically disadvantaged applicants are more likely to obtain low wage, 

“temporary” jobs; youths and migrants are easy to place, but also tend to take temporary jobs, presumably

mostly low-wage summer slots. 

39 
Table 2-4. Statistically significant administrative and environmental coefficients from ES 

performances regressions using a Nationally Representative Sample of 456 Offices for 

Program-Year 1986 from the 1991 GAO study 

Dependent Variables

Independent Variables 

Placement

Rate 

% Placement at 

Permanent Jobs 

Wage at Placement 

as a % or average 

Variable names Means Significant Regression Coefficients 

A. Management attributes 

1. Manager involvement 

2. ES-UI collocated 

3. Automated application 

4. Employer contacts 

5. Total staff 

6. Open listings 

JTPA involvement 

7. II-A (disadvantaged) 

8. III (dislocated) 

9. II-B (summer youth) 

3.7 

1.6 

.9 

7.5 

13.2 

65.8%

3.5 

3.0 

3.2 

.17 

-.15 

-.14 

-- 

-- 

-- 

-- 

-- 

-- 

-- 

-- 

-- 

.16 

.12 

.10 

-- 

-- 

-- 

.10 

-- 

-- 

-- 

-- 

-- 

.17 

.11 

-.21 

B. Exogenous attributes 

1. Unemployment 

2. Rural location 

8.2%

33.0%

-.31 

-- 

-- 

-- 

-- 

-- 

C. Mixed environmental/ 

Program attributes 

1. Size of labor force 

2. Applicants/labor force 

Applicant characteristics 

3. Youths 

4. Migrants 

5. Women 

6. Disadvantaged 

7. UI claimants 

64,182 

16.7%

21.7%

.5% 

43.2%

11.3%

34.3%

-.28 

-.23 

.28 

.24 

-- 

-- 

-- 

-- 

-- 

-.19 

-.19 

-- 

-.18 

-- 

-.24 

-- 

-- 

-- 

.37 

-.25 

-.17 

Adjusted R-square .35 .26 .31

Mean of dependent variable 17% 66% 53%

Source: GAO (1991).

Description of Management Attributes: 

Manager involvement - the number of different client service activities from 0 - 9 in which the local office manager was involved.

ES-UI collocated - 0 = not collocated, 1 = collocated with separate managers, 2 = collocated with a single manager. 

Automated application - 0 = manual processing (mostly personal interviews), 1 = batch processing (mostly group interviews), 2 = fully automated 

(mostly computer transfer of information from UI and other agencies). 

Employer contacts - sum of intensity rating on scale of 1-3 (3 highest) for use of each of four contact methods: phone, mail, visits, an

conferences. Range 4-12.

Total Staff - full-time equivalent managerial and non-managerial workers.

Open listings - percentage of job openings that can be viewed without staff assistance.

JTPA involvement - number of different activities from 0 - 7 conducted in cooperation with agency running each of three JTPA titles.

40 
Perhaps the most interesting results are the strong negative coefficients for (1) the size of the 

labor market served both on the placement rates and wage at placement, and for (2) the applicant to laborforce ratio on placement rates. These findings suggest that offices serving relatively small populations are 

far more effective than offices serving large populations, and perhaps more importantly, offices that are

not burdened by many mandatory registrations of UI claimants and welfare recipients perform better.

Indeed, the negative effect of having to deal with many mandatory applicants probably is substantially 

understated because highly effective offices will attract more applicants, and offices with high mandatory

applicant loads are likely to use impersonal group intake methods or register “applicants” through data 

transfers without their ever visiting an ES office. 

The bottom line is the GAO’s second report that used detailed information about ES

operations suggests that (1) reductions in resources reduced ES effectiveness, (2) mandatory registrations

detract from its effectiveness, yet (3) improvements in management practices could dramatically boost 

performance.

Moreover, the data collected by the GAO in the second study could be used to implement 

several of the policy recommendations that follow from its work. In particular, routinely collecting the

data used in the GAO’s second report could be used to estimate equations that would improve the 

feedback provided to central and local office administrators. These data could also provide a basis for

rewarding management excellence by holding constant factors outside of its control (like fluctuations in

unemployment and variation in use by difficult to place groups). 

Indeed, we could envision further improving the measures by looking at the effect of the 

factors within and outside management control on the ability of the ES both to acquire and to rapidly fill

job orders, as well as the interaction between acquiring job orders and placing applicants. Such

information could help rationalize the assignment of staff to working with employers to secure more job 

orders versus working with job seekers to find new jobs. The measures could also help target staff efforts

on the groups of employers and job seekers where ES aid can be most effective. 

41 
42 
3. PROCESS EVALUATION 

3.1 Introduction 

This chapter describes public labor exchange (PLX) activities in 22 One-Stop Centers in six

states. It is based on site visit interviews and telephone updates conducted between late 1998 and 2002. 

The discussion of PLX services in this chapter is complemented by the benefit/cost evaluation of these

services found in Chapter 4. Appendix B contains one-page descriptions of each One-Stop Center visited. 

Data collection for this process evaluation included site visits to the headquarters of state 

Employment Services (ESs) in the capitols of Colorado, Massachusetts, Michigan, North Carolina,

Oregon, and Washington and to a representative set of local One-Stop Centers in each of these states. 

Data collection for the process evaluation began in late 1998 with on-site interviews. Later telephone 

interviews were conducted to update the site visit information. The data collection period coincided with

the transformation of PLXs from offices in which usually the ES was the only agency represented, to

One-Stop Centers in which several agencies were present. This transformation and the resulting diverse 

ways PLXs are now organized in the six states studied are the subjects of this chapter. 

The details of this process evaluation are presented in five sections that follow this 

introduction. Section 3.2 describes the state governance structure of One-Stop Centers in each of the six

states. It includes historical information, the organizational structure of service delivery, funding, as well 

as the processes and practices for developing budgets and performance measures. Section 3.3 discusses 

the operational “architecture and infrastructure” of the 22 One-Stop Centers visited. The section focuses 

on topics ranging from the physical layouts of the offices to the listing of partner agencies, and includes 

discussions of such important topics as how job seekers are registered and staff is organized in a multiagency environment. 

Section 3.4 covers the provision of labor exchange services traditionally offered in ES

offices and funded under the Wagner-Peyser Act [now known as “core services” under the Workforce 

Investment Act of 1998 (WIA)]. Section 3.5 discusses additional job seeker services typically funded 

under WIA, the overarching legislation that requires a One-Stop System of integrated service delivery. 

These services include individual employment plan development and case management—the services

offered to special populations such as the economically disadvantaged, disabled, and dislocated workers 

43 
(now known as “intensive services” under WIA). Section 3.6 focuses on the self-help and facilitated selfhelp services available to employers, as well as the more customized, staff-assisted employer services

offered at some of the PLXs. 

3.1.1 Background 

Public labor exchanges were last evaluated by ETA in 1978. Since then, substantial changes 

have occurred in PLXs’ service delivery, technology, and legislative mandate. The most notable changes 

have been the steady movement of state and local agencies toward the One-Stop Center delivery model,

especially following the passage of WIA in 1998 that mandated employment and training services be 

provided in such an environment. This report follows the evolution of the One-Stop Centers in the study

of states and describes their resulting configurations. 

Improvements in PLX computer technology are an important underlying change that was 

occurring during the study period. Job seekers can now access the computerized services provided by

each state PLX and by America’s Job Bank (AJB)1

 over the Internet. Improved management information

systems (MIS) often can track staff-intensive services, and in some cases, local office visits; although an 

integrated MIS shared among multiple partner agencies was rarely observed. Technological changes 

provide the states more service configuration choices. For example, Michigan uses technology to provide

WIA core services to both job seekers and employers using self-service methods. Most respondents also

reported growing interest in improving the menu of web-based services. 

For decades, State Employment Security Agencies (SESAs) have provided labor exchange

services through a network of local ES offices that respond to the needs of local employers and job 

seekers. These services include job referral, group job-search assistance workshops, individual

counseling, monitoring the job search of unemployment insurance (UI) claimants, and recruitment

assistance for employers. The move toward One-Stop Centers, fueled by Federal implementation grants 

and later by the passage of WIA, considerably altered the operating environment for the ES and other 

partner agencies that provide employment and training services. 

 

1 Appendix C, “America’s Job Bank (AJB): An Electronic PLX in a No-Stop Environment,” is a detailed discussion of AJB services, history and 

organization, as well as its strengths and weaknesses.

44 
WIA amended the Wagner-Peyser Act to make the ES part of the One-Stop Center service

delivery system and to require that additional Federal programs become One-Stop partners. The partners 

include programs authorized under Title I of WIA, the vocational rehabilitation system, postsecondary

vocational education, and Welfare-to-Work programs. Partners usually participate in the running of the 

One-Stop Centers, contribute to the support of the centers, and some serve on local workforce investment 

boards (WIBs). 

As detailed in subsequent sections, states in the study had already begun to move toward

delivery of services in a One-Stop environment at this time the study began. One-Stop Centers in all of

the states were taking on additional partners, but differing pre-WIA experiences across the states resulted

in local differences in approaches to structuring services, selecting partners, and funding operations. 

3.1.2 Methods 

The study states were chosen by mutual agreement among the U.S. Department of Labor 

(USDOL), Westat, and the states. The selection was based on the way that labor exchanges were

configured in each state, and on data availability. The following three non-traditional states were selected

because at the time the study began they were the only states that devolved all or most of their operations

from state to local control: 

 Colorado devolved responsibility for ES activity from the state to the counties 

through its workforce development boards (WDBs). Thus, the Colorado visits 

provided an opportunity to observe One-Stop Centers staffed by county government 

workers and operated in the absence of strong state control. 

 Massachusetts gave each workforce investment area discretion to “opt-out” of the 

state-run ES system and adopt a competitive model where contracts to operate 

individual One-Stop Centers would be awarded through an “open” bidding process.

Workforce boards in Boston, Cambridge-Woburn, and Springfield-Holyoke accepted 

this offer (along with about $4 million in One-Stop Implementation Grants) and let 

contracts to a mix of government agencies, community-based organizations, and in 

one case, Springfield, a for-profit corporation.2

 Thus, the Massachusetts visits

afforded the opportunity to view movement towards One-Stop Centers under both 

state and local guidance. 

 

2

 Pittsfield also initially opted out, but reversed the decision prior to the start of this project. 

45 
 Michigan initially devolved its ES to its workforce boards and adopted a system, 

similar to Massachusetts’, where contracts to operate centers were put up for open 

bids. Following a court test, only government agencies could bid on One-Stop 

contracts. At the time of our visits One-Stop Centers were run by a mix of state and 

local government agencies. Thus, the Michigan visits provided an opportunity to

observe ESs run under a range of locally controlled arrangements. 

The following three traditional states were selected because they maintained state control, 

but had excellent data, innovative features, and used state funds to enhance services: 

 North Carolina provided substantial state UI tax funds to help deal with major skillmismatches where textile and other older industries were shedding workers, while 

service and high-tech manufacturing industries were struggling to hire new workers. 

Thus, the North Carolina visits afforded the opportunity to view a state that developed

a highly integrated approach to providing services through One-Stops, which heavily 

focused on finding new jobs for UI claimants. 

 Oregon was unique in developing an array of high quality computer systems that 

helped integrate and monitor a variety of services. In particular, it is the only state

with a system to track referrals to job orders with unsuppressed contact information. 

Thus, the Oregon visits provided the opportunity to view a state with close 

coordination of disparate agencies in a One-Stop environment and which supported

these agencies with exceptionally high-quality management information systems.

 Washington encouraged a variety of state and local governmental organizations to 

work together to establish high-quality One-Stop Centers, and in addition, created

several innovative computer systems to help deliver services. In particular, it 

developed a computerized system to review job listings to find suitable openings for 

job seekers and then automatically notify the workers when such jobs were located. 

Thus, Washington visits provided an opportunity to observe all levels of government

effectively working together to develop One-Stops under a traditional governance 

structure. 

Officials in each state helped us select One-Stop Centers to visit that typified those in a large 

city, a small city, and a rural area. Appendix D contains the questions put to state and local officials. The 

questions concentrate on the state’s job service history, the guiding principles underlying the design of the

delivery methods, the progress and pitfalls in making changes in labor exchanges, and the state’s future

ES plans. 

46 
3.1.3 Timing of Visits 

Appendix E provides a site-by-site listing of the respondents, the dates of the original site 

visit interviews and follow-up phone interviews. The site visits began in Massachusetts in December 1998 

and ended in Michigan in December 2001. Phone interviews began with North Carolina in January 1999

and ended with Washington in March 2002. The data collection period allowed for a long observation 

window into the evolution of One-Stop Centers in the study states and, as noted previously, coincided

with the early implementation of WIA. Instead of fixed snapshots, a moving picture was observed with

respect to how labor exchange offices primarily providing the services of one agency were transformed

over time to One-Stop Centers where multiple agencies partnered to provide a broad array of services was 

observed. The state and local organizational transformations that occurred in response to changing

legislative mandates were also observed. Thus, what follows is a description of the specific experiences of

the state ESs as they moved toward providing labor exchange services in a One-Stop Center environment. 

3.2 Governance 

Each of the six states had a unique state-level structure for governance of employment and

training services and had been moving at different rates toward delivery of services in a One-Stop 

environment. While the states in the study divided themselves into traditional and non-traditional

configurations, there are numerous differences in history and governance within each of these two groups. 

This section describes that history. The overall state and local organizational structure as envisioned 

under WIA is presented in this section, along with the variation in that organizational structure that was 

observed across the six states. Because state and local funding allocation patterns are closely tied to 

organizational structure, One-Stop funding data are presented in the following section. 

3.2.1 Historical Background in the Study States 

The history of the movement to One-Stop Centers in the six study states begins with 

activities that preceded WIA. It involved some meshing of state administrative structures to facilitate

One-Stop Center administration and similar changes on the part of local agencies toward providing

services at a single location, rather than several locations. This movement was then formalized by WIA 

47 
and its mandated shifts in state and local relationships. The following are three of the WIA changes that

affected the traditional operations of the ES: 

 WIA required that the ES, human services, and the WIA agencies serve together on 

the local WIBs. 

 WIA emphasized local autonomy that was much more structurally familiar to WIAfunded programs than to the ES. 

 WIA placed an immediate burden on local One-Stop Center operators since a larger

set of agencies were required to be a part of the One-Stop Center partnership. Many of 

the operators had to look for additional space and resources to accommodate the 

additional partners. 

While all states faced the same WIA mandate, the ways they integrated services showed

great variation. Many states had some kind of state-level governing body comprising representatives of

the major state partnering agencies. In these states, the state-level governing body essentially drove the 

transition process. Further, all states reported some kind of shift in the state-level administrative hierarchy 

that was related to service integration within the One-Stop Centers. It is interesting to note that some of 

the states had ambitious plans, but had to pull back from full integration for various reasons. The statelevel One-Stop organizational structures prior to and after the WIA mandate is described below. 

Colorado devolved responsibility for the ES to county authorities in 1997. Thus, unlike

most of the other study states, Colorado did not have an independent state-level governing body oversee 

the One-Stop Center transition process. However, Colorado did place WIA and ES programs under the 

same state-level administrative umbrella, while prior to WIA they were operated by separate state

agencies. 

The key practical issue in devolving PLXs to county control arose because the governor

promised that no state employee would lose his or her job as a result of the transformation. This

complication initially led many PLX employees to continue to be paid by the state, but directly supervised 

by county managers. Respondents in Colorado indicated that financial liability and merit pay issues 

related to state employees performing their duties in county organizations created “almost as many 

configurations of (One-Stop) centers as there are offices.” As will be seen in subsequent sections, 

governance in Colorado One-Stop Centers continues to rest with the county authorities. 

48 
Massachusetts began the move toward administrative integration and coordination of all 

job-related education and training in 1988. To further this aim, the state-level governing body, known as

the Massachusetts Jobs Council, tasked state agencies with identifying portions of their funds to support

One-Stop Centers. The Jobs Council then began negotiating agreements among the various state agencies 

to support the transfer of funds for One-Stop Centers. The agencies transferred portions of their budgets 

but could not shift jobs to the entities taking over the funds. After relinquishing their funds, the agencies 

were forced to eliminate staff positions. These issues played a role in the One-Stop initiative being

reevaluated in the state. 

The state eventually reached a compromise among the agencies that allowed each of 16

regional Service Delivery Areas the option of setting up their One-Stop Centers on a competitive or 

collaborative basis. At the time of the interviews, all regions in the state had converted to One-Stop 

Centers, but there was a mix of competitive and collaborative configurations. Initially, four of the 16 

regions had competitively-developed centers; the remaining 12 regions operated collaborative centers.

However, one of the regions subsequently switched back to the collaborative model. Currently, there are

eight competitive One-Stop Centers in Massachusetts. 

The distinguishing features of competitive One-Stop Centers are that: (1) they are managed

by entities that have won competitively awarded contracts from local WIBs, and (2) the competitions are 

open to individual and consortia of governmental, non-profit, and for-profit organizations. In contrast,

collaborative One-Stop Centers have the traditional pre-WIA governance structure, with the state ES 

playing a key role, but with the post-WIA operational configuration where flexible combinations of state

and local public and non-profit agencies work together to provide services. 

Most of the same services and many of the same organizations are represented in both

competitive and collaborative One-Stop Centers. However, many of the competitive centers have been 

able to modernize their facilities and revitalize the structure of their operations because Massachusetts

devoted over 80 percent of its federal $4 million One-Stop implementation grant to developing the

competitive centers and the WIBs further boosted operational budgets. As a result, there are far greater 

physical differences in the centers across Massachusetts than in any other state visited. Whether these 

differences translated into superior performance will be discussed in Chapter 4. 

Initially, the collaborative offices were governed by the state employment and training 

agency, as before, but the competitive offices were governed by the regional WIBs with the state role 

49 
restricted mainly to fiscal oversight. However, state oversight has increased over time particularly when

the Massachusetts Job Council became part of the state Department of Employment and Training. The 

Jobs Council itself has changed over time, becoming the Corporation for Business Work and Learning

and later the Commonwealth Council, which currently is the WIA governing authority in Massachusetts. 

Michigan had One-Stop Center centers operating under the “No Wrong Door” rubric as 

early as 1996. This is consistent with that state’s early devolution of workforce development services to

the local authorities and early movement toward the One-Stop Center method of local service delivery.

Collocation of service providers and the integration of services to the fullest extent possible had been a 

priority for a number of years in the state. However, Michigan was unusual in that it dismantled its local 

employment service infrastructure, including most of its state merit pay labor force. Initially, Michigan 

adopted a system similar to Massachusetts for awarding contracts to operate One-Stop Centers, but 

following a court challenge, it limited contracts for management and staffing to government entities. 

Today, all Michigan One-Stop Centers operate under the Michigan Works! rubric, which 

also is the name of the quasi-independent state agency that oversees the service delivery structure. Within 

the Michigan Works! structure, the WDBs have wide discretion to award contracts and oversee 

operations. The state, however, still maintains a computerized job matching system and provides 

performance information to the local entities. 

North Carolina began its transition to One-Stop Centers in 1995. The Employment Security

Commission worked with the Governor’s Commission on Workforce Preparedness (later the Governor’s

Commission on Workforce Development) during the transition. By May 2000, there were 99 Job Link

Centers with the Employment Security Commission as the lead agency in about half of them. However,

stand-alone Employment Security offices affiliated with the state’s One-Stop delivery system continued 

to operate; at the time of the interviews, there were 60 local and 30 branch offices that were stand-alone

Employment Security offices. 

At the state legislative level, there were several proposals to consolidate agencies with 

responsibility for One-Stop Centers, including the employment security agencies, the state-level WDB 

and the governor’s commission. However, at the time of the interviews, these proposals had not been 

implemented. 

50 
Oregon had One-Stop Center centers long before passage of WIA. In fact, the main parties 

in Oregon’s One-Stop Center movement, the Oregon Employment Department and the Department of 

Human Services, worked together at the state, regional, and local office level for many years. This

situation was unique among the study states. Because of a preexisting tradition of collaboration and

decision making among the local staff of the three key agencies, the One-Stop Centers were locally

driven, but backed by state agencies. A common feature among all One-Stop Centers in Oregon was the 

presence of the employment and training department, the human services department, and community

colleges. 

Importantly, unlike the non-traditional states, state employees provided most One-Stop 

services. For example, Oregon’s Employment Department staff provided Wagner-Peyser Act services, the 

Department of Community Colleges and Workforce Development provided WIA services, and the

Department of Human Services provided welfare and vocational rehabilitation services. At the same time, 

each of these three agencies also continues to operate stand-alone offices in addition to One-Stop Centers.

Due to the established collaborations among partners, Oregon, like Colorado, did not create a state-level 

body to drive the transition to One-Stop Centers. 

Washington’s transition to One-Stop Centers began in the early 1990s with extensive pilottesting. At the time of the interviews, all of the offices were viewed by the state as One-Stop Centers; 

some offered integrated services and others offered referrals to outside services. The state had originally

planned for all centers to offer integrated services, but funding did not support full integration for all 

Centers. 

The Workforce Training and Education Coordinating Board (WTECB) was created by state

law and had a committee responsible for One-Stop Centers. The state’s Employment Security Department 

was on the committee. After the passage of WIA, WTECB became the state policy board and had its role 

strengthened. 

In summary, several key themes emerge from the review of the transition to One-Stop

Centers. The first is the dual set of changes for the ES. The local operating environment of the ES

changed as services were offered in collaboration with numerous other partners, and the state-level

environment changed as the employment security agency joined the state WIB as an equal partner among

several agencies. In a sense, the working environment at both the state and local levels for the ES became

51 
more of a WIA environment with emphasis on joint decision making by consortia, partnerships, and local 

boards. 

A second point is that human resource and staffing issues played a prominent role in several 

states during their unique transition to One-Stop Centers. Massachusetts was not able to fully move

toward the competitive center model in the pre-WIA period in part because individual agencies could not 

work out agreements for their staff to become part of the One-Stop Centers. Support for the initiative 

faltered when agencies were threatened with the loss of positions and funds 

Colorado, which had devolved ES authority to county authorities, experienced complicated 

human resource issues. State employees still filled key positions in an operation that was locally driven. 

Oregon’s One-Stop Center initiative was essentially in place when WIA came along because its state 

employees already had an active presence in the local areas. 

3.2.2 Organizational Structure at the State Level 

Figure 3-1 is a generic organizational structure for administering One-Stop Centers.3

 Each of 

the states in this study had some existing variation of this state structure prior to WIA due to its unique 

Governor’s Workforce Board (or equivalent)

State-Level Program Agency(ies)

Regional Workforce Development Boards

Local One-Stop Centers

Figure 3-1. Generic organizational structure for One-Stop administration

 

3

 Appendix F presents the organizational structure for employment-related programs in each of the states visited for this study. From this, it is

possible to see how One-Stop Centers fit into this structure and the corresponding variation across states.

52 
history and circumstances. A detailed review of the actual structure in each of the study states reveals the 

variation with which they have responded to the changes imposed by WIA. Table 3-1 summarizes the 

similarities and differences observed during the site visits. 

Table 3-1. State-by-state similarity and variation in structure for managing One-Stops 

Organizational level Primary dimension of state-by-state similarity or variation 

Governor’s board, state 

commission, or 

equivalent 

These relatively independent state-level entities were present in all states but 

existed for different lengths of time prior to WIA, and thus played a different 

role in the movement toward integration and toward One-Stop Centers. 

State Workforce 

Development Board 

These state boards generally set policy and have indirect advisory and 

oversight responsibility for One-Stop Centers. 

State level agency(ies) State-level agencies in the One-Stop Centers generally included the ES and 

WIA agencies. However, in Oregon the social services agency and the 

community colleges reported directly to the governor on One-Stop Center 

matters. In Michigan, the state welfare agency was an active partner in statelevel One-Stop Center matters. 

Usually, but not always, the participating agencies (in most cases ES and 

WIA) were under the same state administrative umbrella. However, at the

time of our interviews, the ES and WIA agencies in North Carolina were

under separate administrative umbrellas. 

In some cases, state agency staff provided direct services at local One-Stop 

Centers, or state agency staff were combined with local staff to operate the 

center. In Colorado and certain offices in Massachusetts, both state and local

staff worked in the One-Stop Centers. In collaborative One-Stop Centers in

Massachusetts, a state staff person served as the operations manager of the 

local office. 

State agencies usually did not have direct oversight responsibility for the

local One-Stop Centers. However, because of Oregon’s multiagency statelevel presence in the centers, the state agencies there had a more direct 

influence. The state agencies in Colorado share direct oversight 

responsibility with One-Stop Centers only in rural offices. 

Substate workforce 

development boards 

Local or regional workforce development boards had responsibility for the

selection and governance of the One-Stop Centers. 

For the most part, the geographic regions that were set up for both 

JTPA/WIA and the ES remained intact. However, the rural and sparsely

populated areas in Oregon that previously made up nine regions were 

consolidated into one region. 

Source: Unless otherwise noted, the tables and figures in this chapter are assembled from site visit reports and telephone update interviews. 

53 
3.3 Budgets and Funding 

In the mid-1990s, DOL began awarding state implementation grants to develop One-Stop

Centers. By 2000, all states had received these grants and were on their way toward a One-Stop Center

delivery system. The grants, however, were of limited duration. The assumption was that One-Stop 

Centers would require extra funding for a few years, but after the centers were integrated into a national

job training system states would be able to use the traditional funding sources to run the programs. WIA 

is the overarching legislation that required a One-Stop Center system of integrated service delivery. There 

was little in the WIA legislation, however, that addressed center funding since funding, by nature, came 

from many different sources. 

Although Wagner-Peyser Act appropriations are a major source of funding, they were just 

one source among many that were used to support One-Stop Centers. Funding processes and practices in

the study states were partially driven by the state-level structure of the One-Stop Center system. For

example, in Oregon, support is allocated from each separate agency through its usual state-to-substate 

channels and then to the One-Stop Centers. There is no agency at the state level that bundles these funds 

together. In Michigan, by contrast, there is a One-Stop Center budget at the state level for distribution to

the substate level. 

Because of the different state structures, the number of different agencies and funding 

streams involved in One-Stop Centers, and the different ways that local One-Stop Centers agreed to share 

funding and resources, it was very difficult to identify patterns in funding practices and to provide good 

data on One-Stop Center funding. The following sub-sections provide some general information on 

funding practices. Funding amounts for One-Stop Centers, to the extent that such data were available at

the time of the site visits, are also presented. 

3.3.1 Federal and State Funding Sources and Allocation Methods 

One-Stop Centers are funded by a variety of Federal, state, and local sources. In general, the 

funding sources to support One-Stop Centers include the following: 

 Wagner-Peyser Act; 

 WIA; 

54 
 Welfare-related funding; 

 Other Federal sources; 

 State supplements; and 

 Partner agencies funding and in-kind contributions. 

The following sub-sections discuss how Federal funds come to be used in support of local 

One-Stop Center service delivery. In general, the funding flow is either formulaic and agency based

(partner agency funds being allocated by a specific formula for use by the local One-Stop Centers) or 

more of a negotiated budget process at the state level (interagency negotiations at the state level to

develop the funding for local One-Stop Centers.) In all cases, there are nuances to this broad

generalization of formulaic versus negotiated funding allocations. In this discussion the funding allocation

process for the Wagner-Peyser Act funds is given special attention. 

 In Colorado, with devolution to the locals, the process of distributing funds begins at

the local One-Stop Center level where budgets are developed and approved by county 

commissioners. The commissioners negotiate with the state for the amounts of Federal 

and state funds to support local One-Stop Centers. With respect to allocating WagnerPeyser Act funds to the substate levels, the county commissioners negotiate with the 

state regarding the distribution of funds to the regions.

 Washington One-Stop Center funding is allocated from separate state-level agencies; 

Wagner-Peyser funds are allocated by the state Employment Security Department 

(ESD); other Federal funds are distributed through the respective agencies. 

Washington has maintained its employment service regions, and the Wagner-Peyser

funds flow separately from the other funds to the ES regional offices. The ESD 

regions then develop allocation agreements with the local One-Stop Centers. 

 Michigan has a single One-Stop Center budget; all sources of funding are combined at

the state level for allocation to the substate level. The state allocates the funding to the

WIBs based on the size of the labor force and the unemployment rate in the area. The

WIB then decides on the number and size of the One-Stop Centers and how much 

funding to allocate to each local site. 

 In Oregon, the main Federal funding sources for One-Stop Centers are allocated

separately through each source’s substate agents. For example, Wagner-Peyser Act 

funding is allocated to the Employment Service’s regional office for allocation to the

local One-Stop Centers. Social services funding is allocated to that agency’s regional 

offices. As in other states, WIA funding is passed through from the states to the 

regional WIBs. 

 In Massachusetts, One-Stop Center support is provided through the Commonwealth

Corporation and the Division of Employment and Training. Wagner-Peyser Act funds

55 
are distributed to competitively selected centers based on the service levels.

Collaboratively organized centers receive their Wagner-Peyser allocation based on 

local budgets that provide for staff, leases, and other explicit expenditure categories. 

Non-Wagner-Peyser Act allocations are separately negotiated with individual 

agencies and distributed by the Commonwealth Corporation. 

 North Carolina runs its One-Stop Center under the “lead agency” concept. One agency 

(e.g., Employment Service or Human Services) is responsible for the operation of the 

One-Stop Center. Funding is from the respective state agency directly to the One-Stop 

Center where is it used to cover infrastructure and operating costs such as rent and 

utilities for the office space. Center staff who work for the lead agency are paid with 

lead agency funds, and other staff are paid by their respective agencies. At the time of 

the site visits, the ES was the lead agency in about half of the One-Stop Centers; other 

offices use human services, community colleges, WIA, or non-profits as the lead 

agency. 

Both Oregon and North Carolina are agency-based providers of One-Stop Center services.

This means that the One-Stop Center retains ties to the agencies that existed prior to the One-Stop Center 

movement. While the local workforce boards work out cost-sharing arrangements among the agencies, 

staff costs (the biggest cost category) still remain with the respective provider agency. Similarly,

Washington with its retention of the ESD regions, also fits into this “agency-based provider” model. Most

One-Stop Centers in Washington have either the ES or the WIA agency as the lead agency responsible

for paying the lease for the facility. Other partner agencies share the overhead including rent, energy, and 

desktop computers. The same basic model is used for Massachusetts’ collaborative One-Stop Centers. 

In contrast, all One-Stop Centers in Michigan and the competitive centers in

Massachusetts receive their support from WIBs through competitive bids. Local budgets for the OneStop Centers are derived from responses to Requests for Proposals (RFPs). In Colorado funding 

processes begin at the local level where budgets are developed and approved by county commissioners.

The county commissioners then negotiate with the state for Federal and state funds to support local OneStop Centers. 

3.3.2 The Problem with Obtaining Funding Data 

Obtaining data on state-level funding for One-Stop Centers often was difficult. States that 

followed the agency funding model had particular difficulty in providing information about the total

amount of state funds devoted to One-Stop Centers because there were no integrated budgets, rather each

agency made its own allocation to local areas only some of which was spent on One-Stops. In contrast, 

56 
states which allocated funding under the “negotiated” model were in a better position to provide One-Stop 

Center funding information, these states first centralized “contributions from different agencies and then 

made single allocations to local groups overseeing One-Stop Centers.” 

In contrast to state One-Stop Center spending, local One-Stop Centers usually could provide

estimates of the funding amount for the operation of their centers. The exception to this was Detroit where 

the funding had been allocated to several One-Stop Centers in the Detroit regions. 

Before discussing funding data, it is important to discuss commingling of funds to support 

local One-Stop Centers. Most centers indicated that they did not combine funds from the various sources 

into one accounting system for use by the One-Stop Center. North Carolina and Oregon indicated that

there was no commingling for the “separate state agency/separate funding allocation” reasons. Local OneStop Centers, even though they generally reported no commingling of funds, viewed the Wagner-Peyser 

Act funds as the most flexible funding source available. Some centers reported that the Wagner-Peyser 

Act funds could be used for overhead and for shared personnel. Others discussed the fact that the WagnerPeyser Act funds are for general use and are not targeted, thus allowing the management greater funding

discretion. Respondents grouped the Wagner-Peyser Act funds along with state funding, fees, and grants 

and distinguished them from other sources of funding, including WIA and local community partners’

funding, which is targeted for specific populations and/or uses. 

Table 3-2 presents the available data on annual state-level One-Stop Center funding. Some 

states had difficulty in providing data on annual One-Stop spending as evidenced by the number of notes 

to the table. Further, these data represent annual spending figures for the year in which the site visit

occurred, and the site visits occurred over a multiyear period. (Interview dates are listed in Appendix E.) 

Some general observations, however, can be made from the Table 3-2 data: 

 Across the states, the One-Stop Centers received funding from the same sources, but

the percentages of each state’s budget coming from a given source varied. For 

example, Michigan, the one state that could easily provide a state-level funding 

amount, received the highest percentage of its One-Stop Center funding from welfarerelated sources. 

 In most other states, either WIA or Wagner-Peyser Act funds were the main sources 

of funding for One-Stop Centers. One-Stop Centers were also supported by the

Department of Health and Human Services and Department of Education funding 

sources, as well as state supplements. 

57 
Table 3-2. Annual state-level One-Stop Center funding provided during original interviews, 

unless otherwise specified1

State 

WagnerPeyser Act WIA Welfare-related 

funding2 Supplements3

Date of initial 

interview 

Colorado $10 million $20 million No amount 

provided.

$7 million February 1999 

Massachusetts

4 $7.5 million (2002 budget)

Michigan $16 million $47 million $139 million $1.2 million December 2001 

North Carolina5 $6.9 million November 1999 

Oregon6 $10 million Limited WorkFirst/TANF funds. $19 million November 2001 

Washington $12 million $53 million No amount 

provided 

$11 million March 2002 

1 These are annual figures reported during the original state level interviews, unless another date is specified in the footnotes below. The site 

visits occurred over a multiyear period so budget information is not comparable across years. 

2 This included programs such as Temporary Assistance for Needy Families, Welfare-to-Work, and Food Stamps. 

3 Supplemental funding can come from state and/or Federal sources. In Colorado, the $7 million supplement included $3.5 million in state funds

and $3.5 million from Federal programs. Michigan allocated a $1.2 million supplement specifically for One-Stop Centers. In North Carolina, 

the state supplement came from the state’s Worker Training Trust Fund and the Reemployment Basic Labor Exchange, however the funds are 

not for the exclusive use of One-Stop Centers. In Oregon, the supplement included state administrative funds (which were not for the exclusive

use of One-Stops) as well as an unspecified amount of Federal funds. Washington’s One-Stop budget included $7 million from the Claimant

Placement Program, and about $4 million in Federal veteran’s funding. 

4 Total Massachusetts One-Stop Center spending (for 2002) was $53.8 million, a breakdown by funding source was not provided. 

5 North Carolina is not able to provide state-level data on One-Stop funding, but did provide information on a state grants program using $2

million (2002) in WIA funds to enhance local One-Stop Center offices.

6 Oregon’s data is for labor exchange; no detail is available on how much is spent on One-Stop Centers; WIA funding allocation data was not 

collected. 

58 
 In two states, North Carolina and Oregon, Wagner-Peyser and other Federal funds

were supplemented by state funds for their ES only some of which went to the OneStop Centers. In North Carolina these funds came from the Worker Training Trust

Fund and the Reemployment Basic Labor Exchange Program paid out of 

unemployment insurance taxes. In Oregon, the funds also came from UI taxes and

other sources. Only the State of Michigan reported state funding of $1.2 million for

the exclusive operation of One-Stop Centers. 

3.3.3 Local Level Funding 

Table 3-3 describes funding for the individual One-Stop Centers visited for this study. These 

data represent annual figures for the year in which the site data collection occurred; and thus represent

different years. In general, local One-Stop Center operators view their funding as coming from the two or

three main Federal sources; including Wagner-Peyser Act, WIA and/or welfare-related funding. One-Stop 

Centers count on these Federal funding sources as well as a highly diverse set of other sources, including 

state supplements, partner agencies such as the State Commission for the Blind, and fees collected from 

providing a particular service such as specialized computer courses. 

Uncertainty was the major theme discussed by local One-Stop Center operators when asked

about future funding prospects. Operators who had seen increases in funding had experienced concurrent

increases in demand for their services. Some state funding was in jeopardy because of budget problems. 

Thus, while funding from WIA and Wagner-Peyser may remain constant, or WIA may even increase as 

the number of dislocated workers increase, state funding may decline. Other situations, such as new OneStop Centers being created nearby, were cited as reasons for expected future declines in specific One-Stop 

Center funding as the existing funds will be spread out across more centers. There is a general feeling that 

funding will need to increase to keep up with demand; the use of additional funding sources, such as 

special grants and fees, will need to be explored by program operators in coming years. It is interesting to 

note that, of the six states in the study, Massachusetts reported the most use of fee-for-service funding. 

However, such fee-for-service funding generally represented a small portion of the center’s budget and 

cut across the competitive and collaborative structures in the state. 

It may also be useful to note that One-Stop Center operators were aware of WIA incentive

money and were looking forward to having at least some portion of funds being tied to specific

performance measures. At the time of the interviews, however, most funding seemed to be related to the 

volume of services provided. Decisions about how to allocate the WIA incentive money had not been 

made by any of the states at the time of the interviews. 

59 
Table 3-3. Annual funding to support local One-Stop Centers 

60 

State Site

Budget 

($million) 

WagnerPeyser 

Act (ES) WIA 

Welfare and Social 

Services, (including 

Welfare-to-work) 

VocRehab. Fee-for- service1 

CO Aurora 5.1 9 9 9 

Longmont 2.7 9 9 9 9 

Boston (JobNet) 1.7 9 9 9 9 

Boston (The Work Place) 2.0 9 9 9 9 

Holyoke 1.7 9 9 9 

Springfield 1.8 9 9 9 9 

Woburn 1.5 9 9 9 

MA 

Worcester 5.6 9 9 9 9 

Battle Creek 0.7 9 9 9

Detroit 4 9 9 9

Marlette Thumb 1.5 9 9 9 

MI 

Walled Lake 0.3 9 9 9 

Durham 1.1 9 Oxford 9 

NC 

Raleigh 0.2 9 9 

Beaverton 2.0 9 9 9 

Pendleton 0.25 9 9

OR 

Salem 2.5 9 9 9 9 

N. Seattle 1.9 9 9 

Renton 9 9 

Walla Walla 9 9 

WA 

Yakima 0.45 9 9

1 Fee-for-services generally are charged of clients not qualifying under any programs that cover the costs, or for some specific advanced computer classes.2 Some examples of special grants from the state or regional board are youth grants and grants awarded to partners. Grants are generally a small portion of the total fundi3 Other sources include Mental Health, Department of Corrections, Department of Transitional Assistance, State and Legislative Appropriations, State Commissions 

Community Colleges, programs for seniors, and other community partners.

4 Note that the Detroit One-Stop Center indicated that five One-Stop Centers in the city share $80+ million. 
3.4 Operations 

While each One-Stop Center has some unique operating practices, Section 3.4 describes the

generally similar physical layout of the One-Stop Centers, the roles and responsibilities of persons who 

provide services, and the different partnerships. Section 3.5 focuses on two of the key activities that occur

at the One-Stop Centers—the registration process and the job matching process. (Later, in Section 3.7, we 

discuss the full range of services provided to job seekers, and in Section 3.8 the range of services

provided to employers.) Section 3.6 discusses strategies for measuring One-Stop Center activity. Given 

that there is extensive variation in practices across the One-Stop Centers, models or types are presented in 

order to better categorize the variation in practice. 

3.4.1 Physical Layout 

One-Stop Centers may occupy entire buildings, one or more floors of a multistory building, 

or sections of one floor of a large office building. However, the centers visited for this study all had a 

similar office layout, as depicted in Figure 3-2.4

 There was a single point of entry and generally a single 

reception desk near the point of entry, although several centers had two or three reception desks. 

The One-Stop Centers all provided public access computers as part of a resource room or in 

a separate computer area. The resource rooms usually had tables, facsimile and copy machines,

telephones, and printed materials with job listings and labor market information. The typical One-Stop 

Center has two training or workshop rooms available, but several Michigan centers reported no dedicated

training or workshop rooms while a One-Stop Center in Oregon reported seven. 

Several One-Stop Centers reported making extensive changes to the layout of the office

when they first began operations. In Washington, for example, many of the offices were originally ES

offices, so floor layouts had to be changed to accommodate additional partners. Other centers expanded to 

accommodate classrooms or to make space for partnering agencies. 

 

4

 In some cases, the staff of the partnering agency may be located in a different corridor or floor of the same building, but this generic description 

usually applies.

61 
62 

Training/

Workshop

Room

Reception Area

Interview Rooms for 

Screening, Counseling, and 

Referrals

Vets WIA Welfare Other

Offices for staff from particular programs

Wagner

-Peyser

Wagner

-Peyser

Computer

Bank

Resource Room

Wagner 

-

 Wagner 

Peyser -Peyser 

Wagner 

-Peyser 

 Wagner 

 -Peyser 

Figure 3-2. Typical configuration of a One-Stop Center office 

3.4.2 Partnerships

One-Stop Centers are partnerships among various agencies that provide employment and

training services at one location. WIA specifies required partners, as well as voluntary One-Stop Center

partners, as depicted in Table 3-4. A local Workforce Investment Board enters into agreements with the 

set of partner agencies that deliver services at the One-Stop Center. The local boards also designate the

“One-Stop Center Operator,” generally referred to as the “lead agency.” Appendix G lists the lead agency, 

the required partners present, and the other partners for each of the One-Stop Centers visited. 

Typical partners in the One-Stop Centers visited include entities funded by the WagnerPeyser Act, WIA, Welfare, Vocational Rehabilitation, Department of Health and Human Services (HHS),

and educational institutions (usually colleges, universities, or public school systems). Less common

partners included services or commissions for the blind, Job Corps, adult or vocational education, and 

mental health agencies, among others. 
Table 3-4. WIA legislation regarding required and voluntary partners 

Required One-Stop Center partners 

 WIA Title I 

 Wagner-Peyser Act 

 Adult Education and Literacy

 Vocational Rehabilitation 

 Welfare-to-Work 

 Community Service Employment for Older Americans 

 Post Secondary Vocational Education 

 Trade Adjustment Assistance (including NAFTA-TAA) 

 Veteran’s Employment Service 

 Community Service Block Grants 

 Housing and Urban Development Employment and Training 

 Unemployment Insurance 

Voluntary partners 

 Welfare Reform Programs

 Food Stamp Employment and Training

 Food Stamp Workfare 

 National and Community Service 

 Other 

Source: Workforce Investment Act 

In addition to these partners, the following senior agencies were occasionally observed in 

One-Stop Centers: Green Thumb (also known as Experience Works), AARP, Senior Employment Center, 

and Employment Advocates for Seniors. There were other organizations that may only exist in that 

particular area or serve a certain population unique to that community. These partners observed during the

site visits included United Cerebral Palsy with the Aurora, Colorado One-Stop Center, Sun Microsystems 

with the Longmont, Colorado One-Stop Center, the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian 

Reservation and the Organization of Forgotten Americans with the Pendleton, Oregon One-Stop Center, 

and Goodwill Industries with the Yakima, Washington One-Stop Center. 

The major sources of variation are: 

 Which agency is the lead agency for the One-Stop Center. Lead agencies ranged 

from the ES department, social service agency, and educational institutions, and 

consortia, among other entities. 

 The number of partners participating in the One-Stop Center. A few One-Stop 

Centers, such as the one in Woburn, Massachusetts, and several in Michigan, have

63 
only a few partners beyond the primary six. Others, particular the One-Stop Centers in 

Washington, have many other partners. In fact, the Yakima, Washington, One-Stop

Center has at least seven additional partners. 

 The amount of staff-time partners spend at the One-Stop Centers. Voluntary

partners often are less than full-time (and can range from one half-day per month to 

full time). 

3.4.3 Staffing 

While ES staff positions of the past tended to have clear-cut responsibilities, the addition of 

new partners in one location magnifies the complexity of the responsibility of the One-Stop Center staff. 

The simplest example of this is the receptionist function. A receptionist at an ES office and at a One-Stop 

Center might perform the same basic gatekeeper function; however, the receptionist at the One-Stop

Center must be aware of all of the services offered at the One-Stop Center in order to adequately perform 

in the position. Similar comparisons hold for other positions as well; the duties of a manager have been 

expanded to include maintaining relationships with other agencies. Table 3-5 lists functions and

responsibilities in a One-Stop Center. 

The most interesting column in Table 3-5 is the last one, notes on variation observed. This 

column describes aspects of staffing One-Stop Centers and touches on the myriad of staffing variation 

observed during the site visits. Virtually every position has some variation, thus contributing to the 

overall variation in One-Stop Center operations. For example, the director of a given One-Stop Center 

could be responsible for all persons at the site or could be responsible for only a subset of persons at the 

site, with some staff reporting to a director at a non-One-Stop Center office at a separate location. 

Another example of the variation observed in the One-Stop Centers is the differences in the intensity of 

case management. The actual case management provided ranges from informal discussions with a 

customer to the development of a detailed and specific job search plan. 

As alluded to earlier, one of the most important issues is whether staffs are cross-trained to 

perform the functions of staff from other programs. For example, do ES staff also provide services to

persons whose needs may be different than those traditionally met by ES staff and programs? 

64 
Table 3-5. Typical staff functions and responsibilities in a One-Stop Center

Function Typical titles Typical responsibilities Notes on variation observed 

Management Director,

Manager, 

Supervisor 

Oversees center operations, manages 

other administrators, maintains 

relationship with other One-Stop 

Centers, agencies, and employers, 

and holds fiscal authority. 

Directors can be responsible

for all or some of the staff at 

the One-Stop Center. 

Receptionist Receptionist At most One-Stop Centers, 

receptionists act as gatekeepers, 

greeting clients as they enter the 

center and directing them to the 

appropriate resources or staff. 

Receptionists may guide clients to 

the resource room, public-use 

computers or particular personnel, 

such as UI or ES staff. Other 

responsibilities of receptionists 

include answering phones, 

responding to basic questions from

clients, providing general 

information on the center, and 

registering or signing-in clients. 

One-Stop Centers can have 

one or more designated 

receptionists; or all staff can 

be cross-trained to perform 

the receptionist function. 

Resource Room

Staff 

Resource 

Room

Specialist, Lab 

Assistant, 

Librarian 

This staff typically assists customers 

with the materials and devices such 

as phones, fax machines, and 

computers located in the room and 

on the public access computers. 

Not all One-Stop Centers 

have staff specifically

stationed in the resource 

room. 

Core Service 

Providers 

ES Staff, 

Wagner-Peyser 

Act Staff, Core 

Services Staff,

Career 

Developer, 

Employment 

Specialist, 

Customer 

Service 

Representative, 

Coordinator, 

Job Service 

Representative 

At many One-Stop Centers this staff 

serves as a front-line source of help 

to job seekers. They perform duties 

such as registering, assessing, and 

screening job seekers, determining 

eligibility for programs, referring job 

seekers to other support services, 

assisting clients with job searches, 

placing clients in positions, and 

creating resumes. This staff also 

disseminate a wide range of 

information to clients on UI, careers, 

financial aid, the labor market, 

references to other support services, 

etc. 

Staff who perform these 

functions do not necessarily 

perform only these functions. 

Staff often wear multiple hats 

and may work with persons 

who are eligible for more 

than just core services. 

At some One-Stop Centers 

staff is responsible for 

making job matches. These 

staff members query the 

database matching job order 

criteria against job seekers’

information. 

65 
Table 3-5. Typical staff functions and responsibilities in a One-Stop Center (continued) 

Function Typical titles Typical responsibilities Notes on variation observed 

Special 

Populations 

Staff 

JTPA/WIA 

Staff, 

Vocational 

Rehabilitation 

Staff, Veterans 

Representative, 

Disability

Specialist, UI 

Staff, Benefits

Planner 

Some staff serves clients eligible for 

specialized services, such as WIA, 

Vocational Rehabilitation, Welfare, 

TANF, Veterans, Dislocated 

Workers, disabled, and UI. 

Typically, this staff provides more 

intensive services for clients 

including assisting with training 

vouchers, making referrals to 

appropriate services and training, 

conducting skills assessments, and 

counseling/case managing. 

These are often more

specialized staff; though in

many offices other staff are

aware of the basic eligibility 

requirements for these special 

programs. 

Case 

Management/ 

Counseling 

Case Manager, 

Counselor 

Most case managers/counselors meet 

with clients to discuss services 

needed, and to assess clients’

progress. The staff also conducts 

assessments to determine clients’

needs and abilities. Case managers 

and counselors then often refer 

clients to training and other services. 

In addition, this staff at most OneStop Centers conducts some form of 

individualized planning with clients. 

The number of case managers 

and the intensity of case 

management varies with each 

One-Stop Center. Case 

management ranges from

very informal individual 

discussions to the 

development of detailed and 

specific plans. 

Employer 

Services Staff

ES Staff, 

Job/Business 

Developer, 

Employer 

Specialist/ 

Representative, 

Account 

Manager 

Responsibilities of this staff includes 

conducting outreach, acting as the 

main point of contact for employers 

at the centers, handling job listings, 

referring potential employees to 

employers and providing labor 

market information. In terms of job 

listings, this staff frequently meets 

with employers to discuss the details 

of their job listings and then assists 

the employers with entering the job 

orders, enters the job orders for the 

employers and monitors the progress 

of the orders. 

Some One-Stop Centers have 

more active outreach to the 

employer community in the 

form of participation with 

Chambers of Commerce; and 

some One-Stop Centers 

reported providing fee-based 

employer services. 

66 
There are basically three degrees of One-Stop Center cross-training. Staff is trained to: 

 Deliver all services; 

 Deliver main services—ES, WIA, and welfare services; or 

 Deliver only the services of the program they represent. 

On one extreme, two sites in Michigan, Walled Lake and Marlette Thumb, have a group of 

staff who are trained to provide all services. At the Marlette Thumb One-Stop Center, there is no 

differentiation between ES and other staff. The center’s case managers split their time between ES, WIA, 

welfare, veterans, vocational rehabilitation, and other services. Similarly, at the Walled Lake center, the 

three case management assistants are trained to deliver all of the major ES areas offered by the center, as

well as provide services to WIA, Welfare, veterans, and disabled clients. Staff in the other One-Stop

Centers in Michigan were not cross-trained in this manner. 

The more common type of cross-training is when a subset of the One-Stop Center staff 

provides services for programs. The staff that are cross-trained varies by One-Stop Center, but typically

ES, WIA, and welfare staff are cross-trained while some other partner staff (mental health, services to the

blind, unemployment insurance (UI) and veterans’ representatives) are not cross-trained. Several OneStop Centers in Massachusetts and North Carolina follow this model. At the North Carolina One-Stop 

Centers, WIA, vocational rehabilitation, some welfare, and community college staff are cross-trained,

while other partner staff, such as services to the blind, veterans and Job Corps staff, are not. Similarly at 

the Springfield, Massachusetts One-Stop Center, ES and WIA staff are cross-trained, but UI, veterans,

and welfare staff are not. 

In some One-Stop Centers, very little cross-training occurs. For example, WIA staff are 

trained to perform the various WIA functions of serving the eligible population, but WIA staff are not 

cross-trained on other areas such as welfare or ES. This model is especially common in Oregon One-Stop

Centers but also occurs at One-Stop Centers in Aurora, Colorado, and Holyoke, Massachusetts. 

While cross-training is usually tied to the structure and governance of One-Stop Centers in a 

given state, there is often variation within a state. Thus, the extent of cross-training is a function of both

state structure and local management decisions with regard to staffing and service provision. 

67 
3.5 Two Key Labor Exchange Activities: Registration and Job Matching 

This section describes the variation observed in two key public labor exchanges activities, as 

they became integrated into the One-Stop Centers studied. The first activity is registering job seekers, 

which is essential both for providing certain services and for tracking the provision of services. One-Stops

vary in terms of whether job seekers must register before obtaining job matching and other core services,

but registration is mandatory in obtaining intensive services. The second activity is job matching—

viewing of job orders by job seekers and staff. State electronic job matching systems differ in terms of

how searches are conducted and the auxiliary services that can be obtained such as storing of job search 

profiles for later use. 

3.5.1 Registration 

The registration process captures data on One-Stop Center users. In the One-Stop Centers

visited, registration took a number of different forms and usually involved customers filling out some 

type of registration form, either in hard copy or electronically. In general, the forms required clients to 

provide personal and demographic information (name, address, race, gender, age, veteran status, social

security number, etc.), work history, educational level, and how they found out about or decided to come 

to the One-Stop Center. Some One-Stop Centers required additional information such as migrant status,

family size, and emergency contacts. 

A few centers had clients fill out different forms or provide varying amount of detail 

depending on the services they needed or were seeking. Clients at The Work Place in Boston, 

Massachusetts, provide only their name, address, and phone number, and those in need of fee-based

services provide more information to determine eligibility. At the Beaverton, Oregon One-Stop Center,

there are two registration forms: one for those who desire only core services and one for those desiring or 

needing services beyond core services. It is possible to make the following broad generalization about the 

two types of registration practices of the local One-Stop Centers: 

 Type 1: All One-Stop Center users are required to register. In the Springfield,

Massachusetts (competitive) office, job seekers become members and use a “swipe 

card” for repeated visits. The Woburn and Worcester, Massachusetts offices

registration was mandatory for all first time clients; in the Detroit and Walled Lake,

Michigan offices all persons who use the centers are required to register before their

resume can be placed in the state’s automated Talent Bank. Some sites appear to use 

68 
the registration process as a way of collecting individual data and to help with 

determination of program eligibility. 

 Type 2: Registration is required only to receive certain services. This is either cut

along core and intensive services or, in the case of one One-Stop Center in

Washington and one in North Carolina, in terms of suppressed and unsuppressed job 

listings. This also means that only certain client groups are registered; if an individual 

is using just the resource room or public access computers, such use is not captured. 

3.5.2 Job Matching

The One-Stop Centers approach the job matching process in different ways. In Detroit, 

Michigan, job seekers must register before they can place their resume in the Talent Bank, the state’s

main job search mechanism. One center requires clients to attend an orientation and job search seminar 

before they can access the center’s job matching resources. At the Woburn, Massachusetts center all firsttime clients must register, then participate in the “Quick-Start” orientation. After the orientation, job 

seekers who have a polished resume and are job-ready must complete the “Job Match” seminar before

they can take advantage of the job match services. Other job seekers are required to participate in resume

workshops and other services necessary for them to become job-ready. This process differs from most 

other centers where job seekers can go directly to the computers for self-registration and self-directed job 

searching. 

Prior to a job search, the job orders must be received and entered into the One-Stop Centers’

systems. One-Stop Centers receive job-listings from employers directly via telephone, fax, email, mail, or

in person. Once the employer has a job order ready to submit to the One-Stop Center, the employer may

contact the One-Stop Center and whoever is responsible for processing job orders at the center will enter

the information into the electronic system or state web site. Employers themselves can also enter job 

orders into some job matching systems. In Michigan, employers use the Michigan Talent Bank to both

post job listings and to examine resumes. 

69 
The following describes the job-matching systems used in the six states in our sample: 

 Colorado’s regions have local web sites, some of which allow job seekers to selfregister. Future plans are for access to be made available from personal PCs through 

public web sites for both self-registration (including skill-set matches) and job 

matching. 

 Massachusetts created Massachusetts Job-Quest, which allows job seekers to register

online for job-matching services and to conduct individual online job matching. Users 

may also browse the job bank without registering. Registered users receive updates 

when job listings match the user’s profile, when employers express interest in a user, 

or when Career Center staff refers users to existing job orders. This system is part of 

the Massachusetts One-Stop Center Employment System (MOSES). 

 Michigan offers the Michigan Talent Bank, an Internet-based labor exchange that is 

available to job seekers 24 hours a day. Job seekers can post and update resumes and

search job listings. Job listings contain information such as the date the job was

posted, job title, job description, location, and salary. 

 North Carolina employs the North Carolina Job Bank for online job matching

capabilities. The web site allows users to search for jobs in North Carolina by 

occupational category and geographic location or by criteria such as job title, salary,

or experience. 

 Oregon uses “Skills Quest” for computer job matching. It is available on all publicuse and matching computers in the One-Stop Centers to provide better skill-and-job 

matches and will be easier and more accurate for job seekers to use.

 Washington allows job seekers to search for jobs on the WorkSource web site. Users

can search for jobs by certain criteria including location and occupation. 

Computerized job-matching databases are similar across the states, with two key exceptions. 

At the time of the site visits, the Colorado databases available to job seekers appeared to be regional job 

listings, rather than a listing of statewide jobs. Michigan’s job matching, in contrast with other states, 

appeared to emphasize more of self-service and cyberspace job matching, where employers and job 

seekers were connected via the Internet, with very little One-Stop Center intervention in the match itself. 

Employers in Michigan can receive training and technical assistance to post jobs. Employers can also fill 

out a form to have One-Stop Center staff post a job. 

Some One-Stop Centers conduct batch job matching, by querying job listings against active 

job seekers in the database to develop a list of suitable candidates. Exceptions include the One-Stop

Center visited in Raleigh, North Carolina. The lead agency for this One-Stop Center is the health and 

70 
human services agency, and the office does not conduct this kind of batch matching. One-Stop Centers in 

Michigan reported very limited batch matching. 

In One-Stop Centers where staff or employers make a match without the job seeker present, 

phone calls are typically used to contact job seekers. If the job seekers do not have a phone or cannot be 

reached by phone, the One-Stop Centers may send them a postcard. There are other less common methods 

used by some One-Stop Centers to contact job seekers when a match is made. The Aurora, Colorado 

One-Stop Center has an automatic voice response system that calls the job seekers and provides them

pertinent job-matching information. The Walla Walla, Washington One-Stop Center uses a similar device 

called “Auto-Dialer.” JobNet in Boston, Massachusetts, has a resume dropbox into which the customers 

drop their resumes and return the following day to pick up the results of the match. 

3.6 The Information Infrastructure of PLXs

This section describes how labor exchange activities are measured in the One-Stop Centers

we visited in the six state sample. These measurement systems are directly related to the procedures used

to register job seekers and the electronic systems used to conduct job matching. They also have

substantial bearing on the information used by state and local officials to monitor performance, and as

discussed in the next chapter, the ability to statistically analyze PLX performance.

3.6.1 Measuring One-Stop Center Activity

Many processes and practices associated with One-Stop Centers are constantly evolving. 

Measuring One-Stop Center activity is no different. During the data collection period for this project, 

state MISs were in flux, as was the development of performance measures. In the case of performance

measures, most One-Stop Centers were waiting for state action. Oregon was the one state where, at the 

time of the site visits, progress was being made with respect to performance measures. 

This section begins with a description of how ES MISs have evolved over the data collection 

period, as well as the development of information systems that could support performance measures. Two

points are worthy of note here. The first is that WIA’s emphasis on data system development may have

spurred the improvement in the availability of local performance data, but the systems developed 

71 
probably fall short of what might have been envisioned under the WIA legislation (at least at the time of

the site visits). The second is that most One-Stop Centers see the development of performance measures 

as largely in the purview of the state, and it is often the state ES agency that assumes the responsibility for 

developing the performance system and routinely producing the data. 

3.6.2 State Management Information Systems 

The information systems observed during the site visits are state MISs. As with any statedeveloped system available to local staff, there is little variation in use among the local sites within the 

same state. The local systems encountered during the site visits were the state ES systems and most

provided basic management data on a routine basis.5

 The names of the ES MISs in each of the study states 

are listed in Table 3-6. 

Table 3-6. State Employment Service management information systems 

State System name

Colorado Job Link

Massachusetts MOSES (Massachusetts One-Stop Center Employment System) 

Michigan Statewide Management Information System

North Carolina LOMIS (Local Office Management Information System) 

Oregon PRISM (Performance Reporting Information System) 

Washington JobNet/SKIES (Service, Knowledge, Information Exchange System 

The data collection period on this project afforded a view of state MISs that were in a state

of continuous enhancement. For example, during the early on-site interviews in Massachusetts, state 

respondents indicated that the MIS did not fully integrate data from the collaborative and competitive 

One-Stop Centers. However, during subsequent followup telephone interviews, respondents were very 

satisfied with the level of information and the timeliness of the data from the new MOSES system, which

integrated data from both the competitive and collaborative One-Stop Centers and provided management

information data on the services delivered through the One-Stop Center. 

In Washington, the older JobNet reporting system was replaced with SKIES, a joint 

Employment Service and WIA system, with some data elements related to employment plans developed 

 

5

 Only 1 of the 22 One-Stop Centers visited was not linked to the state ES MIS. The Raleigh, North Carolina, site, operated by the human services

agency, did not have a system for tracking labor exchange activities at the time of these interviews. 

72 
through other programs [e.g., Food Stamp Employment and Training Program and Temporary Assistance 

for Needy Families (TANF) individual employment plan status].

At the time of the interviews, the main agencies in Oregon that delivered One-Stop Center

services each maintained their own, separate MIS. However, the PRISM system was an elaborate shared

information system in Oregon used to collect data from the various partners in the One-Stop operation. As 

with many One-Stop-related activities, the PRISM system developed in Oregon was developed as a 

collaborative effort on the part of numerous state agencies. 

3.6.3 Types of Data Collected 

One-Stop Center management was asked about what service provision data is routinely

collected and the purposes for which it is used. Data collected is related to traffic and activities and is 

used by the sites toward the achievement of management goals, resource allocation, and evaluation. OneStop Centers track traditional ES services, including numbers of applications, openings, and counts of

activities such as referrals to job openings, placements, workshop participation, referrals to other agencies 

and services, and participation in training. The states and the One-Stop Centers within them fairly

consistently report tracking this standard kind of information. However, there are exceptions to what 

items are tracked. All states, except Oregon, have difficultly tracking referrals to listings that include 

(unsuppress) contact information. 

One area of variation observed in One-Stop Centers related to the counting of activities. In

the local sites visited in Michigan, not all activities (e.g., placements) are counted; even when counted,

the counts received were only partially reflective of the total activity at the One-Stop Center. While most 

of the sites in Michigan felt they had adequate counts of classroom training, use of resource rooms, and

persons counseled by staff, some of the sites had more comprehensive data on referrals to other agencies.

Also, some One-Stop Centers in the state had counts of referrals to employers, but others did not capture

that information at all. At the Future Works site in Springfield, Massachusetts staff felt they did not have

an accurate count for placements and for referrals to other agencies. Also, the Career Point (Holyoke, 

Massachusetts) office only tracks job seekers belonging to categorical funding sources; they do not track 

clients supported only by Wagner-Peyser Act funds. 

73 
An additional source of variation occurs when the local One-Stop Centers supplement their 

MISs. The supplementation is locally driven and is generally not captured in the state MIS. The local 

supplementation can take the form of the local site developing its own database. Walla Walla,

Washington has its own tracking system that the center designed, developed, and implemented on its

own. All public-use computers at the center and affiliate sites have a log-in and tracking system in place. 

This tracking system allows the partnership to monitor customer activity at each computer and the level of

utilization of computer applications and tools. The system produces self-service computer use reports so 

that the center can monitor local demand for services. 

The more common local supplementation of the MIS, however, is in the form of written

customer satisfaction surveys.6

 Almost all One-Stop Centers do some kind of customer satisfaction 

survey, however, as with every other aspect of One-Stop Centers, there is quite a bit of variation. The 

Springfield, Massachusetts office seems to have a customer satisfaction survey for every aspect of 

services, including satisfaction of the bus/transportation system. At the time of the visits, one site in

Michigan was developing an employer satisfaction survey. Another site used a customer satisfaction 

survey for employers at a job fair. 

In terms of problems with the data in the information systems, typical comments questioned 

the emphasis on direct placement when the One-Stop Center provides other important services. There also

was concern about the comprehensiveness or tracking of the full array of services. For example, 

management was concerned about services provided that are not normally covered in the measures, such 

as when someone comes in to get information on the local labor market. Another common problem faced

is how to capture data on persons who use the system multiple times but at different centers. The swipe 

card system at one Massachusetts site is able to capture users every time they use the One-Stop Center 

system. 

Employer follow-up is an area that is seen as both critical and problematic. One respondent 

indicated that customer satisfaction surveys might undercount the reactions of a key One-Stop Center

customer — employers. A goal of several One-Stop Centers was to have more employer involvement, 

mainly to use employer information as a marketing tool. One-Stop Centers felt that if employers and the 

business community participate in the provision of data on job-referral outcomes there was a chance for

 

6

 In a very few cases, customer satisfaction data was collected via a focus group.

74 
greater efficiency. The Beaverton, Oregon site wanted to be better able to contact employers after a 

referral so that One-Stop Center staff could better market their services to employers. 

3.6.4 Performance Measurement in the One-Stop Center Environment 

Some of the performance measurement issues raised by local One-Stop Centers are identical

to those raised prior to service integration, but others are new and related to multiple, distinct agencies 

delivering services in a One-Stop environment. Old issues relate to having the necessary data to

adequately measure performance and getting credit for all services delivered. However, multiple services 

and multiple partners compound the task of measuring performance. Most of the new issues come about 

because distinct agencies, each with their own definitions and management information systems, are 

working together for the first time and must comply with the WIA performance measurement

requirements. 

The timing of the site visit interviews coincided with a period in which most states had 

begun the process of compliance with the WIA performance requirements by developing tentative

measures, but no real progress had been made on establishing the measures. In fact, many One-Stop 

Center respondents were aware of the WIA requirements but were expecting the performance measures to

be developed at the state level, after national system performance measures had been issued. 

The more typical performance measurement concerns created by the movement to a OneStop Center environment include the following: 

 Measures that focus on job placements and referrals are potentially misleading 

because they do not count the myriad of other services provided at the One-Stop 

Center, such as counseling or referral to other services that may be provided by any 

one of the “other” voluntary partners under WIA. 

 Management was concerned with the accuracy of data reported by other agencies or 

sources. Many felt that the data from their own agency was sufficient to measure

performance, but they had concerns about the quality of data from other agencies. 

Related to this point, one of the main reasons for suspicion about the data from other

agencies comes from the lack of common definitions across the partner agencies. Just as the definition of

“case management” can vary across One-Stop Centers, the term “counseling” can vary greatly across 

partner agencies within a One-Stop Center. Oregon had been working on a shared information system for 

75 
a number of years. Its PRISM system of shared information across partner agencies holds promise for the 

integration of information from multiple agencies to be able to produce One-Stop Center data. A 

statewide group of state and local partners established performance indicators that were adopted by the

state WIB, the governor’s office, state partner agencies, and local partners. The state had made 

considerable progress in developing a common definition of terms across multiple agencies and programs. 

However, Oregon and all states were expected to continue to struggle with the challenge of aligning

multiple Federal agency performance standards that are similar on their surface but are defined and 

calculated differently across agencies. 

3.7 Services to Job Seekers: Self-Help and Staff-Assisted One-Stop Center Services 

The Wagner-Peyser Act of 1933 established a national labor exchange system of offices 

commonly known as the ES. These offices offered a wide range of services for job seekers including job 

finding and placement services (i.e., job matching), skills assessment and testing, counseling, job search

assistance, workshops, job clubs, and the provision of labor market information. In addition, according to 

the Wagner-Peyser Act, funds may also be used to provide services to ‘special needs groups,’ to workers 

who have received notice of permanent or impending layoff, and for administering the unemployment 

insurance (UI) work test and providing job search and placement services for UI claimants. 

In 1998, WIA amended the Wagner-Peyser Act to include labor exchange services in the 

One-Stop delivery system. Through One-Stop Centers, the ES now provides universally accessible core

services, as well as other labor exchange services, and WIA services.7

 Table 3-7 identifies the traditional 

Wagner-Peyser services to job seekers and the delineation of WIA core and intensive services. 

The One-Stop Centers visited provided all of the traditional labor exchange services, which 

now are termed “core services” and there were no major differences across the sites in terms of the types 

of services offered. However, there were differences in the amount of resources used to provide different 

core services, such as use of staff to assist with job-matching versus reliance on self-service. There also 

were variations in the way the services were delivered, such as which agency’s staff provided the service,

and at which point in the assistance process a given service was offered. 

 

7

 “United States Employment Service—The Employment and Workforce Information Service” at http://www.uses.doleta.gov 

76 
Table 3-7. Services to job seekers under Wagner-Peyser Act and WIA 

Traditional Wagner-Peyser Act services

1. Job-matching services—job search, referrals, and placements 

2. Development and provision of labor market and occupational information 

3. Workshops and other forms of job search assistance 

4. Assessment and testing 

5. Counseling 

6. Referral to training and other supportive services 

7. Specialized services for UI claimants, including administration of the work test 

WIA core services and Wagner-Peyser Act services 

1. Outreach, intake, and orientation 

2. Initial assessment 

3. Job search and placement assistance 

4. Career counseling 

5. Provision of occupational and labor market information 

6. Provision of information on available supportive services 

7. Follow-up services 

WIA intensive services and Wagner-Peyser Act services 

1. Assessment1

2. Short-term workshops2

3. Development of an individual employment plan 

4. Counseling1

5. Case management 

Source: USDOL, Employment and Training Administration.

1 Differences in the precise definitions of intensive assessments and counseling under the Wagner-Peyser Act and WIA are not clear. For 

example, intensive assessments under the Wagner-Peyser Act could mean skills and aptitude testing related to employment. WIA assessments

and counseling may mean a needs assessment or screening for welfare services, now available at the One-Stop Centers.

2 Workshops to prepare individuals for unsubsidized employment. Under WIA, this also includes work experience.

Of course, the biggest difference between services available in traditional PLXs and in 

today’s One-Stop Centers is that Wagner-Peyser Act programs rarely provided intensive services and 

never funded training. In particular, WIA intensive services make extensive use of individualized 

employment plans and coordination of service delivery using a case management approach. 

The following subsections focus on describing the variation across the states in the sample in

the delivery of the key One-Stop Center services. First, we examine delivery of the traditional WagnerPeyser Act services—three types of job matching services, general labor market information, and 

workshops. Second, we examine three services that can either be core or intensive: assessment, 

counseling, and referral to other services. It is important to note that the extent of assessment and

counseling can range from the traditional service offered by PLXs via limited staff assistance to a service

that can be delivered with moderate or high levels of staff involvement. The degree of staff involvement 

77 
is partly tied to program eligibility. In other words, WIA-eligible or welfare clients tend to receive the 

more intensive services, such as an individual employment plan or case management, based on their

participation in the program. In a sense, One-Stop Center assessment and counseling can be viewed as the 

link between core services and intensive services provided by new partners in a One-Stop Center 

environment. A discussion of individualized employment plans, case management, and services to special

populations rounds out the discussion of services to job seekers. 

3.7.1 Self-Help Job Matching 

Self-service job-matching processes varied from state to state but were fairly similar within 

states. The primary differences across the states are as follows: 

 Use of job match programs additional to the state system and America’s Job Bank

(AJB), 

 Variety in the suppression status of job orders, and 

 Emphasis on self-serve job matching over staff-assisted or staff-conducted searches. 

Each state had its own computerized systems available for self-service job matching, but

certain One-Stop Centers could have secondary programs that other centers in the state did not. Some 

Oregon One-Stop Centers, in addition to the Oregon Job Selection System (OJSS) and AJB, offered 

Internet email accounts, state and Federal application forms, and the Bureau of Labor and Industry

software systems for self-service job matching. 

Typically, a client entering a One-Stop Center signs in and is directed to a resource room or

a public access computer to search the system. While the public-use computers are available for many 

services and resources, virtually all are expected to be used for client-conducted job searches. Searches 

can be performed using a number of tools, including national and local job banks, One-Stop Center job 

listings, and Internet job search engines. Once job seekers located potential job openings, they might

require additional services or interaction with the One-Stop Center because of the nature of the 

suppression status of the job order they had identified. The contact information for the employers in the

job-matching systems used by job seekers can be suppressed or unsuppressed, depending on the One-Stop 

Center’s policies and employers’ preferences. 

78 
Some states, such as Colorado and North Carolina, encouraged suppression of employer 

contact information on the assumption that employers wanted to screen job seekers to avoid being 

inundated by applicants, many of whom might not be qualified for an open position (see Table 3-8). For

example, at the Longmont, Colorado One-Stop Center, job seekers identified positions they were 

interested in and a work registration team member interviewed them. The job seekers’ information was

then forwarded to the employers. In the North Carolina Job Bank, nearly all job listings were suppressed,

but the state is moving toward giving the employers the option of posting unsuppressed job listings. Many

of the Massachusetts and Michigan job listings were unsuppressed so job seekers could contact employers

directly. 

Michigan’s policies were in clear contrast to the other states’ offices with respect to the 

emphasis on self-service job matching. In Michigan, job searches were mainly self directed. At the

Walled Lake One-Stop Center job seekers were taught how to post their resumes and search the job

matching systems. Virtually all job listings were unsuppressed, and job seekers and employers were 

encouraged to use the system without intervention. 

3.7.2 Facilitated Self-Help Job Matching8

Staff members might sit with job seekers in resource rooms or at public-use computers and 

assist in searching hard-copy and electronic job listings. Which staff assisted job seekers varied from

center to center. At the Aurora, Colorado, and Durham, North Carolina, One-Stop Centers, the 

receptionists showed clients how to search for jobs and create resumes. At other centers, assistance was

provided by career counselors, ES staff, or resource room specialists. 

Not surprisingly, most One-Stop Centers used the same basic search parameters, including 

the job code or title, geographic location, salary, requirements, and keywords. In North Carolina, for 

example, job seekers were given two options when searching the state job bank on the Internet. They

could either fill out a search form with fields to enter job title, salary, salary unit, and background, or 

select from progressively narrowing categories to locate specific occupations. The job seekers chose one 

of six geographic regions in North Carolina or viewed jobs in a specified city or town. 

 

8

 This can be thought of as “staff-assisted self-service job matching.” Michigan One-Stop Centers continued to distinguish themselves: One-Stops 

in Michigan emphasize self-service job matching; staff, however, are available and provide assistance in how to use self-service job matching

when needed. 

79 
Table 3-8. Suppression status of employer contact information in job listings 

State Site 

Estimated proportion of unsuppressed 

employer contact information 

Colorado Aurora Small proportion

Longmont Small proportion

Boston (JobNet) 75–80% and increasing 

Boston (The Work Place) 85–90% 

Holyoke 70%

Springfield 80%

Woburn 80%

Massachusetts

Worcester 80%

Battle Creek More than 50% 

Detroit 95%

Marlette Thumb Information not available 

Michigan 

Walled Lake Close to 100%

Durham Less than 5% 

Oxford Small proportion

North Carolina 

Raleigh Small proportion

Beaverton More than 50% 

Pendleton 10%

Oregon 

Salem 60%

North Seattle 60% 

Renton 60%

Walla Walla 30% 

Washington 

Yakima Proportion varies greatly throughout the 

year. 

3.7.3 Staff-Assisted Job Matching 

Most staff-assisted job matching occurred when job seekers had trouble finding jobs using 

self-help or staff-facilitated self-help, as well as part of more intensive counseling and case-management 

service provision. However, staff- or employer-conducted job matching also may occur without the job

seeker being present. Clients or staff enter clients’ resumes or qualifications into the job matching 

database. This is known as batch matching in which the system is searched for a match with the job 

seekers’ or employers’ specifications. Most centers have computerized job-matching practices that

automatically create these lists by querying the system.

9

 At The Work Place in Boston, Massachusetts,

matches are created electronically in two ways: “per job seeker” seeks statewide job postings appropriate

 

9

 The exceptions to this are the Raleigh, North Carolina One-Stop Center, for which the lead agency is the health and human services agency.

One-Stop Centers in Michigan reported very limited batch matching (i.e., done only at the request of an individual employer); the job-matching 

emphasis in Michigan is clearly individual and self-directed. 

80 
for an individual and “per job posting” seeks clients appropriate for a job posting. After completing the

computerized matching, a staff member reviews the computer results to eliminate false positive matches, 

and to contact the job seeker. 

Similarly, at Washington One-Stop Centers, staff queried the JobNet database of job order 

criteria for job seekers’ information resulting in a list of matched job seekers to jobs. Staff review the list

to ensure certain factors desired by the job seekers are part of the job descriptions, such as hours per

week, pay rate, and location. Staff members also verify job seekers’ profiles to make sure they meet the

job requirements, such as certifications or specific skills (e.g., required typing speed). A few centers, such

as the one in Pendleton, Oregon, match job seekers to jobs based on the occupational codes assigned to 

each job seeker and job from the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT). 

3.7.4 Provision of Labor Market Information 

Labor market information (LMI) is a traditional labor exchange service that includes the

provision of employment statistics, such as job vacancy listings, information on skills necessary to obtain 

jobs, and information relating to local occupations in demand. LMI is available at most, if not all, OneStop Centers, but the centers present it and allow for access of the information differently. Hard-copy

LMI is often located in a center’s resource rooms, which are public spaces that often house resources,

including computers, hard-copy job listings, fax machines, and telephones. Some sites directly or 

indirectly see LMI as their “market niche.” The Springfield, Massachusetts representative mentioned an 

emphasis on providing LMI, and at the Aurora, Colorado center, unemployment insurance claimants are

sent a packet of LMI materials. 

Electronic LMI is available on all states’ web sites, and states may even have web sites

devoted to LMI. All One-Stop Centers have access to these sites. 

 Colorado’s Department of Labor and Employment web site contains LMI. The 

Colorado Navigator system comprises job and career areas with occupational wage 

information, wage projections, and employer lists. Through Colorado Navigator, users 

can search for schools and education and training programs by region. In addition to

the Colorado Navigator system, there are job vacancy survey reports by region with 

views on which industries are hiring, which occupations are in demand, current 

salaries and benefits, and education and experience level requirements. The web site 

also provides labor force data and a monthly newsletter, the Colorado Labor and

Industry Focus. 

81 
 Massachusetts’ Division of Employment and Training web site links to Mass Stats, an

economic database. LMI includes employer listings, area population profiles, local tax 

revenue and property value data, income data by region, labor force data, employment 

and wage data and projections, and information on mass layoffs. 

 Michigan’s Department of Career Development Office of Labor Market Information 

web site contains statistics on labor force and unemployment data, occupational and 

wage forecasts, occupational and training information, annual planning information 

reports with workforce analyses, and tables for program planning. 

 North Carolina’s LMI is found on the Employment Security Commission of North

Carolina’s web site. Available LMI includes labor force statistics, occupational and 

industry information, information access tools, special research reports with up-todate analyses of the state’s labor and economic situation, and career resource tools. 

 Oregon’s Labor Market Information System web site has state and regional 

occupational information, wages, employment projections, education requirements, 

financial aid information, and lists of training providers. Also, there are statistics on 

unemployment, job growth by industry, cost of living, and poverty rates. Articles on 

various topics such as nontraditional jobs and self-employment are also available. 

Through skills and occupational explorer programs users are assisted in identifying 

occupations that match their skills and preferences. 

 Washington’s State Employment Security web site links to an LMI page with 

unemployment rates, wage and occupation estimates and projections, occupations 

with the most growth, sizes of firms, labor force statistics, and special reports on

topics such as apprenticeships, elderly workers, and workforce stability.

3.7.5 Workshops 

Many One-Stop Centers offer workshops on various topics, such as communication, 

interviewing skills, and professional conduct, to prepare job seekers for employment or training. The

number of rooms centers have available for workshops varies. (See Table 3-9.) Three centers in Michigan 

reported no classrooms dedicated specifically for workshops; however, staff can create instruction areas 

by moving around tables and chairs. The Beaverton, Oregon, One-Stop Center has seven classrooms;

classes are either held in those or are conducted off site. Typically, One-Stop Center staff, and staff from 

partner agencies conduct the workshops. 

82 
Table 3-9. Types of workshops offered* 

83 

State Site Orientation

Job 

search 

Computer 

skills 

Resume creation 

and interviewing 

skills 

Fees charged 

for workshop? 

Aurora Yes Yes Yes No Worksho

for welfa

Colorado 

Longmont Yes Yes “Effectiv

NegotiatiStrategie

Boston (JobNet) 

Post-orie

available 

Boston (The Work Place) 

Yes Yes Work-rel

Reemplo

Holyoke Yes Yes Yes Yes “Network

“Career E

Springfield Yes Yes Yes Yes Job ClubWoburn Yes Yes Yes Yes “SkillSca

“Identify 

Massachusetts

Worcester Yes Yes Yes Yes No Career Pl

Battle Creek Yes Job ClubDetroit Yes Yes “How to 

ApplicatiSuccess” 

Marlette Thumb 

Michigan 

Walled Lake 

Durham Yes NoOxford No

North Carolina 

Raleigh Yes Yes No GED and 

Sufficien

*Some One-Stop Centers did not provide specific information on workshops (e.g., specific workshop titles). Blanks indicate lack of information.
Table 3-9. Types of workshops offered* (continued) 

84 

State Site Orientation

Job 

search 

Computer 

skills 

Resume creation 

and interviewing 

skills 

Fees charged 

for workshop? 

Beaverton Yes Yes Yes No “Coping w

“Overcom

Pendleton Yes No “Job Club

Oregon 

Salem Yes Yes Yes No “Career M

and Your C

North Seattle Yes Yes Yes Renton Yes Yes Yes Other type

education 

Walla Walla No 

Washington 

Yakima Yes Yes Yes No Other type

education 

*Some One-Stop Centers did not provide specific information on workshops (e.g., specific workshop titles). Blanks indicate lack of information.
One-Stop Centers commonly offer several types of workshops. Various types of orientations

and workshops on how to use certain aspects of the center are frequently available. Job search workshops

include computer assistance to conduct job searches, such as “Internet Job Search” at the Holyoke, 

Massachusetts, One-Stop Center, and job search seminars. Another common type of workshop is

software-based and covers a wide range of topics, such as the Internet, Microsoft Windows-compatible 

applications, basic computer skills, and word processing. Centers may offer different levels of computer

workshops so that clients can participate at whatever experience level best suits them. Resume creation

and interview skills workshops are other examples of frequently provided workshops. Centers offer

workshops to accommodate particular needs of clients that frequently visit the center. Due to the large 

Spanish-speaking population that visits the Holyoke, Massachusetts One-Stop Center, some workshops

are offered in Spanish. Other centers run workshops with titles like “Holistic Stress Management,” 

“Making Ends Meet While Unemployed,” and “Salary Negotiations.” 

Workshops are free or fee-based depending on the center and the workshop. Most One-Stop 

Centers in the study do not charge fees for workshops, and they are open to all job seekers. Two 

competitively run centers in Massachusetts, including The Work Place in Boston, charge fees for the 

more advanced workshops, while the introductory level workshops are free. Fees vary, such as at the 

Woburn, Massachusetts, One-Stop Center, which charges a fee of $99 for some workshops and $25 for 

others. If a One-Stop Center does charge fees for workshops, the fees may be waived, as they are at the 

Holyoke, Massachusetts One-Stop Center, for members of eligible populations. 

3.7.6 Referrals to Training and Supportive Services 

When One-Stop Center staff refer persons to supportive services they are performing the 

service that links traditional employment services to the services that WIA defines as intensive. 

(According to WIA, referral to supportive services includes “the provision of accurate information 

relating to the availability of supportive services in the local area, and referral to such services, as 

appropriate.”) The types of additional services or training clients are referred to are those that area

unavailable at the One-Stop Center, and may be educational opportunities, such as English-as-a-secondlanguage or adult education classes; job and prevocational training; and support services, including 

childcare and transportation. Clients are referred to these training and support services at local community 

colleges, other outside institutions, and other service providers. Clients must demonstrate a need for a 

85 
certain service and/or be eligible under a categorical program such as WIA, to be referred to training 

support services. Certain program funding streams cover the cost of the training or services. 

Depending on the operational set up of the specific One-Stop Center, the referrer could be an

Employment Service staff member, a case manager, a college counselor (if they are on site), a career 

counselor, or other staff. The most common case is when a referral is made in a consultation or case

management session. A referral is made after the client meets with center staff to determine needs and

eligibility for additional services. 

Two sites in Massachusetts have unique ways of referring to training and supportive

services. The Woburn One-Stop Center has a Job Development Referral System that involves a career

services unit counselor interviewing clients, determining eligibility for services, and developing service 

options from which the clients can select to be referred. Boston’s JobNet center uses a post-orientation 

workshop to describe available training services. Immediately following orientation, clients who are

interested in additional classroom training can attend a brief workshop on available outside services and 

may then request referrals from center counselors. 

3.7.7 Assessments

As with job matching, assessments may be staff-facilitated or staff-assisted. These traditional 

employment-related assessments test skill levels, aptitudes, and abilities as they relate to employment. For 

example, at the Aurora and Longmont One-Stop Centers in Colorado receptionists and customer service 

representatives assist clients with an interest inventory available on public-use computers. The Beaverton, 

Oregon, One-Stop Center’s public-access computers have on them the Career Information and Skills 

Assessment software package for client use. 

3.7.8 Counseling 

Counseling sessions provide individualized advice to job seekers on how to search more

effectively, how to obtain additional training to reach broader career goals, and determine eligibility for

more intensive services. Clients meet with counselors who identify their needs and direct them to a 

particular service, a job opening, an outside training source, another staff member who can better assist

86 
them, or whatever is needed. Counselors focus on multiple areas of potential need since job seekers have 

diverse needs. Counselors provide in-depth one-on-one assistance to job seekers who are concerned about 

making career decisions, exploring education and training options, and having individual progress 

monitored. 

Counseling sessions may result in directing job seekers to particular services offered by the

center and to services or programs, especially training, that is offered outside of the center. Counselors 

can refer clients to partner agency staff for assistance, where they can be served through in-house

workshops. Alternatively, they may lead to additional job development or referrals to outside education 

and/or training. 

It is important to note that counseling itself can also be a means for determining if job 

seekers are eligible for categorical programs, given that some eligible populations such as welfare

recipients, veterans, and clients with disabilities may be mandated to receive counseling. 

3.7.9 Individualized Employment Plans 

Under WIA, Individualized Employment Plans (IEPs) can be used by One-Stop Center staff 

to identify employment goals, appropriate achievement objectives, and the appropriate combination of

services for the participant to achieve their employment goals. Table 3-10 describes eligibility for creating 

IEPs. This question was not directly asked of respondents, however, those sites mentioning it display a

range in eligibility from all job seekers to clients in specific programs. The following paragraphs describe

the definitional variations that arise. 

Most One-Stop Centers conduct some form of individualized employment planning with

clients, though the plans range from informal to in-depth. Many centers develop individualized plans

through an informal conversation between a staff member and the client. They may discuss the client’s

goals and together decide on the best course of action and what services are available that may benefit 

that particular individual’s needs. The One-Stop Center staff in Beaverton, Oregon decides 

collaboratively the needs of individual clients for counseling, advanced support, and training services.

Other One-Stop Centers have job seekers work with specialized staff to develop an individual job search

plan. 

87 
Table 3-10. Eligibility for creating individualized employment plans1 

State Site

Who can receive assistance creating 

individualized plans? 

(left blank if unknown) 

Colorado Aurora All clients

Longmont 

Boston (JobNet) 

Boston (The Work Place) All clients, using an electronic template 

Holyoke

Springfield

Woburn All clients

Massachusetts

Worcester All clients 

Battle Creek 

Detroit

Marlette Thumb 

Michigan 

Walled Lake 

Durham Welfare-to-work, food stamp recipients, 

veterans, and some clients through a 

reemployment initiative 

Oxford All clients

North Carolina 

Raleigh 

Beaverton

Pendleton

Oregon 

Salem Veterans, dislocated workers, vocational 

rehabilitation clients (VocRehab) and WIAeligibles 

North Seattle 

Renton

Walla Walla General job seekers if they choose and all 

clients enrolled in intensive service programs

Washington 

Yakima

1 No direct question was asked about this topic. Data are available only for those sites mentioning eligibility for creating individual plans.

88 
One-Stop Centers also utilize more formal individual planning strategies that may include

assessment, analysis of barriers to employment, and customized employment plans. Counselors at the 

Woburn, Massachusetts, One-Stop Center assess clients’ needs, abilities, and preferences in order to

develop “Individual Action Plans.” Some One-Stop Centers, such as Boston’s The Work Place, have

forms that use a Customized Action Plan (CAP) template to create individualized plans. In these

situations the client fills out the form and reviews it with a One-Stop Center staff member. The form may 

then be distributed to other staff who will be monitoring the client’s progress. 

Some One-Stop Centers develop individualized plans with all clients who come into the 

center. These centers may encourage clients, particularly job seekers, to meet with a counselor or 

specialist in their field of interest if they need extra assistance. Then, on an individual basis, it is

determined what services are needed and if the client is eligible to receive them. Frequently, though, only

those that are eligible for certain programs or intensive services develop formal individualized plans. For 

example, the Salem, Oregon One-Stop Center offers individualized plans only for veterans, clients in

vocational rehabilitation, dislocated workers, and WIA-eligible clients. One-Stop Centers also may use 

different individualized plans depending on the client group. The Worcester, Massachusetts One-Stop

Center uses a standard career development template for those eligible under WIA, and an abbreviated

version of the same template for those eligible for Wagner-Peyser Act services. 

3.7.10 Case Management 

Most One-Stop Centers do not have a rigid case management or individualized planning 

model in place; techniques are developed individually for each client in consultation with center staff. 

Therefore, case management is highly dependent on the staff and partners that are on site. Most case

management involves ongoing meetings between the client and a staff member to discuss what services 

are needed and have been rendered, and to assess the client’s progress. Several One-Stop Centers provide

case management services to all clients. Others provide case management only to certain client groups or

to individuals eligible to receive intensive services. 

Case management in Walla Walla, Washington includes one-on-one dialogue, ongoing 

communication between the client and staff, documentation, utilization of assessment tools, review of 

individualized plans, and development of individual performance measures. In the Marlette Thumb,

Michigan, One-Stop Center clients are guided through a menu of services and financial assistance with

89 
less in-person consultation than in traditional case management. Boston’s The Work Place focuses 

intently on case management; some techniques used to monitor service delivery include following up with

employers, having employers fill out satisfaction surveys, and keeping in touch with the placed job 

seekers. Case management is also a screening tool. The Holyoke, Massachusetts One-Stop Center

identifies those eligible for the TANF program through case management. 

Table 3-11 describes the extent of case management in the sites visited for this study. As the

table shows, different sites have different definitions of case management, and different techniques. The 

Boston, Massachusetts One-Stop Center defines it as job referral follow up but other centers see case

management as when the job seekers work with specialized case management workers. Client groups 

including those eligible for UI, Welfare-to-Work, food stamps, TANF/Aid for Families with Dependent 

Children (AFDC) recipients, WIA, VocRehab, Wagner-Peyser Act, TAA/NAFTA, veterans, the disabled,

dislocated workers, youth, and seniors are often case-managed. The level of case management an 

individual receives may depend on which categorical program they fall under. For example, at Boston’s 

JobNet, clients eligible for Wagner-Peyser and UI claimants are subject to less intense case management

than clients who are eligible for other categorical funding programs. In the Springfield, Massachusetts

One-Stop Center, each client is case-managed but different forms of case management are used for certain

client groups, such as welfare recipients who go through the Next Step program, with its own structured 

series of steps leading to the provision of services. 

Most sites mentioned specific groups that are eligible to receive case management, but they

did not necessarily exclude other clients from receiving case management. One exception was the

Holyoke, Massachusetts center where, for financial reasons, case management is limited to WIA clients,

disadvantaged clients, veterans, and youth—the site is funded to serve 5,000 clients but presently serves 

about 9,000 annually. Many One-Stop Centers provide intensive services subject to qualifications and

refuse or charge those clients not meeting the qualifications. For example, at JobNet in Boston, 

Massachusetts, case management is either fee-based or provided under certain programs once eligibility is

established. 

90 
Table 3-11. Dimensions of case management 

State Site

Who is eligible for case 

management? 

(left blank if unknown) 

How is level and intensity of case 

management determined? 

What does case management entail?

Aurora Youth, disabled, TANF 

recipients, VocRehab, others 

with special needs 

Colorado 

Longmont Clients eligible for programs 

such as Welfare-to-Work, 

TANF, WIA, veterans, 

dislocated workers and seniors

Techniques vary by program. 

Boston 

(JobNet) 

All clients under categorical 

funding programs

Wagner-Peyser Act and UI

claimants are subject to less intense 

case-management. 

Boston (The 

Work Place) 

The Center works with 

several client groups such as

the Commission for the 

Blind; the welfare, education 

and correctional departments 

to provide case management 

services. However, individual 

plans are developed for each 

customer. 

Center uses a template known as 

CAP, that individualizes plan for 

each customer. 

Additionally, the center maintains 

contact with placed job seekers to 

gauge the degree of success and 

help troubleshoot problems. 

Holyoke Older, disadvantaged and 

disabled workers, WIAeligible, veterans, youth 

Springfield All clients Welfare clients go through the Next 

Step program and handicapped 

clients with disabilities are casemanaged by specialists. 

Woburn

Massachusetts

Worcester 

Michigan Battle Creek Any client that receives 

intensive services 

Degree of case management

determined by the staff in 

consultation with the client. 

91 
Table 3-11. Dimensions of case management (continued) 

State Site

Who is eligible for case 

management? 

(left blank if unknown) 

How is level and intensity of case 

management determined? 

What does case management entail?

Michigan 

(cont’d) 

Detroit Only Trade Adjustment 

Assistance (TAA)/North 

American Free Trade 

Agreement (NAFTA) clients 

and veterans. Other social 

service offices do case 

management for other client 

groups 

Marlette 

Thumb 

About 20% of the clients who 

enter the center are casemanaged. 

Less actual in-person consultation 

than traditional case management 

“Tool chest” program provides a 

menu of services and financial 

assistance alternatives. 

Walled Lake Veterans, disabled, WIA 

eligible 

Intensity negotiated among the 

client (group’s) representatives, the 

case manager, and the client. 

Durham

Oxford TANF recipients and job 

seekers 

As a one-time service for job 

seekers, not on-going 

Work first and food stamp 

representatives handle case 

management of TANF recipients. 

North Carolina 

Raleigh No case management

Beaverton Clients with needs beyond 

core services

Degree of case management

determined on case-by-case basis. 

Pendleton Title IB, WIA-eligible, and 

veterans 

Existence or degree of case 

management determined on 

individual basis. 

Oregon 

Salem Veterans, dislocated workers, 

VocRehab and WIA-eligible 

Level and intensity determined on 

individual basis. 

92 
Table 3-11. Dimensions of case management (continued) 

State Site

Who is eligible for case 

management? 

(left blank if unknown) 

How is level and intensity of case 

management determined? 

What does case management entail?

North Seattle 

Renton

Walla Walla Some clients One-on-one dialogue, full 

documentation, utilization of 

assessment tools, and regular 

reviews of individualized plans and 

performance measures. 

Washington 

Yakima

3.7.11 Services to Special Populations 

In this section we have discussed core services that are available to any job seeker, and

intensive services that usually are available only to individuals meeting WIA eligibility criteria. In the 

following subsection, we discuss additional services that are available to populations who are targeted by 

other special programs such as welfare recipients and veterans. 

3.7.11.1 Job Search/Placement for Special Populations 

Many special client groups including TANF/AFDC and food stamp recipients, UI claimants, 

and veterans receive specialized job search services. Typically, these groups are given more assistance 

and are monitored more closely in terms of their job search activities than other job seekers may be. 

Some centers contact job seekers or their employers once individuals have been placed in

jobs to find out how their placements are going. For certain groups of job seekers, such as TANF/AFDC 

recipients, UI claimants, and those eligible for WIA, follow-up is mandatory once they have entered

employment. At Boston’s The Work Place, job developers speak to One-Stop Center clients who were

recently placed in jobs to gauge their degree of success and troubleshoot any problems. 

93 
3.7.11.2 Referrals to Supportive Services for Special Populations 

Special populations of job seekers may be eligible for referrals to supportive services and 

training. These services for clients with special needs are typically the types of services that One-Stop 

Centers do not provide on site. Clients eligible for WIA often receive training vouchers to cover training

costs. The Detroit, Michigan center employs a computerized system to aid in referrals and training 

voucher provision for clients eligible for WIA. The system contains a database with clients’ demographic 

and service history information. WIA personnel retrieve information from the database when making

referrals, thus speeding up the transition into training and other support services. 

3.7.11.3 Workshops for Special Populations 

One-Stop Centers often make certain workshops mandatory or strongly encourage particular 

populations of job seekers to attend workshops (including development of learning skills, communication 

skills, interviewing skills, punctuality, personal maintenance skills, and professional conduct) to prepare 

individuals for unsubsidized employment or training. TANF/AFDC recipients must attend workshops at

the North Seattle, Washington One-Stop Center. There is a two-week workshop for welfare clients 

available at the Aurora, Colorado center, involving skill assessment and on-the-job behavioral skills.

Many centers offer reemployment or job seeker workshops for UI claimants. 

At several centers TANF/AFDC and food stamp recipients participate in a mandatory 

structured job search process. UI claimants must be actively searching for a job in order to continue 

receiving benefits, so centers provide services for this group to aid in their job search activities. In

Washington, the work test includes referring claimants to jobs for which they are qualified. Michigan UI 

claimants have their resumes posted on the Michigan Talent Bank, the state’s job matching system, as a

condition of their receiving benefits. Often, UI recipients must attend a reemployment workshop. For

example, the Oxford, North Carolina One-Stop Center operates the Reemployment Initiative Program, a 

series of workshops required for UI participants, but open to anyone who wants to participate. UI 

recipients attend four in-person workshops and report weekly over the following eight weeks to help them 

remove barriers to work. Oregon’s focus on UI claimants means there is an up-front assessment, through 

94 
which “unattached” claimants10 receive special intensive treatment. Most claimants get periodic (usually 

eight-week) checks on their job-seeking activities. 

3.8 Services to Employers 

Services to employers have historically been a part of the Wagner-Peyser Act labor

exchange system, and the One-Stop delivery system of labor exchange services continues the tradition of 

providing services to employers to meet their labor force needs. Employer services can be broadly defined

as those services which an employer can access without any direct assistance from the One-Stop Center

staff (employer self-service), as well as staff-assisted services (facilitated self-service) and intensive 

(staff-assisted) employer services. Figure 3-3 delineates these services. 

This section provides information about employer services observed in the One-Stop Centers 

visited for this study. The One-Stop Centers studied offer the set of services traditionally delivered by the 

ES agencies (job matching, job fairs, labor market information, etc.), but there is great variety in how 

these traditional services are delivered. Additionally, some of the sites appear to offer more, and more 

intensive, services to employers than do other sites. 

Changing technology concurrent with the movement toward One-Stop Centers has allowed

employers access to electronic services such as posting job openings and scanning for possible

candidates. This type of employer self-service job matching is found to some extent in all of the states in

the study. For example, in Durham, North Carolina, employer entry of job orders is becoming more 

common; also the Longmont, Colorado One-Stop Center is developing a resume database that will enable

employers to locate potential employees on their own. Michigan appears to have an established history of 

emphasis on employer self-service via the Internet. 

The bulk of the services provided to employers and observed during the site visits appear to

be the same provided under the ES agencies and/or driven by conditions in the local economy rather than 

due to any changes resulting from the movement to the One-Stop Center environment. For example, 

because of the frequency of layoffs in the local area, the Woburn, Massachusetts One-Stop Center has 

begun to focus on providing more outplacement assistance, and sites in Michigan reported outplacement

services for employers implementing layoffs or plant closings. 

 

10 Those claimants not likely to return to a specific job. 

95 
The Workforce Investment Act (WIA), the Wagner-Peyser Act as it was amended by WIA, 

and the literature on labor exchange services detail self-service, facilitated self-help services, and staffassisted services to be delivered to employers, as follows: 

 Allowing employers to review job seekers’ resumes or registration information to

select qualified candidates 

 Providing labor market information (LMI) on education and training, pay expected by 

occupation, and non-monetary attributes being sought. Employers can access LMI 

through computer systems, resource rooms, and public libraries 

 Making available employment rules, regulations, and tools to help employers selfmanage their workforce needs 

 Providing space for conducting interviews

 Posting employers’ job orders 

 Recruiting job seeker candidates for employment. Searching the centers’ systems of

job seekers to match to employers’ vacancies 

 Pre-screening job candidates 

 Working with employers to organize job fairs and specialized recruitment efforts 

 Recruiting employers to list vacancies with the labor exchanges or One-Stop Centers 

 Helping employers train and assist employees by providing contact information about

services that are not directly available through the labor exchange or One-Stop Center 

 Providing tailored labor market information on prevailing wage rates and other 

conditions of employment to improve the probability that job seekers will apply for 

specific vacancies and accept offers. The information often comes from interaction

with staff concerning why similar listings are, and are not, being filled 

 Assisting with major workforce shifts and/or reductions in the workforce 

 Participating in rapid response efforts that employers need to meet their legal 

requirements when downsizing 

 Hastening the transition of the workforce to new employment opportunities 

 Providing employers access to resource information on subjects ranging from 

reducing absenteeism to specialized labor market studies 

Sources: Westat’s “Draft Research Design for the Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Center Environment” section 2.2,

http://workforcesecurity.doleta.gov/employ.asp, and Federal Register, 65(156), August 11, 2000.

Figure 3-3. Labor exchange services for employers

96 
3.8.1 Job Matching (Obtaining Job Listings from Employers and Identifying Job 

Candidates) 

One-Stop Centers use a variety of methods to obtain job listings. The Longmont, Colorado

site and the Woburn, Massachusetts site use the account manager method, assigning staff to a specific 

employer. The account manager acts as the employer representative at the center. Account managers 

handle job listings, follow through to the point of a job match, and track placements. Some centers’

account managers offer recruitment, screening, and referral of potential employees to interested

employers. Account managers may contact employers regularly to solicit job listings and to discuss 

anticipated needs for planning purposes. The business specialist method employed in Washington is a

variation on the account manager method: the employer contact is managed by a business specialist

organized by industry, for example there are business specialists for the health care and manufacturing

industries. In some cases, a specialized unit at the workforce regional level receives all job orders for the 

region. The Marlette Thumb, Michigan site subcontracts out job listing services to local economic

development organizations. 

One-Stop Centers in this study have or are moving toward some kind of self-service, 

computer-based job matching system that allows employers to register jobs and view job seekers’ 

resumes on-line. 

 Colorado has a state-level Job-link database and some of the regions have local

websites that allow employers to register jobs. The Longmont, CO center is 

developing a resume-database that employers will be able to scan for potential

employees to fill their job openings. The state of Colorado had developed a state-ofthe-art job matching system prior to devolution. It appears, however, that with 

devolution, new job matching initiatives are regionally- and locally-based. 

 Massachusetts is developing an employer-access Talent Bank that will allow 

employers to load jobs online and search job seekers’ resumes for matches. The 

Springfield center provides access to a database of local job seekers’ resumes. 

 Michigan offers the Michigan Talent Bank, an Internet-based labor exchange, for 

registered employers to view resumes and post immediate job openings. At the Walled 

Lake center, as at other centers, employers log on to the statewide online job bank to

97 
post job openings and review job seekers’ resumes. The center will provide help to

employers upon request, but staff is not automatically assigned.11 

 North Carolina has an ES web site containing jobs posted by North Carolina 

employers. In Durham, more and more employers are finding the online entry of job 

orders the preferred method of getting job orders into the One-Stop Center system. 

 Oregon maintains a “Working in Oregon” web site through which employers can post

jobs and view job seekers’ resumes. (This capability was not available at the time we 

conducted our first site visit, but was mentioned during our follow-up interviews.) 

 Washington State’s “WorkSource Washington” allows employers to directly post jobs 

and access resume search capabilities. 

3.8.2 Job Fairs 

Many sites report they conduct job fairs. One-Stop Centers may hold general, occupational, 

or employer specific job fairs. The Work Place in Boston, Massachusetts provides three types of job fairs: 

single employer, multiple-employer, and specialty (for specific types of employers or job seekers). Both

the Longmont, Colorado and the Battle Creek, Michigan One-Stop Centers offer occupation-/industry- or 

single employer-focused job fairs. The Yakima, Washington, center holds an annual Job Fair attracting 

over 100 businesses and 4,000 job seekers. The job fair is supported by the City of Yakima, the local

employment service office, and partnering agencies. In the Raleigh, North Carolina One-Stop Center for 

which the social services agency is the lead agency, job fairs are conducted through the One-Stop 

Center’s collaboration with a business advisory council. 

3.8.3 Labor Market Information 

Labor Market Information is also readily available at many One-Stop Centers. The amount 

and depth of LMI varies. At the One-Stop Center in Holyoke, Massachusetts, an LMI database includes 

information on the legal responsibilities of employers. The One-Stop Center in Springfield,

Massachusetts also has quite extensive LMI available that includes information compiled from a national 

database, its own database, local business journals, and wage data sources. LMI is widely accessible to all 

employers through state and local web sites. 

 

11 Michigan is unique among the study states, with its strong emphasis on employer self-service matching and what might be thought of as 

“cyberspace job matching,” where employers and job seekers are connected via the Internet with relatively little intervention on the part of the 

One-Stop Center staff.

98 
3.8.4 Space for Employers: Interviewing and Information Resource Rooms 

Having some kind of designated resource or interview room is another common service OneStop Centers offer employers. This may be in the form of an office space that employers can reserve

ahead of time to conduct interviews such as that found at the Holyoke, Massachusetts and Pendleton, 

Oregon One-Stop Centers. Other centers have a room set aside to be used exclusively by employers to

interview potential employees. The Raleigh, North Carolina One-Stop Center, similar to most other OneStop Centers, encourages employers to meet job seekers at the One-Stop Center, and to use the One-Stop 

Center’s interview rooms. 

Another type of space for employers is resource centers that not only house interview space

but also contain reference information and other materials. For example, at the One-Stop Center in Walla

Walla, Washington, there is a private work area set aside for employers that includes a computer with

Internet access so they can post job openings. One-Stop Center resource rooms are used by employers to 

interview job seeker candidates, obtain LMI, and get assistance in dealing with the Americans with

Disabilities Act and workplace safety issues. 

3.8.5 Seminars and Training 

The sites reported training in many areas including computerized job matching, compliance 

with employer regulations, and use of One-Stop Center services. Some seminars involve guest speakers 

who address particular workforce issues. Employer roundtables such as that held at the Aurora, Colorado 

One-Stop Center host guest speakers from specific industries. The Durham, North Carolina One-Stop 

Center is expanding services to employers by offering seminars on reasonable accommodations for the

disabled. 

3.8.6 Incumbent Worker Services 

Incumbent worker services were reported in two of the Massachusetts sites. The Holyoke

One-Stop Center has offered retention services to employers in the management and finance area to help

employers retain good employees. The Woburn One-Stop Center plans to work with employers to 

identify retraining and upgrading needs. 

99 
3.8.7 Other Employer Services

Some One-Stop Centers offer intensive services that were not widely reported by other sites. 

The Work Place in Boston, Massachusetts provides customized marketing services to employers with 

particular requirements, such as a grocery store chain in a Hispanic neighborhood. The One-Stop Centers 

in Durham and Oxford, North Carolina both offer employer exit interviews. 

One-Stop Centers use a variety of strategies to attract employers. In some ways, this could 

be an important indicator of a site’s emphasis on services to employers. A number of centers indicated 

that their objective is to become more employer-oriented and to improve or expand services to employers 

in the future. Some One-Stop Centers appear to be quite employer-oriented, as evidenced by their 

emphasis on obtaining information from employers on how to best meet their needs: 

 A dedicated employer relations representative at the Salem, Oregon One-Stop Center 

maintains contact with the Chamber of Commerce and city and county organizations, 

and networks with large employers. 

 The Battle Creek, Michigan One-Stop Center runs an outreach campaign funded by 

the Workforce Development Board involving billboards and radio advertisements to 

enlist employers; the site emphasizes services to employers and markets them heavily 

for use of the center. 

 The Yakima, Washington center developed a Business Outreach Team to encourage

more businesses to use the center’s resources. 

 The Beaverton, Oregon One-Stop Center works closely with the Workforce Alliance 

and the Portland Development Commission to ascertain what types of assistance are

desired by employers. 

100 
4. BENEFITS/COST EVALUATION 

4.1 Introduction 

This chapter of the Public Labor Exchanges (PLXs) in a One-Stop Environment report 

provides statistical evidence about the scope, benefits, and costs of job matching services provided by 

PLXs in five of the six states in our sample: Colorado, North Carolina, Massachusetts, Oregon, and 

Washington. Michigan was omitted because the required administrative data were not available for this 

state; however, an analysis of Michigan employer and job seeker surveys is presented in Section 4.6. The 

analysis presented here builds on work previously completed covering Oregon and Washington, which

was published by the Employment and Training Administration in October 2000, as well as several earlier 

studies. 

PLXs were established in the 1930s under the Wagner-Peyser Act to help Depression-era 

workers find jobs by acting as labor market intermediaries directly linking job openings with job 

candidates. Today PLXs annually place upwards of 3 million workers from the over 6 million jobs they

list. Another 6 million workers use PLXs to search for work, but are not directly placed. To provide these 

services, PLXs receive about $1 billion in Federal funds (Wagner-Peyser Act and Title 38, U.S. Code – 

Veterans Employment and Training), or $330 per placement. PLX resources are supplemented by state 

funds and mostly in-kind contributions from One-Stop partners. 

While the mission of the PLXs has not changed over the past 70 years, the methods used to 

link workers to openings have changed substantially. The first wave of changes was to automate the

process by which staff listed jobs and searched those listings on behalf of workers and firms. The second

wave of changes was to allow self-service matching by job seekers, sometimes with unsuppressed contact 

information, which then would allow self-referral. A third wave of changes was to allow searching of 

various websites that provide lists of openings that are not part of the PLX’s list, such as

monsterboard.com or the Washington Post want ads. A fourth change that has occurred recently was

organizational. In some states, the PLXs are no longer run by state employees, but by local government

employees attached to community colleges or other governmental entities. In a few cases, nonprofit

organizations run PLXs, and in one case in Massachusetts a PLX is run by a for-profit firm. 

On balance, these changes have made it possible for the PLXs to effectively serve more and 

more job seekers and employers with budgets that have declined in real terms over the past 25 years. The

101 
changes, however, have made it progressively more difficult to document the PLX’s achievements and

determine its effectiveness.

Table 4-1 describes key characteristics of PLXs and labor forces in the six states included in

the study. All the data in the table come from official US-DOL statistics. Panel A shows basic figures for

Program Year 1997 (PY97, July 1996 through June 1997). Panel B shows figures for employment and

unemployment in 1997. Panel C shows how the numbers in panels A and B relate to labor force 

characteristics and each other. Panel D shows how the numbers in panel A changed between PY94 and

PY97. Panel E shows how the numbers in Panel B changed between PY94 and PY97. 

One good indicator of the reach of the PLXs is applicants—individuals registering to receive 

services— as a percent of the state labor force. This statistic, shown on line 10, indicates that in Oregon

applicants equaled 27.6 percent of the labor force. In North Carolina and Washington, applicants equaled

about 20 percent. In Colorado, Massachusetts, and Michigan, applicants equaled less than 11 percent. 

Line 20, however, shows that in Massachusetts and Michigan applicants declined by 37.0 and 46.8

percent, respectively, between PY94 and PY97. This change partly reflects real changes in activity and 

partly reflects changes in the way data were reported, as both states restructured their PLXs to devolve 

control to local service providers. 

Perhaps the best indicator of the PLXs’ reach, however, is placements as a percent of the

state labor force. This statistic, shown on line 11, indicates that in North Carolina placements equaled 3.9 

percent of the labor force. In the state with the next highest percent, Oregon, placements equaled 2.5 

percent. In the two states with the next highest percents, Washington and Colorado, placements equaled 

about 1.5 percent. Finally, placements were less than half a percent of the labor forces in Massachusetts

and Michigan. 

As shown on line 22, relative to PY94, placements decreased by roughly 70 percent in

Massachusetts and Michigan. They fell slightly in Colorado and Washington, remained constant in North 

Carolina, but increased by 5.1 percent in Oregon. These patterns are key indicators of the problem with

using the official statistics to understand what really is going on. Among the many states that have moved

to extensive use of unsuppressed listings, only Oregon has developed a system to track self-referrals.

Thus, Oregon may be the only state in this group where placements can be tracked with anything 

approaching reasonable accuracy. 

102 
Table 4-1. PLX activity in program year 1997, employment and unemployment in the six states 

Colorado Massachusetts Michigan North Caroli

A. PLX Activity (program-year 1997)

1 Total Applicants 227,948 130,909 389,709 780,02 Individuals Referred to Job 122,913 45,920 50,653 524,03 Individuals Placed in Job 31,937 10,204 17,749 148,44 Total Placement Transactions 46,355 11,072 21,696 178,45 UI Claimants Placement Transactions 4,956 3,207 1,306 44,26 Openings Received 72,024 92,425 97,562 325,9

B. Employment and Unemployment 1997

7 Employment 2,124,656 3,088,550 4,713,300 3,683,88 Unemployment 79,031 130,679 224,585 148,39 Unemployment rate 3.6% 4.1% 4.5% 3.

C. Key Relationships

10 Applicants/Labor Force 1/(7+8) 10.3% 4.1% 7.9% 20.411 Placements/Labor Force 4/(7+8) 1.4% 0.3% 0.4% 3.12 Referrals/Applicants 2/1 53.9% 35.1% 13.0% 67.13 Placements/Applicants 3/1 14.0% 7.8% 4.6% 19.14 Placements/Referrals 3/2 26.0% 22.2% 35.0% 28.15 Placement transactions/Individuals placed 4/3 1.45 1.09 1.22 1.

16 Claimant placement transactions/total 5/4 10.7% 29.0% 6.0% 24.17 Placements/Opening 3/6 44.3% 11.0% 18.2% 45.18 Openings/Placements 6/3 2.26 9.06 5.50 2.19 Openings/Labor Force 6/(7+8) 3.3% 2.9% 2.0% 8.

D. Change in Activity between PY94 and PY97

20 Total Applicants -14.7% -37.0% -46.8% -0.21 Individuals Referred to Job -10.8% -52.0% -65.6% 2.22 Individuals Placed in Job -25.7% -67.0% -72.5% -16.23 Total Placement Transactions -33.3% -66.7% -76.9% -17.24 UI Claimants Placement Transactions -47.6% -65.8% -86.9% 6.25 Openings Received -31.4% -10.5% -37.6% -8.

E. Change in Employment and Unemployment 1994-97

26 Employment 8.2% 3.6% 3.6% 6.27 Unemployment -4.0% -26.7% -15.4% -4.

Source: USDOL (2002). ETA Form 9002 Quarterly Report, and Bureau of Labor Statistics 

Lines Used in

Calculations

103 
North Carolina and Washington, at least through 1998, had more “traditional” PLXs where 

job seekers could view listings on their own, but staff made most referrals. The relatively small declines

in placements shown on line 22 of Table 4-1 probably reflect modest increases in self-referrals, rather

than real declines in placements. In Massachusetts and Michigan, however, the enormous declines in the

placement statistics partly reflect major organizational changes. For example, Boston, Cambridge,

Springfield, and Holyoke stopped reporting statistics to the state. But the reductions also reflect a real 

decline in the emphasis placed on maintenance of a comprehensive PLX that provide a wide range of selfservice and staff-assisted services to all comers. This is especially true in Michigan. 

Finally, line 19 shows a second excellent indicator of PLXs’ reach, job-openings received as 

a percent of the labor force. This statistic equaled about 8.6 percent in Oregon and North Carolina, was 

5.1 percent in Washington, but was only 3.3 percent, 2.9 percent, and 2.0 percent, respectively, in 

Colorado, Massachusetts, and Michigan. Importantly, unlike referrals and placements, which have

become increasingly difficult to measure because of the spread of unsuppressed job listings, the number

of job orders usually can be accurately measured because most states have maintained a statewide

automated system that allows job seekers to look through the job listings. However, there are a few states 

where many job orders are not listed in a centralized databank, and therefore, the true count of job orders

is unknown. 

As shown on line 25, official statistics indicate that openings received declined by 37.6 

percent in Michigan and 31.4 percent in Colorado. There probably were large declines in both states, but 

the extent of these declines may be overstated because changes in the structure of these states’ PLXs led

to One-Stop Centers not listing all openings they received. More specifically, in both states the PLXs 

were devolved to local control, and it is possible that local staff developed openings to meet the needs of 

particular clients that were not made available to all comers. 

Also of interest, there is some correlation between changes in openings received and changes

in referrals and placements, but the fit is far from perfect. For example, openings increased by 35.5 

percent in Oregon, and referrals increased by 17.0 percent, but placements increased by only 5.1 percent. 

In North Carolina, openings declined by 8.6 percent, and placements declined by 16.3 percent. In some

states, much of the lack of stronger correlation was due to increased use of unsuppressed listing. For

example, a modest increase in use of unsuppressed listings probably explains why openings increased by 

14.7 percent in Washington, but placements declined by 7.5 percent. 

104 
Line 17 shows that states vary in their efficiency in filling job orders, as well as in the ability 

of PLXs to obtain large shares of openings. North Carolina and Colorado were able to place job seekers at 

about 45 percent of the openings received, while Washington and Oregon placed job seekers at about 30 

percent of their openings, but the placement rates were only 18 percent and 11 percent, respectively, in 

Michigan and Massachusetts. Again, some of these differences are overstated due to measurement 

problems, but they probably reflect reality reasonably well. In particular, these comparisons show that 

North Carolina was especially effective in filling openings, as this state had almost twice the placement

rate as Oregon, which had about the same proportion of openings to labor force as North Carolina. Also

North Carolina’s placement rate equaled Colorado’s, even though North Carolina had about three times

the placements to make (relative to its labor force size) as Colorado. 

In summary, traditional performance measures indicate that PLXs provide assistance to very 

large numbers of workers and firms at low cost. Indeed, PLXs succeed in directly placing large numbers

of individuals at jobs and obtaining large numbers of openings. However, there are major problems with

tracking PLX performance in most states, which make it appear that services have declined. These

problems mainly stem from expanded use of job-orders with unsuppressed contact information. Also, 

within some states in our study, movement toward local control probably reduced the number of openings

listed in statewide databanks. 

One state, Oregon, demonstrated that it is possible to gain the advantages from self-service

referrals without experiencing a decline in the quality of the data. We believe that it would be

exceptionally worthwhile for other states to adopt Oregon’s system. An alternative is to use registrant

surveys to determine the extent to which PLXs have directly and indirectly assisted clients. Interestingly, 

while several states use surveys to assess customer satisfaction, only Michigan uses surveys to collect 

more objective measures of achievement. 

While PLX output indicators are impressive, they fall short of demonstrating the valueadded of PLX services. The best measure of effectiveness is how benefits compare to costs. The bulk of 

this chapter describes the new benefit-cost analyses we have conducted covering Colorado, 

Massachusetts, and North Carolina. However, we first briefly review earlier results covering Washington 

and Oregon (Jacobson and Petta, 2000). 

105 
4.2 Results for Washington and Oregon from Earlier Studies 

Table 4-2 shows the key results from the Washington and Oregon studies. Study-1, the 

Washington mail study, used a survey of 587 individuals referred to PLX openings. Because we were able

to track what happened subsequent to receiving a referral, we identified a comparison group of

individuals who requested but were not granted job interviews, usually because they applied too late to be 

considered for the opening. We could then compare the subsequent job search of the “too late” group to a 

group who were interviewed. 

Use of this naturally occurring comparison group resembles a true control group derived 

from an experimental design where individuals seeking a referral randomly would be told that the job was 

filled, whether or not that actually was the case. The results show that those placed with strong work 

records returned to work 7.2 weeks sooner than otherwise, while those with weak work records returned

to work 3.8 weeks sooner. 

Multiplying the total number of placements times the per-person increase in weeks of

employment times average weekly earnings produces an estimated net earnings gain of $45 million in

1998. This is roughly 1.8 times the cost of running the entire Washington PLX. Because the value of 

referrals not leading to placements, and other services is excluded, this benefit-cost ratio is highly 

conservative. 

Study-2, the Washington administrative data study, used the same type of data used in other 

states to examine earnings gains to UI claimants. This study included over 325,000 unemployment spells 

from 1987 through 1995 and concluded that joblessness was reduced by 7.7 weeks for each placement

and by 2.1 weeks for each referral. Multiplying the average per-person effects by the number of referrals 

and placements and the average weekly earnings produced an estimated increase in earnings of $25 

million, which is 2.8 times the cost of providing those services. Making the highly conservative 

assumption that the referral effects were due to selection bias generated a gain of $11 million, which is 

1.2 times the cost of providing the services. 

106 
Table 4-2. Study characteristics and measures of PLX benefits in Washington and Oregon 

Back to Work Effect Of 

Data Source 

Population 

Studied

Placement 

Relative to

Referral 

Referral 

Relative to No

Referral3

Total PLX 

Benefits Per 

Year1

Benefit–Cost 

Comparisons2

Study-1 

Washington Mail 

Survey and 

Administrative 

Data for the first 

half of 1998 

A sample 

of 587

individuals

referred to

PLX job 

openings 

7.2 weeks sooner 

for job seekers 

with strong work 

records. 

3.8 weeks sooner 

for job seekers 

with weak work

records 

Not examined $45 million

for all 1998 

PLX users 

from

placements 

alone 

Annual cost 

$25 million 

Benefit-cost 

ratio 1.8 

Study-2 

Washington

Administrative 

Data for 1987-95

A sample 

of 328,815

spells of 

unemployment 

experienced 

by UI

claimants 

7.7 weeks sooner 2.1 weeks 

sooner

$11 million 

for claimant 

placements 

alone 1987-

95 

$25 million 

for claimant 

placements 

and referrals 

1987-95

Annual cost 

$25 million 

35 percent

spent on 

claimants 

Benefit-cost 

ratio between

1.2 and 2.8 

Study-3 

Oregon

Administrative 

Data for 1995

A sample 

of 138,280

spells of 

unemployment 

experienced 

by UI

claimants 

4.6 weeks sooner 1.1 weeks 

sooner

$15 million 

for 1995

claimant 

placements 

alone 

$30 million 

for 1995

claimant 

placements 

and referrals 

Annual cost 

$26 million 

38 percent

spent on 

claimants 

Benefit-cost 

ratio between

1.6 and 3.1 

Source: Jacobson and Petta (2000). “Measuring the Effect of Public Labor Exchange (PLX) Referrals and Placements in Oregon.” 

1 Study-1 uses published statistics to estimate the number of placements, Study-2 uses tabulations of person-level files to measure the number of 

placements and referrals. Study-3 uses both sources of information. Use of published data for 1995 raised benefit estimates of Study-2 to $42 million for 

placements and referrals together and $13 million for placements alone. This increased the 1995 benefit-cost ratios to 4.5 for placements and referral and 

to 2.1 for placements alone. 

2 Benefit-cost ratios are not adjusted for crowding-out effects that are estimated to reduce the ratios by about 20 percent.

3 Referral effects include the value of placements plus the value of labor market information obtained by viewing PLX listings and interacting with staff for

PLX users whose referrals do not lead to direct placements. 

107 
Study-3, the Oregon administrative data study, used the same methodology as Study-2 to

estimate the per-claimant reduction in joblessness in Oregon. We found that joblessness was reduced by 

4.6 weeks per placement, and 1.1 weeks per referral. Estimated total gains ranged from $15 to $30 million 

annually, or 1.6 to 3.1 times the cost of providing the services. 

Studies 2 and 3 were limited to claimants because they were the only group for whom we 

could accurately measure the lag between job-loss and obtaining a referral leading to a placement. Studies 

that do not control for this lag tend to show that PLX users have worse job-search outcomes than nonusers. Those negative findings arise because many claimants can quickly find jobs through personal

contacts or want ads, but those who use PLXs typically do not have access to those information sources or 

have exhausted leads from those sources. Thus, only when “elapsed jobless duration” is held constant, is

the negative selection that leads to PLX usage likely to be adequately taken into account. 

Table 4-3 describes the basic model used for all of our state analyses using administrative

data. One key facet of this model is that we separately estimate the effects of referrals and placements in

each of eight periods, excluding claimants who have already ended their spells at the start of the

respective period. A second key element of this estimating procedure is that we control for factors that 

strongly affect the timing of the return to work and need for PLX services. These include whether the 

claimant is recalled by a former employer, the pre-unemployment level and rate of change of earnings, as 

well as the level of weekly UI payments and amount of entitlement available at the start of a given claim 

spell. 

4.3 Results for North Carolina 

Table 4-4 describes some of the basic characteristics of the 10 percent sample of North 

Carolina claimants covering 1994 through 1998 used in the empirical work.12 Because our wage record 

data spanned 1993 through 2000, we were able to track employment one full year prior to the start of each

unemployment spell and one full year after the end of each spell. 

 

12A separate analysis was conducted on the characteristics of job orders listed with North Carolina PLX offices in 1999. The work examines the

types of jobs listed with PLX offices, number of openings per job orders, pay level, experience, and education required for specific job orders. 

The analysis can be found in Appendix H to this report. 

108 
Table 4-3. Specification of the model 

L(i, t) = a + b D + c H + d M + x1 P + x2 R t = 1,2,....8 Equation 4-1

where 

L = length of unemployment in weeks from referral in period t to (1) end of job search or

52nd week, whichever comes first, if i = 1, or (2) benefit exhaustion or 26th payment, 

whichever comes first, if i = 2; 

D = an array of demographic characteristics; 

H = an array of work and claim history characteristics; 

M = an array of labor market characteristics; 

P = a dummy variable indicating a person is placed as a result of a referral in period t; 

R = a dummy variable indicating a person is referred in period t, but not placed as a result

of a referral through week 39; 

(Individuals not placed or referred in period t are in the “omitted group” – claimants 

who generally received no assistance from PLXs.) 

t = period relative to start of claim spell over which measures of service receipt and 

subsequent duration are made: 1=week 1; 2=week 2-5; 3=week 6-9; 4=week 10-13; 

5=week 14-18; 6=week 19-26; 7=week 27-39; 8=week 40-52

(Lower case letters other than i and t denote parameter estimates.) 

There are 212,108 spells of unemployment in the sample. A spell is a period of benefit

collection without a break lasting more than 3 weeks. However, we separately examined PLX usage in up

to eight periods. As long as the spell lasted, we classified each claimant in each period as not referred,

referred but not placed, or placed. In all, there are 461,571 spell-periods in the database. On average, a 

spell of benefit collection lasted 5.4 weeks, but periods of joblessness lasted 8.8 weeks on average

because some claimants exhausted benefits or otherwise stopped claims prior to returning to work. 

For period one, 53 percent of claimants returned to pre-layoff employers, 43 percent took

new jobs, and 4 percent did not return to employment covered in our data set within 4 quarters of the end

of their UI spell. Recalled workers returned to work in about half the time of job changers and rarely were 

referred or placed by a PLX. In contrast, 14.2 percent of job changers were referred in any given period, 

and 2.4 percent were placed. 

109 
Table 4-4. Characteristics of North Carolina claimants 1994-1998 

 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

A. Duration, Job Change, and

PLX Use Duration Of Job Change Status Referral/Placement Status 

N 

Spell 

(Weeks) 

Joblessness

(Weeks) 

Recall 

(%) 

Change 

(%) 

Ambiguous

(%) 

Not Referred 

(%) 

Referred 

(%) 

Placed 

(%) 

Full 10% Sample 461,571 10.1 13.6 43.2 5.1 5.1 90.1 8.6 1.4 

By Job Change Status

1 Recall 199,349 6.6 5.7 100.0 97.8 2.0 0.2

2 Job Change 238,533 12.6 18.4 100.0 83.4 14.2 2.4

3 No New Empl. 23,689 15.4 31.2 100.0 92.2 7.3 0.5 

By Referral/Placement Status 

1 No referral 415,774 9.6 12.8 46.9 47.9 5.3 100

2 Referral 39,559 15.9 21.7 10.1 85.6 4.4 100

3 Placement 6,238 11.8 14.4 6.2 92.0 1.8 100

By Elapsed Claim Duration

1 Week 1 212,108 5.3 8.7 53.8 42.5 3.6 96.9 2.7 0.4

2 Weeks 2-5 114,158 8.9 12.4 41.9 53.2 4.9 85.7 12.5 1.8

3 Weeks 6-9 56,602 14.5 17.4 34.2 59.6 6.2 84.9 13.05 2.1

4 Weeks 10-14 35,787 18.7 22.1 27.6 64.9 7.6 83.3 14.2 2.5

5 Weeks 15-18 22,835 22.5 26.9 21.5 69.6 8.9 83.3 14.3 2.4

6 Weeks 19-26 15,580 25.3 30.3 16.8 73.2 10.0 75.2 22.1 2.7

7 Weeks 27-39 4,199 30.7 33.6 14.6 74.2 11.2 72.0 23.3 4.7

8 Weeks 40-52 302 45.0 36.8 17.9 69.9 12.3

 

B. Benefits and Earnings

UI Benefits Paid Weekly Earnings 

Total 

(%) 

Total 

($) 

Per Week 

($) 

Pre Spell 

($) 

Post Spell 

($) 

Difference 

(%) 

Full 10% Sample 100.0 1,585 153 370 308 -17 

By Job Change Status

1 Recall 43.2 743 114 380 340 -11

2 Job Change 51.7 2,145 166 356 285 -20

3 No New Empl. 5.1 2,770 179 418 0 -100 

By Referral/Placement Status 

1 Recall 90.1 1,466 151 372 311 -16

2 Job Change 8.6 2,778 171 353 281 -20

3 No New Empl. 1.4 1,757

 144 312 272 -13

 

Spell Starters 

(%) 

Ending Spell 

(%) 

By Elapsed Claim Duration 

1 Week 1 100.0 46.2 711 135 357 323 -9

2 Weeks 2-5 53.8 50.4 1,257 141 363 306 -16

3 Weeks 6-9 26.7 36.8 2,279 157 381 296 -22

4 Weeks 10-14 16.9 36.2 3,156 169 394 285 -28

5 Weeks 15-18 10.8 31.8 4,017 179 408 276 -32

6 Weeks 19-26 7.3 73.0 4,646 184 424 271 -36

7 Weeks 27-39 2.0 92.8 5,338 174 410 271 -34

8 Weeks 40-52 0.1 7,010 156 359 228 -36

Source: Unless otherwise noted, all of the tables in this chapter are derived from state-level microdata provided to Westat.

Note: PLX usage is examined in up to eight periods for each spell (depending on its length). There are 212,108 spells and 461,571 separate spell

periods in the database. 

110 
The probability of recall declined from 53 percent in week 1 of a spell to about 16 percent 

after 26 weeks. As the probability of returning to former jobs declined over time, the probability of being 

placed increased markedly. 

The bottom panel of Table 4-4 shows that: 

 About three times more benefits per spell went to job changers than to those recalled. 

Those placed received only 20 percent more benefits than those not referred. 

 Earnings following a spell of unemployment declined by about 17 percent on average, 

but the decline was only 11 percent for those recalled versus 20 percent for job

changers. 

 Earnings declines were strongly associated with unemployment duration. Declines 

were only 9 percent for those ending spells after 1 week, compared to 32 percent for 

those ending spells after 18 weeks. 

 Earnings declines were smallest for claimants placed by a PLX. However, this is

partly due to the pre-spell earnings of those claimants being considerably lower than 

for other groups. 

The patterns shown in Table 4-4 have important implications for judging the effectiveness of 

PLX referrals and placements. In particular, as the claims duration lengthened there was a decline in

(1) prospects for recall, (2) the probability of finding work prior to exhausting benefits, and (3) finding 

jobs which pay close to pre-claim level. These factors suggest that a claimant’s need and openness to use 

PLX services is likely to grow with unemployment duration. 

That many low-wage workers are placed by PLXs sometimes is considered a negative

attribute. However, it is reasonable to conclude that low-wage workers who have remained jobless for

extended periods have fewer external resources on which to rely, and therefore, need the type of help 

PLXs provide more than other workers. 

4.3.1 Regression-Based Estimates of Reductions in North Carolina Joblessness and UI

Claims Duration 

Table 4-5 summarizes the main regression results of the separate effects of referrals and

placements for each of seven periods in North Carolina. Panel A presents the effects on the duration of 

joblessness and Panel B presents the effects on the duration of the UI claim.

111 
Duration of a claim was directly derived from the UI weekly payment ledgers used for this 

study. The jobless duration variable, however, was estimated from the pattern of quarterly earnings in the

wage record file. We estimated when joblessness began in the spell start quarter by comparing earnings in 

that quarter to earnings in pre-spell quarters. We estimated when joblessness ended in the quarter of

return to work by comparing earnings in that quarter to post-spell earnings. We also took into account the 

possibility that claimants had some employment in quarters between the start and end quarter of a given

spell by comparing earnings in those quarters to average pre- and post-spell earnings. 

In previous studies, we simply used the difference between the end and start quarter to 

measure joblessness. This new approach appears to provide a much more accurate measure of duration. It

also possibly can be used to estimate the lag between the start of job search and use of PLXs that is

needed to accurately estimate the value of PLX services for groups other than claimants. 

4.3.1.1 Effects on Weeks of Joblessness in North Carolina 

Panel A of Table 4-5 shows estimates of referral and placement effects on weeks of 

joblessness. Column A shows the adjusted R-square of each of the seven separate regressions run using 

the specification shown in Table 4-3. In all cases, the explanatory power of the regression is high for this

type of data, mainly because there were very substantial differences in joblessness for job changers versus

recalled claimants. 

Column B shows the coefficients that measure the effect of a referral or placement relative to 

no referral. Claimants who were referred (but not placed) uniformly have longer durations than nonreferred claimants matched with respect to demographic, work-history, labor-market, and elapsed 

duration of claim. These results indicate that unmeasured characteristics of claimants being referred (but 

not placed) cause them to have more difficulty finding work than claimants matched on observable

characteristics. The alternative explanation is that obtaining referrals increases the duration of joblessness

of these claimants. While this is a theoretic possibility, it is unlikely to hold in practice. In previous

analyses of Oregon and Washington data, we found that referral effects were small but led to reduced

durations. Significantly, the Washington and Oregon regression results reversed small increases in 

duration based on comparing the unadjusted mean durations for those referred to those not referred. 

112 
Table 4-5. Estimates of the effect of referrals and placements on North Carolina claimants 1994-

1998 

Regression Estimates

Period Weeks of

Spell 

Adj. R-sq. Coefficient 

(Weeks)

Standard 

Error 

“t”

Statistic 

Difference in Means 

for Job Changers

Means vs. Regression 

 (E-B) 

(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F)

A. Estimates of the Effect of Referrals and Placements on Joblessness

(1) Referral relative to No Referral 

1 Week 1 0.261 0.20 0.15 1.38 -0.26 -0.47

2 Weeks 2-5 0.236 2.48 0.12 21.37 1.89 -0.59

3 Weeks 6-9 0.238 2.57 0.17 15.33 1.87 -0.71

4 Weeks 10-14 0.223 2.06 0.20 10.38 1.38 -0.69

5 Weeks 15-18 0.204 1.64 0.24 6.79 1.06 -0.58

6 Weeks 19-26 0.184 2.59 0.25 10.57 2.17 -0.42

7 Weeks 27-39 0.195 2.57 0.48 5.41 2.46 -0.12

(2) Placement relative to No Referral 

1 Week 1 -4.54 0.35 -13.02 -5.64 -1.09

2 Weeks 2-5 -5.41 0.27 -20.20 -6.36 -0.95

3 Weeks 6-9 -5.87 0.40 -14.73 -6.78 -0.92

4 Weeks 10-14 -5.48 0.47 -11.60 -6.60 -1.12

5 Weeks 15-18 -6.18 0.59 -10.46 -7.27 -1.09

6 Weeks 19-26 -4.18 0.52 -7.99 -4.90 -0.72

7 Weeks 27-39 -1.46 0.90 -1.63 -1.76 -0.30

B. Estimates of the Effect of Referrals and Placements on Claim Durations 

(1) Referral relative to No Referral 

1 Week 1 0.169 0.67 0.09 7.66 0.37 -0.29

2 Weeks 2-5 0.131 2.13 0.07 30.72 1.79 -0.34

3 Weeks 6-9 0.134 2.04 0.09 21.67 1.74 -0.29

4 Weeks 10-14 0.139 1.48 0.10 15.09 1.30 -0.18

5 Weeks 15-18 0.165 0.86 0.10 8.56 0.74 -0.12

6 Weeks 19-26 0.148 1.08 0.09 11.93 1.08 -0.01

7 Weeks 27-39 0.201 0.91 0.19 4.93 1.03 0.12

(2) Placement relative to No Referral 

1 Week 1 -2.53 0.20 -12.40 -3.22 -0.69

2 Weeks 2-5 -2.67 0.16 -16.68 -3.33 -0.66

3 Weeks 6-9 -2.97 0.22 -13.33 -3.52 -0.55

4 Weeks 10-14 -2.61 0.23 -11.21 -2.88 -0.27

5 Weeks 15-18 -2.16 0.25 -8.74 -2.40 -0.25

6 Weeks 19-26 -0.43 0.19 -2.23 -0.47 -0.03

7 Weeks 27-39 -0.25 0.35 -0.72 -0.08 0.17 

Note: Adjusted R-squares in column A part (1) also apply to part (2) because both referrals and placements relative to no referral came from the

same equation. 

113 
We suspect that the difference in results stems from only North Carolina requiring claimants 

to be interviewed by staff about once a month to ensure that the claimants are searching for work and to

provide advice on how to search most effectively. As a result, North Carolina claimants who believe that 

they will have difficulty finding work routinely obtain PLX referrals to ensure that they continue to

collect UI benefits. In the other states, the timing of PLX use is more voluntary, and controlling for

elapsed duration does a much better job in controlling for the negative selection that leads to use of PLXs. 

The placement effects, shown in column B in the block below the referral block, uniformly 

show that placed claimants have shorter durations of joblessness than those not referred. These effects 

generally are about 5.5 weeks, which substantially boosts earnings. The effect is especially large in the 

first week and in the 15th though 18th week. These results make sense because many claimants who are 

not recalled are able to find a new job after 6 to 9 weeks of search on their own, but if they fail to find a 

job in that period, they often exhaust, or come close to exhausting, their UI benefits. At the point benefits 

are exhausted many claimants simply take the best job available. 

Column C shows that the standard errors of the estimates, which generally are quite small,

rise over time as the sample size declines. Column D shows the “t” statistic (the coefficient divided by the

standard error), which measures the statistical significance of the results. When “t” is above 1.96, the 

coefficient is significant at the 5 percent level, which is the usual standard for accepting the results are 

different from zero. Using this standard, there are only a few cases where the results are not statistically

different from zero. Most of the estimates have less than one chance in a 100 of not being different from 

zero. 

Column E shows the mean duration of job changers who were referred or placed, less the 

mean duration of those not referred. The differences in “unadjusted” mean values is not very different

from the regression adjusted coefficients. In all but one case, regression adjustment makes the duration of 

referred claimants longer, but the duration of placed claimants shorter. This is a common result because 

claimants using PLXs typically have more difficulty finding work on their own, but those placed are

either fortunate to obtain a good match at just the right time or have characteristics that make them

attractive to prospective employers. 

114 
4.3.1.2 Effect on North Carolina Claims Duration 

Panel B of Table 4-5 presents estimates of the effect of referrals and placements on UI

claims duration. The seven regressions presented in this panel use the same specification used in panel A.

The referral results are similar in the two panels, but the coefficients are a little larger in the first period in 

panel B and smaller thereafter. The coefficients are smaller because the maximum reduction in spellweeks is about 26 weeks, as most claimants exhaust benefits after 26 weeks, but the maximum duration of 

joblessness is 52 weeks. Technically, the maximum duration of joblessness is infinite, but we roundeddown durations longer than 52 weeks to 52 weeks. Also, the standard errors are smaller in panel B, 

presumably because the claim duration is measured with greater precision and has less variation than the

duration of joblessness. 

The comparisons between estimates based on unadjusted means and regressions in panel B 

show even smaller differences than in panel A. In addition, the differences become less negative as 

elapsed duration lengthens starting in period 2 and ultimately become positively in period 8. Because the 

differences are so small it is hard to make a lot out of these results, but they suggest that claimants using 

the PLX may have smaller entitlements (or less savings) and are under greater pressure to end spells than 

non-users. 

4.3.2 Total Annual Increases in Earnings and Reductions in North Carolina Benefit

Payments 

Table 4-6 uses the regression-based estimates of the effect of referrals and placements, 

displayed in Table 4-5, to estimate total increases in earnings and the reductions in UI payments

stemming from placements alone. Column B shows the estimated difference in weeks of joblessness

between placed claimants and those not referred. Column C shows the estimated difference between those 

placed and those referred (but not placed). Because those referred, but not placed, had longer durations of

joblessness, the reductions are about 30 percent greater when we use referred claimants as the comparison 

group. 

It is our view that using those referred, but not placed, as the comparison groups produces

more accurate estimates. We believe that this is the case because doing so captures the effect of

unmeasured factors, such as access to alternative sources of information, that drive only some claimants

115 
to obtain referrals. On the other hand, it may be that among referred claimants, those who are placed 

(offered jobs and then show up for work) have unmeasured attributes that would lead to more quickly

finding work by other means. Thus, use of those referred as a comparison group could overestimate the 

true effect. This is the case even though, on balance, placed claimants are likely to be jobless longer than 

otherwise similar non users. We, therefore, use two comparison groups and regard the placed versus

referred estimates as upper bound estimates, and the placed versus not referred estimates as lower-bound 

estimates. 

To estimate the per-placement effect using the two comparison groups we multiply the

average weekly earnings after claimants return to work (shown in column D) times the estimated 

reduction in weeks of joblessness (shown in columns B and C). The results presented in columns E and F 

show that on average, each placement boosted earnings $1,500 using non-placed claimants as the 

comparison group, and $2,000 using referred, but not placed, claimants as the comparison group. 

To estimate the total increase in earnings, we multiply the average annual number of

placements (shown in column G) times the per-placement estimates (shown in columns E and F). These

results (shown in columns H and I) indicate that North Carolina placements boosted overall earnings by 

between $16.8 and $23.4 million. 

Similar estimates of the effect of referrals and placements on claim weeks are used in panel 

B to estimate the reduction in UI payments. However, the per-person reductions in weeks are multiplied 

by the average weekly benefit amount (instead of average weekly earnings) to calculate the per-person

reduction in benefit payments shown in columns E and F. These estimates are then multiplied by the

number of claimants placed (shown in column G) to get the estimates of total benefit reductions shown in 

columns H and I. When summed across all duration groups the total reduction in payments range from 

$4.5 to $7.5 million. UI savings are only about one-quarter of the gain in earnings because (1) placement 

effects are about twice as great on jobless duration as on claims duration; (2) weekly UI benefits equal 

only 40 percent of post-unemployment earnings; and (3) placement effects on claims duration decline as 

benefits near exhaustion. 

116 
Table 4-6. Estimates of the total annual increase in earnings and reduction in benefit payments for North Carolina 

117 
4.3.3 Computation of North Carolina Benefit-Cost Ratios 

Finally, Table 4-7 compares the benefits to the costs of placing claimants by North Carolina

PLXs. Obtaining a precise estimate of the cost is difficult because North Carolina uses state funds to 

substantially increase PLX budgets above $18 million in funding it receives under the Wagner-Peyser Act

and other Federal grants. Our estimates of the benefits to claimants exclude placements made after

claimants end benefit collection. 

As shown on lines 1, 2, and 3 of Table 4-7, official statistics indicate that in the period 

studied, 1994-98, the North Carolina PLXs on average placed 191,802 applicants, of which 44,655 were 

UI claimants. Thus, if we assume that the only service of value provided by North Carolina PLXs was 

placements, and each placement cost the same amount of money, roughly 23 percent of the North 

Carolina budget went to placing claimants. 

Table 4-7. Benefit-cost ratios for North Carolina claimant placements 1994-1998 

1. Total placement transactions per year 191,802 

2. Claimant placement transactions per year 44,655 

3. Claimant placements as a percent of all placements 23% 

4. Annual Wagner-Peyser allotment $18,000,000 

5. Estimate of state subsidy (as a multiple of Wagner-Peyser allotment) 1.5 

6. Estimated total PLX budget $45,000,000 

7. Estimate of amount spent to place claimants $10,476,889 

8. Claimants placed while receiving benefits 11,360 

9. Percent placed while receiving benefits 25.4% 

10. Estimate of amount spent to place claimants before benefit exhaustion $2,661,130

11. Lower estimate of earnings gains $16,755,407 

12. Benefit-cost ratio 6.30

13. Upper estimate of earnings gains $23,356,617 

14. Benefit-cost ratio 8.78

Source: State micro-data, Federal funding allocation data, and statistical estimates. 

118 
As shown on line 4, the Wagner-Peyser Act allotment was $18 million, but exact figures for 

state funds going to PLXs are not available. Thus, on line 5 we use an upper bound estimate of 1.5 times

the Wagner-Peyser Act allotment as the state subsidy. This produces a total estimate, shown on line 6, of 

$45 million. Taking 23 percent of $45 million leads to an estimate of $10.5 million for the funds used to 

place claimants. Obviously, this is a small fraction of either of the two estimates of net earnings gains. 

However, our estimate is that only 11,360 claimants are placed per year. The official estimate is about 

four times greater. Much of this difference stems from our looking only at placements made while 

claimants were collecting UI benefits. We estimate that about three times as many claimants are placed

after they end their spells as during their spells. This make sense because North Carolina claimants have

unusually short spells of about 5.3 weeks, and about half of the claimants end their spells after one week. 

Thus, if the benefits of placements are as great for UI exhaustees as for non-exhaustees dividing the

benefits to non-exhaustees by the cost of placing all claimants understates the benefit-cost ratio by about 

25 percent. The benefit cost-ratios shown on lines 12 and 14 apply to claimants placed prior to exhausting 

UI benefits, in part to make these results consistent with results for Oregon and Washington. 

In summary, the North Carolina benefit-cost estimates indicate that PLX placements

substantially boost the earnings of UI claimants and also benefit employers by reducing UI payouts. 

These estimates are much greater than those obtained for Washington and Oregon. However, it is 

plausible that North Carolina’s PLXs are unusually cost-effective because North Carolina’s PLX (1)

monitors claimants’ job search through monthly one-on-one interviews, which are not conducted by

Washington and Oregon PLXs; and (2) has unusually large numbers of job orders suitable for claimants 

in its computers, leading to substantially more placements than in Washington and Oregon. Importantly, 

because the cost per placement is low, it is necessary to place only a small fraction of claimants for the

overall cost-effectiveness of North Carolina PLXs to be exceptionally high. In addition, the results 

suggest that those claimants least able to find jobs on their own are those who receive the greatest benefit 

from use of the PLXs. 

4.4 Results for Colorado 

The analysis of the assistance claimants received from Colorado PLXs used similar

techniques to those used with administrative data from the other states studied. In particular, we employed 

the same analytic framework where we divide the period of benefit collection into eight periods, and 

restrict the comparisons to claimants who are unemployed at the start of a given period. Also, during each 

119 
period claimants are in one of three statuses: (1) placed at jobs to which claimants were referred, (2)

referred but not placed, or (3) not referred. For example, period-four spans the 10th through 14th week of

benefit collection, and our period-four analysis included all claimants who collected benefits for nine or 

more weeks. This technique holds constant elapsed duration which is an important predictor of

subsequent duration but, when ignored, usually produces biased results that underestimate PLX 

effectiveness.

While our estimating equations are basically identical to those used in North Carolina and 

other states, the Colorado data differ in important ways from data used for other states. First, we knew the

number of weeks from initial claim to final payment in a given benefit year, but not the timing of each

payment. As a result, we could not break benefit collection into separate spells, but assumed that the 

claimants were unemployed for the entire period. However, since we knew the total amount of benefits 

paid, we could calculate the average weekly payment, which would be substantially below the weekly

benefit amount if periods of work were interspaced with periods of unemployment. Thus, we were able to

limit distortions to our benefits estimates by multiplying the estimated reduction in weeks by the actual 

average weekly payment. 

Second, an unusually high fraction of Colorado claimants lacked wage record data either in

the base period used to calculate benefit entitlement or in the period following the end of benefit 

collection. While it is possible that unusually large numbers of claimants had earnings not covered by

Colorado wage data (mainly because they entered or left Colorado or became self-employed), we suspect

that much of the problem stemmed from having incomplete data files. However, we were able to limit

distortions from the absence of this information by explicitly controlling for missing quarterly wage 

records in our estimating equations. 

Third, the two data limitations cited above made it difficult to estimate precisely how long

claimants were jobless. In particular, not knowing if claimants had more than one spell in a given benefit 

year made the duration of joblessness exceptionally long. To get a more accurate estimate of jobless 

weeks we used the technique to estimate joblessness that we applied in the North Carolina analysis. First 

we calculated the average weekly earnings in the two quarters with highest earnings among the four 

quarters immediately following the last payment. We then used our measure of average weekly earnings

to estimate the number of weeks worked in each quarter, starting with the initial claim quarter and ending

four quarters later. Finally, we subtracted weeks worked from 65 to get weeks not worked, but set 52 as

the maximum weeks unemployed. 

120 
Table 4-8 describes the characteristics of the claimants in the 30 percent Colorado sample

covering 1996 and 1997. This sample consisted of 45,267 claims, which on average spanned 3.8 periods, 

producing a database with 176,725 claim-periods. On average, claimants collected benefits for 15.0

weeks but were jobless for 30.2 weeks. The difference in UI covered versus uncovered joblessness arises

because about a third of the claimants were unemployed for at least 19 weeks, and a sixth were

unemployed for more than 26 weeks (when most exhausted benefits). 

Table 4-8 also shows that about 30 percent of claimants did not end up with any post-spell 

employment covered by our UI wage record database. Relative to other states, this introduces an 

exceptionally large amount of ambiguity in what ultimately happened to these claimants that we hopefully 

adequately dealt with in our econometric analysis. About 17 percent of the claimants returned to former 

employers (25 percent of those for whom we have post-claim wage data) and, as anticipated, the

probability of return falls with unemployment duration. About 51 percent of the claimants changed jobs. 

The bottom section of Table 4-8 shows that referred claimants had about the same pre-claim 

weekly earnings as those not referred but collected slightly less benefits, and also had slightly higher postspell earnings. The pre/post earnings difference suggests that some of those not referred were either not 

looking for work at all or looking for work outside of Colorado. Placed claimants had substantially lower 

pre-claim earnings, collected much smaller amounts of benefits, and returned to work at jobs paying

about 90 percent of pre-claim earnings. 

These results reinforce the view that those placed had much shorter durations of claims and

joblessness than non-referred claimants, and those referred had slightly shorter durations. However,

because of differences in pre-claim earnings and the probability of having wage records following the 

start of claims, regression-based estimates could differ substantially from those based on simple 

tabulations. 

121 
Table 4-8. Characteristics of Colorado claimants 1996-1997 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

A. Duration, Job Change, 

and PLX Use Duration of Job Change Status Referral/Placement Status

N 

Spell 

(Weeks) 

Joblessness 

(Weeks) 

Recall 

(%) 

Change 

(%) 

Ambiguous

(%) 

Not Referred 

(%) 

Referred 

(%) 

Placed 

(%) 

Full 30% sample 45,267 15.0 30.2 17.7 51.8 30.5 89. 9.4 1.3

By Job Change Status

1 Recall 18,023 6.5 5.6 100.0 97.8 2.0 0.2

2 Job change 22,417 12.9 18.6 100.0 83.3 14.4 2.3

3 No New Empl. 2,204 15.5 31.2 100.0 92.1 7.4 0.5 

By Referral/Placement Status 

1 No referral 40,403 15.2 30.4 17.8 51.8 30.7 100.0

2 Referral 4,274 14.1 29.8 5.5 81.3 13.2 100.0

3 Placement 590 10.2 23.2 5.1 88.5 6.4 100.0

By Elapsed Claim Duration

1 Week 1 40,751 15.2 30.3 17.7 51.8 30.5 96.3 3.5 0.2

2 Weeks 2-5 40,698 15.2 30.3 17.7 51.8 30.5 88.8 10.5 0.7

3 Weeks 6-9 28,998 19.7 32.3 17.7 50.0 32.3 95.2 4.4 0.4

4 Weeks 10-14 22,166 23.5 34.9 14.6 50.6 34.8 94.8 4.8 0.4

5 Weeks 15-18 17,448 26.6 36.8 13.0 50.2 36.8 95.3 4.4 0.3

6 Weeks 19-26 13,507 29.6 37.7 11.5 50.5 37.9 92.1 7.0 0.9

7 Weeks 27-39 8,641 33.9 38.4 11.9 49.2 38.9 89.5 9.1 1.4

8 Weeks 40-52 1,782 46.1 29.3 21.3 43.3 35.4 86.9 11.5 1.6

B. Benefits and Earnings

UI Benefits Paid Weekly Earnings 

Total Total Per Week Pre Spell Post Spell Difference 

(%) ($) ($) ($) ($) (%)

Full 30% sample 100.0 1,404 93 401 295 -26 

By Job Change Status

1 Recall 17.7 743 114 380 340 -11

2 Job Change 51.8 2,145 166 356 285 -20

3 No New Empl. 30.5 2,770 179 418 0 -100

By Referral/Placement Status 

1 No referral 89.3 1,431 94 403 292 -27

2 Referral 9.4 1,270 90 399 324 -19

3 Placement 1.3 529 52 335 305 -9

Spell Starters

(%) 

Ending Spell

(%)

By Elapsed Claim Duration

1 Week 1 100.0 0.1 1,419 94 402 292 -27

2 Weeks 2-5 99.9 28.7 1,422 94 402 292 -27

3 Weeks 6-9 71.2 23.6 2,371 120 408 290 -29

4 Weeks 10-14 54.4 21.3 3,086 131 407 282 -31

5 Weeks 15-18 42.8 22.6 3,688 139 404 275 -32

6 Weeks 19-26 33.1 36.0 4,300 145 412 278 -33

7 Weeks 27-39 21.2 79.4 4,970 146 423 283 -33

8 Weeks 40-52 4.4 3,318 72 413 295 -28

Note: PLX usage is examined in up to seven periods for each spell (depending on its length). There are 45,267 spells and 176,725 separate spell 

periods in the database. The number of claimants by elapsed claim duration does not equal the sample size because each period shows the total 

number of claimants remaining in the sample. 

122 
4.4.1 Regression-Based Estimates of the Effects of Colorado Referrals and Placements 

Table 4-9 shows the key estimates of the difference in jobless duration and claims duration 

among claimants who were placed or referred but not placed relative to those not referred. Panel A shows 

that the overall explanatory power of the regressions using joblessness as the dependent variable was high 

for this type of analysis. But the coefficients depicting the difference in joblessness between those

referred and those not referred are generally small, about a week, and have standard errors of less than 

half a week. Thus, most, but not all the estimates are statistically different from zero. In contrast, the 

coefficients depicting the difference in joblessness between those placed and those not referred are much 

larger, about 3.85 weeks. Although the standard errors are considerably greater than those for the referral 

coefficients, the results are statistically different from zero, except for the small group of claimants who

did not exhaust benefits after 26 weeks. 

Panel B shows that, the explanatory power of the claim duration regressions often was

considerably less than for the jobless duration regressions. Nevertheless, the standard errors are smaller,

making the coefficients depicting the difference in jobless duration among those referred versus those not 

referred statistically different from zero (or close to significant at the 5 percent level). The referral effects

on claims durations also are a bit smaller than on jobless duration and consistently shows that those 

referred have shorter durations. Similarly, the regression coefficients indicating the difference in claims

duration between those placed and those not referred are smaller than the jobless duration coefficients, as

are the standard errors. The results are statistically significant except those for claimants unemployed 19 

weeks or more. This is a common result because the placement effects tend to be small as benefits come

close to exhaustion after 26 weeks of full payments. 

4.4.1.1 Estimates of Reductions in Colorado Benefits Paid and Increases in Earnings 

Table 4-10 uses the coefficients shown in Table 4-9 to estimate the total annual increase in 

earnings and decrease in benefit payments due to referrals and placements. These estimates are calculated

the same way as they were using North Carolina data. Columns A and B of Panel A shows the referral 

and placement coefficients. Column C shows the difference in coefficients. Column D shows average

weekly earnings in the post claim period. Column E shows the per-person effect of placements versus no 

123 
Table 4-9. Estimates of the effect of referrals and placements on Colorado claimants 1996-1997 

Period Weeks of Regression Estimates 

Spell Adj. R-sq Coefficient (Weeks) Standard Error “t” Statistic

(A) (B) (C) (D)

A. Estimates of the Effect of Referrals and Placements on Joblessness 

(1) Referral relative to No Referral 

1 Week 1 0.242 -2.00 0.37 -5.39

2 Weeks 2-5 0.242 -1.04 0.23 -4.45 

3 Weeks 6-9 0.241 -0.95 0.38 -2.50 

4 Weeks 10-14 0.238 0.08 0.40 0.21 

5 Weeks 15-18 0.255 -0.99 0.44 -2.24 

6 Weeks 19-26 0.294 -0.85 0.39 -2.19 

7 Weeks 27-39 0.380 0.56 0.42 1.31 

(2) Placement relative to No Referral 

1 Week 1 -4.84 1.43 -3.37

2 Weeks 2-5 -3.97 0.80 -4.96 

3 Weeks 6-9 -5.10 1.17 -4.38 

4 Weeks 10-14 -4.25 1.29 -3.28 

5 Weeks 15-18 -4.87 1.49 -3.27 

6 Weeks 19-26 -2.24 1.04 -2.16 

7 Weeks 27-39 -1.89 1.01 -1.67 

B. Estimates of the Effect of Referrals and Placements on Claim Durations 

(1) Referral relative to No Referral 

1 Week 1 0.253 -1.24 0.30 -4.09

2 Weeks 2-5 0.252 -0.58 0.19 -3.04 

3 Weeks 6-9 0.103 -0.58 0.32 -1.81 

4 Weeks 10-14 0.061 -0.57 0.32 -1.77 

5 Weeks 15-18 0.063 -0.99 0.33 -2.95 

6 Weeks 19-26 0.117 -0.55 0.26 -2.08 

7 Weeks 27-39 0.311 0.03 0.23 0.15 

(2) Placement relative to No Referral 

1 Week 1 -1.53 1.17 -1.31

2 Weeks 2-5 -1.79 0.65 -2.74 

3 Weeks 6-9 -2.42 0.98 -2.48 

4 Weeks 10-14 -3.41 1.04 -3.28 

5 Weeks 15-18 -2.97 1.13 -2.64 

6 Weeks 19-26 -0.88 0.70 -1.25 

7 Weeks 27-39 0.03 0.55 0.05 

Note: Adjusted R-squares in column A part (1) also apply to part (2) because both referrals and placements relative to no referral came from the

same equation. 

124 
referral derived by multiplying the placement coefficient (column B) times average weekly earnings 

(column D). On average, each placement increases earnings by $1,108. The analogous calculation is 

shown in column F for the effect of placements relative to referrals. These estimates indicate that

placements increase earnings by $889. The second, more conservative estimate, is based on the view that 

the referral effects capture a stronger desire of those referred to find work, rather than the actual positive 

effect of referrals. 

Column G shows the number of claimants placed in each of the seven periods displayed in 

the table, and columns H and I show the total increase in earnings across all those placed compared to

those not referred, and those referred, respectively. These estimates range from about $1.6 million to $1.3 

million. The greatest gains come from period 2 mainly because there are by far the largest number of

placements in that period. 

Panel B shows the total increase in earnings due to referrals using the same set of 

calculations. Overall, the increase is just under $5 million. This is about three times greater than the larger 

of the two placement estimates, mainly because there are many more referrals than placements. However,

it is important to recognize that some of the referral estimates are not significantly different from zero, 

and the “true” effect could be much smaller than the figures in column H suggest. 

Panel C shows the estimated reduction in UI benefit payments due to placements. The total 

savings is modest, about $200,000 using non-referred claimants as the comparison group and $140,000 

using referred claimants as the comparison group. These estimates are much lower than the earnings 

estimates mainly because the weekly benefit amounts are low, but also because the coefficients depicting 

PLX effects are somewhat lower. 

Finally, panel D shows the estimated reductions in benefits payments due to referrals. The 

total savings is substantial, about $1.15 million. Again, the referral effect is large because of the large 

number of referrals being made. 

125 
Table 4-10. Estimates of the total annual increase in earnings and reduction in benefit payments 

for Colorado claimants 1996-97

126 
4.4.2 Colorado Benefit-Cost Ratio Estimates 

Table 4-11 compares the estimated benefits shown in Table 4-10 for weeks 1 through 26 to

estimates of cost. In contrast to the estimates for North Carolina, where benefits were only derived from 

placements, the Colorado results include benefits from placements and referrals. Column A presents the

lower bound estimates stemming from earnings gains of those placed relative to those referred. Line 3 

shows that 5.1 percent of all placements were made to claimants while they were collecting UI benefits.

Although not shown in the table, about half of all Colorado placements were made prior to UI exhaustion, 

compared to one-quarter of North Carolina placements being made while benefits were being collected. 

However, much of this difference stems from our not being able to break the period spanned by first and 

last Colorado payments into separate spells. 

Multiplying the fraction of placements made to claimants by the total amount of the WagnerPeyser Act grant used to fund Colorado’s PLXs, we get a cost estimate of only $452,477. Comparing this 

cost to the benefits shown on line 6 produces a benefit-cost ratio of 2.64. This is not close to North

Carolina’s ratio, but is still highly respectable. 

Table 4-11. Benefit-cost ratios for Colorado claimant placements and referrals 1996-1997

Placements

(A) 

Placements and 

Referrals 

(B) 

1. Individuals 29,590 109,047

2. Claimants 1,518 17,502

3. Claimants as a percent of individuals 

placed/referred (line 2 ÷ line 1) 

5.1% 16.0%

4. Annual Wagner-Peyser allotment $8,820,024 $8,820,024 

5. Estimate of amount spent on claimant 

(line 4 x line 3) 

$452,477 $1,415,610

Lower Upper

6. Estimate of earnings gains (weeks 1-26) $1,194,367 $6,732,405 

7. Benefit-cost ratio (line 6 ÷ line 5) 2.64 4.76 

Source: State micro-data, Federal funding allocation data, and statistical estimates.

127 
Finally, column B shows estimated costs and benefits when both referrals and placements 

are included. We make the highly conservative estimate that costs are proportional to the number of 

referrals, which in this case raises the cost to $1,415,610. But the benefits are much higher when referrals

are included, as shown on line 7, where the benefit-cost ratio is 4.76. 

4.4.3 Colorado Summary 

In summary, the Colorado benefit-cost estimates indicate that PLX placements alone return 

$2.64 for every $1 spent on claimants using highly conservative assumptions. When the effect of referrals

is also taken into account, the returns rise to $4.76 for every $1 spent, but the statistical accuracy of this 

result is considerably less than for the more conservative estimate. Importantly, regardless of which

measure is used, the benefit-cost estimates are highly respectable. While not nearly as high as the 

exceptionally high North Carolina results, they are comparable to those for Oregon and Washington. 

The main difference between the operation of Colorado’s PLXs and those in other states

included in this study is that few Colorado claimants were placed by this state’s PLXs, even though

substantial numbers were referred to jobs listed with the PLXs. Some of this difference probably is due to

differences in Colorado’s economy compared to other states. For example, Colorado had a low 

unemployment rate in the period studied and more of those unemployed had relatively high wages. 

However, much of the difference probably relates to Colorado’s PLXs focusing on placing other groups, 

especially those who are the traditional concern of its WIA programs. Regardless of the source of this

major difference, our study, which is limited to claimants, encompasses a far smaller proportion of all 

individuals placed by PLXs in Colorado than by PLXs in other states. 

4.5 Results for Massachusetts 

This section assesses the cost-effectiveness of job placement services (referrals and

placements) delivered by Massachusetts PLXs to UI claimants. The same basic methodology and same 

types of data are used to examine the same population as in the Washington, Oregon, North Carolina, and 

Colorado PLX studies. However, the way PLXs are run and data are organized in Massachusetts differs in 

important ways from that of other states, and these differences affect this study’s goals and means. First,

and foremost, is that Massachusetts PLXs in three areas— Boston, Cambridge-Woburn, and Springfield128 
Holyoke— were run by a variety of organizations that won “competitive” contracts from local Workforce 

Investment Boards to operate individual One-Stop Centers. In contrast, the remaining Massachusetts

PLXs were run by the state in about the same “traditional” manner as those in North Carolina, Oregon, 

and Washington. The diverse ways PLXs were run in Massachusetts held the potential to evaluate how 

well each of the governance structures being employed worked in practice. This potential placed a 

premium on separately assessing job-matching effectiveness in different areas of the state and at different

times where “traditional” PLXs were replaced by “competitive” PLXs. As discussed below, data 

limitations made it impossible to compare the two types of PLXs in Massachusetts 

A second key difference is that assembling the administrative data required for this study 

proved to be much more difficult in Massachusetts than in the other states studied. A major part of the

difficulty stemmed from Massachusetts having unusual difficulty developing an appropriate way to allow 

its wage-record data to be used for evaluation of its on-going federally supported programs. Despite 

starting to work with Massachusetts to obtain the needed data immediately after this project began five

years ago, Westat was able to obtain wage-record data only a few weeks before the final report was due. 

While we were able to carry out some preliminary analysis using data on claimants and PLX registrants, 

use of the wage-record data was essential for measuring the duration of joblessness (as opposed to the 

duration of UI claims) and determining whether workers changed jobs or returned to former employers. 

Jobless duration and job change measures are crucial to the study because the effect of referrals and

placements on jobless duration is much greater than the effect on claims duration, and being unable to

take into account whether layoffs are permanent or temporary leads to severe underestimation of the 

positive effects of job-matching services. 

A third key difference is that most of the competitive PLXs did not provide administrative 

data to the state in the same way as the traditional PLXs and, perhaps equally important, did not

necessarily use the same job-order files and matching procedures as the traditional PLXs. As a result, for 

a considerable period, data from several of the largest competitive PLXs were not combined with the 

standardized data submissions from the traditional PLXs (commonly used by PLXs throughout the United

States). In addition, even after the competitive PLXs began reporting data in the same form as the 

traditional PLX, it was still unclear whether the data were comprehensive (for either competitive or 

traditional PLXs). This is because increased use of job listings with unsuppressed contact information

may have led to a dramatic undercount of referrals and placements, especially in the competitive PLXs. 

129 
Although Westat is extremely grateful to the many state and Federal officials who 

persevered with us to ultimately provide the needed data, the database is limited in two important ways: 

1. We could only examine PLX usage during Program Year 1998, the second half of

1998 and the first half of 1999. Thus, we were unable to make comparisons before and 

after the competitive PLXs began operation, as well as before and after use of 

unsuppressed listings became widespread. 

2. We could not statistically compare the effectiveness of the competitive PLXs to the

traditional PLXs because the competitive PLXs recorded too few placements to

provide meaningful results. Also, we were unable to establish an appropriate

comparison group for measuring the effect of referrals because it was hard to identify

claimants who did not use the competitive PLXs but worked in the same area, and had

similar work-histories and demographics. 

4.5.1 Characteristics of the Massachusetts Claimants Studied 

This study examines the effect of PLX usage on the job-search outcomes of all claimants

who began a UI covered unemployment spell and received a reportable service from Massachusetts PLXs

in program-year 1998 (PY98). However, because of the need to limit the total sample size to make the 

wage-matching feasible, we selected a 20 percent random sample of non-users.13 This was the only state

where we used an “unbalanced” sampling plan. 

Table 4-12 describes key characteristics of the underlying population studied. Lines 6, 7, and 

8 reflect the number of claimants who used PLX services in PY98 and the number in the study sample. 

However, the figures on line 5 (and the rest of Table 4-12) reflect the universe of claimants, not the 

number of non-users in the analytic sample. These estimates were derived from the 20 percent sample (of

users and non-users), but elsewhere in the report, counts usually reflect the size of the unbalanced sample 

used for the analysis. 

 

13 More specifically, we used PLX registration and service data covering PY98, even though we had data covering PY96 through PY01, because

we determined data were incomplete for other periods. We then determined which of these users had UI claim spells beginning in PY98 using 

a large database that included claims records for PY96 through PY01. Next, we constructed a comparison group of UI claimants who began

spells of unemployment in PY98 but did not use PLXs. However, Massachusetts was the only state where the state matched wage records to 

the analytic claims/PLX-use file after Westat prepared the file and then removed the personal identifiers. As a result we could not distinguish 

between PY98 non-users in the 20 percent sample, and PY98 non-users selected because they used PLXs in other years. The analytic file,

therefore, consisted of three populations: (1) all claimants who used PLXs during spells that began in PY98, (2) a 20 percent sample of

claimants beginning UI-covered unemployment spells in PY98, and (3) a group of non-user claimants not in the 20 percent sample, but who 

obtained PLX services outside of PY98 

130 
Table 4-12. Characteristics of Massachusetts claimants Program Year 1998 

131 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 

PLX-Usage Duration 

Number Distribution None Some Referred Placed Claim Jobless 

(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (Weeks) (Weeks) 

1 All 150,522 100.0 91.5 3.1 4.6 0.7 13.1 17.0 

Job Change Status 

2 Recall 48,213 32.0 96.5 1.5 1.8 0.2 9.2 8.3 3 Change 78,069 51.9 87.7 4.3 6.9 1.2 14.5 17.7 4 Ambiguous 24,240 16.1 94.0 2.6 2.9 0.4 16.4 32.0 

PLX Usage

5 None 137,757 91.5 100.0 12.4 16.3 6 Some 4,702 3.1 100.0 17.9 22.5 7 Referred 6,970 4.6 100.0 16.0 19.5 8 Placed 1,093 0.7 100.0 13.8 16.1 

Claim Duration

9 Week 1 11,602 7.7 97.0 1.1 1.6 0.24 1.0 4.6 10 Weeks 2-5 44,644 29.7 93.5 2.1 3.8 0.69 2.9 7.5 11 Weeks 6-9 19,112 12.7 91.5 2.7 4.9 0.98 7.1 9.5 12 Weeks 10-14 22,163 14.7 92.4 2.8 4.1 0.67 11.8 11.2 13 Weeks 15-18 11,522 7.7 91.4 3.2 4.6 0.79 16.6 17.8 14 Weeks 19-26 15,810 10.5 89.1 4.3 5.7 0.84 22.4 27.4 15 Weeks 27-39 23,629 15.7 86.9 5.3 7.0 0.72 31.2 40.8 16 Weeks 40-52 2,040 1.4 81.0 9.8 7.8 1.37 45.6 39.7 
Table 4-12. Characteristics of Massachusetts claimants Program Year 1998 (continued) 

132 

12 13 14 15 16 17 

Weekly Earnings

($) 

PreSpell 

($) 

PostSpell Earnings Change 

 (%) 

Weekly

Benefit 

Amount 

($)

Age (years)

Male

(%)

White 

(%) 

1 All 476 482 1.3 252 45.3 56.3 81.5 

Job Change Status 

2 Recall 457 479 5.0 253 47.5 55.8 84.3 3 Change 487 472 -3.1 254 43.6 57.4 79.7 4 Ambiguous 480 520 8.2 246 46.7 54.0 81.7 

PLX Usage 

5 None 488 501 2.7 256 45.2 56.0 81.8 6 Some 464 432 -6.9 248 45.4 53.3 77.5 7 Referred 429 400 -6.7 237 45.0 59.8 81.5 8 Placed 378 376 -0.5 218 44.4 62.9 78.3 

Claim Duration 

9 Week 1 398 440 10.6 224 48.2 46.0 82.9 10 Weeks 2-5 446 470 5.3 237 43.8 55.5 79.1 11 Weeks 6-9 506 538 6.5 263 44.4 59.7 82.7 12 Weeks 10-14 477 521 9.1 260 45.3 59.2 84.0 13 Weeks 15-18 479 520 8.6 263 44.7 65.8 83.5 14 Weeks 19-26 448 471 4.9 250 45.2 59.2 82.2 15 Weeks 27-39 609 510 -16.3 286 47.3 51.2 81.5 16 Weeks 40-52 544 457 -16.0 274 46.2 43.7 81.1 
Line 1 of Table 4-12 shows that, overall, about 8 percent of claimants obtained a reportable 

PLX service in PY98 while their spells were “alive” (that is, while they were receiving benefit payments). 

About 5 percent received a referral, which may or may not have led to a placement. The remainder were 

not referred, but received some other reportable service such as participation in a job-search workshop or

receiving individualized counseling. 

Lines 2, 3, and 4 reveal that claimants identified, by using wage records, as job changers

were 3.5 times more likely to receive some services than claimants identified as recalled (returning to the 

primary job held prior to the UI-compensated spell) and 2.1 times more likely to receive some service

than claimants whose job-change status was ambiguous (because wage-records did not identify an 

employer before and after the period of joblessness). Job changers also were 7.4 times more likely to be

placed as a result of a referral than recalled claimants and 2.8 times more likely to be placed than

claimants whose job-change status was ambiguous. 

Thus, receipt of PLX services was rare among the 32.0 percent of claimants returning to a 

former employer and the 16.1 percent whose job change was ambiguous. The much shorter-than-average 

period of joblessness among recalled claimants suggest that many were not unemployed long enough to

require help from PLXs and were unlikely to conduct a job search at all. Similarly, the much longer-thanaverage period of joblessness among “ambiguous” claimants suggests that many preferred retiring or 

withdrawing from the labor force rather than taking available jobs, and therefore, were unlikely to use 

PLXs. That claimants in the ambiguous group were older, and more likely to be women, supports the 

view that a higher proportion of these claimants retired or withdrew from the labor force. 

Finally, lines 9 through 16 show how key characteristics vary as the duration of jobless 

claims increase. It is evident that: 

 Usage of PLXs is greater the longer the spell of UI-covered unemployment. 

 The probability of recall declines substantially over the first 10 weeks of UI claims,

picks up in period 6 (weeks 11 through 14) declines a bit in period 7, and then 

declines sharply.

 The probability of being in the ambiguous category is fairly stable through the 18th

week, but then increases markedly. 

133 
The third result is fully consistent with the view that many (but not all) ambiguous claimants

dropped out of the labor force rather than took a new job. However, other reasons for being in the 

ambiguous category include working in a neighboring state or having the Social Security account number

misreported by new employers. 

To make it clearer how the probability of ending a spell of unemployment changes over 

time, the per-week spell-ending probability is presented in Table 4-13. This is done because all periods in 

Table 4-12 are not the same length. Also, it important to recognize that, because some spells end with 

benefit exhaustion, these probabilities do not measure ending a spell of joblessness. 

Table 4-13 shows that the probability of ending a claim is high at first and then dips

substantially in weeks 5 through 9. The probability of ending a claim rises substantially in weeks 10 

through 14 and then falls until the 26th week is reached when most claimants exhaust benefits. Overall,

about 34 percent of claimants end their spell by the 4th week, and 72 percent end their spell by the end of 

the 18th week. 

Table 4-13. Per-week probability of ending a UI-covered spell of unemployment in Massachusetts 

Program Year 1998 

Period 

Number 

Weeks Covered by

Period Relative 

to Spell Start

Number of 

Weeks in Period 

Percent Claimants Ending Spells Each 

Week as a Percent of Claimants 

Receiving Benefits at the Start of Each 

Period 

1 1 1 7.7 

2 2-4 3 8.0 

3 5-9 4 4.1 

4 10-14 5 7.4 

5 15-18 4 5.4 

6 19-26 8 4.8 

7 27-39 13 7.7 

8 40-52 13 7.7 

Together, the patterns of ending spells and being recalled suggest that the probability of 

obtaining PLX services is likely to be low at first because some claimants forego searching until their 

chances of being recalled become clear, while other claimants start searching for work without PLX aid. 

As time passes, however, use of PLXs increases among claimants still unemployed as the probability of

quick recall diminishes, and other means to find work are exhausted. 

134 
4.5.2 Services Received by Massachusetts Claimants 

Overall, 12,765 claimants beginning spells in PY98 were reported to receive some PLX

service prior to ending benefit collection. As shown in line 1 of Panel A of Table 4-14, 8.6 percent of 

these claimants were placed; 54.6 percent were referred to a job listed with a PLX, but not placed at that

job; and 36.8 percent were not referred, but received some other service. 

However, far fewer claimants received a service in any one period than received services

across all periods. On average, about 4.3 percent of the claimants (still collecting benefits in a given

period) were placed; 36.4 percent referred, but not placed; and 59.3 percent received some other service. 

Among claimants obtaining PLX services in a given period, the percent neither referred nor 

placed grows as the duration of claims lengthens. Although not shown in Table 4-14, the probability of

obtaining referrals and placements as a percent of all claimants still collecting benefits also declines over

time. These two findings suggest that a growing proportion of claimants may be having difficulty finding

work by other means and turn to PLXs for help. However, the PLXs are only able to find suitable jobs for

a relatively small fraction of the claimants trying to obtain aid. 

Panel B of Table 4-14 shows the number of claimants receiving PLX services in each of six 

periods. These figures indicate that the sample of claimants receiving different types of services is

sufficiently large to obtain statistically significant results from the regression analysis. However, to obtain 

such large samples for a single year all claimants receiving services were included. In all other states, we

used smaller sample proportions, but were fortunate in being able to analyze the effects of services 

obtained over much longer periods. 

4.5.3 Effect of Massachusetts PLX Services on the Duration of Joblessness and UI Claims 

Precisely the same regression models and data types were used to assess the effect of

Massachusetts PLX services on the duration of joblessness and UI claims as was used in North Carolina, 

Oregon, and Washington. Indeed, the “raw” variables contained in each database in each of the four states 

were remarkably similar, and the same process was used to create the derived variables such as the 

measures of job-change and jobless duration as in the other states. 

135 
Table 4-14. Sample size and distribution by period, for Massachusetts Program Year 1998 

Other 

Service 

(%) 

Referred 

Not Placed 

(%) 

Placed 

(%) 

All Services 

(%) 

Claimants Still 

Collecting Benefits

(%) 

A. Distributions

1 All periods 36.8 54.6 8.6 100.0 

2 Week 1 35.5 59.1 5.4 100.0 100.0 

3 Weeks 2-5 58.7 36.6 4.7 100.0 88.1 

4 Weeks 6-9 64.1 31.7 4.3 100.0 61.9 

5 Weeks 10-14 66.4 29.7 3.9 100.0 49.4 

6 Weeks 15-18 69.2 27.9 2.9 100.0 36.2 

7 Weeks 19-26 64.4 31.8 3.9 100.0 27.7 

 Average 59.3 36.4 4.3 100.0 60.6 

Other 

Service 

Referred 

Not Placed Placed All Services 

Claimants Still 

Collecting Benefits

B. Numbers 

1 Week 1 882 1,466 134 2,482 56,697 

2 Weeks 2-5 3,389 2,111 269 5,769 49,972 

3 Weeks 6-9 2,118 1,047 141 3,306 35,112 

4 Weeks 10-14 1,900 849 113 2,862 28,007 

5 Weeks 15-18 1,074 433 45 1,552 20,550 

6 Weeks 19-26 1,280 632 77 1,989 15,699 

 Total 10,643 6,538 779 17,960 

 Average 34,340 

Note: Numbers receiving services are the actual numbers, but the number still collecting benefits is the number in the 20 percent sample. That

group plus all claimants receiving benefits were used in the regression analysis. The total for all services does not equal the sample size of 

12,765 claimants because claimants can receive more than one type of service. 

Columns 4 through 6 of Table 4-15 display key regression-based statistics about the effect of 

various PLX services on weeks of joblessness. Columns 7 and 8 display “unadjusted” measures of service

effects based on simple means derived from tabulations for claimants changing jobs. Columns 9 through 

11 compare the regression-adjusted measures to those based on the simple means.

Table 4-16 uses the same format as Table 4-15 to describe the effect of PLX services on the

duration of UI claims. Precisely the same model and database as used to measure jobless duration effects

were used. The main difference between the two dependent variables is that spells of unemployment end

when benefits are exhausted, usually after 6 months, or when the claimant returns to work or stops 

claiming for any reason; but joblessness technically ends when claimants return to work. However,

because wage-record data cannot distinguish between not returning to work versus entering jobs not

covered by wage-records, the maximum duration of joblessness was set at 52 weeks. Thus, not 

surprisingly, the effect of PLX services on claim duration is roughly half as great as the effect on jobless

duration, but in almost all other respects the patterns in the two tables are nearly identical. Therefore,

Table 4-16 is not separately discussed. 

136 
137 

Table 4-15. Estimates of the effect of Massachusetts PLX services on the duration of joblessness Program Year 1998 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 

N 

Mean of

Dep. 

Variable 

Adj.

R-Square 

Effect of

Service on 

Weeks of 

Joblessness 

(Regression 

Coefficient) 

StandardError of

Estimate 

Probability 

Result Dif.

from 0 

Mean for

Group 

Receiving 

Service 

Mean for

Group Less 

Mean for

Comparison 

Group 

Reg. Coef. 

Less Mean

(1) “Other” Services vs. No Service 1 Week 1 58,683 17.2 0.1908 -1.16 0.58 0.0441 18.2 0.30 -1.47 2 Weeks 2-5 54,587 18.1 0.1753 2.98 0.33 <.0001 22.3 4.29 -1.31 3 Weeks 6-9 37,757 22.8 0.1832 1.14 0.41 0.0055 24.2 1.48 -0.34 4 Weeks 10-14 30,297 26.1 0.2042 1.05 0.43 0.0146 28.0 1.64 -0.59 5 Weeks 15-18 21,792 31.9 0.2055 -0.49 0.51 0.3379 31.6 0.06 -0.55 6 Weeks 19-26 17,290 35.6 0.1927 0.30 0.45 0.5023 34.8 0.23 0.08  Average 36,734 25.3 0.1920 0.64 0.45 26.5 1.33 -0.70 

Avg. absolute dif. (weeks) 0.72 

Percent 54.1% 

(2) Referrals Not Leading to Placement vs. No Service 1 Week 1 58,683 17.2 0.1908 -4.46 0.46 <.0001 13.8 -4.10 -0.37 2 Weeks 2-5 54,587 18.1 0.1753 -2.87 0.40 <.0001 15.8 -2.20 -0.67 3 Weeks 6-9 37,757 22.8 0.1832 -2.60 0.56 <.0001 21.3 -1.48 -1.13 4 Weeks 10-14 30,297 26.1 0.2042 -1.66 0.61 0.0060 24.8 -1.56 -0.10 5 Weeks 15-18 21,792 31.9 0.2055 -2.54 0.76 0.0009 28.6 -2.90 0.36 6 Weeks 19-26 17,290 35.6 0.1927 -0.05 0.61 0.9400 34.1 -0.47 0.42  Average 36,734 25.3 0.1920 -2.36 0.57 23.1 -2.12 -0.25 

Avg. absolute dif. (weeks) 0.51 

Percent -24.0% 
138 

Table 4-15. Estimates of the effect of Massachusetts PLX services on the duration of joblessness Program Year 1998 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1

N 

Mean of

Dep. 

Variable 

Adj.

R-Square

Effect of

Service on 

Weeks of 

Joblessness 

(Regression 

Coefficient) 

StandardError of

Estimate 

Probability 

Result Dif.

from 0 

Mean for

Group 

Receiving 

Service 

Mean for

Group Less 

Mean for

Comparison 

Group 

Reg. Coef. 

Less Mean

Perc

Di

Betw

Reg. C

& M

(3) Referrals Leading to Placement vs. No Service 1 Week 1 58,683 17.2 0.1908 -8.19 1.44 <.0001 10.6 -7.34 -0.85 2 Weeks 2-5 54,587 18.1 0.1753 -7.42 1.04 <.0001 10.1 -7.95 0.53 3 Weeks 6-9 37,757 22.8 0.1832 -8.78 1.45 <.0001 15.1 -7.64 -1.15 4 Weeks 10-14 30,297 26.1 0.2042 -11.16 1.59 <.0001 15.9 -10.47 -0.69 5 Weeks 15-18 21,792 31.9 0.2055 -8.40 2.31 0.0003 23.7 -7.84 -0.56 6 Weeks 19-26 17,290 35.6 0.1927 -5.03 1.65 0.0022 28.5 -6.07 1.04  Average 36,734 25.3 0.1920 -8.16 1.58 17.3 -7.88 -0.28 

Avg. absolute dif. (weeks) 0.80 

Percent -10.2% 

(4) Referrals Leading to Placement vs. Other Referral 1 Week 1 58,683 17.2 0.1908 -3.72 1.51 -2.46 10.56 -3.24 -0.48 2 Weeks 2-5 54,587 18.1 0.1753 -4.55 1.12 -4.08 10.05 -5.75 1.20 3 Weeks 6-9 37,757 22.8 0.1832 -6.18 1.56 -3.97 15.10 -6.16 -0.02 4 Weeks 10-14 30,297 26.1 0.2042 -9.50 1.70 -5.58 15.91 -8.91 -0.59 5 Weeks 15-18 21,792 31.9 0.2055 -5.86 2.43 -2.41 23.66 -4.95 -0.91 6 Weeks 19-26 17,290 35.6 0.1927 -4.98 1.76 -2.84 28.51 -5.60 0.62  Average 36,734 25.3 0.1920 -5.80 1.68 17.3 -5.77 -0.03 

Avg. absolute dif. (weeks) 0.64 

Percent -11.0% 
139 

Table 4-16. Estimates of the effect of Massachusetts PLX services on the claim durations Program Year 1998 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 

N 

Mean of

Dep. 

Variable 

Adj.

R-Square

Effect of

Service on 

Weeks of 

Joblessness 

(Regression 

Coefficient) 

StandardError of

Estimate 

Probability 

Result Dif.

from 0 

Mean for

Group 

Receiving 

Service 

Mean for

Group Less 

Mean for

Comparison 

Group 

Reg. Coef. 

Less Mean

Perc

Betw

Coef. 

(1) “Other” Services vs. No Service 1 Week 1 58,683 13.3 0.1049 -1.05 0.38 0.0053 14.8 0.19 -1.23 2 Weeks 2-5 54,587 14.2 0.0923 3.28 0.21 <.0001 19.0 4.27 -0.99 3 Weeks 6-9 37,757 19.2 0.0933 0.99 0.23 <.0001 21.4 1.53 -0.53 4 Weeks 10-14 30,297 22.2 0.1309 0.96 0.22 <.0001 24.5 1.37 -0.42 5 Weeks 15-18 21,792 26.2 0.1447 0.03 0.23 0.8787 27.5 0.60 -0.57 6 Weeks 19-26 17,290 28.7 0.1114 -0.45 0.19 0.0159 29.1 -0.14 -0.30  Average 36,734 20.6 0.1129 0.63 0.24 22.7 1.30 -0.67 

Avg. absolute dif. (weeks) 0.67 

Percent 51.7% 

(2) Referrals Not Leading to Placement vs. No Service 1 Week 1 58,683 13.3 0.1049 -3.49 0.30 <.0001 11.2 -3.44 -0.05 2 Weeks 2-5 54,587 14.2 0.0923 -1.28 0.25 <.0001 13.4 -1.40 0.12 3 Weeks 6-9 37,757 19.2 0.0933 -1.04 0.31 0.0010 19.3 -0.58 -0.46 4 Weeks 10-14 30,297 22.2 0.1309 -0.53 0.31 0.0873 23.0 -0.14 -0.38 5 Weeks 15-18 21,792 26.2 0.1447 -0.86 0.34 0.0120 26.3 -0.60 -0.26 6 Weeks 19-26 17,290 28.7 0.1114 -0.51 0.25 0.0434 29.0 -0.26 -0.25  Average 36,734 20.6 0.1129 -1.28 0.29 20.4 -1.07 -0.22 

Avg. absolute dif. (weeks) 0.25 

Percent -23.8% 
140 

Table 4-16. Estimates of the effect of Massachusetts PLX services on the claim durations Program Year 1998 (conti

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 

N 

Mean of

Dep. 

Variable 

Adj.

RSquare 

Effect of

Service on 

Weeks of 

Joblessness 

(Regression 

Coefficient) 

StandardError of

Estimate 

Probability 

Result Dif.

from 0 

Mean for

Group 

Receiving 

Service 

Mean for

Group Less 

Mean for

Comparison 

Group 

Reg. Coef. 

Less Mean

Perc

Di

Betw

Reg. C

& M

(3) Referrals Leading to Placement vs. No Service 1 Week 1 58,683 13.3 0.1049 -6.64 0.94 <.0001 8.0 -6.69 0.05 2 Weeks 2-5 54,587 14.2 0.0923 -4.30 0.67 <.0001 9.4 -5.35 1.05 3 Weeks 6-9 37,757 19.2 0.0933 -5.32 0.82 <.0001 15.1 -4.79 -0.53 4 Weeks 10-14 30,297 22.2 0.1309 -5.85 0.81 <.0001 17.5 -5.65 -0.20 5 Weeks 15-18 21,792 26.2 0.1447 -3.42 1.04 0.0010 22.9 -4.00 0.58 6 Weeks 19-26 17,290 28.7 0.1114 -2.48 0.68 0.0003 26.4 -2.79 0.30  Average 36,734 20.6 0.1129 -4.67 0.82 16.5 -4.88 0.21 

Avg. absolute dif. 0.45 

Percent -9.3% 

(4) Referrals Leading to Placement vs. Other Referral 1 Week 1 58,683 13.3 0.1049 -3.15 0.98 -3.20 7.97 -3.25 0.10 2 Weeks 2-5 54,587 14.2 0.0923 -3.01 0.71 -4.23 9.42 -3.95 0.94 3 Weeks 6-9 37,757 19.2 0.0933 -4.28 0.88 -4.88 15.11 -4.21 -0.07 4 Weeks 10-14 30,297 22.2 0.1309 -5.32 0.86 -6.17 17.46 -5.50 0.18 5 Weeks 15-18 21,792 26.2 0.1447 -2.55 1.09 -2.34 22.89 -3.40 0.85 6 Weeks 19-26 17,290 28.7 0.1114 -1.97 0.73 -2.72 26.44 -2.53 0.56  Average 36,734 20.6 0.1129 -3.38 0.88 16.5 -3.81 0.42 

Avg. absolute dif. 0.45 

Percent -11.7% 
To produce each table, a separate regression was run using the same model specification for 

claimants collecting benefits at the start of each of six periods spanning the first 26 weeks of benefit 

collection. Each regression included “dummy” variables indicating receipt of three types of services. The 

first three sections of each table present, in turn, the regression coefficients comparing the effect of: (1) 

receiving a service “other” than obtaining a referral, (2) receiving a referral, not leading to a placement, 

and (3) receiving a referral leading to a placement; to not receiving any reported service in a given period 

(but possibly receiving services at other times). 

In the fourth section, the effect of obtaining a placement is compared to the effect of being 

referred, but not placed. This measure is derived from subtracting the referral coefficients from the

placement coefficients. In all but four cases, the regression coefficients are statistically different, from 

zero, usually by extremely large margins. This indicates that the standard errors of the estimates (shown

in column 5) are quite small relative to the measured effects. Using the average figures presented at the 

bottom of each section the effect of placements reduces the duration of joblessness by 8.16 weeks on 

average, while referrals (not leading to placements) reduce joblessness by 2.36 weeks. Thus, the

placement effect is about 3.4 times as great as the referral effect. The effect of placements is about the 

same across most time periods. The effect falls between period 1 and 2, and then, after rising through 

period 4, falls. The placement effect is especially large in period 4, spanning the 10th to the 14th week of a

claim.

This pattern suggests that some claimants use PLXs to help find new jobs as soon as they 

become unemployed, while others wait until around the 10th week. Moreover, the effect of reviewing job 

listings is especially large at first because claimants who have not previously viewed listings are likely to 

find an attractive job among those that have accumulated in the job-matching system. After failing to find 

an attractive job through the initial search, it is likely to take a considerable period before an attractive job

listing enters the system. 

An alternative explanation for the observed pattern is that there are certain points in 

claimants’ job search when they are especially likely to take a job, rather than wait until a more attractive 

job offer is obtained. Those points occur after about 2.5 months of receiving benefits, and close to the 

point benefits are exhausted after about 6 months. The effect of PLX referrals is strongest after 2.5 

months because at that point unemployed claimants usually have an accurate view of their reemployment

prospects, and some will grab any reasonable offer at that point. Subsequent to period 4, however, it often

is a matter of deciding which of the relatively unattractive opportunities is worth accepting. We speculate 

141 
that the placement effect is particularly low in the 6th period, which is close to benefit exhaustion, 

because at that point many claimants are willing to take a much wider variety of jobs than they were 

previously, or withdraw from the labor force. They, therefore, are likely to fill vacancies they previously

identified by other means, but were unwilling to seriously consider until they determined that better 

vacancies could not be located. 

The effect of referrals not leading to placements does not change much over time, except

that it is unusually low as benefit exhaustion approaches. This reinforces the view that referrals are not as 

valuable late in a claim period because claimants are more willing to accept less desirable jobs that are 

easy to find by other means. Interestingly, the referral effect dips in period 4 when the placement effect is

especially high. This also reinforces the view that many claimants are particularly anxious to return to 

work at that point and will accept reasonable offers. Thus, the value of referrals that do not generate offers

is relatively low in the fourth period. 

On average, placement effects measured using regressions are only a bit larger than the mean

difference in duration between placed claimants and job-changing claimants who did not receive PLX

services. The average (absolute) difference between the two measures is only about 10 percent. That

regression-adjusted results are slightly larger than unadjusted measures suggests that placed claimants 

have characteristics associated with having a bit more difficulty finding work than the average non-PLX

user (who finds a new job covered by the wage-record database). This is a common result across all state

analyses and reinforces the view that care is needed in making comparisons between PLX users and nonusers. Importantly, the difference in the regression-adjusted results and results based on simple means

would be much larger, probably more than 2 weeks, if we did not control for the return to former jobs. 

While this difference is not large enough to reduce the placement effect to zero, it is large 

enough to reduce the effect of a referral to zero, or even to make it appear use of PLXs increase claim 

duration. Indeed, as noted in our earlier reports, many attempts to assess the effectiveness of job-matching 

services have found that PLX job-matching services made clients worse off because they did not take into 

account the factors that triggered PLX use among only a subset of job seekers. Thus, the analyses suggest

that controlling for recall is extremely important. But also of great importance is comparing PLX-users to

non-users who have been unemployed for about the same length of time at the point the users obtain PLX 

services. This is why separate regressions were run on use in each of six periods, which only included 

non-user claimants who were unemployed at the start of a given period. 

142 
4.5.3.1 The Effect of Massachusetts Services Other Than Referrals 

Section 1 of Table 4-15 describes the effect of services other than referrals. In this case, the

average effect is to increase the duration of joblessness by about 0.64 weeks on average. As noted above, 

results showing lengthening of joblessness usually reflect failure to adequately take into account

differences between PLX users and non-users. That the unadjusted mean differences indicate that other 

services lengthen the period of joblessness by 1.33 weeks, on average, suggests that claimants obtaining 

these services have characteristics that lead to longer than average spells of joblessness, and that better 

information about reemployment prospects could further reduce the selection bias. 

A plausible reason why receipt of other services appears to lengthen jobless duration is that 

many claimants who obtain other PLX services also review the job-order files during their visits. If 

claimants are unable to find even a single job order to which they wish to be referred, this indicates that

they will have unusual difficulty finding a new job by any means. However, controlling for these poorer

reemployment prospects is extremely difficult with the variables in the study database. In addition, some

of the individuals obtaining services, but not obtaining referrals, could be entering training programs that

delay their return to work. 

It also is noteworthy that the largest negative effect occurs just before the 6th week of an

unemployment spell. This is the period when claimants likely to have the most trouble finding new jobs

are called in to PLXs to receive mandatory services under the Worker Profiling and Reemployment 

Service (WPRS) program. Thus, we speculate that many of the claimants using PLXs in this period were 

induced to make visits and either searched in vain for relevant job orders, or obtained the required service

but were not especially interested in obtaining job leads from any source, and therefore, did not view 

listings. In either case, failure to obtain a referral is likely to be strongly associated with far longer-thanaverage jobless durations. 

In summary, it is implausible that the true effect of “other” services is to lengthen the 

duration of joblessness. Far more likely is that claimants who receive some service, but do not obtain 

referrals, have particularly poor prospects of finding work (or little interest in searching intensively) but 

the data cannot adequately capture these differences. Thus, we feel the negative selection bias in this case 

is greater than the small but positive effect of these services. Receipt of other services is therefore omitted

from the benefit-cost calculations. 

143 
More generally, these “other” service results suggest that it would have been fruitless to 

attempt to estimate the effect of those services in other states using their administrative records. Indeed, 

Massachusetts was unique in the large number of claimants reported receiving other services (either

because more claimants received those services or the receipt of those services was more likely to be 

reported). Thus, the Massachusetts results support our long-held view that even if we had large samples of

claimants receiving other services from other states, it would not be possible to separate the small,

positive per-person effect of those services from especially large measurement biases that would lead to 

severe underestimation of the true effect. 

4.5.3.2 The Effect of Massachusetts Placements Relative to Referrals Not Leading to 

Placements

To conclude the discussion of benefits, we describe the measured placement effect using 

claimants referred, but not placed, as a comparison group, rather than claimants receiving no services.

Section 4 of Table 4-15 indicates that using referred claimants as a comparison group cuts the average

reduction in joblessness from 8.16 weeks to 5.80 weeks. While this is still a large effect, it is considerably 

smaller than that produced using non-users as the comparison group. 

Interestingly, subtracting the mean duration of joblessness for referred, but not placed,

claimants, from the means for those placed produces almost the same average results as the regressions. 

The results are not identical in each time period, but the positive differences tend to balance out the 

negative differences. Indeed, the mean results are considerably larger than the regression-based results in

period 2, and considerably smaller than the regression-based results in period 6. 

These results suggest that in the early stages of UI, claimants who are placed have 

characteristics that make it easier for them to find work than average non-users, but later in their spells 

they have characteristics associated with having more difficulty than average finding work. Thus, there

still may be some bias in the estimates of referral and placement effects using non-users as the 

comparison group. However, it is implausible that the bias is nearly equal to the measured referral effect. 

Put another way, it seems likely that obtaining referrals from Massachusetts PLXs provides information 

about the job market that assists claimants to make better decisions about how to search for work using 

other means and which jobs found by other means should be accepted. Nevertheless, we will produce

144 
highly conservative measures of the value of Massachusetts’ PLXs based on the assumption that all of the

measured referral effect is due to selection bias. 

4.5.4 Estimating the Total Benefits of Massachusetts PLX Use 

The top section of Table 4-17 uses the regression coefficients in Table 4-15 to estimate the 

total increase in earnings derived from referrals and placements. Columns A and B display the regressionbased per-person reduction in weeks of joblessness due to referrals and placements relative to not 

receiving a PLX service, and column C displays the per-person reduction due to placements relative to

referrals. Columns D and E display the average weekly earnings of referred and placed claimants shortly 

after their spell ends. Columns F, G, and H show the per-person earnings gains resulting from referrals 

and placements based on multiplying the estimated reduction in weeks of joblessness times average 

weekly earnings. 

To estimate the total earnings gains (shown in columns K, L, and M) the number of

claimants referred and placed (shown in columns I and J) are multiplied by the per-person earnings gains. 

Overall, the earnings gains due to referrals is $7.36 million; the gains due to placements are $2.41 million 

(using the non-user comparison group) and $1.65 million (using the referred comparison group). 

The earnings gains due to referrals are exceptionally large in period 1 because the per-person

effects are unusually large in that period, and the number of referrals high. The effect in the second period

is almost as large, even though the per-person effect is considerably smaller than in period 1. This is 

because about one-third of all referrals occur in the second period. The gains due to placements are largest

in period 2, and considerably smaller in other periods. This is mainly because by far the largest number of

placements occur in period 2. 

The bottom section of Table 4-17 presents analogous calculations using the regression 

coefficients in Table 4-16 to estimate the total decrease in UI payments derived from referrals and

placements. In this case the average weekly benefit payment is substituted for weekly earnings, but the 

same multiplications are made to estimate the per-person reduction in payments and the total reduction in 

payments. 

145 
146 

Table 4-17. Estimates of the total annual increase in earnings and reduction in benefit payments for Massachusetts 

placements Program Year 1998 

Weeks of Joblessness Coefficients Average Weekly

Earnings 

Per Person 

Earnings Increase 

Number 

Referrals Placements Placements Referred Placed Referral Placement Placement Referred Placed R

(vs. No Service) (vs. referrals) ($) ($) (vs. No Service) (vs. referrals) 

($) ($) 

(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (G) (H) (I) (J) 

1 Week 1 -4.46 -8.19 -3.72 394 362 1,760 2,963 1,347 1,466 134 2 Weeks 2-5 -2.87 -7.42 -4.55

-6.18

412 358 1,182 2,655 1,628 2,111 269 

3 1,047 

10-14 

 632 

Weeks 6-9

Weeks

-2.60 -8.78 437 387 1,136 3,403 2,395 141 

4 -1.66 -11.16 -9.50 419 405

425

697 4,517 

3,572 

3,844 849 

 433 

 113 

5 Weeks 15-18 -2.54 -8.40 -5.86 442 1,124 2,492

1,965

 45 

6 Weeks 19-26 -0.05 -5.03 -4.98 415 394 19 1,983 77 

Total 6,538 779 

Average -2.36 -8.16 -5.80 415 378 1,125 3,100 2,123

Weeks of Claim Coefficients Average Weekly

Benefit Payment 

Per Person 

Benefit Reduction 

Number 

Referrals Placements Placements Referred Placed Referral Placement Placement Referred Placed R

(vs. No Service) (vs. referrals) ($) ($) (vs. No Service) (vs. referrals) 

($) ($) 

(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (G) (H) (I) (J) 

1 Week 1 -3.49 -6.64 -3.15 224 211 -781 -1,402 -665 1,466 134 -2 Weeks 2-5 -1.28 -4.30 -3.01 231

243

193 -296 -831 

-252 -1,159 

-583 2,111 269

 141

3 Weeks 6-9 -1.04 -5.32 -4.28 218 -933 1,047 4 Weeks 10-14 -0.53 -5.85 -5.32 251 217 -132 -1,270 -1,156 849 113 5 Weeks 15-18 -0.86 -3.42 

-2.48 

-2.55 261 225 -225 -767 -573 433 45 

6 Weeks 19-26 -0.51 -1.97 262 267 -134 -663 -527 632 77 

Total 6,538 779 -

Average -1.49 -4.84 -3.46 239 213 -356 -1,032 -737
Overall, columns K, L, and M show that UI payments were reduced by $2.33 million due to 

referrals and by $804 thousand due to placements (using the non-user comparison group) or $574

thousand (using the referred comparison group). Differences in the size of the UI payment reductions 

across different periods are similar to the patterns of earnings gains. However, almost half of the referral 

reductions occur in period 1. 

4.5.5 Comparing Massachusetts Costs to Benefits 

Lines 1, 2, and 3 of Table 4-18 display the estimated cost of running the Massachusetts

PLXs in PY98. The costs include the $14.6 million provided under the Wagner-Peyser Act, and $1.0 

million provided as part of a special WIA One-Stop Implementation Grant. (In the previous 4 program 

years, Massachusetts received more than $8 million in special One-Stop grants, most of which exclusively 

benefited its competitive PLXs.) As with the cost estimates for other states, we exclude contributions

from One-Stop Center partners. This is done because the precise allocation of resources across different

services is exceedingly difficult to estimate. Thus, it is reasonable to assume that the partners’

contributions to job-matching services are just about balanced by Wagner-Peyser Act staff contributions 

to other One-Stop Center services. 

Lines 4 through 7 of Table 4-18 display the official Massachusetts Employment Service 

statistics reported to ETA. These statistics show that: (a) 44,363 claimants applied for PLX services, 

about 37 percent of all applicants; (b) 31,777 claimants received some reportable service, about 35

percent of those receiving a reportable service; (c) 13,466 claimants were referred to jobs, about 34

percent of all those referred, and (d) 3,083 claimants were placed, about 30 percent of all those placed. 

Lines 8, 9, and 10 show the number of claimants in the sample receiving services at any time

while their claims were “alive” (that is, while they were receiving benefits). These lines also compare

figures for the sample to the official statistics on claimants. To make our numbers more comparable to the

official statistics, the number placed is added to the number referred, and this total is added to the number 

receiving some service. However, the official statistics are much larger than our figures because they

reflect services delivered to claimants after they exhausted benefits, while the study’s measures omit those

services. Also, job seekers can report they are claimants, even if they never receive any UI benefit 

payments, but everyone in the sample received UI benefits. 

147 
Table 4-18. Benefit-cost ratios for Massachusetts claimant placements and referrals Program Year 

1998 

1. Wagner-Peyser Act funding $14,615,651 

2. $1,000,000 

 

All Claimants 

One-Stop grant

3. Total funding $15,615,651

All PLX-Users Percent of All Users 

4. Applicants 44,363 119,117 37.2 

 

5. Some service (including

referrals) 31,777 91,298 34.8 

6. Referred 13,466 39,472 34.1 

7. Placed 3,083 10,100 30.5 

Claimants in Our

Sample All Claimants Percent of Claimants 

8. Some service (including

referrals) 9,098 31,777 28.6 

9. Referred (including referrals

leading to placements) 5,747 13,466 42.7 

 

 Cost Benefits Benefit-Cost Ratio 

10. Placed 779 3,083 25.3 

11. Referrals and placements $2,273,447 $9,770,930 4.30 

 

12. Placements $1,204,415 $1,653,826 1.37

Source: State micro-data, Federal funding allocation data, and statistical estimates.

Keeping these differences in mind, our count is 9,098 claimants received some service and 

5,747 were referred, which is roughly 29 percent and 43 percent of the official statistics, respectively.

However, we count 779 placements, which is only 25 percent of the official count. These statistics 

suggest that claimants in our sample obtain other services at about the same rate as those counted as 

claimants in the official statistics, but claimants in our sample receive a far higher proportion of all 

referrals. This is a plausible result because all the claimants in our sample are receiving UI benefits, while

148 
claimants not in our sample are not receiving benefits. Since claimants receiving benefits can afford to 

look at a greater range of jobs over a longer time period, they are more likely to obtain at least one 

referral. Indeed, the differential use of referrals by claimants receiving benefits could be substantially

understated because claimants receiving benefits are likely to obtain more referrals per-person, not just

more likely to receive one referral. 

Finally, lines 11 and 12 of Table 4-18 compare benefits to costs using two different

conservative assumptions. The first assumption is that only PLX referrals have any benefits; all other

services have no value. The second, even more conservative assumption, is that only PLX referrals

leading to placements have value. 

Under the second assumption, the benefits are the total value of placements shown in column

M of Table 4-17. This cost equals the proportion of placed claimants in our sample to all placed claimants 

(.253) times the proportion of placed claimants to all placed PLX users (.305) to get the proportion of all 

referrals going to claimants in our sample (.077). We then multiply this proportion times the total cost of 

running the Massachusetts PLXs. This produces a cost of $1.20 million, while the benefits are $1.65 

million. Thus, the benefit-cost ratio is 1.37. 

4.5.6 Benefits and Costs in Competitive versus Traditional PLXs in Massachusetts 

The overall benefit-cost ratio for services delivered to Massachusetts claimants during their 

period of benefit collection compares favorably to the ratios for any type of employment and training

program. They also are in the same range as our results for claimants in Colorado, Washington, and 

Oregon, but considerably lower than the North Carolina estimates. However, Table 4-18 does not tell us 

how the benefits and costs differ between the competitive and traditional PLXs. Clearly, it would be very

Under the first assumption, the benefits are the sum of referrals and placements shown in 

columns K and L of Table 4-17. The costs are the cost of running the entire PLX system times the share

of referrals going to members of our sample. To produce this cost estimate we multiply the proportion of

referred claimants in our sample to all referred claimants (.427) times the proportion of referred claimants 

to all referred PLX users (.341) to get the proportion of all referrals going to claimants in our sample 

(.146). We then multiply this proportion times the total cost of running the Massachusetts PLXs. This 

produces a cost of $2.27 million, while the benefits are $9.77 million. Thus, the benefit-cost ratio is 4.30. 

149 
useful to know if use of the competitive model boosted PLX performance, especially since most of the 

substantial funds in Massachusetts’ WIA Implementation Grant went to supporting the competitive PLXs. 

To separately assess the benefits from the competitive and traditional PLXs we subdivided 

our data to cover each of the six regions Massachusetts uses in managing its PLXs and further divided the

data between competitive and traditional PLXs in each of the three regions containing both types of 

public labor exchanges. 

Table 4-19 shows that about 95 percent of claimants referred or placed were in the 

traditional PLXs, and roughly 5 percent were in the competitive PLXs. To say the least, we were

surprised to see this marked imbalance given that the competitive PLXs were located in highly populous 

areas, and probably received more than 40 percent of all funds spent on PLXs in the state. 

Table 4-19. Referrals and placements to Massachusetts claimants in sample by area 

(%) 

Number of

Placements 

Distribution of 

Placements 

Number of 

Referrals 

Distribution 

of Referrals 

(%) 

 Boston 

1 Competitive 9 1.1 69 1.1 

2 Traditional 1 0.1 16 0.3 

Boston Metro Area 

3 1.3 53 

4 11 162 

Competitive 11 0.8

Traditional 1.3 2.6

Western Region

1.0 

6 693 10.9 

5 Competitive 8 63 1.0

Traditional 106 12.7

Other Regions 

7 Northeast 202 24.3 1,507

8 Southeast 250 30.0 

9 1,894 29.9 

23.8

1,875 29.6

Central 234 28.1

10 Other Regions Total 686 82.5 5,276 83.3 

11 All Areas 832 100.0 6,332 100.0

150 
The samples for the competitive areas, even if grouped together, were too small for separate 

regression analysis of the effects of placements or referrals. However, we were able to use the data to 

examine how the characteristics of claimants using PLXs varied across the regions. 

Table 4-20 shows that there were some interesting cross-area differences in claimant

characteristics. In particular, claimants using the competitive and traditional PLXs in the Boston Metro 

Region had unusually high pre-claim earnings and were especially likely to have more than 12 years of 

education. 

Indeed, claimants using competitive PLXs in each region were much more likely to have 

some college education than claimants using traditional PLXs. The difference is particularly marked 

between the Southeast Region, which included high unemployment areas of New Bedford and Fall River, 

and the competitive sites. In the Southeast, only one-quarter of the claimants had some college. In 

addition, just under 29 percent did not graduate from high school, which is twice the percentage in most 

other regions.

There also were distinct differences in the ethnicity of claimants using PLXs. In the city of

Boston more than one-third of claimants using PLXs were African-American, while in other areas

African-Americans always were below 11 percent of PLX claimant users. In the Northeast Region and the 

competitive sites in the Western Region (Holyoke and Springfield) about 20 percent of the claimants were 

Latino, while in other areas, Latinos always were below 11 percent. 

It would be worthwhile to use the Massachusetts data to better understand how differences in 

service effectiveness relate to the variation in demographic, work-history, and labor-market

characteristics. Unfortunately, we lacked the time to address these questions in sufficient detail to present

a well-rounded discussion here. However, what is highly relevant for this report is that: (1) the 

competitive PLXs had only a tiny effect on the benefits displayed in Table 4-18, yet they accounted for a

large fraction of the cost, and (2) even though the competitive PLXs contributed data to the state’s 

administrative data system (in the period studied), it is unlikely that they followed the same procedures as

the traditional PLXs in tracking referrals, and perhaps, even in listing openings in the state job-matching 

database. 

151 
152 

Table 4-20. Demographics and earnings of PLX-users in Massachusetts by area 

Male Ethnicity Education

Latino

Years 

Pre-Claim

Quarterly

Earnings 

Age 

White Black <12

Years 

12 

(%) 

Boston 

(Years) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) 

1 Competitive 4,954 44.4 47.5 40.8 34.2 8.4 14.5 32.7 2 Traditional 4,657 44.0 54.7 24.9 52.7 11.1 25.0 47.3 

Boston Metro Area 

3 Competitive 6,791 46.6 47.6 73.9 9.2 9.2 12.9 32.2 4 Traditional 7,165 48.2 60.4 82.7 7.2 5.2 11.3 40.3 

Western Region

5 Competitive 4,709 43.0 54.7 63.4 10.5 20.8 17.5 38.4 6 Traditional 4,324 43.0 62.3 86.0 5.3 5.1 14.1 53.8 

Other Regions

7 Northeast 5,550 44.4 57.1 69.6 5.3 19.2 14.7 51.8 8 Southeast 4,720 43.9 53.7 86.4 7.3 3.8 28.7 43.8 9 Central 5,920 44.3 60.3 81.7 4.4 9.0 11.7 50.1 

Note: Boxes indicate high values 
This makes it highly likely that the official Massachusetts statistics substantially understate

the number of claimants obtaining job-matching (referral and placement) services from state PLXs.

Moreover, these services also may be underestimated for the traditional PLXs (although to a lesser extent)

because of the use of listings with unsuppressed contact information. The underreporting of the true 

number of referrals and placements has an effect on the benefit-cost ratios reported in Table 4-18. This is 

because unit costs decline as the total number of referrals and placements increases. If the benefits of the

“missing” referrals and placements are not estimated, the benefits would remain the same. However, if the 

number missing were known, the benefit-cost ratios would increase because unit costs decrease when the 

total number served increases. Fortunately, the benefit-cost ratios are substantial even if the costs are

substantially overstated. Thus, we will not even speculate on the extent of the under-statement of referrals 

and placement. 

4.5.7 Summary and Conclusions: Massachusetts 

The main conclusion is that the benefits of providing PLX services to UI claimants in

Massachusetts in PY98 were substantially greater than the costs of providing those services. If we accept 

as accurate our measures of the benefits stemming from referrals and placements using non-users of PLX 

services as the comparison group, the benefits equal $9.7 million, of which two-thirds stems from the 

value of referrals. Costs, however, are roughly one-quarter of these benefits, generating an exceptionally 

high benefit-cost ratio of 4.30. Even if we use the highly conservative assumption that estimated benefits

from referrals are entirely due to measurement bias and accept as accurate the measure of the value of

placements using referred claimants as the comparison group, the benefits fall to $1.65 million, which is

still 37 percent greater than the costs. 

The second conclusion is that about 95 percent of the measured benefits came from referrals

and placements delivered by Massachusetts’ traditional PLXs that were run in a similar way to the PLXs 

in North Carolina, Oregon, and Washington. We further estimate that, at most, 60 percent of the total

costs went to operating these PLXs. Most likely, much of the measured difference stems from the

competitive PLX not tracking service delivery in the same way as the traditional PLXs. Being unable to 

accurately assess the benefits stemming from use of the competitive PLXs in Boston, CambridgeWoburn, and Springfield-Holyoke is unfortunate because it would be especially useful to know how

performance in the competitive sites compares to that in the traditional PLXs. Further analysis of the

performance of the competitive PLXs also would be interesting because these offices serve better
educated claimants as well as more African-Americans and Latinos. More generally, extensive use of job

listings with unsuppressed contact information may have led referrals and placements to be severely 

underestimated throughout the state. Importantly, this is a growing problem nationwide as only Oregon

has implemented a system to identify job seekers referred to listings with unsuppressed contact

information and then determine which clients were placed at those jobs. 

The third conclusion is that the value of services other than referrals cannot be measured 

with sufficient accuracy to produce useful results using a non-experimental design. The problem is that 

the value of those services probably is small per-person, but the measurement bias is large and leads to

underestimation of the true effect. More specifically, we believe that most PLX-users who are actively 

searching for work and have reasonable prospects of finding jobs obtain referrals when receiving “other”

services such as job search workshops and individualized counseling. Thus, claimants who use PLXs but

do not obtain referrals are likely to have especially poor prospects for quickly finding suitable work (or 

are not actively searching for work), and therefore are likely to experience long spells of joblessness. 

The measurement problem stems from the extreme difficulty in using the information 

available in the study datasets to determine which of the non-user claimants in the comparison group

would not be able to obtain referrals if they were users. Indeed, there is substantial evidence that most

non-users have better prospects for finding work than users, even those who could obtain referrals. The 

effects of “adverse selection” that biases downward estimates of the value of PLX job-matching services

can be substantially reduced by controlling for recall and how long claimants have been unemployed at 

the point they obtain referrals. However, it appears that the additional adverse selection that leads

claimants unable to secure referrals to obtain additional assistance cannot be reduced sufficiently to obtain 

even slightly positive results. 

4.6 Analysis of Michigan Job Seeker and Employer Surveys 

A continuing theme throughout this report is that changes in job-matching technology have

made it increasingly difficult to track PLX activities through traditional means. In particular, use of 

computerized job-matching systems with unsuppressed contact information have made it impossible for 

staff to track most referrals, and without tracking referrals it is virtually impossible to track placements. 

Thus, while job matching is the primary service provided by PLXs, it has become increasingly difficult to 

obtain even basic facts about PLXs’ job-matching activities. What is possible to measure is the number of 

154 
job-orders (and openings) listed with public exchanges, the number of referrals and placements to orders 

where contact information is suppressed, the number of times job seekers examine computerized job 

orders, and sometimes the number of “hits” to specific orders. In addition, it is still possible to measure 

the delivery of various forms of staff-intensive services such as individualized counseling and attendance

at job-search assistance workshops. 

In the course of conducting this and related studies, we encountered several ways to fill the

void created by increased use of computerized job-matching systems with “unsuppressed” contact 

information: 

 Oregon’s system allows voluntary, automated partial registration that permits 

identification of each job order to which a given job seeker obtained contact

information. 

 Washington State permitted the use of in-office and mail job seeker surveys that 

allowed us to determine service use and outcomes. 

 Michigan uses job seeker and employer surveys to obtain information about use of

job-matching systems and satisfaction with that use. 

A previous Westat study published by ETA discussed the Oregon and Washington specialized data

collection efforts. This section discusses the survey-based system created by Michigan. 

The Michigan system consists of three components.14 The first is a survey mailed to job 

seekers posting their resumes (registering) with Michigan’s Talent Bank (MTB), which is Michigan’s

automated job-matching system. Each month, the survey is mailed to one-quarter of the job seekers who 

registered three months earlier. Thus, there is a gap of three months in the receipt of information and two 

additional months in producing a report. For example the April 4, 2003, report presented findings for 

surveys mailed out on February 28, 2003, to 6,826 individuals registering in November 2002. The survey 

uses a machine-readable format, and the April report discusses the results from the returns by 1,080 

individuals (16 percent of the sample). 

 

The second component is a survey mailed out to all employers that post new openings with 

MTB in a given month. The April report discusses the returns from 137 (20 percent) of the 684 employers 

registering new openings in December 2002 who were mailed surveys on February 28, 2003. The job

14 Copies of the Michigan mail-out/mail back job seeker and employer surveys are included in Appendix I of this report. 

155 
seeker and employer surveys are conducted by the Michigan Department of Career Development (which

administers the Wagner-Peyser and Workforce Investment Act programs), with some assistance from a

firm that creates the machine-readable instruments and mailing labels, and tabulates the results when the

instruments are returned. 

The third component is a job seeker survey conducted by telephone by a firm under contract

to the Department of Career Development. Westat’s understanding is that the survey is conducted 

monthly using a sample of 100 randomly selected job seekers who registered with MTB three months

earlier. Thus, the sample is drawn from the same population as the mail-out/mail-back survey, but, 

because of the high cost of the telephone survey, a much smaller group is contacted. The response rate,

however, is much higher than the mail survey, generally over 70 percent. The primary impediment to

obtaining an even higher response rate is that many individuals in the sample are difficult to reach by

telephone. Few individuals contacted refuse to participate because the survey addresses only three issues:

(1) overall satisfaction with services received at Michigan Works! Centers; (2) how well the services met 

expectations; and (3) how the services compare to those of an “ideal” program. The responses to each

question were similar and produced average satisfaction ratings of 84, where 100 would be extremely 

satisfied, and 0 extremely dissatisfied. 

Before discussing the content or results of the surveys further, it is important to recognize 

that given the small sample size of the phone survey and high nonresponse rate for the mail surveys, it is

difficult to know if the results have external validity; that is, whether the statistics reflect the views of the 

universe of MTB users. Unfortunately, the mail survey has not been validated by means such as phone 

follow-up to assess the nonresponse bias. Officials associated with the surveys recognize that validation 

would be valuable, especially because they feel that individuals with favorable views may be more likely

than others to mail back the questionnaires. However, the department lacks the financial resources to

conduct the needed validation. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that both the mail (with a low response 

rate) and phone surveys report equally high levels of satisfaction. Moreover, it is common for surveys of

this sort to produce high levels of satisfaction. 

4.6.2 Details of the Michigan Job Seeker Mail Survey 

The MTB job seeker mail survey contains 19 questions. Six of the questions provide basic

information about respondents such as age, education, gender, geographic location, claimant status, and 

156 
type of job being sought. Three questions ask about services received such as the number of employers 

listing orders the job seeker contacted and the number of employers who contacted the job seeker (by

looking through the resumes). Two questions describe how services were provided such as whether the 

job seeker obtained assistance in entering resumes. One question asks about job-search outcomes—has 

the job seeker found employment. Five questions ask about satisfaction with Michigan Works! services,

in general, as well as the resume listing and opening listing services, in particular. 

Based on Westat experience in conducting similar research, the shortness of the survey 

should encourage participation. The two-page survey also appears well laid-out and makes good use of 

the space available. If more space were available, the survey could include questions about how a job was 

found, if reemployed; in particular whether the job seeker was placed as a direct result of using Michigan 

Works!; the extent to which use of Michigan Works! facilitated job-search (whether or not the person was 

reemployed); and the length of time the job seeker had been searching for work at the point the person 

registered. One possible way to free space would be to drop questions that can be answered directly from

the electronic resume used to obtain contact information. 

The key responses in the April 2003 job seeker report were that: 

 19 percent found employment. 

 45 percent applied for jobs listed. 

 43 percent were high school graduates, with no college; 31 percent had some college. 

 21 percent were contacted by employers. 

 78 percent would use MTB again. 

 40 percent were satisfied or above with the resume service, 42 percent neutral or 

slightly satisfied, 18 percent dissatisfied. 

 29 percent were satisfied or above with the jobs listed, 52 percent neutral or slightly

satisfied, 18 percent dissatisfied. 

 31 percent were looking for professional jobs, 26 percent clerical/sales, and 23 percent

skilled trade jobs. 

The survey provided a highly useful, well-rounded view of client characteristics, MTB 

usage, and satisfaction for the respondents. However, as noted above, it is not possible to determine how

157 
well these responses reflect the views of the universe being studied. Assuming a reasonable degree of 

external validity, the results suggest that: 

1. Job search took considerable time during the period studied. 

2. Both job seekers and employers made considerable use of Michigan’s Talent Bank. 

3. Satisfaction levels were reasonably high.

4. Job seekers were more satisfied with the resume system than with the job listings. 

5. A diverse group of job seekers used MTB in terms of their education level and types of 

jobs being sought. 

Importantly, the results are broken down for each of Michigan’s 24 Michigan Works! areas, 

and the reports are widely disseminated to senior administrators at the state level and office managers

throughout Michigan. Even if individual surveys suffer nonresponse bias to some degree, it would appear 

that over time the responses could be used to assess changes in user characteristics, services received, and

satisfaction. Thus, these surveys probably provide reasonable bases for assessing the impact of changes in 

service delivery and economic conditions. 

4.6.3 Details of the Michigan Employer Mail Survey 

The employer survey consists of 14 questions. Three of the questions describe the

employers’ location, industry, and employment level. Four questions relate to reviewing job seeker

resumes—number interviewed, number hired, and satisfaction. Five questions relate to job seekers’

search of job postings—number of contacts, interviews, and hires, as well as satisfaction. One question

asks about overall satisfaction with Michigan Works! services. 

The survey instrument is very well-structured and conducive to being completed and

returned. If more space was available, the survey could ask about: (1) repeat usage, (2) number of

openings in listing, (3) number of hires (from all sources) for positions listed, and perhaps (4) other ways

the job listing was advertised. 

158 
The key responses from the April 2003 employer survey were that: 

 82 percent reviewed resumes. 

 74 percent listed job orders. 

 64 percent interviewed job seekers. 

 43 percent hired at least one person interviewed. 

 74 percent were contacted by a suitable number of job seekers. 

 99 percent said they would view resumes again. 

 96 percent said they would list jobs again.

 59 percent of users were from service-related industries, 14 percent manufacturing. 

 59 percent had fewer than 25 employees. 

Perhaps to an even greater extent than the job seeker survey, the employer survey provided a 

highly useful, well rounded view of client characteristics, usage, and satisfaction for the respondents.

Assuming a reasonable degree of external validity, the results suggest that: 

5. A diverse group of employers used MTB, with small, service-industry employers 

being especially heavy users. 

1. Employers made substantial use of the resume-reviewing service. 

2. Adequate numbers of well-qualified job seekers responded to most listings. 

3. Employers interviewed and hired a large number of job seekers as a result of using 

MTB. 

4. Satisfaction levels were very high. 

Thus, like the job seeker surveys, the employer surveys appear to provide Michigan Works! 

managers with a reasonable means to assess changes in performance over time and provide considerable 

insight into the operating characteristics of Michigan’s Talent Bank. 

159 
4.6.4 Assessment of the Value of Michigan’s Surveys 

Changes in the nature of job-matching systems used by public labor exchanges have made it 

very difficult to measure even the most basic characteristics about the extent to which job seekers are 

referred and placed as well as how employers obtain inquiries and hire well-qualified candidates. 

Michigan has developed a promising means to obtain basic performance statistics and assess customer

satisfaction through use of job seeker and employer mail surveys. 

Both surveys appear to obtain highly relevant information, which at least over time can

provide indicators of the impact of policy changes as well as changes in the economy. In particular, the

employer survey provides high-value information about viewing of resumes and job seeker response to

listings, interviewing and hiring, satisfaction, and characteristics of employers using MTB. The job seeker

survey provides excellent indicators of satisfaction and characteristics, and good measures of usage. A 

key piece of missing information—about placements stemming from referrals and other ways jobs are 

found—is partly overcome by information from the employer survey. 

Whether the surveys provide an accurate view of overall performance and satisfaction is

open to question because of the low response rates. Thus, it would be worthwhile for Michigan, or even

ETA, to test the validity of the survey. Such a test could suggest that the results have a reasonable degree

of external validity and confirm that the bias remains relatively constant over time, making the responses 

useful for assessing change. 

Such a test of the validity of the employer survey would be particularly easy to carryout 

because Michigan Works! staff could conduct a complementary phone survey during the normal

employer contacts required to remove or modify orders, or in the course of ordinary job-development 

activities. Importantly, if the test showed that there were substantial validity problems, it might be

possible to permanently maintain a phone survey associated with normal employer contacts. In contrast,

conducting a job seeker phone survey would be more difficult because staff does not normally speak to 

job seekers after their job search is over. 

The prime alternative to Michigan’s job seeker survey is use of an electronic system of the

type Oregon has developed and shown to be highly effective. What is surprising is that other states have

not adopted Oregon’s system given that: (1) Oregon is willing to make its system available to any state at 

no cost; (2) over 75 percent of users of Oregon’s job-matching system are willing to voluntarily identify

themselves; and (3) the results of referrals can be accurately tracked at low cost through wage record 

160 
matching. Such an electronic system even could be supplemented with information about satisfaction and

usage from in-office surveys, which are exceptionally easy to administer. 

In summary, Westat’s overall conclusions are that: (1) Michigan’s job seeker and employer 

surveys appear to provide highly useful information; (2) the employer survey probably could be made 

much more effective by integrating the surveying with normal employer contacts; (3) Oregon’s system for

tracking job seeker activity probably is a superior means to obtaining basic information at low cost than is

use of mail surveys; and (4) the job seeker and employer survey response rates appear too low to provide

external validity. In short, both the Michigan and Oregon systems could provide crucial information about 

delivery of core services at One-Stop Centers, which is no longer obtainable by other means. 

161 
162 
5. CONCLUSIONS 

5.1 Overview 

This study started with a brief history of the Employment Service (ES), a description of the

services provided by the ES, and a review of the literature describing the effectiveness of those services.

We then presented a process evaluation assessing how public labor exchanges (PLXs) funded under the 

Wagner-Peyser Act have been transformed by state and Federal efforts to meld PLX services into OneStop Centers. It then discussed our analysis of how the provision of key labor exchange services has

changed during this transformation using ETA Form 9002 statistics. Finally, we presented our benefitcost analysis of the effects of job-matching services on unemployment insurance (UI) claimants. 

The process evaluation is based on interviews with central office staff and the staffs of 22

PLXs in six states. Three of the states—North Carolina, Oregon, and Washington—have maintained the 

traditional governance structure for their PLXs. Thus, the way PLXs and One-Stop Centers are organized

and funded in these states closely resemble those in most other states. North Carolina and Oregon, 

however, have substantially boosted funding to their PLXs using special state UI tax allocations. In 

addition, Oregon has adopted a unique computer system to track referrals to listings where contact 

information is unsuppressed, and therefore, can be accessed without staff intervention. 

Three of the states—Colorado, Massachusetts, and Michigan—were selected because, at the

time this study began, they were the only states to substantially modify their PLXs’ governance structure.

Colorado adopted a system where state control and staffing has largely been devolved to counties and

PLX governance is highly integrated with that of other components of the workforce investment system. 

Massachusetts permitted individual workforce investment boards (WIBs) to “opt out” of the traditional

state-run PLX system and devolve service delivery to governmental, non-profit, or for-profit entities 

through competitive bids. Thus, Massachusetts has a mixed system where Boston, Woburn, Cambridge, 

Springfield, and Holyoke developed “competitive” PLXs, while the remainder of the state has 

“traditional” PLXs. Michigan totally devolved its Wagner-Peyser Act funded programs to local WIB 

control, and initially opted for a competitive model similar to that in Massachusetts, but, following a 

policy dispute between the U.S. Department of Labor (USDOL) and the Michigan agency, a Federal court 

decision affirmed that USDOL can require PLX services to be delivered by government employees. 

163 
Interestingly, our site visits revealed that (1) each state exhibited considerable diversity in 

the way PLXs (and other service-providers) were integrated into One-Stop Centers; (2) most of the

differences in the way PLXs and One-Stop Centers were configured were transparent to clients; (3) most

staff were cross-trained to provide a variety of services; and (4) the physical layouts of One-Stop Centers

usually were similar. Most One-Stop Centers have a receptionist who helps clients determine what

services they should obtain and how to access needed service; resource rooms, which included computers 

for searching job listings, writing resumes, and obtaining labor market information (LMI); as well as 

classrooms for workshops, and space for a variety of other service-providers to counsel clients. 

Several important differences were apparent between One-Stop Centers where the lead

agency was the state employment security agency (SESA), which traditionally runs Wagner-Peyser Act

programs, and where a different entity was the lead agency. SESA-led One-Stop Centers tended to focus 

on (1) maintaining a statewide system to list job openings and allow job seekers to view those openings; 

and (2) helping UI claimants to rapidly return to work. In contrast, One-Stop Centers led by other entities, 

especially workforce investment boards established under the Workforce Investment Act (WIA), tended 

to focus on (1) serving economically disadvantaged populations; (2) obtaining job listings that were 

tailored to the skills of specific low-income job seekers; and (3) using a case-management approach. 

The final element of this study compared the benefits workers derived from the job matching 

services provided by PLXs to the cost of providing those services. This analysis was limited to UI

claimants—the one group for whom state administrative data provided excellent information about the

services received from PLXs, earnings capacity, duration of unemployment, and job search outcomes. In

particular, UI claimants are the only group (1) for whom it is easy to construct a comparison group of jobAnalysis of the Federal PLX statistics for the six states reinforced the views obtained by the 

site visits. In particular, the data showed large reductions in job openings listed with PLXs (relative to 

labor force size) in Colorado, Massachusetts, and Michigan, the three states that substantially modified

their governance structure. There were even larger declines in referrals and placements to jobs listed with

PLXs in these states. While much of these declines were real, some were a result of unsuppressed contact

information making it difficult to accurately measure referrals and placements. Indeed, one of our most

important conclusions is that adoption of Oregon’s automated referral identification system would 

accurately track referrals to listings with unsuppressed contact information, while maintaining all the costsaving advantages of allowing job seekers to view unsuppressed listings and refer themselves without 

staff intervention. 

164 
seekers who have not received PLX services; and (2) who have strong labor force attachment that make it 

practical to use prior work histories as good guides to their job search outcomes. Moreover, this analysis 

was able to build on earlier studies that used surveys and state administrative data to assess the effect of 

referrals and placements on the duration of joblessness, earnings, and UI benefits paid to UI claimants. 

The key element of each study was estimating the reduction in weeks of joblessness derived

from being placed by the PLX relative to being referred but not placed, and from being referred relative to 

receiving no PLX service. These effects are shown in Table 5-1. As expected, placements substantially

reduced periods of joblessness because those placed usually were hired shortly after following up 

referrals. Referrals also reduced joblessness, in four of the five states, but the effects were only about onequarter as large as the placement effects. This is because referrals not leading to placements provided 

useful information about reemployment prospects, but it took claimants additional time to find suitable 

openings. The North Carolina results, suggesting that referrals lengthened the period of joblessness, were

ignored because most of these referrals resulted from monthly call-ins to review job-search, rather than 

Although few in number, these earlier studies all indicated that (1) the benefits of PLX 

referrals exceed their costs; (2) estimates are imprecise because the estimation techniques were not 

validated with random-assignment demonstrations; (3) on balance, however, the evidence suggests that 

the lower bound estimates presented in Table 5-1 under-estimate the “true” effects. Perhaps the most

persuasive evidence comes from a random-assignment study of worker profiling in Kentucky that

suggests that the bias in non-experimental measures of unemployment duration effects is small absolutely, 

and much smaller than the bias in measures of earnings effects. Importantly, there was general agreement 

among experts that definitive evidence about the bias in our lower-bound estimates could be obtained by

building on a pilot Washington State survey (Jacobson and Petta, 2000). Thus, conducting a more 

representative survey would be welcomed by the research community as the most promising way to 

reduce the current high level of uncertainty about the true effects of referrals and placements. 

Separate benefit-cost analyses were carried out for PLXs in Colorado, Massachusetts, North

Carolina, Oregon, and Washington. Michigan did not have the administrative data needed to conduct a 

cost-benefit analysis. However, Michigan provided interesting information from three types of surveys 

that hold considerable potential for eliminating major information deficits about job-matching activity. 

This report includes the details of the Colorado, Massachusetts, and North Carolina analyses. The results

derived from an earlier ETA-sponsored report covering Washington and Oregon are also presented here. 

165 
voluntary PLX use. As a result, North Carolina referred claimants were not nearly as ready to accept jobs

as those using PLXs in other states. 

Washington 

Table 5-1. Average per-claimant effect of placements and referrals on weeks of joblessness 

Colorado Massachusetts North Carolina Oregon

Placement effect (weeks) -3.1 -8.6 -7.3 -5.7 -7.7

Referral effect (weeks) -0.7 -2.4 2.1 -1.1 -2.1 

The benefits were estimated by multiplying the average reduction in joblessness by postunemployment weekly earnings and the number of claimants placed and referred. The cost was estimated

by multiplying the total cost of running the PLXs by the percent of placements and referrals received by 

claimants. Table 5-2 shows upper-bound and lower-bound estimates of the benefit-cost ratios. Upperbound estimates include the value of referrals, and lower-bound estimates assume that referrals had no 

value (except for North Carolina where the placement effect was calculated relative to being referred to

get the upper-bound, and relative to receiving no service to get the lower bound). 

Table 5-2. Benefit-cost ratios 

Colorado Massachusetts North Carolina Oregon Washington

Upper-bound estimates 4.8 4.3 8.8 3.1 2.8 

Lower-bound estimates 

(no referral value) 2.6 1.4 6.3 1.6 1.2 

Note: Results for Massachusetts mainly reflect activity in traditional PLXs. In North Carolina, the placement effect was calculated relative to 

being referred to get the upper bound, and relative to receiving no service to get the lower bound 

In all cases the benefit-cost ratios were quite respectable, in large measure because PLXs

place and refer very large numbers of job seekers making the cost per placement (or per referral)

extremely low (usually less than $350). Colorado has the second highest benefit-cost ratios but also has 

the smallest net benefits measured in dollars. Dollar benefits were low because only about 5 percent of 

Colorado placements went to claimants collecting UI benefits. In contrast, 35 percent, 38 percent, and 23

percent of all placements went to active claimants in Washington, Oregon, and North Carolina, 

respectively. The extent services were provided to claimants, and hence total returns, are underestimated

because PLX services received after benefits were exhausted were omitted from the analyses. 

166 
In summary, this study showed that PLXs, first established in the 1930s under the WagnerPeyser Act to help Depression-era workers, continue to provide valuable job-matching services. Today,

PLXs annually place upwards of 3 million workers at the over 6 million jobs they list. Another 6 million

workers use PLXs to search for work, but are not directly placed. To provide these services PLXs receive

about $1 billion in Federal funds, or $330 per placement. The PLX resources are supplemented by state 

funds and mostly in-kind contributions from One-Stop Center partners. Moreover, PLXs have effectively 

adopted new technology and new configurations that allow them to continue to expand their reach with

smaller staffs and declining budgets. Thus, this report suggests that a sound principle consistent with the

work-first approach is providing various types of low-cost job-search-assistance initiatives through public

labor exchanges prior to providing more costly services. 

Our evidence also showed that changes in the way PLXs are governed affect service 

delivery. It is hardly surprising to find that devolution to local workforce boards, as in Massachusetts and

Michigan, tends to lead to more emphasis being placed on serving the economically disadvantaged (and 

other WIA target groups) through job development and case management, and less emphasis on

maintaining comprehensive statewide job-matching systems. Similarly, it is reasonable to expect that 

states such as North Carolina, which substantially boost PLX budgets with UI tax revenue, focus more on

serving UI claimants and maximizing the number and diversity of jobs listed with PLXs. Nevertheless,

states with traditional PLX governance structures tend to have a broad array of PLX configurations. In

some cases they are colocated with welfare agencies and focus on serving low-income populations, while 

also maintaining offices that primarily serve UI claimants. 

This report also suggests that, on balance, there was much to be gained from integrating and 

coordinating the activities of various local workforce at One-Stop Centers, while keeping their separate

governance and funding structures. Traditionally governed PLXs were highly cost-effective because they

deliver services to many job-seekers through high-quality computerized job-matching systems, wellstocked with job orders. In contrast, the statistics on reductions of placements, and especially job 

openings, among non-traditional PLXs suggest that these organizations have substantially reduced the 

effectiveness of their statewide matching systems. Also, our Colorado administrative data analysis

suggests that, while the benefit-cost ratio is high in this non-traditional state, the total value of benefits are 

low relative to the traditional states. Colorado PLXs serve only 10 percent of its workforce, compared to 

Oregon’s PLXs, which serves 28 percent, and North Carolina’s and Washington’s PLXs, which serve 20

percent of their labor forces. 

167 
Nevertheless, it would be highly desirable to have more information about the benefits and

costs of the referral services provided by non-traditional PLXs in Michigan and Massachusetts. Thus, we 

were especially disappointed that the administrative data from Massachusetts did not adequately cover its 

“competitive” PLXs. Also, it would be highly desirable to have more information about the value of 

services provided to non-claimants, especially low-income workers, who probably received more 

attention as a result of shifts to local control. However, the information we have, from a promising 

survey-based technique we tested in Washington, suggests that the value of job-matching services for

low-wage job-seekers is only about half that for claimants. These initial results were sufficiently 

promising to justify expanding this approach to analyze large, representative populations in Washington 

and other states, but we lacked the funds to do that within this project. 

In contrast, our Massachusetts analysis suggests that it is not feasible to assess the effect of

PLX services other than providing referrals using a non-experimental design. However, we are far less 

concerned that our analyses omits these estimates because maintaining a public labor exchange is the core 

service provided by PLXs (as its name suggests), and uses most of its resources. Moreover, job-matching 

systems are the key service PLXs bring to One-Stop Centers and it is hard to see how any other means

could serve large, diverse populations at low cost. Thus, we regard the PLX job-matching systems as the 

cornerstone of the work-first approach. 

More generally, tracking PLX service delivery was a major and growing problem that 

inhibited our reaching more definitive conclusions. Most self-service and staff-facilitated One-Stop

services (as opposed to staff-intensive services) are not accurately recorded, and use of unsuppressed 

contact information usually makes it nearly impossible to determine who is being referred to jobs and

who is subsequently placed. In our view, the root of the service tracking problem stems from WIA 

requiring that only “intensive” services be tracked. Given that (1) a well-rounded view of One-Stop

Center, and especially PLX operations, cannot be obtained without knowing more about the delivery of

core services; and (2) Oregon has demonstrated that the technical means to effectively track most of those 

services are available; it is hard to understand why other states and the Federal government have not

fostered development of an effective nationwide tracking system. 

168 
5.2 Implications for Improving PLX and One-Stop Performance 

The key findings of this report that have particular policy relevance are that: 

- Helping states and local areas to use comprehensive measures to create 

effective core service standards and then use these standards to reward 

excellence and ensure that steps are taken to identify and deal with problems, 

much as currently is the case for WIA intensive and training services. 

 Having a high-quality computerized job-matching system, well-stocked with job

orders, is essential to providing low-cost, effective core services to a wide range of 

job-seekers and employers consistent with the work-first model set forth in WIA. 

 Effective job-matching systems linking high-quality technology with well-trained 

staff help ensure that employers are appropriately listing their jobs and job-seekers are

able to effectively use the technology. 

 All three traditional states in our sample had high-quality matching systems, but the 

quality of the job-matching system greatly suffered in the non-traditional states as

emphasis shifted to helping the “hard-to-serve” who traditionally are the focus of 

WIA and its predecessors. Such a shift previously occurred during the “War on 

Poverty” in the 1960’s, and greatly reduced the effectiveness of PLXs by crippling 

their ability to obtain job listings. 

 Separate funding silos serve the useful purpose of striking a balance between

providing low-cost services that meet the needs of a broad range of job-seekers and

employers, while also providing intensive counseling and training services to those 

unable to find work or improve their career paths with the low-cost services. 

 Improving the way One-Stop Centers are managed at the local and state level can

greatly increase their effectiveness. In particular, we found that our observations were

consistent with more rigorous earlier studies in suggesting that the key to effective

integration was giving authority to a single manager to unify operations and to 

develop a team spirit where staff from different agencies worked together to

seamlessly deliver services.

 In our view the Employment and Training Administration can play a major role in 

improving service quality by: 

- Assisting states to identify and implement best practices. 

- Creating a reporting system that improves the coverage and accuracy of the

delivery of core services (usually delivered under the Wagner-Peyser Act) to

that of intensive and training services (usually delivered under WIA). One way

to do this would be to reestablish the excellence of the ETA Form 9002 

reporting system, particularly with respect to measuring referrals and 

placements. 

169 
 The loss of high-quality information is a serious matter because (1) it dramatically 

understates the positive benefits produced by One-Stop Centers; and (2) it precludes 

assessing the impact of changes in technology, management, and other factors on the

cost-effectiveness of PLX job-matching systems. 

 More broadly, our benefit-cost estimates indicate that each placement boosts 

claimants’ earnings by as much as $2,500 and reduces UI payments by as much as 

$850. Thus, dramatic underestimates of key statistics are likely to adversely affect the 

perceptions of PLX benefits among workforce program managers, elected officials, 

and the general public. Further, these misperceptions could substantially reduce 

support for adequately funding One-Stop Centers, and lead managers to give too little 

support to the provision of job-matching services. 

Ways to Improve Performance Monitoring 

Our analysis suggests that there are two main ways to improve performance monitoring 

(1) adopt a computerized system that allows voluntary registration and then identifies the “unsuppressed” 

job-orders to which individual registrants requested contact information; and (2) use a combination of inoffice, mail, and telephone surveys of job-seekers and employers to assess usage and outcomes.

An automated referral identification system, such as Oregon’s, can quickly provide accurate

and highly valuable information at low cost. Given the defects in the current data collection system, ETA

should consider offering funding sufficient to encourage several states to voluntarily test Oregon’s

system. If those tests produce positive results, ETA should consider ensuring that all states adopt similar 

systems. 

While fostering adoption of Oregon’s system might seem to be a “no-brainer,” a careful 

assessment of the costs of developing a survey-based monitoring system, such as Michigan’s, is required 

before field-testing. While these surveys certainly could produce extremely valuable information and

largely fill the key information gaps in the running of One-Stop Centers, their cost would be substantial. 

Thus, ETA should consider conducting a feasibility study that would weigh costs against the value of 

monitoring One-Stop core services, especially in light of the unbalanced view provided by the substantial 

funds currently spent on tracking intensive services alone. If such a study suggested that the benefits 

outweigh the costs, a field-test should be undertaken. 

170 
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A-3 
Appendix B 

Synopses of Site Visits 
Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services 

In a One-Stop Delivery System Environment 

Office of Policy Development, Evaluation and Research 

Analysis of One-Stop Center Summaries

From Site Visit Reports of Westat, Incorporated

Office of Policy Development, Evaluation and Research 

November 2002 

Division of Research and Demonstrations 

Stephen A. Wandner, Director 

Richard Muller, Federal Project Officer 

Prepared by: 

 David E. Balducchi 

Amy L. Berger 

Amanda B. Spickard 

Synopses of Site Visit Reports. 

B-1 
Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services 

In a One-Stop Delivery System Environment 

One-Stop Center Summaries 

Worcester........................................................................................... 11 

Walled Lake........................................................................................ 16 

Washington................................................................................................. 26 

Walla Walla........................................................................................ 29 

Table of Contents 

Background and Purpose............................................................................... i

Colorado.................................................................................................... 1

Aurora-Arapahoe Douglas........................................................................ 2 

Longmont........................................................................................... 3 

Massachusetts.............................................................................................. 4 

JobNet Boston...................................................................................... 5 

Workplace Boston................................................................................. 6 

Holyoke............................................................................................. 7 

Springfield.......................................................................................... 8 

Woburn............................................................................................. 9 

Michigan.................................................................................................... 12

Battle Creek........................................................................................ 13 

Detroit............................................................................................... 14 

Marlette Thumb.................................................................................... 15 

North Carolina............................................................................................. 17 

Durham............................................................................................. 18 

Oxford............................................................................................... 19 

Raleigh.............................................................................................. 20 

Oregon....................................................................................................... 21 

Beaverton........................................................................................... 22 

Pendleton............................................................................................ 23 

Salem................................................................................................ 24 

North Seattle....................................................................................... 27 

Renton............................................................................................... 28 

Yakima.............................................................................................. 30 

B-2 
Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services 

In a One-Stop Delivery System Environment 

One-Stop Center Summaries* 

Background 

In 1998, the U.S. Department of Labor’s Employment and Training Administration began a 

comprehensive study of Wagner-Peyser (W-P) Act services in a One-Stop delivery system environment.

It is the first comprehensive evaluation of labor exchange services in two decades. Westat, Inc., of 

Rockville, MD, is the contractor conducting the evaluation, and the study is being undertaken in the states

of Colorado, Massachusetts, Michigan, Oregon, North Carolina and Washington. 

The goals of the study are to understand the ways Americans search for and find jobs; measure the impact

of W-P Act services on employers and job seekers; determine the cost effectiveness of labor exchange 

services; and assess how job seekers and employers use the CareerOneStop portal website. Moreover, WP Act regulations at 20 CFR 652, enabled three states--Colorado, Massachusetts and Michigan--to 

demonstrate alternative delivery of services (i.e., delivery of services by other than state agency staff).

The Department is interested in better understanding how such service delivery impacts upon equity,

impartiality, effectiveness and outcomes. 

*We thank Regina Yudd, of Westat, for review and comments. To provide service context, estimated population

data are included by OPDER and derived from Internet sites. 

The purpose of the study is to conduct a comprehensive evaluation of W-P Act services in the One-Stop 

environment, examining the effectiveness and efficiency of services to employers, job seekers and

unemployment insurance claimants. The study design provides for an examination of labor exchange 

services and the use of private and non-state agency public service providers in the delivery of W-P Actfunded services, and a process analysis of the information and services provided by the CareerOneStop 

portal website (formerly known as America’s Career Kit). 

Purpose and Limited Use 

Based upon Westat’s unpublished site visit reports, approved by the study states, the Office of Policy

Development, Evaluation and Research (OPDER) has compiled summaries of the governance and 

services provided at One-Stop centers under the purview of this study. These summaries describe the role 

of labor exchange services in a One-Stop delivery system environment, and may not provide identical 

information state to state or local office to local office. Moreover, this document is not an interim or final

report, but rather synopses of site visit reports. 

The OPDER offers these short synopses to provide insight into how and what services are being offered 

at One-Stop centers. These service summaries are not study findings, but abbreviated observations of

service delivery. 

B-3 
Colorado

B-4 
Colorado One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange in a One-Stop Environment”

One-Stop Center: Aurora-Arapahoe Douglas Works! Work Force Center 

Location: Aurora, Colorado (City Population: 250,000)

One-Stop Operator:

o The Arapahoe County Commission. 

Center Partners:

o The center has numerous community partners, including: Voc Rehab, Mental Health, United Cerebral Palsy, and 

Community Housing services. 

Management and Staff:

o There are 45 staff members that work at the Aurora Center. Thirteen (13) staff work specifically with WagnerPeyser Act services. Nine (9) staff are attached to youth services or “employment first” programs, 14 are TANF

staff members, two (2) are WIA staff, and four (4) are community partner staff. Additionally, three (3) employees 

work as administrators. 

o Each center partner has representatives who work either full-time or part-time at the center. 

o The director reports to the County Commissioner, who operates all four centers in the Aurora area. 

o The director and the Wagner-Peyser Act supervisor meet on a monthly basis or more frequently, as needed. 

Services:

o The director oversees day-to-day operations and is responsible for the administrative duties within the center. 

o Supervisory responsibility for Wagner-Peyser Act staff falls under the regional supervisor; thus, Wagner-Peyser 

Act staff are state employees and are paid by the state. 

Staff-assisted Services:

o Either the receptionists or the customer service representatives can help customers, as necessary, in self-directed 

searches on center computers.

o Customers are served at this center through a funnel method, customized assistance, or mandatory customized 

assistance. All clients can be served in response to their specific needs and circumstances. 

Self-services:

o There are 15 computers located beyond the reception area that are available to the public for job search activities, 

and for the use of resume-writing or career-development software. 

o Customers have full access to the resource room. 

o Customers may choose to participate in various programs and workshops that are available at the center. 

o Individual job search is encouraged, but center employees are readily available to assist clients as needed. 

Resource Room:

o In addition to the 15 computers available for general job search activities located beyond the reception area, the 

resource room contains a set of 24 computers used in computer courses and employment readiness courses. 

o In addition to the computers, the room contains worktables, fax and copy machines, telephones, a library of labormarket and related materials, and hardcopy job listings. 

Services Available:

o Registration Practices: Registration is not required; however, job seekers who are new to the center may fill out a 

registration form that captures background information necessary to help them find an appropriate job. These 

forms are filled out in the reception area; the receptionist then directs the customer to appropriate services. 

o Customers in need of training or other supportive services prior to seeking employment go through the “work-first”

program at this center. If they need additional assistance, they are then referred to a case manager for a needs 

assessment. Customers may receive tutoring services if necessary, or trainers can be hired to meet specific needs 

that are beyond the scope of regular center services. Those who require specific training are referred to training

sites such as the local community college. 

o There is a job search workshop for those who need help in using the computers to conduct a job search, and an 

orientation workshop for “Employment First.” 

o This center has two large classrooms where two-week workshops, (mainly targeted to welfare clients), are 

conducted. The workshops are targeted for 10-20 customers at time, involving skills assessment, on-the-job 

behavioral skills, etc. 

o There are computer workshops for beginning, intermediate, and advanced level clients. 

o No services are restricted or fee-based. 

o Veterans’ Services are not provided at this center. 

o Some groups that assist disabled persons, such as the United Cerebral Palsy, either have offices at the center or are

closely associated with the center. 

Interviews Conducted: 1999 

Updated: November 2001 

DOL/ETA, OPDER B-5

November 2002 
Colorado One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange in a One-Stop Environment”

One-Stop Center: Longmont Work Force Center 

Location: Longmont, Colorado (City Population: 60,000) 

One-Stop Operator: 

o The County Commissioners of Boulder County.

Center Partners:

o Sun Microsystems, Boulder County Social Services, and Senior Employment Center are partners with the One-Stop

center. 

Management and Staff:

o There is an emphasis on cross training for staff at the Longmont Center. 

Services:

o There is no director at the Longmont Center at present (October 2001). 

o A management group composed of seven (7) supervisors from the following service areas runs the center:

Employment Services (ES), WIA, Welfare-to-Work, Technical Services, Fiscal, and two supervisors related to

veterans’ services. 

o The director of Community Services in Boulder County has signatory and fiscal authority over the center. 

Staff-Assisted Services:

o A receptionist is available to assist customers in using self-directed searches on the computers. 

o Core Service staff assist with Wagner-Peyser Act work registration and orientation. 

Self-Services:

o The ES staff is available to assist with employer services and work registration. 

o The resource room is available for all customers. 

Resource Room:

o There are nine (9) computers in the room that are used for self-directed job searches, labor-market information, and 

assistance in developing resumes. 

o There are also worktables, a copy and fax machine, and hardcopy job postings. 

Service Availability:

o The center hosts a job retention club for older workers. 

o The Longmont Center provides some contracted services with a licensed therapist for jobseekers at the center. 

o All job seekers are served at the Longmont Center. 

o Job seekers are served through a “funnel method.” Most customers only use self-service facilities, while assisted

services are available at request and upon demonstrated need. However, the center does cater to customized 

assistance for those requiring additional services. 

o Unemployment insurance (UI) claimants receive specialized services at this center. 

o Registration Practices: Registration is only mandatory for unemployment insurance (UI) claimants. Core services 

are provided to others without mandatory registration, but customers are required to register in order to receive 

more intensive services and case management. 

o There are two (2) computer-equipped laboratory/classrooms. One is called the learning lab, with 14 computers 

available by appointment only for use in staff-assisted job searches. The second room is a special lab with 20 Sun 

Computers for teaching the new Sun Microsystems SOLARIS computer-training program. 

o The ES staff are the primary contact with employers and are responsible for coordinating internships with

employers. 

o There are 22 workshops scheduled for the Boulder area One-Stop centers. Twelve (12) workshops are held at the 

Longmont Center per year. 

o A full array of services are available for veterans at the center, including intensive case management services. 

o The center includes staff members that are trained to serve persons with disabilities; disabled persons are 

intensively case managed to assure that they receive appropriate levels and types of services. 

Interviews Conducted: 1999 

Updated: November 2001 

DOL/ETA, OPDER B-6

November 2002 
Massachusetts

B-7 
Massachusetts One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Environment”

One-Stop Center: JobNet Boston One-Stop Center (Competitive Area)

Location: Boston, Massachusetts (City Proper Population: 547,725)

One-Stop Operator: 

o Division of Employment Training (DET) for the state of Massachusetts.

Center Partners:

o The DET has been running the site with Action Boston Community Development (ABCD), the largest Boston

Community Action Agency. 

o This One-Stop center is part of the competitive One-Stop network. 

Management and Staff:

o The staff is composed of DET employees, ABCD employees, and contract employees. 

o The ES staff consists of a manager and six career associates. 

o A three-person services section, a three-person Rehab section, an Information System section, and a group of four

contracted specialized service personnel provide a full array of core and intensive services to the universal 

customers at this center. 

o Senior staff meet weekly to discuss management issues. Additionally, the executive director meets monthly with 

management of other One-Stop centers and state officials. 

Services:

o There is a Business Services Unit, composed of a manager, two account managers and a data specialist.

o The executive director has overall management responsibility for the work of the center. 

Staff-Assisted:

o None listed. 

Self-Services:

o There are 12 public use computers available for customers to view job listings, develop resumes, use the Internet, 

and access the MOSES Information System, which displays updated job listings and job matches. 

Resource Room:

o The room contains worktables, fax machines, telephones, and hardcopies of job search materials. 

Service Availability:

o Registration Practices: Registration is mandatory for customers to be eligible for all services; however, anyone can 

refuse registration and still receive core services. 

o When registering, the receptionist has the customer fill out a membership application containing the following

information: (1) how the person heard about the center; (2) personal information; (3) what programs they might be

eligible for or are interested in; (4) employment and migrant status; (5) educational background; and (6) 

employment history.

o The second floor of the One-Stop center contains a large classroom, which holds up to 45 people. There is a 

second room that can hold up to 20 people. The seventh floor has an additional small classroom, which has a 12-

person capacity. 

o There is a computer lab on the seventh floor that has eight (8) PCs for computer training. 

o There is universal access to the core services. Intensive services, involving one-on-one counseling, casemanagement, and some workshops are either fee-based or provided under other programs based on eligibility. 

o An onsite veterans’ representative provides approximately 70% of services to veterans at the One-Stop center. 

o Those selected by the state for worker profiling are enrolled in the ReEmployment Opportunity (REO) workshops 

at the One-Stop center. 

Other Notable Features

o About 80% of services for the disabled are provided onsite at JobNet. The other 20% are offsite at mental health

centers. The center employs a career associate with special training in services for the disabled. The center also has 

special arrangements with advocacy agencies such as the Commission for the Blind. 

o JobNet’s policy is to provide full case management for customers other than Wagner-Peyser Act and 

unemployment insurance (UI) claimants, who receive more self-selected and less intensive case management 

services. 

: 

o The JobNet One-Stop Center covers two floors in one building: the second and seventh floors. 

o Once a customer has registered, they receive a membership card. Swipe cards are used by customers when they 

check in as well as when they access any center service except for workshops. Thus, JobNet is able to track the job 

seekers’ usage of center services as a whole. 

o The total funding for 1999 was $1.726 million.

Interviews Conducted: 1999

Updated: September 2001 

DOL/ETA, OPDER B-8

November 2002 
Massachusetts One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Environment”

One-Stop Center: The Work Place Boston One-Stop (Competitive Area)

Location: Boston, Massachusetts (City Proper Population: 547,725)

One-Stop Operator: 

o Jewish Vocational Services and the City of Boston Office of Jobs and Community Services. 

Center Partners: 

o Center partners include: the Adult Education Division of the Department of Education; the Suffolk House of

Corrections; TANF, which provides post-placement services; the Massachusetts Division of Employment and 

Training; and several other cooperating agencies providing funding, such as the Massachusetts Commission for the 

Blind. 

Management and Staff:

o There are a total of 35 staff members working at the center. 

Services:

o The center director has been in public service for over 25 years. He is supported by an assistant director and a 

director of business development. He also has a “quality coach” who acts as a formative evaluator and supervises 

the internal quality control program. 

o The senior staff meet weekly to discuss management issues, and monthly with boards and managers of other 

partner agencies, including the state. 

Staff-Assisted:

o The receptionist helps customers understand the services the One-Stop center offers, and directs the customers to 

resources and staff as appropriate. 

o The staff of center counselors provides core Employment Services (ES) to all customers; intensive services, 

including one-on-one services and intensive case management, are available as needed. 

Self-Services:

o There are 20 public use computers on which customers can access the MOSES computer system and America’s Job 

Bank (AJB) for self-directed job searches, access the job matching system, get resume information, or search the 

Internet. 

Resource Room:

o This room contains worktables, a fax machine, telephones, hardcopy job information and labor market information. 

Service Availability:

o There are two (2) classrooms that are capable of serving up to 15 people each. 

o The center offers an array of free and fee-based workshops. Introductory level workshops focused on basic work

available, and ReEmployment Opportunity workshops are free to all. More advanced level workshops are available 

on a fee basis. 

o The counselors carefully examine the eligibility of the customers during one-on-one conferences before referring

individuals to training and other supportive services. 

o The center services are delivered through a “funnel method.” Most customers only use self-service facilities and 

assisted services are available upon request or as needed. However, the center does provide customized

assistance to the client. Job seekers fill out application forms listing career goals and services sought, and meet 

with staff to develop an individualized program of treatment. 

o An onsite full-time representative serves veterans. 

o Voc Rehab and the Commission for the Blind are able to provide basic services onsite for persons with disabilities. 

Other Notable Features:

o Registration Practices: The minimum level of registration (name, address, telephone number) is required of all

entrants. Additional information is required as needed in order to provide service at the appropriate level. 

o Over half of the staff is bilingual. 

o The Work Place is known for its good job matching system. It also emphasizes a professional atmosphere, which

leads to a better attitude, confidence, and client presentation in interviews. 

o About 75% of the customers served at this center are unemployed, about 25% are working and trying to advance 

their careers. At the time of these interviews (2000) welfare recipients comprised about 20% of the customers, 

and there were about 300-400 dislocated unemployment insurance (UI) claimants out of the total 3800 customers 

served in the previous year. 

Interviews Conducted: 1999

Updated: September 2001 

DOL/ETA, OPDER B-9

November 2002 
Massachusetts One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Environment”

One-Stop Center: Holyoke CareerPoint One-Stop Center [Official name: Hampden County Career Center, Inc.]

(Competitive Area) 

Location: Holyoke, Massachusetts (City Population: 39,898) 

One-Stop Operator:

o Hampden Regional Employment Board (REB). 

Center Partners:

o CareerPoint is a non-profit organization that works in collaboration with the Holyoke Chamber of Commerce, 

Holyoke Community College, the University of Massachusetts, and the Massachusetts Division of Employment

and Training (DET). 

Management and Staff:

o The Executive Director has authority over all employees at the center with exception of one veterans’ 

representative and one NextStep (welfare) representative. 

o The position of director of the One-Stop center was split into two jobs. The executive director handles external 

relationships, including overall financial decision-making, development, and relations with oversight agencies; the 

newly formed position of director of operations provides day-to-day operational direction.

o Senior staff members meet weekly to discuss management issues. The board of directors has regular monthly

meetings plus other ad hoc meetings as necessary. Consortium partners meet monthly with the center directors. 

Services:

Staff Assisted:

o A receptionist is stationed at the entrance of the One-Stop center. He/she acts as the gatekeeper, supervising 

signups and enrollments, answering basic questions, and directing clients to other persons and/or services. 

o Employment specialists serve as the front-line source of help for all job seekers. They sign up customers for 

workshops and process applications and referrals. 

o Career counselors work by appointment only, providing in depth and one-on-one assistance to job seekers. 

Self-Services:

o There are 14 public use computers for personal job related use and for access to Internet job browsing. 

Resource Room:

o The room contains a fax machine, a copy machine, a scanner, printers, a bank of telephones, worktables, and a 

small area with periodicals and other labor market information, as well as signup sheets for workshops. 

Service Availability:

o There are four classrooms in which workshops are held in the One-Stop center. 

o Advanced computer classes are taught at the center for $30 a session. 

o There is a disabilities specialist onsite to assist persons with disabilities. 

o UI claimants are provided with specific services at the center (e.g., ReEmployment Opportunity Workshops and 

case management services). 

Other Notable Features:

o Registration Practices: Registration is not required, but strongly recommended, particularly for those who wish to

receive the most intensive services. The process takes place in the receptionist area. The job seeker is asked by the 

receptionist to fill out a form capturing information about past education and employment experiences, as well as 

personal information such as one’s Social Security number and employment goals. Customers that register 

automatically obtain access to the full array of services offered at the center. 

o Workshops cover a broad range of topics (e.g., career exploration, defining goals, resume improvements, and 

improving interviewing skills). Over twenty (20) workshops are available in both Spanish and English. 

o There is a staff member with additional training in resume building who acts as the “resume doctor” one day a 

week to provide one-on-one resume counseling. 

o The center delivers services through a “funnel method.” Most customers only use self-service facilities; assisted 

services are available upon request or as needed. However, the center does provide customized assistance to the

client. 

o Customers must follow procedures in order to maintain eligibility for unemployment insurance (UI), welfare, food

stamps, etc. These customers receive mandatory customized assistance at the center. 

o There is a full-time veterans’ representative onsite who provides all Veterans’ Services. 

o Career Point has become known for serving clients from minority communities. 

o One-half of the staff is bilingual and approximately one-half if the clientele is Hispanic. 

o The total funding for CareerPoint for the fiscal year 2002 was $1,719,476. 

Interviews Conducted: 1999

Updated: September 2001 

DOL/ETA, OPDER B-10

November 2002 
Massachusetts One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Environment”

One-Stop Center: FutureWorks Springfield One-Stop Center (Competitive Area)

Location: Springfield, Massachusetts (City Population: 156,000)

One-Stop Operator:

o Employment and Training Institute, Inc. (ETI), a private for-profit company. 

Center Partners:

o The One-Stop center works with many different organizations including: the Urban League and the Massachusetts

Career Development Institute, Hampden County Employment and Training Consortium, Hampden County 

Workers Association Center, the Massachusetts Commission for the Blind, the Massachusetts Rehabilitation

Commission (MRC), and local community colleges. 

Management and Staff:

o All staff report to the executive director except the Veterans’ Employment Services representative and the 

unemployment insurance (UI) representative, who are employed by the Massachusetts Division of Employment and 

Training (DET). 

o Three (3) ES staff members are responsible for assisting employers with core and enhanced services. 

o Six (6) career specialists and three (3) customer service representatives serving job seekers manage the MIS, the 

physical facilities, and the resource room. These staff members provide work-processing services to staff and

customers. 

o One (1) community relations and marketing services staff person is responsible for outreach, recruitment, public 

relations, and the creation and maintenance of interagency linkages. 

Services:

Staff-Assisted Services:

o A staff person is available at the front desk, located at the entrance of the center, to assist customers with the public 

use computers.

o This is a “facilitated self-help” center. 

Self- Services:

o Eleven (11) computers are available in the resource room for resume and cover letter preparation and for browsing

job listings and other Internet sites. 

Resource Room:

o The resource room houses a small reading area stocked with job research periodicals and the 11 abovementioned 

public use computers. There are multiple bulletin boards that list job openings according to industry category. The

resource room also contains a fax machine, a copy machine, a bank of telephones, and worktables. 

Service Availability:

o Registration Practices: The FutureWorks “application for membership” form asks the job seekers to provide basic 

information on their individual background as well as education and employment experiences. Registration is

mandatory for everyone desiring service. Once registered, customers become “lifetime members” and receive a 

swipe card with which they can use to access the center as often as desired. 

o In addition to the 11 public use computers indicated above, there is a separate area with 12 more computers 

dedicated exclusively to computer lab training and prescheduled appointments. 

o A sample of free workshops and seminars that are held at the One-Stop center include: How to use the Resource

Room; Job Club; Resume Writing Workshop; Interview Skills; and Job Search seminars. 

o The welfare department, WIA, and Massachusetts Rehab all work with staff to see that clients’ needs are met. 

o All job seekers are served at this center. Customers are primarily served through a “funnel method,” using

primarily self-service facilities while assisted services are available upon request or as needed. However, the OneStop center does provide customized assistance to clients as needed. Other customers may only be served through

mandatory customized assistance, such as UI claimants, and customers on welfare or food stamps. 

The center now has full-time programs to assist youth job seekers that served 1,500 young people in 2001. 

o Counselors conduct UI claimants’ status reviews with the claimants every six weeks. Claimants who are referred 

as a result of worker profiling must attend ReEmployment Opportunity workshops.

o There are two large classrooms, which are used for workshops, and an additional small room dedicated to training. 

o Fee-based services are also available at the center. Examples of these non-direct-placement services include: 

success skills training, onsite basic skills training, more advanced computer literacy courses. Computer classes are 

also offered that require a small fee. 

o

o A full array of services is provided for veterans at this center through a specialized program that is offered onsite at 

the center. FutureWorks also provides a staff counselor who is specially trained to assist persons with disabilities. 

Interviews Conducted: 1999

Updated: September 2001 

DOL/ETA, OPDER B-11

November 2002 
Massachusetts One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Environment”

One-Stop Center: The Career Place in Woburn One-Stop Center (Competitive Area) 

Location: Woburn, Massachusetts, a suburb of the Boston area (City Population: 35,200)

One-Stop Operator: Middlesex Community College 

Center Partners: Middlesex Community College, Voc Rehab, as well as other community services. 

Management and Staff:

o All staff members are responsible to the Career Place’s executive director with the exception of the veterans’ 

representative, who is a Massachusetts Division of Employment and Training (DET) staff member. 

o In addition to the executive director, there is a director of finance, a data base manager, a manager of workshops, a 

librarian, a three-person information technology unit, a data-entry person, a reporting specialist, and various 

volunteers and interns. 

o The Business Services staff, (which includes six (6) job developers under a director with one (1) clerical support

person and one (1) youth specialist), provide specialized services as an outreach to local employers. 

o Six (6) staff members and one director make up the Career Services Unit of the center. They work one-on-one or

with groups of clients to serve customers in preparation for a job. 

o The director of the Career Place oversees a staff of 27 people. He is responsible for all of the activities offered at 

the One-Stop center, and functions as a liaison with the Regional Employment Board (REB) and the Dean of

Middlesex Community College. 

o Senior staff members meet weekly to discuss management issues and on an ad hoc basis with individual unit heads 

to discuss specific needs. 

Services: 

Staff-Assisted Services:

o The Business Services staff delivers outreach to employers, and keeps constant contact in order to list available jobs 

on the MOSES computer system and in hardcopy at the One-Stop center. 

Self-Services:

o There are eighteen (18) public use computers located in the public resource room; each computer has complete 

programs and an Internet connection for self-directed searches and job browsing.

Resource Room:

o The resource room contains five (5) worktables, a fax and copy machine, bulletin boards for job postings, and a 

hardcopy of job listings. 

o A library, which is stocked with newspapers and local periodicals, is connected to the resource room. 

Service Availability:

o Registration Practices: Registration is mandatory for all first-time clients. The registration process includes the 

completion of an intake form asking personal and employment related questions. Once registration is completed

the customer is still required to sign in upon every entry to the One-Stop center, which is now done electronically 

using a swipe card system. 

o Once registration is completed, the customer must participate in the orientation seminars and register for the Career

Place’s job match seminar so that every customer is logged into a job search system. 

o There is one large computer classroom, containing 18 computers dedicated to computer training. There is one (1) 

smaller training room and one (1) large conference room suitable for workshops and seminars. 

o In addition to the free workshops held during orientation, there are fee-based workshops. They can range in price 

from $25-$40 for employment skills and from $25-$99 for computer classes. The orientation classes provide 

customers with information on interviews, job searching, resume writing skills, and personal concerns related to

finding and keeping a job. The center provides three computer classes on basic computer literacy (e.g., Internet 

searching). 

o Customers are primarily served through a “funnel method” where they primarily use self-service facilities and

assisted services are available upon request or as needed. 

o There is a full-time veterans’ representative onsite at the One-Stop center. 

o A representative from Vocational Rehabilitation spends one day a week onsite at the One-Stop center. This 

specialist serves as a counselor and facilitator of services to these clients, as well as the liaison with various

agencies serving individuals with disabilities. Additionally, one full-time staff member at the center is a specialist 

in assisting persons with disabilities. 

o The claimants are called every six (6) weeks, and the customer is required to document their job search activities. 

Claimants are encouraged to participate in Re-Employment Opportunity workshops. Counseling is provided in

groups or one-on-one. Individual service plans are set up as early as possible for each client, based on staff 

assessment of individual needs. 

Interviews Conducted: 1999

Updated: September 2001 

DOL/ETA, OPDER B-12

November 2002 
Massachusetts One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Environment”

Other Notable Features:

o Job seekers at this location tend to be slightly more educated and more skilled than average for the state. As a 

result, services provided tend to be more sophisticated and target higher skilled workers than the average One-Stop

center.

o The Career Place’s annual budget is approximately $1.5 million.

Interviews Conducted: 1999

Updated: September 2001 

DOL/ETA, OPDER B-13

November 2002 
Massachusetts One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Environment”

One-Stop Center: Worcester Work Force Central One-Stop (Collaborative Area) 

Location: Worcester, Massachusetts (City Population: 165,387) 

One-Stop Operator: The City of Worcester Employment Services is the center operator. 

Center Partners: 

o The center maintains working relationships with many organizations in the area, including: VocRehab, 

Commission for the Blind, and Quinnsigamond Community College. 

Management and Staff:

o The Career Development staff contains: one (1) project manager, seven (7) career counselors, one (1) full-time

librarian who runs the public resource room, and one (1) receptionist. The Employers’ Services (ES) staff contains 

four (4) employer account representatives under the director and assistant director. The Wagner-Peyser Act staff,

comprised of seven (7) people, continually rotates a single staff member to the welfare department to provide ES. 

o There is also a Fiscal Office with a Director, an information technology staff of two (2), an adult education

instructor, and four (4) clerical staff persons. 

o There is continuous interaction between the One-Stop center and the Regional Employment Board (REB). 

Services:

o The senior staff have informal meetings daily to discuss management issues, with at least one more formal meeting 

per week. There are, on average, three meetings per week with staff groups to discuss specific issues related to the 

work of the staff present. 

Staff-Assisted Services:

o This is a facilitated self-help center. 

Self- Services

o There is a bank of five (5) public use computers near the entrance of the center. 

Resource Room:

o The public resource room is a large space that contains worktables, a fax and copy machine, telephones, and 13

computers with Internet and web site access as well as job search programming. A full-time librarian manages the 

resource room and assists clients in all of the activities. 

Service Availability:

o Registration Practices: All customers are required to check in at the reception desk, located in the entrance of the 

One-Stop center. When a job seeker first registers, they have the option of participating in an orientation at the 

center, walking directly to the computers to undertake a self-directed job search, or meeting with an ES staff for 

counseling. Those participating in the group orientation complete self-assessments. Based upon those assessments, 

job seekers can undertake a self-directed job search, participate in a set of workshops, or obtain one-on-one

assistance. The initial job seeker application form includes basic personal questions and inquires about the 

customer’s employment and educational history. 

o Job seekers must check in every time before using the center’s services. Repeat customers register by entering their

name and Social Security number into a book. 

o The center is interested in installing an electronic swipe card system, but as of Fall 2001 all customers manually

registered. 

o The majority of job seekers are served through a “funnel method.” Most customers only use self-service facilities 

while assisted services are available upon request or as needed. However, the office does cater to customized 

assistance for those that need additional services. During registration, customers are given the opportunity to either 

use self-directed searches, customized assistance, or participate in mandatory customized assistance. 

o Manufacturing and services are the prominent job market areas in the Worcester area. 

o There is one adult education classroom, manned by a full-time teacher, and one computer lab, equipped but not yet 

staffed. 

o UI claimants receive case management. They get a detailed, ongoing review of the work search with emphasis on 

issue-identification and targeting of appropriate search subjects. The main focus of the Worker Profiling and

Reemployment Services (WPRS) effort at this center enrolling UI claimants into ReEmployment Opportunity 

seminars. These seminars are offered twice a week at the One-Stop center, with 20 claimants in each session. 

o There are 15 no-cost standard workshops (e.g. resume preparation, orientation, career planning, job searching, 

introduction to the Internet and to the Internet job searching process). 

o There are two (2) staff at the One-Stop center to provide a full array of services to veterans. 

o The One-Stop center is partnered with the state VocRehab agency to provide training for persons with disabilities. 

The center also works with various agencies, which act as advocates for those with specific disabilities (i.e., 

Commission for the Blind) to provide special services for certain clients. 

Interviews Conducted: 1999

Updated: September 2001 

DOL/ETA, OPDER 

November 2002 B-14
Michigan

B-15
Michigan One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One- Stop Environment”

One-Stop Center: Battle Creek Michigan Works! Service Center 

Location: Battle Creek, Michigan. (City Population: 53,000) There are four centers in the 

Barry/Branch/Calhoun/WDB area. For this study, researchers visited the Battle Creek Michigan Works! Service

Center. 

One-Stop Operator:

o Calhoun Independent School District. 

Center Partners:

o The center is led by a consortium of five (5) partners: Kellogg Community College Council for Employment Needs 

and Training; Michigan Human Resources Development, Inc.; the State Unemployment Insurance (UI) Agency; 

Michigan Rehabilitation Services; and the Employment Service (ES) Agency. 

Management and Staff:

o The director has financial authority and management responsibilities for all four centers in the 

Barry/Branch/Calhoun WDB area. Five (5) employees assist the director with general administration. 

o The onsite administrator handles day-to-day administrative matters. 

o The administrative staff meets weekly to discuss management issues. 

o At the Battle Creek Center, there are five (5) general staff members from the Kellogg Community College, two (2) 

veterans’ representatives provided from the state, and an ES counselor.

o There are eight (8) employees that assist clients with all ES services. 

Services:

Staff- Assisted Services:

o There is a staff member in the resource room to assist clients and supervise the area. 

o Center employees teach daily workshops. 

o Customers can choose to register in the data system to receive further assistance. A staff member at the reception 

area provides the registration application and directs the client to provided services. 

Self-Services

o There are 15 computers available for public use for conducting self-directed job searches and accessing other 

related information.

Resource Room:

o There are desks, chairs, a fax machine, telephones, and copy machine, TV/VCR, tape library, bulletin board for job

postings, and hardcopy job information from newspapers and other sources. 

o In addition to the 15 public use computers indicated above, the resource room contains five (5) additional 

computers for staff-assisted job searches, with additional software for career-related services. 

o There is one large classroom and meeting rooms on the first and second floor of the building. 

Service Availability:

o Registration Practices: There is a simple login style registration form, which is not required for core services. 

However, registration is mandatory to obtain services beyond core self services, including counseling and case 

management. 

o The center is focused on a “funnel method.” Most customers only use self-service facilities, while assisted services 

are available upon request or as needed. However, the center does provide customized assistance to the client. Job

seekers fill out an application form listing career goals and services sought, and meet with staff to develop an 

individualized program of treatment.

o Job search workshops are offered on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays. On Tuesdays and Thursdays there are 

Job Club workshops to provide updated information on available jobs and other related information. ReEmployment workshops are conducted for UI claimants weekly. 

o The center serves all job seekers, including veterans, persons with disabilities, and dislocated workers. There are six

(6) WIA staff members who work primarily with adults and dislocated workers as well as a full-time veterans’ and 

disabled persons’ representative. Additionally, there is a center in the area that focuses primarily on persons with 

disabilities.

o The UI claimants receive basic services, additional assistance, and participate in specialized workshops.

Interviews Conducted: Summer 2001

Updated: December 2001 

DOL/ETA, OPDER B-16

November 2002 
Michigan One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One- Stop Environment”

One-Stop Center: Employment Central! of Detroit’s @ Detroit Work Place North Office

Location: Detroit, Michigan (City Population: 951,270)

One-Stop Operator:

o The Michigan Department of Career Education (MCDC). 

Center Partners:

o The City of Detroit, Workforce Development Board, and Employment Central! of Detroit work together in

partnership.

Management and Staff:

o The City of Detroit Employment and Training Department also assists in the daily operations of the center. 

o Three (3) additional staff assist individual job seekers. 

o Four (4) secretaries work in the Detroit One-Stop Center, processing client information and focusing on

communications and writing skills for job seekers. 

o The employees of the center have weekly scheduled meetings, supplemented by ad hoc meetings as necessary. 

Services:

o The center’s director has financial authority over the center. 

o The center supervisor oversees daily activities and is responsible for managing the center. 

Staff-Assisted Services:

o This center provides facilitated self-help services. 

o There are seven (7) Employment Skill Workshops given on a rotating basis in the Detroit office. These classes 

include: How to Complete a Job Application, Writing a Resume, Interviewing Skills, Marketing Your Skills to an

Employer, Job Search Skills, How to Keep a Job, and Dress for Success. 

Self-Services: 

o There are 10 public use computers available. The computers are used to create resumes and to search the Internet 

for government job searches, as well as nongovernmental job listings. 

o All customers have access to the resource room. 

Resource Room: 

o The resource room is small, but contains tables and equipment, such as fax machines, copiers and telephones for 

public use. 

o The resource room has six (6) computers with software designed to assist job seekers write cover letters and

resumes. 

o There are additional hardcopies of job placement and employment information. 

Service Availability: 

o Registration Practices: Every customer is required to fill out a specially prepared talent bank intake form, which

inquires about previous work and education experiences, career goals, skill evaluation, and purpose of visit. The 

receptionist then files this information and directs the client to appropriate services. 

o The center provides basic services only. The center is used as a referral service and clients primarily choose the

services they wish to receive from the center. 

o A “passport” system is used at the center to refer customers to training and other supportive classes. A booklet, 

which resembles a passport, is given to the job seeker that states their employment history and personal

information. 

o The center services are delivered through a “funnel method.” Most customers only use self-service facilities, while 

assisted services are available upon request or as needed.

o No case management services are provided at this center. 

o There are no classrooms in the center. 

o The center provides services for all job seekers from entry-level workers to engineering professionals. 

o Veterans receive basic core services, in addition to case management services and referrals to other agencies 

providing more specified services to veterans. 

o Persons with disabilities are referred to the Michigan Rehabilitation Services Office located elsewhere in the 

building. 

o Unemployment insurance (UI) claimants receive the same basic core services as other customers. 

Interviews Conducted: Summer 2001

Updated: December 2001 

DOL/ETA, OPDER B-17

November 2002 
Michigan One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One- Stop Environment”

One-Stop Center: Marlette Thumb Area Michigan Works! Employment Service Center

Location: Marlette Thumb Area (County Population: 220,000)

o The Thumb Area is a four (4) county area that contains: Huron, Lapeer, Sanilac, and Tuscola, Michigan. The 

center that was visited for this study is located in the Sanilac County area, in Marlette, Michigan. 

One-Stop Operator:

o Thumb Area Michigan Works! Employment and Training Consortium. 

Center Partners: 

o The Consortium is made up of various organizations, including: Sanilac Intermediate School District; the Tuscola 

County Intermediate School District; the Huron County Intermediate School District; the Human Development

Commission; and the Blue Water Center for Independent Living. 

Management and Staff:

o The Consortium director and his staff have overall management responsibility for all four centers that make up the 

Thumb Area Michigan Works! Each center has its own consortium of partners who provide staff. The centers’ 

management staff operate as co-managers with decision-making responsibilities. 

o A bi-monthly formal meeting is held for the director and staff to communicate on a regular basis. 

Services:

o The Consortium director and his staff are in constant communication with the staff members at each center. The

director’s office is in the same building as the Marlette Center. 

Staff-Assisted Services:

o The center is designed to be primarily self-service. 

o There are five (5) case managers who are cross-trained to perform all staff positions. 

o The center provides facilitated self-help services. 

o In the Marlette Center, case management staff are stationed at the reception desk to greet and assist job seekers. 

o Staff members are available for consultation and assistance in the resource room. 

Self Services:

o In the Marlette Center, there are six (6) public use computers. 

o The public has full access to the resource room. 

Resource Room:

o In the Marlette Center, the resource room contains hardcopy job search books, local job information sources, access 

to copy and fax machine, and use of telephones. 

Service Availability:

o The center serves a full range of customers at all skill and education levels. 

o The center is focused on a “funnel method.” Most customers only use self-service facilities, while assisted services 

are available upon request or as needed. However, the center does deliver customized assistance. Job seekers fill 

out an application form listing career goals and services sought, and meet with staff to develop an individualized 

program of treatment.

o There are no classrooms. There are meeting spaces on the first and second floor. 

o No unemployment insurance (UI) services are provided at the center. 

Other Notable Features:

o Registration Practices: For those who choose to register, there is a standard registration form that the customer 

can fill out with assistance from the case manager on duty. Customers are not required to register in order to

receive basic core services. Registration is only used to determined customers’ eligibility for resources under one 

of the funding sources through the center. 

o Only customers who choose to formally enroll receive the Level One “tool chest” of materials and services 

available at the center. The “tool chest” contains information on all services available through the center, vouchers 

for various free services available to them outside the center, and sources of funding for classes, workshops and 

other services related to job preparation or job search. 

o There is a formal schedule of workshops at the center. Many workshops are conducted at one of the area’s 

community colleges. 

o The center is equipped to serve veterans and persons with disabilities. There is a full-time veterans’ representative 

who serves the four centers in the area on a rotating basis. There is also a full-time representative for clients with 

disabilities. Similar to the veterans’ representative, the displaced veterans’ representative rotates between local 

centers. 

o Total budget for the Marlette Center is $4 million.

Interviews Conducted: Summer 2001

Updated: December 2001 

DOL/ETA, OPDER B-18

November 2002 
Michigan One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One- Stop Environment”

One-Stop Center: Walled Lake Michigan Works! Service Center 

Location: Walled Lake, Michigan (City Population: 6,932) 

One-Stop Operator:

o Walled Lake School System’s Division of Community Education. 

Center Partners:

o None Identified.

Management and Staff:

o One coordinator, assistant coordinator, and three case management assistants staff the center. All employees are

cross-trained and available to assist customers in an array of fields. 

o The coordinator has full responsibility for the center and is required to have 20 years of experience in career 

development and related professions. 

o The coordinator and the assistant coordinator are solely responsible for screening applicants and participants for 

eligibility. 

o Three (3) case management assistants work with job seekers in the resource room and assist with a variety of center 

activities. 

Services:

Staff-Assisted Services:

o The center provides facilitated self-help services. 

Self-Services: 

o There are many Internet-based exchanges available for both job seekers and employers, (i.e. job searches, resume

postings, job openings, etc). 

o There are seven (7) computers intended for public use and self-directed job searches through state and national 

websites. The most widely used site to find local jobs is the Michigan Talent Bank. 

Resource Room: 

o The public resource room is adjacent to the main entrance. 

o Also available are hardcopies of job search information. 

Service Availability:

o The resource room houses work tables, chairs, copy and fax machines, as well as telephones. In addition to the 

seven (7) public use computers located in the entry area, mentioned above, the resource room contains 10

additional computers (i.e., three (3) for Internet searching; seven (7) for combined services, including software for 

career education and instruction, resume building, keyboarding instruction, and use of the Michigan Occupational

Information System). 

o A Michigan Rehabilitative Services counselor is available at the center one day per week. 

o Unemployment insurance (UI) issues are not dealt with at the center. 

o Registration Practices: All who receive services from the center are required to register. Registration involves 

filling out an intake questionnaire, which asks personal and background information. The application is then filed 

in the computer system at the center. 

o The center is focused on a “funnel method.” Customers choose the services they want to receive from the center. 

Most customers only use self-service facilities; assisted services are available upon request or as needed. 

o All job seekers are welcomed in the center. Recently, the center has focused more on working with dislocated 

workers. 

o A representative from Veterans’ Services rotates throughout the area centers. On average, a veterans’ 

representative is available for one-half day per week at the Walled Lake Center. 

Other Notable Features: 

o This center has gone through large changes to make it more locally controlled instead of state operated. 

o The total budget for the current year is approximately $207 million.

o The Walled Lake Center emphasizes employer services, indicating several specific services the center provides 

employers (i.e., use of the statewide job bank; outplacement services for employers implementing layoffs or plant 

closings; and career center Network Services). 

Interviews Conducted: Summer 2001

Updated: December 2001 

DOL/ETA, OPDER B-19

November 2002 
North Carolina

B-20
North Carolina One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Center” 

One-Stop Center: Durham JobLink Career Center (One-Stop) 

Location: Durham, North Carolina (City Population: 143,439)

o Durham County is part of the major metropolitan Research Triangle area, which also includes the cities of Raleigh 

and Chapel Hill. 

One-Stop Operator:

o The North Carolina Employment Security Commission (ESC). 

Center Partners:

o Durham has established partnerships with the following agencies (the first six serve as core partners): the ESC; 

JobReady (school-to-work); JTPA; the Division of Vocational Rehabilitation; the Durham Technical Community 

College; WorkFirst (welfare-to-work); City of Durham Office of Economic and Employment Development;

Durham Workforce Partnership, Inc.; and the Greater Durham Chamber of Commerce. 

Management and Staff:

o All staff members, (with the exception of veterans’ representatives), are cross-trained to better assist customers at 

the center. 

Services:

Staff-Assisted Services:

o The receptionist on duty handles an array of job seekers’ questions and further directs customers to available 

services. 

o Employment Service (ES) staff make onsite referrals, evaluate job seekers’ employment efforts, and work 

extensively with local job development. The ES staff provide community outreach between local employers and 

job seekers at the Durham Joblink One-Stop Center. 

Self- Services:

o Ten (10) public access computers and four JIS (Job Information System) terminals are open to all customers near 

the entrance of the One-Stop center. 

Resource Room:

o The resource room is an area near the computers where tables are located. 

o Printed job information on posters, brochures, and binders are available from employers in the surrounding area. 

o Adequate workspace and resource room are not available at this center. 

Service Availability:

o Registration practices: Unemployment insurance (UI) claimants are required to register prior to receiving any UI 

benefits or services. However, registration for non-UI claimants is generally only required if the customer wishes

to receive a referral. Job seekers can temporarily register themselves; however, customers must register with a staff 

member if they want a permanent file for using ES services. 

o There is one large conference room that is used as a classroom to conduct seminars and workshops. 

o A community college representative is available to advise job seekers on what classes and programs Durham 

 available for those interested in taking classes. 

o There are three (3) veterans’ representatives at the center. The representatives are not cross-trained and specialize 

solely in assisting veterans. 

o The Durham office provides services to UI claimants in order to get them back to work as quickly as possible. 

 move unemployed claimants into jobs that are in demand. 

o The UI claimants are called in for interviews every four to six (4-6) weeks. Claimants must document all their job 

search activities and are required to attend a mandatory job search workshop. 

Other Notable Features:

o Resume writing workshops are held every Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday and on some Thursdays. 

 Technical Community College offers. The representatives are also knowledgeable in what financial aid options are 

o The center provides a veterans’ representative, representatives from the food stamp program, WorkFirst welfare-towork representatives, and community college representatives who provide basic information on taking classes and 

financial aid. 

o There are no specific services offered to persons with disabilities. 

 The unemployment rate in the surrounding areas is extremely low and the One-Stop center sees its main goal to 

o In Durham County, 38% of the workforce is in the service industry and 25% of the workforce is in manufacturing. 

Other major sectors include the retail trade, with about 13% of the workforce and government at 11%. Durham

County is a major part of the Research Triangle area, home to large manufacturing and service industries such as

IBM, Glaxo-Wellcome, and Nortel. Based on interviews with staff, the report estimates that roughly 65% of

customers served are UI claimants and 15% are economically disadvantaged adults.

Interviews Conducted: November 1999

DOL/ETA, OPDER B-21

November 2002 
North Carolina One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Center” 

One-Stop Center: Oxford Employment Security Commission (ESC) Office

Location: Oxford, North Carolina (City Population: 9,000)

o Oxford is a small town that is the county seat of Granville County. It is located about 40 miles northwest of the 

state capitol, Raleigh.

One-Stop Operator: 

o The North Carolina Employment Security Commission (ESC). 

Center Partners:

o Center partners include: the ESC; JobReady (school-to-work); JTPA; the Division of Vocational Rehabilitation;

Wake Technical Community College; and WorkFirst (welfare-to-work).

Management and Staff:

o Management team members meet weekly for scheduled staff meetings. 

o There are 62 full-time staff and employees at the center, with two (2) supervisors that oversee the center and it’s 

employees. 

o Specialized staff includes a veterans’ representative, food stamp representative, and one WorkFirst (welfare-towork) representative. 

Services:

o The manager and the assistant manager are responsible for the daily operations of the center as well as maintaining

contact with local employers to ensure a steady stream of job orders. 

Staff-Assisted Services:

o Employment Service (ES) staff give onsite referrals, some assessment/counseling, and extensive local job

development. 

Self-Services:

o There are four (4) public access computers and two (2) Job Information System terminals located in an area 

separate from the resource room. These computers are available to customers for searching state job listings, 

creating resumes, word processing, and general Internet access. 

Resource Room:

o The resource room contains a small table with job opening information in binders collected from employers in the 

community. 

Service Availability:

o The UI claimants are called in to the center for interviews every four to six (4-6) weeks. Claimants are required to

document their job search activities. 

Other Notable Features:

o Registration Practices: Registration is required in order to receive a referral. Unemployment insurance (UI) 

claimants are required to register prior to receiving any unemployment insurance benefits or services. 

o There are several classrooms available for workshops and seminars in the One-Stop center. 

o Job seekers can make appointments to see a representative at the office, such as a local community college 

representative, to further their skill training. 

o The center is focused on a “funnel method.” Most customers only use self-service facilities, while the assisted

services are available upon request or as needed. The center is capable of providing customized assistance to 

clients. Staff will work with job seekers to create a job search plan. 

o Veterans receive services at the center through a veterans’ representative. Specifically, Veterans’ Services include 

advance notice of job orders prior to the job order being submitted to the general public. Veterans are also referred

to the Vance County JobLink Center to obtain more in depth services. 

o Persons with disabilities are served through referrals to the Vance County JobLink Career Center. 

o The Oxford office primarily serves people by providing UI services and by recruiting local employers to list 

 available jobs. Each employer has an assigned staff member assigned and the manager makes regular visits to area 

employers to inform them of the services provided by the office. 

o Roughly one third (1/3) of the workforce in Oxford is employed in manufacturing; one third (1/3) of the population

is employed by the government; and the remaining third (1/3) of the workforce is concentrated in the retail and

wholesale trade and service sectors.

Interviews Conducted: November 1999

DOL/ETA, OPDER B-22

November 2002 
North Carolina One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Center” 

One-Stop Center: Raleigh JobLink Career Center (One-Stop) 

Location: Raleigh, North Carolina (City Population: 236,707) 

o The Raleigh JobLink Center is located inside of the Wake County Department of Health and Human Services 

building. 

o Raleigh is the capitol of North Carolina and is the one of three cities in the Research Triangle area. 

One-Stop Operator:

o North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS). 

Center Partners:

o North Carolina Career Centers must have the following agencies as partners: the Employment Security 

Commission (ESC), JobReady (school-to-work), JTPA, the Division of Vocational Rehabilitation, Wake Technical 

Community College, and WorkFirst (welfare-to-work). 

Management and Staff:

o The staff is cross-trained to handle most requests from job seekers. The center uses a calendar to indicate when 

specialized staff (such as Spanish speakers and the community college representative) will be available to job 

seekers. 

o The center coordinator supervises the One-Stop center. 

o Monthly management and staff meetings are held. Meetings with state and local officials are held every other 

month concerning budgets, new services, and WIA implementation. 

Services:

Staff-Assisted Services:

o The receptionist greets and directs customers once they enter the center. The receptionist provides general help and 

information and encourages the job seeker to register with the center. 

Self-Services:

o There are eight to ten (8-10) computers available for public use in the main room of the One-Stop center. 

Resource Room:

o The resource room is equipped with tables, desks, and telephones; a fax machine/copier is also available. A large 

career-related library, located near the resource room, houses the public–use computers indicated above. 

Service Availability:

o Customers are primarily served through a “funnel method.” They use self-service facilities initially, and assisted

services are available upon request or as needed. 

o The ESC staff member handles all the UI claims and job matching, such as reviewing documented job search

activities. The UI claimants report to the Raleigh ESC offices for periodic interviews, approximately every four to 

six (4-6) weeks, because the JobLink Center lacks the staff to re-interview claimants. 

Other Notable Features:

o Registration Process: All job seekers must register with a staff member to create a permanent file for using 

Employment Services (ES) at the center. Registration is also required in order to receive a referral. Claimants are 

required to register prior to receiving unemployment insurance (UI) benefits from the center. 

o One (1) large classroom is available at the center. 

o Depending on the needs of the job seeker, training classes can either be taken at the center or the job seeker can be

referred to more intensive training at Wake Technical Community College. 

o A representative from Wake Technical Community College is available to answer questions regarding classes and 

training at the college. 

o Veterans’ Services can be obtained at another office inside the building where the center is located. 

o Wake County Supportive Employment, a private firm, is located in the same building as the center. The Supportive 

Employment staff is equipped to provide services to disabled persons. 

o The Raleigh office specializes in providing career assistance and job search assistance to the economically 

disadvantaged.

o This site is unique because it is operated by the local Health and Human Services agency. 

Interviews Conducted: November 1999

DOL/ETA, OPDER B-23

November 2002 
Oregon

B-24
Oregon One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Environment”

One-Stop Center: Beaverton, Oregon One-Stop (Capitol Career Center) 

Location: Beaverton, Oregon (City Population: 62,000) 

o Beaverton, a suburb of the city of Portland and the largest city in Oregon, is located in Washington County. 

One-Stop Operator:

o The Capitol Career Center operator is the Portland Community College, representing the State of Oregon’s

Department of Community Colleges and Workforce Development. 

Center Partners:

o The center has three (3) main partners: The Workforce Investment Board, The Adult and Family Services Division

of DHS, and the Portland Community College. 

o An organization called the Workforce Alliance is the umbrella organization for all partners providing workforce 

services under the direction of the Capitol Career Center director. Other partners represented onsite include the 

Senior Mobility Service program, “Employment Advocates for Seniors,” Veterans’ Services, and Job Corps. 

Staff and Management:

o There is a director with overall responsibility for the activities of the center. 

o There are two (2) group mangers and four (4) coordinators (one for One-Stop activities, one for education, one for 

step-up, and one for business services) under the supervision of the director. 

o The Dean of Adult and Continuing Education at the community college and the WIB have oversight of the director

of the One-Stop center. 

o The senior staff of the One-Stop center meets biweekly and on an ad hoc basis as necessary to discuss management

issues. 

Services:

o There are 21 career service specialists, 11 instructors, and 16 administrative, support, and supervisory staff

members. Additionally, there are disability service specialists, senior mobility specialists, job readiness specialists, 

and a business service specialist. 

Staff-Assisted Services:

o There is a receptionist who greets clients and directs them to services. Beyond the reception area there is a desk

manned by Employment Department staff at all times to help further assist customers as they enter the One-Stop

center. 

Self-Services:

o There are 12 public use computers, equipped with Internet job search and office related software. 

Resource Room:

o The room is 980 square feet. 

o The resource room contains all 12 of the public use computers referenced above. The room also contains desks, 

fax, telephone, and copy services, as well as hardcopy labor related information. 

Service Availability:

o Registration process: There are two types of registration. Customers seeking core services are only required to

sign in for identification purposes through a computer at the front desk. Customers seeking additional services, 

(i.e., beyond core services), are registered by a career specialist. Customers seeking more intensive services are 

required, upon registering, to participate in the orientation workshops before receiving appropriate in depth 

services. 

o Vocational Rehabilitation has rotating staff providing onsite services at the One-Stop center for persons with

disabilities. Programs for seniors and the disabled have staff onsite at the One-Stop center two days a week. They 

each also have offices nearby to which clients can be referred at any time. 

o There is a veterans’ representative onsite one day a week. Veterans’ representatives have a nearby office in the

Oregon Employment Department (OED) to which the OED onsite staff can refer customers at any time. 

o There are seven (7) classrooms/conference rooms located near the resource room. 

o Nineteen (19) different workshops are conducted each month, some repeatedly. There is a Job Search Planning

workshop every morning, and a Capitol Career Center Orientation workshop every Tuesday morning. Other 

workshops offered every month include: Interviewing Basics; Improving Interview Skills; Interview Strategies; 

Resume Writing I and II; First 60 Days on the Job; Cover Letter and Thanks; Organizing Your Job Search;

Resource Room Orientation; and Wisdom of the Ages (55+). Additionally, there are Employer Presentation

workshops every month. No fees are charged to the job seekers for workshops. 

o Unemployment insurance (UI) profiling is not done at this center; it is conducted at the local UI office.

Interviews Conducted: November 2001

DOL/ETA, OPDER B-25

November 2002 
Oregon One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Environment”

One-Stop Center: Pendleton One-Stop (Morrow-Umatilla Work Links) Center 

Location: Pendleton, Oregon (City Population: 17,175) 

o Pendleton is a small-to-mid-size city in a somewhat remote, mostly agricultural area near the Columbia River in

Northeastern Oregon. 

One-Stop Operator:

o A consortium, called Work-Links, operates the Morrow-Umatilla Work Links One-Stop Center. The consortium is 

composed of five mandatory partners under the Region 12 Workforce Investment Board. 

o The five mandatory partners include: the Oregon Employment Department (OED); The Department of Human 

Services (DHS), which is represented by two divisions (Adult and Family Services and Vocational Rehabilitation); 

Blue Mountain Community College; The Community Action Program of East Central Oregon (CAPECO); and the 

Umatilla Morrow Educational Service District (UMESD). 

Management and Staff:

o The reception area has a greeting desk. After greeting clients at the font desk, the receptionist directs 

unemployment insurance (UI) claimants as well as other job seekers to appropriate services. 

o There are four (4) OED staff members at the One-Stop center who provide both ES and UI services for clients. 

These services include outreach, intake, orientation, skill and aptitude assessment, labor market information, job 

referrals and placement services. 

o The DHS staff provide an array of welfare and Vocational Rehabilitation services, including eligibility, assessment, 

case management, and financial aid assistance, as necessary. 

Services:

o The Community Action Program (CAPECO) staff members provide services to dislocated workers. 

Staff-Assisted Services:

o No information is provided in the site visit report.

Self-Services:

o There are ten (10) public use computers. All computers can be used to obtain labor market and job-related 

information.

Resource Room:

o The room contains newspapers and other hardcopy job availability information, a fax and copy machine, telephones 

and office supplies. 

o In addition to the 10 abovementioned public use computers, the resource room holds 11 additional computers are 

equipped for job searches (i.e., either self-directed or staff assisted). These computers are also used in computer 

training workshops. 

Service Availability:

o Registration Process: There is no automatic One-Stop registration process, and registration is not mandatory to

receive core services (e.g., use the public-access computers and the resource room). 

o The UI claimants must register to receive UI services at the center. The standard 2001 form is used for registration. 

o There is one large classroom with a 30-person capacity located at the One-Stop center. 

o The Pendleton One-Stop Center runs a series of workshops entitled “Technology Lab” and “Computer Comfort” 

every Monday morning and evening for three (3) hours each. On Tuesdays and Thursdays, the center runs a series 

of three consecutive sessions called “FSA Introduction,” “Job Club,” and “Work First” for one and one-half (1 1⁄2)

hours each. These classes are repeated throughout the week and customers are eligible to receive staff-assisted 

services based on demonstrated need. 

o The center does not charge fees for any of the offered workshops/classes. 

o The OED staff provides Veterans’ Services at the One-Stop center and makes referrals for veterans needing

specialized assistance. 

o The center assesses the needs and eligibility of persons with disabilities. Referrals to other agencies for specific 

rehabilitation, training, or assistance are made at the center.

o The UI claimants are required to actively search for work. At the end of eight (8) weeks, claimants still in the 

system are sent a letter to come to the center to document their work search. At any point, staff members may refer 

claimants to training sessions or potential jobs. 

o All job seekers are served at the One-Stop center. The center takes all clients at all levels and does not target a

specific group, but the preponderance of job seekers are in the mid-to-low income range. Not many high tech or

professional job seekers come to the Pendleton Center. 

o The center is focused on a “funnel method.” Most customers only use self-service facilities, while assisted services 

are available upon request as needed. However, the center does provide customized assistance to clients. 

Interviews Conducted: November 2001

DOL/ETA, OPDER B-26

November 2002 
Oregon One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Environment”

Interviews Conducted: November 2001 

One-Stop Center: Salem Job and Career Center 

Location: Salem, Oregon (City Proper Population: 126,635)

o The One-Stop center is located in the Oregon Employment Department. 

One-Stop Operator:

o Day-to-day operations of the Salem Job and Career Center are managed by the Mid-Willamette Workforce 

Network consortium, which is composed of six (6) partners listed below. 

Center Partners:

o The center partners include: the Oregon Employment Department, Chemetka Community College, Vocational

Rehabilitation, Green Thumb, Adult and Family Services (DHS), and The Workforce Integration Department of

Chemetka. 

Staff and Management:

o The coordinating manager has overall responsibility for all onsite service delivery onsite except for vocational 

rehabilitation services. The coordinating manger has six managers, representing all of the partners at the site, who

manage the site collaboratively. 

o There is a principle manager, an assistant manager, and five (5) supervisors who collaborate in the management of 

the actual center and supervise the daily activities of the staff. 

o The Workforce Investment Act (WIA) supervisor, the Employment Service (ES) supervisor, and the special

programs supervisor are subordinates of the assistant manager. 

o The unemployment insurance (UI) Employment and Adjustment, Veterans, Dislocated Workers, Vocational

Rehabilitation services are provided by partners to the center and are overseen by the principle manager. 

Services:

Staff-Assisted Services:

o This center offers facilitated self-help services. 

Self-Services:

o There are 22 public use computers in the reception area of the One-Stop center available for job search activities. 

Job seekers can use them on their own or request assistance from the Employment Department employees on duty. 

Resource Room:

o The resource room is located immediately behind the reception area. 

o In addition to the 22 public use computers located in the reception area (as indicated above), there are an additional 

11 computers in the resource room with Internet access and extensive software (i.e., for resume preparation, 

accessing state or standardized application forms and other labor market information). The resource room also 

contains a fax and copy machine and telephones and an attached employer interview room. 

o A staff member is on duty to assist customers in the resource room. 

Service Availability:

o Veterans’ Services are provided onsite at the center; a veterans’ representative handles all information and referral 

needs of veterans. Veterans with disabilities are referred for rehabilitation services. 

o Registration Process: Registration is completed using the standard state 2001 form. Customers can either register 

in person or by mail. Registration forms are verified by Job Service representatives in the ES group. Both UI and

non-UI individuals register with the same form. According to field interviews, the form is said to gather good

information, but lacks detail about work histories and skills that could be important in making job referrals or 

assessing additional client needs beyond the core services provided at the center.

o New customers are urged to sign up for an orientation session, which is a one-hour overview of the center. The UI

claimants must register to get employment services at the center. Other customers may use the public use 

computers and the resource room without registration, but must register to participate in workshops or any other

services beyond core services. 

o There is one (1) classroom on the first floor of the One-Stop center. The room has a capacity of 25 persons. There

is another classroom located on the second floor that has a 40-person capacity. 

o Workshops are provided free of charge to all job seekers. 

o The following list is on the November 2001 calendar for workshops: How to Find a Decent Job; ADHD and Your

Child; Applications that Get Noticed; Job Networking Group; Practicing for the Interview; Resume Basics; Job

Interview Preparation; Career Mobility; Computer Basics; and Quality Child Care Resources. Some of these 

workshops are offered several times during the month. 

o Counselors are available onsite to assist persons with disabilities. Customers are referred for rehabilitation

treatment services in local area facilities. 

DOL/ETA, OPDER B-27

November 2002 
Oregon One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Environment”

o Claimant reemployment activity is conducted on eight-week reviews. The Claimant Reemployment group 

conducts orientation at the center, and provides REO (ReEmployment Opportunity) workshops at the center. 

Other Notable Features:

o The majority of job seekers in the Salem area are at a low- to lower middle-income level. 

o The total budget for the Salem Job and Career Center is approximately $2.46 million. 

Interviews Conducted: November 2001 

DOL/ETA, OPDER B-28

November 2002 
Washington

B-29
Washington One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Environment”

One-Stop Center: North Seattle WorkSource Center 

Location: North Seattle, Washington (City Population: 520,947)

One-Stop Operator: Employment Security Department. 

o The office serves the North Seattle area, and is described as both an urban and suburban area. 

Center Partners:

o Partner agencies include: the King County Dislocated Worker Program; Pacific Associations (P.A.C.E.); IAM 

Cares (International Association of Machinists and the Center for Administering Rehabilitation and Employment 

Services); YWCA; North Seattle Community College; Shoreline Community College; AARP; and the Department

of Vocational Rehabilitation.

Management and Staff:

o The WorkSource administrator and deputy administrator are employees of the Employment Security Department. 

The WorkSource deputy administrator supervises all Employment Service employees. 

o There is a WorkFirst supervisor and a local veterans employment supervisor at the center who supervise their own

staff. 

o Other partners’ staff members are supervised by their own agencies. 

Services:

Staff-Assisted Services:

o The front desk receptionists help individuals get started using the computers. There are also introductory classes

on computer use and the Internet. 

o Separate from the self-serve computer resource station (discussed below), there is a computer lab used to train 

persons in basic computer applications. These computers may also be used for job search activities. 

o Employment Security Department staff provides specialized services in the areas of WorkFirst or TANF, 

unemployment insurance (UI) access, disabled veterans, NAFTA, and certain labor exchange functions. 

Self-Services:

o A self-serve computer resource station is located near the reception area; computers in the resource station can be

used by clients to search for jobs and to use resume-writing or career-development software. 

Resource Room:

o A small area across from the receptionist desk has resources and brochures on various topics for public use. 

Service Availability:

o Registration Process: The receptionist at the front desk assists customers to register in the computer system at the 

center. New customers are given tours of the public use areas, computers, and resource room. 

o Registration is not mandatory, but is required in order to receive intensive services. For example, registration is 

required for persons to be included in job matching using the state’s automatic computerized match process and in

staff-initiated searches for candidates to fill job orders. 

o Trained counselors evaluate customers to determine if specialized services are needed. 

o A few classrooms are used for job seeker workshops, orientation classes, and other instruction. There is also a 

computer lab, which is used for computer training classes.

o Customers are served through a “funnel method” where most services are self-directed, while staff members are 

available for assistance upon request or as needed. 

o This One-Stop center offers over 60 classes each month. 

o Services to the disabled population have increased with the addition of Vocational Rehabilitation and IAM Cares 

staff. 

o Veterans’ representatives are available onsite to assist veterans at the center. 

o During the first few weeks of a UI claim, each claimant is required to attend an orientation session at the center. 

During this session, claimants are informed that they must make a minimum of three (3) employer contacts each 

week and keep documentation of these contacts. In addition, each week, staff members review reports of current 

claimants and schedule interview/appointment time to review the claimants’ search logs. 

Other Notable Features:

o A number of job seekers in need of work are fishermen who are laid off seasonally. Many job seekers look for 

manual labor jobs, such as construction work. The decline of the “dot-com” industry also resulted in a large 

number of former employees looking for employment through services at the center.

Interview Conducted: March 2002

DOL/ETA, OPDER B-30

November 2002 
Washington One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Environment”

One-Stop Center: Renton WorkSource Center

Location: Renton, Washington (City Population: 55,140) 

o Renton is a suburb of Seattle. 

One-Stop Operator: King County Government. 

Center Partners:

o The center operates with many partners, including: Employment Security; IAM Cares (International Association of

Machinists and the Center for Administrating Rehabilitation and Employment Services); Job Corps; King County 

Work Training; Pacific Associates (P.A.C.E.); Renton Technical Adult Learning Center; YW/MCA; the Division

of Vocational Rehabilitation; and the Opportunities Industrialization Center (OIC). 

Management and Staff:

o The WorkSource manager has functional leadership over all staff providing services through the WorkSource 

Center and direct supervisory authority over several of the staff. The partners provide their own supervision for

their respective staff at the center. 

o The offsite Employment Security Administrator has final authority over the 18 Employment Security staff located

at WorkSource Renton. 

o Employment Security Department staff provides specialized services in the areas of unemployment insurance (UI) 

access, veterans’ services, and certain labor exchange functions. 

o Certain partners offer their own staff members to provide core and specialized services. 

o All staff members are cross-trained and are aware of the basic program requirements in order to make referrals to

appropriate service providers. 

o The four (4) members of the management team meet once per week. There are also meetings with partner

managers outside of the center as needed on a monthly or quarterly basis. Meetings for all staff are held once a 

month. 

Services:

Staff-Assisted Services:

o Four staff members, known as the triage team, manage the front desk in the entrance of the One-Stop center. They 

are responsible for greeting and registering new customers, assisting regular customers, and referring customers to 

appropriate staff for further assistance. 

Self-Service:

o Two self-serve computer resource stations are located near the reception area. There are 42 computers at the OneStop center that are open for public use. Lab assistants are available to assist customers. 

Resource Room:

o The resource room is stocked with hardcopy job research information; it is adjacent to the main reception area. 

Service Availability:

o Registration Process: When a new customer enters the One-Stop center, one of the receptionists at the front desk

will ask the customer to register. New customers are given an overview of the public use area, including the 

computers and resource area. A returning customer who has already registered can enter his/her client number in a 

computer in the receptionist area to record the visit to the center. 

o Registration is never mandatory, but customers are encouraged to register. 

o Letters are sent to UI recipients each week to inform them of their requirement to search for a job. Renton conducts 

two workshops a week for UI recipients, and approximately 100 people per week attend the workshops. 

o A number of classrooms are used for job search workshops, orientation classes and other types of instruction. The 

Renton One-Stop Center offers several workshops each week. 

o Workshops include job search classes, resume building, job interviewing, computer skill workshops (including

Internet use) and other types of specific education or job training skills. 

o The center is focused on a “funnel method” and customers primarily choose the services they want to receive from

the center. 

o The work test records any information that could affect unemployment insurance (UI) claims. The work test

consists of referring claimants to jobs for which they are qualified, detecting and reporting any possible issues that 

could affect the claimant’s eligibility for benefits, and monitoring an accepted referral. 

o All claimants can utilize the core services at the center and are encouraged to participate in job seeker workshops. 

Other Notable Features:

o Most of the One-Stop center customers are dislocated workers. Many of these workers are former employees of 

Boeing who are not willing to relocate. A number of other former manufacturing and information technology

employees utilize the Renton One-Stop Center services. 

Interview Conducted: March 2002

DOL/ETA, OPDER B-31

November 2002 
Washington One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Environment”

One-Stop Center: Walla Walla Work Source Center 

Location: Walla Walla, Washington (County Population: 55,180)

o The One-Stop center in Walla Walla serves individuals from the surrounding county, for which Walla Walla is the 

county seat. Walla Walla is a small city in the southeastern portion of the state, close to Oregon. 

One-Stop Operator:

o Employment Security Department. 

Center Partners:

o Partners include: the Blue Mountain Action Council; Department of Social and Health Services; Walla Walla 

Community College; Experience Works; and the Department of Vocational Rehabilitation. 

Management and Staff:

o The WorkSource Area Administrator has final authority over all staff providing services at the center. 

o Other One-Stop partners provide supervision for their respective staff at the center. 

o Employment Security staff assist in specialized programs including: unemployment insurance (UI); Veterans’ 

Services; Migrant and Seasonal Farm Workers (MSFW); Claimant Placement Program; WorkFirst; Business 

Outreach; Agriculture Outreach; Job Search Review Program; Worker Retraining and Dislocated Workers. 

o Senior staff members meet no less than once a month and more frequently as needed. 

Services:

Staff-Assisted Services:

o All center staff members are available to assist customers, specifically with computer assistance. 

o Every center staff person takes an active role in facilitating the use of self-service resources. 

o The center’s greeters may ask questions of the new customers to determine their eligibility and interest in certain

services. If interested, customers can then be enrolled in classes, training and/or workshops. All center staff 

members are available to further assist the center’s customers. 

o For general job seekers, customer choice dictates the level of staff involvement because some clients prefer to

remain autonomous. Other job seekers who are enrolled in an intensive service program (e.g., Worker Retraining

Dislocated Worker Program, Work First, etc.) have individualized plans that address their life situation.

Self-Services:

o Twenty-six (26) self-serve computer stations are located in private carrels in the reception area. These computers 

can be used by the customers to search for jobs using resume writing, career development, and other software. 

Resource Room:

o A large area just beyond the entrance is for public use. 

Service Availability:

o Registration Process: Greeters at the front reception area register new job seekers in a computer system that 

includes software specially developed for the Walla Walla Center. Job seekers are asked to fill out basic questions

about personal information and past employment experiences. 

o Twenty-seven (27) staff members help conduct workshops or other classroom trainings. These staff members are 

representatives from various partner agencies to the One-Stop center. 

o All UI claimants must participate in a work test that records information that affects a UI claim. The work test 

consists of referring claimants to jobs for which they are qualified, detecting and reporting issues that affect the 

claimant’s eligibility and monitoring the claimant’s job search. 

Other Notable Features:

o Registration is optional, but encouraged by the center’s staff. 

o There are three (3) classrooms. One room is a computerized classroom with 11 computer terminals, a computerlinked white board, and PowerPoint projectors to facilitate workshops and training for customers. The second room

is a private meeting room with a fax and computer linkage system. The third room is a large classroom that is 

utilized by both customers and staff members of the One-Stop center. 

o Customers are served through a “funnel method” where most services are self-directed, but staff members are 

available to assist upon request or as needed. 

o Direct referrals and facilitated referrals are made to partner staff that can provide enhanced employment and 

retraining services to individuals with disabilities. 

o The largest employers in the area are orchards, beef processing plants and the Washington State Penitentiary. 

Interview Conducted: March 2002 

DOL/ETA, OPDER B-32

November 2002 
Washington One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Environment”

One-Stop Center: Yakima Work Source Center 

Location: Yakima Valley, Washington (County Population: 222,581)

o The center serves individuals from the surrounding county, which is mostly rural and quite large.

One-Stop Operator:

o The Employment Security Department. 

Center Partners:

o Partners include: the Northwest Community Action Center; Job Corps; Department of Social and Health

Services; IAM Cares (the International Association of Machinists and the Center for Administrative 

Rehabilitation and Employment Services); Yakima Valley Community College; Goodwill Industries; the 

Department of Vocational Rehabilitation; Provident Services; Migrant Council; Dislocated Worker; and the 

Yakima Opportunity Industrialization Center.

Management and Staff:

o The WorkSource Administrator has full authority over all center staff, including the WorkSource operations

manager, the resource center coordinator and the ES supervisor. 

o The center staff members hold weekly meetings with the WorkSource Administrator to discuss One-Stop

related issues. 

Services:

o The center’s partners take an integrated role in the center to provide core services and to offer their own 

specialized service to eligible customers. 

Staff-Assisted Service:

o All WorkSource staff members are required to spend a certain portion of their work time at the reception desk. 

They are responsible for greeting new customers and encouraging regular customers to register before using the 

resources of the center. A computer is set up in front of the reception desk for clients to register each time they 

use the center. 

o The WorkSource coordinator reviews registration information and determines if a person is eligible or in need

of certain training classes and other services. 

o Center staff prescreen job candidates prior to providing employers with a list of candidates. 

Self-Services:

o Several self-serve computer stations are located in private carrels in different areas of the center. These

computers can be used by customers to search for jobs; job seekers also have access to resume writing and 

career development software. 

Resource Room:

o A resource room is located just beyond the entrance to the One-Stop center; the receptionist area is part of this 

room. 

Service Availability:

o Registration is not required, but recommended by the center for tracking purposes. 

o There are a few classrooms that are used for job search workshops, English as a second language (ESL) classes 

and other instruction. 

o A fully equipped computer lab is available to employers to provide training for their staff. 

o The center focuses on serving its customers through a “funnel method.” Most services are self-initiated; 

however, staff members are available to assist customers upon request or as needed. 

o All claimants who receive their first payment are screened for worker profiling. All UI claimants can utilize the 

core services at the center and are encouraged to participate in job seeker workshops. 

o Registration Process: Greeters at the front reception area ask new job seekers to fill out a registration form and

the WorkSource coordinator then reviews the customer’s form and registers the individual in the center’s 

computer system. 

o All unemployment insurance (UI) claimants must participate in the UI work test. The work test consists of 

referring claimants to jobs for which they are qualified, detecting any reporting issues that affect the claimant’s 

eligibility and monitoring the claimant’s job search. 

Interview Conducted: March 2002 

DOL/ETA, OPDER B-33

November 2002 
Washington One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Environment”

Other Notable Features:

o Yakima Valley is known for being “the fruit bowl of the nation” because of the high number of agricultural jobs

in the area, especially apple orchards. Seasonal jobs and the departure of several retail stores have left a number 

of service workers and others without jobs. 

o The center’s classes are generally full, and the center is limited in how many classes it can offer because there is

a limited amount of classroom space.

Interview Conducted: March 2002 

DOL/ETA, OPDER B-34

November 2002 
Appendix C 

America’s Job Bank (AJB): 

An Electronic PLX in a No-Stop Environment 
AMERICA’S JOB BANK: AN ELECTRONIC PLX IN A NO-STOP ENVIRONMENT 

Introduction 

This section discusses several facets of America’s Job Bank (AJB), a website that lists nationwide 

job orders obtained directly from employers and from individual state job services. AJB’s presence in

each of the six states covered in this report is one reason for its inclusion in this report. A second reason is

that AJB mainly is used from remote sites and only provides staff-based assistance over the web or 

telephone. Thus, an assessment of its strengths and weaknesses sheds light on the value of in-person 

versus electronic staff-to-customer contact. Third, that AJB also provides a high-quality website to New 

York state provides insight into the benefits and costs of replacing individual state electronic PLXsystems with systems covering groups of states. Finally, AJB’s generation of usage data from ordinary

operations and a recently completed survey provides information about the types of data needed to

monitor and improve operations of all electronic PLXs. 

The information presented in this section is derived from discussions held in the summer of 2002

with the director of AJB’s Albany operations center, and with key ETA officials who oversee AJB’s

operations, as well as numerous discussions with state and local officials conducted as part of the process 

evaluation. In addition, this section draws upon a Fall 2003 paper that discusses automated labor 

exchanges.

According to a recent paper by Woods and Frugoli (October 2003) there were over 1 million active 

job listings on AJB and over 600,000 resumes, and on October 22, there were over 33,000 new jobs 

posted and over 2,000 resumes added that typical day. 15

 

AJB Services

AJB, like its state counterparts, provides an electronic public labor exchange, allowing job-seekers 

to view job-listings provided by employers. AJB also allows employers to view resumes submitted by

job-seekers. This, relatively new, feature is an important component of AJB, but not a key component of 

the state systems examined in this report. In addition, AJB’s website is linked to other components of the 

federally funded CareerOneStop web suite that provide information to assist job-search by other means,

to select appropriate career paths, to obtain general information about labor markets, and to find job 

search and career help from other organizations. 

Workers and firms can directly access AJB over the Internet or reach AJB through links provided 

by most state electronic job matching systems. Thus, while AJB is most commonly accessed by users’ 

own computers, many users access AJB while visiting One-Stop Career Centers or similar facilities.

Importantly, users visiting public centers can obtain face-to-face staff assistance, but users at remote sites

have to rely on AJB’s customer service staff, who can be contacted through the Internet (or over the 

phone). 

15 Woods, James, and Frugoli, Pam. (Fall 2003). "Labor Market Tools and Labor Exchange Services." Paper presented at November 2003 

Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management (APPAM) Research Conference. Washington, DC. 

C-1 
Washington One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Environment”

Exceptionally large numbers of jobs are listed with AJB, in part, because AJB obtains uploads from

state PLX job order files. Each state has discretion on which job orders are uploaded. Some states send all 

job listings, while others send orders they believe are best suited for being filled by out-of-state 

applicants. Some states only send job orders with unsuppressed contact information to make it easy for 

job-seekers to use the information, while others only send suppressed orders. Contact suppression makes 

it more difficult to use the information because the job-seekers have to contact local PLX offices to obtain 

contact information, but it allows those offices to receive credit for subsequent placements. 

The largest source of openings, about 55 percent, is from employers directly entering job orders 

into AJB. To use AJB, employers must be registered and have their information verified through statePLX AJB-coordinators. The verification process, which usually takes less than 72 hours, is an important 

feature because it protects job-seekers from being contacted by firms trying to sell placement, training, or 

assessment services that may not be needed or are available at no cost by other public or private 

workforce organizations. Once registered, employers can directly enter job orders into AJB or upload preprepared orders using a standard format. This upload capability allows several large nationwide

employers to upload job orders daily. 

The Woods-Frugoli paper also describes the characteristics of job-seekers, based on a survey of 

264 users conducted in 2002. 

• 65% were unemployed 

• 28% were employed 

• 10% did not specify their employment status 

• 28% some college 

• 29% college graduate 

• 17% did not specify their education level 

In terms of performance, the Woods-Frugoli paper states that during the 3-month study:

• 10% of job seekers found jobs directly through AJB 

• 35% of employers listing jobs with AJB hired at least one person through AJB. 

• 9% high school graduate 

• 17% graduate degree 

This survey suggests that job-seekers using AJB were much better educated than the average user

of state PLXs and job-seekers in general. This is consistent with better educated job-seekers being much

more likely to have easy access to the Internet and being less likely to be among the long-term

unemployed or be members of other groups most likely to use One-Stop Centers. Indeed, about one-third

of AJB users in the sample were employed. 

• 28% found jobs by other means 

• 62% did not find new jobs 

In a related survey of 251 employers using AJB it was determined that over a 3-month period: 

• 30% hired at least one person through responses by job-seekers to AJB job-postings 

• 11% hired at least one person through searchers of AJB-posted resumes. 

• 6% hired at least one person through both resume searches and job-seeker responses 

C-2 
Washington One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Environment”

The AJB job-seeker placement rate covering 3-months is considerably higher than the placement

rate typically achieved by state PLXs over the entire period of use. On balance, we believe that the 

placement rate is higher because AJB lists job-openings in all areas of the US that are attractive to welleducated job-seekers. Thus, AJB, deals with what may be called an “upscale clientele” that possesses

skills in higher demand and is more ready to relocate. In part this difference in job-seeker characteristics 

stems from AJB use being entirely voluntary, while many users of state PLXs are in difficult-to-place

categories and are required to register. 

History and Organizational Structure 

 Reviews complaints 

AJB was an outgrowth of a system developed about 50 years ago to facilitate interstate clearance of

unemployment insurance claims and a system developed more than 20 years ago to establish an interstate

job bank. In both cases, the Employment and Training Administration contracted with the New York

State Department of Labor to provide the required services. This led to establishment of a special group in 

Albany, New York, to handle this work. It is this group that continues to operate AJB, the interstate labor 

exchange, and facilitate clearing of interstate claims.

The interstate job bank, which is called for in the Wagner-Peyser Act, originally was sent hard 

copies of orders unfilled after long periods, but now all transfers are done electronically via the Internet, 

and most states provide the orders shortly after they are received. In addition, systems were developed to 

make it easy for job-seekers to view the listings and for employers to directly enter job orders. 

AJB is entirely federally funded and had a PY2001 budget of $24 million. ETA administers the 

annual grant from an office in Washington, D.C., and is responsible for making key policy decisions.

AJB’s office in Albany is responsible for maintaining and developing the AJB website. 

The Albany group’s primary responsibility is to maintain the existing system, which involves 

ensuring that that the system’s hardware, software, and security are fully operational and upgraded to

meet new demands and take advantage of new technologies. Maintenance operations also include 

providing staff to work with the states and employers to obtain job-listings and provide customer service 

support for job-seekers. In addition, AJB spends about 20 percent of its budget on development of new 

features. 

AJB has a central staff of about 50 people. The staff is divided into four divisions with the 

responsibilities listed below: 

 Operations Section 

 Running system

 Doing basic maintenance 

Assessing need for new hardware/software capacity

Dealing with data exchange with states 

 Customer-Service Section 

Helps clients (job seekers, employers, states) 

C-3 
Washington One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Environment”

Quality Assurance Section

Looks at operations/software—deals with bugs 

 Set performance standards and monitors performance 

 Programming Group 

Does some internal programming 

 Deals with network 

 Deals with data exchange 

Finally, AJB produced New York State’s automated PLX for internal use within New York at very

low cost, and several other states use AJB as their own internal automated search platform. Given the

advances in computer technology, it is widely believed that enormous improvements in quality and 

reductions in cost could be achieved by states pooling their resources to contract with AJB (or for-profit 

firms) to avoid today’s duplication of services. A first step toward realizing these efficiencies (and

improving AJB’s services) would be to increase the standardization across states of the information

collected from firms placing job orders and the way that information is coded. 

The Customer-Service Section is the largest group and employs 25-30 people, but the Operations 

Section provides the key services needed to maintain AJB. This section’s staff has extensive experience in 

managing system development projects and does most of the systems work. However, some work is

contracted out to private firms, usually within 100 miles of Albany. Contractors provide additional 

expertise needed to implement changes such as developing code and assessing hardware needs. Although 

AJB’s contract is with the State of New York, AJB has substantial independence, has its own 

hardware/software, and is responsible for personnel decisions. 

AJB’s Strengths 

There was widespread agreement that AJB provides an outstanding platform for job-seekers to

view openings and employers to view resumes. There was similar praise for AJB’s ability to continually 

upgrade operations to take advantage of the best available technology and provide high-quality services at

low cost. Key measures of quality include minimizing down-time while being able to handle an 

exceptionally large number of simultaneous users and provide personal customer support while 

minimizing complaints about the systems performance and quality of information. 

The ability of all firms to take advantage of AJB’s service at no cost, the lack of ads directed at

getting firms to purchase additional services, and the privacy afforded firms listing jobs also were noted

as standout features of AJB. These features encourage the widest possible usage by employers, and 

thereby, maximize the numbers and diversity of listings available to job-seekers. The resume review

feature also was highly regarded as it facilitated finding well-qualified candidates directly by firms as

well as by recruiters hired by firms to fill key positions. 

C-4 
Washington One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Environment”

AJB’s Weaknesses 

From a technical point of view, observers suggest that AJB’s matching system could be improved

by development of a user-friendly means to identify jobs by their titles. Part of this system would require

standardization of coding job orders among the states and AJB, and part would require development of an

on-line job-title dictionary for use by job-seekers. Another technical improvement would be to develop a 

means to upload resumes already prepared by job-seekers as well as those currently in state automated

PLX systems.

Several observers suggested that the US-DOL could minimize competitiveness issues by providing

more information about the array of public and private job-matching services available, the benefits of

using those services, and how those services could be accessed. In particular, it was felt that too little 

attention was being given to informing several key user groups such as college placement directors, recent

college graduates, and human resource directors. Evidence supporting this view comes from Canada’s 

exceptional success in getting very large numbers of its college graduates to submit resumes to its 

electronic PLX. 

There are two possible routes to resolve the “placement-credit” issue. The most technically 

effective tracking mechanism is to adopt Oregon’s system of asking job-seekers to voluntarily identify 

themselves so the jobs to which they refer themselves can be identified, and later the placements can be

identified by using wage-record matching to determine if the person is later employed with the firm. An 

alternative is to conduct surveys of employers and job-seekers listing resumes, this was done on a onetime basis for the study cited in the Woods-Frugoli paper. The technical weaknesses of the survey 

approach is that surveys are expensive and depend on job-seekers’ submitting resumes through AJB or

otherwise identifying that firm contacts stemmed from AJB use. 

Finally, another dimension of the rivalry between state PLXs and AJB stems from the technical 

excellence of the AJB system and the general recognition that having “parallel systems” is wasteful.

Logically, dealing with this problem would require a careful weighing of the advantages and

disadvantages of eliminating parallel systems which clearly duplicate hardware, software, and 

management systems. Perhaps many states could be persuaded to cede some measure of independence for

More generally, many observers feel that despite the technical quality of AJB, it does not do 

enough outreach to fully meet its potential. While there was some reluctance to more vigorously compete 

with for-profit companies providing similar services, much of the reluctance seemed to stem from a lack

of recognition of the value of obtaining more job-listings and resumes, which in turn, would induce

greater usage by job-seekers and employers. 

A related weakness was that state PLXs lacked incentives to support AJB. A big part of the 

problem was that state PLXs wanted credit for AJB placements. Additional sources of friction were the

ability of firms to bypass state PLXs and directly enter job orders and AJB’s arrangements with several 

large nationwide companies to routinely submit job orders to AJB. 

One way to reduce rivalry might be for AJB to ask firms if it could pass the job orders obtained 

directly from employers back to state PLXs. However, providing credit to state PLXs for placements to

“their” listings is a much thornier problem, as well as a more general problem since most states do not 

have a mechanism to obtain credit for placements to jobs with unsuppressed contact information. 

C-5 
Washington One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Environment”

the benefits of having a higher quality system and being able to free scarce resources for other uses, such

as hiring more staff to work with clients at local offices. 

Some states actively contribute to AJB’s job listings and heavily depend on AJB’s automated

services. Other states have shown less interest in AJB as a possible job resource. Overall, virtually all 

One-Stop Centers at least provide access to AJB through their computers. Several states, including 

Washington, rely on AJB as one of their primary job search tools and usually directly link AJB to the

state’s automated job listing systems. In Massachusetts, for example, all jobs posted in MOSES are 

automatically entered into the AJB system. 

Examples of State PLX’s Involvement with AJB 

Other states, such as Colorado, have a more mixed system. The Aurora, Colorado One-Stop, is not 

tied to Job-Link, the state’s system, although AJB is on the computers in the center. In contrast, the

Longmont, Colorado One-Stop is linked to AJB through the statewide Job-Link system. In North 

Carolina, the Durham One-Stop does not participate fully in AJB while at the Oxford One-Stop, AJB is

interfaced with the state’s job bank. In Oregon, where the state job bank is not completely tied to AJB,

some job listings are posted on both the state job bank and AJB, and other jobs listings are not. At the

Beaverton and Pendleton One-Stops, AJB is available on the job-search computers, whereas at the Salem 

One-Stop, AJB is tied into the computer system. 

According to the July 2002 interviews with ETA officials, only three states do not share job orders 

with AJB—Michigan, North Carolina, and Ohio. Michigan has “political reasons” for not participating. 

Ohio has a coding process in its state system that is not compatible with AJB, and North Carolina is in the

process of developing a system for uploading its data to AJB. The rest of the states send data to AJB

electronically either through a mainframe connection or through FTP files over the Internet. 

One-Stop Center officials we interviewed held widely differing opinions of AJB and its usefulness.

Some officials saw AJB as competition, so they tended to not encourage its use and therefore do not do 

any formal advertising. A number of One-Stop representatives did not feel that AJB was as useful as other

resources. The Longmont, Colorado, representative felt that AJB was the least useful of the three job 

listing tools available at the One-Stop. Similarly, the Woburn, Massachusetts, director was not 

enthusiastic about the value of AJB and other Internet databases. He felt that AJB was essentially the 

same as the classified section in the newspaper and was too impersonal thereby preventing the 

development of personal contacts and networks. A few other One-Stop representatives found problems 

with AJB such as employment listings staying on longer than anticipated. 

On the other hand, several One-Stop representatives found AJB to be a beneficial resource. These 

officials, especially those in states requiring highly skilled workers or having labor markets spilling across 

state boarders, appreciated AJB and encouraged job seekers at their One-Stop Centers to explore AJB.

Many viewed AJB as a useful supplement to the other resources. In Washington, the representatives noted

a few advantages of AJB, including its usefulness to both in- and out-of-state clients and its ability for 

employers to post unsuppressed job orders directly through the Internet without relying on the One-Stop. 

Also, a number of representatives, particularly those in Michigan, noted the heavy use of AJB, even

though there was no direct contribution of job orders by Michigan’s PLXs. 

C-6 
Washington One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Environment”

State State’s Participation in AJB (from state/local 

discussions) 

Colorado One local site said that Job-Link, the state’s management

information system, and AJB are presently separate, while 

another local site said that the two systems were well-linked. 

Massachusetts MOSES, the state’s job bank, is completely integrated with 

AJB. AJB is viewed as a useful supplement to MOSES. 

Michigan Michigan does not fully participate in AJB. However, job 

seekers in MI have access to AJB for job searches. AJB is

part of the primary job-search and placement mechanism 

used in the state, Michigan Talent Bank (MTB). 

North Carolina North Carolina does not fully participate in AJB. A link to 

AJB is located on the state job listings, and the state job 

bank link is located on the AJB site. 

Oregon AJB is seen as a supplement to the state’s job resources. An 

AJB link is located on the Oregon Employment Department

job listing webpage. 

Washington Most job orders listed locally through the One-Stop Centers 

are also listed on the WorkSource Washington state job 

bank. The job listings in the state database are linked to AJB 

and become a part of the AJB database. 

Summary

Not only does AJB have an exceptionally large number of job orders and resumes covering the 

nation as a whole, its system is exceptional in ease of use, lack of downtime, and ability to allow 

simultaneous use by huge numbers of clients. Moreover, it provides high-quality mechanisms for 

customers to obtain help over the Internet or phone and puts considerable effort into obtaining user

feedback and correcting problems. It also provides Internet linkages to a variety of other information

services supplied by ETA’s CareerOneStop web suite. Finally, it provides the in-state automated PLX for 

New York and other states and maintains a system for the interstate clearance of unemployment insurance 

claims. 

America’s Job Bank (AJB) provides a high-quality nationwide system for job-seekers to view job

listings submitted by employers and for employers to review resumes submitted by job-seekers.

Currently, there are over 1 million active job listings on AJB and over 600,000 resumes. On a typical day 

over 33,000 new jobs are posted, and over 2,000 new resumes added. Fifty-five percent of AJB’s job 

orders are directly submitted by employers, and the remainder are obtained from PLXs in all but three 

states. In addition, because AJB does not charge for its services, it is able to attract use by an unusually

wide variety of employers. 

Limited information about AJB’s clientele suggests that AJB attracts an unusually well-educated

group of job-seekers who often are willing to relocate to obtain desirable positions. Limited performance 

data suggest that AJB can rapidly lead to the hiring of well-qualified candidates. According to a recent 

C-7 
Washington One-Stop Center Site Reviews 

“Evaluation of Labor Exchange Services in a One-Stop Environment”

survey of 251 employers using AJB, one-third hired at least one candidate identified through AJB over a

3-month period, mostly by job-seekers submitting resumes. 

AJB’s strengths stem, in part, from its filling the need for a nationwide job bank accessible to job 

seekers with considerable skill and employers with nationwide needs for highly trained workers. Also of 

substantial importance is ETA’s high-quality oversight and direction of the annual contract (worth about

$25 million) and the high level of expertise of the branch of the New York State Department of Labor in 

Albany that operates AJB. The Albany group’s quality stems from having a great deal of independence 

and having the luxury of focusing on providing a narrow range of automated services for over 50 years.

As a result, AJB has been able to continually upgrade the technology it uses and improve the way 

technological and human components are integrated. 

Not surprisingly, AJB’s successes have engendered a degree of rivalry with state-run and private

PLXs. Because AJB provides free services that encourage use by small employers and employers hiring 

low-wage workers, profit-making service providers would have to be subsidized in some way to serve 

these groups. Given the low cost and high volume of AJB, it’s doubtful that, in this case, private firms 

could provide the services more efficiently. Thus, it seems a better way to reduce rivalry would be for 

ETA to devote resources to advertising the benefits of using both public and private automated PLXs. 

One way to reduce tensions between state PLXs and AJB would be to transfer job orders from AJB 

to the states. Another tension-reducing step would be to figure out a way to give states credit for 

placements to their listings obtained through AJB. However, this would require use of expensive surveys 

or asking job-seekers to voluntarily identify themselves so self-referrals can be tracked. In our view, 

tracking such referrals through AJB and by state PLXs would greatly improve public perceptions of the 

value of PLXs in general and also provide insight into how services could be improved. Thus, solving this 

problem would be of great value. 

However the key issue associated with AJB’s existence stems from a general recognition that there

is a lot of unnecessary duplication among hardware, software, and management systems maintained 

among AJB and the state public labor exchanges. Steps to reduce that duplication are especially warranted

because of the technical excellence of AJB’s system and that of a limited number of states. It would

appear that ETA would be well-served by undertaking the difficult task of getting the states to recognize 

that by giving up some independence they would greatly improve the automated PLX services available

to job-seekers and firms as well as free resources for other uses such as providing more staff to serve 

customers at local offices. 

C-8 
Appendix D 

State and Local Interview Questions 
STATE-LEVEL INTERVIEW QUESTIONS 

I. Organization 

1. What is the state’s structure for managing employment and training programs? 

2. What have been the changes in the management structure of these programs over time?

3. How are One-Stops in your state organized? 

4. What are the roles of State employment security agency, Governor’s Boards, and Local

Boards? 

5. Which agencies have primary and secondary responsibility for One-Stops? 

6. (a) How are performance measures set? 

(b) What is the source of funds to reward high-performing offices?

(c) How are high performing offices rewarded?

7. What is the general history and plans for One-Stops in your state? 

(a) How long has the current structure been in place? 

(b) How has the structure of One-Stops changed over time? 

(c) What are the plans for future changes? 

(d) How may additional One-Stops are planned? 

8 Does your State’s One-Stop provide web-based services? If so, what is the role of the service

in everyday operations of employment and training programs? 

II. Budget/Operation 

1. Briefly describe the way budgets for labor-exchanges and One-Stops are developed. 

2. How much is currently spent on labor-exchanges and One-Stops? And how are the budgets

broken down? 

3. Does the State supplement Wagner-Peyser Act funding? If so, from what fund source and

how much? 

D-1 
LOCAL SITE INTERVIEW QUESTIONS 

Note: Local sites can be either One-Stop or other labor-exchange (LX) service agencies. Interviewers

should select an appropriate name for each site. 

I. Organization/Structure 

1. What agencies are responsible for the day-to-day operations of the labor-exchanges or OneStop? 

2. Is there a single director with financial authority over all staff? Or do other entities share 

supervision over staff? 

3. How did these agencies become responsible for the day-to-day operations of the labor 

exchange services or one-stop?

4. What agencies are responsible for overseeing the operations of the One-Stop/LX? And how 

is supervision/administration provided by these agencies?

5. How has the day-to-day and overall governance structure of the One-Stop/LX changed over 

time? And what are the plans for future changes?

II. Operations 

1. Describe the physical setting of the LX or One-Stop.

2. Describe the building in which the LX or One-Stop is located in your area. 

3. Describe the layout of the office. 

(a) Entrance: 

(b) Reception area: 

(c) Public-use computers: 

(d) Public resource room: 

(e) Staff office space: 

(f) Classrooms: 

D-2 
4. Describe the types of services provided by each office personnel and other elements. 

(a) Receptionist: 

(b) Public-use computers: 

(c) Public resources room: 

(d) ES staff: 

(e) Other staff: 

(f) Workshops: 

5. Discuss the extent to which any of the areas or services is restricted to individuals meeting

certain criteria, under what conditions and if any fees are charged for the services. 

6. Provide the details of registration procedures. 

(a) How job seekers register. 

(b) Under what circumstances is registration mandatory? 

(c) What incentives do clients have for registering? 

7. Provide the details of self-service job matching. 

(a) What computerized systems are available? 

(b) What parameters can be used to search using the State (or local) system? 

(c) What proportion of job listings has unsuppressed contact information? 

8. Describe the procedures used to refer individuals to training and other supportive services. 

9. Describe procedures for getting job-listings. 

10. Describe how job-listings are handled. 

11. If matches are made without job seekers being present, how are job seekers contacted?

12. Describe how the UI work-test is conducted at the LX or at One-Stop. 

13. Describe how UI profiling is conducted at the LX or at One-Stop. 

14. Discuss the circumstances for which different client groups work with staff to create 

individualized plans and case-management techniques are used to monitor service delivery.

D-3 
III. Integration/Service Integration 

1. For each of the following agencies describe the extent to which they provide services at this

LX or One-Stop and the extent to which services are provided elsewhere in the local area. 

(a) ES: 

(b) JTPA/WIA: 

(c) Welfare agency: 

(d) Vocational Education: 

(e) Persons with disabilities: 

(f) Veterans: 

(g) Community college: 

IV. Basic Philosophy of LX or One-Stop 

1. Is there a specific population group on which LX or One-Stop services are focused? If so, 

why was this choice made?

_______ All job seekers 

_______ Welfare and food stamp recipient 

_______ UI claimants 

_______ Dislocated workers 

_______ Other (Specify) _____________________________________________ 

2. How are customers served?

_______ Funnel method: Self-service job search using automated equipment, voluntary 

requests for help from staff, voluntary participation in workshops, and training as

a last resort. 

_______ Customized assistance: Job-seekers fill out application form listing career goals

and services sought, and meet with staff to develop program of treatment. 

_______ Mandatory customized assistance: Job seekers must follow procedures in order 

to maintain eligibility for UI, welfare, food stamps, and etc. 

D-4 
3. Do clients: 

_______ Choose primarily on their own the services they want to receive from the center? 

_______ Follow set patterns of service participation? 

4. How would the LX of One-Stop describe its market niche in terms of the types of job 

seekers, employers, and services provided?

5. Describe the services received by a typical UI claimant. How are claimants selected to

receive the services? Are special services given to claimants such as periodic eligibility

reviews and checks to pass the work-test?

6. What services are provided to typical TANF/AFDC clients and Food Stamp recipients? How 

are the services provided selected? Do economically disadvantaged job seekers who are not 

welfare or Food Stamp recipient treated differently? 

7. Discuss the provision of services to other special groups such as veterans and persons with

disabilities. 

(a) Veterans: 

(b) Persons with disabilities: 

8. Describe how individuals interested in classroom training are served. Do the treatments

differ depending on eligibility for programs targeted on dislocated workers or economically 

disadvantaged individuals? 

V. Funding for the Labor Exchange or One-Stop 

1. What are the primary sources of funding for the labor exchange or One-Stop? 

2. To what extent are funds from different federal, state, and local programs co-mingled? 

3. To what extent does the LX of One-Stop apply for and receive special grants?

4. What is the overall level of funding for the LX or One-Stop? How has total funding and

funding sources changed over the past several years? How is funding likely to change in the 

future? 

D-5 
VI. Management 

VII. Performance Measures 

(c) Participation in workshops

1. Describe the duties of the person who has overall management responsibility for the LX or

One-Stop. What is this person’s background, and which agency pays the person’s salary?

Does the primary manager have assistants or share responsibilities with others? What is the 

background and source of funds for other senior managers? 

2. How often does the senior staff meet to discuss management issues? To what extent does the

senior staff meet with boards and other supervisors from the State or other agencies? 

Describe the frequency, location, and subject matters of meetings with other senior managers 

of other LXs or One-Stops and State officials. 

3. Describe the standard reports that the senior managers prepare on a daily, weekly, quarterly, 

and yearly basis. What information is included in these reports? How is this information 

obtained? What role does the management information system play? 

4. How has the senior managers’ duties changed over the past few years? How are they likely 

to change in the future? Has movement to One-Stops affected the scope and difficulty of 

managing the agency?

1. What data about service provision is routinely collected? How is it collected? What is it used

for? 

2. Does the agency receive rewards or is sanctioned based on performance? Do staff members 

receive rewards of sanctions based on performance?

3. Do senior managers feel the measures are useful and timely? What measure would they like

to have that are not currently available and what measures that are currently collected should

be eliminated?

4. Review with a front-line staff person the procedures used to track provision of services. 

Obtain a view of what measures are entered into the management information system that is 

maintained at the State level, and what measures that are in the State system are not routinely 

entered. What are the differences between measures that are maintained at the LX or OneStop and those in the State system?

5. Discuss the adequacy (i.e., how well the counts reflect the center’s activities) of counts for

each of the following activities. 

(a) Referrals 

(b) Placements 

D-6 
(d) Use of resource rooms 

(e) Counseling by staff 

(f) Referrals to other agencies 

(g) Participation in training 

(h) Other 

VIII. Additional Questions Not Previously Covered Above 

1. What is the nature of the State’s participation with America’s Job Bank (AJB)? 

2. Describe the file search or job match process. 

3. Describe the services to employers. 

D-7 
Appendix E 

Lists of Persons Interviewed 
LIST OF PERSONS INTERVIEWED FOR PROCESS EVALUATION, INCLUDING ON-SITE 

INTERVIEW IN ALBANY FOR STUDY OF AMERICA’S JOB BANK

State Site Name Title

Original 

interview date 

Updated

interview date 

Judi Richendifer Colorado

Department of 

Labor and 

Employment

Colorado State level February 1999 

interview 

Nina Holland 

Pat Buys 

October 2001

Aurora Center Director February 1999 

Rick Duval Wagner-Peyser Act 

Supervisor 

October 2001

Longmont Toya Speckman Center Director February 1999 

Matt Dolan Supervisor of

Employment

Services 

October 2001

Massachusetts State level

interview 

Bob Vinson/ June

Sekera 

December

1998

State level

interview 

Eileen Zewski Assistant Director Fall 2001

Boston (JobNet)

Boston (JobNet) September 2001

Eileen Zewski December 

1998

Executive Director 

Rosemary 

Alexander 

Executive Director December 

1998

Rosemary 

Alexander 

Executive Director 

Boston

(The Work Place) 

Thomas H. Ford Executive Director September 2001

Holyoke Executive Director

Holyoke David Gadaire Executive Director September 2001

Springfield Rita Carey December

1998

Springfield Rexene Picard Executive Director September 2001

E-1 
LIST OF PERSONS INTERVIEWED FOR PROCESS EVALUATION, INCLUDING ON-SITE 

INTERVIEW IN ALBANY FOR STUDY OF AMERICA’S JOB BANK (continued) 

State Site Name Title

Original 

interview date 

Updated

interview date 

Massachusetts 

(continued)

Woburn George Moriarty Executive Director December 

1998

Woburn George Moriarty Executive Director September 2001

Worcester John Zimatrevich Executive Director December 

1998

Worcester Donald Anderson Executive Director September 2001

Michigan State level 

interview 

Larry

Behnkendorf 

Program

Development

Consultant for the 

Michigan 

Department of 

Career Development

December 

2001

Battle Creek Elaine Furu-Baker Director December

2001

Detroit Carla Phelps Supervisor July 2001 December 2001 

Marlette Thumb Dr. Marvin Pichla Director December 

2001

Walled Lake Bernadine Bennett Coordinator 

Michael Aheron NC Commission for 

WorkForce 

Development

November 

1999

North Carolina State level 

interview 

Wayne Daves Governor’s 

Commission on

WorkForce 

Preparedness

May 2001

Kathy Keefe May 2001

Center Coordinator

Liane Simpson 

State level

interview 

Durham Manager January 1999

Oxford Allen Caraway Manager, 

Employment Security

Commission

January 1999 May 2001

Raleigh Polly Hathaway January 1999

Center Coordinator May 2001

Oregon Marc Perrett Workforce

Performance 

Coordinator for the

Oregon Employment

Department

November 

2001

E-2 
LIST OF PERSONS INTERVIEWED FOR PROCESS EVALUATION, INCLUDING ON-SITE 

INTERVIEW IN ALBANY FOR STUDY OF AMERICA’S JOB BANK (continued) 

State Site Name Title

Original 

interview date 

Updated

interview date 

Oregon

(continued)

Beaverton Julie WyckoffByers Director of the 

Beaverton, Oregon 

Portland

Community College

Capital Career 

Center 

November 

2001

Chuck Wood Coordinator November 

2001

OED Employee November 

2001

Pendleton

Debbie Schneck Representing the 

Region 12 WIB

November 

2001

Salem Danell Butler Assistant Manager November 

2001

Washington Jeff Jasich March 2002

State 

State level 

interview 

Deanna Cook July 2002

North Seattle Marilyn Dahl

Systems Manager 

March 2002

Administrator May 

Director, Albany

Operations Center 

Administrator March 2002

Mary Ann 

Alderson

Deputy

Administrator 

March 2002

Anna Moffitt March 2002

Renton Nancy Loverin Manager

2 ES Supervisors March 2002

Walla Walla Jennie Weber Administrator March 2002

Bill Hopkins Operations Manager March 2002

Michael Villegas ES Supervisor March 2002

Amy Martinez Coordinator March 2002

Yakima

Tom Kennedy 2002

AJB Interview John Novak Summer 2002

 

E-3 
Appendix F 

State-Level Organizational Structure 
STATE-LEVEL ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE 

COLORADO MASSACHUSETTS 

Department of Labor

and Employment

Division of Employment

and Training

State Workforce Development

Council (Staffed by the

Colorado Department of Local

Affairs)

Office of Employment

and Training Programs

LMI

Regional Workforce

Development Boards

UI

County Commissions

and Municipalities

Work Force Centers

MICHIGAN

Department of Labor and Workforce Development

Division of

Employment and 

Training (DET)

Commonwealth 

Corporation

State Workforce

Investment 

Board

UI LMI

Regional Workforce

Investment Boards (12)

Regional Workforce

Investment Boards (4)

Collaborative One-Stop 

Centers

Competitive One-Stop 

Centers

Governor's

Workforce

Commission

Governor of Michigan

Family Independence

Agency

Welfare Services

Local Workforce

Development Boards

Service Centers

Account 

Management

Teams

Michigan

Works!

Association

UI

Department

of Consumer

and Industry

Services

Department 

of Career

Development

WP/ES/WIA

NORTH CAROLINA

Commission on

Workforce

Development

Employment Security

Department

Workforce

Development

UI LMI Boards

Stand-alone Employment

Service Centers

Job L

Centers

ink Career

 (One-Stops)

OREGON

Governor of Oregon Oregon Workforce

Investment Board 

(OWIB)

Oregon 

Employment

Department 

(UI, ES, LMI, 

VETS)

Department of

Human

Services

(Welfare,

VocRehab)

Department of

Community

Colleges and 

Workforce

Development 

(WIA, Adult Ed)

One-Stop Centers

LWIBs (7)

(Local)

WASHINGTON 

Office of the Governor

Workforce Training and 

Education Coordinating 

Board (WTECB)

Employment 

Security

Department

Work Source

Operations

Committee

Work

Source

Operations

One-Stops

Workforce

Development Councils

Employment 

and Training

ESD

Regions

F-1 
Appendix G 

Lead Agencies, Required and Other 

Partners Present in One Stops Visited 
LEAD AGENCIES, REQUIRED AND OTHER 

PARTNERS PRESENT IN ONE STOPS VISITED 

One-Stop

Center Lead operator(s) Primary partners* Other state partners* 

Other local/community 

partners 

COLORADO 

Aurora County

Commission

 Wagner-Peyser Act/ES 

 WIA 

 United Cerebral Palsy 

Longmont

 VocRehab

 Mental Health  Community Housing 

 Welfare Service 

 Community Colleges 

County

Commission

 Wagner-Peyser/ES  VocRehab  Sun Microsystems

 WIA  Mental Health  Senior Employment

 Welfare Center 

 Boulder County Social

Service 

 Community College

MASSACHUSETTS 

Boston

(JobNet) 

Division of

Employment and

Training (DET) 

 Action Boston

Community 

Development (ABCD) 

 VocRehab

 Mental Health 

 Wagner-Peyser Act/ES 

 Welfare 

 Wagner-Peyser Act/ES 

 WIA  DET 

 MA Commission for 

the Blind

 Suffolk County House 

of Corrections

Collaboration

(lead – Holyoke 

Chamber of 

Commerce)

 Mental Health  Commission for the 

Blind 

 WIA 

Boston (The

Work Place) 

Collaboration

(Jewish 

Vocational 

Services and the 

City of Boston’s 

Office of Jobs and 

Community 

Services) 

 VocRehab

 Welfare  The Empowerment 

Zone 

 Adult Education

Division of

Department of 

Education 

Holyoke  Welfare (Nextstep)

 Holyoke Community 

College

 Department of 

Education (Voc-Ed)

 University of 

Massachusetts 

 Massachusetts 

Rehabilitation

 Wagner Peyser/ES Commission

 WIA  Dept. of Transitional

Assistance (DTA) 

* There is no real difference between “primary” and “other” partners; separate columns were used for visual purposes and to distinguish typical 

partners, in terms of what was observed in most One-Stops in this study and the more unique state partners. 

G-1 
One-Stop

Center Lead operator(s) Primary partners* Other state partners* 

Other local/community 

partners 

Springfield Employment and

Training Institute, 

Inc. (a private forprofit company)

 Wagner-Peyser Act/ES  VocRehab (MA

Rehabilitation

Commission)

 Urban League

 WIA  Hampden County

Employment and

Training Consortium

 Welfare 

 DET 

 Mental Health  Hampden County

Workers Association

Center 

 Community 

Colleges 

 Springfield 

Technical College 

(Voc-Ed)

 Commonwealth

Corporation

 MA Commission for 

the Blind

 DTA 

Woburn Middlesex

Community 

College

 Wagner-Peyser Act/ES  Department of 

Education (Voc-Ed)

 Community College

 WIA  Public secondary 

 Welfare  MA Rehabilitation schools 

Commission

 DTA 

Worcester City of Worcester

Employment

Services 

 WIA  Services to the Blind 

 Welfare  State rapid response

agency 

 Green Thumb 

 Wagner-Peyser Act/ES  Job Corps 

 VocRehab  Veterans Affairs 

 Department of 

Education (Voc-Ed)

 Public secondary 

schools 

 Quinnsigamond 

Community College

MICHIGAN 

Battle Creek Consortium

(administrated by

Calhoun 

Independent

School District) 

Consortium members –  MI Rehab Services 

 Kellogg Community 

College Council for 

Employment Needs and 

Training 

 MI Human Resources

Development, Inc.

 State UI Agency 

Others – 

 WIA 

 Wagner-Peyser Act/ES 

Detroit Michigan

Department of 

Career Education 

 City of Detroit 

Employment and

Training Department

 MI Rehab Services 

 WIA 

* There is no real difference between “primary” and “other” partners; separate columns were used for visual purposes and to distinguish typical 

partners, in terms of what was observed in most One-Stops in this study and the more unique state partners. 

G-2 
One-Stop

Center Lead operator(s) Primary partners* 

Other local/community 

Other state partners* partners 

Marlette 

Thumb 

Consortium Consortium includes – 

 Sanilac, Tuscola 

County and Huron 

County Intermediate 

School Districts 

 Human Development

Commission

 Blue Water Center for 

Independent Living

Others – 

 Wagner/Peyser Act/ES 

 WIA 

 Welfare 

 

Walled Lake  Wagner-Peyser Act/ES 

 WIA 

 Welfare 

 VocRehab

NORTH CAROLINA 

Local school

system  Mental Health 

 Michigan 

Rehabilitation

Services 

Durham State ESC 

 Job Ready 

 JTPA 

 Workfirst 

 Durham Workforce

Partnership, Inc. 

 Greater Durham

Chamber of 

Commerce 

Oxford State ESC  Job Ready 

 JTPA 

 Division of VocRehab 

 Wake Technical

Community College

 Workfirst 

 Vance County JobLink

Career Center 

 Job Corps 

 Educational

Opportunity 

Core partners – 

 Division of Voc Rehab 

 Durham Technical 

Community College  City of Durham Office 

of Economic and 

Employment

Development

 Durham County

Department of Social

Services  Services to the Blind 

 Granville Community 

College

 Granville County 

Department of Social

Services 

* There is no real difference between “primary” and “other” partners; separate columns were used for visual purposes and to distinguish typical 

partners, in terms of what was observed in most One-Stops in this study and the more unique state partners. 

G-3 
One-Stop

Center Lead operator(s) Primary partners* Other state partners* 

Other local/community 

partners 

Raleigh State Department

of Health and 

Human Services 

 ESC 

 Job Ready (School-toWork

 Workfirst (Welfare-toWork) 

 Services to the Blind 

 Wake County 

Supportive 

Employment

NC required 6 partners–  Mental Health 

 JTPA 

 Division of Voc Rehab 

 Wake Technical

Community College

OREGON

Beaverton Consortium

operated by the 

Portland

Community 

College

 Portland Community 

College (provides the 

WIA services) 

 Veterans Services 

Pendleton

 DHS Adult and Family 

Services and Voc 

Rehab Divisions 

 Blue Mountain

Community College

Others – 

3 main partners –  Vocational 

Rehabilitation

 Employment

 WIB Advocates for Seniors 

 Adult and Family 

Services Division of the 

Department of Human 

Services (DHS)

 Job Corps 

Others – 

 Wagner-Peyser Act//ES 

(Oregon Employment

Dept.)

 Welfare 

 Confederated Tribes

of the Umatilla Indian

Reservation

Consortium

(Work-Links)

5 mandated partners in

consortium – 

 OED 

 Organization of

Forgotten Americans 

 Services to the Blind 

 Community Action

Program of East Central

Oregon (CAPECO) 

 Umatilla Morrow

Education Service 

District (UMESD) 

 WIA 

* There is no real difference between “primary” and “other” partners; separate columns were used for visual purposes and to distinguish typical 

partners, in terms of what was observed in most One-Stops in this study and the more unique state partners. 

G-4 
One-Stop

Center Lead operator(s) Primary partners* Other state partners* 

Other local/community 

partners 

Consortium composed of – 

 OED 

Chemetka Community 

College

 Voc Rehab 

 Workforce Integration

Department of 

Chemetka 

Others – 

Salem Consortium (MidWillamette 

Workforce 

Network) 

 Green Thumb 

 Adult and Family 

Services (DHS)

 WIA 

 Welfare 

WASHINGTON

North

Seattle 

Employment

Security 

Commission

(ESC) 

 WIA 

 Welfare 

 King County 

Dislocated Worker

Program

 AARP 

Renton ESC  IAM Cares 

 Job Corps 

 Pacific Associates 

 Opportunities 

Industrialization

Center 

 Renton Technical

College Adult 

Learning Center 

 VocRehab

 Pacific Associates 

(P.A.C.E.) 

 IAM Cares 

 YMCA 

 N. Seattle and

Shoreline Community 

Colleges 

 WIA  VocRehab

 King County Work

Training 

 YWCA

 King County 

Dislocated Worker

* There is no real difference between “primary” and “other” partners; separate columns were used for visual purposes and to distinguish typical 

partners, in terms of what was observed in most One-Stops in this study and the more unique state partners. 

G-5 
One-Stop

Center Lead operator(s) 

Other local/community 

Primary partners* Other state partners* partners 

WallaWalla ESC  WIA 

 Department of Social

and Health Services 

 Wallwalla Community 

College

 VocRehab  Blue Mountain Action 

 Welfare Council 

 Experience Works 

Yakima ESC  WIA  Division of

Vocational 

Rehabilitation

 Northwest Community 

 Welfare Action Center 

 Job Corps 

 IAM Cares 

 Goodwill Industries 

 Provident Services 

 Migrant Council

 Yakima Opportunity

Industrialization

Center 

 Yakima County

Community College

* There is no real difference between “primary” and “other” partners; separate columns were used for visual purposes and to distinguish typical 

partners, in terms of what was observed in most One-Stops in this study and the more unique state partners. 

G-6 
Appendix H 

Characteristics of Job Orders in North Carolina
CHARACTERISTICS OF JOB ORDERS IN NORTH CAROLINA 

1. Introduction 

This section examines the characteristics of job orders listed with North Carolina public 

labor exchange (PLX) offices in 1999. The characteristics include the number of openings per order, the 

pay level, months of experience, and years of education required to fill a given opening. The section also

examines how many matches are made and how quickly matches are made to orders with differing

characteristics. 

The picture that emerges is that there is considerable variation in key job order 

characteristics, such as the number of openings and pay levels, as well as in the ratio of placements per 

referral. These differences suggest that PLX offices can more easily fill certain types of jobs than other.

Therefore, it would be useful to determine the value of making matches to openings with different 

characteristics. Careful control for differences in the characteristics of openings might produce more

accurate estimates of the value of job-matching services. 

2. Characteristics by Openings Per Order 

Table 1 displays key characteristics of orders grouped by the number of openings. Panel A 

shows that 75.0 percent of orders have only one opening and orders with one opening account for 34.8

percent of all openings and 22.0 percent of all placements. In contrast, orders with 51 or more openings 

account for only 0.3 percent of all orders (429 out of 153,550), but these orders account for 14.2 percent 

of all openings and 18.3 percent of all placements. More broadly, orders with 5 or fewer openings account 

for 95.3 percent of all orders, 69.1 percent of all openings, and 45.6 percent of all placements. 

Panel B of Table 1 shows that a key reason for the concentration of placements among 

orders with many openings is that the probability a referred job seeker is placed rises from only .042 for 

orders with one opening to .385 for orders with 51 or more openings. Line 10 of Panel B shows that 

North Carolina PLX offices are able to find many candidates for orders of all sorts. On average, there are

6.91 job seekers referred to orders with one opening and 1.52 referrals per opening for orders with 51 or 

more openings. Overall, line 11 shows that PLX offices fill 28.8 percent of the openings among job 

orders with one opening and 58.7 openings among job orders with 51 or more openings. Taken together,

these statistics suggest that a lack of qualified job seekers does not inhibit placing PLX clients at jobs, but 

the key factors affecting placement ratios is competition from job seekers using other means of job search

H-1 
and differences in how selective employers are in hiring candidates. These statistics also suggest that

North Carolina PLX offices are quite effective in referring suitable candidates. Overall, 45.4 of job 

openings listed with the PLX offices are filled by job seekers they refer. 

Panel C of Table 1 provides further evidence about the role of employer hiring selectivity in

bringing about differences in the ratio of placements to referrals across orders with different numbers of

openings. Specifically, on average, job orders with 1 opening require 13.34 months of experience and 

10.88 years of education, while orders with 51 or more openings only require 2.30 months of experience 

and 6.20 years of education. This suggests that orders with many openings require relatively little specific 

skill or experience, while the reverse is true for orders with few openings. Differences in the pay levels of 

those jobs reinforce this view. 

Table 1. Job order characteristics grouped by number of openings per job order 

Number of openings included in the order 

Missing 1 2-5 6-20 21-50 51+ All 

A. Distribution by openings of:

1. Orders 0.3% 75.0% 20.3% 3.5% 0.7% 0.3% 100.0%

2. Openings 0.0% 34.8% 25.1% 16.4% 9.6% 14.2% 100.0%

3. Referrals 0.1% 48.0% 27.6% 13.9% 6.0% 4.3% 100.0%

4. Placements 0.0% 22.0% 23.6% 20.9% 15.1% 18.3% 100.0%

 

399 115,127 1,015 

1.00 

64.19

0.042

5.52 

11. Placements per opening 0.427 0.45 

$6.55

B. Number of openings, referrals, placements per order 

5. Orders 31,230 5,350 429 153,550 

6. Openings per order 0.00 2.66 10.14 31.48 109.45 2.16 

7. Referrals per order 5.92 6.91 14.66 43.18 98.40 166.85 10.80

8. Placements per order 0.00 0.29 1.14 5.89 22.38 0.98 

9. Placements per referral 0.000 0.077 0.136 0.227 0.385 0.091

10. Referrals per opening — 6.91 4.26 3.13 1.52 5.00 

— 0.288 0.580 0.711 0.587 

C. Pay, experience, education, duration order is open

12. Pay (per hour) $6.47 $6.90 $6.37 $6.11 $5.59 $6.77

13. Experience (months) 13.34 12.91 7.57 4.97 3.12 2.30 11.45

14. Education (years) 10.88 11.44 10.10 9.40 8.18 6.20 11.06

15. Weeks order is open 14.4 10.2 14.5 18.3 20.4 20.5 11.4 

16. % of orders open <6 weeks 30.2 40.8 23.4 16.3 16.7 21.4 36.2 

3. Characteristics by Hourly Pay Rates 

Table 2 displays characteristics of orders grouped by hourly pay rate, a total of 16.8 percent 

of orders offer pay below $6.00 per hour, and those openings account for 22.7 percent of all placements. 

Orders offering pay of $10.00 an hour or more account for 16.0 percent of all orders but account for only

H-2 
7.5 percent of all placements. Clearly, looking across line 4 of Table 2 suggests that the higher the pay,

the more difficult it is for a job seeker to be placed at a given opening. While some of this difference

stems from higher paying jobs having fewer openings per order (as shown on lines 2 and 6), much of the 

difference stems from placements per referral falling with raising pay level. As shown on line 9, the 

probability of being placed is 13.7 percent for each person referred to jobs paying less than $6.00 per hour

but only 4.6 percent for jobs paying $10.00 or more per hour. 

Importantly, North Carolina PLX offices are quite effective in filling jobs at all pay levels 

with referred candidates. As shown on line 11 of Table 2, North Carolina PLX offices are able to place 

referred job seekers at 52.3 percent of the openings for jobs paying less than $6.00 per hour and only 

slightly lower percentages of referred candidates at jobs paying between $6.00 and $10.00 per hour.

However, for reasons that will be discussed in the next section, the fill rate slips to 29.9 percent for jobs 

paying $10.00 per hour or more. 

Finally, Table 2 shows a pattern, also observed in Table 1, that high wage jobs tend to 

require high levels of experience and education, and, therefore, employers tend to be more selective in

whom they hire into these positions. 

Table 2. Job order characteristics grouped by job order pay rate 

Pay of Openings

Missing < $6.00 $6-$8 $8-$10 $10+ All

A. Distribution by pay of: 

1. Orders 21.1% 16.8% 28.9% 17.2% 16.0% 100.0%

2. Openings 18.4% 19.7% 35.2%

16.9%

7.5%

25,738 24,589 

2.16 

9.86 

. Placements per order 1.27 0.98 

0.046 

C. Pay, experience, education, duration order is open

12.4 11.0 11.4 

15.4% 11.3% 100.0%

3. Referrals 15.0% 33.0% 20.4% 14.6% 100.0%

4. Placements 16.5% 22.7% 37.5% 15.8% 100.0%

B. Number of openings, referrals, placements per order 

5. Orders 32,399 44,438 26,386 153,550 

6. Openings per order 1.88 2.53 2.62 1.93 1.52 

7. Referrals per order 8.65 9.68 12.31 12.84 10.80

8 0.77 1.33 0.90 0.46 

9. Placements per referral 0.089 0.137 0.103 0.070 0.091 

10. Referrals per opening 4.59 3.82 4.69 6.64 6.48 5.00 

11. Placements per opening 0.407 0.523 0.484 0.467 0.299 0.45 

12. Pay (per hour) $0.00 $5.33 $7.22 $9.09 $13.90 $6.77

13. Experience (months) 13.82 4.06 6.61 13.14 23.02 11.45

14. Education (years) 11.34 9.68 10.28 11.23 13.36 11.06

15. Weeks order is open 10.9 11.1 11.9 

16. % of orders open <6 weeks 30.8 39.5 38.9 37.8 33.1 36.2 

H-3 
4. Characteristics by Opening Lister’s Industry 

Table 3, which breaks down the job order characteristics by industry, provides further insight

into the types of jobs North Carolina PLX offices are most effective in placing job seekers. The key

measure of effectiveness is placements per opening (also referred to as the “fill rate”) shown on line 11.

North Carolina PLX offices are most effective at placing job seekers in high wage manufacturing jobs

(jobs paying $7.19 per hour on average). About 63.1 percent of openings are filled for high-wage 

manufacturing jobs. The fill rate is a bit lower, 61.5 percent, for low-wage manufacturing jobs paying 

$6.30 per hour. Fill rates are in the neighborhood of 55.0 percent in low-wage agricultural jobs and highwage business services jobs. They are around 30.0 percent in construction and trade and both high-and

low-wage personal services. Fill rates are lowest, 24.4 percent, in public administration, which is mainly

state government. 

Perhaps the most interesting facet of these statistics is that North Carolina PLX offices are 

quite effective in placing job seekers into relatively high-wage jobs, especially those in manufacturing 

and business services. We speculate that this is the case in part because so many job seekers using the

North Carolina PLX offices are unemployment insurance (UI) claimants and, therefore, have relatively

strong work records and relevant experience. A second speculative possibility is that it is relatively easy

to describe what qualifications are needed to fill these positions. As a result, employers find that they get

well-qualified candidates to fill these jobs. 

In contrast, North Carolina PLX offices are less effective in filling jobs in several low-wage 

industries, especially in the service sector. One reason for this pattern is that employers might be able to 

effectively recruit candidates for these jobs in other ways and, thus, not rely as heavily on PLX offices. 

Finally, the lowest fill rates are found in the public administration (government sector). In 

this case, it is likely that these government jobs are routinely listed with PLX but often filled by internal 

promotion from within the agencies listing the jobs. Thus, PLX-referred candidates have much less of a

chance of obtaining these jobs. 

H-4 
Table 3. Job order characteristics grouped by job lister's industry

H-5 

Industry Group 

Agriculture

1 

Construction

2 

High-Wage 

Manufacturing 

3 

Low-Wage 

Manufacturing 

4 

Transportation 

Public Utilities 

Finance 

Real Estate 

5 

Trade & 

Low-Wage 

Personal 

Services

6 

High-Wage 

Personal 

Services

7 

Busine

Servic

8 

A. Distribution by SIC group of: 

1. Orders 2.4% 7.6% 6.7% 11.4% 13.1

rrals 2.7% 1 13.9

9. Placements per referral 0.069 0.059 0.1

0 0

C. Pay, experience, education, duration order is open

12. Pay (per hour) $5.64 $6.30 $6.60 $6.56 

13. Experience (months) 13.

1 12.

15. Weeks order is open 11.5 12.1 1016. Percentage of orders open <6 weeks 31.2 

11.2% 18.4% 17.8% 

2. Openings 3. Refe

10.3% 5.9% 

5.5%

8.4% 

2.2%

14.7% 9.7% 15.4%

15.2%

12.2% 15.7

16.5%

20.0%

12.0% 13.5% 

4. Placements 12.8% 4.2% 11.7% 8.7% 11.6% 8.8% 18.1

B. Number of openings, referrals, placements per order 

5. Orders 3,734 11,651

1.69 

10,284 17,507 17,143 28,180 27,300 20,0

6. Openings per order 9.13 2.70

19.

2.79 1.88 1.82 1.48 2.

7. Referrals per order 8. Placements per order 

12.17 7.80 

0.54 

74 15.66 

1.71 1.72 

11.61

0.76

8.95 8.18

0.

11.

5.17 0.62 49 1.

0.424 0.069 0.086 0.110 0.066 

10. Referrals per opening 1.33 4.63 7.30 5.61

.615

6.18 4.93 5.54 4.

.5

11. Placements per opening 0.566 0.319 0.631 0.407 0.342 0.329 

$6.62 $7.19 

16.26

$5.02 $7.

5.44 14.97 

9.19 

9.78

0.43

11.86 5.91 38 9.

29 10.

14. Education (years) 7.06 11.79 11.31 10.01 

12.5 11.7 10.2 11.6 11.9

42.4 30.4 36.4 42.2 36.7 33.9 39
5. Duration Orders are Open

Besides providing information about the diversity of jobs listed with North Carolina PLXs 

and the ability of PLXs to place job seekers at those jobs, the tables in this section provide information

about the speed with which jobs are filled. 

Line 15 of Table 1 shows that, on average, job listings remain active for 11.4 weeks (about 

2.6 months), which may seem like a relatively long period. One reason that orders remain open for long 

periods is that many employers are trying to fill several openings. Thus, orders with over 5 openings

remain open for more than 18 weeks. 

A more important reason for orders remaining open for long periods is that some orders 

cannot be filled by PLX or from other sources. Line 16 of Table 1 shows that, overall, 36.2 percent of the 

orders are open for 6 weeks or less. Although not shown in Table 1, no placements are made to 64.2 

percent of job orders that make up 45.3 percent of all openings. If we exclude orders with no placements, 

orders with 1 opening close within about 6 weeks on average. 

The duration jobs are open provides another measure of North Carolina PLX effectiveness,

but in addition, it provides an indication of whether it would be feasible to use a quasi-experimental 

design to assess the effect of placements on jobless duration. This innovative design would compare 

jobless duration of claimants referred prior to the openings being filled (when it was possible to be

placed) to the jobless duration of claimants referred after all openings are filled, but before employers ask

for the order to be removed (when it is impossible to be placed). 

Clearly, when an order has many openings, it is unlikely that there would be any referred job 

seekers who could not have been placed. However, when there were few openings and at least one 

placement, it is quite likely that some referrals will occur after all openings are filled. This is especially

likely when all openings are filled quickly. Indeed, Table 1 shows that 22.0 percent of the 75.0 percent of

orders with one opening have a placement. This translates to 16.5 percent of the 153,550 openings or 

25,375 openings where it is possible job seekers were referred after the placement was made. Since, on 

average, there were 6.91 referrals to an order with one opening, it is reasonably likely that there are

thousands of cases where job-seekers were referred to these openings after they were filled. 

Similar calculations for orders with 5 or fewer openings suggest that there will be many

cases where referrals were made to these openings after all openings were filled. Thus, it appears likely 

H-6 
that the quasi-experimental design can be successfully applied to North Carolina orders, at least those

with 5 or fewer openings. 

6. Summary and Conclusions 

Analysis of statistics describing the types of jobs listed by North Carolina employers and the 

ability of the North Carolina PLX offices to refer and place job seekers at those jobs suggests that (1) a 

highly diverse set of jobs are listed with the PLX offices, and (2) the PLX offices are quite effective in

referring qualified candidates and seeing those candidates placed at those jobs. Overall, the fill rates 

(placements per opening) are 45.4 percent and range from over 60 percent to as low as 25 percent. These

statistics suggest that it is well worth the effort for most employers to list jobs with the North Carolina

PLX offices. Similarly, at least in this one state, job seekers using the PLX offices are likely to find 

relatively high-paying jobs. 

The statistics also show that jobs offering higher pay also require more experience and more

education and that employers offering high-paying jobs are considerably more selective in whom they

hire. Thus, differences in job characteristics appear to explain a lot of the differences in placement rates. 

A particularly interesting finding is that a high percentage of placements are made to orders 

with many openings. Roughly one-third of all placements are made to the 1.0 percent of job orders with 

21 or more openings. At the other extreme, 22.0 percent of placements are made to the 75.0 percent of job

orders with only one opening, This finding has potentially important implications for where PLX staff 

should put its efforts to encourage employers to list jobs with the PLX offices. Clearly, the statistics 

shown in Table 1 suggest that obtaining listings from employers with many openings has a 

disproportionate effect on the ability of the PLX offices to place job-seekers. 

Importantly, what this section cannot tell us is how the value of placements differ across 

individuals placed at job orders with different characteristics. Given the differences in the number of 

placements per order, it would be highly useful to know how decreases in periods of joblessness (and

increases in earnings) differ across orders with different numbers of openings, different industries, and

different pay rates. 

H-7 
Appendix I 

Michigan’s Job Seeker and Employer Surveys
I-1 
I-2 
I-3 
I-4