MALAYSIA

•KualaLumpur

•Butterworth

•Subang

USForcesPaciĕc

CultureGuide

Indonesia

Indonesia

Brunei

Philippines

Singapore

Thailand
This guide is designed to help prepare you for deployment to 

culturally complex environments and successfully achieve 

mission objectives. The fundamental information it contains will 

help you understand the 

decisive cultural dimension of 

your assigned location and gain 

necessary skills to achieve 

mission success. The guide 

consists of two parts: 

Part 1: Introduces “Culture 

General,” the foundational 

knowledge you need to operate

effectively in any global 

environment – Southeast Asia in particular (Photo: Malaysian, 

Royal Thai, and US soldiers during Cobra Gold 2014 exercise).

Part 2: Presents “Culture Specific” information on Malaysia, 

focusing on unique cultural features of Malaysian society. This 

section is designed to complement other pre-deployment 

training. It applies culturegeneral concepts to help

increase your knowledge of your 

assigned deployment location

(Photo: US sailor signs 

autographs for Malaysian school 

children).

For further information, visit the 

Air Force Culture and Language 

Center (AFCLC) website at https://wwwmil.maxwell.af.mil/afclc

or contact AFCLC’s Region Team at AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the expressed permission 

of AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the US 

government, Wikimedia, and other sources as indicated.

About this Guide

Malaysia Culture Guide
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes 

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to 

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the 

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that 

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture, 

and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs 

and values. 

Members of a culture also usually assign the same meanings 

to the symbols in that culture. A symbol is when one thing – an 

image, word, object, idea, or story – represents another thing. 

For example, the American flag is a physical and visual symbol 

of a core American value – freedom. At the same time, the 

story of George Washington 

admitting to having chopped 

down a cherry tree is also 

symbolic, representing the 

importance Americans place 

on personal honesty and 

leadership integrity. 

Force Multiplier

The military services have 

learned through experience the importance of understanding 

other cultures. Unlike the 20th-century bipolar world order that 

dominated US strategy for nearly half a century, today the US 

military is operating in what we classify as asymmetric or 

irregular conflict zones where the notion of cross-cultural 

interactions is on the leading edge of our engagement 

strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive 

feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on 

influencing constructive change through peaceful means where 

possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local 

nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

GENERAL

CULTURE 
economic institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and 

traditions.

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively 

influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success.

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry internally, 

but also by our behaviors and by the systems members of a 

culture create to organize their lives. These systems, such as 

political or educational institutions, help us to live in a manner

that is appropriate to our culture and encourages us to 

perpetuate that culture into the future. 

We can organize these behaviors and systems into categories 

– what the Air Force refers to as “cultural domains” – in order to 

better understand the primary values and characteristics of a 

society. A cross-culturally competent military member can use 

these domains – which include kinship, language and 

communication, and social and political systems among others

(see chart on next page) – as tools for understanding and 

adapting to any culture. For example, by understanding the 

ways different cultures define family or kinship, a deployed 

military member can more 

effectively interact with 

members of that culture.

Social Behaviors Across 

Cultures

While humankind shares basic 

behaviors, various groups 

enact or even group those 

behaviors differently across 

cultural boundaries. For example, all societies obtain food for 

survival, although agrarian societies generally produce their 

own food for limited consumption using very basic techniques.

Conversely, industrialized nations have more sophisticated 

market economies, producing foodstuffs for universal 

consumption. Likewise, all cultures value history and tradition, 

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CULTURE 
although they represent these concepts through a variety of 

unique forms of symbolism. While the dominant world religions 

share the belief in one God, their worship practices vary with

their traditional historical development. Similarly, in many kinbased cultures where familial bonds are foundational to social 

identity, it is customary for family or friends to serve as 

godparents, while for other societies this practice is nearly nonexistent.

Worldview

One of our basic human 

behaviors is the tendency to 

classify others as similar or 

different according to our 

cultural standard. As depicted 

in the chart below, we can 

apply the 12 cultural domains 

to help us compare similarities 

and differences across 

cultures. We evaluate others’ behavior to determine if they are 

“people like me” or “people not like me.” Consequently, we 

assume that individuals falling into the “like me” category share 

our perspectives and values. 

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This collective perspective forms our worldview – how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider 

your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for our actions and a logical 

explanation of why we individually or collectively act in a certain 

manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system sets its universal standards of what 

is good and bad, defines right and wrong behavior, and assigns 

a value of meaningful or meaningless. Our beliefs form the 

fundamental values we hold to be true – regardless of whether 

there is physical evidence to support these ideas. Beliefs are a 

central facet of human culture. They are shared views about 

world order and how the universe was physically and socially 

constructed. 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, right or wrong depends on our deeplyheld beliefs we started developing early in life that have help 

shape our characters. Likewise, 

these values are ingrained in our 

personalities and shape our 

behavior patterns and our selfidentities. Because cultural beliefs 

are intensely held, they are 

difficult, though not impossible, to 

change. 

Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence 

certain behaviors and also serve to 

rationalize those behaviors. 

Therefore, knowledge of individual 

or group beliefs can be useful in 

comprehending or making sense of their activities. We will use 

the iceberg model for classifying culture to illustrate two levels 

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CULTURE 
of meaning, as depicted. Beliefs and values, portrayed by the 

deeper and greater level of the submerged iceberg, are seldom 

visible, but are indicated / hinted at / referenced by our 

behaviors and symbols (top level). It is important to recognize, 

though, that the parts of culture that are not visible (under the 

waterline) are informing and shaping what is being made 

visible (above the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews may present behaviors that 

are contrary to our own beliefs, particularly in many regions 

where US forces deploy. Your ability to suspend judgment in 

order to understand another perspective is essential to 

establishing relationships with your host-nation counterparts. 

The ability to withhold your opinion and strive to understand a 

culture from a member of that culture’s perspective is known as 

cultural relativism. It often involves taking an alternate

perspective when interpreting others’ behaviors and is critical 

to your ability to achieve mission success. 

As you travel throughout Southeast Asia, you will encounter 

cultural patterns of meaning that are common across the 

region. What follows is a general description of 12 cultural 

domains which are used to frame those commonalities. 

1. History and Myth

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of 

the past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can 

act as a type of historical record, although it is usually a story 

which members of a culture use to explain community origins 

or important events that are 

not verifiable or which 

occurred prior to written 

language. 

Southeast Asia includes 5 

countries on the mainland

(Burma, Thailand, Laos, 

Cambodia, and Vietnam)

and 5 maritime countries in 

CULTURAL DOMAINS

GENERAL

CULTURE 
the North Pacific Ocean and the South China Sea (Malaysia, 

Singapore, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Brunei). As early as 

150 BC, the scattered communities on the mainland traded 

with and paid tribute to the dominating kingdoms of China and 

India. China maintained a presence in Vietnam for over 1000 

years, while’s India’s influence was felt mainly as its inhabitants 

spread Hinduism, Buddhism, and later Islam across the region. 

Southeast Asia’s most famous ancient empire, the Khmer, 

ruled for 4 centuries beginning around 800 AD from its center 

at Angkor in Cambodia. Later, Thai kings expanded across the

mainland, while a Hindu kingdom from India united the 

Indonesian archipelago.

China began to halt its 

expeditions to the region 

in mid-15th century, just 

as European nations 

began sending theirs. The 

Portuguese were the first 

to conquer a Southeast 

Asian settlement in 1511, 

although their influence in the region was short-lived.

Observing their success, the Dutch and English moved into the 

area as well. The Europeans sought to acquire trade routes 

and territories, and from the 17th through the 19th centuries the 

Dutch worked to consolidate their power in today’s Indonesia, 

the Spanish their control of the Philippines, the English their 

hold over Burma and Malaysia, and the French their control 

over Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. By the beginning of the 

20th century, virtually all of Southeast Asia was controlled by 

colonial powers; only Thailand remained independent. 

During World War II, Japan invaded and occupied portions of 

Malaysia, Burma, Thailand, and the Philippines. After the war, 

independence movements regained traction, and following 

years of struggle against the occupying Americans, the 

Philippines became the first country in Southeast Asia to gain 

its independence in 1946. Other countries endured years of 

instability and conflict on their way to independence. In 

Vietnam, communist rebels battled and defeated the French 

but then engaged the US in a controversial war. A civil war in 

Cambodia ended in the rise to power of the Khmer Rouge, 

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CULTURE 
during whose reign in the late 1970s almost 2 million people 

died. A few years after the Dutch ceded power in Indonesia, a 

dictator took control in a coup and ruled for 32 years before 

resigning in 1998. Similarly, a military junta wielding absolute 

power has ruled Burma since 1962. Since the 1990s, 

Southeast Asia has largely enjoyed renewed stability. Both 

Thailand and Malaysia now have an affluent, educated middle 

class; Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam are well on the road to 

recovery from decades of conflict; and even Burma has 

recently held elections and initiated reform to a civilian 

democracy.

2. Political and Social Relations

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to 

others in their community. 

Differences in the physical 

environment affected the 

social and political structures 

that historically developed in 

Southeast Asia. Where 

people were nomadic or 

semi-nomadic, systems of 

government were less permanent and bureaucratic. In areas 

where populations were more settled, a reliable tax base 

allowed the development of more elaborate and permanent 

governing structures. These early states, though, often found it 

difficult to extend their authority into the remote highlands, 

where small tribal groups resided, and the islands, where some 

groups lived permanently in water communities of small boats. 

Significant changes occurred in Southeast Asia around 2000 

years ago as peoples from China and India began to move into 

the region (see History and Myth). New leaders formed new 

empires and states, and spiritual beliefs and practices changed 

as religious leaders introduced new religious traditions (see 

Religion and Spirituality). 

Many colonial-era governments, fearing the threat that an 

educated class might hold, largely denied education and civil 

liberties to most Southeast Asians and discouraged political 

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CULTURE 
activities. Political participation swelled around the time of 

independence, although many post-independence political 

structures in the region were dictatorial and repressive. While 

most countries are healing from their 20th century conflicts, 

many governments continue to reflect authoritarian elements. 

Elites across the region continue to seek to control access to 

the political system. They are typically from the country’s 

dominant class, which is often comprised of members of a 

particular ethnic group. 

Some countries, such as Vietnam and Cambodia, are 

somewhat ethnically homogenous, while others, such as the 

Philippines and Indonesia, are much more diverse. Many 

countries also have minority communities of ethnic Chinese 

and Indians. So-called hill tribes, minority groups with distinct 

ethnic and linguistic identities, are found in Burma, Laos, 

Thailand, Vietnam, and the Philippines.

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), formed 

in 1967, is a regional intergovernmental organization whose 

goal is to promote economic and political cooperation among 

its members, including the creation of a free trade community 

by 2015. ASEAN priorities include fostering economic and 

diplomatic relations with India and China, which have been 

strained due to longtime territorial disputes in the region. The 

European Union has a strong relationship with the organization 

and has taken steps to deepen trade and business links. The 

US also has close political, 

security, and economic 

relations with most of the 

member states. 

The relationship between 

Japan and the countries of 

Southeast Asia has 

improved significantly since 

World War II, and Japan is 

a crucial economic and aid 

partner today. 

3. Religion and Spirituality

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

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CULTURE 
preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They 

also create social unity by defining shared identity, offer 

individuals peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in 

a society. 

The earliest populations of Southeast Asia were animists, 

which means they believed that many different spirits inhabited 

elements in the natural environment, such as trees and rocks, 

or were represented in natural phenomena, such as thunder 

and lightning, or represented deceased ancestors. In many 

areas today, these traditional beliefs are still very important, 

and many Southeast Asians incorporate them in their practice 

of Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity.

Indian traders and priests first brought Hinduism to Southeast 

Asia in the 1st century AD, where it eventually became the 

dominant religion in several kingdoms. In the 14th century the 

influence of Hinduism began to wane as people turned to 

Islam. Today, although there remain only small communities of 

Hindus in Indonesia, the Hindu principles of absolutism and 

hierarchy remain significant in politics across the region. 

Indian merchants also brought Buddhism to Southeast Asia 

beginning in the 1st century AD where it became well 

established in Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Indonesia, 

and Malaysia. Later, Chinese immigrants introduced Buddhism 

to Vietnam and Singapore. Many Southeast Asian mainlanders 

are Buddhist today, 

although their beliefs and 

practices may also include 

some animist and Hindu 

traditions. 

Chinese people spread the 

teachings of Confucius 

primarily in what is today 

Vietnam and Singapore. 

These teachings embody a complex belief system emphasizing 

stability, consensus, hierarchy, and authority that still 

influences ideas of social harmony across the region.

Islam reached Southeast Asia beginning in the 10th century 

through Muslim traders from the Middle East, China, and India, 

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CULTURE 
with a large number of Southeast Asians converting to Islam 

beginning in the 14th century to escape the Hindu caste 

system. The largest population of Muslims in the world, 

approximately 234 million, lives in Indonesia today. Muslim 

minority communities in Thailand and the Philippines have 

historically suffered economic and political marginalization.

Christianity was introduced to the region by European 

colonizers beginning in the 16th century. Today, although parts 

of Indonesia have Christian communities, the Philippines is the 

only predominantly Christian country in Southeast Asia.

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong 

emotional bonds that influence them to treat each other like 

family members (often called 

“fictive kin”).

Family life is very important 

to Southeast Asians and 

relationships among family 

members are highly valued. 

As in the US, kinship is 

generally traced through both 

parents. Children are 

generally very respectful of their parents, and parents are 

devoted to their children, making economic or other sacrifices 

as a matter of course to ensure their well-being. 

Traditionally, close proximity of kin was a valuable resource in 

Southeast Asia’s agriculturally-based villages. Families were 

large and close-knit as individual members supported each 

other economically and socially and the rhythms of family and 

village life mirrored those of the agricultural cycle.

Family life in Southeast Asia has changed in recent decades as 

societies have become more economically and socially diverse 

due to industrialization and urbanization. Today, a much wider 

variety of occupations is open to both men and women, and the 

middle class is growing in cities across the region. Women 

have fewer children today than they did 3 decades ago, and 

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CULTURE 
many households in the cities no longer contain 3 or 4 

generations of extended family but are mostly nuclear families.

Many Southeast Asian countries that have large rural 

hinterlands, such as Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand, 

also have large metropolises, such as Jakarta, Manila, and 

Bangkok. In these sorts of countries, there is a sharp ruralurban divide in economic and educational opportunities that 

results in stark differences in rural and urban family life. In rural 

villages, extended families may remain intact whose activities 

revolve around agricultural production, while in urban centers 

the household is usually much smaller and family structures 

are much more diverse.

Although arranged marriages are much less common today, 

most Southeast Asians depend on their family’s input when 

choosing a marriage partner. The ages of both the bride and 

groom have increased as young people postpone marriage to 

pursue economic and educational opportunities, and divorce 

rates have risen in recent decades. Of note, in Indonesia and 

Malaysia Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny, or have 

more than one wife, if they can afford to support them all. For 

these Southeast Asians, matrimony and divorce are under the 

jurisdiction of Islamic law.

5. Sex and Gender

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive 

differences between males and 

females, while gender is a more flexible 

concept that refers to a culture’s 

categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. 

Southeast Asia’s dominant philosophies 

and religions (Confucianism, Daoism, 

Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity) 

privilege the male’s role as provider and 

stress female subordination. Despite most countries’ 

commitment to gender equality, women across Southeast Asia 

may find participation in the business and political spheres 

difficult, and in some countries there is still a marked 

preference for sons over daughters.

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CULTURE 
Despite these challenges, there is widespread acceptance of 

women in the workplace, though women usually receive less 

pay than men. Industrialization has provided new opportunities 

for women, and many Southeast Asian women continue to 

work beyond marriage and children. Hundreds of thousands of 

Southeast Asian women even relocate to other countries to 

work as nurses and domestic workers. 

Within the agricultural sector, women produce about 50% of 

food in the region and represent a significant share of the 

agricultural labor force. They are particularly involved in 

harvesting rice, tea production, and working on rubber and fruit 

plantations. Women generally have access to education and 

training, and in Thailand and the Philippines there are actually 

more post-secondary female graduates than males.

Opinion on sexual orientation and gender identity is most 

liberal in the Philippines, where homosexuality is legal and 

there have been attempts to pass anti-discrimination legislation 

to protect sexual minorities. But in many parts of Southeast 

Asia homosexuals suffer discrimination and stigmatization. 

Malaysia criminalizes homosexuality and cross-dressing, and 

in Indonesia transgender individuals are often the victims of 

violence and exploitation.

6. Language and Communication

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural practice of sharing meaning in 

interaction, both verbally and non-verbally.

Southeast Asia is linguistically very diverse; of the 

approximately 6000 

languages spoken in the 

world today, about 1000 

of them are found in 

Southeast Asia. Many of 

the ancient indigenous 

languages that were 

present in the region 

have become extinct as 

a result of war, cultural 

and economic domination, and small population size.

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The languages of mainland Southeast Asia belong to 3 groups:

Austro-Asiatic (such as Cambodian and Vietnamese), Tai 

(such as Thai and Lao), and Tibeto-Burmese (including 

highland languages and Burmese). Languages that belong to 

these 3 groups are also found in India and China. Conversely, 

most of the languages spoken on the islands of Southeast Asia 

belong to the Austronesian family, a group of languages 

originating from southern China and Taiwan.

The colonial powers that controlled Southeast Asia until the 

20th century primarily promoted and used their own languages

including French, Dutch, English, and Spanish. Since 

independence, several states have named one local linguistic 

variety as the “standard,” such as Bahasa Indonesian and 

Bangkok Thai, and promoted its use over both European and 

other local languages. Recently, after years of aggressively 

promoting their national languages, many Southeast Asian 

countries have re-introduced English as a language of 

instruction in school and 

allowed ethnic Chinese 

and Indians to attend 

school in their own 

languages. 

Ancient Southeast 

Asians developed their 

own writing systems 

based on scripts from 

India and China. Today, 

Vietnamese, Malaysian, Indonesian, and Filipino, like English 

and most western European languages, use the Latin alphabet, 

while Burmese, Laotian, Thai, and Cambodian use writing 

systems derived from ancient Indian scripts.

Southeast Asians are rarely confrontational or highly 

demonstrative and emotional in their communication. They 

value respect as a key component in maintaining social 

harmony, and conveying respect is a significant aspect of both 

verbal and non-verbal communication. For example, proper 

greetings, such as pressing the palms together and slightly 

bowing as is common in Thailand, are extremely important 

across Southeast Asia.

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7. Learning and Knowledge

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and 

health requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, 

behaviors, and symbols that have meaning to the community). 

This knowledge transfer may occur through structured, 

formalized systems such as schools or through informal 

learning by watching adults or peers. 

Throughout their history, the cultures of Southeast Asia have 

willingly borrowed and adapted ideas, practices, and 

institutions from beyond the region. This willingness is evident 

in the history of education. Prior to colonization, both Hindu and 

Muslim traders and migrants from India and beyond brought 

their own traditions of education to the region, and local 

Southeast Asian communities adopted these curricula and 

educational methods to 

their needs. 

Later, during the colonial 

period, the European 

powers were largely 

uninterested in providing

education to Southeast 

Asians because they 

viewed them principally as 

agricultural laborers. If the 

colonial powers did provide educational opportunities, they 

were largely confined to members of privileged groups. 

Still later, as populations across the region began to resist 

colonization, the lack of educational opportunities became a 

topic around which to rally. In many countries, local activists 

adopted western educational methods but also drew on local 

traditions to devise new educational opportunities through 

which they articulated their arguments for independence.

Today, education in Southeast Asia is viewed as both a tool for 

developing the region and as a human right. Consequently, in

most countries education is open to every citizen regardless of 

race, ethnicity, religion, or socio-economic background. Rapidly 

growing populations challenge most national governments in 

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their goals of providing 12 years of basic education to all, often 

forcing a sacrifice in the quality of services. Students in both 

urban and rural areas often suffer from a lack of adequate 

classrooms, teachers, and good text books, although primary 

school enrollment averages an excellent 93% in the region.

8. Time and Space

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that 

are not directly linked to physical survival. In most western 

cultures, people tend to be preoccupied with strict time 

management, devoting less effort to relationship-building. 

Conversely, in most Southeast Asian cultures establishing and 

maintaining relationships within the group can take precedence 

over accomplishing a task in the most efficient manner. 

Southeast Asians’ emphasis on the well-being of the group and 

maintaining social 

harmony often 

means people will 

deliberately avoid 

embarrassment of 

themselves and 

others, a strategy 

often referred to 

as “saving face.” 

Many Southeast 

Asians try to 

manage their time 

efficiently while still showing respect to their co-workers and 

maintaining “face.”

Time is maximized by multi-tasking, and engagements usually 

start when scheduled. Networking is very important in 

Southeast Asia, and new contacts are often best made through 

a high status third party who knows both parties well. Only after 

the establishment of a good rapport can business negotiations 

proceed. 

Public and private spaces often overlap in a way that is 

unfamiliar to Americans. Shop owners may also live at their

place of business, so entering into a public space can also 

mean entry into an individual’s private space. Consequently,

customers and clients should always show proper respect. 

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CULTURE 

ENERAL
9. Aesthetics and Recreation

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Most of Southeast Asia’s forms of creative expression, 

such as art, architecture, dance, music, and theater, reflect the 

diversity of cultures and ethnicities of the region as well as the 

influence of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam. Ancient and 

elaborate Hindu temples and highly symbolic statues of 

Buddha are found in many countries. Similarly, across 

Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines, Islamic art and 

architecture intermingle with examples of Hindu and local 

animist traditions.

Traditional classical 

dance and theater 

are enjoying a 

revival after some 

forms came close to 

extinction during the 

wars and conflicts of the 20th century. These traditions trace 

back to the ancient kingdoms of the region and often include 

dancers dressed in elaborate masks and costumes. Ancient 

forms of shadow-puppet theater, in which paper puppets are 

manipulated against a lighted backdrop, are also popular in 

several countries.

Combat sports of Asian and Western origins are popular in 

Southeast Asia today. With the end of the colonial-era ban on 

martial arts, indigenous forms such as Pentjak Silat and 

Bersilat combined with other Asian forms to make up Muay 

Thai, Pencak Silat and Kali, the main components of today’s 

Mixed Martial Art fighting. 

The Southeast Asian Games are an important regional sporting 

event. These biennial games bring together over 4,000 athletes 

for 11 days of competition in the Olympic sports and promote 

regional cooperation and understanding.

10. Sustenance and Health

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures and economics. Theories of disease 

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and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness. 

As expected from Southeast Asia’s location on the water, more 

fish is consumed than any other form of animal protein. Rice, a 

grain that has been cultivated in the region for thousands of 

years, is the primary food staple. Everyday meals are typically 

simple, consisting of chopped pieces of meat and vegetables 

that are fried or steamed and served with rice, often 

accompanied by spicy chili condiments. Influences from India 

and China are obvious in popular dishes such as spicy curries 

and rice noodle soups. Members of Muslim communities in 

Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines typically do not eat 

pork or drink alcohol. 

Malaria, HIV/AIDS, and the lack of clean drinking water are the 

main health concerns in Southeast Asia. With an estimated 

15% of worldwide cases coming from the region, malaria is a 

major problem. The HIV/AIDS epidemic was delayed in 

reaching Southeast Asia 

but turned into a major 

cause of death 

throughout the 1980s 

and 1990s. Since then, 

due to successful HIV 

prevention programs 

including those aimed at 

sex workers and their 

clients, transmission 

rates have steadily declined, and recent HIV/AIDS incidence 

rates have been similar to those of the US. Access to clean 

water has increased in most regions but in Cambodia and Laos 

half of the population still lacks access to clean drinking water. 

All countries are faced with the rise of non-communicable 

diseases among their aging populations, and most face the 

threat of emerging infectious diseases, such as the avian flu. 

The countries of Southeast Asia confront many challenges in 

providing health care for their growing populations. Rapid but 

unequal socioeconomic development has resulted in significant 

disparities in health and access to healthcare. Despite these 

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challenges, most countries have experienced a continual 

increase in life expectancy since the 1950s.

11. Economics and Resources

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and 

services. Most Southeast Asian communities practiced wet-rice 

and slash-and-burn agriculture for centuries before the arrival 

of Europeans in the 16th century. In addition, Southeast Asia’s 

geographical location between China and India as well as its 

position on navigable waterways which connect the West and 

Middle East with Asia and Australia made the area an 

important center of trade well before European presence.

With European expansion into the area came the introduction 

of plantations and the mechanization of agriculture as well as 

the entry of the region into the global marketplace. Worldwide 

demand for rice increased dramatically in the 19th century, 

further changing the agricultural landscape of the region. 

Today, all 3 agriculture types – wet-rice, slash-and-burn, and 

plantation – are still practiced in the region and all have caused 

serious ecological damage such as massive deforestation and 

an increase in the production of greenhouse gases. 

Beginning in the 20th century the region experienced a 

dramatic industrialization process with growth rates exceeding 

even those of developed 

nations. Explosive growth 

in exports such as textiles, 

electronics, auto parts, 

and petroleum lead to 

double-digit economic 

growth, greatly increasing

local GDPs. Though 

roughly 1/3 of the 

population currently lives 

below the poverty line, 

regional economies have grown and now supply both skilled 

and semi-skilled workers to other countries.

The 2008 global financial crisis caused damage to the 

economies of Southeast Asia. While the financial sector did not 

engage in high-risk lending practices, there was a severe drop 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
in exports due to a global reduction in spending from which the 

countries are still recovering. 

12. Technology and Material

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. After the colonial period, the countries of Southeast 

Asia have expanded at different rates and currently experience 

varied levels of economic development. Their places in the 

global market range from 

Singapore, which has the 

third-highest GDP worldwide, to Burma and 

Cambodia which are 

ranked among the poorest 

countries in the world.

Prior to colonial rule, the 

region’s inhabitants were 

expert farmers, having adopted domesticated rice from India

and China and developed complex rice-farming techniques, or 

mariners who traded across the region. European colonists 

brought additional skills in metalworking, agriculture, sailing, 

and navigation. The introduction of commercial agriculture, 

mining, and an export-based economy during the colonial 

period placed Southeast Asia on its current technological path.

Southeast Asian nations are generally open to trade and 

investment, having transformed from inward-looking economies 

dominated by agriculture to outward-looking, market-oriented 

economies in just a few years. As China’s “backyard,” 

Southeast Asia is often seen as the site of economic 

competition between China and the US and between India and 

Japan. Despite lingering mistrust of China because of several 

unresolved maritime territorial disputes, some Southeast Asian 

nations welcome China’s investment in infrastructure, energy, 

agriculture, and mining. About 15% of Southeast Asia’s total 

trade is conducted with China. By comparison, about 12% of 

Southeast Asia’s trade is conducted with the US.

Now that we have introduced general concepts that 

characterize Southeast Asian society at large, we will focus on 

specific features of Malaysian society.

GENERAL

CULTURE 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Note: Modern Malaysia comprises 2 detached regions 

separated by about 400 miles of the South China Sea. An 

extension of mainland Southeast Asia, Peninsular Malaysia 

borders Thailand in the North and Singapore in the South. The 

narrow waterway that separates Peninsular Malaysia from the 

Indonesian island of Sumatra is the Strait of Malacca. 

East Malaysia, sometimes called Malaysian Borneo, occupies 

the northern part of the island of Borneo and comprises the 

Malaysian states of Sarawak and Sabah. Occupying about 

30% of Borneo, East 

Malaysia encircles the 

independent Kingdom 

of Brunei on Borneo’s 

north coast while the 

remainder of the island 

belongs to Indonesia. 

Although the 2 regions 

share some history, 

each region developed 

uniquely. Consequently, 

this guide distinguishes events and populations either by 

“Peninsular Malaysia” or “East Malaysia.” By contrast, the term 

“Malaysia” refers to territory of the entire modern nation.

Similarly, the term “Malaysians” refers to all citizens of 

Malaysia, regardless of their ethnicity or place of origin. 

Malaysians comprise several ethnic, linguistic, and religious 

groups. About half of the population identifies as Malay, an 

indigenous ethnic group. Another roughly 12% of Malaysians 

are members of over 50 other indigenous groups. Around 23% 

are Chinese (also known as Chinese Malaysians) while about 

7% are Indian (or Indian Malaysians). 

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

1. HISTORY AND MYTH
HISTORY &

MYTH

Overview

Malaysia’s position on the major maritime trade routes between 

the Middle East, India, and China greatly influenced its 

historical trajectory. From ancient times, merchants and 

explorers from diverse cultures and religious traditions traveled 

through the region as indigenous and foreign powers struggled 

for control of strategic ports and seaways. Since independence 

in 1957, Malaysia has confronted regional instability and 

ongoing ethnic tensions to become an economically developed 

and politically stable nation.

Prehistory of Malaysia

The oldest archaeological findings suggest that people settled 

East Malaysia at least 40,000 years ago when Borneo was still 

connected to mainland Southeast Asia by a land bridge. The 

descendants of these early inhabitants include some of 

Borneo’s indigenous groups, such as the Dayak (see p. 12 of 

Political and Social Relations). 

Some scientists believe that humans settled Peninsular 

Malaysia as early as 25,000 years ago. Descendants of these 

indigenous people today include various groups of Orang Asli,

the “original people,” and Orang Laut, the “sea people” (see p. 

12 of Political and Social Relations). 

Early History of Peninsular Malaysia

Beginning about the 1st millennium BC, successive waves of 

the ancestors of modern Malays migrated to the region from 

Sumatra. In the first few centuries AD, traders became 

increasingly active on the 

Strait of Malacca, helping 

to create economic and 

cultural links among 

Southeast Asia, China, 

India, and the Middle 

East. Malay kingdoms 

forming at the time 

adopted new concepts of 

government, art, and 

religion – including Hinduism and Buddhism (see p. 3 of 

Religion and Spirituality) – introduced by South Asian traders 

(Photo: 2000 year old Bujang Valley ruins). 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Kingdom of Srivijaya: Beginning around the 6th century, the

Buddhist empire of Srivijaya expanded from Sumatra to 

eventually control the Strait of Malacca, most of the islands of 

Sumatra and Java, parts of Borneo, and much of Peninsular 

Malaysia. The kingdom absorbed smaller Malay kingdoms

between the 7th-11th centuries, growing wealthy through trade 

in spices, silk, jewels, and tropical woods with India and China. 

Beginning in the late 12th century, competing empires and 

pirates targeted Srivijaya’s riches and control of trade. The 

empire finally fell in 1400.

The Malacca Sultanate

The Malaysian government traditionally traces the beginning of 

the country’s history to the early 15th century. At that time, a 

Hindu-Buddhist prince exiled from Srivijaya (see “Myth” below), 

established the Kingdom of Malacca (“Melaka” in Malaysia 

today) on Peninsular Malaysia’s southwest coast. Due to its 

good harbor and strategic location, the Kingdom soon 

controlled the Strait of Malacca where traders transporting 

spices, gold, tin, silks, 

porcelain, and tea passed. 

The Spread of Islam: Arab 

and Persian Muslim 

merchants began visiting 

Peninsular Malaysia as early 

as the 6th century. Islamic 

influence grew substantially in 

the 13th century as Muslim 

merchants expanded trade throughout the Strait of Malacca. In 

1444, Malacca’s sultan (king) Muzaffar Shah converted to 

Islam and declared his sultanate (kingdom) a Muslim state.

Malacca soon became a hub for the spread of Islam throughout 

the Malay kingdoms (see p. 6 of Religion and Spirituality) 

(Photo: Modern replica of 15th century Mansur Shah’s palace 

in Malacca).

Malacca Falls to the Europeans

Malacca’s reputation for lucrative trade spread to Europe. 

Spurred by potential profits and the chance to spread 

Christianity in Asia, the Portuguese reached Malacca in 1509, 

conquering it in 1511.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Portuguese Control: In an attempt to reclaim his rule, the 

Malacca sultan – allied with his son, the sultan of Johor –

conducted military raids against the Portuguese. This effort 

effectively prevented the Portuguese from developing their 

desired trade monopoly. For the remainder of the 16th century, 

the Portuguese, the sultanate of Johor, and the powerful Aceh 

sultanate on Sumatra fought each other to control regional 

trade as Malacca’s wealth and influence declined. 

Dutch Control: Meanwhile, the Dutch were emerging as the 

region’s dominant trading and naval power. From their base on 

the island of Java, the Dutch leveraged an alliance with the 

sultan of Johor to take control of Malacca in 1641. Because the 

Dutch focused their energies on developing Batavia (Jakarta, 

the modern-day capital of Indonesia) as a center of trade, 

Malacca continued to decline 

during Dutch rule (Photo: 

Christ Church in Melaka, 

erected by the Dutch in 1753).

The Arrival of the British

With the goal of protecting 

Britain’s interests in India and 

taking a larger role in the 

expanding India-China trade, 

the British acquired the island of Penang off Peninsular 

Malaysia’s west coast in 1785. Almost 35 years later, Britain 

expanded its regional presence when it negotiated the right to 

settle Singapore in 1819. Five years later, the British acquired 

Malacca from the Dutch in a treaty that defined the territories 

that would eventually become Indonesia and Malaysia. 

In 1826, Britain united Penang, Singapore, Malacca, and other 

peninsular territories into the Straits Settlements. These 

settlements attracted traders and migrants from all of Asia and 

the Middle East. They were especially attractive to migrants 

from southern China who sought opportunities following the 

discovery of tin ore and the opening of tin mines. 

British Control of Peninsular Malaysia

During this period, the British largely focused on establishing 

and maintaining their ports and coastal trading posts, while 

allowing a number of Malay sultanates to compete for control of
HISTORY &

MYTH

the rest of the peninsula. In the mid-19th century, the British 

grew uneasy as Thai kingdoms continued their belligerence 

toward Malay sultanates in the North and as conflicts erupted 

elsewhere between Malay sultans and Chinese tin miners.

The British Resident System: Fearing that the Malay sultans 

could not maintain order in the tin-producing regions, the British 

became increasingly involved in their political affairs. In the 

1870s, the British implemented a system of indirect rule 

whereby the sultanates were forced to take on “Residents,” 

British advisors whose advice was mandated. 

In 1896, the British compelled the 4 tin-producing sultanates to 

sign a treaty that established the Federated Malay States. 

Although other Malay-controlled sultanates managed to remain 

relatively independent of British control for a few more years, 

British influence soon expanded again. In 1909, the British 

forced Thailand to cede sovereignty over 4 sultanates, and 5 

years later, compelled the still-independent Johor sultanate to 

accept a Resident. Through these acts, Britain effectively 

controlled Peninsular Malaysia by 1914.

The British on Northern Borneo

Until the 19th century, the territories of East Malaysia on 

Borneo developed separately from Peninsular Malaysia with 

little European involvement. The 

Kingdom of Brunei was historically the 

dominant force in northern Borneo. 

British expansion in the 19th century 

eventually grew to include territories on 

Borneo. In 1841, the Sultan of Brunei 

appointed British adventurer James 

Brooke (pictured) governor of the state 

of Sarawak following Brooke’s support 

in suppressing a revolt against the 

sultanate. The British gradually brought 

the state of Sabah under their control through lease 

agreements and political maneuvers. In 1888, Britain 

consolidated its northern Borneo holdings by granting 

protection to Sarawak, Sabah, and the Kingdom of Brunei in 

exchange for control over their foreign policy. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Economic Development and Societal Divisions

Following further tin ore discoveries in the late 1800s, the 

British built railways, roads, and ports and other infrastructure 

that facilitated economic diversification, such as British-owned 

rubber plantations. While Malaysia was the world’s largest 

exporter of natural rubber by the early 20th century, most 

residents benefitted little from this economic development. A 

significant aspect of British colonialism in Malaysia was the 

connection between ethnic identity and economic occupation.

Malays: In the 15th century, the people of Malacca began 

calling themselves Melayu or Malay. Eventually, all Malayspeakers who practiced Islam (see p. 6 of Religion and 

Spirituality) adopted the label. While the British employed a 

small number of Malays as civil servants during the colonial 

period, the vast majority of Malays engaged in traditional smallscale agriculture and fishing. Generally, the British discouraged 

Malays from pursuing any other work. 

Chinese: Seeking to escape political 

instability and poverty in their 

homeland, several million Chinese 

(see p. 12 of Political and Social 

Relations) immigrated to Malaysia

from 1800-1941. Most early migrants 

formed closed communities near their 

work in tin mines. The Chinese 

eventually acquired control of the tin 

industry. Some later migrants 

participated in the colonial economy 

as wage laborers and entrepreneurs, 

often active in trade, retailing, and finance in urban areas 

(Illustration: Chinese couple in Malaysia in 1880).

Indians: Because their rubber plantations required large work 

forces not available locally, the British imported thousands of 

foreign laborers, primarily Tamils from southern India (see p. 

12 of Political and Social Relations). Indians from other regions 

migrated to urban areas where they engaged in shopkeeping

and moneylending, or joined the police or army.

In British-controlled Malaysia, society was strictly divided. 

Economic advancement was primarily open only to Chinese
HI

MYTH

STORY &

since they dominated the tin industry. The British implemented 

policies separating English, Malay, and Chinese school 

systems (see p. 1 of Learning and Knowledge) to help maintain 

these ethnically-based social and occupational divisions. 

Emergence of a Malay Identity

Although Muslim Malay-speakers had been calling themselves 

“Malay” for centuries, they based their primary identities on 

their places of residence or loyalties to certain sultans. Malay 

identity acquired a deeper significance in the early 20th

century. Unlike other Southeast Asian colonies, Malaysia did 

not experience a strong anticolonial (anti-British) nationalist 

movement. Instead, Malays banded together in ethnicallybased political and cultural organizations because they feared 

domination by the more economically successful Chinese. As 

some Malays began to promote the idea of a Malay nation, 

ethnic tensions began to simmer.

World War II: The Japanese Invasion and Occupation

To fuel its expansionist goals in World War II, Japan targeted 

Southeast Asia’s oil reserves, including those discovered in 

1910 in East Malaysia. Consequently, Japan invaded 

Peninsular Malaysia in December 1941. By February 1942 

Japanese forces had expelled 

the British and occupied the 

entire peninsula. 

Over the nearly 4 years of 

Japanese occupation, Malaysia’s 

ethnic tensions crystallized 

under Japan’s discriminatory 

policies. The Japanese largely 

favored the Malays, allowing many of them to retain their civil 

service positions. By contrast, many Chinese joined a guerilla 

resistance movement against the Japanese who in turn 

persecuted and repressed them. Generally, the occupation was 

a grim period. The Japanese targeted the Chinese population 

through the Sook Ching (means “purge through cleansing”)

massacres, resulting in over 50,000 deaths. They also sent 

both Chinese and Malays to work on the infamous Thai-Burma 

Railway, where an estimated 100,000 laborers died (Photo: 

Japanese troops in Kuala Lumpur in 1942).
HISTORY &

MYTH

The British Resume Control

Following Japan’s surrender in August 1945, Britain resumed 

administration of its territories in Peninsular Malaysia and took 

control of Sarawak and Sabah on Borneo as crown colonies. 

Although the war showed that colonial rule was not necessarily 

a permanent state, a united struggle for independence still 

failed to form. 

The Growing Importance of Political Parties: In 1946, the 

British proposed a Malayan Union encompassing all of its 

peninsular territories except Singapore. Because Malays and 

non-Malays would enjoy equal rights in the proposed Union, 

Malay nationalists objected to the plan, founding the United 

Malays National Organization (UMNO). The British withdrew 

the Union plan for 2 reasons: strong UMNO opposition, 

expressed in large-scale strikes, demonstrations, and boycotts, 

and the unexpected and unwanted support of the plan by the 

Chinese-dominated Communist Party of Malaysia (CPM).

The Federation of Malaya

After negotiations, the British proposed the Federation of 

Malaya designed to provide Malays certain special privileges, 

such as autonomy in decisions regarding Malay customs and 

religion. This significant change, plus citizenship requirements 

that favored Malays, dissatisfied many Chinese and Indians. 

Despite their protests, the British implemented the plan in 

1948, while guaranteeing eventual self-rule. 

The “Emergency”: Many 

Chinese saw the privileges 

granted Malays in the 

Federation as a betrayal, 

especially given the Chinese 

population’s sacrifices against 

the Japanese in World War II. 

The CPM exploited this 

Chinese frustration as civil 

conflict erupted and the British declared a state of emergency 

in mid-1948. The CPM’s military arm, the Malayan Races 

Liberation Army (MRLA) began a rural insurgency that 

continued for the next 12 years (Photo: Special Constables 

escort rubber plantation workers in 1950). 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Although the persistent insurgents enjoyed some initial 

success, they became a minor threat by 1951 due to their poor 

organization and unpopularity. The British military forced many 

Chinese to relocate to newly-formed villages in an attempt to 

isolate the insurgents. This action successfully undermined 

MRLA’s support and led to its defeat. While the Chinese had 

access to improved health and educational services in the new 

villages, they continued to protest unfair treatment.

The Alliance: While the British had promised eventual selfrule, ongoing disagreements between the ethnic groups stalled 

progress. Eventually, the Malays agreed to share political 

power only if they received substantial support in improving 

their economic status. Upon agreement from the Malaysian 

Chinese Association and the Malayan Indian Congress to 

recognize Malay privilege, the UMNO formed a partnership 

with them. Beginning in 1952, this “Alliance” won a series of 

elections and became the predominant political voice. 

Independence

As a necessary step to self-rule, a commission proposed a 

constitution in 1956 that contained several compromises. It 

proposed Islam as the state religion while guaranteeing 

religious freedom (see p. 1 of Religion and Spirituality). It 

proclaimed Malay the national language, yet called for English 

to be a national language for several more years. Significantly, 

it gave Malays special rights and privileges while defending the 

rights of non-Malays. Following the 

constitution’s 1957 ratification, the 

Federation of Malaya – consisting of 

all of Britain’s Peninsular Malaysian 

holdings except Singapore – became

an independent country. 

The Birth of Modern Malaysia

Singapore (pictured) requested to 

join the Federation but was refused 

for fear that the addition of 

Singapore’s large Chinese population would tip the Federation 

from a majority Malay to a majority Chinese state. Instead, the 

Federation proposed a new association among the Federation, 

Singapore, Brunei, and the Borneo states of Sabah and 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Sarawak that would be majority Malay. In 1963, an amended 

constitution proclaimed the birth of modern Malaysia. Of note, 

the Kingdom of Brunei eventually opted to remain independent. 

After 2 years, due to unresolved disagreements, Singapore 

seceded from Malaysia and became an independent country.

Ethnic Tensions in the Young Country

In the new country, the Chinese protested economic programs 

exclusive to Malays and policies requiring the use of the Malay 

language. The Malays in turn accused the Chinese of having 

amassed wealth at their expense. Although the Alliance 

retained power in the 1969 elections, it lost a large share of the 

vote to an opposition party supporting the abolition of Malays’ 

special status. When Chinese and Indian opposition party 

supporters gathered in Kuala Lumpur to celebrate election 

results, riots ensued that resulted in the deaths of 200 people. 

New Economic Policy: In response, the government 

redoubled its support to Malays by implementing the 1971 New 

Economic Policy (see p. 2 of Economics and Resources). 

Intended to reduce poverty among all ethnic groups and end 

the association between occupation/social status and ethnicity,

the policy actually perpetuated unequal treatment. 

The Rise of the National Front

Despite challenges, Malaysia maintained a stable political 

system. In 1972, the UMNO joined other parties to form a 

broader, interethnic coalition called the 

National Front (Barisan Nasional –

BN, see p. 4 of Political and Social 

Relations). Typically supportive of 

educational and economic policies that 

favor Malays, the BN continues to 

dominate politics today.

The Mahathir Era: UMNO leader 

Mahathir Mohamad (known as 

“Mahathir,” pictured) took office as 

Prime Minister (PM) in 1981, beginning 

a 22 year tenure. Chinese and Indian Malaysians did not 

welcome his election, associating him with policies privileging 

Malays. Mahathir initially focused on basic economic reforms 

such as privatizing state industries, promoting joint-ventures,
HISTORY &

MYTH

and growing export-oriented industries (see p. 1 of Economics 

and Resources). In the mid-1980s, he responded to rising 

ethnic tensions with severe tactics, including arrests of 

opposition leaders and restrictions on civil liberties. Upon 

Mahathir’s retirement in 2003, his hand-picked successor, 

Abdullah Ahmad Badawi (known as “Abdullah”), took office as 

PM. 

21st Century Leadership

Abdullah was initially very popular, vowing to continue the fight 

against poverty. Although his popularity carried him through a 

victory for the UMNO and its BN coalition in the 2004 elections, 

public perceptions of corruption dogged him. The rise of a new

coalition of opposition parties – the People’s Alliance (Pakatan 

Rakyat or PR, see p. 6 of Political and Social Relations) –

during the 2008 elections forced the BN to lose its decadeslong hold on Parliament. 

Abdullah resigned in March 

2009. 

Deputy Prime Minister Najib 

Razak (known as “Najib,” 

pictured with President 

Obama in 2011) succeeded 

Abdullah. In 2013 elections, 

UMNO received just 47% of the popular vote but won 60% of 

the parliamentary seats, leading to accusations of electoral 

fraud. Despite this controversy, the UMNO-led BN coalition 

maintained its hold on power and Najib retained his office. 

Although Najib previously expressed strong pro-Malay 

sentiments, since taking office he has stated that his 

administration aims to treat all ethnic groups fairly.

Malaysia continues to face challenges as it strives to become a

prosperous, developed country. These challenges include 

ongoing ethnic and religious tensions (see p. 8 of Religion and 

Spirituality) and a fragile political climate with growing political 

opposition (see p. 6 of Political and Social Relations). In 

addition, Malaysia’s limited human rights protections, as in the 

case of opposition leader Anwar Ibrahim (see p. 6 of Political 

and Social Relations), provide opportunity for politically 

motivated judicial harassment.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Myth

In contrast to history, which is supposed to be an objective 

record of the past based on verifiable facts, myths embody a 

culture’s values and often explain the origins of humans and 

the natural world. Myths are important because they provide a 

sense of unique heritage and identity. While many Malaysian 

myths reflect Hindu, Buddhist, and Islamic themes (see p. 1 of 

Religion and Spirituality), Malay folktales often teach lessons 

about morality and justice through trickster characters and the 

use of humorous situations.

The Founding of Malacca

After Prince Parameswara was driven from Singapore, he 

reached Moar, where he remained until one night a great

swarm of lizards infested the place. Although the people killed 

the lizards and threw them into the river, the lizards returned 

again the next night. Eventually, Moar became intolerable due 

to the smell of the dead lizards. Parameswara gave Moar a 2nd 

name, bewak-busok or stinking lizard. 

Forced to leave Moar, Parameswara arrived at another place 

where he started building a wooden fort. That night, his work

rotted away. He rebuilt the fort the next day, but it rotted again

the next night. He called that place cotaburu, or the rotten fort. 

Because he could make no progress, Parameswara departed

yet again.

He then returned to the shore 

of the sea near the banks of the 

river Bartam, where he hunted 

and rested beneath a tree. One 

of his dogs found a white deer

mouse (notably alert mouse

and not to be confused with 

mousedeer – see p.4 of 

Aesthetics and Recreation) which attacked the dog, forcing it 

into the water. Parameswara was pleased, and said “This is a 

fine place, where even the deer mice are full of courage. Let us 

found a city here.” Parameswara’s men agreed. Parameswara 

then named the city after the tree under which he had rested, 

the Malacca tree, the name the city retains today [Photo: 

Buildings along the Melaka River in Melaka (Malacca)].
Official Name

Malaysia

Political 

Borders

Brunei: 237 mi

Indonesia: 1,107 

mi

Thailand: 314 mi

Coastline: 2,905 mi

Capital

Kuala Lumpur

Demographics

Malaysia’s population is about 30 million, making it the world’s 

44th most populous country. Its population growth has slowed 

in recent decades, primarily due to decreased fertility rates 

(see p. 3 of Sex and Gender). Presently, the annual population 

growth rate is 1.47%, down from an average of 2.6% from 

1960-2000. Malaysia has undergone steady urbanization since 

independence, with the urban population growing from 25% of 

the total in 1960 to 73% in 2011. About 80% of the population 

reside in Peninsular Malaysia. 

Flag

Adopted in 1963, the Malaysian 

flag is modeled on the design of 

the US flag. It includes 14 

alternating red and white stripes 

of equal width with a blue 

rectangle in the flag’s upper left. Within the blue field are a

yellow crescent and yellow star with 14 points. The stripes 

represent the equal status of the 13 Malaysian states and the 

federal government, while the star represents the unity of these 

entities. Because blue is the traditional color of Malay rulers, 

the blue rectangle symbolizes the unity of the Malay people.

The yellow crescent is a traditional symbol of Islam, Malaysia’s 

official religion (see p. 1 of Religion and Spirituality). 

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Geography

Malaysia consists of 2 land masses separated by the South 

China Sea with a total land area of 126,895 sq mi, making the 

country slightly larger than New Mexico. Peninsular Malaysia, 

also known as western Malaysia, is an extension of the Asian 

continent that extends as a peninsula from mainland Southeast 

Asia. It borders Thailand in the North, the Strait of Malacca to 

the West, Singapore and the Johore Strait to the South, and 

the South China Sea to the East. 

Comprising 60% of Malaysia’s total land area, East Malaysia

(also known as Malaysian Borneo) occupies the northernmost 

30% of the island of Borneo, encircles the Kingdom of Brunei, 

and has a long coastline on the South China Sea. The 

remaining 70% of Borneo belongs to Indonesia. Malaysia also 

includes many islands, the largest of which is Labuan, off the 

coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Just 1.7 mi wide at its narrowest 

point, the Strait of Malacca provides the shortest route between 

the Pacific and Indian oceans. Malaysia’s strategic location on 

this important waterway shaped its history and development as 

a nation (see p. 1 of History and Myth).

Both Peninsular and East Malaysia have coastal plains with

forested mountainous interiors. While forests still covered 64% 

of the country in 2005, those existing along the coasts and 

rivers have been largely cleared either for settlements or palm 

and rubber plantations. The resultant deforestation has had 

significant environmental consequences. At 13,451 ft, 

Malaysia’s highest mountain,

Gunung Kinabalu (pictured), is 

also Southeast Asia’s highest 

peak.

Climate

Peninsular and East Malaysia 

have similar tropical climates. 

Although conditions vary by 

altitude, temperatures range between 73°F-93°F year-round 

with relative humidity between 80% and 90%. Malaysia 

receives heavy annual rainfall due to southwest monsoons 

which arrive between April and October and northeast 

monsoons between October and February. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Environmental Issues

Decades of deforestation due to commercial logging and 

agriculture, road building, and residential development has 

caused flooding, landslides, river siltation, and a resultant 

scarcity of fresh-water fish. Among other initiatives, the 

government has established several national parks, forest 

reserves, and wildlife sanctuaries in an attempt to preserve the 

country’s tropical rain forests

(Photo: Aerial photo of 

deforestation in East 

Malaysia).

Water pollution dates to the 

late 19th century, when tin 

mines (see p. 6 of History and 

Myth) and cash crop

plantations began dumping waste and runoff into Malaysia’s 

rivers. The country’s lack of adequate treatment facilities for

household waste water and sewage has resulted in waterway 

pollution. Urban areas also suffer air pollution from motor 

vehicle emissions. In addition, the use of fire to clear land in 

neighboring Indonesia results in serious air pollution. Known as 

“the Haze,” this annually-recurring period of air pollution 

typically forces school closures amidst health concerns.

Natural Hazards

Malaysia’s natural hazards include flooding, landslides, and 

forest fires. Floods resulting from heavy monsoon rains and 

occasional strong storms are often intensified by deforestation. 

The flood risk to local populations is highest in the low-lying, 

highly populated coastal areas of Peninsular Malaysia. 

Landslides are also a threat in mountainous regions. 

Government

Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy with 

parliamentary government. The country divides into 13 states, 

each with its own constitution and local government, and 3 

federal territories (Kuala Lumpur, Labuan, and Putrajaya) 

administered by the Ministry of Federal Territories. Adopted in 

1957 and amended in 1963 (see p. 9-10 of History and Myth), 

the constitution outlines the system of government and the 

rights and privileges of Malaysian citizens.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Executive Branch

Conference of Rulers: The Malaysian constitution preserves

the position of hereditary rulers (8 sultans and 1 raja) in the 9 

states that were sultanates in the British colonial period (see p.

5 of History and Myth). The 4 states that were not sultanates

are led by appointed governors. The 9 hereditary rulers and 4 

governors together form the Conference of Rulers (Majilis 

Raja-Raja), which approves judicial appointments, rules on 

administrative policy, and deliberates 

on national policy. In addition, the 9 

hereditary rulers elect a king from

among their ranks for a 5-year term.

The constitution designates the King

of Malaysia, known as Yang diPertuan Agong or the Supreme 

Head of the Federation, as head-ofstate. Although the military and 

civilian services owe him their loyalty, 

the king holds largely ceremonial 

powers, acting only on the advice of the Prime Minister (PM)

and the PM’s appointed cabinet. Malaysia’s current king, Abdul 

Halim Mu’adzam Shah of Kedah (pictured), began his 5-year 

term in 2011.

The highest level of executive authority resides with the PM, 

the head-of-government. The PM is typically the leader of the 

political party that holds a plurality of seats in the parliamentary 

House of Representatives. Current PM Najib Razak took office 

in 2009 and retained his office in 2013 elections.

Legislative Branch

Malaysia’s legislature is a 2-chamber Parliament consisting of

a 70-seat Senate (Dewan Negara) and a lower 219-seat

House of Representatives (Dewan Rakyat). Each of 

Malaysia’s 13 states elects 2 senators, while the king appoints 

the remaining 44 senators, including senators for the federal 

territories. Senators serve 3-year terms. Popularly elected, 

members of the House of Representatives serve 5-year terms. 

While either house may initiate legislation, only the House of

Representatives may legislate funding. In order to enact a law, 

both houses and the king must approve the legislation. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Judicial Branch

Malaysia’s judiciary comprises 

2 systems. Based on Islamic 

law, the sharia system includes

state-level high courts, 

subordinate courts, and courts 

of appeal. The sharia courts 

have authority over family, 

personal status, inheritance, 

and religious matters for Muslims only – about 61% of the 

population (see p. 1 of Religion and Spirituality). A secular

system of courts has authority in civil and criminal matters for 

all Malaysians, as well as in family law for non-Muslims. This 

system’s highest court and court of final appeal is the Federal 

Court, composed of a chief justice and 10 judges. Critics note 

several human rights problems with Malaysia’s judicial system. 

These include laws that grant the government wide latitude to 

detain individuals without trial and the use of caning as 

punishment (Photo: The Palace of Justice in Putrajaya).

Political Climate

Malaysia’s political climate reflects its ethnic, and to a lesser 

extent, religious divisions. Malaysia’s earliest political parties, 

the United Malays National Organization (UMNO), the 

Malaysian Chinese Association, and the Malayan Indian 

Congress (see p. 9 of History and Myth), were largely 

dedicated to the respective interests of their majority 

constituencies. While these 3 parties achieved significant 

electoral success as an interethnic coalition (see p. 9 of History 

and Myth), the Chinese and Indian parties were often forced to 

subsume their interests to the coalition’s pro-Malay platform.

Since achieving independence in 1957, Malaysia has enjoyed 

relative political stability as coalitions led by the UMNO have 

maintained a steady hold on the PM’s office. Currently sharing 

power in a coalition called the National Front (Barisan 

Nasional, or BN), UMNO continues to support the preeminent 

position of Malays and select other indigenous groups.

Implementing the latest in a series of pro-Malay economic 

development programs (see p. 2 of Economics and 

Resources), UMNO also aims to protect Malay culture and 

uphold and defend Islam as the official religion.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Malaysian opposition parties face several hurdles to competing 

on equal terms with the ruling coalition. These hurdles include 

disproportionate parliamentary seat distribution that favors the 

UMNO; restrictions on freedom of speech and assembly; and 

government harassment. For example, over a period of several 

years, the government pursued charges of sexual misconduct 

against prominent opposition leader Anwar Ibrahim which 

many observers believe were politically motivated. In early 

2015, a court upheld Anwar’s 5-year prison sentence, 

effectively ending his political activities and influence. 

Despite these obstacles to political opposition, Malaysian 

politics has recently become more competitive. The BN failed 

to win a 2/3rds majority of parliamentary seats for the first time

in 2008, then failed again in 2013. Observers suggest the BN 

likely lost voters when Chinese and Indians withdrew their 

support due to dissatisfaction with government corruption and 

BN-supported pro-Malay affirmative action policies. 

The primary opposition coalition, the People’s Alliance (PR, or 

Pakatan Rakyat) includes the Democratic Action Party, the 

Parti Keadilan Rakyat, and the Parti Islam se-Malaysia. These 

parties represent significantly different constituencies and 

policy platforms. After widespread protests following the 2013 

election, some experts noted that the political climate continues 

to encourage rather than 

lessen ethnic polarization.

Defense

The Malaysian Armed Forces 

(Angkatan Tentera Malaysia

or ATM) consist of ground, 

maritime, and air branches.

The ATM holds responsibility 

for the defense of the country and domestic stability. Due to its

experience during the “Emergency” period of civil conflict (see 

p. 8 of History and Myth), the ATM has extensive experience 

with counter-insurgency and continues to support extensive 

military-police cooperation. Malaysia is also a large contributor 

to United Nations (UN) peacekeeping operations (Photo: US 

Navy personnel share submarine functions with Royal 

Malaysian Navy personnel).

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
In 2004 the Ministry of Defense introduced the National Service 

Program intended to increase patriotism, national integration, 

and racial unity among Malaysia’s youth and the military. Under 

the program, randomly drafted 18-year-olds participate in a 

military-based 3-month training program. In early 2015, the 

government announced plans to temporarily suspend the 

program as a cost-cutting measure and to review and improve 

the program.

Malaysian Army: The Malaysian Army (Tentera Darat 

Malaysia – TDM) consists of 80,000 active duty personnel.

Divided into 2 military regions and 4 area commands, the TDM

includes 1 special forces brigade, 14 maneuver brigades and 

regiments (including armored, mechanized, light, air maneuver, 

and aviation), and 1 Combat 

Service Support regiment. 

The TDM’s 50,000 reserves 

are organized as the 

Territorial Army, consisting of

16 light infantry brigades, 5 

highway security battalions, 2 

border security brigades, and 

2 combat support regiments

(Photo: US Marine and TDM 

personnel during 2011 exercises).

Royal Malaysian Navy: Composed of 14,000 active-duty 

personnel and 1,000 reserves, the Royal Malaysian Navy

(Tentera Laut Diraja Malaysia – TLDM) is organized into 3 

regional commands. It has 10 frigates, 2 tactical submarines, 

and 37 patrol and coastal combatant vessels. The TLDM also 

has an aviation wing and 1 marine commando unit. 

Royal Malaysian Air Force: Consisting of 15,000 active-duty 

personnel and 600 reserves, the Royal Malaysian Air Force

(Tentera Udara Diraja Malaysia – TUDM) has 1 air operations 

headquarters, 2 air divisions, 1 targeting and logistics 

command, and 1 integrated area defense systems 

headquarters. It has 67 combat capable aircraft, organized into 

2 fighter squadrons, 4 ground attack squadrons, 1 ground 

attack/ISR squadron, 1 maritime patrol squadron, and 4 

transport squadrons. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Security Issues

During the 2000s, Malaysia focused on countering terrorist 

networks in Southeast Asia. Unlike some other Muslim-majority 

nations, Malaysia has never been a base for major Islamic 

terrorist or insurgent groups. Instead, Malaysia strives to 

promote moderate Islam (see p. 2 of Religion and Spirituality) 

and marginalize religious extremism. One way it does so is by 

acting as a mediator between governmental authorities and 

Muslim separatist groups in both Thailand and the Philippines. 

Malaysia’s primary security concerns include ongoing territorial 

disputes with China (see “Relations with China” below) and 

continued piracy in the Strait of Malacca. Recently, Malaysia’s 

military and maritime law enforcement along with its

counterparts in Indonesia and Singapore have successfully 

implemented joint antipiracy measures (Photo: 

US and Malaysian ships 

underway in the South 

China Sea).

Of note, the Malaysian 

government tends to 

equate national security 

with the country’s social 

stability, which the ruling 

BN coalition traditionally associates with the continued support 

of Malay privilege and status. Consequently, the government 

has historically perceived any challenge to Malay privilege as a 

threat to national security.

Foreign Relations

Malaysia’s aspirations to become a Southeast Asian regional 

leader and a political and economic model for the Islamic world

shape its foreign relations. As a moderate, Muslim-majority 

state, Malaysia strives to maintain good relations with the West 

while supporting certain Islamic causes, such as the status of 

Palestinians in Israel. Malaysia actively participates in the 

Organization of Islamic Conferences, the primary international 

pan-Islamic organization. It also has launched the Global 

Movement of Moderates to counter extremist voices and 

improve the image of Muslims. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Relations with the US: While US-Malaysian relations are 

cooperative, the Malaysian public is often critical of US actions. 

For example, Malaysians typically oppose US support for Israel 

and question US aims in Muslim-majority countries. In 

response to public opinion, Malaysia has historically avoided 

high profile cooperation with the US, preferring more subtle 

support. For example, although Malaysians vocally protested 

the Afghanistan war, the Malaysian government regularly 

deployed military medical 

personnel to augment US staff 

in the Afghan theater. 

Malaysia works closely with 

the US to combat terror and 

disrupt terrorism networks in 

Southeast Asia. In addition, 

the US and Malaysian 

militaries enjoy solid ties through frequent bilateral exercises, 

combined training, collaborative efforts to combat piracy, ship 

visits, and military education exchanges. Overall, the countries 

conducted over 75 cooperative activities in 2013, including 

jungle training at a Malaysian facility (Photo: US Navy and

Royal Malaysian Navy personnel confer in 2011).

Relations with ASEAN: As a founding member and the 2015 

chair of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN –

consists of Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, 

Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Burma, and Cambodia), Malaysia is a 

strong proponent of a consensus-based model of regional 

coordination.

Relations with Singapore: Malaysia and Singapore’s bilateral 

relationship is close but shaky. Although the 2 countries are 

important trade partners (see p. 4 of Economics and 

Resources) and cooperate militarily on a regular basis, they are 

also economic competitors who view each other as security 

threats. Contentious issues include Malaysia’s objections to

Singapore’s land reclamation projects designed to enlarge its 

limited territory and Malaysia’s control of Singapore’s water 

supply.

Relations with Indonesia: Despite deep trade ties and 

common cultural features, Malaysian and Indonesian relations

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
also have been historically contentious. Soon after Malaysia’s 

establishment, the Indonesian government sought to unite the

countries against Malaysia’s wishes. Indonesia’s attempt to 

spark a revolt in Malaysia to force unification backfired, 

resulting in the 2 countries signing a peace treaty. 

Indonesia and Malaysia have disputed ownership of islands off 

Borneo’s northeast coast for years. After a 2002 ruling granted 

ownership to Malaysia, the countries continued to clash over oil 

exploration rights. Malaysia’s treatment of undocumented 

Indonesian migrant workers also causes tension.

Relations with Thailand:

Sectarian violence in Thailand’s 

Malay Muslim majority 

provinces bordering Malaysia 

has heightened tensions 

between the 2 countries. The

Malaysian government does not 

support the insurgents and has 

developed joint initiatives with Thailand to help counter 

extremist groups. Nevertheless, many Malaysians object to the 

Thai government’s harsh response to the insurgency, citing 

human rights violations. Meanwhile, the Thai government has 

occasionally accused the Malaysian government of allowing 

insurgents passage across its border (pictured).

Relations with China: Due to China’s support for the 

Communist Party of Malaysia (see p. 8 of History and Myth), 

Malaysia initially viewed China as a threat. Despite this 

historical mistrust, Malaysia became the first Southeast Asian 

nation to establish diplomatic ties with China in 1974. Since 

then, relations have warmed as economic ties have 

strengthened and China and the ATM have conducted bilateral 

exercises. 

Recently, tensions flared when China laid claim to the South 

China Sea, rejecting Malaysia’s claims to 3 islands near 

prospective oil and gas reserves. In 2013-14 China sent naval 

patrols into the disputed territory. In response, Malaysia

announced plans to form a marine corps while attempting to 

assert its territorial claims more strongly through diplomatic 

channels. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Ethnic Groups

About 50% of Malaysia’s population are Malay, around 23% 

Chinese, and roughly 7% Indians. Malaysia is also home to 

over 50 indigenous groups distinct from Malays that together 

comprise about 12% of the population. Malaysia also hosts

non-citizens, largely migrant workers from South and 

Southeast Asia that make up 8% of the population.

Bumiputra: The government uses the term bumiputra (“sons 

of the soil”) to refer to Malays and to certain Muslim indigenous 

groups who are the beneficiaries of its pro-Malay affirmative 

action policies (see p. 10 of History and Myth and p. 2 of 

Economics and Resources). As defined in the constitution, all

Malays are Muslim and Malay-speakers. The largest 

indigenous group considered to be bumiputra is the Dayak

which divides into 26 sub-groups that collectively comprise the 

majority of the population in East Malaysia. 

Other Indigenous Groups: Indigenous groups that are not 

considered bumiputra include the Orang Asli (the “original 

people”) and the Orang Laut (the “sea people”) of Peninsular 

Malaysia as well as the Kadazan-Dusun of East Malaysia. 

Chinese: Malaysia’s Chinese residents trace their roots to

diverse regions in China and speak various Chinese dialects, 

including Cantonese, Mandarin, Hokkien, Hakka, Hainan, and 

Foochow. A unique group of Malaysian Chinese are the 

Peranakan, descendants of Chinese who settled in the Straits 

Settlements (see p. 6 of History and Myth), married Malays, 

and developed their own distinctive 

language and culture (see p. 2 of 

Sustenance and Health). Many 

Chinese are Buddhists (see p. 7 of 

Religion and Spirituality).

Indians: Like the Chinese, Malaysia’s 

Indian population is highly diverse, 

composed of people with varied

caste, language, religion, and 

geographic background. The most 

prominent groups are Tamils, Bengalis, Gujeratis, Chulias, 

Parsees, and Malayalis. Many Indians are Hindu (see p. 8 of 

Religion and Spirituality) (Photo: Indians in a Hindu temple)

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Social Relations

British colonial policies forged an ethnically divided and 

hierarchical social system (see p. 6 of History and Myth). 

Within the system, few Malays, other indigenous people, or 

Indians had opportunities for social or economic advancement. 

While economic advancement was open to Chinese, they were 

largely confined to certain industries and 

occupations such as tin mining.

After independence, the pro-Malay 

government implemented affirmative 

action and economic development 

programs that were intended to alleviate 

poverty among all Malaysians (see p. 2

of Economics and Resources). In reality, 

these programs granted Malays rights 

and privileges which facilitated wealth 

accumulation only among politically 

connected Malays. Consequently, 

income inequality remains a problem in Malaysia. Of note, 

Indians have seen the least economic advancement of any 

major group: the government classifies about 70% of Indian

Malaysians as poor or very poor (Photo: Housing differences in 

Kuala Lumpur).

Both the government’s pro-Malay stance as well as the 

programs and policies it implements to support Malay privilege

continue to divide the population socially and economically. 

Malaysia’s ethnic groups largely coexist rather than intermix, 

maintaining their own separate cultures and traditions. For 

example, many Chinese prefer Chinese-language private 

schools over Malay-language public schools. This preference is 

intended to prepare their children for life and work within their 

own Chinese-majority communities rather than the Malaysian 

national community (see p. 3 of Learning and Knowledge).

The government has granted bumiputra status, and the 

associated rights and privileges, to just a few indigenous 

Muslim groups, largely because bumiputra status can only be 

applied to Muslims (see p. 1 of Religion and Spirituality). 

Consequently, indigenous groups have unequal access to the 

government’s affirmative action programs. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Overview

A 2010 census estimates that 61% 

of Malaysians are Muslim, 20% 

Buddhist, 9% Christian, and 6% 

Hindu. About 1% of Malaysians

follow other Chinese traditions and 

philosophies, 0.7% claim no 

religious affiliation, and 0.4% 

acknowledge another affiliation. 

This religious diversity is seen 

throughout the country in a variety of mosques, temples, 

shrines, and churches (Photo: The Putra mosque in Putrajaya 

holds 15,000 worshippers).

Since first used in the 15th century, the term Melayu or Malay 

describes a person who speaks the Malay language and 

practices Islam (see p. 6 of History and Myth). This connection 

between Malay ethnicity and Islam is enshrined in Malaysia’s 

constitution, which legally defines all Malays as Muslim from 

birth. Furthermore, it basically denies Malays the right to 

renounce Islam or convert to another religion.

A connection between ethnicity and religion also prevails 

among Malaysia’s minorities: while the Chinese are 

predominantly Buddhist, the Indians are largely Hindu. The 

trend does not necessarily hold among non-Malay indigenous 

groups. While groups officially recognized as bumiputra (and 

thus eligible for certain affirmative action programs-see p. 12 of 

Political and Social Relations) are Muslim, non-bumiputra

groups may exhibit a range of religious affiliations. For 

example, about 20% of Orang Asli are Muslim, 10% Christian, 

and about 70% follow animist traditions (see “Early Spiritual

Landscape” below).

The constitution names Islam as Malaysia’s official religion but 

also includes a provision guaranteeing freedom of religion. In 

reality, the government places several limitations on religious

freedom, such as restricting religious assembly and denying

legal status to some religious groups. 

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Despite such limitations on religious freedom, Malaysia views 

itself as a model moderate, Muslim-majority state. It outwardly 

supports religious diversity by allowing minority religious 

groups to practice their beliefs within certain limitations. In 

addition to several Muslim holidays, Malaysia observes 

Christian Christmas, Hindu Deepavali, and the Buddha’s 

birthday as national holidays (see p. 2 of Time and Space). 

Early Spiritual Landscape

Many early inhabitants of Southeast Asia, including Malaysia,

practiced animism, the belief that a spirit or consciousness

resides in all objects, both animate and inanimate. Within 

animist traditions, all natural objects – for example, trees and 

animals – are sacred, and there exists a close connection 

between animists and their environment. Some local religious 

traditions also recognized guardian spirits that inhabited 

homes, gardens, and rice fields. Others acknowledged spirits 

of the dead who could help or hinder the living. Some of 

Malaysia’s indigenous groups 

traditionally held and may continue to

hold similar beliefs.

Buddhism

Origins of Buddhism 

Buddhism traces its beginning to 

around 500 BC, when Siddhartha 

Gautama, a South Asian prince, 

attained spiritual insight through 

meditation and became the Buddha or 

“the awakened one.” Buddhists 

believe that humans are fated to suffer, that suffering is caused 

by greed or desire, and can be stopped by following a spiritual 

path that includes unselfish living and meditation. Buddhists’ 

ultimate goal is to achieve nirvana, a state of peace and unity 

with the universe. While Buddhism is based on a voluminous 

set of scriptures, it does not focus on the worship of a god or 

gods. Instead, it emphasizes ethical and moral instruction to 

help people follow a spiritual path. Buddhism also offers an 

explanation of life after death, specifically, that humans 

proceed through cycles of birth, death, and rebirth or 

reincarnation (Photo: Malaysian Buddhist shrine).

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
The Arrival and Spread of Buddhism in Malaysia

In the first few centuries AD, South Asian traders introduced 

the Indian religious concepts of Hinduism and Buddhism to 

Malaysia. Buddhism strongly influenced the emerging Malay 

kingdoms. From the 7th-13th century, the regional Buddhist 

empire of Srivijaya (see p. 3 of History and Myth) supported a 

community of Buddhist monks and became an important center 

of Buddhist learning. 

Buddhism in the region declined substantially as Islam gained 

significant influence in the 10th century (see “The Arrival and 

Spread of Islam in Malaysia” below). The faith enjoyed 

resurgence when Chinese Buddhists began migrating to 

Malaysia beginning in the early 19th century (see p. 6 of 

History and Myth).

Islam

Origins of Islam

Islam dates to the 6th century when Muhammad, whom 

Muslims consider God’s final Prophet, was born in Mecca in 

what is today Saudi Arabia. Muslims believe that while 

Muhammad was meditating in the desert, the Archangel 

Gabriel visited him over a 23-

year period, revealing the

Qur’an, or “Holy Book,” to 

guide their everyday lives and 

shape their values (Photo: 

Late 7th century Arabian 

Qur’an). 

Meaning of Islam

Islam is a way of life to its adherents. The term Islam literally 

means submission to the will of God, and a Muslim is “a person 

who submits to God.”

Muslim Sects

Islam is divided into 2 sects: Sunni and Shi’a. Sunnis are 

distinguished by their belief that the leader (Caliph) of the 

Muslim community (Ummah) should be elected. Conversely, 

Shi’a Muslims believe the religious leader should be a direct 

descendant of the Prophet Muhammad. Malaysia’s constitution 

proclaims Sunni Islam as Malaysia’s official religion.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Five Pillars of Islam

There are 5 basic principles of the Islamic faith. 

• Profession of Faith (Shahada): “There is no god but God,

and Muhammad is His Messenger.”

• Prayer (Salat): Pray 5 times a day while facing the Ka’aba in 

Mecca, Saudi Arabia. The Ka’aba is considered the center of 

the Muslim world and a unifying focal point for Islamic 

worship (Photo: US Marine 

at the Ka’aba in 2012).

• Charity (Zakat): Donate a 

percentage of one’s 

income to the poor or 

needy. 

• Fasting (Sawm): Abstain

from food, drink, and 

sexual relations from sunrise to sunset during the holy 

month of Ramadan.

• Pilgrimage to Mecca (The Hajj): Perform the pilgrimage to 

Mecca once in a lifetime. 

Shared Perspectives

Many Islamic tenets parallel those of Judaism and Christianity. 

In fact, Muslims consider Christians and Jews “people of the 

Book,” referring to biblical scriptures, because they also believe 

in one God. 

Abraham: All 3 faiths trace their lineage to Abraham, known as 

Ibrahim in Islam. However, Christians and Jews trace their 

descent to Abraham, his wife Sarah, and their son Isaac; while 

Muslims trace theirs to Abraham and his Egyptian concubine, 

Hagar, and their son Ishmael.

Scriptures: Much of the content of the Qur’an is similar to 

teachings and stories found in the Christian Bible’s Old and 

New Testaments. Muslims view Islam as a completion of 

previous revelations to Jewish and Christian prophets. 

However, Muslims believe Jews and Christians altered God’s 

word and that Muhammad received the true revelation of God.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Jesus: The 3 religions differ significantly in their understanding 

of the role of Jesus. While Christians consider him the divine 

Messiah who fulfills Jewish Scriptures, Jews are still waiting for 

the Messiah to come. Muslims recognize Jesus as a prophet

but do not acknowledge his divinity or the Christian Trinity.

View of Death: Muslims believe that God determines the time 

of death and birth. While people grieve the loss of family 

members or friends, they do not view death itself as a negative 

event, as Muslims believe that a person who lived a good life 

goes on to live in Heaven.

Concept of Jihad

The concept of jihad, or inner striving, is a fundamental 

element within Islam. Traditionally, it is the principled and moral 

pursuit of God’s command to lead a virtuous life. It should not 

be confused with the publicized violence often associated with

jihad. Most Muslims are opposed to terrorism and consider it

contrary to Islamic beliefs. 

Ramadan

Ramadan, known as Bulan Puasa in Malaysia, is a month-long 

time for inner reflection, self-control, and focus on God. During 

this time, Muslims who are physically able are required to fast 

from dawn to sunset. Many Muslims believe that denying their 

hunger helps them to learn self-control, appreciate the 

difficulties of the poor, and gain spiritual renewal. By fasting, a 

Muslim learns to 

appreciate the good in 

life (Photo: Sultan Ahmad 

I Mosque in Pahang, 

Peninsular Malaysia). 

During Ramadan in 

Malaysia, authorities may 

fine or detain Muslims 

found eating or drinking 

on the street during 

daylight hours. It is common for Malaysian Muslims to break 

their fast at sunset with a meal known as iftar. Ramadan is 

observed during the 9th month of the Islamic calendar (see p. 2

of Time & Space) and includes the following 2 holy days:

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
• Lailat al-Qadr: Nuzul Al-Quran in Malaysia, this “Night of 

Power” marks Muhammad’s receipt of the first verses of the 

Qur’an. 

• Eid al-Fitr: Hari Raya Puasa or Hari Raya Aidilfitri in 

Malaysia, this 3-day “Festival of Fast-Breaking” celebrates

Ramadan’s end.

Another important holiday is celebrated when the Hajj ends, 

about 70 days following the end of Ramadan.

• Eid al-Adha: Hari Raya Haji or Hari Raya Aidiladha in 

Malaysia, this “Festival of Sacrifice” commemorates

Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son, Ishmael (or Isaac, 

according to Christians), as proof of his loyalty to God. 

The Arrival and Spread of Islam in Malaysia

Arab and Persian Muslims on their way to East Asia probably 

first brought Islam to the Malay Peninsula not long after Islam’s 

founding in the 6th century. By the 10th century, several 

kingdoms in Peninsular Malaysia controlled regional trade and 

were extending Muslim influence in the region. South Asian 

Muslim merchants and traders expanded trade throughout the 

Strait of Malacca in the 13th century, further spreading Islam. 

In the early 15th century, Malacca on Peninsular Malaysia’s 

southwest coast became the dominant trading center (see p. 3

of History and Myth). When Muzaffar Shah became Malacca’s 

ruler in 1444, he declared the kingdom a Muslim state. In later

years, Malacca’s commercial, military, and political influence 

helped spread Islam. By the end of the 15th century, most of 

Peninsular Malaysia’s coastal 

districts had converted to Islam.

Religion Today 

Islam

Most Muslims in Malaysia, along 

with about 15% of Muslims 

worldwide, are followers of the 

Shaf’i Madhab school of Sunni Islam. Of note, Sunni Islam is 

the only legal form of Islam in Malaysia (Photo: Sign indicating 

a mosque in Penang, Peninsular Malaysia). 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
The government reportedly maintains a list of banned Islamic 

sects, including Shi’a, Ahmadiyyah, and Al-Arqam. In addition 

to the Malay population, automatically classified as Muslim, 

some Malaysians of Indian and Chinese descent are Muslim.

Malaysia has experienced a Muslim revival over the last 

decades. In 2012, 90% of surveyed Malaysian Muslims 

reported that religion is very important in their lives, while about

57% acknowledged attending mosque at least once a week.

Other manifestations of heightened religiosity among Muslims 

include women’s increased use of the Islamic veil outside the

home (see p. 1 of Aesthetics and Recreation) and the greater 

reliance on Islamic law to regulate Malays’ religious behavior 

(see “Religion and the Law” below). 

In addition, some Malaysians support politicizing Islam, causing

tensions within the Muslim community. A 2011-2 survey found

that 82% of surveyed Malaysian Muslims agreed that religious 

leaders should have at least some influence in political matters. 

In the same study, 79% of surveyed Malaysian Muslims agreed 

that converting others to Islam is a religious duty, compared to 

just 31% in neighboring Indonesia. 

Buddhism

Most Malaysian Buddhists focus less on the philosophical 

underpinnings of Buddhism and more on its teachings as a 

guide for living. Malaysia’s Buddhist 

temples usually contain an image of 

the Buddha and table where followers 

leave offerings and perform worship. 

Malaysian Buddhists often perform 

rituals to honor ancestor spirits.

Other Chinese Religions: Some

Malaysian Chinese combine Buddhist 

teachings and practices with various 

other Chinese traditions in a syncretic 

(combining of different beliefs) system 

of ancestor veneration and deity 

worship. These people regularly visit a variety of Chinese 

temples where they pray or offer thanks for good fortune. Some 

temples offer visitors the opportunity to light incense in honor of 

particular spirits or deities (pictured). 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Christianity

Malaysia counts several different ethnic groups, including 

Chinese and Indians, in its Christian population. In addition, 

some members of indigenous groups such as the Orang Asli of 

Peninsular Malaysia and the Kadazan-Dusun and Kelabit of 

East Malaysia are Christian. In 2000, 42% of the population of 

the East Malaysian state of Sarawak was Christian.

Hinduism

Based in ancient scriptures, Hindu worship focuses on a 

Supreme Being with many forms and natures, including 

Brahma, the creator, Siva, 

the destroyer, and Vishnu, 

the preserver. Malaysia’s 

Hindus visit temples to pray 

individually or engage in 

collective worship (Photo: 

Sri Maha Mariamman Hindu 

Temple in Kuala Lumpur).

The Importance of Spirits

While Malaysians identify primarily with Islam, Christianity, or 

Buddhism, some of them also uphold a respect for the spirit 

world. Recognizing that spirits reside in geographic places, in 

buildings, or in objects, these Malaysians may engage in rituals 

to honor spirits or carry amulets to protect themselves from 

harm. Some indigenous groups in East Malaysia hold festivals 

to thank the spirits for a good harvest.

Religion and the Law

The Malaysian government increasingly uses the Islamic 

sharia court system (see p. 5 of Political and Social Relations) 

to regulate its citizens’ social and religious behavior. Through a 

sharia court, the government has occasionally arrested 

members of what it deems illegal Muslim sects, detaining them 

for “rehabilitation” in Sunni Islam. Reversing a 2009 court 

decision, a ruling in 2013 determined that non-Muslims may not 

use the word “Allah.” The state of Kelantan in Peninsular 

Malaysia has declared that women and men must remain apart 

when in public, resulting in solutions such as gender-specific 

checkout lines in supermarkets. Some such policies are 

applicable to all people, regardless of their religious affiliation.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Overview

Life among all ethnicities in Malaysia traditionally centered on

family and community. In recent decades, family life has 

changed as many Malaysians migrated to urban areas seeking 

education and employment, married later, and had fewer 

children. Despite changes, Malaysian values such as respect 

for elders and social harmony remain fundamental to family life.

Residence

In more traditional rural areas, extended families consisting of 

multiple generations occupy communal homes or compounds, 

often constructed from modern materials. In urban areas, 

nuclear families (2 parents and their children) usually live in

multi-family apartment or condominium buildings.

Rural: Architectural styles typically vary by ethnic group. The 

traditional rural Malay home, a kampung, stands on stilts to 

avoid seasonal flooding. Thatched palm leaf roofs facilitate

rainwater runoff while many windows provide ventilation. A

kampung has a serambi gantung, a veranda where the family 

entertains guests, a kitchen, and a rumah ibu, an open room

that serves as the family’s living 

and sleeping room. 

The Dayak people of East 

Malaysia (see p. 12 of Political 

and Social Relations)

traditionally live in longhouses –

narrow, extended multi-family 

homes with a common roof and 

separate bilik (rooms) for up to 12 families. A covered veranda

along the front (pictured) serves as a focal point for socializing,

preparing meals, and exchanging goods. 

Urban: Traditionally, many urban Chinese lived and worked in 

2-story terraced houses. While the family business occupied

the front part of the house, the family lived in the back and 

upper story. Many Malaysian urban areas still feature these socalled shop houses. 

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Today, about 73% of Malaysians live in 

urban areas where many occupy 

apartments or condominiums, some in 

high-rise buildings. Other urban and 

suburban residents live in detached 

housing. Whatever the type, modern 

Malaysian housing often incorporates 

traditional features such as verandas, 

pillars, and particular roof designs. 

Rapid urbanization has resulted in

housing shortages in some urban areas. 

Despite government efforts to provide 

low-cost housing, some Malaysians 

must settle in makeshift housing on city outskirts (Photo: 

Condominium towers loom over an older building in Kuala 

Lumpur).

Family Structure

Generally, Malaysians value cooperation, loyalty, and unity 

within the family and exhibit a strong obligation to their kin.

Nevertheless, modernization and urbanization in recent 

decades have changed family life in Malaysia so that some

large extended families no longer share a household. Despite 

this change, the family remains the basic unit of Malaysian 

society and community life. 

While many Malays have moved to urban areas for work or 

education, they maintain their ties to their ancestral villages. 

Malays often balik kampung, or “returning to the village,” for 

weddings, festivals, and weekend visits. Even in urban areas 

extended families often try to live near each other to provide 

mutual support and security.

Children typically live with their parents until marriage, at which 

point the couple moves into separate quarters. Among all 

Malaysia’s ethnic groups, the oldest male is typically head of 

the household. Elder family members receive much respect 

and are a source of advice for younger members. Although 

children traditionally cared for their elderly parents, this 

tendency appears to be shifting. A recent study revealed that 

less than half of surveyed Malaysians expected to live with 

their children upon retirement.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Children

Malaysians consider children a 

blessing and an essential 

outcome of marriage. Children 

born out of wedlock may have 

no legal claims to paternal 

inheritance or guardianship

(see p. 2 of Sex and Gender).

From a young age, Malaysian

children help with household chores and care for younger 

siblings. This care may also include providing financial, 

educational, and career support to siblings later in life (Photo: 

US Navy personnel play tug-of-war with Malaysian children.)

Birth: Malays traditionally perform the potong rambut or 

akikah ritual 1 week after a baby’s birth. Male family members 

announce the baby’s name to the assembled then shave its 

head as a cleansing ritual. Family members may donate a sum 

of money equivalent to the weight of the hair to charity. Later, 

the family performs the naik buai ceremony to welcome the 

child to the family and present its new cradle. Family members 

place a freshly cut log in the cradle to absorb negative 

influences, then the grandmother rocks the child to sleep. 

Guests celebrate by eating sticky rice or sweet porridge and 

decorated eggs (see p. 1-3 of Sustenance and Health). 

Circumcision: Muslim Malaysian boys typically undergo 

circumcision between ages 5-12, signifying their passage into 

adulthood and membership in the Islamic community. While 

traditional healers once performed this ritual at large public 

events, a doctor typically performs the procedure today. In 

2009, Malaysia’s sharia courts mandated all Muslim females be 

circumcised before age 2 (see p. 3 of Sex and Gender).

Marriage

Malays traditionally relied on family elders or professional 

matchmakers called tukang risik (“spy") to find a partner with 

an appropriate social, ethnic, and economic background. 

Although this custom is much less common now, some Malays 

and Indians continue to use matchmakers or informally seek 

potential partners through family, friends, or dating agencies. 

While some young people in urban areas may engage in 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Western-style dating, parents usually prefer that their children 

begin dating only upon completion of their education (see 

Learning and Knowledge). Of note, non-Muslims may marry 

Muslims only if the convert to Islam. 

Although the legal minimum marriage age is 18, Muslims as 

young as 16 may marry with an Islamic court’s approval (see p. 

5 of Political and Social Relations). In 2014, courts approved 

74% of underage marriage requests. Since 1970, Malaysians’ 

average marriage age has increased significantly. In 2010, 

women’s average marriage age was 25, while men’s was 

almost 29. Observers note that if this trend continues, the 

average marriage age for both men and women could soon be 

33 years. 

Brideprice: According to Malay Muslim tradition, the groom is 

expected to make 2 so-called brideprice payments to the bride 

and her family to compensate for the loss of her labor and 

presence. Local Islamic authorities set the maskahwin, a 

compulsory amount for the 1st payment. 

Although technically optional, the 

hantaran (2nd payment) is a 

longstanding Malay tradition. Set by the

bride’s family, this amount is often high 

and typically leaves the new couple in 

debt (Photo: Malay family).

Weddings: Malaysians follow different 

wedding customs according to their 

ethnic and religious backgrounds. Malay 

Muslim weddings typically have 2 parts. During the akad nikah

the couple signs the marriage contract and the groom presents 

the brideprice to the bride’s family. On the following day the 

bersanding (enthronement) takes place. Dressed in traditional 

Malay clothes (see p. 1 of Aesthetics and Recreation), the 

bride and groom sit on a raised platform. Guests greet the 

couple by sprinkling rice flour, sandalwood water, or flower 

petals over the couple’s hands. Later, the bride and groom feed

each other sweet sticky rice in a messy and humorous ritual. 

Finally, guests enjoy a wedding feast where they usually 

present money to the new couple and receive flowers and 

decorated eggs, a symbol of fertility, as parting gifts.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Chinese couples may announce their engagement by sending 

a treat wrapped in red paper to family and friends. Because it is 

considered important for the wedding to fall on a lucky day, 

many Chinese couples consult an astrologer to set the date. 

Depending on their religious affiliation, Chinese may hold 

Buddhist or Christian ceremonies (see 

p. 7-8 of Religion and Spirituality). 

Many Chinese end their wedding 

celebration with a luxurious banquet at 

a hotel or restaurant (Photo: A 1941 

Malaysian Chinese wedding).

Indians often consult elders or a Hindu 

priest to choose a favorable wedding 

date. Before the ceremony, the groom 

may present the bride a gift of wrist 

bangles and a small nugget of gold. A 

jeweler then fashions the gold into a thali, a pendant 

symbolizing the couple’s union. Traditional Hindu weddings 

usually occur at a Hindu temple and involve extensive prayers 

and ceremonies. These rituals usually include chanting and 

blessings by the temple priest and the tying of the thali around 

the bride’s neck. Following the ceremonies and festivities, 

guests enjoy a communal feast.

Polygyny: Legal only for Malaysian Muslims, polygyny is the 

practice of a man having multiple wives simultaneously. In 

accordance with sharia (Islamic) law (see p. 5 of Political and 

Social Relations) Malay Muslim men may have up to 4 wives. 

To take an additional wife, a man must make an official request 

before the court, provide justification, and prove his ability to 

provide for each wife. 

Divorce: From 2004-2012, Malaysia divorce rates doubled 

across all of Malaysia’s ethnic groups, although the rate was 

slightly higher among non-Muslims. Some observers attribute 

this overall increase to a better educated female populace who 

has become less financially dependent on men. Recent studies 

suggest that many new marriages break under the financial 

burdens young couples face such as brideprice and dowry

costs. Practiced by some Indians, a dowry is a payment made 

by a bride’s family to the groom’s family.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
While discouraged in Islam, divorce does not carry a negative 

stigma in Muslim Malay culture. Although Muslim women face 

several hurdles to initiating divorce, men may divorce their 

wives fairly easily (see p. 3 of Sex and Gender). Consequently, 

divorce is relatively common among Malays, affecting between 

20% and 25% of marriages. While the sharia (Islamic) courts 

handle divorce for Muslim couples, the civil courts (see p. 5 of 

Political and Social Relations) serve non-Muslims. 

Death

In line with Islamic tradition, Muslim Malays bury loved ones as 

soon as possible after death, usually within 24 hours. The 

deceased is bathed and clothed in a white shroud with a thin 

veil over the face. After offering prayers and burning incense at 

the mosque, male family members carry the deceased to the 

gravesite. The call to prayer is whispered in the deceased’s 

ear, and the body is placed in the ground and buried.

The family then sprinkles sandalwood water and flower petals 

over the grave. The deceased’s family and friends gather for 3 

days following the death, often praying and sharing meals. This 

tradition is repeated on the 7th, 14th, 40th, and 100th day after 

death, and then annually thereafter. 

Chinese Malaysians typically follow Buddhist traditions. Upon 

death, the body is bathed and wrapped in a silk cloth and 

placed in an elaborately carved coffin. The coffin is then 

transported to a funeral home 

or hall where it typically remains

for several days before burial. 

The memorial service may 

include prayers and hymns 

offered by Buddhist monks. 

After the service, the coffin is 

either moved to a grave for 

burial or to a crematorium for cremation. The funeral 

procession traditionally includes lively music with cymbals and 

drums intended to drive away evil spirits. Mourners carry 

banners and pictures of the deceased. After burial, families 

decorate the graves with flowers and paper replicas of items 

from the deceased’s life (Photo: Chinese cemetery in Melaka). 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Overview

Traditional Malaysian family and village organization privileged 

men over women. During the 20th century, women’s status 

improved with the economy’s rapid expansion and 

accompanying need for workers (see p. 1 of Economics and 

Resources). Now making up 75% of all university students, 

Malaysian women increasingly are involved in government and 

business. Nevertheless, the rise of conservative Islam in some 

states presents challenges to sustaining gender equity.

Gender Roles and Work

Domestic Labor: Women traditionally were known as the ibu 

rumah or nucleus of the family since they performed most 

household tasks, including managing the family budget and 

tending to children. Although they may also work outside the 

home, women continue to perform most domestic tasks and 

train their daughters for this eventuality. From an early age, 

girls receive more household chores, often receiving the 

nickname orang dapur, “one who runs the kitchen.”

Labor Force: In 2013, about 44% of Malaysian women worked 

outside the home – a significantly lower rate than in 

neighboring Singapore (59%), Indonesia (51%), and Thailand 

(64%). Women work in many sectors, including business,

healthcare, and education. 

Although increased numbers 

of women are receiving 

advanced degrees, (see p. 5

of Learning and Education), 

they often leave the 

workforce upon childbirth

because few companies 

offer childcare or flexible work arrangements. Generally,

women often earn lower wages than men but do receive higher 

pay in some sectors. For example, skilled female workers in 

the construction industry may earn 13% more than men (Photo: 

US male sailor confers with a Malaysian female sailor.)

5. SEX AND GENDER

SEX &

GENDER
Islamic Feminists

Some Malaysian women are active in the Islamic 

feminist movement. Established in 1988, Sisters in 

Islam (SIS) examines the teachings of Islam from a 

woman’s perspective, advocating changes to laws and 

attitudes which oppress and discriminate against 

women. SIS activists include Islamic scholars and 

Marina Mahathir, daughter of former Prime Minister 

Mahathir (see p. 10-11 of History and Myth). Launched 

in 2009 in Kuala Lumpur, Musawah (Arabic for 

“equality”) is a worldwide Muslim women’s movement 

dedicated to educating and supporting Muslim families 

on issues of equality and justice.

Gender and the Law

While gender discrimination is illegal under Malaysia’s 

constitution, recent changes in the implementation of sharia

law (see p. 5 of Political and Social Relations) increasingly 

restrict the rights of Muslim women. For example, even though

the constitution recognizes equal property rights, sharia law 

dictates that Muslim women claim just 1/3 of inherited property.

Similarly, under sharia law, only Muslim males may be their 

children’s legal guardians. In the case of divorce or his death, 

guardianship is passed to a male relative. Sharia laws adopted

in 2005 ease requirements for men to divorce their wives and 

withhold alimony (see p. 6 of Family and Kinship). 

Gender and Politics

Women received full voting rights in the 1957 constitution.

Although Malaysian women are active in politics, few hold 

leadership positions. In 2010, an estimated 4.8% of Local 

Council Presidents and 1% of Village Committee Chairs were 

women. In the lower parliament, women hold 10% of seats 

compared with 18% in the US House of Representatives. In 

2014, the Democratic Action Party (DAP) introduced a 30% 

quota for female members of its Central Executive Committee. 

While other parties have set similar quotas for general female 

participation, they have not yet achieved these goals.

SEX &

GENDER
Gender Based Violence (GBV)

Although rape and domestic violence are criminal offenses 

under both civil and sharia law, many victims do not report 

these crimes. Observers note a serious lack of GBV law 

enforcement within the sharia system, and even civil laws 

contain weak provisions that make prosecution difficult. Nearly 

3,000 rape and 3,500 domestic violence cases were reported

in 2012, yet only 830 and 1,131 charges 

were filed, respectively (Photo: Female 

police officers in Kuala Lumpur).

Female Circumcision

A recent study suggests that as many as 

90% of Malay Muslim women have 

undergone some form of female 

circumcision (also known as female 

genital mutilation). In some societies, 

female circumcision is intended to modify 

the sex organ in order to decrease sexual desire and promote 

virginity. It can be an invasive procedure that results in physical 

mutilation and severe health consequences. Some 

unconfirmed reports suggest that the procedure in Malaysia

can be a symbolic prick or cut. Many Muslims see this act an 

Islamic duty, a belief reinforced by a 2009 Islamic court ruling

requiring circumcision for all female Muslims before age 2.

Sex and Procreation

Malaysians consider sexual intimacy a private matter and avoid

public displays of affection. In some states, such displays are 

banned. Authorities often censor films to remove sexual 

references or depictions. Primarily due to successful family 

planning programs, Malaysia’s birthrate has dropped, from 4.2 

children per woman in 1974 to 2.1 in 2012. 

Homosexuality: Gay or lesbian acts are illegal under civil and 

sharia law. Punishments include whippings and up to 20 years 

in prison. In the state of Kelantan, convicted homosexuals may 

face the death penalty. Generally, the government’s rhetoric is 

anti-LGBT, occasionally cancelling gay pride festivals and 

sponsoring seminars warning of the dangers of LGBT lifestyles. 

Despite these challenges, gay rights clubs and a national gay 

rights organization openly exist in major cities. 

SEX &

GENDER
Language Overview

Malaysia’s national language, Bahasa Malaysia (“The 

Malaysian Language”) or Malay, is also the language of 

Malaysia’s predominant ethnic group, the Malays. Minority

groups – including Chinese, Indians, and indigenous groups 

(see p. 12 of Political and Social Relations) – typically speak 

other dialects and languages in addition to Malay. These other

languages include Chinese variants such as Mandarin, 

Cantonese, Hakka, and Hokkien; Indian varieties including 

Tamil and Punjabi; and indigenous languages such as Iban 

and Melanau. 

Bahasa Malaysia (Malay)

A member of the Austronesian language family, Malay 

probably originated in western Borneo, evolved further in 

neighboring Sumatra, and later became the region’s dominant 

trade language and a defining feature of Malay identity (see p. 

6 of History and Myth). While the British mandated English as 

the language of government and commerce during the colonial 

period (see p. 7 of History and Myth), independent Malaysia 

chose Malay as its national language. 

Foreign nationals typically find Malay easy 

to pronounce. Having 26 consonants and 6 

vowels, Malay word order is similar to 

English. Malay does not use plurals for 

nouns, instead, denoting plurality by 

repeating the word (“buku-buku” for 

“books’). 

Writing System: Although Malay may be 

written in an Arabic script called Jawi

(pictured), the most common writing 

system is a Latin script called Rumi. Despite language reform 

efforts to achieve uniformity, Romanized spellings often 

demonstrate inconsistencies. For example, the word for a 

traditional Malay house may be written kampong or kampung 

(see p. 1 of Family and Kinship). As in English, Malay is written 

from left to right in horizontal lines. 

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
English

Prior to the 1967 National 

Language Act which made 

Malay the national 

language, English was 

Malaysia’s de facto 

administrative language. 

Today, English is a compulsory subject in primary and 

secondary schools and a primary language of instruction in 

many universities (see p. 5 of Learning and Knowledge). 

Some Malaysian states still use English instead of Malay in

official contexts. English is also dominant in the business world 

(Photo: A sign with Malay written in Jawi and Rumi scripts with 

an English translation).

Manglish: Some Malaysians, especially merchants and 

shopkeepers, speak Manglish, a colloquial form of English 

with Malay, Chinese, and Tamil influences. The Malaysian 

government discourages such mixing of Malay and English, 

even forbidding the use of Manglish on public signs. 

Communication Overview

Communicating competently in Malaysia requires not only 

knowledge of Malay, but also the ability to interact effectively 

using language. This broad notion of competence includes 

paralanguage (rate of speech, volume, intonation), nonverbal 

communication (personal space, touch, gestures), and 

interaction management (conversation initiation, turn-taking, 

and termination). When used properly, these forms of 

communication help to ensure that statements are interpreted 

as the speaker intends.

Communication Style

Malaysians pride themselves on their tolerance, generally 

emphasizing a unifying Malaysian identity even though some 

ethnic and religious tensions persist (see p. 12-13 of Political 

and Social Relations). Generally friendly and hospitable, 

Malaysians strive to “save face,” or avoid embarrassment to 

themselves or others. Accordingly, they avoid openly insulting, 

criticizing, or disagreeing with others in public. Generally, they 

consider angry tones and overly direct queries to be rude,

preferring calm and harmonious interactions.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Malaysians share certain societal communication norms, such 

as respect for elders and authority figures and a preference for 

humble communication styles. The various ethnic groups may 

convey those norms in different ways by demonstrating

distinctive communication practices and preferences. For 

example, the Malay notion of budi, the value of maintaining 

peace and harmony in all things, underpins an emphasis on

tolerance, cooperation, patience, and courtesy in interactions.

The Chinese are mindful of “saving face” during interactions by 

oftentimes relying on non-verbal facial expressions, tone of 

voice, and posture to communicate their desired messages.

Greetings

The traditional Malay greeting is the salam. To indicate 

deference and deep respect to a person of senior status, 

Malays perform the salam by extending both hands and briefly 

clasping or brush fingertips. Both parties then withdraw their 

hands and touch them briefly to their hearts or lower parts of 

their faces. When greeting someone socially equal, a Malay

may choose to carry out the salam with just one hand.

Shaking hands is a common form of greeting among both 

Chinese and Indians. Some Indians prefer to greet one another 

by bringing flat palms together at chest level and bowing the 

head slightly. Of note, devout 

Muslims may decline to touch 

a member of the opposite 

sex, instead preferring to 

greet with a nod or slight 

bow. When greeting 

members of the opposite sex 

in Malaysia, foreign nationals 

should wait for their 

conversation partner to initiate the salam or handshake (Photo: 

US Ambassador Yun shakes hands with a Malaysian worker). 

Names

Malays assign a father’s given name as his child’s last name. 

For example, Rashid bin Abdullah is “Rashid son of Abdullah.” 

Malays typically refer to each other using the first name, often 

prefaced by a title or other form of address (see below).

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Most Indians also use first names when addressing each other, 

for example addressing Siva s/o (“son of”) Bhaskaran as Mr. 

Siva, B. Siva, or Siva B. Among Chinese, last or surnames 

precede given names. For a woman named Tai Ching Ling, 

“Ching Ling” is her given name while “Tai” is her last name. 

Unlike most Malays and Indians, Chinese often refer to each 

other by last name.

Forms of Address

Traditionally, Malays used titles to signify social condition and 

status. Still important today, a complex system of titles dictates 

etiquette, behavior, and form of address. For example, 

members of royalty carry specific titles (such as Sultana and 

Raja – see p. 4 of Political and Social Relations). Further, 

royalty and other authority figures can bestow a variety of titles 

onto their Malay subjects, such as Tun, which broadly 

translates as “Sir.” Government officials also use various titles 

that indicate grade and post. Muslim Malaysians may use 

hereditary titles associated with Islam, such as those that 

indicate a familial relationship with the Prophet Muhammad 

(see p. 3 of Religion and Spirituality). Muslims who have 

participated in the Haj pilgrimage (see p. 4 of Religion and 

Spirituality) may use the title Haji (for a man) or Hajjah (for a 

woman).

To address an elder or other 

person of higher status, 

Malays use Puan (for 

women) and Tuan (for men), 

combined with the person’s 

first name. Malays often use 

Encik to address a young 

man. To politely address a 

stranger, Malays may use the 

formal, gender-neutral term Anda. Malays also frequently use 

titles that indicate occupation, such as Guru (teacher) or 

Dokter (doctor). Foreign nationals should take note of 

Malaysians’ titles and utilize them. Only after a relationship is 

well established might a Malay feel comfortable omitting a title 

and using only a conversation partner’s first name (Photo: 

(Malay women speaking with US Ambassador Yun in 2014).

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Conversational Topics

Malaysians prefer to begin conversations with friendly, 

personal questions, usually inquiring about their conversation 

partner’s background and family. Although Malaysians typically 

have a good sense of humor, they tend not to make or enjoy 

jokes concerning politics or ethnic differences or jokes 

containing sexual innuendos.

Foreign nationals should 

avoid making negative or 

condescending comments 

about Malaysia. It is also 

advisable to avoid talking 

about religion and sexuality, 

as many Malaysians consider

these topics offensive and 

inappropriate for polite conversation (Photo: Malaysian Army 

and US Navy personnel screen a patient).

Gestures

Malaysians tend to use gestures to augment their words, 

occasionally becoming animated during conversations. They 

do, however, consider certain gestures rude or inappropriate. 

For example, Malaysians do not point with the index finger. 

Instead, they indicate direction with the thumb of the right hand 

while folding the fingers into the palm. Malaysians consider 

hands-in-pockets a sign of anger and hitting one’s fist into a 

cupped hand an obscene gesture. Of note, Malaysians often 

perform a slight bow when leaving or entering a room and 

when passing by a person to express “excuse me.” 

Because Malaysians consider the head a sacred part of the 

body, they never touch another person’s head. Further, 

Malaysians consider the feet to be unsanitary and typically

refrain from showing their soles, using their feet to point, and 

moving objects with their feet. 

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil/resources/index.aspx for 

language training resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Words and Phrases

English Malay

Hello Hai

Good morning Selamat pagi

Good afternoon Selamat petang

Good evening Selamat malam

Good bye Selamat jalan

See you again Jumpa lagi

Welcome Selamat datang

What is your name? Siapa nama awak?

My name is ___ Nama saya___

How are you? Apa khabar?

Fine Baik or bagus

Do you speak 

English/Malay?

Adakah anda fasih 

berbahasa 

(Inggeris/ Melayu)?

Thank you for your 

help

Terima kasih atas 

bantuan anda.

Yes Ya

No Tidak

Thank you Terima kasih

You’re welcome Sama-sama

OK Baiklah

Excuse me/I’m sorry Maafkan saya

Please Tolong

Can someone 

assist us?

Boleh sesiapa 

Tolong kami?

I want ___ Saya mahu__

I do not want ___ Saya tidak mahu__

Do you have ___? Anda ada ___?

What? Apa?

When? Bila?

Where? Di mana?

Who? Siapa?

Good Bagus

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy

• Total population over age 15 who can read and write: 93%

• Male: 95%

• Female: 91% (2010 estimate)

The Introduction of Formal Education

Scholars believe that formal Islamic education in Malaysia may 

date as early as the 12th century when Muslim leaders began 

to provide religious, moral, and spiritual instruction to boys. 

Later, students received lessons in teachers’ homes, mosques, 

or pondoks (traditional Islamic schools).

The Rise of Separate Systems

Following the spread of British control across Malaysia in the 

19th century (see p. 4-5 of History and Myth), formal education 

expanded to include Western-style schools. Gradually, 

separate and distinct school systems developed that served

each of Malaysia’s 3 main ethnic groups (Malay, Chinese, and 

Indian - see p. 12 of Political and Social Relations).

The British opened English-language schools, primarily in 

urban areas, to educate some Malays so they could become 

civil servants in the colonial government (see p. 6 of History 

and Myth). Other Malays attended religious pondoks or chose 

secular Malay-language schools that emphasized basic 

reading and writing along with 

vocational and technical skills 

related to agriculture. 

Tamil-language schools based 

on curricula from India opened 

to serve South Asians brought 

to Malaysia to work on 

plantations (see p. 6 of History and Myth). Meanwhile, 

Malaysia’s Chinese residents attended Chinese-language 

schools based on China’s traditional educational curriculum 

and taught by teachers from China (Illustration: Chinese 

College in Melaka in 1834). These separate education systems

served to maintain and strengthen Malaysia’s ethnic, social, 

and occupational divisions (see p. 6-7 of History and Myth).

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Pre-Independence Efforts at Reform

In the 1950s, during the last years of British colonial control, 

the British authorities sought to reorganize and unify the 

country’s stratified educational system. The government 

adopted a country-wide, standardized curriculum, naming

Malay the primary language of instruction but also allowed the 

use of Chinese, Tamil, and English. 

Education in Newly Independent Malaysia

At the time of Malaysia’s independence in 1957, Malaysia’s

Chinese residents were on average better educated than 

Malays and Indians. 

The new government 

initiated sweeping 

education reforms 

beginning in 1961. Its 

intent was to bring 

educational parity to 

Malays as part of a 

broader plan to reduce 

poverty among Malays 

(see p. 9 of History and Myth). (Photo: Malaysian students 

take part in a school celebration).

Pro-Malay Reforms: The government used the Malay 

language as a means of promoting a Malaysian identity. 

Consequently, Malay became compulsory in primary schools 

and Malay or English mandatory in secondary schools. 

Nevertheless, instruction in Tamil and Chinese in primary 

schools was allowed to continue. The government sought to 

increase Malays’ university attendance, setting aside 

scholarship funds predominantly for Malay students. In the 

1970s, the government introduced additional reforms that

converted all English-language secondary schools to Malaylanguage schools. 

Modern Education System

Today’s public school system offers free education for all 

children aged 6-18, yet only primary education (grades 1-6) is 

compulsory. Comprising 190 days, the school year runs from 

January-November. Of note, female participation at all 

educational levels equals or exceeds that of males.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
In addition to supporting students’ knowledge and skills 

acquisition, educational policies also aim to foster national 

unity. Consequently, curricula contain lessons intended to 

inculcate certain moral values and to nurture a national, 

Malaysian identity within the multilingual and multiethnic 

student body.

Pre-Primary and Primary Schools

Non-compulsory, pre-school programs for Malaysian children 

aged 4-6 are offered by public, non-profit, and private 

institutions. Primary education begins at age 6 and lasts 6 

years. Malaysia has 2 types of primary schools. So-called

“national” schools use Malay as the language of instruction

while providing English 

language lessons. 

By contrast, the “national-type” 

schools use either Mandarin 

Chinese or Tamil as the 

language of instruction while 

providing Malay and English 

language lessons. Malaysians 

of Chinese descent attend Chinese “national-type” schools, 

while those of Indian descent attend Tamil “national-type” 

schools. Malaysians of other ethnic backgrounds (see p. 12 of 

Political and Social Relations) usually attend “national” schools 

(Photo: A US Navy musician talks to Malaysian school 

students).

About 99% of Malaysian children enroll in primary school, 

where the core subjects are reading, writing, math, and science

as well as Islamic religion and ethics lessons (see “Religious 

Education” below). Following primary school, all students must 

pass an exam to continue to secondary school. 

Secondary Schools

Secondary school consists of lower (grades 7-9) and upper 

secondary (grades 10-11) levels. The primary language of 

instruction in all secondary schools is Malay. Because students 

in “national-type” primary schools receive significantly less 

Malay language instruction, they do not usually possess the 

language skills required for secondary school. Consequently, 

graduates of “national-type” primary schools must complete a 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
year-long Malay language “transition class” before they may 

enroll in secondary school. This class also aims to nurture a 

sense of Malaysian identity among students of Chinese and 

Indian descent.

About 85% of students of the appropriate age attended public 

lower secondary schools in 2003. Core courses are an 

extension of the primary curriculum, focusing on reading, 

writing, math, science, and Islamic/moral education. Students 

also receive extensive instruction in English. Chinese, Tamil, 

and Arabic may be offered as elective subjects. To continue on 

to upper secondary school, students must pass an exam.

As of 2003, about 75% of 

Malaysians of the appropriate 

age attended public upper 

secondary schools. Students

may choose between general 

(academic) and technicalvocational tracks. Students 

entering the academic track 

choose a specialized field of 

study based on their aptitude and interests. Core subjects 

include Malay, English, science, math, Islamic/moral education, 

and history. Vocational programs have 2 paths that prepare

students for employment immediately upon graduation or for 

admission into specialized technical colleges (Photo: Students

from Malaysia and other Southeast Asian countries). 

To graduate, all students must pass an examination. Only 

about 37% of Malaysians have completed upper secondary 

school. Students interested in post-secondary education then 

typically enroll in a 1-2 year college preparatory program.

Post-Secondary Education

In the mid-1990s, 20% of Malaysian post-secondary students 

left the country to pursue degrees abroad. Concerned that 

these students would remain abroad after graduating, the 

government pursued an ambitious program to improve postsecondary education. Consequently, Malaysians may now 

pursue higher education at an array of Malaysian institutions, 

including several branches of foreign universities.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
As of 2012, about 15% of 

Malaysians aged 25-29 had 

received a bachelor’s or higher 

degree at one of Malaysia’s 65

public and private universities or 

one of its 414 colleges. Of note, 

75% of Malaysia’s university 

students are female. The 

primary languages of instruction 

in post-secondary institutions are Malay and English (Photo: 

Science and technology building of the Kolej Universiti Islam in 

Melaka).

Religious Education

Islamic religion instruction is compulsory for Muslim students in 

both primary and secondary schools. Non-Muslim students 

enroll in compulsory nonreligious morals and ethics courses. 

The government has been unresponsive to the urgings of nonMuslim religious organizations to allow non-Muslim religion

instruction (instead of ethics instruction) in public schools.

Although private schools may offer any non-Islamic religious 

instruction they choose, they are ineligible for any government 

support. By contrast, the government provides grants to private 

Islamic schools on the condition that they allow government 

supervision and adopt a government-approved curriculum. 

Malaysia Education Blueprint

The Malaysian government continues to emphasize the 

importance of education as an enabler of economic and social

growth. A 2013 “Malaysia Education Blueprint” sets several 

goals for optimizing the availability and quality of education. 

One focus is full enrollment in both lower and upper secondary 

school by 2020. Other initiatives include the reduction of urbanrural, socio-economic, and gender achievement gaps and 

student improvement on international assessment scores. 

To achieve these goals, the blueprint calls for an increase in 

compulsory schooling from 6-11 years, revised curricula that 

emphasize creative thinking and problem-solving, and 

enhanced teacher training requirements. Further, policymakers 

aim to create a more technically proficient workforce that is 

better suited to meet labor market demands.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Overview

Malaysians value loyalty, harmony, and consensus in the 

workplace, taking the time to build strong and lasting business 

relationships. While public displays of affection between 

genders is considered inappropriate, social touching between 

same-sex friends is common.

Time and Work

In the Peninsular Malaysian Muslim-majority states of Kedah, 

Kelantan, and Terengganu, the work week runs from SundayThursday. In the other Malaysian states, it extends from 

Monday-Friday. Business hours vary by establishment type. 

Most banks are open 

from 9:30am-3:00pm 

Monday-Friday and from 

9:30am-11:30am on 2 

Saturdays each month. 

Private businesses are 

open from 9:00am5:00pm, while post

offices are open from 

8:00am-5:00pm Monday-Saturday. Most stores are open from 

9:30am-7:00pm 7 days a week, although larger retailers and 

malls typically close later (Photo: Small grocery store in Kuala 

Sungai Baru).

Working Hours: By law, the Malaysian work week is limited to 

48 hours, with a maximum of an 8-hour day and 6-day week. 

Special provisions prohibit women from working in the 

industrial and agricultural sectors between 10:00pm-5:00am. 

Although designed to protect women, these policies limit 

women’s abilities to advance in certain sectors. Of note, many 

workplaces provide small prayer rooms to accommodate the 

religious needs of Muslim employees.

Time Zone and Date Notation: Malaysian Standard Time 

(MST) is 8 hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) and 

13 hours ahead of Eastern Standard Time (EST). Malaysia

does not observe daylight saving time. 

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
Lunar Calendar: While Malaysians use the Western calendar 

for their daily lives, Muslim Malaysians use the Islamic calendar 

to track Muslim holidays. Since it is based on lunar phases, 

days fall 11 days earlier each year in relation to the Western 

calendar. The Islamic calendar’s 12 months have 30 days or 

fewer. Days begin at sunset on what the Western calendar 

would show as the previous day. For example, each new week 

begins at sunset on Saturday, and the Muslim holy day of 

Friday begins on Thursday evening. Of note, many Chinese 

and Indians also use the lunar calendar to track holidays.

National Holidays

These holidays occur on fixed dates:

• January 1: New Year’s Day (some states only)

• May 1: Labor Day

• 1st Saturday in June: Yang di-Pertuan Agong’s 

(King’s) Birthday

• August 31: National Day

• September 16: Malaysia Day

• December 25: Christmas Day

These holidays occur on variable dates according to 

the lunar calendar:

• Awal Muharram: Islamic New Year

• Maulud Nabi: Birthday of the Prophet Muhammad

• Hari Raya Puasa: End of Ramadan

• Hari Raya Haji: The Festival of the Sacrifice

• Deepavali: Hindu Festival of Lights

• Chinese New Year: Chinese Lunar New Year

• Vesak: Buddha Day

Of note, the Christian celebration of Good Friday 

is a holiday in the states of Sabah and Sarawak.

SPACE

TIME &
Time and Business

Generally, business tends to move more slowly in Malaysia

than in the US for a number of reasons. First, Malaysians view 

time as flexible – something that can be molded or stretched as 

needed. Within such a concept of “rubber time,” deadlines and 

appointments become more 

fluid. Accordingly, business 

meetings commonly do not start 

on time and often run late

(Photo: Central Kuala Lumpur). 

Second, Malaysians prefer to 

build personal relationships and 

establish trust before conducting business. Consequently, 

Malaysians tend to make business decisions slowly, after 

multiple meetings and lengthy discussions. Of note, Malaysians 

prioritize trust relationships over written contracts and 

commonly renegotiate even final agreements. 

Third, Malaysians conduct themselves in business settings in a 

manner that communicates respect and “saves face” (see p. 2

of Language and Communication), a process that can be timeconsuming. For example, Malaysians avoid direct, 

confrontational behavior, valuing instead tact and harmony in 

interactions. It is considered rude to directly criticize or confront 

a colleague in a public forum. The appropriate approach is to

provide constructive feedback in a private setting. 

Personal Space

As is common in many societies, personal space in Malaysia 

depends on the nature of the relationship. With strangers, the 

distance tends to be about an arm’s length, while with family 

and friends, it is much closer. In general, Malaysians typically

stand closer together when conversing than Americans. 

Touch

Close friends and family members commonly touch one 

another while speaking. Similarly, friends of the same gender

may hold hands in public, indicating their deep platonic 

friendship. Malaysian men are especially affectionate with each 

other, often draping their arms over a friend’s shoulder,

slapping each other on the back, and linking arms.

SPACE

TIME &
Of note, Malaysians consider displays of affection between 

people of the opposite sex inappropriate. Foreign nationals 

should avoid physical contact with members of the opposite 

sex, especially in rural areas where traditional values remain 

prominent. Likewise, Malaysians do not touch or kiss children 

other than their own. Malaysians consider the head sacred, 

and avoid touching or passing an object over someone’s head.

Eye Contact

Malaysians consider direct and frequent eye contact as 

intrusive and rude in some contexts. They typically maintain 

only intermittent eye contact when conversing with strangers, 

members of the opposite sex, and people of higher status. 

Nevertheless, it is common for friends and family to maintain 

direct eye contact when conversing.

Photographs

Although most Malaysians do not mind being photographed, 

foreign nationals should always acquire a Malaysian’s

permission before taking his picture. While photography is 

usually permitted on the grounds of religious buildings, it may 

be prohibited inside, especially during times of worship. 

Driving

Malaysian drivers

tend to speed, 

tailgate, and 

ignore other traffic 

laws. Despite 

government road 

safety advocacy 

programs, traffic 

accidents have 

been on the rise in 

recent years. In 

2011, Malaysia 

had the world’s 20th worst traffic-related death rate, with 24 

fatalities per 100,000 people. Although Malaysia’s wellmaintained highways and toll expressways remain relatively

uncongested, traffic is a major problem in cities, especially in

Kuala Lumpur. Unlike Americans, Malaysians drive on the left

side of the road (Photo: The small town of Kuala Sungai Baru).

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

Malaysia’s artistic and recreational traditions reflect the diverse 

cultural and religious influences of its multiethnic population

(see p. 1 of Religion and Spirituality and p. 12 of Political and 

Social Relations). While each ethnic group takes pride in its 

own traditional art forms, contemporary art tend to model 

external practices particularly from the West.

Dress and Appearance

Traditional: Malay men’s traditional 

clothing consists of a baju melayu

(pictured), a long-sleeved tunic with 

pants (seluar) topped with a sampin

(short sarong, or wrap-around skirt). 

Men often pair this outfit with a rimless, 

velvet cap (songkok), especially when 

attending Islamic religious services.

Prior to the 20th century, many Malay 

women wore a kemban, a simple sarong

tied above the chest. Over the last century, Malay women’s

clothing choices expanded to include the sarung kebaya, a 2-

piece outfit consisting of a form-fitting long-sleeved blouse 

(baju kebaya) over a silk or batik (dyed cloth) skirt. A looser

alternative is the baju kurung, consisting of a loose tunic 

(baju) worn with a long sarong. 

Historically, some Malay women covered their heads and 

shoulders with a selendang, a loose-fitting lace shawl. In 

response to an Islamic resurgence over the last decades (see 

p. 7 of Religion and Spirituality), most Malay women have 

adopted the tudung, or headscarf. It is designed to cover all 

the hair, neck, and ears but leaves the face exposed, and its 

color coordinates with the rest of the outfit.

Malaysian women of Chinese descent often wear a traditional 

cheongsam (long silk dress with a raised collar) or a sam foo

(floral blouse with matching pants). Malaysian women of Indian 

descent often wear a sari, (a colorful length of fabric wrapped 

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
around the body and draped over the left shoulder), with a 

matching choli (blouse). Other Indian women prefer a salwar 

kameez, a long tunic worn over pants with a matching shawl.

On special occasions, Indian men may wear a kurta, a long, 

knee-length shirt made of cotton or linen paired with pants.

Modern: Malaysians in rural areas commonly wear traditional 

clothing on a daily basis (Photo: Malay men in a small village 

play soccer in T-shirts and sarongs). In urban areas, they wear 

Western-style clothing often paired with traditional styles. 

Generally, Malaysians’ clothing is neat and conservative; shirts 

have sleeves and skirts 

and pants fall at least to 

the knee. At work, men 

often wear Western-style 

business suits or collared 

shirts and trousers, while

women wear dresses, 

blouses, and skirts. 

Children wear uniforms to 

school. When they reach 

puberty, most Malay girls begin to wear the tudung. 

Sports and Games

Traditional Sports: Sepak (rattan ball) is played by tossing a 

ball between players in a circle (bulatan) or over a net (jaring) 

without using hands. Silat is a popular martial art and part of 

the Southeast Asian Games. In wau (kite flying) competitions, 

so-called kite fighters attempt to cut an opponent's strings by 

coating their own lines with glue and powdered glass.

Football: Introduced by the British, football (soccer) is very 

popular in Malaysia. Many people play the sport in clubs and 

leagues and also enjoy watching the Malaysia Cup, organized 

in 1921 and one of Asia’s oldest football tournaments.

Other Sports: Other popular sports include badminton, golf, 

swimming, inline skating, basketball, and cycling. Many 

Malaysians follow motor racing. Since 1999, the Sepang 

International Circuit in Kuala Lumpur hosts the annual Petronas 

Formula 1 Malaysia Grand Prix. 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Games: Malaysians enjoy traditional games such as congkak, 

similar to chess, and mahjong, a game akin to gin rummy but 

uses tiles instead of cards. Girls typically play 5-stone, a game 

like jacks with "stones" made of small cloth sacks. Boys enjoy

chaptek, a hacky sack-like game with a ball made of rubber 

and feathers. Children and adults alike enjoy gasing, top 

spinning. Using tops that weigh up to 10 lbs, players compete 

to knock down or out spin their opponents’ tops.

Music

Traditional: Malay music traditionally centered on percussion 

instruments including drums, gongs, and cymbals, originally 

used for practical purposes such as transmitting messages 

between villages. Malay royal courts commissioned gamelan

orchestras, composed of gongs and stringed instruments, to 

entertain nobility. Keroncon (village bands) played hand 

drums, flutes, and harmonicas. 

Modern: Today, Malaysians’ music preferences typically divide 

along ethnic lines: Malays enjoy Malay pop, Chinese prefer 

Indonesian and Chinese groups, while Indians listen to Sri 

Lankan and Indian music. Some Malaysian artists like Sheila 

Majid and Sudirman look to Western rock and pop for 

inspiration. Internationally acclaimed musician Siti Nurhaliza, 

known as the “Voice of Asia,” combines traditional and pop 

music. Gerard Singh became the first Malaysian to make the 

US Billboard Top 40 with his 2014 single Crazy.

Dance and Theater

Dance and drama were often linked in traditional Malay culture. 

Some dances were performed to heal the sick. Others told 

stories, such as asyik, a seated dance in which women act as

court maidens grooming 

themselves. Mak yong, a 

form of dance theater, was

originally a spiritual ritual 

performed at Malay royal 

courts (Photo: Malay 

dancers perform for US 

Navy personnel).

Today, dance is a popular 

form of entertainment at weddings, festivals, and other special 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
occasions. Thought to derive from a dance introduced by the 

Portuguese (see p. 4 of History and Myth), the upbeat joget

often includes audience participation. Another dance, the

zapin, came from the Arab-Persian world in the 15th century 

and involves pairs of dancers performing fast, synchronized 

steps. 

Malaysians of Chinese descent also perform various traditional 

Chinese dances, such as the lion and dragon dances featured

at Chinese New Year parades. Also common is Chinese street 

opera, a combination of song, dance, and acrobatics. Indian 

classical dance is prevalent across Malaysia, where many 

dance studios engage teachers from India to preserve the 

ancient traditions.

Wayang kulit: Traditional shadow puppetry (pictured) features

2 dimensional puppets made from cow or buffalo hide. A

puppeteer manipulates the puppets before a lighted screen so 

that only their silhouettes appear. Meanwhile, the puppeteer 

sings and narrates, often 

adapting stories from the Hindu 

epic Ramayana or from Malay 

and Javanese tales of warriors, 

royalty, animals, giants, and 

spirits.

Literature

Malays enjoy a rich tradition of

poetry and prose passed down

orally by penglipur lara (storytellers). These works included 

myths which taught moral lessons or promoted certain values 

(see p. 12 of History and Myth). Poetry often took the form of

pantun, 4-line humorous or moral poems, and syair, narrative 

poems. Well-known Malay tales relate the adventures of Sang 

Kancil, a clever mousedeer (small deer) whose stories are still 

told in modern Malaysian literature and television. 

Following the introduction of Islam, Malays adopted the Arabic 

script (see p. 1 of Language and Communication). Early texts 

include Hikayat, the adventures of Malay leaders, and 

manuscripts conveying Islamic principles and values. The 

influential Hikayat Sejarah Melayu (The Malay Annals) is part 

fiction yet also includes the only recorded history of the 15thAESTHETICS & RECREATION
century Malacca Sultanate (see p 3 of History and Myth). 

Others important texts include Hikayat Hang Tuah, the story of 

a 15th-century Malay warrior, and Hikayat Seri Rama, the 

Malay adaptation of Ramayana.

Known as the father of modern Malay literature, Munshi 

Abdullah was the first Malay to break from traditional literary 

styles to write on social issues. Other modern Malaysian

writers, including Malaysians of Chinese and Indian descent, 

focus on themes of nationalism, war, and the struggle for 

independence. Several contemporary authors have received 

international recognition and awards.

Arts and Crafts

Malaysia has a rich tradition of arts and crafts, many of which

were first created as practical tools, clothing, or weapons. 

While some artisans still follow traditional production methods, 

their number is decreasing. Many young Malaysian artists 

prefer modern styles and techniques such as installation, 

performance, and digital art. The government promotes the arts 

by funding apprenticeship programs.

Textiles: Malaysia’s indigenous groups produce a variety of 

textiles. For example, the Iban of East Malaysia make pua 

kumbu, large blankets woven with dyed thread. The 

government promotes the production of batik fabric, a

component of traditional clothing and important part of 

Malaysia’s cultural heritage. To make batik, 

artisans apply wax to cloth, then paint or dip 

the cloth in dye. Artisans then remove the 

wax, revealing intricate designs. 

Metalwork: Malaysia is renowned for its high

quality pewter. The Royal Selangor Company, 

founded in 1885 by Chinese immigrant Yong 

Koon, still produces dishware, décor, and 

modern items like flash drives and key chains. 

Once considered a mystical weapon with 

magical properties, the kris or keris (dagger, pictured) is a 

traditional Malay weapon of self-defense and well-known 

symbol of Malay culture. With blades 12-15 inches long, a keris 

includes 60 layers of steel and iron.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Sustenance Overview

Frequently described as a national obsession, food is such an 

important part of daily life that Malaysians often greet each 

other with the phrase Sudah makan? (“Have you eaten?”). 

Malaysia’s cuisine is extensive and varied, incorporating flavors 

and traditions from Southeast Asia, China, India, the Middle 

East, and Europe (Photo: Nasi 

lemak, rice cooked with 

coconut milk, served with 

chicken, cucumbers, and egg.)

Dining Customs

Most Malaysians augment 3 

daily meals with several 

snacks. To begin a meal, the

host typically says "silakan

makan" ("please eat"). Many Malays and Indians eat with their

right hand, using their fingers and thumb to scoop food into 

their mouths. They clean their fingers as needed before and 

during the meal in a small water bowl (ketor). Of note, because 

they consider the left hand unclean, most Malaysians do not 

use it to eat. Some Malaysians prefer utensils, using a fork in 

the left hand to push food onto a spoon in the right, from which 

they eat. Malaysians rarely use knives since food is cut prior to 

being served. Chinese may eat with chopsticks or spoons.

Diet

Historically, indigenous people (see p. 12 of Political and Social 

Relations) ate sago (a palm leaf starch), wild ferns, fish, 

venison, or other game. Today, rice (nasi), Indian flatbread

(roti), and noodles are the most common staples. Malaysians 

prepare rice in many different ways, including fried, steamed, 

sticky, boiled into a porridge (bubur), or prepared with coconut 

milk (nasi lemak). Indians typically use roti to scoop curries 

and other sauces. Chinese prepare many noodle (mee) and 

rice dishes. Malaysian cuisine commonly includes chilies (such 

as sambal chili paste), turmeric, coriander, coconut, and cumin

as flavor enhancers. Other spices include lime, galangal, 

ginger, shallots, garlic, and belanchan (dried shrimp paste).

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Malaysians enjoy several different native tropical fruits 

including guava, papaya, banana, pineapple mangosteen (a 

small purple fruit with a white, edible interior), and spinecovered rambutan (another small fruit with a white, edible 

interior). Although the durian (pictured), known as the “king of 

fruits,” is popular among some Malaysians, most public 

transport systems ban it due to 

its pungent odor. 

Some members of Malaysia’s 

ethnic groups adhere to certain 

dietary restrictions. Observant 

Muslims (see p. 6-7 of Religion 

and Spirituality) consume neither 

pork nor alcohol. In addition, they 

follow particular rules of animal slaughter and meat preparation 

to ensure that food is halal, allowed by Islamic law. While 

many Hindu Malaysians (see p. 8 of Religion and Spirituality) 

do not eat beef, they consume chicken, mutton, and seafood. 

Other Hindus are vegetarians who acquire their protein through 

beans, soy, and dairy products.

Meals and Popular Dishes

Malays often consume nasi lemak for breakfast, pairing it with 

dried anchovies, belanchan, boiled egg, and roasted peanuts. 

Noodles or English-style toast and eggs are also common

breakfast foods. Lunch is often a simple dish based on noodles 

or rice. Dinner, usually the largest meal of the day, often 

involves curries or fried foods along with rice or noodles. 

Nyonya Food

Nyonya food refers to the cuisine of the Peranakan, 

descendants of Chinese who intermarried with Malays 

(see p. 12 of Political and Social Relations). Blending 

Chinese and Malay ingredients, the cuisine is most 

prevalent in Penang and Melaka. Dishes include asam

laksa, a thick and spicy fish and noodle soup, and the 

common snack kueh pie ti, thinly-sliced vegetables 

and prawns served in bite-sized deep-fried pastry cups. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Popular entrées include satay, grilled skewered chicken or

beef served with peanut sauce; rendang, beef or chicken

simmered in spices, chilies, and coconut milk; and masak 

lemak, a coconut-based dish with turmeric, lemongrass, and 

chilies. Chinese-inspired dishes reflect a variety of Chinese 

regions. For example, Hainanese chicken and rice is served 

with chili peppers, garlic, 

soy sauce, cucumbers, and 

tomatoes. Hai mee

consists of noodles served 

with prawns, fish cake, and 

bean sprouts.

Common Indian-inspired 

meals include roti sprinkled 

with sugar for breakfast;

mee rebus, yellow noodles 

with bean sprouts, sweet potato gravy, and a boiled egg for 

lunch; and kon lo mee, noodles with soy sauce and roasted 

pork for dinner (Photo: Beef rendang). 

Beverages

Malaysians typically drink water or other beverages after 

meals. While not offered at Muslim-owned establishments, 

alcohol is available in most urban areas. Local beers like 

Anchor and Tiger as well as Western, Thai, and Chinese 

brands are popular. Some Malaysians enjoy a rice-based 

alcoholic drink called tuak from East Malaysia. They also enjoy 

fresh squeezed juices like watermelon, carrot, lychee, or sugar 

cane juice. Indian restaurants specialize in teh tarik, a frothy 

tea created by “pulling,” or pouring the drink multiple times. 

Malaysians often drink kopi or coffee made from beans 

roasted with sugar. In addition to soft drinks, Malaysians also 

drink sweetened soya milk and chin chow, a seaweed 

beverage. 

Eating Out

Eating out is part of everyday life for many Malaysians. When 

at a sit-down restaurant (restoran), the host typically orders 

and pays for all guests. Of note, restaurants commonly add a

5% service charge and a 10% government fee to all meals; 

additional tips are not required or expected.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Urban street food vendors called hawker stalls are popular. 

Some hawkers specialize in one dish, such as rojak, a fruit and 

vegetable salad, or skewered meat in satay sauce. Chinesestyle cze char offer a variety of entrees such as meatballs, 

spring rolls, or fried noodles. Other stalls feature unique dishes 

like roti john, a sort of omelet sandwich made with eggs, toast, 

spicy meats, onions, and tomato sauce. 

Other casual eateries include kedai kopi, coffee shops which 

serve small dishes like eggs and toast with kaya (coconut jam), 

and pasar (open air markets). Some Malaysians enjoy local 

versions of Western-style fast food such as cheeseburgers with

rendang sauce.

Health Overview

The Malaysian population’s

health has improved significantly

over the last decades. From 59 

years in 1960, life expectancy at 

birth is now 74 years – higher 

than the regional average of 67 

and the global average of 70. 

Maternal and child mortality

rates are lower than regional averages, and clean water and 

sanitation facilities are readily available. Due to their 

marginalization, Malaysia’s indigenous groups (see p. 12-13 of 

Political and Social Relations) have a much lower life 

expectancy, carry a higher disease burden, and have reduced

access to healthcare (Photo: Malaysian hospital).

Traditional Medicine

Traditional medicine consists of the knowledge, practices, and 

skills that are derived from a native population’s beliefs, 

experiences, and theories. The Malaysian government officially 

recognizes and defines a variety of types of traditional 

medicine as Traditional and Complementary Medicine (TC&M). 

Acknowledging TC&M’s role in healthcare, the government 

formulates policies and guidelines regarding TC&M’s use and 

develops education and training standards. TC&M units 

operate within “integrated” hospitals across the country. A 2009 

study found that almost 68% of Malaysians use TC&M 

sometime during their lives.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
The government divides TC&M into several major types 

including Islamic Medical Practice (IMP), Traditional Malay 

Medicine (TMM), Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), and 

Traditional Indian Medicine (TIM). Used for the treatment of 

physical and spiritual ailments, IMP or ruqyah includes 

treatment methods based in Qur’anic prayer and recitation (see 

p. 3-6 of Religion and Spirituality). 

By contrast, practitioners use TMM, TCM, and TIM for both 

therapeutic and wellness purposes. TMM includes herbal 

medicines, Malay massage, indigenous massage, and bekam

or cupping – the practice of applying suction cups on the skin 

to regulate blood flow. While TCM includes herbal medicines 

and cupping, it also incorporates acupuncture (the process of 

inserting very thin needles into a patient’s skin) and 

moxibustion (a process in which a practitioner burns or 

massages herbs into acupuncture points). 

TIM incorporates 3 approaches. Ayurveda aims to balance 

mind, body, and consciousness through proper diet, lifestyle, 

and herbal remedies. Siddha uses herbal, mineral, and animalbased formulas to treat disease and unify body, mind, and 

spirit. Unani focuses on treatments based on herbal remedies. 

Modern Healthcare System

Following independence in 1957, Malaysia moved to create a 

high quality, universal healthcare

system that is now one of the best

in the region. Healthcare providers 

serve the majority of the 

population through good facilities, 

mobile medical and dental clinics, 

and education programs in both 

rural and urban areas. In addition, 

current and retired civil servants 

and Malaysians in rural areas

receive free primary healthcare. 

While of the highest quality, 

private healthcare is generally unaffordable for most 

Malaysians. In 2013, Malaysia had 349 hospitals, 7,700 clinics 

with physicians, and 2,009 community clinics (Photo: Nurse at 

the National Heart Institute of Malaysia).

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Health Challenges

Despites these advances, many challenges remain. While all 

medical school graduates work at least 3 years in public health 

facilities, most doctors eventually transition to the private 

sector, leaving public facilities 

understaffed. Rural areas often 

lack adequate facilities or offer 

lower quality care (Photo: A US 

Navy dentist treats a Malaysian 

patient).

Obesity: Malaysia has perhaps the 

highest rates of child and adult

obesity in Asia. Although over 45%

of Malaysian adults rated as 

overweight or obese as of 2013, 

this rate is still below the US rate of

69%. Increased obesity has 

resulted in increased rates of 

associated diseases as well as weight-related disabilities.

As is common in developing countries, the rate of 

noncommunicable diseases, such as cardiovascular and 

chronic respiratory diseases, cancer, and diabetes has risen, 

now accounting for over 70% of deaths. While no longer a 

leading cause of illness or death, malaria is still a national 

concern, with over 4,000 cases and 14 deaths in 2013. 

HIV/AIDS: Malaysia’s focus on prevention, detection, and 

treatment of HIV/AIDS has resulted in a 50% drop of HIV cases 

in the last decade. Nearly 86,000 Malaysians have HIV, a 

relatively low prevalence rate of 0.4% of the population. 

Although most infections occur in males, female infection rates 

have increased in recent decades.

Medical Tourism

Malaysia’s world-class healthcare and affordable 

accommodations have attracted many medical tourists from 

abroad. They travel to Malaysia solely seeking healthcare such 

as cardiac procedures, dentistry, general surgery, orthopedics, 

and plastic surgery. With government support, medical tourism 

has doubled since 2010, with over 770,000 patients in 2014.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Overview

Prior to independence in 1957, 

Malaysia’s economy was 

primarily based on the export of 

rubber and tin. By the 1980s, 

the country had diversified, 

forging an industrialized exportoriented economy. Supported 

by foreign investment from 

Japan and the US, the industrial sector continued to 

experience substantial growth through the 1990s. Today, 

Malaysia specializes in the production of electronics and

agricultural commodities for export (Photo: A rubber tree farm). 

This dependence on export and foreign investment left 

Malaysia vulnerable when the 1997 East Asian currency crisis

hit, disrupting a decade of a steady 10% growth. A combination 

of government stimulus packages, low inflation, and low 

external debt reversed economic stagnation by 2002. 

In 2010, Malaysia launched the $444 billion Economic

Transformation Program (ETP) as a catalyst to accelerate the 

country’s growth by investing in 12 key economic sectors.

These include high technology industries, oil, gas, and energy, 

service industries, and biotechnology, among others. With 

these investments, the ETP aims to create 3.3 million new jobs 

and lift the country from upper-middle to high-income status by 

2020. 

By 2012, Malaysia’s economy was growing steadily with $59 

billion invested in ETP industries and over 400,000 newly 

created jobs. Today, Malaysia has a thriving multi-sector 

economy that is the world’s 30th and Southeast Asia’s 3rd

largest behind Thailand and Indonesia. Notably, Malaysia is 

Southeast Asia’s 2nd largest petroleum and natural gas 

producer and the world’s 2nd largest exporter of liquefied 

natural gas (see p. 2 of Technology and Material). Malaysia’s

1.7% poverty rate is remarkably low compared to Thailand’s 

rate of 13.2% and Indonesia’s 11.3%. 

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Ethnicity and the Economy

In an effort to decrease income disparities among Malaysia’s 

ethnic groups (see p. 10 of History and Myth and p. 13 of 

Political and Social Relations), the government introduced a 

socioeconomic affirmative action plan, the New Economic 

Policy (NEP), in 1971. The NEP reserved certain privileges for

Malays and certain indigenous groups that the government 

officially recognized as bumiputra or “sons of the soil” (see p. 

12 of Political and Social Relations). For example, the NEP

reserved most civil service, police, and army jobs for bumiputra

and favored them in education and economic development 

programs over Chinese and Indian residents. In 2013, the 

government launched a similar program, the Bumiputra 

Economic Empowerment Program (BEEP) that continued 

these policies.

These and other pro-Malay policies have helped reduce 

poverty among Malays and diffused Malay resentment of 

Chinese economic dominance. Nevertheless, these policies

have largely benefitted only politically connected Malays. With 

about 70% of Malaysia’s Indian population classified as poor or 

very poor, income inequality remains a large problem.

Services

Accounting for 48% of GDP and 54% of 

employment, the services sector is the 

largest and fastest-growing component of 

the Malaysian economy. Key services 

industries include telecommunications, 

tourism, financial services, and wholesale 

and retail sales (Photo: Royal guard 

outside the king’s palace in Kuala 

Lumpur).

Tourism: Malaysia’s tourism industry has grown considerably

over the past several decades, with tourist arrivals increasing

from about 7 million in 1990 to 25 million in 2012. That year, 

over half of the arrivals came from Singapore, while visitors 

from Indonesia, China, Thailand, Brunei, and India made up 

the majority of rest. Recognizing tourism’s potential in driving

economic growth, the government allocates substantial ETP 

investment towards this sector.

ECONOMICS &

RESOURCES
Industry

As the 2nd largest component of the economy, the industrial

sector accounts for 40% of GDP and 36% of employment. 

Manufacturing: The backbone of Malaysia’s postindependence economic growth, manufacturing remains the 

most important part of the industrial sector. Malaysian 

companies specialize in the assembly of electrical machinery, 

electronic equipment and appliances, as well as the production 

of chemicals, textiles, steel, and motor vehicles. 

Construction: Spurred by ETP investment, the construction 

industry has experienced average annual growth of 11% per 

year since 2010. Sustained by high levels of state and private 

sector investment, construction will likely continue to grow 

through both commercial sector development and large public 

infrastructure projects, including highways and railroads.

Agriculture

The agricultural sector includes farming, livestock, fishing, and 

forestry and is the smallest component of Malaysia’s economy, 

accounting for 11% of GDP and about 11% of employment. 

Most agricultural activity occurs on small farms. 

Farming: About 24% of 

Malaysia’s territory is dedicated 

to cultivation. Production of the 

main food crop, rice, has 

declined since the 1950s. 

Malaysia makes up the shortfall 

with imports, mostly from 

Thailand. Important cash crops 

include palm oil, rubber, cocoa, 

tea, coffee, and coconuts (Photo: A rice field in north Malaysia). 

Fishing: Restricted to accessible but shallow coastal waters, 

Malaysia’s fishing industry historically was unproductive for the 

most part. In the 1970s, heavy investment into mechanized 

boats and trawlers allowed the industry to expand into deeper, 

more abundant offshore waters. 

Forestry: Decades of commercial logging in Malaysia’s

extensive forests has resulted in deforestation (see p. 3 of 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Political and Social Relations). Today, most timber production 

occurs in the East Malaysian states of Sarawak and Sabah and 

includes rubberwood, acacia, teak, and sentang.

Currency

Malaysia’s currency is the Malaysian ringgit (RM), issued in 7 

banknote values (1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100) and 5 coin values (1, 

5, 10, 20, 50). Although exchange rates vary, $1 has been 

worth on average of about RM3.3 over the past 5 years. 

Malaysians typically use cash for everyday purchases, 

although large businesses

accept credit cards. Malaysians 

sometimes colloquially refer to 

the ringgit as “dollars.”

Foreign Trade

In 2012 Malaysia’s exports 

totaled $231 billion and imports 

$193 billion. Exports included 

semiconductors, electronic equipment, palm oil, petroleum, 

natural gas, wood products, rubber, textiles, chemicals, and 

solar panels. The largest buyers included Singapore (14%), 

China (13%), Japan (12%), the US (9%), Thailand (5%), Hong 

Kong (4%), India (4%), and Australia (4%). Malaysia’s top 

imports included electronics, machinery, petroleum products, 

plastics, cars, iron and steel products, and chemicals. These 

items are purchased from China (15%), Singapore (13%), 

Japan (10%), the US (8%), Thailand (6%), Indonesia (5%), and 

South Korea (4%) (Photo: Stock exchange in Kuala Lumpur).

ASEAN Economic Community (AEC)

With the European Union as a model, the AEC will unite the 10 

member nations under a single market by late 2015, permitting

goods, services, capital, and labor to move freely within it. 

Foreign Aid

Japan is the primary supplier of financial aid to Malaysia. The 

US, UK, and Australia also provide financial support for public 

administration, agriculture, telecommunications, banking,

poverty alleviation, and English language programs. With $3 

million in support in 2014, the US will provide $2.3 million in 

2015, mostly for military support, counterterrorism, law 

enforcement, and disaster relief.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

Malaysia has a well-developed physical infrastructure, 

including an extensive network of well-maintained roads. In 

addition, Malaysians enjoy widespread mobile phone service,

although reliable Internet connectivity is limited to urban areas. 

The government censors all media and strictly regulates

Internet content.

Transportation

Malaysia has a comprehensive 

and efficient public transit 

system. In and around Kuala 

Lumpur, for example, travelers

using rechargeable “MyRapid” 

or “Touch-n-Go” cards have 

the option of traveling by bus, 

4 separate rail systems, and an air-conditioned monorail

(Photo: Monorail in Melaka).

Buses are a common means of transit between cities and to 

certain foreign destinations, including Singapore and Thailand.

Although rural bus routes are poorly marked, most small towns 

enjoy frequent service. Of note, operators often drive 

aggressively and occasionally use stimulants, resulting in 

frequent accidents. To reduce the accident rate, Malaysia’s 

Transport Ministry implemented new safety measures, 

including drug screenings, in 2014. Taxis are also widely 

available and can be engaged for long distance trips. Taxi 

drivers do not usually expect tips.

Ferries provide access to Malaysia’s islands and ports in 

neighboring countries, including Brunei, Indonesia, Thailand, 

Philippines, and Singapore. Of note, some ferry services are 

notorious for their disregard of safety regulations, such as 

operating when overloaded or using badly-maintained boats. 

Roadways: Malaysia had about 90,000 mi of roadways in 

2010, 80% of which were paved. Because Malaysia invests 

heavily in road infrastructure, many roads are in excellent 

condition. The country’s main throughway is the 6-lane North12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
South Highway (Lebuhraya), which stretches from the Thai 

border in the North to Singapore in the South. 

Railways: Although slower, railways provide an inexpensive

but limited alternative to buses. In Peninsula Malaysia, the

Keretapi Tanah Melayu (KTM) – Malaysia’s privatized national 

railway system – reaches as far south as Singapore then 

extends via 2 branches to the North. The northwest branch 

extends into Thailand via Kuala Lumpur, while the northeast 

branch runs up the east coast through the jungle. 

Ports and Waterways: Peninsular Malaysia’s major ports are 

Port Klang (serving Kuala Lumpur), Penang Langkawi, Johor, 

and Kuantan. East Malaysia’s largest port is Kota Kinabalu.

Malaysia has about 4,500 mi of inland waterways navigable by 

small boats. Boats and ferries operate along the rivers of 

Sabah and Sarawak in East Malaysia. 

Airways: Malaysia has 114

airports and airstrips, of which 

39 have paved runways. The

primary transit hub is the Kuala 

Lumpur International Airport. 

Also located just outside Kuala 

Lumpur, Lapangan Terbang 

Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport 

provides domestic flights. There are 14 other major airports 

located in Sabah, Sarawak, and the Federal Territory of 

Labuan in East Malaysia. Malaysia’s national carrier is 

Malaysia Airlines. AirAsia services regional and domestic 

routes (Photo: A Malaysia Airlines Boeing 747).

Energy

Malaysia is the world’s 31st largest energy producer and 30th 

largest consumer. It generates about 92% of its energy from 

fossil fuels and the remainder in hydroelectric plants.

Malaysia’s energy sector is vital to the economy, accounting for 

almost 20% of the country’s GDP in 2013. Same year, 

Malaysia was Southeast Asia’s 2nd largest oil and natural gas 

producer after Vietnam, and the world’s 2nd largest exporter of 

liquefied natural gas after Qatar. To reduce its domestic 

dependence on oil and natural gas, Malaysia is investing in 

alternative fuel sources and also increasing coal imports.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Media

Although the constitution provides for freedom of speech and 

press, the Malaysian government generally restricts free

expression, often coercing journalists into practicing selfcensorship. In addition, the government strictly controls all 

media, regularly censoring content it deems morally 

inappropriate or harmful to national security. In addition, it sets 

other press and free speech restrictions, such as banning 

books, denying printing permits, barring journalists from events, 

and limiting the circulation of certain publications. Despite 

these restrictions, more than 30 newspapers regularly publish

in Malay, English, Chinese, and Tamil. The most widely-read

publications include BH (Malay), Utusan Malaysia (Malay), 

New Straits Times (English), The Star (English), and Sin Chew 

Daily (Chinese). 

Radio and TV: Both Malaysia’s largest broadcaster, the stateowned Radio Television Malaysia (RTM), as well as private TV 

and radio broadcasters offer programs in Malay, Tamil, 

Chinese, and English.

Telecommunications

While Malaysia’s telecommunications 

infrastructure is well established in 

urban centers, telecommunications in 

some rural areas, particularly in East 

Malaysia, remain less developed. 

Most of the country has access to 

mobile phone networks. Notably, 

Malaysia has 42 million mobile phone 

subscriptions for 30 million people 

(Photo: Kuala Lumpur’s Petronas Twin Towers).

Internet: About 66% of Malaysians are regular Internet users. 

Broadband (wired) Internet is available in most cities, although 

some rural areas, particularly in East Malaysia, have yet to gain 

access. Users access the Internet using mobile phones, cyber 

cafes, home computers, and at workplaces. The government 

largely supports a policy of free and open access to the 

Internet. Nevertheless, a government commission monitors the 

Internet for content deemed offensive and occasionally blocks 

access to certain sites.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL

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