Marine Corps Historical Center

Writing Guide

History and Museums Division

Marine Corps Historical Center

Washington Navy Yard, D.C.

2004

1
Foreword

The Writing Guide of the Marine Corps History and Museums Division

is intended primarily for use by historians and curators, both Marine and

civilian, assigned to the Division and those others engaged in the preparation of officially sanctioned histories and exhibits. However, the

Writing Guide can also be a useful reference for historians of Marine

Corps history.

Two basic source works have been consulted extensively in the preparation of the Writing Guide. In general, the current edition of the U.S.

Government Printing Office Style Manual has been used for guidance is

such areas as capitalization, compounding, punctuation and the use of

numerals, while Merriam Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary is used

as the authority for spelling and word usage. The ultimate authority in

such matters is Webster’s Third New International Dictionary. In those

relatively few instances where official Marine historical writing practices differ from these sources, this Writing Guide provides examples of

the approved and generally long-established methodologies.

This edition is a major revision of the last Writing Guide, which was

published in October 1983. While most of the material in the previous

edition is included in this iteration, it has been completely reorganized

and numerous additions have been made.

It is the intent of the Marine Corps that its official historical works be

accurate, objective, academically reputable and readable by a general

audience interested in the subject matter. Readers of this Writing Guide

are encouraged to use it critically and to suggest corrections, additions

and possible deletions for future revisions to the History and Museums

Division (HDH), Marine Corps Historical Center, 1254 Charles Morris

Street SE, Washington Navy Yard, DC, 20374-5040.

J. W. Ripley

Colonel, U.S. Marine Corps (Ret)

Director, History and Museums Division

Marine Corps Historical Center

Building 58

Washington Navy Yard, DC 20374-5040

The GPO Style Manual is available on the Web at:

www.gpoaccess.gov

2 Foreword
Table of Contents

Foreword ............................................................................................2

Table of Contents ..............................................................................3

A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference ..............................................5

Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................33

The Marine Corps Historical Program Mission ........................33

Division Publications ................................................................33

Chapter 2: The Publication Process ................................................35

Collection Effort ........................................................................35

Manuscript Preparation ............................................................35

Production ................................................................................37

Distribution and Exploitation......................................................37

Preparing Manuscripts for Publication ......................................37

Submitting Manuscripts ............................................................38

Chapter 3: Historical Research and Writing ....................................39

The Raw Material ......................................................................39

Critical Evaluation of Sources ..................................................39

Evaluating Military Sources ......................................................39

The Tentative Outline ................................................................41

Research ..................................................................................41

Working Outline and Manuscript Preparation ..........................41

Chapter 4: Effective Historical Writing..............................................43

Information Footnotes ..............................................................45

Style Resources and References..............................................45

Chapter 5: Oral History ....................................................................47

Creating Oral Histories..............................................................47

Using Oral Histories ..................................................................48

Chapter 6: Preparing Maps ..............................................................49

General......................................................................................49

Map Symbols ............................................................................51

Appendix A: Sample Project Directive..............................................57

Appendix B: Suggestions for Good Writing......................................59

Appendix C: The Mechanics of Research........................................61

The Working Bibliography ........................................................61

Note Taking ..............................................................................61

Appendix D: Endnotes......................................................................63

Compendium Endnotes ............................................................63

Reference Endnotes..................................................................65

3
Appendix E: Bibliographies ..............................................................85

Formal Bibliographies................................................................85

Bibliographical Citations of Published Material ........................86

Bibliographical Citations of Unpublished Materials ..................90

Annotated Bibliographies ..........................................................94

Bibliographical Notes (Bibliographical Essays) ........................96

Appendix F: Indexing........................................................................97

Subjects Indexed ......................................................................97

Foreign Place Names................................................................97

Operations ................................................................................97

Units ..........................................................................................97

Sections of the Work to Index ..................................................98

Techniques of Indexing ............................................................98

Indexing by Hand ......................................................................99

Appendix G: Writing for Fortitudine ................................................101

General Guidance ..................................................................101

Photographs ............................................................................102

Cover Illustrations....................................................................103

Special Rules ..........................................................................103

Appendix H: References and Guides ............................................105

Guides to the Practice of History ............................................105

Readable Writing ....................................................................105

Bibliographies..........................................................................106

Guides to Archival Sources ....................................................107

Appendix I: Notes on Writing Naval (not Navy) English ................109

Appendix J: Citing Internet Sources ..............................................115

A Brief Citation Guide for Internet Sources ............................115

Bibliographic Citations ............................................................115

Bibliography of Additional Material on Electronic Citations ....118

Appendix K: Marine Corps Historical Publications 1920-2004 ......119

4 Table of Contents
abaft, astern Preserve the distinction. Abaft is a direction within a ship or a bearing from a

ship. A bomb may hit the deck 25

yards abaft No. 2 stack, or a

periscope may be sighted to port,

3 points (34 degrees) abaft the

beam. But you say that a plane

splashed or a bomb missed, 100

yards astern of the ship. Aft of

need not be used at all; abaft or

astern will meet every need. See

also Appendix I, Notes on

Writing Naval (not Navy) English.

abbreviations The use of all

capital letters for military abbreviations will not be followed in

narrative accounts unless the

abbreviation is made up entirely

of the initial letters of major

words; i.e., unless it is an

acronym.

In general, periods are not used

with military abbreviations and

acronyms. The letters are run

together without separation by

space or punctuation. This rule

does not apply where abbreviations or acronyms include numbers of any kind.

Except for abbreviations of military ranks and dates, abbreviations should be spaced as follows:

CG III MAF

BLT 3/2

I CTZ

7th Mar

CG 1st MarDiv

When writing the history of a

particular period, the abbreviations of that period should be

used rather than current terminology. See also acronyms entry

and Appendix D, Endnotes.

“United States” used as an adjective in the text or in the informational footnotes may be abbreviated to U.S. (note use of periods).

When abbreviating the names of

states to simplify footnote citations or tables and appendices,

use the abbreviations found in the

GPO Style Manual (GPO 9.13)

rather than the two-letter style of

the U.S. Postal Service.

If dates are abbreviated to conserve space in tables or appendices, the military form will be

used and the date written as a

single expression. Break up datetime groups for clarity.

Abbreviations for months will

conform with the three-letter

style specified in the Marine

Corps Individual Records and

Accounting Manual (IRAM)

rather than the GPO Style

Manual (GPO 9.44).

For example:

7Dec41; 7Aug46-27Aug47;

10-18Apr56

0405, 12May45 vice

120405 May 45

Jan, Feb, Mar, Apr, May, Jun,

Jul, Aug, Sep, Oct, Nov, Dec

aboard, on board Aboard

means the position of objects in

relation to a ship. Example: The

USS Coontz drew close aboard

5

Marine Corps Historical Center Writing Guide

A to Z

Alphabetized Quick Reference
(within 600 yards), forcing our

ship to steer clear.

On board means joined or

embarked. Example: The wardroom of the Coontz welcomed

Ensign Jones on board.

acronyms Use judiciously in

Marine Corps historical publications. Abbreviations and

acronyms are used in captions,

footnotes and citations. They are

used in the text only if they are

well established in ordinary

Service usage and then only if

their adoption is warranted to

save space or avoid annoying

repetition. Introduce all acronyms

upon first use by including the

complete terms for which they

stand. See also abbreviations

entry.

CAPITALIZING MILITARY

ACRONYMS - Capitalize only

the first letters of major words.

Examples:

HQMC

USMC

CinCPac

CG FMFLant

MarCor

MarCorSupDep

LanFor SixthFlt

MedEvac

MarLEx

34th MAU

2d MAW

affect, effect Both of these

words have multiple meanings.

In general, affect means to be

given to or to put on a pretense,

or to have an influence upon or

to act upon.

When used as a noun, effect can

refer to the inevitable consequence of an event, influence or

impression, or goods. When used

as a verb, effect means to cause.

aft See abaft, astern entry.

aggravate, irritate Aggravate

means to make worse or more

severe.

Irritate means to annoy, bother,

or make inflamed.

aircraft See designations.

allude To make an indirect reference; a person or thing that is

identified is not alluded to, but

referred to.

and/or Do not use this.

apostrophe See punctuation

entry.

appendices Appendices are

used to provide convenient references, reprint critical documents

in full, or allow explanatory discussions that are too long for a

footnote. The number and subject

matter of appendices will depend

on the nature of the work. In general, appendices are not prepared

for occasional papers or brief histories. Book-length and multivolume histories almost invariably

include appendices. Appendices

in multivolume histories should

cover the same subjects in the

same order.

RESEARCHING APPENDICES

- The Reference Section keeps

files listing the commanding officers, lineage, honors, and Medal

of Honor recipients for most

Marine Corps units.

6 A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference
assure, ensure, insure

Assure means to remove worry or

uncertainty for a specific person

or party.

Ensure means to make an outcome inevitable (in common

usage insure is equally valid for

this meaning, but we standardize

by using ensure).

Insure is reserved to describe a

financial transaction to provide

insurance on lives or objects.

A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference 7

Suggested Appendices

The following list provides some examples of material that is best

covered in an appendix. Following this order (omitting appendices

that are not applicable) will, over time, make Marine Corps History

and Museums Division publications easier for readers to use.

Bibliographic Essay (if appropriate)

Notes

Appendix A—Command and Staff list or Commanding Officers

(rank, first name, middle initials, last name, inclusive dates of command)*

Appendix B—Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations

Appendix C—Chronology (aviation units should include aircraft

changes)*

Appendix D—Lineage (available from the Reference Section)*

Appendix E—Honors (as given on certificate; include full citations

only for awards recognizing major combat actions)*

Appendix F—Medal of Honor Citations (include full citations)*

Appendix G—Military Map Symbols

Appendix H—Unit Insignia (always included for squadron histories)

Appendix I—T/O & E for Marine Corps and U.S. units**

Appendix J—T/O & E for Allied units**

Appendix K—T/O & E for Enemy units**

Appendix L—Allied Order of Battle***

Appendix M—Enemy Order of Battle***

Appendix N—U.S. equivalents for foreign ranks

Other appendices as appropriate

Appendix—Contributors (always second to last)

Appendix—Reviewers (always last)

* Generally, these appendices should be included in any history of a

Marine Corps unit.

** Include all significant changes in T/O & Es for the entire period

covered in the book.

*** For major battles or campaigns.
astern See abaft, astern entry.

Beaufort scale A scale of

force often used to describe wind

velocity, though it does not actually measure the wind. Rather,

the Beaufort scale assigns a

numeric value to wind based on

the affect it has on objects. See

knots entry.

bi, semi Bi means every two.

Semi means half.

bibliography Bibliographies

list in one place all the sources

that were used and that provided

relevant material in preparation

of a particular historical work,

regardless of whether these

sources are cited in the footnotes.

Marine Corps historical writers

use three types of bibliographies:

the formal bibliography (or bibliographical list), the annotated

bibliography, and the bibliographical essay (bibliographical

notes). Which of these, alone or

in combination with others, will

be used in a particular manuscript

depends upon the nature of the

writing project and the terms of

the writing directive. For detailed

information regarding bibliographies and formatting guidelines,

see Appendix E, Bibliographies.

brackets Use brackets, not

parenthesis, to set off text that is

added to a direct quote to clarify

or supply missing text. This practice should be done only when

absolutely necessary to ensure

clarity. It is generally a better

practice to simply paraphrase the

quote. Example of brackets: “It

was,” said Lance Corporal Jerry

Acton, “like [the shootout at] the

O.K. Corral.”

bureaucratic words Military

and bureaucratic clichés are particularly abhorrent and all too

common in official histories. In

general, buzzwords and words

ending in “ize” should be avoided. A list of bureaucratic clichés

and helpful substitutes can be

found in Section F, Chapter 1 of

the Department of the Navy

Correspondence Manual

(SecNavInst 5216.5D).

Examples:

Instead of Try

commence begin, start

finalize complete, finish

proceed continue

firm up make definite plans

effectuate effect

formalize make formal

arrangements,

make permanent

implement carry out, start

offload debark, unload

frame of reference assumptions,

premises

time-frame period,

at the same time

accession add

utilize use

promulgate issue, publish

capital, capitol Capital is the

city where the seat of government is located. Do not capitalize. In a financial context, capital

means money, equipment or

property.

Capitol is the legislature’s building. Capitalize when referring to

the building in Washington, D.C.

or to equivalent state buildings.

8 A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference
capitalization The following

examples provide some guidelines for capitalizing military

terms. For information regarding

abbreviations and acronyms, see

abbreviations entry.

capitol See capital, capitol

entry.

A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference 9

Capitalization Guide

Titles:

assistant chief of staff Assistant Commandant

branch head Commandant

commanding general company commander

director senior advisor

squad leader

Inspector General of the Marine Corps

Quartermaster General of the Marine Corps

Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps

Descriptions of individuals:

black Marine/woman Marine bluejacket(s)

naval aviator/naval attaché regular/reserve (individual)

Specific units:

battalion regiment

airborne

combined action platoon (USMC organization)

direct air support center (DASC) (unless a specific agency)

tactical air control (TACC) (unless a specific agency)

raiders (USMC organization), but Edson’s Raiders

rangers (USA organization), but Darby’s Rangers

Revolutionary Development cadre (RVN organization)

Rural Reconstruction cadre (RVN organization)

General organizations:

Inter-Service Special Forces

Free World forces naval aviation

Active Reserve/Organized Reserve/Standby Reserve

Regular/Reserve (establishment)

Armed Services (synonym for overall military establishment)

Service, Services (synonym for Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marine

Corps)

allies/allied forces (other than world wars)

Popular Force (RVN organization)

Regional Force (RVN organization)

Operations/Locations:

County Fair operations Operation Georgia

Western Front (WWI) Western Pacific

38th Parallel

Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) (Korea, Vietnam)
captions Captions fulfill several vital functions. Captions

explain photographs and illustrations, provide additional information to the story line, and

enhance the appearance and readability of the publication. While

graphic elements should always

complement the body text, the

combination of photograph and

caption must be understandable

without reference to the text and

should never be used as a substitute for information that should

appear in the body text.

Caption lengths may vary, as

appropriate, from a short phrase

to a paragraph. Whenever possible, captions should have both a

general and a specific element.

The general element gives the

context of the photograph while

the specific element provides

amplifying information or attracts

the reader’s attention to a specific

portion of the photograph. These

two elements may constitute two

or more separate sentences or

may be combined into one sentence. Examples:

(1) General element:

Marines of the 1st Battalion, 6th

Marines, land at Camp Lejeune,

North Carolina, in August 1984.

(2) Specific element:

armed with the newly introduced

M16A2 rifle

(3) Complete caption:

Marines of the 1st Battalion, 6th

Marines, armed with the newly

introduced M16A2 rifle, land at

Camp Lejeune, North Carolina,

in August 1984.

CREDIT LINE – Captions must

contain a credit line identifying

the source of the photograph.

While many sources may not

provide inventory numbers for

photographs, the credit line

should be as specific as possible.

Credit lines are set in Roman text

and follow format guidelines

similar to body text. Examples:

Photo: DVIC DN-SC-90-08850

Photo: USS Guam (LPH 9)

MARG 1-96 Deployment

Cruise Book

Photo: Marine Corps Historical

Center

Photo courtesy of the authors

Photo courtesy of Maj David A.

Krebs

Photo courtesy of Leatherneck

magazine

FORMAT - Captions are always

set in italic. Therefore, text that

would normally be set in italic in

the body of the work, the names

of aircraft, ships, spacecraft,

enemy units, or foreign words,

should be set in Roman in captions to retain emphasis.

Example:

President William J. Clinton

ordered the USS Guam (LPH 9)

to steam toward the coast of

Liberia to assist in the evacuation of U.S. citizens and foreign

nationals during Operation

Assured Response. Joining the

Guam was the amphibious transport dock ship USS Trenton

(LPD 14) and the dock landing

ship USS Portland (LSD 37). All

three ships supported amphibious

operations with helicopters or

landing craft.

RANKS - To accommodate the

often limited space available for

captions, all ranks are listed in

10 A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference
abbreviated format. Example:

Col Granville R. Amos (left), the

Marine Expeditionary Unit commander, and LtCol Thomas W.

Parker, his operations officer,

walked the ground visiting each

security position inside and outside the American Embassy compound in Monrovia, Liberia. Col

Amos came away supporting the

initial tactical decision establishing blocking positions outside the

embassy.

See ranks entry for the correct

forms of rank abbreviations.

SOURCES FOR PHOTOGRAPHS – The Reference

Section provides photographic

support for division publications,

exhibits, and a variety of other

uses. These photographs may

only leave the Reference Section

for the brief period required for

copying or digitizing. Another

source of photographs is the Still

Pictures Branch of the National

Archives in College Park,

Maryland. This branch holds

Marine Corps photographs prior

to 1982. Marine Corps photographs from 1982 to present are

maintained at the Defense Visual

Information Center. See photographs entry for addresses and

contact information.

casualties Do not use the

word “only” when referring to

casualties. List actual numbers

when possible. If you need to

emphasize that few casualties

occurred, use a phrase such as

“the division suffered far fewer

casualties than it had expected.”

cataloging See titles entry.

chapters See parts, chapters,

and sections entry.

character development The

development of key personalities

provides valuable context and

makes otherwise dry narrative

more readable. For minor characters, this requirement can often

be handled by a simple phrase,

e.g., “Major Short, who in 1956

was the first man to loop a helicopter, flew the first troops into

the fire-swept LZ” or, “The battalion commander, a rugged AllAmerican tackle when he attended Georgia Tech, believed in

physical fitness.” For major personalities, those who played key

roles in the events being

described, provide enough information to give the reader an

insight into their character and

thought process. Here, as elsewhere, when a person is first

introduced, he or she should be

identified by rank, first name,

middle initial, nickname in quotation marks if significant, last

name, and Service if not USMC

or USMCR; e.g., Colonel Justice

M. “Jumping Joe” Chambers.

colors You set a sail, raise the

jack or ensign, hoist a signal, but

break (out) an admiral’s flag,

commodore or squadron commander’s broad pennant or division commander’s pennant.

Never call the ensign or a pennant a flag; but the ensign and

jack, or both, are called the colors. Examples: (1) “The Admiral

flew his flag in USS Ohio,” or

“wore his flag in USS Ohio.”

Both are correct; the former is

A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference 11
preferable. (2) “The guide ship

flew a blue pennant at the dip

and hoisted it two-blocks as a

signal for the boat waves to

depart,” is correct. See also

Appendix I, Notes on Writing

Naval (not Navy) English.

command chronologies

Since May 1965, all independent

units, and all units of

battalion/squadron size or larger,

have submitted command

chronologies. These are the only

routinely submitted documents

specifically intended to provide a

historical record. They provide

the bulk of the information for

most operational histories.

However, reliance on a single

source invariably results in

unbalanced histories. Command

chronologies are no exception to

this rule. Remember that the text

of the chronology is only a summary of the unit’s activities, and

that supporting documents and

other sources provide the details.

commas See punctuation

entry.

compendium notes See

Appendix D, Endnotes.

complement, compliment

A complement is something that

completes, or the full crew. A

compliment means praise.

compound words The GPO

Style Manual, sections 6.16, 6.21,

6.24, and Chapter 7 provide the

basic guidelines for compounding words. In general, an adjective or adverb modifier is compounded with a hyphen, and

predicate adjectives are not compounded. For example, “this is a

battle-tested rifle,” but “this rifle

is battle tested.” Hyphenate proper nouns when combining forms;

thus, “North Carolina troops, but

“Mexican-American soldiers.”

The overriding rule of usage

should be clarity and consistency.

The following list is hardly complete, but provides a few guidelines. When in doubt consult the

extensive examples in GPO 7.14.

The abbreviation u.m., is for “unit

modifier”; n., for “noun”:

air base (n.)

airfield (n.)

air-ground team (u.m)

all-weather (u.m)

antiair (u.m)

antiaircraft (u.m.)

antiguerrilla (u.m.)

cakecutting (u.m., n.)

chain-of-command (n.)

codename (u.m., n.)

company-size (u.m.)

counterattack (n.)

counterbattery (n.)

enlisted man (u.m., n.)

firefight (n.)

fireteam (n.), but fireteam-size

fixed-wing (u.m.)

freefire (u.m.)

frontline (u.m., n.)

heliborne (n.)

helicopterborne (u.m.)

helilift (n.)

machine gun* (u.m., n.)

mailcall (n.)

minefield (n.)

noncommissioned officer

offduty (u.m.)

officer-in-charge (n.)

senior advisor (n.)

sub-machine gun* (u.m., n.)

trooplift (u.m., n.)

troop space (n.)

well-fortified (u.m.)

* Differs from GPO guidelines.

12 A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference
comprise, include Comprise

means to contain or embrace; the

whole comprises the parts, but

not vice versa. Include is nearly a

synonym for comprise but suggests all the component items are

not being mentioned.

continual, continuous

Continual means repeatedly, over

and over again; continuous

means without any interruption.

credible, creditable Credible

is believable; creditable means

worthy of approval.

date Dates within text should be

written out in day, month, year

format, 8 August 1955, for example. When the story line covers a

period of time within the same

year, a shorter day, month format

is appropriate provided the year

is clearly established in a previous reference.

If dates are abbreviated to conserve space in tables or appendices, the military form will be

used and the date written as a

single expression.

The use of dates based on a D or

other designated day of attack is

out of place in historical narrative. For example, use 4 June

1944, not D minus 2 days; or, 12

June, not D plus 6.

date-time group Use in endnotes only. While not generally

used, the abbreviation is dtg.

decimated Destruction of one

tenth, or to kill or destroy a large

proportion.

decorations A person does not

“win” a military decoration or

award. Alternative words or

phrases are “received,” “was

awarded,” “was decorated for,”

“was recognized by,” “a recipient

of,” etc. Example:

Colonel Shoup was awarded the

Medal of Honor for his courageous leadership on Betio.

Subsequently, he received the

Legion of Merit with Combat

“V” for his service as Chief of

Staff, 2d Marine Division, at

Saipan and Tinian.

designations The designations of ships, aircraft, ordnance

and equipment vary.

AIRCRAFT - Identify model

number, name, manufacturer and

type of aircraft on the first mention. Thereafter, either the model

number or the name may be

used. Examples: “The fighter

planes were Marine Chance

Vought F4U Corsairs,” subsequently, “The Corsairs were devastating in combat.”

ORDNANCE AND

EQUIPMENT - Designations of

munitions items follow the system used by the developing

Service. The Navy uses a “Mark

and Model” system without

hyphens but with spaces, as in

“Mk 24 Mod 4 flare.” The Army

system for standardized items

calls for designations to be written without spaces or hyphens, as

in M16 rifle, M61A1 gun, or

M151 jeep. A noun must follow

these designations as the same

designation may turn up on different items. The Air Force likewise has its own system, but with

several inconsistencies regarding

hyphens.

The official name for the current

general-purpose military vehicle

A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference 13
is the High Mobility

Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle,

abbreviated HMMWV. However,

except for quotations, the term

“humvee” will be used. The first

time the vehicle is mentioned,

give the complete official name,

abbreviation, and the nickname

“humvee.” See also humvee

entry.

SHIPS - The type, nationality

and hull number (where applicable) of ships should be identified

on first mention. Example: “The

U.S. battleship North Carolina

(BB 55),” or “The battleship USS

North Carolina (BB 55),” subsequently, the North Carolina.

effect See affect, effect entry.

either One or the other, but not

both.

Right: The lieutenant said to use

either weapon.

Wrong: There were enemy forces

on either side of the road.

Right: There were enemy forces

on both sides of the road. There

were enemy force on each side of

the road.

either...or, neither...nor

Nouns that follow these words do

not constitute a compound subject. Rather, they are alternate

subjects and require a verb that

agrees with the nearest subject:

Neither the squad nor Sgt Smith

is going on patrol.

Either Sgt Smith or the squad

will go on patrol.

ellipses See punctuation entry.

endnotes Complete documentation includes page citations of

specific sources shown in notes

at the end of the text.

Bibliographies or bibliographic

essays may be used to supplement the information in the endnotes of extensive studies (see

Appendix E, Bibliographies). In

all cases, Marine Corps histories

will include sufficient information regarding a source in endnotes or bibliographies, or in a

combination of the two, to enable

the reader to identify and locate

the materials. While there are

similarities between endnote and

bibliographical citations, the formats vary. Marine Corps historical writers use compendium and

reference notes to document text.

These endnotes are used to give

credit to sources of information,

whether quoted directly or paraphrased. The writer must determine whether to use a compendium note, a series of reference

notes, or both. For detailed information and directions for properly formatting endnotes see

Appendix D, Endnotes.

ensure See assure, ensure,

insure entry.

equipment See designations.

exhibit labels Preparation of

an exhibit can be approached in

one of two ways: as a collection

of artifacts to be displayed or as a

story to be told. Most visitors

find the latter more interesting.

With a little ingenuity, you

should be able to develop a story

line for almost any exhibit.

Once the story has been developed, assess the artifacts available to illustrate it. You may need

to find more items to fill gaps, or

leave others out. Organize the

artifacts into a logical sequence

14 A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference
and then prepare labels.

MUSEUM LABELS - Museum

labels, sometimes referred to as

captions, are divided into two

categories for the purpose of the

Writing Guide. First are labels

used to support the exhibit theme

or story line, which are called

“main” and “secondary” labels.

The other category consists of

labels used to identify objects

exhibited, called “object” labels.

Accuracy - Accuracy is a product

of historical research and will not

be dealt with here other than to

state that draft labels should be

submitted for review to an

authority on the subject. Labels

should also follow standard usage

and style as set forth in this

Writing Guide.

Brevity - Visitors come to a

Marine Corps museum to learn

about our history or to recall their

experiences as Marines. They are

not sitting in an easy chair reading a book; they are standing and

moving and have budgeted a limited time for their visit.

Therefore, the printed word on

labels should be short, and where

possible, exciting or dramatic.

The language used must be sparing, bare bones, non-discursive,

and present only the facts necessary for the purpose of the label.

A rule of thumb is to use short

common words, short sentences,

and short paragraphs.

Ideally, additional information of

interest should be made available

in museum handouts, exhibition

brochures, catalogs, or by reference to other historical works.

MAIN AND SECONDARY

LABELS - Main and secondary

labels support the exhibit theme

or story line. They should rarely

exceed 200 words or one doublespaced typewritten page.

Word Limit - If a main or secondary label approaches the 200-

word limit it may be appropriate

to use a journalistic device from

newspapers stories. An overview

or synopsis of the subject is presented in a short lead paragraph.

Details essential to the complete

story to be presented to the visitor are conveyed in the balance

of the label.

OBJECT LABELS - Object

labels should be limited to identifying the object and a short statement of its use, significance, or

provenance—two sentences and

not exceeding 25 to 50 words.

Captions - Object labels might

be thought of as photograph captions. The practice is to state the

main subject of the picture and to

follow this with a sidelight to the

main subject. For example:

“Socket bayonet for Civil War

M1863 rifled musket used by

Marines. Only 1 percent of the

casualties during that war were

caused by bayonets.”

This example identifies the object

exhibited and dramatizes the

object with pertinent additional

information, all in 24 words.

Another example:

“Hat, field, sometimes called a

campaign hat, was adopted in

1912. This field hat was worn by

Capt _________ in Nicaragua in

1928. He later served as

Commandant from 19___ to

19___.”

Again, identification followed by

two dramatizing facts, this time

A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference 15
in 31 words.

See captions entry for additional

guidance on this writing style.

TYPE SIZE - Labels should be

set in large type for readability.

We normally use 18 or 24 point,

which most people can read without glasses. Titles can be in bold

face in larger type. Summarizing

lead paragraphs can be set bold

face in the same size type as the

balance of the label. Roman type

fonts are more readable than sans

serif.

footnotes Any information

considered vital to the proper

understanding of the story should

be in the text and not buried in

the footnotes. The writer can use

information or explanatory footnotes, however, to improve the

flow of the narrative by removing

nonessential but pertinent material from the text, while providing

it to the reader. Keep information

footnotes for cross-referencing

purposes to a minimum.

Footnotes may, however, be used

when there is a need to inform

the reader that a certain important

subject will be covered in later

pages or to remind the reader it

has already been examined. In a

series such as U.S. Marines in

Vietnam, reference to a subject

discussed in earlier volumes or

projected for future volumes

often will be appropriate.

FORMAT - Follow the textual

style in the discursive parts of

information footnotes. Use abbreviations, military, and bibliographical, only in source citations. Signal information footnotes at the appropriate places in

the text by insertion of one or

more asterisks. Such footnotes

are always placed at the bottom

of the page of text to which they

refer. If more than one such footnote occurs on a page, differentiate them by multiple asterisks.

Examples: (1) Simple informational footnotes:

* This was Battery F. For this

battery, however, the necessary

fire control equipment had not

yet arrived; so even with full gun

crews, its effectiveness would

have been slight.

** According to Gen Wright,

MacArthur’s G-3, “Admiral Joy

may have ‘discussed’ this often

with the Commander in Chief,

but no one ever ‘argued’ with

him.” MajGen Edward K.

Wright, USA, comments on Lynn

Montross and Capt Nicholas A.

Canzona, “The Pusan Perimeter,”

16Feb56 (Comment file, MCHC,

Washington, D.C.).

(2) An informational footnote

used for cross-referencing:

* See Part 5, “The Battle of

Midway,” for the story of the

events leading up to the decisive

naval action that took place near

Midway in June 1942.

forceful, forcible Forceful

means vigorous, strong, effective;

forcible means having to use

force, as in forcible entry.

forego, forgo Forego means

to precede; forgo means to

abstain from.

foreign military See units

entry for examples of foreign

military unit designations. See

16 A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference
ranks entry for examples of foreign military ranks.

Fortitudine Fortitudine is the

bulletin of the Marine Corps

Historical Program. It is a 24-

page, full-color publication that

is distributed throughout the

Marine Corps, to general officers

and to individual subscribers. It

is not a journal of Marine Corps

history, even though its articles

contain historical information.

All Fortitudine articles must have

news value for the historical program and should appeal to activeduty and former Marines, as well

as civilians interested in the

Corps and its history. See

Appendix 7, Writing for

Fortitudine for authoring guidelines, writing styles and format

information.

hangars, hangers Hangars

are for aircraft; hangers are for

clothes.

humvee The official name,

High Mobility Multipurpose

Wheeled Vehicle, and abbreviation, HMMWV, is unlikely to be

recognized by many readers.

Except for quotations, the term

“humvee” will be used. The first

time the vehicle is mentioned,

give the complete official name,

abbreviation, and the nickname

“humvee.” See also designations

entry.

imply, infer Writers or speakers imply an idea in the words

they use; a reader or listener may

infer an idea from they have read

or heard.

impracticable, impractical

Something impracticable cannot

be done; something impractical

can be done, but it is not useful

or valuable.

include See comprise, include

entry.

indexing The Marine Corps

historical writer must provide an

index for the work being submitted. See Appendix F, Indexing for

details and format requirements.

infer See imply, infer entry.

insure See assure, ensure,

insure entry.

Internet The Internet is a

decentralized, global network of

computers. It is a proper name

and is always capitalized. See

Appendix J, Citing Internet

Sources for guidelines on formatting citations for Internet

sources.

interviews Conducting a personal interview or creating an

oral history requires a great deal

of preparation. Refer to Chapter

5, Oral History for basic techniques in preparing and conducting interviews. A detailed guide

is available on the History and

Museums Division Web site at

www.history.usmc.mil.

irritate See aggravate, irritate

entry.

it’s, its It’s is the contraction for

it is or it has; its shows possession.

italic The general rules in the

GPO Style Manual apply, subject

to the following:

Italic will be used for foreign

words and phrases.

Standard abbreviations used in

notes, such as ibid. and op. cit.,

A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference 17
are considered Anglicized and

will not be set in italic.

Set the official titles of all enemy

units in italic.

Since captions for photographs

and illustrations are set in italic,

names of aircraft, ships, spacecraft, or enemy units that appear

in captions are set in Roman to

retain emphasis. See captions

entry.

Set titles of magazines and

books, including short titles used

to simplify citations, in italic. Set

manuscript and magazine article

titles in quotes rather than in italic type.

knots Nautical means of defining the speed at which a ship is

traveling or describing wind

velocity.

Beaufort Weather

Scale Knots Bureau Term

1 1-3 light air

2 4-6 light air

3 7-10 gentle breeze

4 11-16 moderate breeze

5 17-21 fresh breeze

6 22-27 strong breeze

7 28-33 strong breeze,

moderate gale

8 34-40 fresh gale or gale

9 41-47 strong gale or gale

10 48-55 whole, hard,

or heavy gale

11 56-65 storm, or

whole gale

12 65-up hurricane

labels See exhibit labels entry.

lay, laid Transitive verb; always

takes a direct object.

lie, lay, lain Intransitive verb;

no object.

maps Designing accurate and

effective maps is an essential part

of documenting Marine Corps

history and they should be

included whenever appropriate.

Refer to Chapter 6, Preparing

Maps for instructions on creating

maps, the use of map symbols

and other information to make

your maps effective and useful.

Marine The word “Marine” is

always capitalized when used in

reference to the U.S. Marine

Corps. Placing the word at the

beginning of a sentence avoids

calling undue attention to this

practice. Thus, “Marines, soldiers, and sailors crowded on

board” is preferred to “Soldiers,

sailors, and Marines.”

material, materiel As an

adjective, material is spelled with

an a, but as a noun, military

materiel is correct.

military See specific entries,

e.g. titles, ranks, units, etc.

mitigate, militate Mitigate

means to soften, moderate, make

less severe. Militate means to

have weight or effect. You can

militate against something, but

you cannot mitigate against it.

neither...nor See either...or,

neither...nor entry.

nomenclature See designations entry.

none, no one None means not

one or not any and can take a singular or plural verb, depending

upon the sense of the sentence.

No one means no individual.

notes See Appendix D,

Endnotes. For information and

guidelines for recording comprehensive notes and bibliography

information during the research

18 A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference
phase of your project, see

Appendix C, The Mechanics of

Research.

numerals The GPO Style

Manual will be used as a basic

reference.

Numbers less than 10 are written

out, while 10 and numbers

greater than 10 are written as

Arabic numerals.

Numbers greater than 10 that are

clearly rounded off are an exception; thus “we counted exactly

100 bodies,” but “we counted

nearly one hundred bodies.”

In lists, if one of the numbers is

10 or above, write all numbers in

the list as numerals, e.g., “4 pistols, 5 radios and 10 rifles,” but

“six wounded, three killed and

one missing.”

Avoid using Arabic or Roman

numerals to begin a sentence.

Recast the sentence if necessary.

off, on Say keep clear of, not

away from a minefield, reef,

other ships or obstruction. You

can “make an approach,” but it is

better nautical usage to close

rather than approach the land or

another ship.

on board See aboard, on

board entry.

on See off, on entry.

oral history Creating an oral

history or conducting a personal

interview requires a great deal of

preparation. See Chapter 5, Oral

History for basic techniques in

preparing for and conducting

interviews. A detailed guide is

available on the History and

Museums Division Web site at

www.history.usmc.mil.

oral, verbal Oral refers to spoken words rather than written

words. Verbal relates to words

either written or spoken and is

often wrongly used in place of

oral. A verbal order is written

ordnance See designations

entry.

organizations See units entry.

outlines For information and

helpful guidelines to conducting

historical research, creating an

outline, and writing historical

manuscripts, see Chapter 3,

Historical Research and Writing.

over Over refers to physical

location; write more than 10, not

over 10.

parts, chapters, and sections Historical works published by the Division are subdivided in one of three ways.

Major works of book-length are

broken into parts, chapters, and

sections. In instances where the

material is particularly cohesive,

the writer may eliminate parts

and divide the work into chapters, each of which may comprise

several sections. In short monographs or pamphlets, only a subdivision into sections may be

required. Ensure all titles for

parts, chapters, and sections are

descriptive of the subject matter.

photographs Photographs are

an integral part of any historical

publication and should be selected to add to the story told in the

text. Photos and their captions,

while integrated into the story in

strategic locations, should be

considered stand-alone elements.

A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference 19
In selecting photographs, the

author should pay close attention

to the quality. Out of focus photographs, poorly composed pictures and bad lighting will be

amplified in the printed version.

COLOR VERSUS BLACK AND

WHITE - All historical publications, and Fortitudine, are printed

in full color. Therefore, color

photographs should be used

whenever possible. When color

photographs are not available, or

in rare cases where a black and

white photo lends to the tone of

the story better, pay special attention to the contrast and lighting

in the photograph. A person

standing in a shadow or with a

shadow across their face may not

print as well as you hope. Also, a

washed out photograph with little

contrast will reproduce poorly.

Edit and Design can help you

determine if a photograph will

print well.

FORMAT AND RESOLUTION –

If you are submitting a hard copy

photograph, Edit and Design will

scan the photo at the proper resolution for print. However, if you

have electronic photos to submit,

you should look for files in TIF

or JPG format with a minimum

resolution of 300 dpi (dots per

inch). The resolution can normally be determined using the

Properties pull-down menu in

your image software. Electronic

photo files often will be saved at

72 dpi, which is the screen resolution of most computer monitors. However, these photos may

work fine if the dimensions of

the photo are large enough, 10

inches by 20 inches for example.

When Edit and Design scales

such a file to fit the printed page

the resolution is increased. If you

have questions about the format

or resolution of your electronic

photo files, consult Edit and

Design.

CAPTIONS – All photographs

must have a caption that

describes the photo, identifies

individuals whenever possible,

and credits the photo to the

source. See captions entry for

more information.

SOURCES – The Reference

Section has a limited collection

of original and reproduced

Marine Corps photographs that

may be used in historical publications. More extensive, official

Marine Corps photograph collections are held at the National

Archives and Records

Administration (NARA), and the

Department of Defense Visual

Information Center (DVIC).

These depositories have responsibility for servicing photographic

requests, and researchers should

contact the proper activities

regarding photograph availability

and the current schedule of fees.

Contact information for these and

other repositories and historical

resources are listed in Appendix

H, References and Guides.

possessive See punctuation

entry.

principal, principle As a

noun, principal means a leader or

key figure; as an adjective, fore20 A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference
most. Principle means a fundamental truth or guide.

publications For a comprehensive list of the types of publications produced by the Division

and a description of each, see

Chapter 1, Introduction. For

guidelines and information about

the Division’s publication

process, see Chapter 2, The

Publication Process.

punctuation Follow the GPO

Style Manual subject to the following exceptions and clarifications:

APOSTROPHE AND

POSSESSIVE - Apostrophes in

acronyms will be reserved to

show possession. Thus, use “11

NFOs” or “three BLTs” rather

than the GPO style “11 NFO’s”

or “three BLT’s.”

COMMAS - Always use a

comma between the penultimate

item in a series and the conjunction to avoid confusion.

Example: The general formed

Task Force Smith by placing one

company each from the engineer,

reconnaissance, tank, and assault

amphibian battalions under

Colonel Smith’s command.

Names of states and foreign

countries when used in conjunction with other geographic names

will be regarded as words in

apposition and set off by commas

before and after. Examples: He

moved from Austin, Texas, to

New York. The squadron arrived

at Atsugi, Japan, on 4 July.

In writing titles of organizations

where more than one level of

command must be given to specify the exact unit, commas will be

used to take the place of the

words “of” or “of the.” A comma

will follow the last word in the

title of the organization.

Example: He was assigned as

Commanding Officer, Company

A, 1st Battalion, 2d Marines, on

8 November.

The comma will be omitted within the shortened name of military

facilities and installations.

Examples: MCAS Beaufort;

MCB Camp Lejeune; NAS Key

West; The F4U departed MCAS

Iwakuni, Japan, at 0200.

Quotations set within the body of

a sentence will not be separated

with a comma if the introductory

material is written to make the

quotation an integral part of the

sentence. Example: They

searched the hills “for more than

five hours.”

ELLIPSES - Division publications use periods to mark deletions. Special attention must be

given to the spacing of the initial

period and to the use of either

three or four consecutive periods

to depict the quoted material

accurately. Three spaced periods

( . . . ) indicate an ellipsis. A

fourth period ( . . . . ) is added to

bring a sentence to a close.

Ellipses are not to be used to

begin or end quoted material as

quotation marks serve that purpose.

HYPHEN - The numerical designation of aviation squadrons and

groups will be linked to the

abbreviated title of the unit by a

hyphen. The hyphen is not used

A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference 21
when the full name of the unit is

written out, nor with ground

units, nor with the hull designators for ships. Examples: VMA223; Marine Attack Squadron

223; MAG-32; USS Alabama

(BB 60); BLT 2/3; BSSG 7. See

also designations entry.

QUOTATION MARKS - Run

quotations of less than five lines

in the body of a paragraph. Insert

those of five lines or more without quotation marks as separate

paragraphs indented on the left.

The preceding reference should

read, “wrote,” “reported,”

“declared,” or “stated,” followed

by a colon. Set quoted material

within another quotation off with

single quotation marks if the

material falls in the body of the

paragraph and with normal quotation marks if indented. Set

manuscript and magazine article

titles in quotes. See quotes entry.

quotes Any quotation longer

than five printed lines should be

clearly indented from the body of

the text and presented without

quotation marks. All other quotations will be in the body of the

text clearly indicated by quotation marks. See also punctuation

entry.

When it is necessary to include

additional words to clarify the

text or to supply a missing element, use brackets [ ] around the

words. See also brackets entry.

Examples: (1) Quote within the

body of a paragraph:

“We have a list of capabilities as

long as your arm,” Colonel

Berndt said regarding his primary

mission to evacuate American

citizens from Haiti. “My job is to

be ready for anything.”

(2) Long quote indented from the

body of the text:

Despite the confusion that ensued

after the column had been cut off

from the forward elements of the

task force, the remaining troops

quickly established a defensive

perimeter. Sergeant Charles

Dickerson later recalled:

Two thirds of the column was

cut off, the first third going on

up the road further. The road

ran in sort of an ‘S’ shape, not

extreme, and at the left there

was a small ditch. At the right

there was quite a large ditch,

and at the right of that was a

railroad track, then another

ditch. And further to the right

was a plateau 20 feet higher

than the road. Then there were

rice paddies on further about

100 to 200 yards, and there

was a river; and on the other

side of the river was the

mountain. The Chinese came

from the front between the hill

and this plateau. They came

down the ditch from the far

side of the railroad track and

over the road at the front of

the column. They came to the

rear out of the valley and

across a culvert. On the left

rear, they came down the

mountain to the culvert and

the rice paddy area.

(3) Use bracketed text in a quote

to clarify or supply missing text:

22 A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference
“It was,” said Lance Corporal

Jerry Acton, “like [the shootout

at] the O.K. Corral.”

ranks Use full military ranks in

the text and textual footnotes.

Use rank abbreviations only in

endnote citations and photographic captions. With general

officers and admirals, lieutenant

colonels, lieutenant commanders,

second and first lieutenants, and

lieutenants (junior grade), however, after the first mention the

title may be shortened simply to

“General Lejeune,” “Colonel

Smith,” “Commander Jones,” or

“Lieutenant Turner,” assuming

this creates no confusion or

ambiguity.

The rank used in the text will be

the rank held at the time of the

action described. Confine references to current or retired rank to

footnotes and citations. See also

titles entry.

FOREIGN MILITARY RANKS

AND TITLES - At first mention,

write out the full rank, including

honorifics. Use the foreign rank,

providing the American equivalent in parenthesis if the ranks are

not identical. Example: Oberst

(Colonel) Count Merz von

Quirnheim subsequently referred

to as Colonel von Quirnheim.

In succeeding references, use the

foreign rank for English speaking

countries; e.g., use sub-lieutenant, not ensign or lieutenant

(junior grade).

For non-English speaking countries, use English equivalents,

preserving special distinctions;

e.g., a German kanonier should

be identified as a gunner, not a

private.

Do not abbreviate foreign ranks

if there is no direct American

equivalent.

HISTORICAL RANKS AND

TITLES - U.S. Services have

used many different ranks and

titles over their histories. Try to

use the term used during the period under discussion. Explain the

term in the text or a footnote if it

might confuse modern readers.

Ensure any abbreviations you use

are easily decipherable and are

not easily confused with a modern abbreviation. For example,

abbreviating “supply sergeant” as

“SSgt” would lead most readers

to think the individual referred to

was actually a staff sergeant. For

Marine Corps ranks before 1970,

consult United States Marine

Corps Ranks and Grades, 1775-

1969, a historical reference pamphlet published by the Historical

Division, HQMC.

The following is an illustrative

list of preferred abbreviations for

ranks and titles frequently used

when writing about Marine Corps

history before the Vietnam War:

MajGenComdt: major general

commandant

Commo: commodore

TSgt: technical sergeant

PlSgt: platoon sergeant

SupSgt: supply sergeant

QMSgt: quartermaster sergeant

FldMscFC: field music first class

Refer to the following Current

U.S. Ranks table for proper

abbreviations of current U.S.

ranks.

A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference 23
24 A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference

Current U.S. Ranks

The following is a list of U.S. ranks currently in use with accepted

Marine Corps Historical Center abbreviations:

Officers

U.S. Navy and Coast Guard

FAdm: fleet admiral Cdr: commander

Adm: admiral LCdr: lieutenant commander

VAdm: vice admiral Lt: lieutenant

RAdm: rear admiral* Lt (jg): lieutenant (junior grade)

Commo: commodore Ens: ensign

Capt: captain

U.S. Marine Corps, Army and Air Force

GenArmy: general of the Army Col: colonel

GenAF: general of the Air Force LtCol: lieutenant colonel

Gen: general Maj: major

LtGen: lieutenant general Capt: captain

MajGen: major general 1stLt: first lieutenant

BGen: brigadier general 2dLt: second lieutenant

* The Navy divides rear admirals into two groups: rear admirals,

upper half, who wear two stars, are pay grade O-8, and are equivalent to major general; and rear admirals, lower half, who wear one

star, are pay grade O-7, and are equivalent to brigadier general.

When it is necessary to distinguish between them, simply mention

the number of stars worn.

Officer Commissioning Programs

U.S. Naval Academy and Navy ROTC

Midn: midshipman

U.S. Military Academy, Air Force Academy, Coast Guard Academy,

Army and Air Force ROTC

Cdt: cadet

Officer Candidate School (all services)

Cand: candidate

Warrant Officers (all services)*

MWO-5: master warrant officer (Army)

CWO-5: chief warrant officer (Marine Corps)

CWO-4: chief warrant officer

CWO-3: chief warrant officer

CWO-2: chief warrant officer

WO-1: warrant officer

MG: Marine gunner**

* The Air Force no longer uses the warrant officer rank.

** Used only for Marine Corps warrant officers authorized to wear

the bursting bomb insignia.
A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference 25

Current U.S. Ranks (cont.)

Enlisted

U.S. Marine Corps

SgtMaj: sergeant major / MGySgt: master gunnery sergeant

1stSgt: first sergeant / MSgt: master sergeant

GySgt: gunnery sergeant

SSgt: staff sergeant

Sgt: sergeant

Cpl: corporal

LCpl: lance corporal

PFC: private first class

Pvt: private

U.S. Navy and Coast Guard*

MCPO: master chief petty officer PO3: petty officer third class

SCPO: senior chief petty officer SN: seaman

CPO: chief petty officer SA: seaman apprentice

PO1: petty officer first class SR: seaman recruit

PO2: petty officer second class

* It is standard Navy and Coast Guard practice to include a sailor’s

rate (military specialty) as part of the rank. For example, a corpsman holding the rank of petty officer second class is a hospitalman

second class, abbreviated as HM2. This custom can be followed

when using the full rank. However, avoid using rates when abbreviating ranks in captions and endnotes. Few readers will be able to

identify most ratings from the abbreviation, and an explanation

makes abbreviation pointless. If the rating is pertinent, write out the

entire rank.

Army

CsgtMaj: command sergeant major / SgtMaj: sergeant major

1stSgt: first sergeant / MSgt: master sergeant

SFC: sergeant first class

SSgt: staff sergeant

Sgt: sergeant

Cpl: corporal / Spec4: specialist 4*

PFC: private first class

Pvt: private (E-2)

Pvt: private (E-1)

* Corporals are senior to specialist 4s. A specialist 4 is not a noncommissioned officer.

Air Force

CMSgt: chief master sergeant Sgt: sergeant / SrA: senior airman

SMSgt: senior master sergeant A1C: airman first class

MSgt: master sergeant Amn: airman

TSgt: technical sergeant AB: airman basic

SSgt: staff sergeant
reference notes See

Appendix D, Endnotes.

references For a list of reference and guide materials available to historical writers, see

Appendix H, References and

Guides. For information regarding specific types and formats of

references within the text of your

document, see the appropriate

alphabetic entry. For example,

Appendix D, Endnotes includes

information for citing and formatting references.

research For information and

helpful guidelines to conducting

historical research and writing

historical manuscripts, see

Chapter 3, Historical Research

and Writing.

salvo Two or more shots fired

simultaneously. There is no such

thing as a one-gun salvo. You

might as well say a one-bird

flock or a one-cow herd.

scripts See exhibit labels entry.

sections See parts, chapters,

and sections entry.

semi See bi, semi entry.

ships See designations entry.

slang Avoid slang, derogatory

terms, and jargon, particularly

words peculiar to the Marine

Corps. Examples: beef up, chow,

grunts, gyrenes, boondocks, noncom, gunny, bug out, locals, and

gooks.

specialty, speciality A specialty is a special pursuit or occupation, service, or product.

Speciality is a distinguishing

mark, characteristic or restrictive

quality.

states When abbreviating the

names of states to simplify footnote citations or tables and

appendices, use the abbreviations

found in the GPO Style Manual

(GPO 9.13) rather than the twoletter style of the U.S. Postal

Service.

stationary, stationery

Stationary means not moving;

stationery is writing material.

that, which That is used to

introduce restrictive clauses and

which is used for nonrestrictive

or parenthetical clauses set off

with commas.

The tank that had thrown a track

was recovered.

The tank, which had thrown a

track, was recovered.

time Denote time using the military 24-hour clock.

The four-digit time will stand

alone without the word “hours.”

Examples:

0516, 22 November 1968

2335, 16Dec74

time-date group See datetime group.

titles Marine Corps historical

writing does not follow GPO in

its use of military titles. When

the use of the title is descriptive

rather than a formal designation,

do not use capitals. When the

specific formal billet title is used

without qualifying prepositions,

the title is capitalized.

Example: “Commanding

26 A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference
General, 1st Marine Division,”

but, “He was the commanding

general of the 1st Marine

Division.”

See also ranks entry.

PUBLICATION TITLES - To

ensure correct cataloging, the formal title of all works published

by the Division will usually contain the words “U.S. Marines” or

“Marine Corps” followed by a

short, descriptive phrase describing the subject as accurately as

possible. See ranks entry for

information on military titles and

ranks.

United States When used as

an adjective in the text or in footnotes, it is permissible to abbreviate to U.S. (note the use of

periods without spaces).

units The military organizational structure is broken down into

consecutively smaller units with

a defined chain-of-command.

CAPITALIZATION - A military

unit is considered to be a singular

noun. Capitalize the titles of military units only when the designation or nickname of a specific

unit is used. Examples: “He

joined 1st Battalion, 6th

Marines,” but “He joined his battalion.”

FOREIGN MILITARY UNITS -

Foreign military units follow no

single rule. To avoid possible

confusion among like-named or

like-numbered organizations, set

the official titles of all enemy

units in italic. Translate foreign

designations that parallel

American versions. Preserve any

special distinctions; e.g., do not

change a word that is literally

translated “squadron” to “company” to conform to Marine Corps

usage. Do not translate foreign

terms that have no direct

American equivalent, but explain

it on first introduction; e.g., “41st

Commando, Royal Marines, a

battalion-sized unit,” not “41st

Battalion” or “41st Commando

Battalion.” Explain the mission

of a foreign unit in brackets after

its designation if it is not clear,

e.g., 1st Hussar [Reconnaissance]

Parachute Regiment. Specify

nationality if there is any possibility of confusion.

U.S. FORCES - Designate U.S.

Marine Corps and U.S. Army

units by the use of letters for

companies, batteries and troops.

Use Arabic numerals for divisions, brigades, regiments, battalions, platoons and squads. Use

Roman numerals for corps and

forces. Spell out numbers for

field armies, air forces and fleets.

Usually, designations of U.S.

Marine and U.S. Army battalions

will be written out and not shortened to a purely numerical form.

The use of the shortened version

is permitted only when the unit

under discussion is a battalion

landing team. U.S. Air Force and

U.S. Navy units follow no single

rule.

The following Table of Military

Organizations provides examples

and guidelines.

A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference 27
28 A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference

Table of Military Organizations

The following list, while hardly exhaustive, gives examples of

acceptable forms.

U.S. Forces

U.S. Marine Corps

Fleet Marine Force Pacific/Atlantic (FMFPac/Lant)

Marine Forces Atlantic/Pacific (MarForLant/Pac)

4th Marine Amphibious Brigade (4th MAB)

9th Marine Expeditionary Brigade (9th MEB)

2d Force Service Support Group (2d FSSG)

3d Surveillance, Reconnaissance, and Intelligence Group (3d SRIG)

6th Marines (6th Mar)

Regimental Landing Team 4 (RLT 4)

22d Marine Amphibious Unit (22d MAU)

16th Marine Expeditionary Unit (Special Operations Capable) (16th

MEU (SOC))

1st Battalion, 11th Marines (1st Bn, 11th Mar, not 1/11)

Battalion Landing Team 3/9 (BLT 3/9)

Special Purpose Marine Air-Ground Task Force 2-92 (SPMAGTF

2-92)

Company A (Co A)

1st Platoon (1st Plt)

2d Squad (2d Sqd)

1st Marine Aircraft Wing (1st MAW)*

III Marine Amphibious Force (III MAF)

V Amphibious Corps (VAC)

1st Marine Division (1st MarDiv)

Marine Aircraft Group 33 (MAG-33)*

Marine Fighter Squadron 212 (VMF-212) (VMFs after 1945)

Marine Fighting Squadron 211 (VMF-211) (VMFs before 1945)

Marine Medium Helicopter Squadron 163 (HMM-163)

VMF-115 and VMF-215

Fourth Regiment (regiments before 1930)

24th Company (companies before 1933)

Marine Corps Base, Camp Lejeune (MCB Camp Lejeune)

Marine Corps Air Station, Cherry Point (MCAS Cherry Point)

Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C. (MarBks Wash DC)

* The “A” in Marine FMF aviation units, with few exceptions,

stands for “aircraft,” not “air.”
A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference 29

Table of Military Organizations (cont.)

U.S. Navy

Third Fleet (Third Flt)

Task Force 38 (TF 38)

Task Group 38.1 (TG 38.1)

Task Unit 38.1.1 (TU 38.1.1)

Task Element 38.1.1.1 (TE 38.1.1.1)

Amphibious Force, Pacific Fleet (Third PhibFor)

Third Amphibious Force (Third PhibFor)

Amphibious Group 4 (PhibGru 4)

Destroyer Squadron 6 (DesRon 6)

Carrier Division 3 (CVDiv 3)

Patrol Wing 22 (PW 22)

Carrier Air Group 1 (CAG-1)*

Fighter Squadron 12 (VF-12)

* Ensure this abbreviation is not confused with the Combined

Action Group.

U.S. Army

Eighth Army*

X Corps

3d Infantry Division or 3d Division (3d InfDiv)

31st Infantry Regiment or 31st Infantry (31st Inf)

4th Airborne Brigade (4th AbnBde)

MEU Service Support Group II (MSSG II)

45th Artillery Regiment or 45th Artillery (45th Art)

Regiment Combat Team 126 (RCT 126)

3d Armored Division (3d ArmdDiv)

1st Cavalry Division (Air mobile) (1st CavDiv(AM))

1st Battalion, 31st Infantry (1st Bn, 31st Inf)

Troop A, 1st Squadron, 2d Armored

Cavalry Regiment (Trp A, 1st Sqdn, 2d ArmdCav)**

Company A (Co A)

1st Platoon (1st Plt)

3d Squad (3d Sqd)

* Do not abbreviate

** In the U.S. Army, company-size units in cavalry regiments are

designated troops and battalion-size units are squadrons.

U.S. Air Force

Fifth Air Force (Fifth AF)

XX Bomber Command (XX BmbrCmd)

313th Air Division (313th AirDiv)

30th Fighter Wing (30th FtrWg)

29th Bombardment Group (29th BmbdtGrp)

26th Fighter Squadron (26th FtrSqdn)
30 A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference

Table of Military Organizations (cont.)

Foreign Military Units

Only abbreviate easily recognized terms, such as “division” or “platoon.” Put all enemy units in italics. The following are examples of

correct designations for some nations with whom Marines have

served or fought.

Australian

First Army 2/22 Battalion (but, the 2/22d)

I Corps No. 5 (Maintenance) Group

7th Division No. 30 (Interceptor-Fighter) Squadron

8th Brigade No. 76 (Transport) Wing

New South Wales Regiment No. 82 (Bomber) Wing

British

Post 1945

3d Commando Brigade, Royal Marines

45 Commando, Royal Marines Guard*

C Squadron, Queen’s Dragoon

1st Battalion, Grenadier Guards

Pre 1945

42d Highlanders (The Black Watch)

43d Regiment of Foot “Gooch’s Marines”

* The British army refers to company-sized armored and cavalry

units as squadrons. Do not alter this usage, but provide an explanatory note to ensure the reader does not confuse a British squadron,

which is a company-size unit, with an American squadron, a battalion-size unit.

Chinese Nationalist (World War II)

IX War Area

XX Group Army

1st Army

36th Division

Honorable 2d Division

4th (Cavalry) Brigade

259th Infantry

1st Battalion, 259th Infantry

Chinese Communist (Korean War)

Chinese Communist Force (CCF)

3d Chinese Communist Forces Field Army

XX CCF Army Group

20th CCF Army
A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference 31

Table of Military Organizations (cont.)

French

1st Army 4th Infantry Brigade

1st Corps 8th Moroccan Infantry

1st Motorized Division

1st Battalion, 8th Moroccan Infantry

1st Hussar (Reconnaissance) Parachute Regiment

2nd Foreign Legion Parachute Regiment

German (World War II)

Army Group B 1st Brigade

First Army 1st Regiment

I Corps 1st Battalion

1st Division

Iraqi

Republican Guard Force Corps*

III Corps

8th Special Assault Brigade

1st “Hammurabi” Armored Division (Republican Guard)*

5th Mechanized Division

94th Infantry Brigade

8th Special Assault Division (Republican Guard)*

1st Motorized Regiment

2nd Battalion

* The Republican Guard is a separate armed service independent of

the Iraqi Army.

Japanese (World War II)

Southern Army 1st Battalion, 228th Infantry

First Area Army Fourth Fleet

Second Army Eleventh Air Fleet

3d Division Destroyer Squadron 6

4th Brigade 5th Air Group

228th Infantry 46th Independent Air Company

New Zealand

3d Division No. 42 Transport Squadron

8th Brigade No. 43 Fighter Squadron

1st Battalion No. 41 Bomber-Reconnaissance Squadron

North Korea (Korean War)

North Korean People’s Army (NKPA)

9th NKPA Regiment

4th NKPA Division
Table of Military Organizations (cont.)

Republic of Korea (Korean War)

I ROK Corps or ROK I Corps 4th ROK Division

Capital ROK Division

1st Korean Marine Corps Regiment or 1st KMC Regiment

Saudi Arabia

1st Division

4th Armored Brigade (MODA)*

2d Saudi Arabian National Guard Mechanized Brigade (2d

SANG)**

Royal Saudi Air Force

* Ministry of Defense and Aviation

** The Saudi Arabian National Guard is a separate organization

with the mission of guarding the holy sites of MECCA and Medina,

the oil facilities, and the royal family.

Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV)

North Vietnamese Army (NVA) Viet Cong (VC) Forces

1st NVA Regiment 40th VC Battalion

Republic of Vietnam (RVN)

Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces (RVNAF)

Army, Republic of Vietnam (ARVN)

Vietnamese Air Force (VNAF)

Vietnamese Marine Corps (VNMC)

Vietnamese Navy (VNN)

I Corps or ARVN I Corps

7th ARVN Division

2d VNMC Battalion

32 A to Z: Alphabetized Quick Reference

verbal See oral, verbal entry.

vessel Vessels keep water in

and ships keep water out. Ships

are not vesels. Use ship, barge,

boat, etc., when referring to a

seagoing vehicle.

watches Refer to the watches

on board by their names and not

by their limiting hours:

First watch (2000-2400),

Mid watch (0000-0400),

Morning watch (0400-0800),

Forenoon watch (0800-1200),

Afternoon watch (1200-1600),

Dog watches (1600-1800, 1800-

2000).

See also Appendix I, Notes on

Writing Naval (not Navy) English.

waver, waiver Waver means to

falter, as in battle; waiver is an

act of relinquishing.

which See that, which entry.

writing For information and

guidelines for writing historical

manuscripts for the Division, see

Chapter 4, Effective Historical

Writing. For a list of reference

and guide materials available to

historical writers, see Appendix

H, References and Guides.
Chapter 1

Introduction

The Marine Corps Historical Program Mission

Everything published by the History and Museums Division should support the Marine Corps Historical Program in some way. The mission of

the Marine Corps Historical Program is to collect, organize, preserve,

and present written, oral, graphic, and three-dimensional materials pertinent to the history of the Marine Corps so as to:

• Provide a significant ingredient to staff planning and command

decisions.

• Provide an essential element of professional education.

• Provide source material for the study and development of military

art and science.

• Give substance to tradition.

• Enhance esprit de corps.

Target Audience. Marine Corps historians write official history.

These works are primarily intended to benefit the Marine Corps. The

secondary and tertiary audiences for History and Museums Division

publications consist of other Federal agencies and the academic community. The general public is another large and important audience. Future

generations will use these accounts decades after publication. The

Marine Corps historian’s overriding concern must be accuracy, completeness, and objectivity.

Definitive Accounts. Marine Corps official histories often are definitive accounts and are used as primary sources by researchers looking

for reliable accounts of specific events, units, or individuals citing primary sources. The Marine Corps historian should mention as many individuals and units as possible for the benefit of these researchers. Full

names, unit designations, dates, times, and precise locations should be

given as often as practical.

Division Publications

To meet the different needs of the various target audiences, the History

and Museums Division publishes works in various formats. The chief

formats used are:

Occasional Papers. These papers are published to disseminate historical information not readily available in other published sources.

Occasional papers are drawn from a variety of sources, including

reprints of out-of-print works, publication of completed works by scholars from outside the Marine Corps, and works on specialized topics

written by Marine Corps historical writers. They are normally sparsely

33

chapter 1
illustrated and are not usually indexed. These papers are not subjected

to the normal rigorous review process. Occasional papers are “semiofficial,” and are not intended to be definitive accounts of the subjects.

Historical Pamphlets. Historical pamphlets are short summaries or

descriptions of particular topics. Although similar in many respects to

“popular” histories, they are official histories. Their brevity precludes

the inclusion of much detail, but the information must be scrupulously

accurate. The inclusion of maps, illustrations, appendices, and an index

depends upon the subject matter and length of the pamphlet.

Book-length Histories. Book-length histories must be scrupulously

accurate, are subject to rigorous substantive and editorial review, and

should provide the reader with a complete view of the subject covered.

While the breadth of the subject will dictate the depth of detail, the

inclusion of names, times, and specific units will make the text more

useful for the scholar and more enjoyable for the reader. These publications are almost invariably indexed, normally contain appendices, and

are often well illustrated. Operational histories should contain maps.

Multivolume Histories. The individual volumes in a series provides

detailed, definitive accounts of lengthy subjects, usually Marine Corps

operations in major wars. These are normally well illustrated, indexed,

contain large numbers of maps, and include standardized appendices.

Multivolume works, normally used for professional and academic study,

are seldom read cover to cover. While every effort should be made to

make the narrative as readable as possible, accuracy and clarity must

not be sacrificed. Subjects covered in other volumes are discussed in a

complementary manner, ensuring there are no gaps between volumes.

Anthologies, Bibliographies, and Chronologies. The

Division publishes a variety of other historical works, including bibliographies, anthologies, and chronologies. In each case, the type of publication and intended audience will dictate the contents and format.

Catalogs and Registers. The History and Museums Division publishes catalogs of its holdings and publications and registers of documents pertaining to Marine Corps history.

Ephemera. The History and Museums Division publishes a variety of

guides, bulletins, and brochures, including this Writing Guide. While

these ephemera comprise a varied lot, each should be easily recognized

as belonging to a family of publications. All publications should follow

this Writing Guide.

Electronic Publications. The History and Museums Division disseminates materials on Marine Corps history in a wide variety of electronic media. Although the materials may vary in length and scope, each

is still an official document and must be scrupulously accurate, and is

subject to rigorous substantive and editorial review.

34 Chapter 1: Introduction

chapter 1
Chapter 2

The Publication Process

The publishing process consists of four stages: collection effort, manuscript preparation, production, and exploitation and distribution. While

writers naturally focus the bulk of their efforts on the collection effort

and manuscript preparation, they play key parts in all stages.

Collection Effort

Collecting Primary Sources. This stage is actually continuous,

dependent upon the routine retirement of documents, the receipt of command chronologies, and the continuing numbers of oral history interviews collected. It is not uncommon, however, for a writer to be

involved in the initial collection effort, particularly in the case of those

persons assigned to act as staff historians for Marine units involved in

contingency operations.

Assignment. This is the first step of the writing process. The

assigned writer is given a topic, with guidance as to the general nature

and approximate length of the final manuscript.

Preliminary Research. With the assignment in mind, the writer

should conduct as much preliminary research as necessary to make an

initial estimate of the project.

Project Directive. The historian, in accordance with the assignment

and initial estimate, prepares this document. The writing directive

describes the assignment, concept, and scope of the writing project. A

tentative outline (which will invariably require adjustment as the project

matures) is included, as well as a suggested target date. After approval

by the Director of Marine Corps History and Museums, this document

constitutes the official tasking for a project. See the Sample Project

Directive section.

Manuscript Preparation

Detailed Research. The assigned historian begins by getting familiar with the historiography of the topic. This process should be relatively brief, ending as soon as the writer has established the key issues in

the extant literature.

GENERAL RESEARCH. This process also should be relatively brief,

ending as soon as the writer has established the key issues in the extant

literature.

SPECIFIC RESEARCH AND WRITING. Once the author has acquired

a broad overview of the subject, the author is ready to begin work on

35

chapter 2
specific chapters and appendices. Generally, the author/writer should try

to research and write concurrently, chapter by chapter. This breaks the

project into manageable chunks and ensures the research process will

not have to be duplicated should another writer be assigned to complete

the project. Usually it is easiest to collect supporting photographs and

maps while researching the narrative. This is also a good time to begin

compiling a list of individuals mentioned in the initial drafts, or familiar

with the events described, to act as reviewers. The author will probably

find that following the guidelines in this section from the start saves

considerable time and trouble. See the Preparing Manuscripts for

Publication paragraph in this section.

Writing the Draft Manuscript. When enough material has been

collected, it is time to begin writing the initial draft. Since the Editing

and Design Section needs a hard copy of the manuscript and a copy on

a floppy disk or CD-ROM, it is generally easiest to write it on a computer or word processor from the start. (See Preparing Manuscripts for

Publication in this section). This also makes it much easier to make the

inevitable revisions. When the manuscript is complete, it should be forwarded to the section head for formal review.

Formal Review. The formal review manuscript should be printed on

plain bond letter-size paper, and will be double-spaced with one-inch

margins. Pages will be numbered. The right margin will not be justified.

The section head and then the Chief Historian will review and revise the

manuscript. Maps, notes, bibliographies, quotes, and appendices are

reviewed and put into the proper format for publication. During this

process, the author will complete the final list of persons to receive the

comment edition.

INFORMATION NOTES (FOOTNOTES). Information notes are part of

the draft and should be placed on or near the page referred to, properly

separated from the text. See footnotes entry for proper formats.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. If the published work will include a bibliography,

include it with the review manuscript. Put the bibliography immediately

before the first reference note. See bibliography entry for proper formats.

REFERENCE NOTES (ENDNOTES). Reference notes, properly keyed

to numbers in the text, should be grouped together at the end of the

manuscript for a brief history, or at the end of each chapter for a major

work. See Appendix D, Endnotes for proper formats.

QUOTES. Any quotation longer than five printed lines should be clearly indented from the body of the text, and presented without quotation

marks. All other quotations will be in the body of the text clearly indicated by quotation marks. See quotes entry for proper formats.

36 Chapter 2: The Publication Process

chapter 2
Comment Edition. After the entire manuscript has been completed,

reviewed, and corrected, it is forwarded to the Director for approval as a

comment edition. After approval, a smooth edition is prepared, reproduced, and distributed to the reviewers. While waiting for the return of

the comment editions, the foreword and preface can be written, and the

glossary and chronology prepared. Also, photographs can be captioned

and integrated. See photographs and captions entries for proper formats.

Revision. Once the comment editions are returned, the appropriate

revisions are made. The desired placement of all maps and photographs

will then be marked. Finally, the complete work is reviewed again for

overall content, flow, style, and format.

Final Review. A Critical Review Board is convened. This ends the

writing phase, but not the author’s involvement in the project.

Production

Copy Editing, Typesetting, Galleys, and Layout. At this

point, the Editing and Design Section assumes responsibility for the

manuscript’s progress. However, the author’s involvement in copyediting, galley correction, and layout will greatly assist the editor.

Printing. The Editing and Design Section prepares a package to be

sent to the Government Printing Office, where printer’s proofs are prepared. Although the proofs are reviewed for accuracy, there should be

no need for any substantive changes or corrections at this stage. Once

the proofs have been approved, printing begins.

Distribution and Exploitation

Distribution. This phase is primarily the Administrative and Logistics

Section’s responsibility, but still requires the author’s involvement. The

author should compile a list of individuals, commentators, organizations, publications, and institutions not included in the normal distribution list that are to receive copies of the book.

Exploitation. Normally, the author will write a “canned” review, an

announcement of publication, and inscribe books sent to addresses on

the Standard and Special Distribution lists.

Preparing Manuscripts for Publication

Electronic Preparation of Manuscripts. Electronic preparation

of manuscripts and automatic conversion from word processing softChapter 2: The Publication Process 37

chapter 2
ware to typesetting software have eliminated the need for extensive

retyping and proofing of manuscripts. This elimination of extra readings, however, places an additional burden upon the writer to ensure the

manuscript conforms to the stylistic requirements set forth in this

Writing Guide.

Word Processing. The first step to electronic manuscript preparation is to become familiar with the Division’s word processing software,

currently Microsoft Word.

Manuscripts should be double-spaced, with one-inch margins.

All words that are to be italicized in the typeset manuscript should be

underlined.

Place footnotes and endnotes in the text using the word processing software.

Writers working outside the Division who do not have Microsoft Word

available to them need not despair; manuscripts prepared with other

programs can be converted to Microsoft Word. Contact the Editing and

Design Section to find out which programs can be converted.

Electronic Editing Tools. The word processors at the History and

Museums Division include two main editing tools: Spell Check and

Thesaurus.

SPELL CHECK AND THESAURUS. Microsoft Word, along with most

other word processing programs, comes with both Spell Check and

Thesaurus functions. These options are easy and convenient to use.

Spell Check has proven to be particularly useful, eliminating most typographical errors as well as the more obvious misspellings. However, this

feature does not remove the need for careful proofreading. Since the

program simply marks words not in its dictionaries, it will not recognize

the improper use of words such as “there,” “their,” and “they’re.”

Submitting Manuscripts

Writers should ensure the manuscript is as error-free as possible before

submitting it for conversion to typesetting software. This includes correcting stylistic and spelling errors, and ensuring there are no factual

errors in the text. It is important the text contain all prescribed editorial

revisions.

The manuscript must be submitted to the Editing and Design Section

both on computer diskettes or CD-ROM and printed copy. Because

some format codes (such as underlining) are not picked up during the

electronic conversion process, the printed version must correspond

exactly with the electronic file version.

38 Chapter 2: The Publication Process

chapter 2
Chapter 3

Historical Research and Writing

The Raw Material

Getting Started. The result of the research effort will be influenced

by the quality and quantity of the source material. The first problem is

locating appropriate sources. This generally begins by reviewing secondary sources touching on the topic (see bibliography entry). The bulk

of the Marine Corps historical writer’s research, however, will involve

primary sources.

Command Chronologies. Since May 1965, all independent units,

and all units of battalion/squadron size or larger, have submitted command chronologies. These are the only routinely submitted documents

specifically intended to provide a historical record. They provide the

bulk of the information for most operational histories. However,

reliance on a single source invariably results in unbalanced histories.

Command chronologies are no exception to this rule. The text of the

chronology is only a summary of the unit’s activities. Supporting documents and other sources provide the details.

Other Primary Sources. The History and Museums Division’s

archives hold documents of historical importance for the Marine Corps

pertaining to many subjects. Retirement schedules can be of great value

in locating both headquarters and field histories. There also is a large

body of material in the Special and Oral History Collection. For a list of

guides and archives, see Appendix H, References and Guides.

Critical Evaluation of Sources

An appropriately critical attitude is important in research. Conflicting

stories or interpretations and errors of fact or judgment are not uncommon in source materials. Such an attitude is of particular importance

when evaluating information received by interview or comment on circulated drafts.

Evaluating Military Sources

Considerations. Military persons, like all human beings, must rely

on a number of tacit assumptions to help them interpret their world.

Different perceptions can cause one person to regard as crucial an event

another discounts as irrelevant. To evaluate military sources properly,

the writer must develop an understanding of the people who created

them.

41

chapter 3
WHY WAS THE DOCUMENT PRODUCED? Consider both the stated

purpose of the document and the perspective of the drafting organization. Is it a routine report? A request for something? An answer to an

urgent question from higher headquarters?

STATISTICS. Statistics, while useful, require special care. Slightly different interpretations of what constitutes the category to be counted,

whether deliberate, unconscious, or accidental, can lead to dramatically

different results. Before comparing statistics from different periods or

units, ascertain if both sets were collected using the same definitions

and methods. A close look at what is counted, and what is not counted,

can also tell you a great deal about the organization you are studying.

WHAT DID THE SOURCE KNOW? Did the writer actually see or

experience the event discussed? Was the writer likely to have access to

accurate information? Remember that military operations often require

people to report before they have a chance to verify or learn all the

facts. For example, a writer should treat a casualty report filed immediately after an action with care, while a similar report written after the

unit has verified and refined its submission is likely to be reliable.

CONFLICTING ACCOUNTS. Every policeman knows if five people

witness an accident, there will be five different accounts of what happened. In combat, this problem is magnified tenfold. Persons in combat

are generally too busy doing their jobs and keeping their heads down to

notice much beyond their immediate surroundings. Stress, chaos, and

fear can distort their senses. It may be impossible to reconcile conflicting accounts.

WHO ACTUALLY WROTE THE DOCUMENT? In modern military

organizations, commanders often sign a bewildering array of orders,

directives, and messages. In practice, staff members write nearly everything. The commander may be legally responsible for everything signed,

but the careful reader will appreciate the difference between a document

the commander personally wrote and closely reviewed, and one at

which the commander may only have glanced.

Most commanders closely review items they consider important, such as

the key sections of operational plans or terse directives. In these cases, a

quote attributed to the commander is not misleading; although the commander did not write the passage, it can be assumed the commander

personally approved it. Routine reports and messages often receive only

a cursory glance before the commander signs them. When quoting from

these documents, a phrase such as “General Jones approved” or “I MEF

42 Chapter 3: Historical Research and Writing

chapter 3
headquarters sent” is more accurate than “General Jones said.” Of

course, different commanders have different styles. The writer will find

it worthwhile to learn the reviewing habits of principal figures.

The Tentative Outline

Preliminary reading and discussion should enable the writer to develop

a tentative project outline. This need not be so complete or detailed as a

writing outline. In all likelihood, a first outline will go through many

revisions as new vistas open in the course of research. The outline

should be sufficiently developed, however, to focus attention on the purpose of the work and avoid time-consuming tangents.

Research

The Working Bibliography. The working bibliography is a compilation of all the raw materials (books, periodical articles, and documentary and personal sources) that appear to be of potential use for a project. Like the tentative outline, the working bibliography should be

amended as the work progresses until it serves as the basis for the final

bibliography or bibliographical essay in the finished work.

Note Taking. Normally 5 x 8-inch file cards are used to take notes.

Other systems, including computers, are used by many historians, and

are discussed in Appendix H, References and Guides. The exact format

is unimportant as long as it is consistent. Notes should be complete and

legible so other writers can use them. Regardless of the format adopted,

all notes must include the following information:

Subject

Dates covered

Dates produced

Source citation

Remarks and cross-references

For more detailed information and suggestions on the best way to

record the bibliography and notes, see Appendix C, The Mechanics of

Research.

Working Outline and Manuscript Preparation

Starting to Write. The time will come when research on the project,

or more likely a segment of the project, is as complete as possible or

desirable. Working from the tentative outline and the interim subject

headings assigned, the writer should arrange the material such that a

Chapter 3: Historical Research and Writing 43

chapter 3
working outline for the narrative will suggest itself. Once the writer is

satisfied with the quantity, quality, and coverage of the raw material, it

is time to start writing.

44 Chapter 3: Historical Research and Writing

chapter 3
Chapter 4

Effective Historical Writing

Write for a Wide Audience. One of the primary goals of Marine

Corps official history is the development of a narrative the general public can read and understand. Marine Corps histories are not intended to

be “in-house” documents meant only for a limited readership familiar

with the military jargon and staff language of the moment. Historical

writers, particularly those who have had a career of writing and reading

official correspondence and reports, should familiarize themselves with

the elements of style and readability.

Official Marine Corps history is ordinarily written using third person,

active voice and past tense. Marine Corps histories, in general, are

chronological narratives. The text should be objective, readable and

above all accurate. Positive statements read better than negative statements. Short sentences are preferable to long ones, but either can

become monotonous with continuous use. Mixing them for a change of

pace will produce rhythmic, balanced paragraphs that can be read aloud

without sounding stilted. See Appendix B, Suggestions for Good

Writing, or refer to one of the books listed in Appendix H, References

and Guides section.

Parts, Chapters, and Sections. Historical works published by the

Division are subdivided in one of three ways. Major works of booklength are broken into parts, chapters, and sections. In instances where

the material is particularly cohesive, the writer may eliminate parts and

divide the work into chapters, each of which may comprise several sections. In short monographs or pamphlets, only a subdivision into sections may be required. Ensure all titles for parts, chapters, and sections

are descriptive of the subject matter.

Introductions. Marine Corps histories normally do not contain formal introductions or long lead-ins to the subject of the manuscript. As a

matter of style, the text seldom contains long expository introductions.

Titles. To ensure correct cataloging, the formal title of all works published by the Division will usually contain the words “U.S. Marines” or

“Marine Corps” followed by a short, descriptive phrase describing the

subject as accurately as possible. A pithy phrase may be added as a subtitle. Examples include: The U.S. Marines in Vietnam: The Bitter End,

1973-1975 or Blacks in the Marine Corps.

43

chapter 4
Terms to Avoid. Do not use redundant expressions, highly stylized or

little used words, foreign words or expressions and profanity. Steer clear

of military and bureaucratic clichés. Slang, jargon and idiomatic words

should also be avoided, particularly words peculiar to the Marine Corps

and the naval service.

The proper use of naval terms adds spice to the narrative. However, no

naval or nautical term that is incomprehensible to the average landlubber should be used. Some terms that require special attention are:

aboard — the position of objects in relation to a ship. It does not mean

joined or embarked. Example: The USS Coontz drew close aboard

(within 600 yards), forcing our ship to steer clear.

on board — joined or embarked. Example: The wardroom of the Coontz

welcomed Ensign Jones on board.

vessel — ships are not vessels. Vessels keep water in and ships keep

water out.

Essential Content. Always adhere to the basic Five Ws and H rule,

which requires the manuscript address: Who, What, When, Where, Why,

and How. Marine Corps historians need to ensure these questions are

answered in detail.

Include full names, ranks and billets of as many participants as possible

(see ranks entry). Mention all units involved and state times and locations as exactly as possible (see units entry). For units that operated outside the normal chain-of-command, make the command relationships

clear. The names and ranks of individuals, designations for units to at

least regimental level and the complete date should be included as often

as feasible to ensure readers do not have to search the entire text.

Character Development. The development of key personalities

provides valuable context and makes otherwise dry narrative more readable. For minor characters, this requirement can often be handled by a

simple phrase, e.g., “Major Short, who in 1956 was the first man to loop

a helicopter, flew the first troops into the fire-swept LZ” or, “The battalion commander, a rugged All-American tackle when he attended

Georgia Tech, believed in physical fitness.” For major personalities,

those who played key roles in the events being described, provide

enough information to give the reader an insight into their character and

thought process. Here, as elsewhere, when a person is first introduced,

he or she should be identified by rank, first name, middle initial, nickname in quotation marks if significant, last name, and service if not

USMC or USMCR; e.g., Colonel Justice M. “Jumping Joe” Chambers.

44 Chapter 4: Effective Historical Writing

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Military Decorations. It is poor form to refer to an individual as

having “won” a decoration or award, implying there was a contest,

when in fact there was nothing of the sort. Alternative words or phrases

are “received,” “was awarded,” “was decorated for,” “was recognized

by,” “a recipient of,” etc. See decorations entry.

Casualties. Do not use the word “only” when referring to casualties,

such as “the battalion suffered only three dead and nine wounded.” This

trivializes the enormous sacrifice of those killed and wounded. If you

need to emphasize that few casualties occurred, use a phrase along the

lines of “the division suffered far fewer casualties than it had expected.”

Information Footnotes

Any information considered vital to the proper understanding of the

story should be in the text and not buried in the footnotes. The writer

can use information or explanatory footnotes, however, to improve the

flow of the narrative by removing nonessential but pertinent material

from the text, while providing it to the reader. Keep information footnotes for cross-referencing purposes to a minimum. Footnotes may,

however, be used when there is a need to inform the reader that a certain important subject will be covered in later pages or to remind the

reader it has already been examined. In a series such as U.S. Marines in

Vietnam, reference to a subject discussed in earlier volumes or projected

for future volumes may be appropriate. See footnotes entry for proper

format.

Style Resources and References

Style and Spelling. The basic guide to the mechanics of style is the

U.S. Government Printing Office Style Manual (an online, searchable

version is available at: www.gpoaccess.gov). In cases where this Writing

Guide and the GPO Style Manual conflict, Marine Corps historical writers will follow this Writing Guide.

For spelling, the GPO Style Manual is the first guide. If GPO does not

specify a preferred spelling, use the Webster’s New Collegiate

Dictionary. The ultimate authority will be Webster’s Third New

International Dictionary.

Geography. For geographic names, consult the official names

approved by the U.S. Board on Geographic Names (available online at:

www.usgs.gov). These spellings generally are consistent with those

found on maps in use within the U.S. Armed Forces.

Chapter 4: Effective Historical Writing 45

chapter 4
Military Terms and Abbreviations. The current edition of JCS

Pub 1, Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated

Terms (available for online search at: www.dtic.mil) is the authority for

the definition and usage of military terms, particularly those in joint

usage by the various components of the Department of Defense.

Information this publication fails to provide should be brought to the

attention of the Chief Historian (As an example, following the publication of FMFM 9-2 in 1981, landing vehicles tracked [LVTs] are properly identified as assault amphibious vehicles [AAVs], and this change

also is reflected in the DoD List of Acceptable Abbreviations and Terms.

Thus, assault amphibian battalions employ assault amphibious vehicles.

It follows that the acronym “LVT” must be confined to historical references prior to 1981). Also note FMFRPO-14, the Marine Corps

Supplement to the DoD List of Acceptable Abbreviations and Terms.

Historical Ranks and Titles. The U.S. Services have used many

different ranks and titles over their histories. Try to use the term used

during the period under discussion; if it might confuse modern readers,

explain the term in the text or in a footnote. For Marine Corps ranks

before 1970, consult United States Marine Corps Ranks and Grades,

1775-1969, a historical reference pamphlet published by the Historical

Division, HQMC. See ranks and titles entries for examples of ranks and

titles commonly found in Marine Corps history.

46 Chapter 4: Effective Historical Writing

chapter 3 chapter 4
Chapter 5

Oral History

Creating Oral Histories

When and Who to Interview. Most research will involve the written word in published works or unpublished documents. However, many

questions raised in the course of research cannot be answered from conventional sources. Official records, for instance, often lack local or personal color. Often, there are people whose knowledge or experience can

help fill the information gaps. It is wise, therefore, in the course of routine research, to note the names of individuals whose memories may

assist the writer when official records and other sources are lacking.

Preparing for the Interview. If the interviewer determines that a

certain individual should be interviewed, the event should not be

approached as an opportunity for a pleasant social conversation or to

tell sea stories, although these elements may serve as a preface to the

interview itself. Whenever possible, for complete accuracy, record the

interview on tape. Thoroughly familiarize yourself with the events to be

discussed and attempt to determine the interviewee’s degree of involvement.

Conducting the Interview. If possible, provide a list of relevant

questions or a suggested topical outline to the interviewee ahead of

time. During the interview, phrase queries so as to encourage full

answers. Do not hesitate to depart from the prepared questions to pursue

a train of thought that seems to lead in a useful direction. Often, one’s

first question or two will elicit a lengthy discourse, during which the

interviewee answers a number of other questions. Try not to ask questions that have already been answered; simply cross them off the list.

Avoid interrupting the interviewee, but the interviewer may politely

have to cut off an interviewee who rambles or repeats himself. Write

down additional questions that occur to you during the interview.

Compiling a running glossary of proper names and place names mentioned is invaluable for further research and transcribing. Constant

scribbling may distract the interviewee, so keep note taking as inconspicuous as possible.

Putting the Interview into a Useable Form. No one’s memory

is infallible. The interviewee’s remarks should be checked against the

written record wherever possible to verify details of dates, names, and

places. If at all possible, a summary of the interview should be prepared

as soon as possible and a copy provided to the interviewee to enable

him to edit, correct, amend, or add to the record as he sees fit, and to

sign it. If a transcript of a recorded interview is made it should be edited

by the interviewer only for typographical errors and misspelled names.

47

chapter 5
A copy of the transcript should then be made available to the interviewee for additions or deletions, corrections, and signature. The interviewer may also play the tape back following the interview so the interviewee may correct comments or add information.

Adding the Interview to the Historical Record. Furnish copies

of any notes you may transcribe from interview tapes to the Oral

History section. Ensure these notes include full names, dates, and unit

designations. Both interviewer and the interviewee may know who

“Bob” was or when “the day after I arrived in country” was, but future

researchers almost certainly will not.

Further Reference. Before conducting oral history interviews, read

Benis M. Frank’s A “Do-It-Yourself” Oral History Primer (Washington,

D.C.: Hist&Mus Div, HQMC, 1982).

Additional guidance for conducting and recording official oral histories,

as well as downloadable forms you need to document and submit

recorded histories, are available through the Oral History Section or

from the History and Museums Division Web site at

www.history.usmc.mil.

Using Oral Histories

Feelings and Impressions. As noted above, oral histories are generally most useful for reconstructing individual feelings and impressions. This is also the area in which most people’s memory is most reliable. On the other hand, people are apt to forget specific facts. Many

people cannot remember what day they arrived at boot camp or the

name of their first drill instructor, but almost everyone can remember

how they felt that first day.

Specific Information. In general, names, places, units, or dates

mentioned by the interviewee should be checked against some other

source. Even an obviously memorable fact may be slightly inaccurate;

for example, an interviewee may recall something happening on

Christmas Day that actually happened a few days after Christmas.

Recollections of Combat. These are some of the most valuable

oral histories, but they also require the most care. An individual’s sense

of time is notoriously unreliable during combat; frequently participants

cannot even agree on the order in which events occurred. Combatants

also tend to be preoccupied with their own part in the struggle, giving

them a fragmented, narrow view of the battle. Reconstructing a battle

requires a judicious mix of recollections and written records.

Sea Stories. Often memories will be unconsciously altered or embellished over the years to improve their dramatic effect. Such tales can be

illustrative, and certainly liven up any text. However, they should seldom be accepted as the literal truth.

48 Chapter 5: Oral History

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Chapter 6

Preparing Maps

General

This chapter is the definitive guide for the preparation of maps to be

included within History and Museums Division publications.

Rationale. Pages of text can never show relative positions or describe

a unit’s movement as well as a single map. In general, it is better to err

by including maps that are not strictly necessary than to omit one that is

required. All locations mentioned in the text should either be shown on

a map or easily deduced from points shown on the map. For example,

“they were attacked 300 meters north of Dai Do” is perfectly acceptable

as long as Dai Do is shown on the map.

Writing Clearly. Good maps relieve both writer and reader of the

burden of plowing through lengthy passages describing a unit’s location.

However, while there is no substitute for a good map, the presence of a

map cannot excuse murky narrative. Constantly flipping between map

and text is just as annoying as struggling to follow intricate directions.

Maps should be used as a tool, not a crutch.

Style. Each map must be compatible with both other maps in the same

volume and in the operational history series. Maps must also complement the text by identifying the significant locations mentioned and by

relating them to easily recognized places.

Procedures. The following general procedures will help the author

prepare maps for operational histories.

a. Draft maps showing the principal locations and the unit activity to be

outlined will be prepared either while drafting the manuscript or when

reviewing and proofreading the initial galley proof. This early preparation will allow selected maps to be distributed with the comment editions. 

b. Outline maps showing the coastline, principal roads, railroads, major

cities, and political subdivisions have been prepared in a 1:250,000 or

smaller scale for many areas. These are available on paper or acetate. If

a relatively large area is to be shown on the map, the historian can mark

its location on these sheets indicating the major features to be labeled.

Use of the acetate simplifies this as these features are traced directly

from the small-scale map. The Editing and Design Section will then

49

chapter 6
make the finished map by redrawing a smooth product from the draft,

enlarging or reducing it as necessary to fit the page, and labeling the

indicated features with properly sized letters.

c. If maps of larger scale are needed to magnify a relatively small area,

locate the area on a large-scale (1:25,000 or 1:50,000) map and trace the

desired features (hills, hamlets, road rivers, etc.) on overlay or other

transparent paper. Include coordinates and, if possible, at least one wellknown location to permit easy identification of the area. Pay careful

attention to the way troop movements are shown. Successive maps

showing the disposition every few hours or days may be necessary to

support the text and present a clear picture.

d. Occasionally, even a large-scale map may not provide sufficient

detail to support the account of a small unit action. In such cases, prepare a sketch relying on materials uncovered in your research to illustrate the location of the hills, hamlets, streams, or other features significant in the action. Estimate distances and establish a suitable overall

scale.

Specifics. The following listing covers specific features required on

all finished maps.

a. BORDER. All map borders are two points in width.

b. BRIDGES. Where the scale permits, significant bridges—particularly

those mentioned in the text—are shown using a bridge symbol.

c. HILLS AND MOUNTAINS. Hills and mountains are denoted by

hachures surrounding the figures of the metric elevation on the crest.

Ridgelines should show significant peaks. All heights mentioned in the

text must be shown.

d. LEGEND. The legend is contained in a box large enough to include a

description title and the map scale. The border is two points in width.

The title is not restricted to one line, and should show the “who, what,

when and where” of the map. The scale is drawn under the title, and

must be of sufficient length to be used with the map. Scales for all maps

in a volume should be identical in width (relatively fine, not coarse or

heavy) and of approximately the same length. Both titles and scales are

centered within the legend box.

e. NORTH ARROW. All maps must include a geographical north arrow.

Style and size must be compatible in each volume of a series.

f. ORIENTATION. All writing on maps will be oriented so it can be

read either from the bottom or from the right margin of the page.

g. PLACE NAMES. Only those place names that are required for orientation and/are mentioned in the text are shown on the map.

h. ROADS. Label roads with appropriate route numbers. When a road

50 Chapter 6: Preparing Maps

chapter 3 chapter 6
intersects or branches, place appropriate route numbers on both sides of

the junction to avoid confusion. Lines depicting roads are narrow and

neatly drawn.

i. WATER AREAS. The name of a large body of water should be placed

inside the water area. Smaller area such as streams should have the

name placed on the watercourse, legible when viewed from the bottom

or right of the page.

j. REDUNDANCY. Take special care to avoid redundancy in the use of

foreign names; e.g., Song Tra Bong literally translated is River Tra

Bong, so Song Tra Bong River would be redundant.

k. SIZE. Finished maps generally are eight inches high and six inches

wide. In preparing draft maps, you are not confined to these dimensions.

The Editing and Design Section will redraw maps and adjust your draft

to the correct size. The relative proportions, however, should be borne

in mind. Normally, the right and left geographic margins will parallel

the north-south axis.

Map Symbols

This section provides the essential information about the use of military

mapping symbols. The references describe symbols used in conjunction

with military maps and sketches. As with naval messages, the underlying principles for making maps are clarity, brevity, and accuracy.

General. All movement, tactical, and topographical symbols must be

explained. This can be done in the legend if only one or two maps are

included; otherwise, add an appendix of map symbols.

Topographic Symbols. See FM 101-5-1 Operational Terms and

Symbols. The one History and Museums Division exception in this case

is the use of hachures instead of contour lines to show hills and mountains.

Tactical Symbols. General arrangement of components: (* indicates

those required at a minimum).

These six components will be described in (a) through (f), as well as

Chapter 6: Preparing Maps 51

chapter 6
symbols to illustrate location and activity. When depicted with this format, enemy units are indicated with a doubled type symbol (a), allied

units are indicated by the description (d).

a. TYPE, basic unit symbols:

b. FUNCTION/BRANCH, inside basic symbol:

(1) single branch

52 Chapter 6: Preparing Maps

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(2) combined branches

(3) role indicator

c. SIZE, top of basic symbol:

d. DESCRIPTION, placed underneath the basic symbol to show service,

country, or equipment:

* Both references (c) and (d) provide different examples for indicating

amphibious units. In the latter, Marine Corps Combat Development

Chapter 6: Preparing Maps 53

chapter 6
Command (MCCDC) uses waves across the basic unit symbol to indicate amphibious assault units and waves below the symbol to indicate

amphibious capable units.

e. DESIGNATION, left side of basic symbol with name, number or letter:

f. COMMAND RELATION, right side of basic symbol, generally name,

number or letter of next higher unit:

(1) by table of organization

(2) attachment or detachment, place to the right of basic symbol

(3) as task organized

(4) Marine Air-Ground Task Forces (MAGTFs)

54 Chapter 6: Preparing Maps

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g. LOCATION, from the bottom of the basic symbol to precise location:

For large-scale maps a square indicates a permanent location, while a

circle indicates a temporary location.

h. ACTIVITIES, used in conjunction with military symbols to indicate

movement and action. Planned vice actual activities are indicated by

using dashed lines:

(1) attack/withdraw, either solid or open

(2) defense, for large-scale maps a circle or square can be used for permanent and temporary locations; on a small-scale map the actual outline

of the position is used:

locations:

strongpoints:

Chapter 6: Preparing Maps 55

chapter 6
(3) control measure, basic:

boundaries:

56 Chapter 6: Preparing Maps

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Appendix A

Sample Project Directive

5750

HDH1:dad

16Aug91

From: Director

To: Capt David A. Dawson 123 45 6789/0302/9678 USMC

Subj: PROJECT DIRECTIVE FOR “PROPOSED TITLE” (TYPE

OF PUBLICATION)

1. Assignment: You are responsible for researching, writing, and editing

a monograph history (occasional paper, volume of a series) of Proposed

Title. (See Chapter 2, The Publication Process).

2. Concept: Provide a preliminary account of the activities of Marine

Forces in support of Proposed Title from 1 Jan 19XX-31 Dec 19XX.

This narrative will be the basis for a more formal work later.

3. Scope: The following consideration shall apply in this assignment:

a. The principal sources of information will be oral history

interviews, personal experiences, photographs, primary source material,

special action reports, command histories, and command chronologies,

etc., (appropriate sources). (See Chapter 3, Historical Research and

Writing and Chapter 5, Oral History).

b. Writing style will be in accordance with the Historical

Center’s Writing Guide.

c. The volume will include maps and be illustrated with photographs, artwork, and graphics (as appropriate) to support the narrative.

(See Chapter 6, Preparing Maps and the captions entry).

d. Subject matter will include the items in paragraph 4 below.

57
4. Subject Outline: (This is a tentative, minimal outline, which will

invariably require revision as the work progresses.)

5. Time Schedule: The target date for the completed manuscript is 16

Aug 2004.

John W. Ripley

Colonel

U.S. Marine Corps, Retired

Director of Marine Corps History and Museums

58 Appendix A: Sample Project Directive
Appendix B

Suggestions for Good Writing

There are no “laws” for effective writing. The following guidelines are

intended as an aid for the assistance of writers, to be followed when

applicable and modified when necessary.

An Outline Comes First. Two basic problems face the Marine

Corps historical writer, as well as anybody else involved in a writing

effort: (1) What to say?; (2) How to say it? The first calls for preliminary decisions based on selection. Competent research will always give

you much more material than you can use. It is your job to process it by

selecting the items that will best combine to give a full picture of your

topic. Preparing of an outline is an essential first step in writing as well

as in research. It is the writer’s blueprint.

Accuracy and Objectivity. Your narrative must be clear, simple,

and readable. Generations of writers have affirmed that the elements of

good writing are unity, coherence, and emphasis. A fourth element takes

precedence for the military writer, and that is accuracy. You must tell all

the pertinent facts with a strict regard for the evidence. Even when you

have to deal with an unsavory subject, it is your duty to tell what happened. It is not your privilege, however, to interpose your opinion.

Objectivity is an essential element of military historical writing. If value

judgments are called for, they should be those of participants and

responsible parties in the actions described.

Those Six Little Words. Remember that one fact is worth a dozen

adverbs. If an operation deserves such praise-words as “boldly” or

“overwhelmingly,” the facts will usually speak for themselves. Writers,

whatever their experience, do well to keep in mind the six little words:

Who?; What?; Why?; When?; Where?; and How? These questions cannot be answered satisfactorily in an account of a military operation

without taking into consideration such factors as staff work, command

decisions, logistics, supporting arms, enemy capabilities, terrain, and

weather. The frontline troops are but the spearhead of any operation. In

a balanced narrative, it is equally important to record the activities that

prepare for and support combat.

It Takes Teamwork. Most historical projects require the efforts of a

team to accomplish the necessary research, writing, and editing. The

result should be a homogeneous, smoothly flowing narrative that blends

the efforts of several writers. Everyone must adhere to the approach and

style prescribed for the project. There is no better way of learning the

writing pattern of others than by editing their first-draft chapters.

Writers are notoriously poor editors of their own copy, since they must

read it while it is still “warm.” A colleague can often point out undetected errors, from misspelling and inconsistencies to fractured syntax.

59
Intramural Editing. Thorough editing is the key to successful writing. Historical writers are expected to be critical, yet constructive, in

commenting on the works of colleagues.

Clarity. As a rule of thumb, if an experienced editor objects to the way

something is written, or fails to understand what the author thinks he is

saying, the passage probably should be rewritten. If two people have

questions about a passage, it most certainly needs to be changed. In

rewriting, however, never lose sight of the objective of accuracy; it

overrides all other considerations.

When to Use Quotations. Nothing is more dramatic and informative than the exact words of a combatant or an acknowledged expert.

Quotations should normally be from primary sources rather than secondary, i.e., from a participant or direct observer of the event. Above all,

and especially in indirect quotations, the writer must be certain the

meaning intended by the person quoted is conveyed exactly. Plagiarism

is the writer’s unforgivable sin. You must give proper credit when using

the words, ideas, artwork, etc., of another. The use of copyrighted material beyond “fair academic use” in work for publication requires the permission of the copyright holder; if there is any doubt, check with someone familiar with copyright law.

Modifiers and Qualifiers. Use modifiers sparingly; write with

nouns and verbs. As a general rule, omit all modifiers that may be

assumed and use only those that enhance action, interest, or meaning.

Avoid the use of qualifiers.

Biography. Readers are quickly bored by lengthy passages describing

the progress of an abstract body, but will eagerly turn the page to discover what befell a group of individuals. Incorporate biographical detail

into your narrative and make the names mentioned come alive. Remind

your reader and yourself that history is not the story of battalions and

regiments but of the men and women who comprised those units.

Length of the Narrative. Often the intended publishing format will

dictate the approximate length of your text. For example, a 500-page

manuscript entitled A Brief History of the Sixth Marines may be too

long. A good rule to follow is that given by the King of Hearts to the

White Rabbit in Alice in Wonderland:

“Begin at the beginning

and go on till you come to the end;

then stop.”

60 Appendix B: Suggestions for Good Writing
Appendix C

The Mechanics of Research

The Working Bibliography

Recording Bibliographic Information. The best way to keep a

working bibliography is to list each source on a separate card, preferably a 5 x 8-inch file card. Some historians find computers more convenient for both working bibliographies and note taking. The method

used for these tasks is unimportant, as long as the information is completely and accurately recorded in a useful form. Ensure your notes are

complete and legible. Should you be reassigned or unable to complete

the project, the next author will not have to duplicate your research.

Bibliography Cards. The notation on the working bibliography card

should include all the information needed for a full bibliographic reference. In addition, the card should show the physical location of the

item—the call numbers of publications or file numbers of documents—

to facilitate quick access to the item. A further refinement of the working bibliography card may include a short title or abbreviation for identifying the work so the full notation is not needed on each note card.

Finally, the working bibliography card should contain a note on the content of the work and an appraisal of its ultimate value to the project.

Note Taking

Note Cards. Normally 5 x 8-inch file cards are used to take notes.

Other systems, including computers, are used by many historians, and

are discussed in Appendix H, References and Guides, but note cards are

recommended for the novice historian. The exact format is unimportant

as long as it is consistent. As with bibliography cards, notes should be

complete and legible so other writers can use them. Regardless of the

format adopted, all notes must include the following information:

SUBJECT. A brief title describing the subject the note refers to, broad

enough to allow notes to be grouped by subject but narrow enough to

provide a useful distinction between other notes. When in doubt, use a

broader subject heading. Subdivisions, if needed, can be assigned later.

DATES COVERED. The historical period the note refers to. Be as precise as possible.

DATE PRODUCED. Note when the source for the note was created, be

it the date a quote was uttered, a document written, or a book published.

(Information cited in secondary sources was often produced years

before that source was written. Find the date of the primary source.)

SOURCE CITATION. The source must be completely and accurately

recorded. The short title from the bibliography card and a page number

61
will usually suffice. However, a document in an archive will need considerably more information. See the reference notes examples in

Appendix D, Endnotes to see how much information is needed for a

given type of source. When in doubt, too much is better than too little.

REMARKS/CROSS-REFERENCES. Include any cross-references or

other necessary information.

Guidelines. A few rules to keep in mind while taking notes:

If it is worth remembering, write it down. Worth, of course, implies a

value judgment. It is taken for granted the preliminaries to actual note

taking will have qualified you to decide what should be recorded. Do

not trust your memory under any circumstances for documentation of

research. Adherence to the tentative outline and consultation with colleagues will help you maintain a sense of proportion. The publication

schedule of the project assigned is a good guide in limiting the amount

of time that can be spent on any given aspect.

If it is worth writing down, do it thoroughly and accurately. It is bothersome and time-consuming to write from incomplete notes. The most

reliable method of note taking is to copy verbatim the important elements of the work under study. Sometimes, because of the nature of the

material, a summary or rephrasing is in order, but only when the exact

words of the source will not be necessary in later analysis or writing.

Quotes and paraphrases. Scrupulous use of quotation marks in setting

verbatim material apart from summaries or interpretations in notes will

avoid many difficulties. When it is necessary to clarify the text or to

supply a missing element, brackets [ ] are used, not parentheses ( ),

which could be misread as part of the quotation (See brackets entry).

Ensure paraphrases are worded very differently from the original source

to prevent the appearance of plagiarism.

Keep an orderly file of research notes. The best way to keep order in

what will eventually be a welter of facts, dates, figures, and names is to

regard each bit of information as an entity unto itself. Each fact, or at

the very most a few closely related facts, should be recorded separately.

As noted, most writers find 5 x 8-inch file cards the most convenient

method of recording notes. To facilitate continuing research and keep

related items together, use the tentative outline for interim subject headings and the notes filed for future use.

Do not mark documents. Refrain from marking or making editorial or

subjective comments on original documents and on works considered

archival in nature. You should not remove or separate a specific document from a general file or remove fasteners that hold the file together.

If it is absolutely necessary to remove an item from a file, you must be

scrupulous about returning it to the proper place. Pages of books and

magazines should not be marked or torn.

62 Appendix C: The Mechanics of Research
Appendix D

Endnotes

Complete documentation is a firm requirement for all Marine Corps historical works and includes page citations of specific sources shown in

notes at the end of the text. Bibliographies or bibliographic essays may

be used to supplement the information in the endnotes of extensive

studies. In all cases, Marine Corps histories will include sufficient information regarding a source in endnotes or bibliographies, or in a combination of the two, to enable the reader to identify and locate the materials. While there are similarities between endnote and bibliographical

citations, the formats vary.

Marine Corps historical writers use compendium and reference notes to

document text. These endnotes are used to give credit to sources of

information, whether quoted directly or paraphrased. The writer must

determine whether to use a compendium note, a series of reference

notes, or both.

Compendium Endnotes

The compendium endnote is a space-saving device. As a general rule, it

applies to an entire chapter or major subdivision thereof and lists

sources that were consulted frequently and which otherwise would be

cited repetitively. List only basic sources in a compendium note; it is

not a vehicle for listing every source consulted. When there are no general sources underlying the text and the writer has pieced the narrative

together from a variety of sources, a compendium note is obviously

inappropriate.

If particular quotations, facts, or statistics used in the text are drawn

from sources listed in the compendium note, the writer must still document them with a reference note.

The exact order in which to cite sources in a compendium note is necessarily the writer’s decision. Generally, documents are cited first, then

letters, reports and oral histories of individuals, and finally, published

works. Within each element, the citation of sources should be in

descending order of importance or, in the case of individual officers as

authors, in descending order of military rank.

Do not mark compendium notes in the text. Place them first in the chapter or section to which they apply, before any numbered reference notes.

63
Example of placement in the back of a monograph:

NOTES

Chapter 1

The Call for Marines

Unless otherwise noted, the material in this chapter is derived from:

MilHistBr, Office of the Secretary, General Staff, Hq, USMACV,

ComdHist, 1965, 20Apr66, hereafter MACV ComdHist, 1965; 9th MEB

ComdD, Mar65; MAG-16 ComdD 16Jan-Mar65, 8Apr65; HQMC Msg

File; CNO, Flag Plot Msg File, Jan-Mar65 (OAB, NHD), hereafter Flag

Plot File; Vietnam Comment File; BGen Frederick J. Karch intvw,

15Jan72, Tape 1234 (Oral HistColl, MCHC, Washington, D.C.), hereafter Karch intvw; Department of Defense, United States-Vietnam

Relations, 1956-1967, 12 bks (Washington: GPO), hereafter Pentagon

Papers with appropriate section title and book, and section, volume or

tab, and page number; LtCol John J. Cahill and Jack Shulimson,

“History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in Vietnam, January-June

1965,” (HistDiv, HQMC, 1966), hereafter Cahill and Shulimson

“USMC Ops RVN, Jan-Jun65;” and from Jack Shulimson, “U.S.

Marines in Vietnam, Introduction,” in LtCol Ralph F. Moody et al.,

“Marines in Vietnam, 1954-May 1968,” ms, 8 pts (Hist&MusDiv,

HQMC, 1970), hereafter, Shulimson, “U.S. Marines in Vietnam,

Introduction.”

Example of how compendium notes may be used to give full bibliographical data on frequently cited major sources and to establish short

titles for them. You may also include the locations of manuscript and

document collections in a compendium note, and need not repeat this

information thereafter.

Alert and Realert

1. BGen Frederick J. Karch presentation to the Command and Staff

College, MCS, Quantico, 27May65, Tape 1235 (Oral HistColl, MCHC,

Washington, D.C.), hereafter Karch Presentation.

2. See MCCC, Items of Significant Interest for 20 and 31Jan65.

The Beginning of the Bombing and the Sending of the HAWKS

3. Washington Post and Times Herald, 8Feb65, p. 1.

4. Capt Ronald G. Richardson intvw by MCS Quantico, 8Feb66, No. 50

(Oral HistColl, MCHC, Washington, D.C.).

5. “The Rolling Thunder Program Begins,” Pentagon Papers, bk 4, sec

IV-C-3, p. xii.

64 Appendix D: Endnotes
Compendium Note for an Entire Book. In many cases, an entire

history will be based on certain basic sources that the writer will frequently cite and for which the writer may want to establish short titles

and citations. This can be done in a compendium note. Place the compendium note for the volume as a whole before any other notes and

before the first chapter title in the endnotes. Materials cited in this note

apply to the entire book and need not be referred to again in other compendium notes applying only to specific parts, chapters, or sections.

Use compendium notes with care. While compendium notes are

extremely helpful, use them with judgment and restraint. Citation of

works not extensively used, or works that are not major and basic

source material, needlessly pad the documentation section and mislead

the reader.

Reference Endnotes

The most common method for citing source material is through the use

of reference notes. The following general rules apply to reference notes

and to any specific citation of sources that are incorporated in information or compendium notes:

Complete information must be given as necessary the first time a source

is cited to identify and locate the reference material if no other provisions are made.

Abbreviations, both military and bibliographical, will be used in citing

sources. See abbreviations entry.

Capitalization in reference notes will follow the same general rules of

that apply in the text.

Do not repeat location information in the reference note if it is incorporated in the bibliography or in a compendium note.

Number reference notes consecutively within each research paper or

within each chapter for larger works. Notes start with (1) at the beginning of each chapter. If a chapter is divided into sections, numbering

does not restart with (1) in each section even if the section begins with a

compendium note.

Discursive material, as well as citations of sources, may be contained in

a reference note. If the discursive material predominates, it should precede the citation. If the note is mainly archival, the discursive portion

should follow the citation. If the discursive portion of the note is a quotation or abstraction from source material, the source citation must be

clearly indicated in a manner that will not allow it to be confused with

any other citations in the note.

Place reference notes on separate pages immediately following the text

in final manuscripts and published histories. Label this portion of the

Appendix D: Endnotes 65
manuscript or publication “Notes.” Ensure it contains all chapter and

section headings properly interspersed with the reference notes. Notes

will be single spaced within the body of each note, with two spaces

between notes.

Copy the titles and usage verbatim from the title page or appropriate

sections of the actual document when citing from any document. If this

information is inaccurate, clarify with an explanatory note.

Example, if an official manual inadvertently listed the wrong date on

the title page, the publication information would list the printed date and

provide an explanatory note:

U.S. Navy, Landing Party Manual, OPNAV P34-03 (Washington, D.C.,

dtd 1860 [typo-actually 1960]), p. 34.

If citing the History and Museums Division as the originator of reference material when the publication information is absent or incomplete,

use the designations:

HistDiv, HQMC [prior to 1952]

HistBr, G-3 Div, HQMC [1952-1969]

HistDiv, HQMC [1969-1973]

Hist&MusDiv, HQMC [1973-2003]

Hist&MusDiv, MCHC [2004-present]

For materials held under the cognizance of the History and Museums

Division, give the location as Marine Corps Historical Center (MCHC),

Washington, D.C. If mentioned in a compendium note at the beginning

of the volume, “Washington, D.C.” can be omitted from all subsequent

notes. See Compendium Endnotes in this appendix.

Second and subsequent citations of the same source should use an

appropriate short title or a scholarly abbreviation. See Subsequent

Citations of References in this appendix.

The following abbreviations may be used in citing materials held under

the cognizance of the History and Museums Division:

AR, action report

AAR, after action report

CAAR, combat after action report

ComdC, command chronology

ExRpt, exercise report

ComD, command diary

dtd, dated (use only for documents inadvertently marked with

the incorrect date)

msg, message

HistD, historical diary

Hist&MusDiv, History and Museums Division

intvw, interview

66 Appendix D: Endnotes
IntelSum, intelligence summary

jnl, journal

ltr, letter

memo, memorandum

ms, mss, manuscript(s)

MRoll, muster roll

OpSum, operational summary

RefSec, Reference Section

rpt, report

SAR, special action report

Sitrep, situation report

UD, unit diary

WarD, war diary

Abbreviations for frequently cited sources (such as MCG for Marine

Corps Gazette or CMH for the U.S. Army Center of Military History)

may be used as long as the abbreviations are listed with the terms for

which they stand immediately before the endnotes.

Published Works. The first citations of published works normally

cited by Marine Corps historical writers fall into four categories: books,

articles in periodicals, newspapers, and printed government documents.

BOOKS. Information for the citation, except page numbers, should be

taken from the title page. Each citation should include the following elements in the order listed:

Name(s) of author(s), presented first name first, middle initial,

last name last;

Title of work underlined (italics);

Name of the series in which the book appears, if any, with volume

number or number within series;

Name of editor, compiler, or translator, if any;

Total number of volumes in the work cited;

Place of publication;

Publisher;

Date of publication;

Number and name of edition, if there are several;

Number of volume cited;

Page numbers for the specific citation;

Short title, if used.

All elements in the note are separated from each other by commas

except three items (place of publication, publishing firm or agency, and

date of publication), which are set off from the items before them by a

Appendix D: Endnotes 67
parenthesis and followed by a parenthesis and then a comma. When citing both volume and page numbers in a multivolume work, do not omit

the abbreviations for volume and page. Use Arabic numerals for both

numbers, the volume first, followed by a comma, followed by the page

number(s). If more than three authors are involved, list only the name of

the first in the initial note citation and follow it with the words “et al.”

In short title citations of works with more than one author, only the

name of the first will be listed, followed by the words “et al.” For citations not covered by these rules and examples, refer to the current edition of The Chicago Manual of Style (Chicago: The University of

Chicago Press). Examples:

(1) Single author:

Col Robert D. Heinl, Jr., Soldiers of the Sea-The United States Marine

Corps, 1775-1962 (Annapolis: U.S. Naval Institute, 1962), pp. 232-33,

hereafter Heinl, Soldiers of the Sea.

(2) Two or three authors:

MajGen Charles A. Willoughby, Jr., USA, and John Chamberlain,

MacArthur, 1941-1951 (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,

1954), pp. 12-13, hereafter Willoughby et al., MacArthur.

LtCol Robert D. Heinl, Jr., USMC, and LtCol John A. Crown, USMC,

The Marshalls: Increasing the Tempo (Washington, D.C.: HistBr, G-3

Div, HQMC,1954), pp. 132-34, hereafter Heinl et al., The Marshalls.

(3) More than three authors:

Col Thomas G. Roe, USMC, et al., A History of Marine Corps Roles

and Missions, 1775-1962 (Washington, D.C.: HistBr, G-3 Div, HQMC,

1962), p. 14, hereafter Roe et al., Marine Corps Roles and Missions.

(4) Organizational author:

NHD, OpNav, NavDept, A Brief Guide to U.S. Naval History Sources in

the Washington, D.C. Area (Washington, 1965), p. 6. (In this case, the

author and publisher are the same organization, so full information for

the author is given and not repeated for the printing information.)

(5) An edited work: (a) With both author and editor:

James V. Forrestal, The Forrestal Diaries, Walter Millis, ed. (New York:

The Viking Press, 1951), pp. 210-12.

(b) Editor(s), but no author listed:

E.B. Potter and J.R. Fredland, eds., The United States and World Sea

Power (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1955), p. 414.

68 Appendix D: Endnotes
(6) A multivolume work:

Merle Curti, et al., An American History, 2 vols. (New York: Harper &

Brothers, 1950), vol. 1, pp. 312-15.

Certain very large multivolume series with complex divisions require

the author to devise special note formats. The keynote of these in all

cases should be the reader’s ease in discovering where in the overall

work the referenced passage is located:

U.S. War Department, The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the

Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies (Washington,

1892), serial 78, pt. 2, vol. 29, series 1, pp. 87-88.

(7) Single volumes in a multivolume series:

Lynn Montross and Capt Nicholas A. Canzona. The Chosin Reservoir

Campaign–U.S. Marine Operations in Korea, 1950-1953, vol. 3

(Washington: HistBr, G-3 Div, HQMC, 1957), pp. 181-82.

MajGen S. Woodburn Kirby, et al., The Loss of Singapore-The War

Against Japan, vol. 1-United Kingdom Military Series-History of the

Second World War (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1957), pp.

250-51.

(8) A variant edition or subsequent printing:

Samuel Eliot Morison and Henry Steele Commager, The Growth of the

American Republic, 2 vols. 4th ed., rev. and enl. (New York: Oxford

University Press, 1950), vol. 2, pp. 245-48.

(9) A translated work:

Cdr(R) Marc Antonio Bragadin, Italian Navy, The Italian Navy in World

War II, Gale Hoffman, trans. (Annapolis: U.S. Naval Institute, 1957),

pp. 87-88.

(10) Article in an encyclopedia or anthology:

T.E. Lawrence, “The Science of Guerrilla Warfare,” Encyclopedia

Britannica, 14th ed. (1944 rev.), vol. 10, p. 951.

Harry L. Coles, “The War of 1812 and the Mexican War,” New

Dimensions in Military History, Russell F. Weigley, ed. (San Rafael,

California: Presidio Press, 1975), p. 323.

(11) Article on CD-ROM:

Adm James L. Holloway III. USN (Ret), “The Korean War: An

Introduction,” The Sea Services in the Korean War, 1950-1953. CDROM (Annapolis: U.S. Naval Institute, 2000), p. 3.

Appendix D: Endnotes 69
CONGRESSIONAL DOCUMENTS. Citations for these include the following in the following order:

U.S. Congress, House (or Senate);

Name of committee originating the document, if any;

Title of the document, underlined (Italics);

Number of Congress;

Number of session;

Date of session;

Page number being cited.

Examples: (1) A committee hearing:

U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Naval Affairs, Improvement of the

Efficiency of the Navy and Marine Corps, Hearings before a subcommittee of the House Committee on Naval Affairs on H.R. 1775, 81st

Cong., 1st sess., 1950, pp. 25-30.

(2) A speech from the Congressional Record:

U.S. Congress, Senate, “Senator Smoot speaking for Bill to Increase the

Strength and Promote the Efficiency of the Marine Corps, S. Bill 201,

65th Cong., 1st sess., 10Nov16,” Congressional Record, vol. 102, pp.

6522-24. (Note: If the speaker, subject, and date are mentioned in the

title, citation need only include “Congressional Record,” and the volume and page numbers.)

ELECTRONIC PUBLICATIONS. Citations of electronic sources should

have analogous formats. Each citation should include the following elements in the order listed:

(1) Citation of an e-mail:

Name of the writer;

Title of the message (if any), taken from the subject line and

enclosed in quotation marks;

A description of the message that includes the recipient

(e.g., “E-mail to the author”);

Date of the message.

Capt James L. Horner, “Re: 3dMAW.” E-mail to Anthony T. Boyles,

20Aug1996.

(2) Citation of CD-ROM:

Author’s name (if given);

Title of publication (underlined);

Name of the editor, compiler, or translator (if relevant);

Publication medium (CD-ROM);

70 Appendix D: Endnotes
Title, edition, release, or version (if relevant);

Place of publication;

Name of the publisher;

Date of publication.

Lynn Montross and Nicholas A. Canzona, et al., U.S. Marine Corps

Operations in Korea, “The Sea Services in the Korean War, 1950-

1953.” CD-ROM (Annapolis, MD: U.S. Naval Institute, 2000).

(3) Citation of material from an Internet source. See Appendix J, Citing

Internet Sources.

EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT DOCUMENTS. In citing these documents, authors should include the following data in the order listed:

Name of country, state, city, town, or other government unit that

produced the document;

Name of legislative body, administrative agency, office, or

department that originated the document;

Title of the document;

Additional information as appropriate to the type of document.

(1) Annual Report of the Commandant:

U.S. Marine Corps, Annual Report of the Major General Commandant

to the Secretary of the Navy for the Fiscal Year Ended 30 June 1912, p.

2.

(2) If the document is included within a document of another agency:

U.S. Marine Corps, Annual Report of the Major General Commandant

to the Secretary of the Navy for the Fiscal Year Ended 30 June 1899, in

U.S. Department of the Navy, Annual Report of the Secretary of the

Navy for the Fiscal Year Ended 30 June 1899, p. 2

(3) Some executive reports are published as Congressional documents:

U.S. Congress, House, Annual Report of the War Department for the

Fiscal Year Ended 30 June 1880, H. Doc. 1, 55th Cong., 1st sess., 1881,

pp. 3-6.

(4) Official statements in government publications:

President Richard M. Nixon, “Address on Ending the War in Vietnam,

January 23, 1972,” Department of State Bulletin, 14Feb72, p. 181.

Appendix D: Endnotes 71
(5) Documents in published State Department documents on American

foreign relations:

MajGenComdt George Barnett ltr to Col Smedley D. Butler, 13Dec16,

in U.S. Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations

of the United States, 1916, 2 vols., vol. 1, p. 987.

(6) Messages and papers of the Presidents. These are collected in two

sources, cited as follows:

J.D. Richardson, ed., Compilations of the Messages and Papers of the

Presidents, 1789-1897, 53d Cong., 2d sess., 1907, House Miscellaneous

Document No. 210, pts. 1-10, 10 vols. (Washington: Government

Printing Office, 1907), vol. 4, p. 16.

U.S. President, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States

(Washington: Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and

Records Service, 1953), Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1956, pp. 222-23.

GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS. Information for citing a printed government document should be taken from the title page. The amount of

information on the title page of a government document often is bewilderingly large, and the author must exercise judgment in how much to

include in the note reference. Marine Corps historical writers are most

likely to cite U.S. Congressional and executive documents, but the same

principles apply to documents from foreign governments and from state

and local governments.

MANUALS. Official manuals are a special type of government document frequently cited by Marine Corps historians. Citations should

include the following information in the following order:

Name of the unit/activity originating the manual;

Name of the command/agency to which the originating unit is

subordinate;

Name of the Service to which the unit belongs;

Title and official number of the manual, underlined (italics);

Place and date of publication in parentheses;

Page number(s) to which reference is made;

The units/agencies may be referred to in the note citation by

their abbreviations.

Examples:

MCEC, USMC, Marine Corps History, MCS-14E (Quantico, 1953), p.

8.

MCDEC, USMC, Nuclear, Chemical, and Defensive Biological

Operations in the FMF, FMFM 11-1 (Quantico, 1975), pp. 299-304.

72 Appendix D: Endnotes
DON, Doctrine for Amphibious Operations, FM31-11/-

NWP22(B)/AFM2-53/LF M01 (Washington, undated), pp. 8-3 to 8-5.

DA, Counterguerilla Operations, FM 31-16 (Washington, 1963), p. 25.

DA, Operations, FM100-5 (Washington, 1976), pp. 3-1 to 3-7.

NEWSPAPERS. Citation of a newspaper article should include the following information in the following order:

Name of author of article, if listed and significant;

Title of article, in quotation marks;

Title of the newspaper underlined (italics);

Date of the issue;

Section number, if any;

Page number.

For newspapers in which the place of publication is not part of the

name, place this data in parentheses after the title of the newspaper.

Examples:

Cdr D. Minard, USN, ltr to the editor, “Tragedy at Parris Island,”

Washington Post and Times Herald, 17Apr56, p. 14.

The Windward Marine (MCAS Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii), 1May56, p. 1.

PERIODICAL ARTICLES. Information for the citation comes from the

cover of the periodical and from the article itself. Each citation should

include the following elements in the following order:

Name(s) of author(s), first name first, middle initial, last name last;

Title of article, in quotation marks;

Name of periodical underlined (Italics);

Date of issue;

Page number(s).

References to periodicals normally do not include place of publication

or name of publisher. The format for citing articles in periodicals can be

used with small variations for citing articles in encyclopedias and other

larger works containing numerous articles by many different authors.

The rules for citing multiple authors and short titles used for books also

apply to periodicals. Once a year, some periodicals produce larger than

usual issues called annuals. Treatment of these in notes varies. If the

annual is issued as a regular sequential number of the publication, it

should be treated as a periodical. If it appears as a volume separate from

the sequential issues, it should be treated as a book.

Examples: (1) Articles in periodicals or journals:

Appendix D: Endnotes 73
Seward W. Livermore, “The American Navy as a Factor in World

Politics, 1903-1913,” The American Historical Review, Jul58, pp. 125-

26.

CWO-2 Brian K. Herbert, USMC, and CWO-2 Daniel P. McFerrin,

USMC, “Improving Ammunition Support,” Marine Corps Gazette,

Oct91, p. 39, hereafter Herbert et al., “Ammunition Support.”

LtCol Bill Green, USN, et al., “Two Steps Ahead,” U.S. Naval Institute

Proceedings, May91, p. 98. (More than three authors)

(2) A book review:

Philip Davidson, Review of The South in the Revolution, 1763-1789, by

John Richard Alden, The American Historical Review, Jul58, p. 1003.

(3) Articles in an annual:

(a) Annual published as a separate volume:

BGen S.L.A. Marshall, USA (Ret.), “Naval Power as Understood by a

Soldier,” in U.S. Naval Institute, Naval Review 1962-1963 (Annapolis,

1962), p. 5.

(b) Annual published as a journal issue:

LtGen K.B. McCutcheon, USMC, “Marine Aviation in Vietnam, 1962-

1970,” U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, May71, pp. 124-25.

Subsequent Citations of References. The full form of a citation

usually should not be repeated in second and later references to a

source. Instead, the reference should be in short form. If, however, a

specific source is cited no more than two or three times in a book-length

study and these citations are physically separated by a considerable

amount of text, for the sake of clarity, each citation should repeat the

full reference.

SHORT FORM. In formulating short titles for books, pamphlets, studies, periodical articles, or related items, the citation should include the

last name of the author or the originating agency, a shortened version of

the title italicized or in quotes as with the full title, and the page number

or other reference to the part of the source actually being cited. When

three or more authors are involved, use the last name of the first author

and the abbreviation “et al.” Short titles should be introduced at the end

of the initial citation by adding the word “hereafter” and then the form

that will be used.

Examples:

3/1 SAR, Phases I & II of the Nansei Shoto Op, 10Jul45 (Okinawa

AreaOp Files, MCHC, Washington, D.C.), pp. 7-9, hereafter 3/1 SAR.

74 Appendix D: Endnotes
LtCol William E. Benedict ltr to CMC, 28Mar47 (Okinawa AreaOpFile,

MCHC, Washington, D.C.), hereafter Benedict ltr.

George Morgenstern, Pearl Harbor: The Story of the Secret War (New

York: The Devin-Adair Company, 1947), pp. 12-15, hereafter

Morgenstern, Pearl Harbor.

John Smith, “Aspects of Wilsonian Commercial Diplomacy, 1913-

1916,” American Historical Review (Jul55), p. 130, hereafter Smith,

“Wilsonian Commercial Diplomacy.”

IBID. AND OP. CIT. These are two commonly used short forms applicable to any work after the first citation of it. Ibid. is an abbreviation of

the Latin for “in the same place.” Op. cit. is an abbreviation of the Latin

for “work cited.”

Ibid. When references to the same work follow each other without any

intervening citation you may use “ibid.” to repeat the original citation.

If the second reference is to a different page or pages in the same

source, use ibid. plus the new page or pages. Similarly, in documents

such as command chronologies, muster rolls, and unit diaries, it is permissible to use ibid. plus a new date and a new page. Do not use ibid.,

however, if a new unit or activity is involved.

Examples:

The New York Times, 6Jul54, p. 13.

Ibid.

Ibid., pp. 24-25.

Avoid long strings of “ibid.” citations. Sometimes these are unavoidable, as when direct quotations or statistics must be documented. Where

possible, combine repeated consecutive references to different pages of

the same source into one note. If most or all of a long passage or section

of a chapter is based on one source and it is not necessary to document

particular quotations or facts, mention the source only once in a compendium note.

Op. cit. When referring to a work that has been cited already but not in

the note immediately preceding you may use “op. cit.” It should not be

overused. Therefore, when there are more than three references to the

same source, a short title should be introduced in the original citation.

In book-length studies, “op. cit.” should be used only if the source is

cited not more than three times in the same chapter and never again in

the volume. Since each reference is to the author of a work only, page

or similar location data must be included in each citation. When more

Appendix D: Endnotes 75
than one work by the same author is cited, never use “op. cit.” after the

second work is introduced.

Example:

Carl Berger, The Korea Knot (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania

Press, 1957), pp. 20-21.

The New York Times, 18Jun55, p. 26.

Berger, op. cit., p. 30.

Unpublished Materials. Marine Corps historians’ sources are mostly unpublished. They consist primarily of the vast amount of records

created by official agencies and unofficial papers of tremendous variety.

The first citing of these works is the most difficult documentation task

the historian will face; their endless variety almost ensures dissimilarity

in citation. The historian must strive for uniformity. While some general

principles apply, each type of unpublished source has its own peculiarities.

Organizing citations to include the following information in the order

listed will help ensure that the History and Museums Division publications present a uniform format:

Name of the author or originating agency;

Title or description of the source cited (not italicized);

Date or origin of the source;

Location of the source in a larger collection or body of material,

which consists of the following data in the order listed: Number,

title, or description of the file or box, folder or letter book in

which item is located;

Record group and accession number;

The name of the larger collection;

The location of the larger collection.

ABBREVIATIONS. For reference notes citing unpublished documents,

use abbreviations and short forms throughout for military grades, units,

dates, and scholarly terms. See also Subsequent Citations of

References in this appendix and the abbreviations entry.

The locations of collections can be omitted from the individual note

citations if it is included in a bibliography or in a compendium note.

Enclose all location information in a single set of parentheses, i.e., the

description of the file or box, the name of the larger collection, and the

physical location.

The writer will probably cite a large number of sources held by the

Marine Corps Historical Center. In this case, immediately before the

notes the author or writer can explain that all documents listed as locat76 Appendix D: Endnotes
ed at MCHC are located at the Marine Corps Historical Center,

Washington Navy Yard, Washington, D.C., and omit “Washington,

D.C.” from the rest of the citations.

AWARD CITATIONS. On file in the Reference Section, these documents contain accounts the writer may find useful. The format for these

citations is:

LCpl Jerry E. Lineberry award citation, 1Aug67 (RefSec, MCHC,

Washington, D.C.).

COMMAND CHRONOLOGIES. Since May 1965, the basic source for

operational histories of Marine Corps units has been the command

chronologies, reports prepared and submitted periodically by all commands of battalion/squadron-size up through regiments, brigades, divisions, and higher commands, as well as by all independent units. The

current edition of Marine Corps Order P5750.1G sets forth the requirements for a command chronology and explains its content.

In citations to narrative and statistical material, historians normally

should include only the identity of the originating unit, the abbreviation

“ComdC,” the dates or time period covered by the chronology cited, the

appropriate page or subparagraph, and the location of the document. A

simple citation to a command chronology: 1st MarDiv ComdC, Nov70

(MCHC, Washington, D.C.) pt 2., p. 9.

In citing after action reports, messages, memos, orders, journals, or

other documents attached to and filed with a command chronology, cite

the specific document in the appropriate format then add: “in [unit]

ComdC, [date].”

(1) Citation of a document attached to, and filed as a part of, a command chronology:

1/7 S-2 Jnl entry for 21Feb69, in 1/7 ComdC, Feb69 (MCHC,

Washington, D.C.).

(2) After action report in a command chronology:

5th Mar AAR. Opn Catawaba Falls. 30Sep70 in 5th Mar ComdC, Sep70

(MCHC Washington, D.C.)

COMMENT FILES. Before publication of any completed History and

Museums Division historical study, copies of the draft manuscript are

sent to knowledgeable persons for their comments. These comments,

usually in letterform, often constitute in themselves new and valuable

historical source material and will be cited either in revisions of the

Appendix D: Endnotes 77
work commented upon or in other manuscripts. Comment files are

maintained under the name of the draft manuscript.

Citations of these comments should include in order:

Name of person commenting (include rank at time comment is

made);

The words “Comments on” prior to the title of the manuscript:

Title of manuscript being addressed. Insert the words “draft ms” if

the comments are on an earlier draft of the same book in which

the note appears;

Date of comments;

Name of file;

Record Group 127 (RG 127);

Accession number, if known;

Location;

Short title, if used.

Examples:

(1) Comments on a different work:

RAdm Victor B. McRea, USN, Comments on “Marines in Lebanon

1958,” 10Dec65 (Comment File, RG 127, ACC# 72-1234, MCHC,

Washington, D.C.).

(2) Comments on earlier draft:

MajGen Paul J. Fontana, Comments on draft ms, 8Nov72 (Comment

File, RG 127, MCHC, Washington, D.C.).

JOURNALS AND LOGS. Citation should be given in the following

order:

Identity of originating unit;

Title or description of journal and time period covered by the

journal as a whole;

Date of the entry cited in the note;

Larger collection title or description;

Location of larger collection.

Example:

1st MarDiv, G-3 Jnl, 28Feb-14Jul45, 22Jun45, (Okinawa AreaOpFile,

MCHC, Washington, D.C.).

LETTERS, MEMOS, AND MESSAGES. Citations should include in

order:

Name of originating individual or command (if military personnel

are involved, include the individual’s rank at the time the

document was written);

78 Appendix D: Endnotes
Description (ltr, memo, msg);

Name of recipient individual/command (include grade if

appropriate);

Subject (if memo or official letter);

Date;

Location, to include file.

Examples:

(1) Citations of private letters:

Theodore Roosevelt ltr to Henry Cabot Lodge, 10Feb1897 (Box 102,

Theodore Roosevelt Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.).

Copy of Col Charles G. Long ltr to LtCol Melville J. Shaw, 29Sep17

(7th Mar Unit File, RefSec, MCHC, Washington, D.C.).

(2) Citation of an official memo:

Col George Barnett memo to RAdm C.J. Badger, Subj: Atlantic Fleet

Winter Maneuvers, 10Oct13 (File No. 1975-80-20, RG 127, National

Archives, Washington, D.C.).

Assistant Chief of Staff, G-3 (AO3-C) memo to Assistant Chief of Staff

G-1, Subj: Initial Training Times by MOS, 28Jun67 (File No. 1200,

RG127 ACC# 73A-2444, HQMC Central Files 1967, Washington,

D.C.).

(3) Citation of an official message:

LtGen Keith B. McCutcheon msg to LtGen Henry W. Buse, Jr.,

10Nov70 (File No. 12053, III MAF Admin Files, MCHC, Washington,

D.C.).

(4) Citation of an official letter:

ComUSMACV ltr to CG III MAF, Subj: Letter of Instruction, 5Mar65,

in III MAF ComdC, May65 (MCHC, Washington, D.C.).

MANUSCRIPT AND RECORD COLLECTIONS CITATIONS. In citing

the larger collections in which a document is to be found, whether private manuscripts or government records, the historian ordinarily will

include the name of the collection, the collection number or record

group number (if any), and the agency controlling and/or physical location of the collection. Many archives provide researchers with formats

for citing documents held there; writers will need to standardize formats, but individual citations must include all the information listed in

the format for the appropriate collection.

Appendix D: Endnotes 79
Examples:

(1) Records in the National Archives:

USMC, Headquarters, Adjutant and Inspector’s Dept. Records, 1820-

1826 (RG 127, National Archives, Washington, D.C.)

(2) Records controlled by the Marine Corps but kept at the National

Archives at Suitland, Maryland, must include this accession number:

HQMC Central Files 1967 (RG 127 ACC# 73A-2444, HQMC Central

Files, Washington, D.C.).

(3) Personal Papers Collections:

Alfred A. Cunningham Papers (MCRC, Quantico, VA).

OFFICIAL BIOGRAPHICAL FILES. Materials contained in the biographical files of the Reference Section at the Marine Corps Historical

Center in Washington should include the following information:

Name of individual with highest military rank attained;

The words “biographical file” prior to the location;

Location of file (normally stated as Reference Section, MCHC).

Example:

BGen Odell M. Conoley biographical file (RefSec, MCHC, Washington,

D.C.), hereafter Conoley bio.

OPERATION PLANS AND ORDERS. Citations should include the following information in the order specified:

Identity of originating organization;

Plan or order number;

Date of plan or order;

Annex, appendix, or page numbers within the plan or order as

appropriate;

Parent collection and location.

Examples:

(1) Citation of operation plan:

ComFairWg-1, OPlan No. 4-48, 15Nov48, AnxB, Intel, p. 2 (OAB,

NHD, Washington, D.C.).

(2) Citation of operation order in a command chronology:

2/7 OpO 23-68, 2May68, AnxC, Concept of Ops, p. 2, in 2/7 ComdC,

May68 (MCHC, Washington, D.C.).

80 Appendix D: Endnotes
ORAL HISTORY INTERVIEWS AND RECORDED MATERIALS. Oral

history interviews and other recorded material are valuable resources for

the Marine Corps historian. The Marine Corps Oral History Collection

contains thousands of tape-recorded interviews (some transcribed, most

accessible only on the original tape) covering most aspects of Marine

Corps history in the 20th century. It also contains a small collection of

recorded lectures, briefings, debriefings, and presentations.

Citations of these materials should contain the following information as

applicable in the order listed:

Name of person recorded and his rank at time of recording;

Type of presentation, such as interview, debriefing, lecture,

presentation, or classroom instruction;

Name of interviewer, if known;

Date recording was made;

Tape number. In case of transcribed interview, give page numbers

of material cited;

Location of tape or transcript, which is normally

(Oral HistColl, MCHC, Washington, D.C.);

Short title, if used.

Examples:

(1) Transcript:

Gen Edwin A. Pollock intvw with Benis M. Frank, 14Apr73, pp. 297-99

(Oral HistColl, MCHC, Washington, D.C.), hereafter Pollock intvw.

(2) Taped interview:

MGySgt Norman D. Epkin intvw, 8Dec77, Tape 5342 (Oral HistColl,

MCHC, Washington, D.C.), hereafter Epkin intvw.

(3) Taped debriefing:

Col Edmund G. Derning debriefing at FMFPac, 15Aug70, Tape 5045

(Oral HistColl, MCHC, Washington, D.C.), hereafter Derning debriefing.

(4) Taped lecture or presentation:

MajGen Charles F. Widdecke lecture at The Basic School Quantico, Va.,

1Jan70, Tape 5101 (Oral HistColl, MCHC, Washington, D.C.), hereafter

Widdecke lecture.

PERSONAL DIARIES. When these exist in manuscript form, the citation should include in order:

Name of the writer of the diary (include highest rank held during

period of diary);

Appendix D: Endnotes 81
Title or description;

Location information as for other manuscript sources;

If the manuscript diary has numbered pages, the page number of the

reference may follow the location data in the citation. If it lacks

numbered pages, cite by date of entry, again following the

location information. Some diaries have been edited and

published. They should be cited using the format for edited,

published books.

Examples:

(1) Unpublished diary with pagination:

Gen Oliver P. Smith, “Diary and Narrative Covering the Occupation of

Iceland,” n.d. (Iceland AreaOpFile, MCHC, Washington, D.C.), p. 23.

(2) Unpublished diary with no pagination:

Capt Alfred A. Cunningham, Diary, Nov17-Jan18, Box 1, Alfred A.

Cunningham Coll.

(3) Published diary:

Capt Alfred A. Cunningham, Marine Flyer in France: The Diary of

Captain Alfred A. Cunningham, November 1917-January 1918, Graham

A. Cosmas, ed. (Washington: Hist&Mus Div, HQMC, 1974), p. 27.

REPORTS. Citations should include the following in order:

Identity of reporting unit;

Title or description of report;

Date of report;

Title of record collection;

Location of record collection.

If the report cited is attached to and filed with the report of a larger unit,

the citation should include the location of the record collection before

the title of the cited report:

Name of larger reporting unit;

Title or description of its report;

Date of its report;

Location within that report of the document initially cited.

Examples:

(1) A simple unit report:

7th Mar AAR for Opn Pickens Forest, 25Aug70 (Bx 10, 1st MarDiv

Admin Records, MCHC, Washington, D.C.).

82 Appendix D: Endnotes
(2) A report contained within two other reports:

1/5 SAR, n.d., in 5th Mar SAR, App C, both in 1st MarDiv SAR,

Sonsan-Hamhung-Chosin, 8Oct-15Dec50, 21May51, AnxC (UHistRpt

File, MCHC, Washington, D.C.).

UNIT DIARIES AND MUSTER ROLLS. As the principal administrative

records of the Marine Corps containing information about individuals

and units, these records will be cited frequently by Marine Corps historical writers.

These citations must contain the following elements:

Unit;

Title of record (Muster Roll or Unit Diary) abbreviated as

“MRoll” or “UD” if repeated citations required;

Date of record by month and year or day, month and year;

Location of record.

Examples:

(1) Muster Roll citations:

7th Regt MRoll, Dec17 (RefSec, MCHC, Washington, D.C.).

1stBn, 7thMar MRolls, Oct47-Mar79 (RefSec, MCHC, Washington,

D.C.).

(2) Unit Diary citations:

7th Mar UDs, Sep-Oct65 (RefSec, MCHC, Washington, D.C.).

3d Mar UD, 11Mar79 (RefSec, MCHC, Washington, D.C.).

UNPUBLISHED STUDIES. These can take several forms, the most

commonly encountered by the Marine Corps historians are staff studies

of various types and unpublished manuscripts such as theses, dissertations, or historical studies prepared within the History and Museums

Division and not yet printed. 

Official staff studies will be cited by giving the following information in

order:

Originating officer or organization (include officer’s grade at the

time document was written);

Title or description of the study;

Date of the study;

Data on the collection in which the study is to be found;

Location of the collection.

Unpublished manuscripts are treated as books. The citation should

Appendix D: Endnotes 83
include in order:

Name(s) of author(s);

Title in quotation marks;

Nature of document: dissertation, thesis, and manuscript;

Place and date of production;

Page citation.

As with a published book, the material on the type of document and the

place and date of production is enclosed in parentheses.

Examples:

(1) Citation of a staff study:

HqFMFPac, Staff Study: The Establishment of a Balanced FMF

Air/GndFor in the WestPac, 19Oct50 (Encl 7 to App KK of FMFPac

HistD, 1-30Oct50, UHistRpt File, MCHC, Washington, D.C.).

(2) Citation of a doctoral dissertation:

John Smith, “Social Origins of Marine Officers, 1800-1850” (Ph.D. dissertation, American University, 1962), p. 15.

(3) Citation of unpublished History and Museums Division manuscript:

Capt Stephen M. Fuller, “The United States Marines in Haiti, 1915-

1934” (MS, MCHC, Washington, D.C., 1975).

84 Appendix D: Endnotes
Appendix E

Bibliographies

A bibliography lists in one place all the sources that were used and that

provided relevant material in preparation of a particular historical work,

regardless of whether these sources are cited in the endnotes. It calls

attention to, and provides the location of, other important works on the

subject. In articles, pamphlets, or short monographs, the function of a

bibliography often is performed by full endnote citations, but longer

works usually have a formal bibliography list or a bibliographic essay

or notes.

Marine Corps historical writers use three types of bibliographies: the

formal bibliography (or bibliographical list), the annotated bibliography,

and the bibliographical essay (bibliographical notes). Which of these,

alone or in combination with others, will be used in a particular manuscript depends upon the nature of the writing project and the terms of

the writing directive.

Formal Bibliographies

A formal bibliography is essentially a list of sources, organized alphabetically by author or originating agency, and including, where appropriate, publication data and location information.

Subdivision. Within a formal bibliography, sources normally are

grouped by type, such as published and unpublished manuscript collections, official record collections, newspapers, books, and so on. This

arrangement of sources within the bibliography necessarily varies with

the nature of the work and the sources. For Marine Corps official histories, the following general arrangement should be used.

UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS. Unpublished materials include, in order

of arrangement:

Collections of personal papers (arranged alphabetically by originator

of the material).

Collections of government records (arranged alphabetically by

originating agency).

Unpublished reports and studies (alphabetically by author or

originating agency).

Theses and dissertations (alphabetically by author).

Oral history interviews.

Comment files.

PUBLISHED OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS. These can be listed alphabetically by originating agency in one combined group, or separate sections

may be set up for each larger agency, e.g., U.S. Marine Corps or

Department of the Navy, and then the documents listed alphabetically in

each agency category.

85
PUBLISHED BOOKS AND PERIODICALS. Published materials

include, in order of arrangement:

Books (alphabetically by name of author).

Periodical articles (alphabetically by name of author).

Newspapers (alphabetically by name).

COLLECTIONS OF PERSONAL PAPERS

Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

Lejeune, John A. Papers

McKinley, William Papers

Roosevelt, Theodore Papers

Personal Papers Collection, Marine Corps Research Center,

Quantico, VA.

Barnett, George Papers

Cunningham, Alfred A. Papers

Subdivision with Categories. You may wish to subdivide your list

by location if you have used many collections from one depository, particularly with collections of documents and personal papers.

Omission of Categories. If no sources in a category were used in

preparing your manuscript, omit that category from the bibliography.

Bibliographical Citations of Published Material

Books. Information is given in the same order as that in a first endnote

citation, with the exception of different punctuation and the absence of

volume and page references. In most places where commas are used to

separate major items in an endnote, periods are used in a bibliographic

citation.

Examples (note punctuation):

(1) A work with more than one author:

Wiloughby, Jr., MajGen Charles A. USA, and John Chamberlain.

MacArthur, 1941-1951. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,

1954.

(2) In a work with more than three authors, all will be included:

Roe, Col Thomas G., Maj Ernest H. Giusti, USMCR, Maj John H.

Johnstone, USMC, and Benis M. Frank. A History of Marine Corps

Roles and Missions, 1775-1962. Washington, D.C.: Historical Branch,

G-3 Division, Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps, 1962.

(3) An edited work:

Forrestal, James V. The Forrestal Diaries. Walter Millis, ed. New York:

The Viking Press, 1951.

86 Appendix E: Bibliographies
(4) A multivolume work:

Curti, Merle. et al. An American History, 2 vols. New York: Harper &

Brothers, 1950.

(5) A single volume in a multivolume series:

Montross, Lynn and Capt Nicholas A. Canzona, USMC. The Chosin

Reservoir Campaign-U.S. Marine Operations in Korea, 1950-1953, vol.

3. Washington: Historical Branch, G-3 Division, Headquarters, USMC,

1957.

(6) A variant edition:

Morison, Samuel E. and Henry Steele Commager. The Growth of the

American Republic. 2 vols. 4th ed., rev. and enl. New York: Oxford

University Press, 1950.

(7) A translated work:

Bragadin, Cdr(R) Marc Antonio. Italian Navy. The Italian Navy in

World War II. Gale Hoffman, trans. Annapolis: United States Naval

Institute, 1957.

Articles in Periodicals. The form of the citation follows the first

endnote citation, but with periods replacing most commas. The style for

volume and issue numbers is the same as reference notes. Include page

numbers of the article in the journal in the bibliographic citation.

Examples:

(1) An article:

Livermore, Seward W. “The American Navy as a Factor in World

Politics, 1903-1913.” The American Historical Review, Jul58, pp. 125-

140.

(2) A book review:

Davidson, Philip. “Review of The South in the Revolution, 1763-1789,”

by John Richard Alden. The American Historical Review, Jul58, pp.

1003-1004.

(3) An encyclopedia article:

Lawrence, T.E. “The Science of Guerrilla Warfare.” Encyclopedia

Britannica, 14th ed. (1944 rev.). Vol.10, pp. 950-953.

Newspapers. Individual newspaper articles ordinarily are not cited in

a bibliography. Only the newspapers themselves are listed alphabetically

Appendix E: Bibliographies 87
by title. Following the name of the newspaper, the author may list the

general time period for which he consulted the newspaper. As in a first

endnote citation, the place of publication, if not contained in the title,

should follow the title in parenthesis. See Appendix D, Endnotes.

Examples:

The New York Times, Mar-Aug56.

The Windward Marine (MCAS, Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii), Apr-Sep56.

The Winnebago Star (Kansas), Aug56.

Printed Government Documents. Bibliographical citations

include the same information in the same order as do endnote citations

with the exception of individual page number references. In punctuation, most commas are replaced by periods. As in first endnote citations,

citations of published government documents in bibliographies do not

repeat publication data for organizational authors.

ORGANIZING PRINTED GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS IN A

BIBLIOGRAPHY. List these documents alphabetically by originating

political unit (U.S., State, etc.). Within each government agency, documents are listed alphabetically by originating department or command.

If an author has used a large number of printed documents from one

agency, e.g., U.S. Navy Department or U.S. State Department, the

writer may establish a separate subheading for that agency within the

“Published Official Documents” section of the bibliography under the

general agency title, then list the documents from that agency alphabetically by subdivision within the agency.

CONGRESSIONAL DOCUMENTS. Citations include the same information in the same order as do first endnote citations. Most commas in

the footnote are replaced by periods in the bibliographical citation.

Examples:

(1) A committee hearing:

U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Naval Affairs. Improvement of the

Efficiency of the Navy and Marine Corps. Hearings before a

Subcommittee of the House Committee on Naval Affairs on H.R. 1775.

81st Cong., 1st sess., 1950.

(2) A speech from the Congressional Record:

U.S. Congress. Senate. Senator Smoot speaking for Bill to Increase the

Strength and Promote the Efficiency of the Marine Corps. S. Bill 201,

65th Cong., 1st sess., 10Nov16. Congressional Record, vol. 102.

Note: Ordinarily one does not cite in a bibliography individual speeches

or other items from the Congressional Record. Instead, it is cited as a

whole as: U.S. Congress. Congressional Record [followed by volume

88 Appendix E: Bibliographies
numbers consulted]. Example: U.S. Congress. Congressional Record,

vols. 102-105.

EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT DOCUMENTS. Citations for these follow the same principles as do first endnote citations. Periods generally

replace commas in punctuation of the citation.

Examples:

(1) Annual report of the Commandant:

U.S. Marine Corps. Annual Report of the Major General Commandant

to the Secretary of the Navy for the Fiscal Year Ended 30 June 1912.

(2) A report published in a document of another agency:

U.S. Marine Corps. Annual Report of the Major General Commandant

to the Secretary of the Navy for the Fiscal Year Ended 30 June 1899. In

U.S. Department of the Navy, Annual Report of the Secretary of the

Navy for the Fiscal Year Ended 30 June 1899.

(3) An executive report published as a Congressional document:

U.S. Congress. House. Annual Reports of the War Department for the

Fiscal Year Ended 30 June 1880. H. Doc. 1, 55th Cong., 1st sess., 1881.

(4) Official statements in government publications ordinarily are not

cited individually in bibliographies unless only one or two such statements are used in an entire work. Instead, the overall publication is

cited, for example:

U.S. Department of State. Department of State Bulletin, Feb-Jun 1972.

If and individual citation is made:

President Richard M. Nixon. “Address on Ending the War in Vietnam,”

23Jan72. Department of State Bulletin, 14Feb72, pp. 181-185.

(5) Documents published in State Department collections on American

foreign relations are not cited individually in the bibliography. Instead,

the appropriate volumes of the series are cited as government documents. For example:

U.S. Department of State. Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of

the United States, 1916. 2 vols.

(6) Messages and papers of the Presidents of the United States are cited

as follows:

J.D. Richardson, ed. Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the

Appendix E: Bibliographies 89
Presidents, 1789-1897, 53d Cong., 2d sess., 1907, House Miscellaneous

Document No. 210, pts.1-10. 10 vols. Washington, D.C.: Government

Printing Office, 1907.

U.S. President. Public Papers of the President of the United States.

Washington, D.C.: Office of the Federal Register, National Archives

and Records Service, 1953-, [name of President(s) for which volumes

used, comma, date of volume(s)].

OFFICIAL MANUALS. Citations include the same information in the

same order as first endnote citations, but names of originating agencies

should not be abbreviated. Most commas are replaced by periods.

Example:

U.S. Marine Corps. Marine Corps Schools. Marine Corps Educational

Center. Marine Corps History, MCS 1-14E. Quantico, 1953.

Bibliographical Citations of Unpublished Materials

Collections of Personal Papers. Individual letters, documents,

diaries, etc., in personal papers collections are not cited in a bibliography. Cite only the collections themselves, giving the locations in which

they are found. They ordinarily are listed alphabetically by the name of

the person or subject, though they may be grouped by location if a number of collections from each location were used.

Examples:

(1) Sample citation of a manuscript collection:

Cunningham, Alfred A. Papers. Marine Corps Research Center,

Quantico, VA.

Elihu Root Papers. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

(2) For examples of grouping collections by repository, see the Formal

Bibliographies section in this appendix.

Unpublished Government Documents. Individual letters, memoranda, messages, reports, journals, plans, and orders usually are not

cited in a bibliography unless they are of unusual length or importance.

Instead, only the record collections are cited, using the same format as

for personal papers collections. The collections are arranged alphabetically by the name of the originating agency and may be grouped by

location if many collections from the same repository were used.

Examples:

Commander Naval Forces Western Pacific. Administrative Files, 1947-

1949. Federal Records Center, Mechanicsburg, Pa.

90 Appendix E: Bibliographies
U.S. Marine Corps, Headquarters. Adjutant and Inspector’s Department.

Records, 1820-1826. RG 127, National Archives, Washington, D.C.

U.S. Marine Corps, Headquarters. Central Files 1967-1970. RG 127,

Central Files, HQMC, Washington, D.C. (Accession numbers are

included with individual citations.)

Command Chronologies. If chronologies for a large number of

units are used, they should not be listed individually in the bibliography.

Instead, cite the entire collection.

Examples:

(1) A command chronology citation:

U.S. Marine Corps. Unit Command Chronology File. Marine Corps

Historical Center, Washington, D.C.

(2) An individual chronology citation (If only one or two command

chronologies were used in the preparation of a work, the author may

wish to include them individually in the bibliography.):

U.S. Marine Corps. III Marine Amphibious Force. Command

Chronology, 1965-1966. Unit Command Chronology File. Marine Corps

Historical Center, Washington, D.C.

Unpublished Studies. Short, unpublished studies and reports ordinarily should not be cited separately from the collections of records to

which they belong. However, staff studies and reports of major significance in the work or of book-length (200-300 pages) should be cited as

individual unpublished works, as should doctoral dissertations, master’s

theses, and unpublished manuscripts of books or monographs. Citations

for these include the same information in the same order as is found in

first endnote citations.

Examples:

(1) A staff study:

U.S. Marine Corps. Fleet Marine Force, Pacific. Headquarters. Staff

study: “The Establishment of a Balanced Fleet Marine Force

Air/Ground Force in the Western Pacific,” 19Oct50. Encl. 7 to App II of

Fleet Marine Force, Pacific, Historical Diary, 1-31Oct50, 16Nov50.

Unit Historical Report File. Marine Corps Historical Center,

Washington, D.C.

(2) A doctoral dissertation:

Smith, John. “Social Origins of Marine Officers, 1800-1850.” Ph.D. dissertation, American University, 1962.

Appendix E: Bibliographies 91
(3) An unpublished History and Museums Division manuscript:

Fuller, Capt Stephen M. USMCR. “The United States Marines in Haiti,

1915-1934.” Unpublished MS, Marine Corps Historical Center,

Washington, D.C., 1974.

Personal Diaries. In manuscript form, these usually are contained in

larger personal papers collections and should not be cited separately in a

bibliography. A published and edited diary must be cited separately as a

published, edited book.

Examples:

(1) Unpublished diary (If an unpublished diary is of such significance as

to warrant separate citation, the following form should be used.):

Smith, Gen Oliver, P. Diary and narrative covering the occupation of

Iceland, n.d. Iceland Area Operations File. Marine Corps Historical

Center, Washington, D.C.

(2) Citing a published diary:

Cunningham, Capt Alfred A. Marine Flyer in France: The Diary of

Captain Alfred A. Cunningham, November 1917-January 1918. Graham

A. Cosmas, ed. Washington: History and Museums Division, HQMC,

1974.

Comment Files. Ordinarily, individual comment files on manuscripts

should not be cited in a bibliography. Instead, when comment files have

been used, simply cite the entire collection.

Examples:

(1) Citation of the comment file as a whole:

Comment File, RG 127, Marine Corps Historical Center, Washington,

D.C.

(2) Individual citation of comments on a manuscript (If a citation of the

comment files on particular manuscripts is to be included, the files

should be listed alphabetically by the name of the author of the manuscript commented upon, using the following form for each entry.):

Comments on Jack Shulimson, draft ms, “Marines in Lebanon, 1958.”

Comment File, RG 127, Marine Corps Historical Center, Washington,

D.C.

Oral History Interviews. These exist in two forms, as transcripts,

which are treated as unpublished volumes, and as tapes, which may be

cited individually or as collections.

92 Appendix E: Bibliographies
TRANSCRIPTS. Each interview used in transcript form must be cited

individually. Citations will be listed in alphabetical order by the name of

the person interviewed.

Example:

Worton, MajGen William A., Transcript of Interview by Oral History

Section, Historical Division, HQMC, 10Dec71. Oral History Collection,

Marine Corps Historical Center, Washington, D.C.

Note: as in endnote citations, the name of the History and Museums

Division as originator of the interview should be given as it was at the

time of the interview. The Marine Corps Historical Center should be

used to specify location.

TAPES. Interview tapes that have not been transcribed should be listed

under a separate subheading within the section of the bibliography

devoted to oral history interviews. Each tape used should be listed individually in alphabetical order by name of the person interviewed. If

many tapes have been used in preparation of a volume or monograph,

the author may group them in the bibliography under the name of the

unit or agency that conducted the interview. In this case, each entry

would list only the name of the interviewee, the date of the interview in

parenthesis, and the tape number, if any. If only a few tapes were consulted, they may simply be listed alphabetically in a single section for

tapes that have not been transcribed.

Examples:

(1) Single tape citation:

Derning Jr., Col Edmund G. Debriefing by Headquarters, Fleet Marine

Force, Pacific, 15Aug70. Tape 4923. Oral History Collection, Marine

Corps Historical Center, Washington, D.C.

(2) Citation of a taped lecture or presentation:

Widdecke, MajGen Charles F. Lecture delivered at The Basic School,

Quantico, Va., 1Jan70. Tape 5101. Oral History Collection, Marine

Corps Historical Center, Washington, D.C.

(3) Grouped tape citations:

Taped interviews by History and Museums Division, HQMC, in Oral

History Collection, Marine Corps Historical Center, Washington, D.C.

LtGen Leslie E. Brown (14Aug75), Tape 6789.

Col Edmund G. Derning, Jr. (10Sep74), Tape 4578.

1stLt William Graves (5Oct73), Tape 4277.

Taped Officer Debriefings by Headquarters, Fleet Marine Force, Pacific,

in Oral History Collection, Marine Corps Historical Center, Washington,

Appendix E: Bibliographies 93
D.C.

Col Paul X. Kelley (1Jul71), Tape 6000.

BGen Mauro J. Padalino (5May68), Tape 3324.

(4) If all tapes used are located in one collection, include that information in the heading.

Non-transcribed Tapes in Oral History Collection, Marine Corps

Historical Center, Washington, D.C.

Non-taped Interviews. Transcripts of non-taped interviews should

be included with other interview transcripts and cited in the same format. Manuscripts of non-taped interviews may be cited individually if

large enough in size, and important enough as sources for the work.

Examples:

(1) Transcript citation:

Lee, BGen Harry. Transcript of interview by Office of Naval

Intelligence, 10Dec25. Dominican Republic Area File, Marine Corps

Historical Center, Washington, D.C.

(2) Manuscript citation:

Hadd, Col Harry A. Memorandum of record of interview by Historical

Branch, G-3, HQMC, 20Dec65. Comments on Jack Shulimson, draft

ms., “Marines in Lebanon, 1958.” Comment File, RG 127, Marine

Corps Historical Center, Washington, D.C.

Annotated Bibliographies

An annotated bibliography is a list of books (sometimes articles as well)

in alphabetical order with comments appended to some or all of the

entries. The annotation adds to the value of a bibliography. This type of

bibliography has the same organization and the same forms for listed

items as does a simple formal bibliography. It is different in that a short

descriptive or evaluative comment is included for each source listed.

When annotated bibliographies are published separately, citations for

published materials will include, besides the usual information, pagination, illustrative material, and bibliographic content. Where pertinent,

the notation will describe any significant appendices.

Annotated Bibliography Published in a Book. For a publication, this includes the data found in ordinary bibliographical entries plus

a brief description of the quality and subject matter of the work.

Examples:

(1) Annotated bibliography citation:

94 Appendix E: Bibliographies
Sherrod, Robert. History of Marine Corps Aviation in World War II.

Washington: Combat Forces Press, 1952.

This unofficial history was undertaken at the request, and with the support, of the Marine Corps. The title is self-explanatory, but the author

gives some account of the earlier days of Marine Corps aviation. This

work is the most comprehensive treatment of the subject in existence.

(2) Annotated citation for a manuscript collection:

Cunningham, Alfred A. Papers. Marine Corps Research Center,

Quantico, VA.

This collection of papers and memorabilia of the Marines’ first aviator

includes the flight log of Cunningham’s first airplane, a diary of his

1917 trip to France, photographs of his pre-aviation Marine career, and

an assortment of letters and documents, most of them related to formation of the 1st Marine Aviation Force in World War I.

Annotated Bibliographies Published Separately. Annotated

bibliographies published as separate books or pamphlets include for

each entry after the usual information the following separated by commas (for books):

Number of Roman-numeral pages;

Number of Arabic-numbered pages;

Illustrations, denoted “illus;”

Maps, denoted by word, “maps;”

Footnotes, denoted by word, “notes;”

Bibliography, denoted “bibliog.”

(1) Citation of a book in a separately published annotated bibliography:

Sherrod, Robert. History of Marine Corps Aviation in World War II.

Washington: Combat Forces Press, 1952. xiv, 496 pp., illus., maps,

notes, bibliog.

An unofficial history undertaken at the request of the Marine Corps and

accomplished with its support. This work includes an introductory chapter on the earlier days of Marine aviation and appendices listing Marine

aviation Medal of Honor recipients, awards of Marine aviation units,

casualties, enemy aircraft shot down, Marine aces, Directors of Marine

Corps Aviation, squadron commanders killed during World War II, a

table illustrating the growth of Marine aviation, and brief historical

sketches of all major Marine aviation units of the war period.

(2) Citation of a manuscript collection in an annotated bibliography

published separately should include after the location a brief description

of the collection, specifying the number of boxes or containers and the

Appendix E: Bibliographies 95
presence (if any) of logbooks, diaries, scrapbooks, and other unusual

items.

Cunningham, Alfred A., Papers. Personal Papers Collection, Marine

Corps Research Center. 3 boxes, letters, diary, log book, scrapbook.

This collection of papers and memorabilia of the Marines’ first aviator

includes the flight log of Cunningham’s first airplane, a diary of his trip

to France in late 1917, a scrapbook of photographs of his pre-aviation

Marine career, and an assortment of letters and documents, most of

them related to formation of the 1st Marine Aviation Force in 1918.

Bibliographical Notes (Bibliographical Essays)

This type of bibliography replaces or supplements standard or annotated

bibliographic listings. Its form is that of a selective and critical essay on

the sources used. If only the bibliographical notes are included in a

work, full footnote citations must be used to furnish information for

identifying and locating the sources listed.

Format. This bibliography is written in the form of an essay rather

than a list. For guidance as to the form of this type of bibliography, refer

to the volume, Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal, in the series History of

U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II. In a bibliographic

essay, only comment upon the most significant sources. These essays

normally do not include detailed identification or location information.

Source Categories. For ease of reading, the sources consulted may

be grouped for examination into related categories. In the History of

U.S. Marine Operations in World War II, these were official documents,

unofficial sources, enemy sources, and books and periodicals.

Insofar as it is appropriate, this general order of categories should be

followed in all Marine Corps historical bibliographical essays, although

some categories may be omitted or modified depending upon the nature

of the writing project and its source material.

For more information and guidelines for recording comprehensive notes

and bibliography information during the research phase of your project,

see Appendix C, The Mechanics of Research.

96 Appendix E: Bibliographies
Appendix F

Indexing

The Marine Corps historical writer must provide an index for the work

being submitted as outlined in this appendix.

Subjects Indexed

Marine Corps historical publications will be indexed with proper and

place names, units (friendly and enemy), weapons, vehicles, aircraft

types, significant (distinctive) code names, names of operations, and

topical entries of specific interest to the Marine Corps, such as pacification and single management of air resources. U.S. Marines in Vietnam,

1965: The Landing and the Buildup serves as a general guide for these

indices, but the instructions herein should be considered as taking precedence. In cases where there are unusual items to be indexed, common

sense should prevail.

Foreign Place Names

Take special care to avoid confusion with respect to place names. For

instance, you may refer to a river in several ways, “Tam Ky River,” or

“Song Tam Ky,” or “the Tam Ky.” The name Tam Ky also applies to the

town and must be reflected separately and correctly in the index. In the

example used here, all page references for the river could best be given

under “Tam Ky River.” The cross-reference entry for Song Tam Ky

would then read, “See also” or just “See Tam Ky River,” without repeating page numbers. References to the town would appear under “Tam

Ky.” A similar problem exists where provinces and the province capital

or other major town share the same name.

Operations

In indexing tactical operations, the citation should encompass all pages

where the action is discussed, not just the pages on which the code

name for the operation is given.

Units

In indexing units, it is also important to identify all pages pertaining to

the unit. Authors frequently use various appellations, such as “3d

Battalion, 3d Marines,” “Muir’s battalion,” or simply “the battalion;”

often they describe a battalion’s actions by discussing the movements of

subordinate companies and individuals. If the indexer cites only the

pages on which the full name of the battalion appears, the result will be

an incomplete and less satisfactory index.

97
Sections of the Work to Index

In addition to the basic text, indices will include citations for the following sections of the histories:

Appendices. Appendices of Medal of Honor recipients are always

indexed in History and Museums Division publications. Other appendices are not normally indexed. Some discursive appendices may well

need indexing; common sense applies.

Informational footnotes. Material in footnotes will be indexed and

the small letter “n” will be used following the page number to indicate

the precise location. Note that in this case, “n” is always italicized.

Maps. Major tactical operations illustrated by maps depicting movement of forces will be cited under the subhead of “map” or “maps.”

Geographic names included on maps, however, will not be indexed.

Photographs. Persons, places, and units illustrated in photographs

and identified in captions will be included in the index under the subhead of “illus.”

Prefaces. References to material here will cite the small Roman

numerals used for pagination of these sections.

Techniques of Indexing

The following steps should guide the indexer through the process.

(1) The index should be prepared from page proofs.

(2) The indexing editor should carefully read the text and underline or

highlight the types of items previously specified. See Subjects Indexed

in this appendix.

(3) Only one entry per page should be underlined or highlighted, i.e., if

“Guadalcanal” appears more than once on a page, only its first appearance should be underlined.

(4) After the text has been read and underlined, the index will be prepared on a computer, using indexing software. When appropriate,

entries will be cross-indexed, as, “Song Tam Ky (See also Tam Ky

River)” and “Tam Ky River (See also Song Tam Ky).”

(5) When all underlined items have been entered on the computer, the

following standard rules for indexing will be observed:

(a) Alphabetize word by word, so that a short word comes before a long

one beginning with the same letters. Thus, radio, radio broadcasting,

and radio stations go together before radioactivity.

(b) Disregard prepositions and conjunctions in alphabetizing whether

they appear within entries or at the beginning of subentries. “Society of

Modern Management” goes before “Society for Professional

98 Appendix F: Indexing
Advancement,” and “of France” precedes “Great Britain” as a subentry.

A possible exception is the indexing of the titles of books, films, or similar works. The Man on the Flying Trapeze should precede The Man

Without a Country.

(c) A proper noun precedes a common noun of the same spelling: the

name “Battles, Sir William F.” comes before the common noun “battles.”

(d) The name of a person precedes the name of a place: “Washington,

George,” precedes “Washington, D.C.”

(e) Names beginning with Mc are alphabetized as if they were spelled

Mac.

(f) A surname followed by initials is alphabetized before one with a

spelled out name: “Rogers, R.K.” comes before “Rogers, Raymond.”

However, all names appearing in Marine Corps historical publications

should have full first name and middle initial(s), if known, as well as

last name and, if appropriate, rank. Also, when in doubt, check indexed

name against name appearing in the text.

(g) Numbers are usually alphabetized as if they were spelled out: 1000

is alphabetized as one thousand, and 1984 as nineteen-eighty-four.

Sometimes, however, numbers are arranged in numerical sequence,

especially when they follow names or when they appear in subentries:

Census: Henry V

1790 Henry VI

1880 Henry VII

1960 Henry VIII

(h) Some common abbreviations, especially in geographical names, are

hardly ever spelled out, but they are alphabetized as though they were.

Mt. Vernon goes before mountains; St. Louis before San Francisco;

U.S.S.R. (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) goes before U.S. (United

States).

(i) Words with hyphenated prefixes are treated as solid words: Panama

goes before Pan-American. But hyphenated combinations of words such

as right-to-left shunt are alphabetized as separate words.

f. Note that in listing page numbers, it is “16-17” and “22-23,” not “16-

7” or “22-3”; “101-102” and “109-110,” not “101-2” and “109-0”; and

“122-123,” not “122-3.”

Indexing by Hand

If a computer is not available to help you index, you can do it by hand

using almost exactly the same steps. Go through the page proofs, marking items to be indexed, just as outlined above. Then enter all items on

3”x 5” cards, only one entry per card. Consolidate all entries for each

item and alphabetize the cards using the guidelines given above.

Appendix F: Indexing 99
Here is a sample index entry illustrating the guidelines previously discussed.

Operation Starlite, vi, 17, 23n, 71-78, 76n, 142; illus., 70, 72, 174;

maps, 69, 77.

The preceding entry provides the following information:

vi—preface page

17, 71-78—basic text

23n, 76n—informational footnotes

142—appendix on Medal of Honor recipients

70, 72, 74—each page contains one or more photographs relating to the

operation

69, 77—maps illustrating tactical maneuvers

100 Appendix F: Indexing
Appendix G

Writing for Fortitudine

Fortitudine is the bulletin of the Marine Corps Historical Program. It is

a 24-page, full-color publication that is distributed throughout the

Marine Corps, to general officers and to individual subscribers. It is not

a journal of Marine Corps history, even though its articles contain historical information. All Fortitudine articles must have news value for

the historical program and should appeal to active-duty and former

Marines, as well as civilians interested in the Corps and its history.

General Guidance

Articles published in Fortitudine follow journalistic writing styles.

When writing your article, avoid surmising, editorializing, explaining

the obvious, sentimentality and quaintness, repetition (particularly of

words and phrases), slow beginnings, self-compliments and gratuitous

comments. Don’t be “preachy” or “schoolmasterish” and don’t be afraid

to use the first person (“I”) in a by-lined article. Be consistent, particularly in use of military abbreviations. Be precise and concise. Every

sentence should contain a “fact.” Cite authority or source, particularly

for opinions or judgments.

Writing Style. The most common style is the “inverted pyramid” in

which the essential information in the story appears in the first sentence

of the article. The primary supporting information appears in the

remainder of the first paragraph. All subsequent material merely amplifies the introductory paragraph. The following lead paragraph illustrates

this style:

Retired BGen Herman H. Hanneken, legendary hero of the Haitian

Campaign, visited the Historical Center on 21 January 1981. Gen

Hanneken, a Medal of Honor recipient, had come to Washington as

an official guest at President Reagan’s inaugural. He toured the

Center and met with Mr. Benis Frank, head of the Oral History

Section. Together they recorded an interview, which covered the

general’s eventful 34-year career with special emphasis on his wellknown activities as a “bandit hunter” in Haiti and Nicaragua.

Teaser Style. A “teaser” style may be used for the sake of variety. In

this form, the main idea appears later in the lead paragraph or elsewhere

in the article. One story on World War I began this way:

Some months ago, Mr. Steve Donoghue, a lieutenant in the Holyoke,

Massachusetts, police department, asked the Center for information

101
on the career of the late 2dLt James Gallivan, a decorated veteran of

World War I. Subsequent research revealed that 2dLt Gallivan was

more than 50 years of age when commissioned, prompting speculation that he may have been the oldest second lieutenant in the Marine

Corps during World War I. However, a check of the lineal lists of

1918 and 1919 showed that two other lieutenants, James Duffy and

Henry L. Hulbert (the latter a previous Medal of Honor recipient)

were even older. In addition to their commissions, Hulbert and

Gallivan earned combat decorations in France, evidence that courage

and gallantry are not the preserves of youth.

Article Constraints. Fortitudine differs from other historical program publications in that it is constrained, as a rule, to a length of 24

pages. This places an obligation upon authors to write to length rather

than leaving it to the editor to remove excess material. Authors must

plan their articles carefully if the story is to fit the allotted space.

Planning guidelines for both articles and photograph captions are available from the Editing and Design Section.

Headlines. Headlines provide the reader with an invitation to and an

indication of the contents of article. Authors should provide a suggested

headline for their article. They should draft an article headline with the

goal of making them easy to index.

VERBS. Headlines may or may not contain verbs, as illustrated in the

following examples:

Without Verb: “Research Sources for Marine Corps History”

“A Government Historian’s Memoir”

With Verb: “Tehran Hostages’ Story Told”

“Exhibition Stresses Weapons Design History”

Biographical Sketch. Authors who do not appear regularly in

Fortitudine should prepare a short biographical sketch.

Here is a sample of a biographical sketch:

Mr. Cressman, a reference historian in the Center, earned BA and MA

degrees in history from the University of Maryland. In his spare time,

Mr. Cressman is writing a biography of Adm Harry Yarnell, who commanded the Asiatic Fleet, 1936-39.

Photographs

Photographs are an integral part of Fortitudine articles. Choose them

carefully. If readers ignore the text, the illustrations and their captions

will be the only way to get your message across.

102 Appendix G: Writing for Fortitudine
Captions. The caption must add something that is not apparent in the

picture and it should relate to (but not repeat) the text. Avoid “labels.”

All captions should contain a general and specific statement and should

follow the same guidelines for other Division publications. See captions

entry.

The exception is for individual portrait-style photographs, also known

as “mugshots,” which require only identification of the individual in the

photograph. One example of a mugshot caption is that of the Director at

the top of the “Memorandum from the Director” page, which appears

as:

Col John W. Ripley, USMC

In some cases, such as mugshots used in the “In Memoriam” section,

the photograph may show the individual from an earlier period in their

career. The name line caption for those photographs should reflect the

person’s rank in the photograph rather than that in the article, prefaced

with the word “then,” as follows:

Then LtCol John J. Wermuth, Jr.

Cover Illustrations

The cover of Fortitudine generally features original artwork held in the

Division’s art collection that pertains to the overall theme of the issue or

to a main feature article. It is preferable for the cover artwork to be vertically oriented, but exceptions may be made when appropriate. Writers

of feature articles are encouraged to submit or recommend specific

items of art for the cover.

Special Rules

Fortitudine generally follows the guidelines set forth elsewhere in this

guide. However, there are a few exceptions.

Abbreviations. U.S. military and naval ranks are abbreviated in

Fortitudine except when they appear in a direct quote. See ranks entry

for proper format.

General officers are referred to by the entire abbreviation for their rank

when first mentioned in the text. The abbreviation “Gen” is appropriate

thereafter. First Mention: BGen Alfred R. Hales, Jr., USMC. Thereafter:

Gen Hales.

Periods are not used in military and naval ranks but are used in civilian

titles.

MajGen William H. Beauford, USMC

Dr. Asa C. Bowie

Mr. Aubrey C. Woodall

Appendix G: Writing for Fortitudine 103
Capitalization. Fortitudine deviates from other History and Museums

Division publications by capitalizing the following: the Director; the

Historical Program; the Museum; the Center; the Division (when referring to the History and Museums Division); the Chief Historian; and the

Chief Curator. See also capitalization entry.

Acronyms. Fortitudine must appeal to all readers, so avoid acronyms.

If used, acronyms should be explained. See acronyms and abbreviations entries.

104 Appendix G: Writing for Fortitudine
Appendix H

References and Guides

Guides to the Practice of History

Getting Started. It is not uncommon for Marines who are not formally trained as historians to be assigned to write for the Marine Corps

Historical Program or to produce a historical study for their command.

As with any unfamiliar task, the first step is to read the appropriate references. The critical tasks of researching, note taking, and writing are

clearly explained in the following guides. These skills are not difficult

to learn. With a little effort, most Marines will find their professional

experience compensates for their lack of academic training.

References. Any one of the following works should give you enough

of an introduction to the practice of history to get you started:

Gray, Wood, et al. Historians Handbook. A Key to the Study and Writing

of History. 2d ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1964. An excellent general survey of historical research as an artistic discipline.

Gottschalk, Louis. Understanding History: A Primer of Historical

Method. 2d ed. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969. Primarily a philosophical approach to historical research and criticism.

Barzun, Jacques, and Graff, Henry F. The Modern Researcher. 4th ed.

New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1985. Proven writers’ views

of research laying great stress on the literary requirements of history.

Readable Writing

References. The following references discuss the art of writing text

that is interesting and enjoyable to read.

Flesch, Rudolph. The Art of Readable Writing. rev. ed. New York:

MacMillan, 1986. The classic text and measurement tool of readable

writing.

Tuchman, Barbara. Practicing History. New York: Alfred A. Knopf,

1981. A widely acclaimed writer of popular history addresses researching history and communicating with the reader.

Graves, Robert and Hodge, Alan. The Reader Over Your Shoulder: A

Handbook for Writers of English Prose reprint ed. New York: Paragon

House, 1990. Vintage Books, 1979. A primer of rules for clarity of

expression carefully explained and illustrated.

Tresidder, Argus J. Watch Word! A Glossary of Gobbledygook, Clichés,

and Solecisms. Quantico: Marine Corps Association, 1981. Long an

English professor at Quantico, Dr. Tresidder has assembled a distillation

of his experiences in teaching a generation of Marine officers to write

clearly and succinctly.

105
Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and

Dissertations. 6th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.

Turabian’s Manual is derived from the University of Chicago Press’s

Manual of Style and has become virtually the national standard manual

for academic papers.

Bibliographies

References. Consulting the appropriate bibliographies will save you

a great deal of time, and help familiarize you with the historiography of

your subject.

Higham, Robin D.S., ed. A Guide to Sources of U.S. Military History.

Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1975; supplements 1981, 1986, and

periodically. A comprehensive bibliography. Each section of the basic

guide and its supplements has been prepared by a historian thoroughly

familiar with the subject. 

Freidel, Frank, ed., with the assistance of Richard K. Showman.

Harvard Guide to American History, 2 vols. rev. ed. Cambridge, Mass.:

Belknap Press, 1974. The basic guide for students of American history,

including historiographical essays and bibliographical listings citing

publications through June 1970.

U.S. Library of Congress. A Guide to the Study of the United States of

America. Washington, 1960. A guide to representative works on all

areas of American history, including military history.

Coletta, Paolo E. An Annotated Bibliography of U.S. Marine Corps

History. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1986. A

chronological bibliography of about 4,000 entries with subject and

author indices.

Kinnell, Susan K., ed. Military History of the United States: An

Annotated Bibliography. Santa Barbara, CA.: ABC-CLIO, 1986. Covers

American history from colonial times to 1985. Includes references to

books and dissertations, as well as journal articles published between

1974 and 1985.

Moran, John B. Creating a Legend: The Complete Record of Writing

About the Marine Corps. Chicago: Moran and Andrews, 1973. A popular guide to Marine Corps history.

Marolda, Edward J. and Lesher, Capt, James USNR, compilers. A

Bibliography of the United States Navy and the Conflict in Southeast

Asia, 1950-1975. Washington, D.C.: Naval Historical Center, 1991. A

guide to the most comprehensive books and articles on the Navy’s

involvement in the Vietnam conflict.

History & Museums Division, HQMC. The Marines in Vietnam, 1954-

1973: An Anthology and Annotated Bibliography. 2d ed. Washington,

1985. Part 2 of this publication is an annotated bibliography of articles,

106 Appendix H: References and Guides
mainly from the Marine Corps Gazette, covering various aspects of

Marine operations in Vietnam.

Guides to Archival Sources

References. The following references locate primary source documents:

Jennings, Margaret S., ed. Library and Reference Facilities of the

District of Columbia. 10th ed. White Plains, New York: Knowledge

Industry Publications, for American Society for Information Science,

Joint Venture, 1979. Brief description of the holdings of government,

college, business, and research institution libraries and archives in the

Washington, D.C. area.

Allard, Dean C.; Crawley, Martha L.; and Edmison, Mary W.; comps.

and eds. U.S. Naval History Sources in the United States. Washington:

Naval History Division, Department of the Navy, 1979. A comprehensive listing by state of archives and library collections of documents and

personal papers relating to naval history with many specific references

to the Marine Corps.

Jessup, John E., Jr., and Coakley, Robert W., eds. A Guide to the Study

and Use of Military History. Washington: Center of Military History,

United States Army, 1979. A comprehensive historiographic and

descriptive guide to military history organized by subject and period. It

also contains a description of all the historical programs in the

Department of Defense.

U.S. National Archives. Federal Records of World War II, 2 vols.

Washington, 1951. (Reprinted by Gale Research Co., Detroit, 1982). An

indispensable guide to civilian and military records listing location of

each group of records with an administrative history of the originating

organization.

U.S. National Archives. Guide to the National Archives. Washington,

1974. A general guide to the holdings of the National Archives, including the early records of the Marine Corps.

Johnson, Maizie, comp. Records of the United States Marine Corps,

National Archives Inventory Record Group 127. Washington: National

Archives and Records Service, General Services Administration, 1970.

A description of the Marine Corps records held in the National Archives

with some narrative historical material and appendices giving the subject categories breakdown of the Ells-Dran Filing System and the

Quartermaster General’s filing system.

Frank, Benis M., comp. Marine Corps Oral History Collection Catalog.

Washington: History and Museums Division, HQMC, 1989. A listing of

interviews conducted with retired distinguished Marines, most of whom

held high-level command and staff billets.

Appendix H: References and Guides 107
Paszek, Lawrence K., comp. United States Air Force History: A Guide

to Documentary Sources. Washington: Office of Air Force History,

1986. An excellent and comprehensive source for those who are seeking

primary and secondary documents on the Air Force.

Photographs. Official Marine Corps photograph collections are held

at the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the

Department of Defense Visual Information Center (DVIC). These

depositories have responsibility for servicing photographic requests, and

researchers should contact the proper activities regarding photograph

availability and the current schedule of fees. For Marine Corps photographs taken prior to 1982, the point of contact is:

Head, Still Pictures Branch

National Archives

8601 Adelphi Road

College Park, MD 20740-6001

Telephone: (301) 713-6625/ext. 234

For Marine Corps photographs dating from 1982 to present, the point of

contact is:

Defense Visual Information Center

Building 2730, DVIC-OM-PA

1363 Z Street

March Air Force Base, CA 92518-2073

Telephone: COMM (909) 413-2556; DSN 348-1515

Fax: COMM (909) 413-2525; DSN 348-1525

Web site: www.dodmedia.osd.mil

When possible, photo research should be undertaken concurrently with

the author’s other research and writing duties. Authors should plan to

visit the appropriate depository to obtain the best selection of photographs for their specific project. After visiting a particular depository

and making photo selections, authors should be aware that photo reproduction orders require 4 to 6 weeks (DVIC), and 8 to 10 weeks

(National Archives) to complete.

108 Appendix H: References and Guides
Appendix I

Notes on Writing Naval (not Navy) English

By Samuel Eliot Morison

Historian of U.S. Naval Operations, World War II

The sea has a language of its own, and the air has largely taken it over

with a few necessary additions and modifications. Everyone who writes

naval or maritime history should endeavor to use the strong, short words

and plain, terse phrases that are consecrated by centuries of sea usage,

and not try to translate them into current journalese or other jargon.

Ship and Plane Motion. Never say trip when you mean passage or

voyage. The distinction between the two is that a passage (outward,

homeward or from one point to another) is part of a voyage. Trip may

be used only for a boat trip from ship to shore or for a coastwise journey, like some of the short-range amphibious operations in New Guinea

and the Philippines.

There are three different verbs to use for the act of a ship making an

exit from port: sail, depart and leave. All three are correct; I prefer the

first two. Sortie should be used sparingly, never for a single ship, and

only when a task force or other large group leaves a harbor with a

restricted channel in accordance with a sortie plan. Sortie is used in a

special sense by naval aviation, meaning one flight by one plane. For

instance, if 30 planes of carrier Yorktown make a morning and an afternoon strike on 8 May, 23 other planes make one strike only, and 8 are

sent out on search missions, she is said to have made 91 sorties that day.

Planes flown as combat air patrol and anti-submarine patrol are not

counted as sorties.

For a verb expressing the motion of a naval vessel or force, sail or

steam is preferable to go or proceed, although the latter are correct.

“The task force sailed from Oahu to Leyte,” and “The cruisers steamed

through the Straits of Gibraltar.” Note how flat it sounds if you substitute went or proceeded. It does not matter if neither sail nor steam are

used as motive power; the derived verbs are still best for the motion of

a ship.

Similarly, aircraft are always said to fly, even though their motive power

is very different from that of a bird.

Personnel. Sailor is properly used for any seaman, whether naval or

merchant Marine. Although in the Royal Navy any officer is proud to be

called a “sailor,” there is an unfortunate tendency in the United States

Navy to deny this fine old word to officers. I was shocked, on asking a

pretty young thing if her husband was a sailor, to hear her snippily, “No,

109
he’s an ensign!” The term bluejacket, however, is properly applied only

to enlisted men.

Personnel is a word that is being worked to death. Avoid it when you

can. Instead of enlisted personnel say enlisted men [women], bluejackets or simply men [women]. The dignity of seafarers is not enhanced by

calling them personnel.

“People who are called ‘personnel’,” say Collier’s for 3 May 1947, do

not “go,” they “proceed.” They do not “have,” they “are in possession

of,” they do not “ask,” they “make application for,” . . . they cannot

“eat” they only “consume,” they do not “wash” but “perform ablutions,”

instead of “houses” or “homes” they have “places to residence” in

which, instead of “living,” they “are domiciled.” To which one might

add, they “take a boat ride” instead of a “sea voyage,” they “operate” a

gun instead of “firing it,” they never see anything but “observe” it; they

never hurry but “expedite,” and they are never “moved” or “impelled”

by anything, only “motivated.”

The term personnel casualties is tautological; casualties implies human

beings unless qualified by some such word as material. Damage is

preferable to material casualties, although the latter is correct. (As an

adjective, material is spelled with an a, but as a noun, military materiel

is correct.)

On Board, Please. A sailor serves or fights in and not on a ship. If

you use on, it must be accompanied by board. Aboard is not good naval

written English except in certain phrases such as close aboard (within

600 yards).

Colors. You set a sail, raise the jack or ensign, hoist a signal, but

break (out) an admiral’s flag, commodore or squadron commander’s

broad pennant or division commander’s pennant. Never call the ensign

or a pennant a flag; but the ensign and jack, or both, are called the colors.

“The Admiral flew his flag in USS Ohio,” or “wore his flag in USS

Ohio.” Both are correct; the former is preferable.

“The guide ship flew a blue pennant at the dip and hoisted it two-blocks

as a signal for the boat waves to depart,” is correct.

Off and On. Say keep clear of, not away from a minefield, reef, other

ships or obstruction. You can “make an approach,” but it is better nautical usage to close rather than approach the land or another ship.

110 Appendix I: Notes on Naval (not Navy) English
Watches. Refer to the watches on board by their names and not by

their limiting hours:

First watch (2000-2400), Mid watch (0000-0400),

Morning watch (0400-0800), Forenoon watch (0800-1200),

Afternoon watch (1200-1600), Dog watches (1600-1800, 1800-2000).

Make more use of watch time. For instance, “The force closed the landing during the first watch,” rather than “between 2000 and midnight.”

A Few More ‘Don’ts. Avoid as much as possible the use of we and

our. This cannot be done altogether, but so far as possible substitute

United States, United States and British, United Nations for our side, as

you hope your history will be read by men of other nations.

Sagas and epics have become stale and cheesy from journalistic abuse,

and go easy on armada. Don’t call an action or other episode historic,

because everything you write is historic or it wouldn’t be there.

Avoid quite as an adverb. “The landings in Sicily were quite different

from those in North Africa.” You mean very, or altogether different.

When a plane falls into the sea, say it splashed or was splashed, if

knocked down by a gun or by another plane. Use crashed for the plane

falling onto a ship or land.

Abaft and Astern. Preserve the distinction. Abaft is a direction within a ship or a bearing from a ship. A bomb may hit the deck 25 yards

abaft No. 2 stack, or a periscope may be sighted to port, 3 points (34

degrees) abaft the beam. But you say that a plane splashed or a bomb

missed, 100 yards astern of the ship. Aft of need not be used at all; abaft

or astern will meet every need.

Bow, Beam, and Quarter. All three are bearings; the bow or bows

are also a part of the ship. A missile cannot strike a ship on the starboard beam (say starboard side amidships) or on the port quarter (say

port side aft, or port side of the “fantail”; a new naval term that is now

in good use). Properly speaking, you sight a light, or a near-miss

explodes, on (not off) the port beam, on (not off) the starboard quarter,

on (not off) the bow. But, as the non-seagoing public will assume that

an explosion or a plane coming down “on the port quarter” means a hit

on board the ship, you had better use some qualifying word such as “25

yards away on the port quarter,” broad on the bow (for about 45 degrees

from ship’s course), “broad on the starboard quarter” (for about 135

degrees from ship’s course), “close aboard on the port side,” etc.

Appendix I: Notes on Naval (not Navy) English 111
Meteorology. Always describe the weather in relating a naval or

amphibious operation. In general, state whether the day is bright, fair,

overcast (give percent), rainy, squally, etc.; direction of wind in points

(preferable to degrees) and its velocity, especially in carrier operations.

For wind velocity use either the Beaufort scale or knots or exact

descriptive terms. I prefer the Beaufort as a scale known to all seamen,

but knots are more accurate.

If you use a descriptive term by precise; don’t say it was “blowing a

gale of wind” when it was merely a Force-6, 25-knot strong breeze.

The following scale of equivalents in wind velocity is from Bowditch,

1934 edition, page 37.

Beaufort Seaman’s or Weather 

Scale Knots Bureau Term

1 1-3 light air

2 4-6 light air

3 7-10 gentle breeze

4 11-16 moderate breeze

5 17-21 fresh breeze

6 22-27 strong breeze

7 28-33 strong breeze or moderate gale

8 34-40 fresh gale or gale

9 41-47 strong gale or gale

10 48-55 whole, hard, or heavy gale

11 56-65 storm, or whole gale

12 65-up hurricane

Give sunrise and sunset in the local time zone whenever relevant.

Always tell the phase of the moon, and, when there is any night action,

moonrise or moonset.

Official Phrases. Certain phrases and locutions commonly employed

in Action Reports, Operation Plans, Tactical Manuals, and other official

documents are working themselves into naval history as well, without

due cause. Among those, which this historian regards as inappropriate,

are the following:

The bastard conjunction and/or. Never use it.

Navy as an adjective. Use naval.

Plus as a substitute for and or together with; minus as a substitute for

less or without.

Plus and minus are mathematical terms and should be used only in statistics and lists, such as “Desron 32 minus Perry, plus Wainwright.”

112 Appendix I: Notes on Naval (not Navy) English
Surface ship is tautological, except where used in contrast to submarines. If a vessel cannot operate on the surface, it is not a ship.

Airplanes are not ships, although the Army calls them so. Surface craft

is another abominable phrase. Aircraft has come into use and is not

incorrect, but properly it means both planes and blimps and should be

used sparingly. Small craft is all right for vessels larger than boats but

smaller than ships.

Task force or group designations, while right and proper in operation

plans and the like, are to be used very sparingly in narrative history.

Write “Northern Attack Force,” not “TF 52.” Write “Rear Admiral P.H.

Henry,” or simply “Admiral Henry,” not “CTG 51.1.” Otherwise no

nonprofessional reader can follow you.

Area. This word has at least two legitimate uses in naval history: (1) in

such phrases as transport area (in an amphibious landing), mined area,

target area; (2) as the name of a definite command or defined oceanic

region such as South Pacific Area. But it is now being used tautologically, or as a substitute for sea, island and the like. Never say, “The fleet

entered the Bismarck Area.” Bismarck Sea is right. Or, “The expeditionary force was staged in the Hawaiian Area.” Hawaiian Islands is

right. I have even seen Mediterranean Area used instead of

“Mediterranean Sea” in official reports. It is a good rule not to use area

when another word, such as region, will do. Say theater, not area, of

operations.

Oral, not verbal orders. A verbal order is written.

Prior to is being misused for before or previous to.

Tip is being misused for point, cape, end or promontory of an island or

other landmass.

Total of is incorrect. Either the of is redundant, or whole of is meant.

Incidentally, write All the ships; no need of an “of” there.

Due to is being misused for owing to or because of.

A salvo means two or more shots fired simultaneously. There is no such

thing as a one-gun salvo. You might as well say a one-bird flock or a

one-cow herd.

Do not mix up disposition and formation. A cruising or approach disposition may include several formations (circular, in column, in line, or

line of bearing).

The use of dates based on a D or other designated day of attack is out of

place in historical narrative. Say 4 June 1944, not D minus 2 day; or, 12

June, not D plus 6. If you wish to call attention to the nearness of Dday, put it in parentheses, thus: “On 16 June (D plus 10) the weather

turned foul.”

Appendix I: Notes on Naval (not Navy) English 113
There seems to be an idea abroad that Secretary Josephus Daniels abolished starboard and port in the United States Navy. That is not true.

Even with the enormous infiltration of landsmen in World War II, the

Navy, like the Merchant Marine, still uses forward and aft, starboard

and port, above and aloft and below. Ships still have bulkheads, not

walls; cabins or compartments, not rooms (except in composition like

wardroom, storeroom, etc.); overheads, not ceilings; and decks, not

floors. What Mr. Daniels did change (and it was all to the good) was the

form of orders to helmsmen, who no longer have to translate “port your

helm!” into a right turn on the wheel, or “starboard helm!” into a left

turn. Orders are now given “left” or “right” so many degrees, or “left”

or “right standard rudder” as with variations, assuming the helmsman to

be facing forward.

114 Appendix I: Notes on Naval (not Navy) English
Appendix J

Citing Internet Sources

Editors note: The following suggested formats for citing Internet

sources are protected as noted and have been reproduced here under the

guidelines of the author. Suggestions contained herein that do not conform to formats and conventions described elsewhere in this Writing

Guide should be ignored in favor of those provided in other entries of

this Guide. This most current version of this guide can be found online

at: <http://www.h-net.org/~africa/citation.html>.

A Brief Citation Guide for Internet Sources in History and

the Humanities

(Version 2.1), by: Melvin E. Page, 20 February 1996, for H-AFRICA

Humanities On-Line and History Department, University of Natal at

Durban, Durban, South Africa, phone: 27-31-260-3104, fax: 27-31-260-

2621.

The following suggestions for citations of Internet sources in history

and the humanities are derived from the essential principles of academic

citation in Kate L. Turabian, A Manual for Writers of Term Papers,

Theses, and Dissertations, 5th ed. (Chicago, University of Chicago

Press, 1987). I have also drawn upon suggestions from some of the

works listed in the bibliography below. Since the Internet is an evolving

institution, this Guide is not intended to be definitive. Corrections, additions, comments, suggestions, and criticisms are therefore welcome.

Please address them to the author at: pagem@mtb.und.ac.za.

Bibliographic Citations

Basic citation components and punctuation

Author’s Last Name, First Name <author’s internet address, if appropriate>. “Title of Work” or “title line of message.” In “Title of Complete

Work” or title of list/site as appropriate. <internet address>. [menu path,

if appropriate]. Date, if available. Archived at: if appropriate.

The samples below indicate how citations of particular electronic

sources might be made.

LISTSERV MESSAGES

Curtin, Phillip <curtinpd@jhunix.hcf.jhu.edu>. “Goree and the Atlantic

Slave Trade.” In H-AFRICA. <h-africa@msu.edu>. 31 July 1995.

Archived at: <gopher.h-net.msu.edu> [path: H-NET E-Mail Discussion

Groups/H-AFRICA/Discussion Threads/Goree and the Atlantic Slave

Trade—item number 465].

Lobban, Richard <RLobban@grog.ric.edu>. “REPLY: African Muslim

115
Slaves in America.” In H-AFRICA. <h-africa@msu.edu”>. 4 August

1995. Archived at: <“http://h-net.msu.edu/~africa/archives/august95>.

Walsh, Gretchen. “REPLY: Using African newspapers in teaching.” In

H-AFRICA. <h-africa@msu.edu>. 18 October 1995.

WORLD WIDE WEB

Limb, Peter. “Alliance Strengthened or Diminished?: Relationships

between Labour & African Nationalist/Liberation Movements in

Southern Africa.”

<http://neal.ctstateu.edu/history/world_history/archives/limb-l.html>.

May 1992.

FTP SITE

Heinrich, Gregor <100303.100@compuserve.com>. “Where There Is

Beauty, There is Hope: Sau Tome e Principe.” <ftp.cs.ubc.ca> [path:

pub/local/FAQ/african/gen/saoep.txt]. July 1994.

GOPHER SITE

“Democratic Party Platform, 1860.” <wiretap.spies.com> [Path: Wiretap

Online Library/Civic & Historical/Political Platforms of the U.S.]. 18

June 1860.

Graeber, David <gr2a@midway.uchicago.edu>. “Epilogue to *The

Disastrous Ordeal of 1987*”. <gopher://h-net.msu.edu:70/00/lists/HAFRICA/doc/graeber>. No date.

USENET GROUP MESSAGES

Dell, Thomas <dell@wiretap.spies.com>. “[EDTECH] EMG: Sacred

Texts (Networked Electronic Versions).” In <alt.etext>. 4 February

1993.

Legg, Sonya <legg@harquebus.cgd.ucar.edu>. “African history book

list.” In <soc.culture.african>. 5 September 1994. Archived at:

<http://www.lib.ox.ac.uk/internet/news/faq/archive/africanfaq.”>http://www.lib.ox.ac.uk/internet/news/faq/archive/african-faq.general.html>.

E-MAIL MESSAGES

Page, Mel <pagem@etsuarts.east-tenn-st.edu>.”African dance...and

Malawi.” Private e-mail message to Masankho Banda. 28 November

1994.

Footnote and Endnote Citations

Basic citation components and punctuation, (note number) Author’s

First name and Last name, <author’s internet address, if available>,

“Title of Work” or “title line of message,” in “Title of Complete Work”

or title of list/site as appropriate, <internet address>, [menu path, if

appropriate], date if available, archived at if appropriate.

116 Appendix J: Citing Internet Sources
The examples below indicate how citations of particular electronic

sources might be made.

LISTSERV MESSAGES

Phillip Curtin, <curtinpd@jhunix.hcf.jhu.edu>, “Goree and the Slave

Trade,” in H-AFRICA, <h-africa@msu.edu>, 31 July 1995, archived at

<gopher.h-net.msu.edu>, [path: H-NET E-Mail Discussion Groups/HAFRICA/ Discussion Threads/Goree and the Atlantic Slave Trade—

item number 465].

Richard Lobban, <RLobban@grog.ric.edu>, “REPLY: African Muslim

Slaves in America,” in H-AFRICA, <h-africa@msu.edu>, 4 August

1995, archived at <http://h-net.msu.edu/~africa/archives/august95>.

Gretchen Walsh, “REPLY: Using African newspapers in teaching,” in

H-AFRICA, <h-africa@msu.edu>, 18 October 1995.

WORLD WIDE WEB

Peter Limb, “Relationships between Labour & African

Nationalist/Liberation Movements in Southern Africa,”

<http://neal.ctstateu.edu/history/world_history/archives/limb-l.html>,

May 1992.

FTP SITE

Gregor Heinrich, <100303.100@compuserve.com”>, “Where There Is

Beauty, There is Hope: Sao Tome e Principe,” <ftp.us.ubc.ca>, [path:

pub/local/FAQ/african/gen/saoep.txt], July 1994.

GOPHER SITE

“Democratic Party Platform, 1860,” <wiretap.spies.com>, [path:

Wiretap Online Library/Civic & Historical/Political Platforms of the

U.S.], 18 June 1860.

David Graeber, <gr2a@midway.uchicago.edu>, “Epilogue to *The

Disastrous Ordeal of 1987*,” <gopher://h-net.msu.edu:70/00/lists/HAFRICA/doc/graeber>.

USENET GROUP MESSAGES

Thomas Dell, <dell@wiretap.spies.com>, “[EDTECH] EMG: Sacred

Texts (Networked Electronic Versions),” in <alt.etext>, 4 February

1993.

Sonya Legg, <legg@harquebus.cgd.ucar.edu>, “African history book

list,” in <soc.culture.african>, 5 September 1995, archived at

<http://www.lib.ox.ac.uk/internet/news/faq/archive/africanfaq.general.html>.

E-MAIL MESSAGES

Mel Page, <pagem@etsuarts.east-tenn-st.edu>, “African dance...and

Malawi,” private e-mail message to Masankho Banda, 28 November

1994.

Appendix J: Citing Internet Sources 117
Bibliography of Additional Material on Electronic Citations

Crouse, Maurice <crousem@cc.memphis.edu>. “Citing electronic information in history papers.” Rev. ed.

<http://www.people.memphis.edu/~crousem/elcite.txt>. 10 February

1996.

Dodd, Sue A. “Bibliographic References for Computer Files in the

Social Sciences: A Discussion Paper.”

<gopher://info.monash.edu.au:70/00/handy/cites>. Revised May 1990.

[Also published in *IASSIST Quarterly*, 14, 2(1990): 14-17.]

Li, Xia and Nancy Crane. “Bibliographic Formats for Citing Electronic

Information.” <http://www.uvm.edu/~xli/reference/estyles.html>. 1996.

________. *The Official Internet World Guide to Electronic Styles: A

Handbook to Citing Electronic Information*. Westport: Meckler, 1996.

Ruus, Laine G. M. <laine@vm.utcc.utoronto.ca> and Anne Bombak

<abombak@vm.ucs.ualberta.ca>. “Bibliographic citations for computer

files.” 6th draft edition.

<gopher://gopher.epas.utoronto:70/00/data/more/citation.prt>. 19

November 1994.

Smith, James D.D. “Citation takes fast track to a dead end.” *Times

Higher Education Supplement*. 13 October 1995.

Turabian, Kate L. *A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and

Dissertations*, 5th ed. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1987.

University of Chicago Press *Chicago Guide to Preparing Electronic

Manuscripts: for Authors and Publishers*. Chicago: University of

Chicago Press, 1987.

Walker, Janice R. “MLA-Style Citations of Internet Sources.”

<http://www.cas.usf.edu/english/walker/mla.html>. April 1995.

Copyright Melvin E. Page, 1995, 1996.

118 Appendix J: Citing Internet Sources
Appendix K

Marine Corps Historical Publications 1920-2004

1920

The United States Marine Corps in the World War. Maj Edwin N.

McClellan, USMC. 1920. 1968 reprint. 109 pp. 

1925

History of the United States Marine Corps, 2 vols. Maj Edwin N.

McClellan, USMC. 1925-1932. 2,274 pp.

1932

Uniforms of the American Marines, 1775-1829. Maj Edwin N.

McClellan, USMC. 1932. 99 pp. 1974. 1982 reprints with addition of

preface and 21 contemporary illustrations. 150 pp.

1934

One Hundred Eighty Landings of the United States Marines, 1800-1934.

Capt Harry A. Ellsworth, USMC. 1934. 1974 reprint. 163 pp.

1945

The Fifth Marine Division in World War II. 1stLt John C. Chapin,

USMC. 1945. 26 pp.

The First Marine Division in World War II, 1941-1945. Joel D. Thacker.

1945. 36 pp. 

The Fourth Marine Division in World War II. 1stLt John C. Chapin,

USMC. 1945. 1974 rev. ed. 1976 reprint. 89 pp.

Guadalcanal Campaign, August 1942 to February 1943. 1945. 98 pp.

Second Marine Division. John L. Zimmerman. 1945. 24 pp.

1946

Campaign for the Marianas. Maj Philips D. Carleton, USMCR and

Capt James R. Stockman, USMC. 1946. 131 pp. 

The Conquest of Okinawa: An Account of the The Sixth Marine

Division. Maj Philips D. Carleton, USMCR. 1946. 129 pp.

The First Marine Brigade (Provisional), Iceland. John L. Zimmerman.

1946. 18 pp.

The First Marine Division on Okinawa: 1 April-30 June 1945. Capt

James R. Stockman, USMC. 1946. 79 pp.

The Iwo Jima Operation. Capt Clifford P. Morehouse, USMCR. 1946.

174 pp.

119
The Sixth Marine Division. Capt James R. Stockman, USMC. 1946. 36

pp.

1947

The Battle for Tarawa. Capt James R. Stockman, USMC. 1947. 86 pp.

The Defense of Wake. LtCol Robert D. Heinl, Jr., USMC. 1947. 76 pp.

1948

Bougainville and the Northern Solomons. Maj John N. Rentz, USMCR.

1948. 166 pp.

Marine Corps Traditions. 1948. 16 pp.

Marines at Midway. LtCol Robert D. Heinl, Jr., USMC. 1948. 56 pp.

1949

The Guadalcanal Campaign. Maj John L. Zimmerman, USMCR. 1949.

189 pp.

1950

The Assault on Peleliu. Maj Frank O. Hough, USMCR. 1950. 209 pp.

Saipan: The Beginning of the End. Maj Carl W. Hoffman, USMC, 1950.

286 pp.

1951

Marine Aviation in the Philippines. Maj Charles W. Boggs, Jr., USMC.

1951. 166 pp.

Mobilization of the Marine Corps Reserve in the Korean Conflict, 1950-

1951. Capt Ernest H. Giusti, USMCR. 1951. 1953 rev. ed. 1967 reprint.

80 pp.

The Seizure of Tinian. Maj Carl W. Hoffman, USMC. 1951. 169 pp. 

1952

The Campaign on New Britain. LtCol Frank O. Hough, USMCR, and

Maj John A. Crown, USMCR. 1952. 220 pp.

Marines in the Central Solomons. Maj John N. Rentz, USMCR. 1952.

186 pp.

1953

Our First Year in Korea: Accounts by Historical Branch, G-3,

Headquarters, Marine Corps. Lynn Montross, et al. 1953. (Reprints of

22 articles from the Marine Corps Gazette. Published by Marine Corps

Association).

120 Appendix K: Marine Corps Historical Publications 1920-2004
1954

Iwo Jima: Amphibious Epic. LtCol Whitman S. Bartley, USMC. 1954.

253 pp.

The Marshalls: Increasing the Tempo. LtCol Robert D. Heinl, Jr.,

USMC, and LtCol John A. Crown, USMC. 1954. 188 pp.

The Pusan Perimeter: U.S. Marine Operations in Korea, 1950-1953,

vol. 1. Lynn Montross and Capt Nicholas A. Canzona, USMC. 1954.

271 pp.

The Recapture of Guam. Maj O.R. Lodge, USMC. 1954. 214 pp.

1955

The Inchon-Seoul Operation: U.S. Marine Operations in Korea, 1950-

1953, vol. 2. Lynn Montross and Capt Nicholas A. Canzona, USMC.

1955. 361 pp.

Okinawa: Victory in the Pacific. Maj Charles S. Nichols, Jr., USMC,

and Henry I. Shaw, Jr. 1955. 332 pp.

1956

Marine Corps Ground Training in World War II. Kenneth W. Condit,

Gerald Diamond, and Edwin T. Turnbladh. 1956. 353 pp.

1957

The Chosin Reservoir Campaign: U.S. Marine Operations in Korea,

1950-1953, vol. 3. Lynn Montross and Capt Nicholas A. Canzona,

USMC. 1957. 432 pp.

1958

A Brief History of Marine Corps Officer Procurement, 1798-1969.

Bernard C. Nalty. 1958. 66 pp. 1962 reprint. 1970 rev. ed. LtCol Ralph

F. Moody, USMC. 39 pp.

A Brief History of the Marine Corps Base and Recruit Depot, Parris

Island, South Carolina, 1891-1956. Elmore A. Champie. 1958. 27 pp.

1960 reprint. 1962 rev. ed. 27 pp.

A Brief History of the Marine Corps Base and Recruit Depot, San

Diego, California. Elmore A. Champie. 1958. 22 pp. 1960 reprint. 1962

rev. ed. 24 pp.

Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal: History of U.S. Marine Corps

Operations in World War II, vol. 1. LtCol Frank O. Hough, USMCR.

Maj Verle E. Ludwig, USMC, and Henry I. Shaw, Jr. 1958. 439 pp.

The Diplomatic Mission to Abyssinia, 1903. Bernard C. Nalty. 1958. 39

pp. 1961 rev. ed.

Appendix K: Marine Corps Historical Publications 1920-2004 121
The United States Marines in Nicaragua. Bernard C. Nalty. 1958. 39

pp. 1962 rev. ed. 1968 reprint. 39 pp.

1959

A Brief History of Certain Aspects of Manpower Utilization in the

Marine Corps. Bernard C. Nalty. 1959. 12 pp. 1962 rev. ed. 12 pp.

The Barrier Forts: A Battle, A Monument, and A Mythical Marine.

Bernard C. Nalty. 1959. 12 pp. 1962 rev. ed. 12 pp.

History, Traditions, Customs and Courtesies Manual. 1959. 16 pp.

The Lauchheimer Trophy. D. Michael O’Quinlivan. 1959. 10 pp. 1962

rev. ed. 11 pp.

The Marines at Harpers Ferry, 1859. Bernard C. Nalty. 1959. 15 pp.

1962 rev. ed. 15 pp. 1966 rev. ed. 26 pp. Retitled “The United States

Marines at Harper’s Ferry and in the Civil War.” Reprinted 1983. 

The United States Marines in the Civil War. Bernard C. Nalty. 1959. 16

pp. 1961 rev. ed. 1962 rev. ed. 16 pp. 1966 rev. ed. Combined with preceding item. Retitled. Reprinted 1983.

The United States Marines in the War with Spain. Bernard C. Nalty.

1959. 1961 reprint. 1967 rev. ed. 20 pp.

1960

A Brief History of Marine Corps Aviation. Elizabeth L. Tierney. 1960.

16 pp. 1962 rev. ed. 16 pp.

A Brief History of the 1st Marines. Maj John H. Johnstone, USMC.

1960. 42 pp. 1962 rev. ed. 1968 rev. ed. 46 pp.

Hold High the Torch: A History of the 4th Marines. Kenneth W. Condit

and Edwin T. Turnbladh. 1960. 458 pp.

Inspection in the U.S. Marine Corps, 1775-1957. Bernard C. Nalty.

1960. 30 pp.

The Iwo Jima Flag Raising: The Event and the People. Bernard C.

Nalty. 1960. 11 pp. 1962 rev. ed. 1967 rev. ed. 29 pp. Retitled “The

United States Marines on Iwo Jima: The Battle and the Flag Raisings.”

Reprinted 1970. 1993 rev. ed. 30 pp.

The United States Marines in North China, 1945-1949. Henry I. Shaw,

Jr. 1960. 29 pp. 1962 rev. ed. 36 pp. 1968 reprint. 

1961

An Annotated Bibliography of the United States Marines in GuerillaType Action. Maj John H. Johnstone, USMC. 1961. 17 pp. 1962 rev. ed.

17 pp.

An Annotated Bibliography of the United States Marines in the Boxer

Rebellion. D. Michael O’Quinlivan. 1961. 9 pp.

122 Appendix K: Marine Corps Historical Publications 1920-2004
A Brief History of the 2d Marines. Maj John H. Johnstone, USMC.

1961. 21 pp. 1962 rev. ed. Capt Robert J. Kane, USMC. 1969 rev. ed.

58 pp.

A Brief History of the 3d Marines. Benis M. Frank. 1961. 32 pp. 1963

reprint. 1968 rev. ed. 1964 rev. ed. 47 pp.

A Brief History of the 9th Marines. Truman R. Strobridge. 1961. 27 pp.

1963 reprint. 1967 rev. ed. 30 pp.

A Brief History of the United States Marine Corps. Maj Norman W.

Hicks, USMC. 1961. 52 pp. 1962 rev. ed. 1964 rev. ed. 57 pp.

A Chronology of the United States Marine Corps, 1775-1934, vol. 1.

Col William M. Miller, USMC and Maj John H. Johnstone, USMC.

1961. 1965 and 1970 reprints. 129 pp. 

Marine Corps Aircraft, 1913-1960. 1961. 18 pp. 1967 rev. ed. 73 pp.

Title changes “1913-1965.”

The United States Marines in Iceland, 1941-1942. Maj Marvin L.

Brown, Jr., USMCR. 1961. 17 pp. LtCol Kenneth J. Clifford, USMCR.

1970 rev. ed. 22 pp.

The United States Marines in the Gilberts Campaign. Bernard C. Nalty.

1961. 9 pp.

The United States Marines in the Guadalcanal Campaign. Henry I.

Shaw, Jr. 1961. 1962 rev. ed. 14 pp. 1969 reprint. 14 pp.

The United States Marines in the Marshalls Campaign. Bernard C.

Nalty. 1961. 8 pp.

The United States Marines in the Occupation of Japan. Henry I. Shaw,

Jr. 1961. 34 pp. 1962 rev. ed. 29 pp. 1969 reprint. 34 pp.

United States Marine Corps Parachute Units. Maj John H. Johnstone,

USMC. 1961. 21 pp. 1962 rev. ed. 21 pp.

1962

An Annotated Bibliography of the United States Marines in the Korean

War. D. Michael O’Quinlivan. 1962. 31 pp. 1970. rev. ed. James S.

Santelli. 32 pp.

The East-Central Front: U.S. Marine Operations in Korea, 1950-1953,

vol. 4. Lynn Montross, Maj Hubard D. Kuokka, USMC, and Maj

Norman W. Hicks, USMC. 1962. 342 pp.

A History of Marine Corps Roles and Missions, 1775-1962. Col Thomas

G. Roe, USMC, Maj Ernest H. Giusti, USMCR, Maj John H. Johnstone,

USMC, Benis M. Frank. 1962. 36 pp.

The United States Marines in the Battle for Iwo Jima. Bernard C. Nalty.

1962. 10 pp. 1967 rev. ed. 29 pp. Retitled “The United States Marines

on Iwo Jima: The Battle and the Flag Raisings.” Reprinted 1970. 1995

rev. ed. 30 pp.

Appendix K: Marine Corps Historical Publications 1920-2004 123
United States Marine Corps Ranks and Grades, 1775-1969. Bernard C.

Nalty, Truman R. Strobridge, and Edwin T. Turnbladh. 1962. 45 pp.

1970 rev. ed. Roland P. Gill. 62 pp.

1963

An Annotated Bibliography of the United States Marines in American

Fiction. Truman R. Strobridge. 1963. 1964 reprint. 11 pp.

An Annotated Bibliography of the United States Marines in the Civil

War. D. Michael O’Quinlivan. 1963. 11 pp. 1968 rev. ed. Rowland P.

Gill. 15 pp. Reprint 1983.

A Brief History of the 5th Marines. Maj James M. Yingling, USMC.

1963. 66 pp. 1968 rev. ed. 79 pp.

A Brief History of Headquarters Marine Corps Staff Organization.

Kenneth W. Condit and Maj John H. Johnstone, USMC. 1963. 41 pp.

1970 rev. ed. Ella W. Nargele. 49 pp.

Isolation of Rabaul: History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World

War II, vol. 2. Henry I. Shaw, Jr., and Maj Douglas T. Kane, USMC.

1963. 632 pp.

U.S. Marine Corps Monthly Calendar of Historical Events. Historical

Branch, G-3 Division, HQMC. 1963. 103 pp.

1964

Marine Corps Women’s Reserve in World War II. Maj Pat Meid,

USMCR. 1964. 99 pp. 1968 rev. ed. 98 pp.

1965

An Annotated Bibliography of the United States Marine Corps in the

Second World War. D. Michael O’Quinlivan and Jack B. Hilliard. 1965.

42 pp. 1970. 1982 reprint.

A Chronology of the United States Marine Corps, 1935-1946, vol 2.

Carolyn A. Tyson. 1965. 1971 reprint. 1977 reprint. 139 pp.

1966

An Annotated Reading List of United States Marine Corps History. Jack

B. Hilliard. 1966. 58 pp. 1971 rev. ed. LtCol Harold A. Bivins,

USMCR. 55 pp.

Central Pacific Drive: History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in

World War II, vol. 3. Henry I. Shaw, Jr., Bernard C. Nalty, and Edwin T.

Turnbladh. 1966. 685 pp.

Marine Amphibious Landing in Korea, 1871. Carolyn A. Tyson. 1966.

24 pp. (Published by Naval Historical Foundation).

Marines in Lebanon, 1958. Jack Shulimson. 1966. 1983 reprint. 50 pp.

124 Appendix K: Marine Corps Historical Publications 1920-2004
1967

An Annotated Bibliography of the United States Marine Corps in the

First World War. Jack B. Hilliard. 1967. 16 pp.

Small Unit Action in Vietnam, Summer 1966. Capt Francis J. West, Jr.,

USMCR. 1967. 1977 reprint. 123 pp.

1968

An Annotated Bibliography of the United States Marine Corps’ Concept

of Close Air Support. James S. Santelli. 1968. 24 pp. Change sheets of

29 May 1969 provided revised pages 19-22.

A Brief History of the 11th Marines. 2dLt Robert Emmet, USMCR.

1968. 58 pp.

A Brief History of the Marine Engineer 1889 through Vietnam. Ralph

W. Donnelly. 1968. 19 pp.

Henry Clay Cochrane: Register of His Personal Papers. Capt Charles

F.W. Coker, USMCR. compiler. 1968. 86 pp. 

Victory and Occupation: U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War

II, vol 5. Benis M. Frank and Henry I. Shaw, Jr. 1968. 945 pp.

U.S. Marine Corps Civic Action Effort in Vietnam, March 1965-March

1966. Capt Russel H. Stolfi, USMCR. 1968. 96 pp.

76 Hours: Tarawa. HQMC (PAO). 1968. 22 pp.

1969

The Battle for Khe Sanh. Capt Moyers S. Shore, USMC. 1969. 1977

reprint. 203 pp. 

The Liberation of Guam. HQMC (PA). 1969. 22 pp. 

1970

An Annotated Bibliography of United States Marine Corps Artillery.

Ralph W. Donnelly. 1970. 68 pp.

The Battle Standard of the U.S. Marine Corps. NAVMC 2637. Col F.C.

Caldwell, USMC. (Ret). 1970. unpaginated. 

A Brief History of the 4th Marines. James S. Santelli. 1970. 68 pp.

A Concise History of the United States Marine Corps, 1775-1969. Capt

William D. Parker, USMCR. 1970. 143 pp.

Harumfrodite: Newsletter of the United States Marine Corps Museum.

Published quarterly until replaced by Fortitudine in 1972. 

McLane Tilton, 1861-1914: A Register of His Personal Papers. Charles

A. Wood and Jack B. Hilliard, compilers. 1970. 45 pp.

Samuel Miller, 1814-1856: A Register of His Personal Papers. Doris S.

Davis and Jack B. Hilliard, compilers. 1970. 50 pp.

Appendix K: Marine Corps Historical Publications 1920-2004 125
U.S. Marine Corps Civil Affairs in I Corps, Republic of South Vietnam,

April 1966-April 1967. Capt William D. Parker, USMCR. 1970. 131 pp.

U.S. Marine Corps Operations in the Dominican Republic, April-June

1965. Maj Jack K. Ringler, USMC and Henry I. Shaw, Jr. 1970.

Reprinted in 1992 as an Occasional Paper. 

1971

An Annotated Bibliography of Naval Gunfire Support. LtCol Harold A.

Bivins, USMCR. 1971. 10 pp.

A Chronology of the United States Marine Corps, 1947-1964, vol. 3.

Ralph W. Donnelly, Gabrielle M. Neufeld, and Carolyn A. Tyson. 1971.

73 pp.

A Chronology of the United States Marine Corps, 1965-1969, vol. 4.

Gabrielle M. Neufeld. 1971. 41 pp.

The Eagle, Globe, and Anchor, 1859-1969. Col John A. Driscoll,

USMCR. 1971. 1977 reprint. 164 pp.

Fortitudine: Newsletter of the Marine Corps Historical Program. 1971.

Published quarterly. Official newsletter of the History and Museums

Division.

George C. Reid, 1898-1960: A Register of His Personal Papers. Doris

S. Davis, Richard A. Long and Col Tyson Wilson, USMCR. compilers.

1971. 37 pp.

John Lloyd Broome, 1849-1898: A Register of His Personal Papers.

Doris S. Davis, compiler. 1971. 99 pp.

The Journal of Frank Keller, 1898. Frank Keller. Carolyn A. Tyson, editor. 1971. 50 pp.

Levi Twiggs, 1834-1850: A Register of His Personal Papers. Doris S.

Davis, compiler. 1971. 28 pp.

Western Pacific Operations: History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations

in World War II, vol. 4. George W. Garand and Truman R. Strobridge.

1971. 848 pp.

1972

An Annotated Bibliography of Marines in the American Revolution.

Carolyn A. Tyson and Rowland P. Gill. 1972. 76 pp. 

A Brief History of the 12th Marines. Charles R. Smith. 1972. 84 pp.

Operations in West Korea: U.S. Marine Operations in Korea, 1950-

1953, vol. 5. LtCol Pat Meid, USMCR, and Maj James M. Yingling,

USMC. 1972. 643 pp.

Special Marine Corps Units of World War II. Charles L. Updegraph, Jr.

1972. 1977 reprint. 105 pp.

126 Appendix K: Marine Corps Historical Publications 1920-2004
1973

Louis McCarty Little, 1870-1960: A Register of His Personal Papers.

Martin K. Gordon, compiler. 1973. 77 pp.

Marine Corps Oral History Collection Catalog. Benis M. Frank. 1973.

40 pp. 1974 rev. ed. 42 pp. 1975 rev. ed. 41 pp. 1979 rev. ed. 82 pp.

1989 rev. ed. 150 pp.

Progress and Purpose: A Developmental History of the United States

Marine Corps, 1900-1970. LtCol Kenneth J. Clifford, USMCR. 1973.

156 pp.

Wilburt Scott Brown, 1900-1968: A Register of His Personal Papers.

Martin K. Gordon, compiler. 1973. 99 pp.

1974

1st Marine Division and Its Regiments. 1974. 24 pp. 1981 rev. ed. 43

pp. 

Marine Corps Historical Publications Catalog. 1974. 22 pp. 1978 rev.

ed. 20 pp. 1978, 1979 addendum. Henry I. Shaw Jr., compiler, 1988 rev.

ed. 32 pp. 1989, 1992 addendum.

Marine Corps Personal Papers Collection Catalog. Charles A. Woods.

1974. 80 pp. 1980 rev. ed. 56 pp.

Marine Flyer in France, The Diary of Captain Alfred A. Cunningham,

November 1917-January 1918. Capt Alfred A. Cunningham, USMC.

Graham A. Cosmas, editor. 1974. 43 pp.

Marines in the Dominican Republic, 1916-1924. Capt Stephen M.

Fuller, USMCR, and Graham A. Cosmas. 1974. 109 pp.

The Marines in Vietnam, 1954-1973: An Anthology and Annotated

Bibliography. 1974. Capt Robert H. Whitlow, USMCR, 1974. 277 pp.

1983 reprint. 1985 rev. ed. 373 pp.

Women Marines in World War I. Capt Linda L. Hewitt, USMCR. 1974.

80 pp.

1975

Blacks in the Marine Corps. Henry I. Shaw, Jr., and Ralph W. Donnelly.

1975. 1988 reprint. 109 pp. 2002 reprint. 109 pp.

Civil War Marine: A Diary of the Red River Expedition, 1864. (Frank L.

Church). James P. Jones, and Edward F. Keuchel, editors. 1975. 89 pp.

Joseph Henry Pendleton, 1860-1942: A Register of His Personal

Papers. Martin K. Gordon, compiler. 1975. 232 pp.

Making a Continental Marine Uniform. Jack B. Hilliard and Doris S.

Maley. 1975. 92 pp.

Appendix K: Marine Corps Historical Publications 1920-2004 127
Marines in the Revolution: A History of the Continental Marines in the

American Revolution, 1775-1783. Charles R. Smith. 1975. 491 pp. 

Marines in the Revolution. Four-color plate series and descriptive pamphlet. Maj Charles H. Waterhouse, USMCR, artist, and Charles R.

Smith. 1975. 14 plates and 32 pp. (Published by the Marine Corps

Association)

Pictorial History of Marines in the Revolution. 1975. 32 pp.

3d Marine Division and Its Regiments. 1975. 22 pp. 1983 rev. ed. 58 pp.

1976

A Brief History of the 8th Marines. James S. Santelli. 1976. 103 pp.

Marines and Helicopters, 1946-1962. LtCol Eugene W. Rawlins,

USMC. Maj William J. Sambito, USMC, editor. 1976. 113 pp.

1977

Marine Corps Aviation: The Early Years, 1912-1940. LtCol Edward C.

Johnson, USMC. Graham A. Cosmas, editor. 1977. 106 pp.

U.S. Marines in Vietnam: The Advisory and Combat Assistance Era,

1954-1964. Capt Robert H. Whitlow, USMCR. 1977. 1982 reprint. 190

pp.

1978

A History of Marine Attack Squadron 223. 1stLt Brett A. Jones, USMC.

1978. 39 pp.

A History of Marine Attack Squadron 312. Maj William J. Sambito,

USMC. 1978. 25 pp.

A History of Marine Fighter Attack Squadron 232. Maj William J.

Sambito, USMC. 1978. 23 pp.

A History of Marine Fighter Attack Squadron 311. Maj William J.

Sambito, USMC. 1978. 67 pp.

A History of Marine Medium Helicopter Squadron 161. LtCol Gary W.

Parker, USMC. 1978. 47 pp.

Marine Corps Historical Publications in Print. 1978. 20 pp. Addendum

page. 1979.

Marines and Helicopters, 1962-1973. LtCol William R. Fails, USMC.

1978. 262 pp.

Quantico: Crossroads of the Marine Corps. LtCol Charles A. Fleming,

USMC. Capt Robin L. Austin, USMC, and Capt Charles A. Braley III,

USMC. 1978. 146 pp.

U.S. Marines in Vietnam: The Landing and the Buildup, 1965. Jack

Shulimson and Maj Charles M. Johnson, USMC. 1978. 261 pp.

128 Appendix K: Marine Corps Historical Publications 1920-2004
1979

Guide to the Marine Corps Historical Center. 1979. 30 pp. 1981 rev.

ed. 1987 rev. ed. 32 pp. 1996 rev. ed. 

1980

A Brief History of the 7th Marines. James S. Santelli. 1980. 83 pp.

George Barnett, 1959-1930: Register of His Personal Papers. LtCol

Merrill L. Bartlett, USMC, compiler. 1980. 18 pp.

1981

A Brief History of the 10th Marines. Maj David N. Buckner, USMC.

1981. 131 pp.

A Brief History of the 25th Marines. Col Joseph B. Ruth, Jr., USMCR.

1981. 60 pp.

Marine Corps Historical Center Writing Guide. 1981. 63 pp. 1983 rev.

ed. 74 pp.

1982

A “Do-It-Yourself” Oral History Primer. Benis M. Frank. 1982. 1985

reprint. 8 pp.

A History of Marine Observation Squadron Six. LtCol Gary W. Parker,

USMC and Maj Frank M. Batha, Jr., USMC. 1982. 73 pp.

The Colonel Robert D. Heinl, Jr., 1982 Memorial Award in Marine

Corps History: Texts of the Winning Article and Those Receiving

Honorable Mentions. 1982. 54 pp.

U.S. Marines Corps Marksmanship Badges from 1912 to the Present.

Michael D. Visconage. 1982. 1983 reprint. 15 pp.

U.S. Marines in Vietnam: An Expanding War, 1966. Jack Shulimson.

1982. 390 pp.

1983

The Colonel Robert D. Heinl, Jr., 1983 Memorial Award in Marine

Corps History: Texts of the Winning Article and Those Receiving

Honorable Mentions. 1983. 42 pp.

Marine Corps Historical Center Writing Guide. 1983 rev. ed. 74 pp. 

U.S. Marine Corps Uniforms, 1983. Four-color plate series and descriptive pamphlet. Capt Steven M. Berkowitz, USMC and Capt Donna J.

Neary, USMCR, artist, 1983. 12 plates and 13 pp.

Vietnam Historians Workshop: Plenary Session. Occasional Paper.

1983. 31 pp.

Appendix K: Marine Corps Historical Publications 1920-2004 129
1984

Finding Aid to Fortitudine, Newsletter of the Marine Corps Historical

Program, Volume II (1972-1973) - Volume XIII (1983-1984). Richard A.

Webster and Ian C. McNeal, compilers. 1984. 59 pp.

The 2d Marine Division and Its Regiments. 1984. 56 pp. 2001 rev. ed.

73 pp.

U.S. Marines in Vietnam: Fighting the North Vietnamese, 1967. Maj

Gary L. Telfer, USMC, LtCol Lane Rogers, USMC, and V. Keith

Fleming, Jr. 1984. 338 pp.

Vietnam Revisited: Conversation with William D. Broyles, Jr. Col John

G. Miller, USMC, editor. Occasional Paper. 1984. 48 pp.

1985

Chaplains with Marines in Vietnam, 1962-1971. Cdr Herbert L.

Bergsma, CHC, USN. 1985. 240 pp.

Clifton Bledsoe Cates, 1893-1970: Register of His Personal Papers.

Charles A. Wood. 1985. 14 plates. 17 pp.

Khe Sanh Bibliography. Occasional Paper. Ray W. Stubbe. 54 pp. 

Marines in the Frigate Navy. Four-color plate series and descriptive

pamphlet. Col Charles H. Waterhouse, USMCR, artist, and Charles R.

Smith. 1985. 14 plates. 36 pp.

1986

Alligators, Buffaloes, and Bushmasters: The History of the Development

of the LVT Through World War II. Occasional Paper. Maj Alfred Dunlap

Bailey, USMC (Ret). 1986. 272 pp.

A History of the Women Marines, 1946-1977. Col Mary V. Stremlow,

USMCR. 1986. 250 pp.

U.S. Marines in Vietnam: Vietnamization and Redeployment, 1970-

1971. Graham A. Cosmas and LtCol Terrence P. Murray, USMC. Maj

William R. Melton, USMC, and Jack Shulimson, editors. 1986. 487 pp.

75 Years of Marine Corps Aviation—A Tribute. An Exhibition of Art

from the Marine Corps Museum. Benis M. Frank and John T. Dyer.

1986. 41 pp.

1987

A Brief History of the 6th Marines. LtGen William K. Jones, USMC

(Ret). 1987. 181 pp.

Guide to the Marine Corps Historical Center. 1979. 32 pp. 1987 rev.

ed. 32 pp. 1996 rev. ed. 30 pp. 

130 Appendix K: Marine Corps Historical Publications 1920-2004
Fortitudine: Bulletin of the Marine Corps Historical Program. 1987.

Published quarterly from summer 1987 to date. Designated bulletin of

the Marine Corps Historical Program. 

A History of Marine Fighter Attack Squadron 323. Col Gerald R. Pitzel,

USMCR. 1987. 61 pp.

John H. Russell, Jr., 1872-1947. Register of His Personal Paper. LtCol

R.T. MacPherson, USMC (Ret), compiler. J. Michael Miller editor.

1987. 581 pp. 

U.S. Marines in Grenada, 1983. LtCol Ronald H. Spector, USMCR.

1987. 35 pp.

U.S. Marines in Lebanon, 1982-1984. Benis M. Frank. 1987. 196 pp.

1988

Curriculum Evolution: Marine Corps Command and Staff College,

1920-1988. LtCol Donald F. Bittner, USMCR. Occasional Paper. 1988.

92 pp.

A History of Marine Fighter Attack Squadron 115. Capt John C. Chapin,

USMCR (Ret). 1988. 89 pp.

John Archer Lejeune, 1869-1942: Register of His Personal Papers.

LtCol Merrill L. Bartlett, USMC (Ret), compiler. Occasional Paper.

1988. 107 pp.

Leadership Lessons and Remembrances from Vietnam. LtGen Herman

Nickerson, Jr., USMC (Ret). Occasional Paper. 1988. 93 pp.

Marine Corps Historical Publications Catalog: Available Publications

List and Chronological Bibliography. Henry I. Shaw, Jr., compiler.

1988. 32 pp. Addendum page 1990, 1992. 

Thomas Holcomb, 1879-1965, Register of His Personal Papers. Gibson

B. Smith, compiler. Occasional Paper. 1988. 229 pp.

To Wake Island and Beyond: Reminiscences. BGen Woodrow M.

Kessler, USMC (Ret). Occasional Paper. 1988. 145 pp.

The Problems of U.S. Marine Corps Prisoners of War in Korea. James

Angus MacDonald, Jr. Occasional Paper. 1988. 289 pp.

U.S. Marines in Vietnam: High Mobility and Stand Down, 1969. Charles

R. Smith. 1988. 403 pp.

1989

Herringbone Cloak—GI Dagger, Marines of the OSS. Maj Robert E.

Mattingly, USMC. Occasional Paper. 1989. 315 pp.

Marine Corps Flag Manual. MCO P10520.3B. 1989. 67 pp.

Marines and Military Law in Vietnam: Trial by Fire. LtCol Gary D.

Solis, USMC. 1989. 295 pp.

Appendix K: Marine Corps Historical Publications 1920-2004 131
U.S. Marines at Twentynine Palms, California. Col Verle E. Ludwig,

USMC (Ret). 1989. 109 pp. 

1990

A Brief History of the 14th Marines. LtCol Ronald J. Brown, USMCR.

1990. 103 pp.

The Journals of Marine Second Lieutenant Henry Bulls Watson, 1845-

1848. Charles R. Smith, editor. Occasional Paper. 1990. 420 pp. 

U.S. Marines in Vietnam: The Bitter End, 1973-1975. Maj George R.

Dunham, USMC and Col David A. Quinlan, USMC. 1990. 315 pp.

When the Russians Blinked: The U.S. Maritime Response to the Cuban

Missile Crisis. Maj John M. Young, USMCR. Occasional Paper. 1990.

236 pp.

1991

A History of Marine Fighter Attack Squadron 321. Cdr Peter B. Mersky,

USNR. 1991. 47 pp.

Marines in the Mexican War. Gabrielle M. Neufeld Santelli. Charles R.

Smith, editor. Occasional Paper. 1991. 59 pp.

Opening Moves: Marines Gear Up for War. Henry I. Shaw, Jr. 1991. 24

pp.

U.S. Marines in Vietnam: The War That Would Not End, 1971-1973.

Maj Charles D. Melson, USMC and LtCol Curtis G. Arnold, USMC.

1991. 311 pp.

1992

A Magnificent Fight: Marines in the Battle For Wake Island. Robert J.

Cressman. 1992. 36 pp.

The Development of Amphibious Tactics in the U.S. Navy. Gen Holland

M. Smith, USMC (Ret). Foreword by BGen Edwin H. Simmons,

USMC (Ret). Occasional Paper. 1992. 92 pp.

First Offensive: The Marine Campaign for Guadalcanal. Henry I. Shaw,

Jr. 1992. 52 pp.

Infamous Day: Marines at Pearl Harbor 7 December 1941. Robert J.

Cressman and J. Michael Wenger. 1992. 32 pp. 

Outpost in the Atlantic: Marines in the Defense of Iceland, 1941-1942.

Col James A. Donovan, Jr., USMC (Ret). Marines in World War II

Commemorative Pamphlet. 1992. 32 pp. 

U.S. Marines in the Persian Gulf, 1990-1991: Anthology and Annotated

Bibliography. Maj Charles D. Melson, USMC (Ret), Evelyn A.

Englander and Capt David A. Dawson, USMC. 1992. 258 pp. 

132 Appendix K: Marine Corps Historical Publications 1920-2004
1993

Across the Reef: The Marine Assault of Tarawa. Col Joseph H.

Alexander, USMC (Ret). 1993. 52 pp.

Outpost in the North Atlantic: Marines in the Defense of Iceland. Col

James A. Donovan. USMC (Ret). 1993. 32 pp. 

Time of the Aces: Marine Pilots in the Solomons, 1942-1944. Cdr Peter

B. Mersky. U.S. Naval Reserve. 1993. 40 pp.

Up the Slot: Marines in the Central Solomons. Maj Charles D. Melson,

USMC (Ret). 1993. 36 pp. 

U.S. Marines in the Persian Gulf, 1990-1991: With the 1st Marine

Division in Desert Shield and Desert Storm. LtCol Charles H. Cureton,

USMCR. 1993. 154 pp.

U.S. Marines in the Persian Gulf, 1990-1991: With the 2d Marine

Division in Desert Shield and Desert Storm. LtCol Dennis P.

Mroczkowski, USMCR. 1993. 107 pp.

U.S. Marines in the Persian Gulf, 1990-1991: With the I Marine

Expeditionary Force in Desert Shield and Desert Storm. Col Charles J.

Quilter II, USMCR. 1993. 131 pp.

1994

Breaching the Marianas: The Battle for Saipan. Capt John C. Chapin.

USMCR (Ret). 1994. 36 pp. 

Breaking the Outer Ring: Marine Landings in the Marshall Islands.

Capt John C. Chapin. USMCR (Ret). 1994. 28 pp.

A Close Encounter: The Marine Landing on Tinian. Richard Harwood.

1994. 32 pp.

A Different War: Marines in Europe and North Africa. LtCol Harry W.

Edwards, USMC (Ret). 1994. 32 pp.

Cape Gloucester: The Green Inferno. Bernard C. Nalty. 1994. 32 pp. 

Closing In: Marines in the Seizure of Iwo Jima. Col Joseph H.

Alexander. USMC (Ret). 1994. 52 pp. 

Free A Marine to Fight: Women Marines in World War II. Col Mary V.

Stremlow. USMCR. 1994. 40 pp.

Liberation: Marines in the Recapture of Guam. Cyril J. O’Brien. 1994.

44 pp. 

1995

From Makin to Bougainville: Marine Raiders in the Pacific War. Maj

Jon T. Hoffman. USMCR. 1995. 40 pp. 

Appendix K: Marine Corps Historical Publications 1920-2004 133
Humanitarian Operations in Northern Iraq, 1991: With Marines in

Operations Provide Comfort. LtCol Ronald J. Brown, USMCR. 1995.

127 pp.

The Impact of Project 100,000 on the Marine Corps. Capt David A.

Dawson. USMC. 1995. 239 pp. 

The Right to Fight: African-American Marines in World War II. Bernard

C. Nalty 1995. 28 pp.

U.S. Marines in Humanitarian Operations: Angels from the Sea: Relief

Operations in Bangladesh, 1991. Charles R. Smith. 1995. 116 pp.

1996

Bloody Beaches: The Marines at Peleliu. BGen Gordon D. Gayle.

USMC (Ret). 1996. 48 pp.

Condition Red: Marine Defense Battalions in World War II. Maj

Charles D. Melson. USMC (Ret). 1996. 32 pp. 

The Final Campaign: Marines in the Victory on Okinawa. Col Joseph

H. Alexander. USMC (Ret). 1996. 52 pp.

Just Cause: Marine Operations in Panama, 1988-1990. LtCol Nicholas

E. Reynolds, USMCR. 1996. 50 pp.

U.S. Marines in the Persian Gulf, 1990-1991: Marine Communications

in Desert Shield and Desert Storm. Maj John T. Quinn II, USMC. 1996.

124 pp.

1997

And a Few Marines: Marines in the Liberation of the Philippines. Capt

John C. Chapin. USMC (Ret). 1997. 28 pp.

From Shanghai to Corregidor: Marines in the Defense of the

Philippines. J. Michael Miller. 1997. 44 pp.

Securing the Surrender: Marines in the Occupation of Japan. Charles

R. Smith. 1997. 44 pages.

Top of the Ladder: Marine Operations North Solomons. Capt John C.

Chapin. USMC (Ret). 1997. 32 pp.

U.S. Marines in Vietnam: The Defining Year, 1968. Jack Shulimson,

LtCol Leonard A. Blaisol, USMC, Charles R. Smith and Capt David A.

Dawson, USMC. 1997. 805 pp. 

1998

Marines in the Spanish-American War, 1895-1899: Anthology and

Annotated Bibliography. Jack Shulimson, LtCol David E. Kelly,

USMCR, Evelyn A. Englander and Wanda J. Renfrow compilers. 1998.

173 pp. 

134 Appendix K: Marine Corps Historical Publications 1920-2004
Historical Perspective on the President’s Own U.S. Marine Band: 200th

Anniversary. MGySgt D. Michael Ressler, USMC. 1998. 36 pp.

U.S. Marines in the Persian Gulf, 1990-1991: With Marine Forces

Afloat in Desert Shield and Desert Storm. LtCol Ronald J. Brown.

USMCR (Ret). 1998. 263 pp.

1999

Silk Chutes and Hard Fighting: U.S. Marine Corps Parachute Units in

World War II. LtCol Jon T. Hoffman, USMCR. 1999. 38 pp.

The 1st Marine Division and Its Regiments. Danny J. Crawford, Robert

V. Aquilina, Ann A. Ferrante, and Shelia P. Gramblin, Reference

Section, Historical Branch. 1999. 75 pp.

U.S. Marines in the Persian Gulf, 1990-1991: Combat Service Support

in Desert Shield and Desert Storm. Maj Steven M. Zimmeck, USMC

(Ret). 1999. 246 pp.

U.S. Marines in the Persian Gulf, 1990-1991: The 3d Marine Aircraft

Wing in Desert Shield and Desert Storm. LtCol LeRoy Stearns, USMC.

1999. 223 pp.

2000

U.S. Marines at Inchon: Over the Seawall. BGen Edwin H. Simmons,

USMC (Ret). 2000. 68 pp.

U.S. Marines in the Pusan Perimeter: Fire Brigade. Capt John C.

Chapin, USMCR (Ret). 2000. 64 pp.

U.S. Marines in the Recapture of Seoul: Battle of the Barricades. Col

Joseph H. Alexander, USMC (Ret). 2000. 64 pp.

2001

The 2d Marine Division and Its Regiment. Reference Section. 2001. 73

pp.

Counteroffensive: U.S. Marines from Pohang to No Name Line. LtCol

Ronald J. Brown, USMC, (Ret).2001. 68 pp.

U.S. Marines at the Punchbowl: Drive North. Col Allan R. Millett,

USMCR (Ret). 2001. 64 pp. 

U.S. Marines from Bunker Hill to the Hook: Stalemate. Mr. Bernard C.

Nalty. 2001. 48 pp.

A History of Marine Fighter Attack Squadron 531. Col Charles J.

Quilter II, USMCR (Ret) and Capt John C. Chapin, USMCR (Ret).

2001. 100 pp.

Appendix K: Marine Corps Historical Publications 1920-2004 135
2002

U.S. Marine Aviation in Korea: Corsiars to Panthers. MajGen John P.

Condon, USMC (Ret). Supplemented by Cdr Peter B. Mersky, USNR

(Ret). 2002. 56 pp. 

U.S. Marines at The Changjin Reservoir: Frozen Chosin. BGen Edwin

H. Simmons, USMC (Ret). 2002. 132 pp.

Marine Corps Aircraft: 1913-2000. Maj John M. Elliot, USMC (Ret).

Occasional Paper. 2002. 126 pp.

2003

U.S. Marine Helicopters in Korea: Whirlybirds. LtCol Ronald J Brown,

USMCR (Ret). 2003. 76 pp.

A Skillful Show of Strength: U.S. Marines in the Caribbean, 1991-1996.

Col Nicholas R. Reynolds, USMCR. U.S. Marines in Humanitarian

Operations Series. 2003. 148 pp.

Train Wreckers and Ghost Killers: Allied Marines in the Korean War.

Leo J. Daugherty III. 2003. 66 pp.

Marines in the Korean War Commemorative Series CD-ROM. A multimedia compilation of publications in the Korean War Commemorative

Pamphlet Series. Interface design by Sgt David G. Smith, USMC. 2003.

2004

Thomas Holcomb and the Advent of the Marine Corps Defense

Battalion, 1936-1941. David J. Ulbrich. Occasional Paper. 2004. 78 pp.

136 Appendix K: Marine Corps Historical Publications 1920-2004