Pacific Island Network Vital Signs Monitoring Plan

Natural Resource Report NPS/PACN/NRR—2006/003

National Park Service

U.S. Department of the Interior

Natural Resource Program Center
ON THE COVER

Clockwise from top left:

Tutuila Island, National Park of American Samoa

Iiwi (Vestiaria coccinea) at Hawaii Volcanoes National Park 

Anemones (Heteractis sp. and Entacmaea quadricolor) and dusky anemone fish (Amphiprion melanopus) at War in the Pacific National Historical Park

Map of the 11 national parks in the Pacific Island Network

Mariana eight spot butterfly (Hypolymnus octucula mariannensis) at American Memorial Park

All photographs in this document are part of the NPS Collection unless otherwise noted.
Pacific Island Network Vital Signs 

Monitoring Plan

Natural Resource Report NPS/PACN/NRR—2006/003

Leslie HaySmith, Fritz L. Klasner, Sonia H. Stephens, and Gordon H. Dicus

Pacific Island Network

Inventory and Monitoring

P.O. Box 52

Hawaii National Park, HI 96718

With contributions from:

Gail Ackerman, Raychelle Daniel, Kimber DeVerse, Page Else, Heather Fraser, Tahzay 

Jones, Kelly Kozar, Cory Nash, Karin Schlappa, Allison Snyder, and Joan Yoshioka.

September 2006

U.S. Department of the Interior

National Park Service

Natural Resources Program Center

Fort Collins, Colorado
The Natural Resource Publication series addresses natural resource topics that are of 

interest and applicability to a broad readership in the National Park Service and to 

others in the management of natural resources, including the scientific community, the 

public, and the NPS conservation and environmental constituencies. Manuscripts are 

peer-reviewed to ensure that the information is scientifically credible, technically accurate, appropriately written for the intended audience, and is designed and published in 

a professional manner.

Natural Resource Reports are the designated medium for disseminating high priority, 

current natural resource management information with managerial application. The 

series targets a general, diverse audience, and may contain NPS policy considerations or 

address sensitive issues of management applicability. Examples of the diverse array of 

reports published in this series include vital signs monitoring plans; “how to” resource 

management papers; proceedings of resource management workshops or conferences; 

annual reports of resource programs or divisions of the Natural Resource Program Center; resource action plans; fact sheets; and regularly-published newsletters.

Views and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily 

reflect policies of the National Park Service. Mention of trade names or commercial 

products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use by the National 

Park Service.

Printed copies of reports in these series may be produced in a limited quantity and 

they are only available as long as the supply lasts. This report is also available from the 

Pacific Island I&M Network website (http://www.nature.nps.gov/im/units/PACN) on the 

internet, or by sending a request to the Pacific Island Network, Inventory and Monitoring, P.O. Box 52, Hawaii National Park, HI 96718.

This report was prepared in part under Task Agreement CA 8012-AO-001 of the Pacific 

Cooperative Studies Unit (CA8000-AO-001, University of Hawaii) and Task Agreements 

J808004032 and J808005039 of the Hawaii-Pacific Islands Cooperative Ecosystem 

Studies Unit (H8080050012, University of Hawaii). 

Please cite this publication as:

HaySmith, L., F. L. Klasner, S. H. Stephens, and G. H. Dicus. 2005. Pacific Island Network vital signs monitoring plan. Natural Resource Report NPS/PACN/NRR—2006/003. 

National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

NPS D-2, September 2006
iii

Douglas Lentz, Liaison of Pacific Island Network Board of Directors

Penelope Latham, Inventory and Monitoring Coordinator, 

Pacific West Region

Steven Fancy, National Monitoring Program Leader, 

NPS Natural Resource Program Center

Approval Signatures:

Leslie HaySmith, Inventory and Monitoring Network Coordinator, 

Pacific Island Network
iv


Contents

Executive Summary ........................................................................................................xiii

The Pacific Island Network ......................................................................................xiii

Vital Signs...............................................................................................................xiv

Program Implementation ........................................................................................xiv

Integration With Management ...............................................................................xvi

Acknowledgements......................................................................................................xvii

Chapter 1. Introduction and Background .........................................................................1

Goals of Vital Signs Monitoring.................................................................................2

Parks of the Pacific Island Network............................................................................2

Designing an Integrated Monitoring Program for the PACN ......................................3

Legislation, Policy, and Guidance for Natural Resource Monitoring............................5

Strategic Planning and Performance Management....................................................7

Overview of the Pacific Island Network .....................................................................8

Development of the Pacific Island Network .............................................................20

Summary ................................................................................................................28

Chapter 2. Conceptual Models ......................................................................................29

PACN Holistic Model ..............................................................................................29

Pacific Island Systems..............................................................................................30

Interactions of Pacific Island Ecosystems..................................................................32

Pacific Island Agents of Change..............................................................................33

The Watershed as a Key Geographic Unit................................................................38

Summary ................................................................................................................39

Chapter 3. Vital Signs ....................................................................................................41

Identifying Potential Vital Signs ..............................................................................41

Vital Signs Selection................................................................................................42

The Relationship of PACN Vital Signs to Cultural Resources.....................................44

The Relationship of Vital Signs to PACN Conceptual Models ...................................46

Integration of Vital Sign Monitoring With Other Park Monitoring Programs ............46

Summary ................................................................................................................51

Chapter 4. Sampling Design...........................................................................................53

Sampling Concepts and Definitions.........................................................................53

Sampling Design Considerations.............................................................................54

Overview of Sampling Approaches..........................................................................58

Summary ................................................................................................................71

Chapter 5. Monitoring Protocols....................................................................................73

Vital Sign Protocol Development Roles....................................................................74

Protocol Summary Information ...............................................................................76

Summary ................................................................................................................84

Chapter 6. Data Management .......................................................................................85

Data Management Goals........................................................................................85

Data Stewardship Roles and Responsibilities............................................................86
vi

Data and Information Workflow .............................................................................88

Infrastructure and System Architecture....................................................................91

Database Design Strategies.....................................................................................91

Acquiring and Processing Data................................................................................92

Ensuring Data Quality .............................................................................................93

Data Documentation ..............................................................................................93

Data Analysis and Reporting ...................................................................................93

Data Dissemination.................................................................................................95

Digital Data Maintenance, Storage, and Archiving ..................................................96

Non-digital Data Archiving and Records Management.............................................97

Water Quality Data .................................................................................................97

Implementation ......................................................................................................98

Summary ................................................................................................................98

Chapter 7. Data Analysis and Reporting.........................................................................99

Analysis of Monitoring Data..................................................................................100

Communicating & Reporting ................................................................................102

Summary ..............................................................................................................116

Chapter 8. Administration and Implementation of the Monitoring Program .................117

PACN Administrative Structure and Function.........................................................117

PACN Staffing Plan ...............................................................................................118

Information Exchange within the Pacific Island Network........................................124

Inventory and Monitoring Partnerships and Program Integration ...........................126

Program Review and Management .......................................................................126

Summary ..............................................................................................................129

Chapter 9. Schedule ....................................................................................................131

Protocol Schedule .................................................................................................131

Monitoring Schedule ............................................................................................131

Other Important Planning Needs...........................................................................136

Summary ..............................................................................................................138

Chapter 10. Budget .....................................................................................................139

Annual Vital Sign Monitoring Budget....................................................................139

Summary ..............................................................................................................141

Chapter 11. Literature Cited .......................................................................................143

Glossary.......................................................................................................................151
vii

Figures

1.1. Natural resources of Haleakala National Park and 

Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park......................................................1

1.2. Stewardship of natural resources in national parks involves the 

interconnected activities of inventories, monitoring, research, 

and resource management...............................................................................2

1.3. Monitoring program goals for the PACN. .........................................................3

1.4. Map of the 11 PACN parks...............................................................................4

1.5. Submerged resources include both cultural and natural resources 

such as the USS Arizona Memorial, and coral reefs...........................................7

1.6. Several climactic vegetation zones exist in close proximity in the 

Hawaiian Islands ............................................................................................12

1.7. Elevation ranges of PACN parks......................................................................12

1.8. Hawaiian monk seal with newborn pup at Kalaupapa National 

Historical Park; mangrove forest at American Memorial Park ..........................13

1.9. PACN program development between 2001 and 2007...................................22

2.1. Relationships between Jenny’s (1941) state factors and ecosystem 

processes, and among state factors, interactive controls, and 

ecosystem processes ......................................................................................30

2.2. Generalized Pacific island ecosystem zonation showing altitudinal 

gradients and windward-leeward distinction ..................................................31

2.3. Riparian area at Puukohola Heiau National Historic Site and Puu Alii bog at 

Kalaupapa National Historical Park .................................................................32

2.4. Key interactions between the atmosphere and marine, freshwater, and 

terrestrial ecosystems.....................................................................................33

2.5. Wave action at Hawaii Volcanoes National Park..............................................33

2.6. Generalized model of anthropogenic stressors for Pacific islands and

ecosystems.....................................................................................................35

2.7. Volcanic activity at Hawaii Volcanoes National Park ........................................35

2.8. Generalized model of non-human stressors for Pacific islands and 

ecosystems.....................................................................................................36

2.9. Effects of typhoon Pongsona at War in the Pacific National Historical Park......38

2.10.Conceptual illustration of Vital Signs important in a watershed, and 

in an ahupuaa................................................................................................39

3.1. A Pacific Island Network Technical Committee meeting, August 2003 ............41

3.2. The Hawaiian petrel will be included under the Seabirds Vital Sign, 

while the Hawaii amakihi will be part of the Landbirds Vital Sign ...................43

3.3. Steps followed in Vital Signs selection. ...........................................................43

3.4. Fishing with traditional enu or fishtrap ...........................................................46

3.5. Modified interactive control model including PACN Vital Signs .......................49

4.1. Field sampling................................................................................................54

4.2. Diagrammatic depiction of sampling concepts................................................54

4.3. Graphical representation of 3 spatial sampling schemes used in 

the PACN monitoring program.......................................................................55

4.4 Marine ecologist collecting benthic marine monitoring data at 

Kaloko- Honokohau National Historical Park...................................................58
viii

4.5. Map of Benthic marine non-revisit random points at Kalaupapa 

National Historical Park (Molokai)...................................................................61

4.6. Map of proposed Landbirds monitoring scheme at National Park of 

American Samoa............................................................................................64

4.7. PACN potential water quality sampling water bodies......................................66

4.8 Frugivorous bat surveys co-visited with Landbirds and Seabirds Vital signs 

monitoring, Tutuila Island, National Park of American Samoa .........................67

4.9 Monitoring of invasive plants is planned in Pacific Island Network Parks such as 

Hawaii Volcanoes National Park......................................................................68

5.1. The three primary sections of monitoring protocols, with their

secondary components ..................................................................................73

5.2. Vital sign conceptual framework illustrating the importance of individual 

components to applicability, reliability, and feasibility for protocols.................74

6.1. Core data management responsibilities for a project leader and the data

manager........................................................................................................86

6.2. Project work flow...........................................................................................89

6.3. Diagram of project data life cycle ...................................................................90

6.4. Schematic representing the layout and connectivity of IT resources.................92

6.5. Schematic of the Quality Assurance/Quality Control procedures to 

be carried out during the project stages associated with the 

typical data life cycle ......................................................................................94

6.6. Data flow diagram for water quality data.......................................................97

7.1. The five steps in the adaptive management cycle ...........................................99

7.2. Data collection, analysis, and reporting of beach profile monitoring at 

American Memorial Park, Saipan....................................................................99

7.3. Transformation of scientific data toward effective communication for 

various audiences.........................................................................................100

7.4 Bat researchers conducting outreach in Fagatele Village, Tutuila Island, National 

Park of American Samoa..............................................................................111

7.5 I&M staff and volunteers with interpretation and outreach display for cultural 

festival at Puukohola Heiau National Historic Site .........................................112

8.1. Proposed PACN organization chart...............................................................119

8.2. Interactions between Pacific Island Network staff, cooperators, and 

national and regional offices ........................................................................125

8.3. Integration of the PACN Vital Signs program into park operations................127

9.1 Traditional community fishing practice (hukilau) demonstrated at a Puuhonua o 

Honaunau National Historical Park cultural festival .......................................138

10.1. Comparison of the projected PACN Vital Sign Monitoring program 

budgets in FY 2007 and FY 2011 .................................................................139

10.2 A portion of the proposed alignment of the 

Ala Kahakai National Historic Trail ................................................................141
ix

Tables

1.1. Summary of legislation and National Park Service policy relevant to the

development and implementation of natural resource monitoring in 

national parks..................................................................................................6

1.2. Summary of land and water spatial characteristics for each park in the

PACN.............................................................................................................10

1.3. Management priorities, natural resources, and primary stressors of PACN

parks..............................................................................................................11

1.4. Mean sea level trends at selected Pacific island stations..................................13

1.5. Numbers of known federally listed threatened, endangered, and 

candidate endangered species found in the USA with the numbers 

found in both PACN parks and in the PACN region.........................................15

1.6. Water quality problems identified in the PACN ...............................................16

1.7. Park waters identified as ecologically distinctive or pristine park resources......19

1.8. Air quality and climate monitoring efforts in or near PACN parks....................20

1.9. PACN timeline for completing the three-phase Inventory and Monitoring 

program planning and design process............................................................21

1.10.Initial PACN network monitoring objectives, organized in the Inventory

and Monitoring program national Vital Signs framework................................24

1.11.Current monitoring by individual parks and other organizations in the

Pacific Island Network ....................................................................................26

2.1. Six dominant ecosystem types located within or immediately 

adjacent to PACN parks..................................................................................32

2.2. Summary of stressors and natural resource management concerns of 

PACN parks....................................................................................................37

3.1. Vital Sign ranking criteria ...............................................................................42

3.2. PACN list of Vital Signs...................................................................................44

3.3. Cultural and natural resource values of PACN Vital Signs................................47

3.4. Vital Sign monitoring across PACN ecosystem types .......................................50

4.1. Two sample revisit designs..............................................................................56

4.2. Summary of potential co-location and co-visitation of monitoring for 

PACN Vital Signs............................................................................................57

4.3. Sampling schemes, sample units, spatial and temporal allocations, and

response variables for PACN Vital Signs..........................................................59

4.4. Sampling frame for collecting data on focal plant communities and 

species within a PACN park ............................................................................62

4.5. Sample units and sampling designs for PACN Vital Signs................................69

5.1. PACN protocol development roles and individuals involved.............................75

5.2. Summary information for PACN Vital Sign monitoring protocols.....................77

6.1. Categories and examples of data products addressed in the PACN Data

Management Plan..........................................................................................87

6.2. Programmatic roles and responsibilities for data stewardship..........................88

6.3. Primary repositories for PACN information and associated specimens .............95

7.1. Four approaches to analyzing monitoring data .............................................101

7.2. Summary of analytical approaches for each PACN Vital Sign protocol...........103
7.3. Schedule for recurrent reporting of PACN monitoring results to 

NPS staff......................................................................................................108

7.4. Summary of anticipated Pacific Island Network reports, grouped by type

and frequency..............................................................................................113

8.1. PACN Board of Directors ..............................................................................117

8.2. PACN Technical Committee ..........................................................................118

8.3. PACN staff and their duties ..........................................................................120

8.4. Additional staffing approaches for accomplishing PACN 

monitoring tasks..........................................................................................124

8.5. Roles of the scientific review panel in the Pacific Island Network monitoring 

programs.....................................................................................................127

8.6. Review process for the PACN monitoring program .......................................128

9.1. Development tasks for phase 1 and phase 2 Vital Signs monitoring

protocols......................................................................................................132

9.2. Phase 1 PACN Vital Sign implementation schedule for 

each park: 2006–2009.................................................................................134

9.3. Schedule of peer review process of phase 1 PACN Vital Signs monitoring

protocols......................................................................................................136

9.4. Frequency and timing of sampling for PACN Vital Signs whose 

development will be initiated in 2006–2007.................................................137

10.1. Proposed network expenditures for the PACN Vital Signs monitoring program 

in the first five years of implementation........................................................140
xi

Appendixes 

A: Park resource overviews

B: Partnership opportunities

C: Current monitoring within and adjacent to the network

D: Endangered, threatened and candidate endangered species

E: Topical working group reports

F: Geographic names

G: Vital Signs selection

H: Conceptual models and ecological overview of Pacific Island Network 

ecosystems

I: Water quality report

J: Laws and policy

K: List of acronyms

L: Protocol development summaries

M: Cultural values of indigenous and other culturally associated groups

N: Protocol implementation schedule

O: Workshop and scoping documents

P: Network charter

Q: Park maps

The latest versions of these appendixes may be found at: 

http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/units/pacn/monitoring/plan.cfm
xii
xiii

Knowing the condition of natural resources in 

national parks is fundamental to the National 

Park Service’s (NPS) ability to manage park 

resources “unimpaired for the enjoyment of 

future generations.” National park managers 

across the country are confronted with increasingly complex and challenging issues. These 

issues require a broad-based understanding 

of the status and trends of park resources as 

a basis for making decisions, and for working with other agencies as well as the public to 

benefit park resources. For years, managers 

and scientists have sought a way to characterize 

and determine trends in the condition of parks 

and other protected areas. The assessment of 

resource trends provides an evaluation of the 

efficacy of management practices and restoration efforts, and provides early warnings of 

impending threats. Since most parks are open 

systems, the challenge of protecting and managing a park’s natural resources requires a multiagency, ecosystem approach. These systems 

face threats such as air and water pollution, or 

invasive species originating outside of the park’s 

boundaries. An ecosystem approach is further 

needed because no single spatial or temporal 

scale is appropriate for all system components 

and processes. The appropriate scale for understanding and effectively managing a resource 

might be at the population, species, community, 

or landscape level. In some cases, acquiring this 

information may require a regional, national, or 

international monitoring effort to understand 

and manage the resource. National parks are 

part of larger ecosystems and must be managed 

in that context.

The Natural Resource Challenge (NRC) was 

launched in 2000 

to revitalize and 

expand the natural 

resource program 

within the NPS. 

The NRC was 

also intended to 

improve park management through 

greater reliance on 

scientific knowledge. 

The Pacific Island Network

National parks have been grouped into 32 

monitoring networks that are linked by geography and shared natural resource characteristics. 

Individual parks within each of the networks 

work together by sharing professional staff 

and funding to plan, design, and implement an 

integrated long-term monitoring program. The 

Pacific Island Network (PACN) includes 11 

units spread across the Pacific Ocean between 

Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, American 

Executive Summary

Pacific Island Network Monitoring Goals

1. Determine status and trends in selected 

indicators of the condition of park ecosystems 

to allow managers to make better-informed 

decisions and to work effectively with other 

agencies and individuals for the benefit of park 

resources

2. Provide early warning of abnormal conditions of selected resources to help develop 

effective mitigation measures and reduce costs 

of management

3. Provide data to better understand the dynamic nature and condition of park ecosystems 

and to provide reference points for comparisons with other, altered environments

4. Provide data to meet certain legal and congressional mandates related to natural resource 

protection and visitor enjoyment.

5. Provide a means of measuring progress 

towards performance goals

6. Provide data to better understand, protect, 

and manage important resources that share 

cultural and natural value

Monitoring and 

adaptive management 

will facilitate the 

ability of the National 

Park Service to protect 

our natural heritage 

landscapes and 

resources (Tau, National 

Park of American 

Samoa).
xiv

Samoa, and Hawaii. Annual Vital Sign Monitoring funding of the PACN from the Natural 

Resource Challenge is $1,570,100. In addition, 

the NPS Water Resources Division contributes 

$151,000 for water quality monitoring.

Monitoring for the PACN includes five Servicewide goals. As a reflection of the close ties of 

native Pacific islanders to the land and sea, the 

PACN added a sixth goal to the national goals 

which is to “provide data to better understand, 

protect, and manage important resources that 

share cultural and natural value.”

While the parks of the PACN share many 

characteristics, the geographically vast network 

is marked by ecological diversity. Important 

natural communities include scrub land ecosystems (alpine and subalpine, non-alpine desert 

and lava field); forest and shrubland ecosystems 

(rain forest, cloud forest, montane bog and 

pond, Hawaiian mesic forest, Marianas limestone forest, Hawaiian dry forest and grassland, 

and Mariana Island savanna); subterranean 

ecosystems; streams; coastal ecosystems (coastal 

marshes, mangrove swamps, fish ponds, coastal 

strand, and anchialine pools); and nearshore 

marine ecosystems (coral reefs, intertidal, and 

seagrass beds). The park units also contain a 

high proportion of the nation’s threatened and 

endangered species, and provide some of the 

last remaining habitats for these rare plants and 

animals. Some of the network’s most challenging management issues include: invasive species, 

adjacent land-use, in-park resource use, fire, 

global climate change, and natural hazards (e.g., 

lava flows, tropical cyclones).

Vital Signs

Monitoring provides scientific information 

about the ecological health of our national 

parks. Vital Signs are a medical analogy for 

ecosystem health and include: (1) physical, 

chemical, and biological elements and processes 

of park ecosystems; (2) known or hypothesized 

effects of stressors; and/or (3) elements that 

have important human values. The Vital Signs 

selected by the Pacific Island Network (see table 

below) are a subset of the total suite of natural 

resources that park managers are directed to 

preserve. 

PACN Vital Signs include several broad categories (Levels 1 and 2 below) of physical 

and chemical processes important to all park 

systems such as air and climate, water, geology, 

and soils. Because of the high rate of endemism 

and the pervasive threats of invasive species in 

network parks, biological integrity is well-represented in the PACN Vital Signs list. To better 

allocate financial and staff resources, 14 Vital 

Signs will be developed initially in phase 1, 

with another four to follow in phase 2, thereby 

staging the development and implementation of 

Vital Signs over time. Water quality monitoring 

is fully integrated within the PACN monitoring program. A water quality report is complete 

(appendix I), and water quality Vital Sign monitoring will be implemented in 2007.

Program Implementation

Detailed monitoring protocols will document 

step-by-step guidance for collecting, analyzing, and reporting information for each Vital 

Sign. Centralized NPS staffing, agreements with 

cooperators, and park supported programs are 

mechanisms we will use to implement monitorEleven Units of the Pacific Island Network

War in the Pacific National Historical Park (Guam)

American Memorial Park (Northern Mariana Islands)

National Park of American Samoa (American Samoa)

USS Arizona Memorial (Hawaii)

Kalaupapa National Historical Park (Hawaii)

Haleakala National Park (Hawaii)

Ala Kahakai National Historic Trail (Hawaii)

Puukohola Heiau National Historic Site

(Hawaii)

Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park (Hawaii)

Puuhonua o Honaunau National Historical Park (Hawaii)

Hawaii Volcanoes National Park (Hawaii)
xv

ing efforts. In some cases, other agencies are 

already monitoring Vital Signs (e.g., air quality 

and volcanic activity). In these cases, the Pacific 

Island Network Vital Signs monitoring program 

will focus on acquiring and interpreting these 

data, and reporting results.

Administrative oversight for the program rests 

upon the Board of Directors (BOD), which 

consists of superintendents of the network’s 11 

parks, and the Technical Committee (TC). The 

TC is comprised of natural resource managers 

from the PACN parks, along with other agency 

representatives in order to enhance the diversity 

of network monitoring approaches. The TC 

serves as the scientific and operational body of 

the network that develops recommendations to 

the BOD on how monitoring is implemented. 

Individual national parks, the Inventory and 

Monitoring (I&M) program, and numerous 

cooperators collect data annually about plant 

and animal populations, ecological communities, and general ecosystem health. To ensure 

that accurate and complete records of these 

observations are maintained in perpetuity, the 

PACN has dedicated staff and cooperators 

toward data management. The Data Management Plan identifies key data resources and 

processes to manage I&M data, along with providing assistance for park-specific data. 

Level 1 Level 2 Vital Sign

Phase 1 Implementation

Air and Climate Weather and Climate Climate

Water Hydrology Groundwater dynamics

Water Quality Water quality 

Biological Integrity Invasive Species Status and trends of established invasive plant 

species

Early detection of invasive plants

Focal Species or 

Communities

Benthic marine community

Marine fish

Freshwater animal communities

Focal terrestrial plant communities

Landbirds

Seabirds

Bats 

Landscapes (Ecosystem 

Pattern and Processes)

Landscape Dynamics Landscape dynamics

Human Use Consumptive use Fish harvest

Phase 2 Implementation

Geology and Soils Soil Quality Erosion & deposition

Biological Integrity Invasive Species Early detection of invasive invertebrates

Focal Species or 

Communities

Terrestrial invertebrate communities

Cave community
xvi

Integration With Management

The I&M program focuses on improving park 

natural resource management through greater 

reliance on scientific knowledge. Therefore, a 

primary purpose of the inventory and monitoring program is to develop, organize, and make 

available natural resource data. This is done 

by transforming data into useful information 

through analysis, synthesis, modeling, and reporting.

Data analysis and reporting emphasizes the 

importance of 

providing park 

managers and 

other entities 

with synthesized 

monitoring 

information that 

is tiered toward 

the network’s 

monitoring 

goals and Vital 

Signs objectives. 

This includes a 

conscious effort 

to plan for data 

analysis and reporting 

throughout all facets of 

the program. Two data analysis 

outcomes are emphasized with the 

PACN Vital Signs: (1) annual status summarization, and (2) long-term trend assessment. 

 To help deliver information needed at the park, 

regional, and national levels, the networks are 

designing a system for scientific data collection, 

analysis, and reporting that is unprecedented 

in the National Park Service. Through these 

efforts, the Inventory and Monitoring 

program strives to make well-documented scientific information readily available to 

a broad audience of 

resource managers, 

scientists, park 

interpreters, and 

the general public. Ultimately 

this information 

will be channeled to parks, 

in an adaptive 

management 

cycle that documents status and 

trends of Vital 

Signs in network 

parks, and enhances 

management decisions 

that will preserve the park 

resources for future generations. 
xvii

A significant undertaking such as a NPS Network’s Monitoring Plan would not be possible without 

a talented team of dedicated individuals. A multitude of people have assisted with the development 

of the Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan. The four-year process of developing the Phase 

I, II, and III reports resulted in contributions from numerous people through meetings, scoping 

sessions, and other formats that now appear in the Monitoring Plan. Contributors that have been 

directly or indirectly involved in the preparation and production of the Monitoring Plan include 

I&M staff, staff from all network parks, U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) staff, the Hawaii-Pacific 

Island Cooperative Ecosystem Studies Unit (HPI-CESU; formerly Pacific Cooperative Studies 

Unit, or PCSU), and the University of Hawaii. Detailed below are individuals that contributed to 

this Monitoring Plan during the past three years, and to whom we are greatly appreciative for their 

invaluable input: 

Monitoring Plan Chapters (writing, editing, proofreading):

NPS: David Deardorff, Darcy Hu, Roy Irwin, Tahzay Jones, Melia Lane-Kamahele, Penny Latham, 

and Allison Snyder. We would also like to thank several other NPS I&M Networks including: 

Central Alaska, Southwest Alaska, Sonoran Desert, Northern and Southern Colorado Plateau, and 

Greater Yellowstone Networks.

HPI-CESU Cooperators: Gail Ackerman, Raychelle Daniel, Kimber DeVerse, Page Else, Jean Franklin, Heather Fraser, Kelly Kozar, Cory Nash, Karin Schlappa, and Joan Yoshioka.

USGS: Linda Pratt assisted with early drafts of several chapters.

Others: David Schneider and John Skalski shared valuable expertise on sampling design and statistical analysis.

Monitoring Plan Appendixes:

NPS: David Deardorff, Eva DiDonato, Bryan Harry, Darcy Hu, Roy Irwin, Tahzay Jones, Melia 

Lane-Kamahele, Penny Latham, Dwayne Minton, Allison Snyder, and Tim Tunison.

HPI-CESU Cooperators: Gail Ackerman, Sam Aruch, Bobby Camara, Raychelle Daniel, Kimber 

DeVerse, Viet Doan, Ben Dorsey, Page Else, Charlotte Forbes Perry, Heather Fraser, Rise Hart, 

Grant Kaye, Kelly Kozar, Karl Magnacca, Jim Napoli, Corbett Nash, Eric Rutherford, Karin 

Schlappa, Ilana Stout, Ellen Van Gelder, and Joan Yoshioka.

USGS: David Foote, Lloyd Loope, and Linda Pratt.

Others: Sam Gon.

Figures and Tables:

NPS: Darcy Hu, Roy Irwin, Tahzay Jones, and Allison Snyder.

HPI-CESU Cooperators: Gail Ackerman, Raychelle Daniel, Kimber DeVerse, Page Else, Heather 

Fraser, Kelly Kozar, Karin Schlappa, and Joan Yoshioka.

Conceptual Models:

NPS: Eric Brown, John Gross, Darcy Hu, Roy Irwin, and Tahzay Jones. Thanks also to the I&M 

networks from whom we borrowed concepts and material extensively, particularly the Northern 

Colorado Plateau and Southeast Coast Networks.

HPI-CESU Cooperators: Gail Ackerman, Raychelle Daniel, Kimber DeVerse, Page Else, Heather 

Fraser, Karin Schlappa, and Joan Yoshioka.

Others: Peter Vitousek for assistance with initiating our conceptual model development. Symbols 

for several of the conceptual model diagrams were provided courtesy of the Integration and Application Network (http://ian.umces.edu/) from the University of Maryland.

Acknowledgements

“Mahalo... ...

... Thank you... ...

Si Yu’us ma’ase...

... ...Fa’afetai!”
xviii

Vital Signs Selection and Program Input: 

NPS: Stephen Anderson, Cathleen Bailey, Larry Basch, Sallie Beavers, Stan Bond, Richard Boston, 

Eric Brown, Maria Carnevale, Laura Carter-Schuster, Peter Craig, David Deardorff, Eva DiDonato, 

Ana Dittmar, Mike Donoho, Bernie Doyle, Helen Felsing, Kathy Hancock, Darcy Hu, Guy Hughes, 

Roy Irwin, Raina Kaholoaa, Laura Kochanski, Malia Laber, Melia Lane-Kamahele, Penny Latham, 

Rhonda Loh, Sandy Margriter, Dwayne Minton, Ryan Monello, Jade Moniz-Nakamura, Ron 

Nagata, Marshall Owens, Ben Saldua, Stassia Samuels, Chuck Sayon, Tavita Togia, Tim Tunison, and 

Patti Welton.

USGS: Stephen Anthony, Paul Banko, Anne Brasher, Tamar Elias, David Foote, Dave Helweg, Steve 

Hess, Barry Hill, Scott Izuka, James Jacobi, Ilsa Kuffner, Lloyd Loope, Jeff Perreault, Linda Pratt, 

Thane Pratt, Bruce Richmond, Caroline Rogers, Jeff Sutton, Don Swanson, Gordon Tribble, Frank 

Trusdell, and Thierry Work.

Others: Bud Antonelis, John Barnes, Jim Beets, Chris Bird, Chuck Birkeland, Earl Campbell, Vickie 

Caraway, Pat Conant, Colleen Cory, Rob Cowie, Casey Cumming, Curt Daehler, Julie Denslow, 

Don Drake, David Duffy, Fern Duvall, Beth Flint, Alan Friedlander, Tom Giambelluca, Barbara 

Gibson, Rob Hauff, Priscilla Hill, Frank Howarth, Sonia Juvik, Bob Kinzie, Fred Kraus, Anne Marie 

LaRosa, Ed Laws, Jim Maragos, Theresa Menard, JP Michaud, Steve Miller, Dieter Mueller-Dombois, Jim Murphey, Jim Parrish, Karen Poiani, Dan Polhemus, Lynn Raulerson, Joshua Seamon, 

Alison Sherwood, Tara Sim, Celia Smith, Jen Smith, Bill Walsh, Lisa Wedding, Art Whistler, Mindy 

Wilkinson, Lisa Young, Chela Zabin.

We want to express our sincere thankfulness to the PACN Board of Directors: Aric Arakaki, Geri 

Bell, Kathleen Billings, Eric Brunneman, Sarah Creachbaum, Karen Gustin, Bryan Harry, Frank 

Hays, Daniel Kawaiaea, Doug Lentz, Jim Martin, Roger Moder, Doug Neighbor, Cindy Orlando, 

Marilyn Parris, Don Reeser, Chuck Sayon, Karen Stoll, and Tom Workman.

Plant and animal drawings by artist J. Yoshioka found throughout the monitoring plan are courtesy 

of the Hawaii Natural History Association.

Monitoring Plan Coordination: Karin Schlappa and Allison Snyder devoted many hours to coordinating the numerous contributors.

We would also to thank Luis Menoyo for his time and enthusiasm in converting the Monitoring 

Plan from Microsoft Word to Adobe InDesign.

We would like to thank the numerous reviewers of the Monitoring Plan: Lane Cameron, Steve 

Fancy, Helen Felsing, Sam Gon, John Gross, Bryan Harry, Frank Hays, Darcy Hu, Marcus Koenen, 

Melia Lane-Kamahele, Penny Latham, Don Reeser, and Andrea Woodward, as well as anonymous 

peer reviewers.

Numerous Technical Committee members, mentioned above in the Vital Signs section, contributed 

significant time to the Vital Signs scoping and selection process. Numerous other NPS staff of the 

11 Pacific Island Network parks, along with the Pacific Islands Coral Reef Program members, have 

assisted with the I&M program in many ways, including administrative support from Jaynee Nakamura and Kim Leyson. The program has repeatedly sought guidance and trouble-shooting from 

Steve Fancy, Darcy Hu, and Penny Latham. Completion of the PACN Monitoring Plan and protocol 

development would not be possible without their input, support, and active participation. Almost 

certainly we have overlooked some people who contributed to the Monitoring Plan and we express 

our acknowledgement and gratitude.

Mahalo Nui Loa to all!

“Mahalo... ...

... Thank you... ...

Si Yu’us ma’ase...

... ...Fa’afetai!”
National Park Service  

The National Park Service (NPS) is mandated 

to protect, preserve, and conserve its resources, 

“unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations” (NPS 1916). As part of the Natural 

Resource Challenge (NRC), a major effort to 

improve park management and expand institutional knowledge and reliance on scientific 

information, the NPS grouped national park 

system units into 32 Inventory and Monitoring 

networks nationwide. The Pacific Island Network (PACN), comprised of 11 units, is the network charged with creating a monitoring plan 

to assess the condition of park natural resources 

in the Pacific to uphold the mission of the NPS. 

This monitoring plan describes the process 

used by the PACN to accomplish this natural 

resource monitoring task. Through natural 

resource monitoring, managers can identify and 

understand normal limits of natural variation in 

park resources, changes, and agents of change. 

The network structure facilitates collaboration, 

information sharing, and economies of scale in 

natural resource monitoring. Each network also 

coordinates the gathering of baseline resource 

inventory data as well as monitoring data on 

long-term trends in the condition of national 

park system resources.

As defined by the NPS, Vital Signs are a subset of physical, chemical, and biological elements and processes of park ecosystems that 

are selected to represent the overall health or 

condition of park resources, known or hypothesized effects of stressors, or elements that 

have important human values. Vital Signs are 

part of the total suite of natural resources that 

park managers are directed to preserve “unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations” 

(NPS 1916). These resources include water, 

air, geological features, plants and animals, and 

the various ecological, biological, and physical 

processes that act on those resources (figure 

1.1). The broad-based, scientifically sound 

information obtained through natural resource 

monitoring will have multiple applications for 

management decision-making, research (figure 

1.2), education, and promoting public understanding of park resources.

Long-term monitoring of natural resources 

by the NPS provides site-specific information 

needed to understand and identify changes in 

complex, variable, and inadequately understood 

natural systems. It also aids in determining 

whether observed changes are within natural 

levels of variability or may indicate unwanted 

human influences. Thus, monitoring provides a 

basis for understanding and identifying meaningful change in natural systems. Monitoring 

results may also be used to determine what 

constitutes impairment and to identify the need 

to initiate or change management practices.

Chapter 1. Introduction and Background

Figure 1.1.

Natural resources of 

Haleakala National 

Park (endangered 

Haleakala silversword, 

Argyroxiphium 

sandwicense spp. 

macrocephalum, 

left) and KalokoHonokohau National 

Historical Park 

(threatened green 

sea turtle, Chelonia 

mydas, right).

“Vital Signs are a 

subset of physical, 

chemical, and 

biological 

elements and 

processes of park 

ecosystems that 

are selected to 

represent the 

overall health or 

condition of park 

resources...”
  Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 1. Introduction and Background

Goals of Vital Signs Monitoring

National Park Service management policy is to 

use monitoring data “...to maintain and, where 

necessary, restore the integrity of natural systems” (NPS 2001). The Pacific Island Network 

intends to use monitoring data to maintain and 

restore ecological integrity of natural resources. 

Long-term monitoring serves as an “early warning system” to detect declines in ecosystem 

integrity and species viability before irreversible loss has occurred. In cases where natural 

systems in or surrounding a park have been so 

highly altered that natural processes no longer 

operate, managers must understand how the 

altered systems operate in order to determine 

the most effective approach for restoration. 

Monitoring program goals for the PACN are 

adopted directly from the Servicewide Inventory and Monitoring program goals (figure 

1.3), with the addition of a sixth goal, which 

addresses resources that share natural and cultural value: “Provide data to better understand, 

protect, and manage important resources that 

share cultural and natural value.” This sixth goal 

addresses traditionally associated peoples use of 

parks including the practice of traditional belief 

system and uses within parks such as visiting 

sacred sites or gathering plants and animals for 

special ceremonies, food, and medicine. This 

goal also encompasses cultural influences of 

contemporary users, those not encompassed 

within traditionally associated peoples uses. 

Adding this goal will also help us develop a 

monitoring program that meets legal considerations and other cultural resource mandates 

that PACN parks must address. Further discussion regarding the integration of natural and 

cultural resource values for each Vital Sign is 

provided in chapter 3 and appendix M.

Parks of the Pacific Island Network

The Pacific Island Network is composed of 11 

national park system units spanning the tropical Pacific Ocean, and is the most geographically widespread of the 32 networks in the NPS 

Inventory and Monitoring (I&M) program 

(figure 1.4). Two PACN parks are situated in the 

Inventory

Research

Monitoring

Objective

 achieved?

Intervention

needed?

Cause

understood?

Change

detected?

Determines

management

effectiveness

Identifies trends & natural

variation in resources

No

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

No

Resource 

management

Figure 1.2.

Stewardship of 

natural resources 

in national parks 

involves the 

interconnected 

activities of 

inventories, 

monitoring, research, 

and resource 

management 

(modified from 

Jenkins et al. 2002).
National Park Service  

western Pacific Ocean between 13o and 15o N in 

Micronesia: War in the Pacific National Historical Park (WAPA), on the western side of Guam 

and American Memorial Park (AMME), on 

the west coast of Saipan. The National Park of 

American Samoa (NPSA) is located in Polynesia on the islands of American Samoa (14o S): 

Tutuila, Tau, Ofu, and Olosega, the latter three 

of which belong to of the Manua island group. 

Eight parks are in the Hawaiian Islands in the 

Central Pacific between 19o and 22o N. The USS 

Arizona Memorial (USAR) is within Pearl Harbor on Oahu, the most populous island in the 

network. Kalaupapa National Historical Park 

(KALA) is on Molokai, and Haleakala National 

Park (HALE) is on Maui. Hawaii Volcanoes 

National Park (HAVO), Kaloko-Honokohau 

National Historical Park (KAHO), Puukohola Heiau National Historic Site (PUHE), 

Puuhonua o Honaunau National Historical Park 

(PUHO), and Ala Kahakai National Historic 

Trail (ALKA) are on the island of Hawaii, the 

youngest of the main Hawaiian Islands at the 

southern and eastern end of the archipelago. A 

more detailed description of each park is provided in appendix A.

Designing an Integrated Monitoring Program 

for the PACN

An important emphasis of the Vital Signs monitoring program is to facilitate communication, 

coordination, and collaboration among parks, 

programs, academia, and other government 

agencies. The integrated monitoring program 

can be viewed as an information system, a key 

aspect of resource management and development of institutional knowledge. Thus, Vital 

Signs monitoring is a partnership that will 

provide scientific information needed to protect 

and manage the national parks. One of the most 

difficult aspects of designing a comprehensive monitoring program is the integration of 

monitoring projects so that the comprehensive 

monitoring program yields information more 

useful than that of individual parts. Integration 

involves ecological, spatial, temporal, and programmatic aspects, as outlined below. 

Ecological integration incorporates the 

ecological linkages between system 

drivers and the components, structures, and functions of ecosystems 

when selecting monitoring indicators 

(i.e., marine, freshwater, terrestrial, or 

atmospheric). An effective ecosystem 

monitoring strategy will employ a suite 

of individual measurements that collectively monitor the integrity of the entire 

ecosystem. 

Spatial integration involves establishing linkages of measurements made 

at different spatial scales within or 

•

•

Determine status and trends in selected indicators of park ecosystem(s) condition to 

allow managers to make better-informed decisions and to work effectively with other 

agencies and individuals for the benefit of park resources.

Provide early warning of abnormal conditions of selected resources to help develop 

effective mitigation measures and reduce costs of management.

Provide data to better understand the dynamic nature and condition of park ecosystems and to provide reference points for comparisons with other, altered environments.

Provide data to meet certain legal and congressional mandates related to natural 

resource protection and visitor enjoyment.

Provide a means of measuring progress towards performance goals.

Provide data to better understand, protect, and manage important resources that share 

cultural and natural value.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Figure 1.3.

Monitoring program 

goals for the PACN.
 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 1. Introduction and Background

between parks in the network and 

over a broader regional context. This 

requires an understanding of ecological processes on different spatial scales, 

the co-location of measurements of 

comparably scaled monitoring indicators, and the design of statistical 

sampling frameworks that permit the 

extrapolation and interpolation of data 

on multiple spatial scales.

Temporal integration involves establishing linkages between measurements 

made at various time scales. It will be 

necessary to determine a meaningful 

timeline for sampling different indicators while considering characteristics 

of temporal variation in these indicators. For example, sampling changes in 

the structure of a tropical forest canopy 

(e.g., size class distribution) will require 

much less frequent sampling than that 

required for detection of changes in the 

•

composition or density of herbaceous 

groundcover.

Programmatic integration involves the 

coordination and communication of 

monitoring activities within and among 

parks, among divisions of the NPS, 

between other agencies and land management organizations, and among government authorities within the PACN 

region. For example, the involvement 

of a park’s law enforcement, maintenance, and interpretative staff in 

routine monitoring activities can garner 

wider support for monitoring, improve 

potential for involving and informing the public, and promote greater 

acceptance of monitoring results in the 

decision-making process.

•

Figure 1.4.

Map of the 11 PACN 

parks.
National Park Service 

Legislation, Policy, and Guidance for Natural 

Resource Monitoring

National park managers are directed by federal 

law and National Park Service policies and 

guidance to know the status and trends in the 

condition of natural resources under their stewardship. This knowledge is necessary to fulfill 

the NPS mission to conserve park resources 

unimpaired1 for the enjoyment of future generations as stated in the National Park Service 

Organic Act of 1916. This act and other significant laws and policies are summarized in table 

1.1. Additionally, several federal, state, territory, 

and commonwealth statutes exist that provide 

legal direction for expending funds to determine the condition of natural resources and 

specifically guide natural resource management 

in parks. For more information, see Appendix J: 

Summary of Laws, Policy, and Guidance. 

Park Enabling Legislation— Enabling 

legislation of an individual park, where it 

exists, provides insight into the natural and 

cultural resources and resource values to be 

conserved. These values may evolve with 

time, through evolution of park management, 

legal interpretations, and explicit additions to 

park enabling legislation. See appendix J for 

information on enabling legislation for each 

park.

For example, Hawaii Volcanoes and Haleakala 

National Parks’ enabling legislation provides 

for “preservation from injury of all timber, birds, 

mineral deposits, and natural curiosities or 

wonders within said park, and their retention in 

their natural conditions as nearly as possible.” 

The enabling legislation for Kaloko-Honokohau NHP directed the park to enter into air 

and water quality agreements with surrounding landowners using the ancient Hawaiian 

ahupuaa (watershed) concept of land management. In another example, the enabling legislation for the National Park of American Samoa 

directs the park to “...preserve and protect the 

tropical forest and archaeological and cultural 

resources of American Samoa, and of associated 

reefs, to maintain the habitat of flying foxes, [and] 

preserve the ecological balance of the Samoan 

tropical forest...” NPSA and other parks are also 

1

 See www.nps.gov/legacy/mission.html for the NPS 

mission statement.

mandated to employ local residents to develop, 

maintain, and administer the parks. 

State, Territorial, and Commonwealth 

Jurisdictions—Several PACN parks 

commemorate conditions from World War II or 

Polynesian culture. Such a mandate may include 

the preservation of culturally introduced 

species, communities, and landscape 

characteristics. The cultural components of 

many PACN parks also include mandates to 

provide park materials in multiple languages, 

(i.e., English, Samoan, Chamorro, Hawaiian, or 

Japanese). In some cases many local residents 

speak little or no English, but rather one of 

the many indigenous Pacific island or Pacific 

rim languages. A summary of documents that 

specifically guide natural resource management 

in the network parks can be found in 

appendix J.

Some PACN parks contain leased lands and 

provide for differing management (and thus 

monitoring) considerations based on local 

arrangements. For example, NPSA leases all 

park lands in a 50-year renewable lease (with 

either party able to withdraw under certain 

conditions). Kalaupapa NHP leases lands from 

the Department of Hawaiian Homelands, and 

works closely with the Hawaii State Department 

of Health in managing park resources. American Memorial Park on Saipan is an affiliated 

area made available to the Commonwealth of 

the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI). The 

National Park Service has lease agreements with 

CNMI via the U.S. Navy. Several other parks 

have lease or other arrangements for use of, or 

access to lands within authorized park boundaries. Such agreements also provide a foundation 

for partnerships and leveraging of resources for 

the joint administration, management and longterm stewardship, and inventory and monitoring of resources.

Submerged Resources—Unlike emergent, dry, 

or fast (above mean high water level) lands, 

submerged lands and their resources are often 

not owned, leased, or administered by the NPS. 

In nearly every park, the NPS does not own or 

have administrative control over the submerged 

lands within its boundaries, and in most 

cases it is currently unclear what agreements, 

Memorandum of Understanding (MOU), or 

protocols are needed for the NPS to accomplish 

“National park 

managers are 

directed by federal 

law and National 

Park Service policies 

and guidance to 

know the status 

and trends in the 

condition of natural 

resources under 

their stewardship.”
  Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 1. Introduction and Background

Table 1.1. Summary of legislation and National Park Service policy relevant to the 

development and implementation of natural resource monitoring in national parks.

Laws Significance to Inventory and Monitoring

National Park Service Organic Act 

(USC, title 16, sec.1. Aug 25, 1916)

The 1916 National Park Service Organic Act is the foundation 

of park service authority, and the mission of the NPS as stated 

in the act is “...to conserve the scenery and the natural and 

historic objects and the wild life therein and to provide for the 

enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means 

as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future 

generations.” 

National Park Service Organic Act 

(amended 1978)

Congress strengthened the National Park Service’s protective 

function, and provided language important to recent decisions about resource impairment, when it amended the act in 

1978 to state that “the protection, management, and administration of these areas shall be conducted in light of the high 

public value and integrity of the national park system and shall 

not be exercised in derogation of the values and purposes for 

which these various areas have been established...”

National Park Omnibus 

Management Act, 1998 [PL 105-

391]

This act (NPS 1998) established the framework for fully 

integrating natural resource monitoring and other science 

activities into the management processes of the national 

park system. The act charges the Secretary of the Interior to 

“continually improve the ability of the National Park Service 

to provide state-of-the-art management, protection, and interpretation of and research on the resources of the National 

Park Service” and to “assure the full and proper utilization 

of the results of scientific studies for park management 

decisions.” Section 5934 of the act requires the Secretary to 

develop a program of “inventory and monitoring of national 

park system resources to establish baseline information and to 

provide information on the long-term trends in the condition 

of national park system resources.”

NPS Policies and Guidance Significance to Inventory and Monitoring

National Park Service 

Management Policies, 2001

The 2001 policy updated previous policy and specifically 

directed the Service to inventory and monitor natural systems: 

“natural systems in the national park system, and the human 

influences upon them, will be monitored to detect change. 

The Service will use the results of monitoring and research 

to understand the detected change and to develop appropriate management actions.” Further, “the service will identify, 

acquire, and interpret needed inventory, monitoring, and research, including applicable traditional knowledge, to obtain 

information and data that will help park managers accomplish 

park management objectives provided for in law and planning 

documents.”
National Park Service  

marine monitoring and conservation 

management goals. 

This inconsistency creates particular problems 

when implementing or enforcing management 

decisions or conducting monitoring. For example, approximately one-third of the submerged 

lands within War in the Pacific NHP are owned 

by the NPS. The remaining lands are owned by 

the Territory of Guam, which has ceded administrative control of these lands to WAPA through 

a Memorandum of Understanding with NPS. 

Similarly, submerged lands within NPSA (figure 

1.5) are owned by the Territory of American 

Samoa but are administered by the local villages. 

The State of Hawaii owns and administers the 

submerged lands below the high tide line within 

three miles of all fast land within the state. The 

USS Arizona Memorial (figure 1.5) is operated 

by the NPS through an interagency agreement 

with the U.S. Navy.

The Coral Reef Task Force—The National 

Park Service manages 10 areas containing 

tropical and subtropical coral reef resources, 

totaling 109,477 ha in the South Atlantic/

Caribbean and 3,095 ha in the Pacific islands 

for a total of 112,572 ha2. The Coral Reef 

Protection Executive Order of 1998 (E.O. 

13089) established policies and actions needed 

to address the growing threats to the nation’s 

coral reefs. The U.S Coral Reef Task Force, 

an interagency body of 17 federal, state, and 

territorial agencies is charged by the Executive 

Order to lead this effort. As part of the 

Department of the Interior, the National Park 

Service is a key player in the Task Force. The 

Task Force works to develop and implement 

comprehensive, multi-disciplinary, and 

2

 http://www.nature.nps.gov/water/coral.cfm

coordinated approaches to preserve and protect 

U.S. coral reef ecosystems, and encourage 

sound coral reef conservation practices globally. 

It seeks to use existing agency programs, 

statutory authorities, competencies, and 

capabilities to promote coral reef conservation 

consistent with U.S. law and treaty obligations. 

The Task Force functions as a clearinghouse 

and coordinating mechanism for federal, state, 

and territorial agencies involved in coral reef 

ecosystem protection and management efforts. 

It also advises members concerning the impact 

of their actions and programs upon coral reefs, 

and encourages cooperation and partnerships 

to conserve coral reef ecosystems worldwide.

Strategic Planning and Performance 

Management

The Government Performance Results Act 

(GPRA) of 1993 requires federal agencies to 

develop strategic plans as part of a performance 

management business system. The National 

Park Service uses the strategic plan and performance management system to set goals and then 

align activities, staffing, and funding to meet 

those goals. The GPRA goals relevant to monitoring in the PACN are listed in appendix J. 

Among its GPRA goals, the NPS has outlined 

five Land Health goals in the 2005-2008 NPS 

Technical Guidance for Strategic Goals3. They 

apply to uplands, wetlands, riparian/stream 

areas, marine and coastal areas, and mined 

areas. It is anticipated that in the future, the 

3 http://www.aoc.nps.gov/pmds/Technical_Guidance/

Technical%20Guidance%20v3.pdf

Figure 1.5.

Submerged resources 

include both cultural 

and natural resources 

such as the USS 

Arizona Memorial 

(left), and coral 

reefs, National Park 

of American Samoa 

(right).
  Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 1. Introduction and Background

I&M program will contribute substantially to 

the national parks’ abilities to report on their 

goals. Parks are currently directed to delay 

subscribing to these goals until they can meet 

the following three conditions: (1) a standardized basis exists for measurement of the acreage 

in a park, and the total acreage of the resource 

type is known; (2) there is documentation of a 

specific “desired condition” for a resource type 

in an approved management plan (the “desired 

condition” as stated in approved management 

documents must be in place for all occurrences 

of the resource type in the park); and (3) the 

park has knowledge of the current condition 

of all occurrences of a resource type within its 

boundaries based on objective, science-based 

information. I&M data and reports will be a key 

component of the information that parks use to 

report on these goals.

Overview of the Pacific Island Network

The Pacific Island Network is the most extensive network in the NPS Inventory and Monitoring program, with parks located throughout 

the tropical Pacific. Based on geographic, geologic, and biotic differences, the PACN can be 

divided into three regions: the Mariana Islands 

(including Guam and Saipan), American Samoa, 

and Hawaii. Resource management policies 

and practices throughout the Pacific island 

parks reflect the range of cultural traditions and 

natural resource issues that are integral to the 

parks. Characteristics of the PACN national 

parks include:

A significant range in elevation, from 

-61 to 4,169 m. Coupled with steep 

rainfall gradients, this creates a great 

diversity of terrestrial, freshwater, and 

marine ecosystem types both within 

and among parks. 

Remote and widely spaced islands and 

ecosystems, which were prehistorically 

isolated from many biotic and human 

influences, result in ecosystem ecology 

very different from continental systems. This relative isolation has caused 

the evolution of unique flora and 

fauna found no where else on earth. 

These native ecosystems are extremely 

vulnerable to invasive alien species and 

•

•

require active, hands-on management 

if their unique biota is to survive.

Several globally recognized endemic 

ecosystems and biodiversity hotspots 

(e.g., Mittermeier et al. 1999). Five of 

the six unique PACN ecoregions are 

classified as ‘critical or endangered,’ 

with the remaining ecoregion classified as ‘vulnerable’ (Olson et al. 2001). 

These ecoregions include: Hawaii 

tropical moist forests, Samoan tropical moist forests, Hawaii tropical dry 

forests, Marianas tropical dry forests, 

Hawaii tropical low shrublands (critical 

or endangered), and Hawaii tropical 

high shrublands (vulnerable).

Ecosystems and parks are relatively 

small in size compared to many continental systems and national parks. 

Human activities have significantly 

altered most ecosystems inside or in 

close proximity to park boundaries 

through resource exploitation, development, and multiple routes of invasive 

species introductions.

Marine ecosystems across the Pacific 

share many common features, specifically the ecological processes that 

shape them, such as dispersal, recruitment, growth, calcium carbonate accretion and erosion, and the stressors that 

alter them.

Local community social structures 

within the PACN have retained a 

significant portion of their traditional 

Polynesian and Micronesian heritages. In American Samoa, villages or 

extended families hold land communally and chiefs make decisions about 

its use in the matai system (O`Meara 

1987). In Hawaii, the traditional watershed-based ahupuaa system of land 

management has been cited as a tool 

for improving upon current prevailing 

Western land management practices 

that parcel the land into a checkerboard with no concern for watershed 

management. In Guam and Saipan, the 

traditional system of land tenure was 

•

•

•

•

“The Pacific 

Island Network is 

the most extensive 

network in the 

NPS Inventory 

and Monitoring 

program, with 

parks located 

throughout the 

tropical Pacific.”
National Park Service  

similar to that in American Samoa, but 

has been lost through successive periods of Western colonization (Johnson 

1969, McGrath and Wilson 1987).

Characteristics of the PACN Parks—The 

Pacific Island Network includes 11 national 

park system units. Six parks contain marine 

resources, and the remaining five adjoin the 

sea (table 1.2). All parks but USAR contain 

freshwater resources. Four parks are located on 

active volcanoes (Mauna Loa: PUHO, HAVO, 

and ALKA; Kilauea: HAVO and ALKA; and 

Hualalai: KAHO and ALKA), and one park is on 

a volcano considered dormant, though likely to 

erupt in the future (East Maui Volcano: HALE); 

all parks are located on islands ultimately 

formed from volcanic activity. Threatened 

or endangered species have been found in 

all parks, as have alien and invasive species. 

Appendix A provides a summary of the natural 

and cultural resources, resource management 

concerns, and past natural resource monitoring 

for each park. Throughout this document, 

the parks are presented in their geographic 

arrangement from west to east across the 

Pacific, rather than in alphabetical order, to 

better conceptualize the geography of the 

network.

A synopsis of park management priorities, 

natural resources within each park, and the 

primary threats to those resources can be 

found in table 1.3. Due to the vast geographical 

range of PACN, national park system units in 

different parts of the network possess different 

species and in some cases entirely different 

habitats. For example, native species in one 

area of the network may be highly invasive in 

another (e.g., mangroves), creating difficulties 

when attempting to develop network-wide 

management and monitoring objectives. 

However, ecosystems across the Pacific share 

many common features such as small spatial 

size, susceptibility to invasions by alien species, 

and in some cases the same species or guilds 

(e.g., sea turtles, stream gobies). 

Elevation, Climate, and Geology—The 

elevation ranges of Pacific Island Network 

parks vary significantly (figure 1.6; ALKA 

boundaries have not been finalized, but the 

trail is coastal in nature.). The wide diversity 

of climatic vegetation zones found on Pacific 

islands (figures1.6) is caused by a combination 

of elevation (figure 1.7) and rainfall gradients. 

Precipitation varies widely both among and 

within parks in the network: PUHE receives 

<250 mm of rain annually, while maximum 

rainfall at HALE is >6,000 mm on the upper 

northeastern slopes of Haleakala (Giambelluca 

et al. 1986). 

Climatic consequences of the El Niño-Southern 

Oscillation (ENSO) are much more pronounced 

in the Pacific region than on the North American continent and the rest of the world. Climatic 

changes resulting from ENSO are dependent 

on the pattern of sea surface temperature and 

thus vary throughout the Pacific. However, they 

include changes to wind patterns, increased 

sea surface temperature, and extended drought 

conditions (Tsyban et al. 1990).

Pacific islands are particularly vulnerable to sea 

level rise. Changes in sea level occur as periodic 

changes associated with ENSO events, long 

term rise in sea level as a result of anthropogenic climate change as well as decreases due 

to geologic processes. According to reports 

by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate 

Change (Tsyban et al. 1990, Burkett et al. 2001) 

an average 1-2 mm/yr rise of sea level has been 

recorded globally over the last century. In the 

Pacific there is no consistent trend for overall 

sea level (table 1.4). In some areas sea level has 

increased, which is attributed to global climate 

change, while in others it has decreased as a 

result of geologic uplift (Shea et al. 2001). 

Although the Pacific Island Network units are 

geographically distinct, there are some similarities in geologic histories. Guam and Saipan are 

islands with long-extinct volcanoes that have 

complicated geologic origins involving both volcanism and subduction of the Marianas Trench. 

The northern half of Guam and portions of 

Saipan also have limestone substrates elevated 

above a weathered volcanic base. The islands of 

American Samoa and the Hawaiian Islands are 

oceanic volcanic islands formed by “hot spots”, 

or areas of thermal activity on the oceanic crust. 

Over time, continental drift moves the ocean 

floor, forming a chain of islands over the hot 

spot.

Underlying geology plays a large role in the 

occurrence and form of aquatic resources on 

Pacific islands. Parks on Pacific islands are iso-

“Threatened or 

endangered species 

have been found in 

all parks, as have 

alien and invasive 

species.”
10 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 1. Introduction and Background Table 1.2. Summary of land and water spatial characteristics for each park in the PACN*. Park Year authorized Coastline length (km) Authorized marine size (ha)a Authorized terrestrial size (ha) Authorized total size (ha)b Elevation range (m) War in the Pacific National Historical Park (WAPA) 1978 9 401 400 801 -50 to 318 American Memorial Park (AMME) 1976 5 0 58 58 0 to 3 National Park of American Samoa (NPSA) 1988 70 2129 3786 5915 -50 to 966 USS Arizona Memorial (USA

Rc

) 1978 1 2 4 7 -12 to 23

Kalaupapa National Historical Park (KALA) 1980 21 834 3519 4553 -61 to 1287Haleakala National Park (HAL

E) 1916 4 0 11849 11849 0 to 3055

Ala Kahakai National Historic Trail (ALKAd) 2000 282 TBD TBD TBD 0 to 122Puukohola Heiau National Historic Site (PUHE) 1972 0 3 32 35 -15 to 52Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park (KAH

O) 1978 5 217 264 481 -46 to 24

Puuhonua o Honaunau National Historical Park (PUH

O) 1961 3 0 231 231 0 to 274

Hawaii Volcanoes National Park (HAVO) 1916 53 0 135091 135091 0 to 4169

* Data Sources: NPS Lands Division Authorized Park Boundary Maps, USGS DLG Political Boundaries, TMK Parcels (from GDSI), 2001 IKONOS Imagery, and USAR park 

webpage.

a. Identified as 0 where authorized park boundary ends at high tide line. Includes the shoreline and offshore waters of inholdings. b. Determined by adding authorized marine size and authorized terrestrial size.c. Coastline length and authorized marine size are estimates only. Terrestrial size and total size are from park webpage.d. Coastline length and elevation range are estimates only.
National Park Service 11

Table 1.3. Management priorities, natural resources, and primary stressors of PACN parks.

Park Designation Management

Priorities Natural Resources Primary Stressorsa

WAPA Historical 

park

Managed in accordance 

with World War II conditions; marine areas

Coral reefs, seagrass meadows, sandy 

beaches, wetlands, streams, tropical 

savanna, limestone, riverine forests, karst 

caves, offshore islets

Tropical cyclonesb, fishing, marine debris, 

recreational damage, urbanization, wildfire, invasive species, chemical water & 

soil contamination

AMME Affiliated 

area

Recreational, environmental and cultural resourcesWetland, mangroves, sandy beach, stream, 

Coral reefs 

Tropical cyclonesb, marine debris, recreational damage, increasing urbanization, 

invasive species, chemical water & soil 

contamination

NPSA National 

park

Rainforest, coral reefs, 

cultural land use

Coral reefs, sandy and rocky beaches, wetlands, streams, rainforests, cloud forestsTropical cyclonesb, fishing, marine debris, 

recreational damage, coral bleaching, 

agricultural expansion, invasive species, 

hunting

USAR National 

memorial

Memorial management Benthic community on ship hull, marine 

organisms in and near the ship

Increasing urbanization, invasive species, 

chemical water & soil contamination

KALA National 

historical 

park

Maintain lifestyle of 

Hansen’s disease patients; preserve historic 

structures, sites, & values; 

natural features

Coral reefs, sandy &rocky beaches, 

offshore islets, streams, lake, rainforest, 

coastal & mesic forest, caves, lava tubes

Water diversion, invasive species

HALE National 

park

Natural and cultural 

resources

Coastal strand, streams, sub-alpine lakes, 

bogs, rainforest, mesic forest, subalpine grass/shrublands, alpine desert, 

caves, lava tubes

Damage from recreational activity, invasive species

ALKA National 

historic trail

Cultural and natural resources along trail corridorSandy and rocky beaches, sea cliffs, fishponds, anchialine poolscMarine debris, terrestrial & marine 

recreational damage, increasing urbanization, invasive species, water contamination, groundwater withdrawal

PUHE National 

historic site

Historic structures, 

landscape similar to time 

of Kamehameha I (late 

1700s-early 1800s)

Coral reef, sandy beach, estuarine wetland, 

intermittent stream, remnant dry forest

 Fishing, marine debris, recreational 

damage, wildfire, invasive species, upland 

erosion, sedimentation of wetland & bay, 

water contamination

KAHO National 

historical 

park

Cultural activities & resources, natural resourcesCoral reefs, sandy & rocky beaches, 

fishponds, wetlands, anchialine poolsc, 

grassland, lava fields, coastal dry forest

Fishing, marine debris, recreational 

damage, increasing urbanization, invasive 

species, marine & groundwater contamination, groundwater withdrawal

PUHO National 

historical 

park

Maintain landscape as it 

looked in 1819.

Rocky shores, wetlands, anchialine poolsc, 

caves, dry forest

Fishing, marine debris, recreational damage, invasive species, marine & groundwater contamination

HAVO National 

park

Natural and cultural 

resources

Beaches, sea cliff, anchialine poolc, grassland, rainforest, dry & mesic forest, midelevation & alpine desert, lava fields, caves 

& lava tubes, sub-alpine shrubland, active 

volcanic features

Volcanic activity, damage from recreational activity, wildlife, invasive species

a

. All parks are coastal in nature and subject to stressors associated with sea level rise and subsidence

b

. For simplicity, we use the term tropical cyclone in this report for the entire PACN region to refer to storms with sustained wind speeds above 63 knots/

hr even though the terminology varies by geographic region.

c

. Anchialine pools are brackish land-locked bodies of water with underground connections to the ocean and fresh groundwater. Their salinity and depth 

fluctuate in a delayed manner with the tides
12 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 1. Introduction and Background

lated land masses surrounded by salt water, and 

are geologically very young. These characteristics have a profound effect on the abundance of 

freshwater resources and their characteristics. 

Fresh groundwater “lenses” permeate areas of 

the bedrock above seawater and saline groundwater. These lenses form as rainwater percolates 

through rock layers, and are frequently located 

near the ground surface in coastal areas.

Biota—The native terrestrial flora and fauna in 

Pacific island parks lack several species groups 

when compared to those of the continental U.S., 

Asia, and islands off the coasts of continents 

(for example, reptiles, non-flying land mammals, and amphibians in the Hawaiian Islands). 

However, levels of endemism are very high, and 

certain taxa such as invertebrates comprise a 

significant percentage of endemic biodiversity 

(Eldredge and Evenhuis 2003). Smaller land 

areas and concomitantly smaller populations, 

Figure 1.7.

Elevation ranges of 

PACN parks (note 

change in scale 

at approximately 

1,500 m).

Figure 1.6.

Several climactic 

vegetation zones 

exist in close 

proximity in the 

Hawaiian Islands 

due to topography 

and rainfall 

gradients (Source: 

Mueller-Dombois 

and Fosberg 1998).
National Park Service 13

in addition to high levels of endemism, make 

many threats potentially more serious in the 

Pacific islands than in a continental context. 

For example, invasive ants may have devastating effects on native insect populations, in turn 

causing declines in plant populations as their 

pollinators are eliminated. 

All parks in the PACN contain or adjoin significant marine or coastal resources such as: coral 

reefs, mangroves (figure 1.8), seagrass beds, 

hard- and soft-bottom inter-tidal regions that 

support highly diverse species, and beaches that 

serve as important habitat for endangered sea 

turtles and monk seals (figure 1.8).

Multiple types of surface water ecosystems 

are found within the PACN parks including 

streams, wetlands, lakes, and anchialine pool 

systems. Freshwater and brackish organisms 

include species or genera endemic to individual 

islands or groups of islands with highly specific habitat requirements such as the endemic 

Hawaiian damselfly genus 

Megalagrion which contains 22 

species (Polhemus and Asquith 

1996). Freshwater and anchialine biological habitats are finite 

resources in the Pacific islands, 

and have often been modified 

or obliterated through land-use 

practices and invasive species 

introductions. 

Because of the high level of 

endemism and evolutionary isolation of Pacific island 

flora and fauna, many species 

are now threatened or endangered. Pacific Island Network 

Table 1.4. Mean sea level trends at selected Pacific island stations. 

Location Rate of change (cm/decade) Record duration Total change (cm)

Guam 0.4 ± 0.6 1948-2000 2.0 ± 3.2

American Samoa 1.6 ± 0.5 1948-2000 8.5 ± 2.7

Hawaii

 Honolulu

 Kahului

 Hilo

± 0.2

± 0.5

3.2 ± 0.5

1950-2000

1950-2000

1927-2000

14.2 ± 1.9

10.8 ± 2.6

23.9 ± 3.7

Table modified from the Pacific Assessment (Shea et al. 2001); based on data from the University of Hawaii Sea Level 

Center.

Figure 1.8.

Hawaiian monk 

seal (Monachus 

schauinslandi) with 

newborn pup at 

Kalaupapa National 

Historical Park; 

mangrove (Bruguiera 

gymnorhiza) forest at 

American Memorial 

Park.
14 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 1. Introduction and Background

parks support multiple species of concern. In 

addition, 340 federally listed threatened and 

endangered species are found in the PACN 

region (including all species whose known or 

predicted range covers one or more islands on 

which a PACN park exists); 112 of these species 

are found in PACN parks (table 1.5). Appendix 

D provides a complete inventory of federally 

listed threatened and endangered species in the 

PACN region, including information on their 

geographical ranges and common and scientific 

names. 

Water Quality Designations and Monitoring—

The NPS Water Resources Division (WRD) 

provides funds to the Pacific Island Network for 

water quality monitoring. NPS WRD requires 

that the network: (a) determines priorities for 

impaired and pristine waters, (b) define sitespecific monitoring objectives, and (c) develops 

a detailed water quality monitoring plan to be 

implemented in close coordination with Vital 

Signs monitoring. The PACN recognizes that 

the water resources of the network, whether 

in the form of precipitation or in water bodies, 

are a primary component of all network 

ecosystems. Therefore, the PACN has chosen to 

fully integrate water quality monitoring into this 

monitoring plan.

Three types of water resources are shared by 

PACN parks: marine, inland surface waters, and 

groundwater. Network-wide concerns for these 

resources include chemical and microbial contamination, nutrient loading, changes in climate 

and hydrology, erosion/turbidity/sedimentation, 

invasive species, and atmospheric deposition. 

The natural cycle of water resources flowing 

through multiple ecosystems and jurisdictions 

necessitates working with other organizations 

that also have water quality monitoring and 

management responsibilities. The National Park 

Service already partners with federal, state, 

territorial, commonwealth, and local governing agencies in the PACN because submerged 

lands and their resources are often not owned 

or administered by the NPS. An extensive 

discussion of PACN water resource concerns, 

monitoring programs, and water quality data is 

presented in appendix I.

The most significant legislation applicable to 

water quality is the United States Clean Water 

Act (CWA) of 1977. The act requires states and 

territories to identify and publish water quality 

standards, those waters that do not meet the 

adopted standards, and waters not expected to 

meet the standards. Waters that do not meet the 

criteria for their designated uses are considered 

non-supportive. If certain conditions are met, 

these waters may be reported as impaired to 

the Environmental Protection Agency as per 

requirements of Section 303(d) of the CWA; 

often termed the “303(d) list.”

PACN water quality data summary—A 

detailed water quality data summary for each 

park of the PACN is available in appendix I. 

The goal of this data summary is to use available 

information to identify water quality problems 

in the PACN (table 1.6). Regulatory reporting 

to the United States Environmental Protection 

Agency (USEPA) by the Territories and the State 

of Hawaii as required by Section 305(b) of the 

CWA reveals an increasing number of impaired 

water bodies as determined by local water 

quality standards for their respective designated 

uses. However, this statement of increasing 

impairments may be misleading as additional 

water quality monitoring takes place and previously unmonitored and unlisted resources are 

added to the CWA Section 303(d) list.

Trends in water quality for PACN resources 

are not well defined due to a lack of continuity 

and coordination between the various studies and monitoring programs. Data sources for 

this summary include: USGS, USEPA, Guam 

Environmental Protection Agency (GEPA), 

American Samoa Environmental Protection 

Agency (ASEPA), State of Hawaii Department 

of Health, and compilations prepared for each 

park’s baseline water quality data inventory and 

analysis report (NPS-WRD 1996, 1998, 1999a, 

1999b, 2000, 2001, in prep a, in prep b, in prep 

c).

Groundwater—Although groundwater quality 

data are lacking for most PACN parks, all parks 

have concerns about changes in hydrology, 

seawater intrusion, and chemical and microbial 

contamination. Pacific island communities rely 

heavily on groundwater to supply municipal 

drinking water and their respective governments provide some protection through legislation. Changes in quantity and quality occur 

when increasing withdrawal rates lower the 

water table and lead to seawater intrusion. In 

“Network-wide 

concerns for 

these resources 

include chemical 

and microbial 

contamination, 

nutrient loading, 

... erosion/

turbidity/

sedimentation, 

invasive species, 

...”
National Park Service 15

Table 1.5. Numbers of known federally listed threatened, endangered, and candidate 

endangered species found in the USA with the numbers found in both PACN parks and in the 

PACN region*.

Endangered Threatened Total T & E Candidate 

Species

Total T & E, 

Candidate 

Species

USAa

Total Animals 928 185 1113 139 1252

Total Plants 599 148 747 140 887

 TOTAL SPECIES: USA 1527 333 1860 279 2139

PACN Parksb

AMME 3 0 3 1 4

WAPA 1 0 1 2 3

NPSA 1 1 2 5 7

USAR ? ? ? ? ?

KALA 15 4 19 4 23

HALE 19 3 22 12 34

ALKA ? ? ? ? ?

PUHE 4 1 5 0 5

KAHO 15 1 16 4 20

PUHO 12 1 13 0 13

HAVO 29 4 33 10 43

TOTAL SPECIES: PACN PARKS

(% of total species USA)

66

(4.3%)

7

(2.1%)

73

(3.9%)

33

(11.8%)

106

(4.9%)

PACN Regionc

Hawaiian Islands 51 5 56 18 74

West and south Pacific 12 3 15 12 27

Total Animalsd 61 6 67 30 97

Hawaiian Islands 264 9 273 86 359

West and south Pacific 1 0 1 0 1

Total Plants 265 9 274 86 360

TOTAL SPECIES: PACN 

REGION

(% of total species USA)

326 

(21.3%)

15

(4.5%)

341

(18.3%)

116

(41.6%)

457

(21.4%)

*

 All Endangered, Threatened, and Candidate species data are from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s Threatened 

and Endangered Species websites: http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/StartTESS.do and http://www.fws.gov/pacificislands. 

Information on species at individual PACN parks was augmented with data from the National Park Service’s NPSpecies database.

a

. USA numbers include the contiguous United States, Alaska, Hawaii, American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana 

Islands, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.

b

. Several species are found in multiple parks. Therefore, the “Total Species: PACN parks” numbers are not the sum of 

the PACN parks numbers.

c

. The “PACN region” numbers include all species whose known or predicted range includes an island on which a 

PACN park is located. Thus, it is a summary of species that potentially occur in PACN parks.

d. PACN region “Total Animals” numbers are not the sum of the Hawaii and other Pacific regions because the subtotals include 4 species (2 endangered and 2 threatened sea turtles) which are found in both the Hawaiian Islands and 

the west and south Pacific.
16 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 1. Introduction and Background Table 1.6. Water quality problems identified in the PACN—Continued. Park Governing agency Data Threats to water resourcesa Park (or adjacent) 303(d) watersb Documented pollutantsb WAPA Territory of Guam 1974 – 1991, 1997 - present heavy metals, PCBs, soil and agricul- tural runoff, sedimentation of coral reefs Agana Bay (adjacent) Northern Guam Lens Aquifer (adjacent) turbidity and dissolved oxygen chlorides, nutrients, bacteria, and toxic contaminants AMME Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands 1990, 1994 - present leakage or seepage from abandoned fuel tanks and military equipment, illegal dumping, flooding, ground- water contamination from sewage, highly saline water from reverse osmosis Saipan Lagoon (adjacent), N. Puerto Rico Dump (adjacent), S. Puerto Rico Dump (adjacent), Smiling Cove Marina, American Memorial Park, Micro Beach, Hyatt Hotel Outer Cove Marina (adjacent) Enterococci, dissolved oxygen, and orthophosphate Enterococci and orthophosphate NPSA Territory of American Samoa 1998 - present erosion aggravated by agricultural land use and feral pigs, contamina- tion from sewage and dumps None n/a USAR State of Hawaii 1971 - present military, industrial, and agricultural pollution, heavy metals, sediment, 

and debris, oil

Pearl HarborHalawa Stream (adjacent)

nutrients, suspended solids, PCBnutrients and turbidity

KALA State of Hawaii 1969 

- 1989

Feral pigs, deer and cattle, diversion and input due to upland agriculture and urban development

None n/a

HALE State of Hawaii 1972 - 

present 

encroaching development, feral animals, alien species, stream diversion, untreated sewage

None n/a

ALKA State of Hawaii 1971 - 

present

motorized vehicles, foot traffic, construction activities, sedimentation impacts to reefs, wetlands and anchialine pools, contaminants and debris

Pelekane Bay/Kawaihae Harbor (adjacent), Hapuna Beach, Kealakekua BayPelekane Bay/Spencer Park Beach, Magic Sands BeachKailua Bay (adjacent)

turbidityturbidity and chlorophyll atotal phosphorous

a. As interpreted by the PACN from available historical data b. As reported to the USEPA in the current CWA Sect. 305(b) reports and/or 303(d) lists from each respective governing agency; details on which part of each water body is 

impaired can be found via the links provided on this website http://www.epa.gov/region9/water/tmdl/303d-2002.html.

Table 1.6. Water quality problems identified in the PACN.
National Park Service 17

Table 1.6. Water quality problems identified in the PACN—Continued.

 Park Governing 

agency

Data Threats to water resourcesa Park (or adjacent) 303(d) watersb Documented pollutantsb

PUHE State of Hawaii 1972 - 

present

fuel spills, erosion, diversion, storm water runoff, pollution, wastewater discharges

Pelekane Bay/Kawaihae Harbor (adjacent)Pelekane Bay/ Spencer Park Beach (adjacent)

turbidityturbidity and chlorophyll a

KAHO State of Hawaii 1972 - 

present

industrial development, bacterial contamination, nutrient loading, petroleum, heavy metals, sedimentation

None n/a

PUHO State of Hawaii 1972 

- 1998

sedimentation, eutrophication, agricultural chemicals

None n/a

HAVO State of Hawaii 1973 

- 1990

volcanic activity None n/a

a. As interpreted by the PACN from available historical data b. As reported to the USEPA in the current CWA Sect. 305(b) reports and/or 303(d) lists from each respective governing agency; details on which part of each water body is 

impaired can be found via the links provided on this website http://www.epa.gov/region9/water/tmdl/303d-2002.html
18 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 1. Introduction and Background

spite of the widespread monitoring of groundwater by municipal drinking water suppliers and 

the USGS, there is very little information available on groundwater quality from collection 

wells inside PACN parks. Only AMME, KALA, 

ALKA, and KAHO have groundwater wells currently available for monitoring.

Groundwater monitoring wells were installed at 

AMME and KAHO because of concerns about 

contamination of the resource and effects to the 

parks’ coastal wetlands and nearshore reefs. At 

KAHO, the USGS has detected industrial chemicals, naphthalene, and phenol in the groundwater (USGS 2003). In west Hawaii, the Natural 

Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority has 

been analyzing groundwater samples monthly 

for the last 16 years adjacent to segments of 

ALKA passing through Keahole Point. Data 

from these locations indicate increasing salinity, 

microbial contamination, nutrient spikes, and 

other impacts from adjacent land uses.

Inland Surface Water—Streams in the PACN 

are either very pristine as in NPSA, KALA, 

and HALE or highly altered as in WAPA, 

AMME, USAR, and PUHE. Human population growth has led to channelization and 

pollution of streams and rivers in the latter 

parks. Data collected by GEPA in the 1970s 

indicated turbidity and suspended solids were 

a problem for the Namo and Salinas rivers in 

the Agat Unit of WAPA, primarily during flood 

events. Streams in AMME receive brine from 

desalinization plants in violation of DEQ water 

quality standards. Several highly impacted 

streams that empty into Pearl Harbor around 

USAR are listed as impaired by high levels of 

nitrate/nitrite, total nitrogen, turbidity, and trash 

(HI DOH 2004b). A channelized, intermittent stream at PUHE receives large sediment 

influxes from its degraded watershed during periods of high runoff and subsequently 

becomes dammed at the mouth by this silt 

(Steward 2003).

Wetlands and anchialine pools are rare in the 

PACN (anchialine pools are unique to Hawaii 

within the U.S.) They are vulnerable to the same 

threats as groundwater and streams: changes 

in hydrology, seawater intrusion, erosion/

sedimentation, invasive species, and chemical and microbial contamination. Anchialine 

pools located in areas of urban expansion have 

demonstrated impacts from filling and nutrient 

loading (Brock and Kam 1994).

Marine Water—Land-based runoff and effects 

from harbor operations are the biggest concerns for marine waters of the PACN. Although 

water quality data are lacking, five PACN parks 

(NPSA, KALA, HALE, PUHO, and HAVO) 

contain or are adjacent to pristine marine 

resources which remain so primarily due to 

their inaccessibility. The other six parks (WAPA, 

AMME, USAR, ALKA, PUHE, and KAHO) are 

impacted by surrounding land uses and nearby 

harbors. Sedimentation from land sources and 

nutrients discharged in groundwater are the 

primary causes of reef impairment on Guam 

(GEPA 2004). Heavy metal contamination of 

marine areas in Guam is attributed to harbor 

operations and boat maintenance activities 

(Denton et al. 1999). Several coastal sites within 

Saipan Lagoon near AMME, are impaired by 

high turbidity and low dissolved oxygen (CNMI 

DEQ 2002).

Sediment assessments of Pearl Harbor have 

indicated contamination of sediments by 

herbicides, pesticides, heavy metals, and 

polychlorinated biphenyls, or PCBs (USNCEL 

1973, Grovhoug 1992, Ogden Environmental 

1996). Pearl Harbor has also exceeded State of 

Hawaii water quality standards for nutrients and 

suspended solids (HI DOH 2004b). Samples 

collected at Honokohau Bay (KAHO) had high 

levels of nitrogen in the 1990s. Honokohau Harbor, which lies within KAHO but is not administered by the park, has been assessed for water 

quality, circulation, and faunal changes. All of 

these variables deteriorated between the initial 

assessment in 1971 and the follow-up study 

after expansion of the harbor in 1979 (Bienfang 1980). Similar deterioration has occurred 

offshore of PUHE in Pelekane Bay, adjacent to 

Kawaihae Harbor, where land use has contributed to erosion of the watershed, damming of 

Makeahua Stream, and sedimentation onto the 

reef (Steward 2003). On the island of Hawaii, 

beach monitoring stations adjacent to two 

PACN parks (ALKA and PUHE) are listed as 

impaired for turbidity, chlorophyll a, and total 

phosphorous (HI DOH 2004b).

Impaired and Outstanding Natural Resource 

Waters (ONRW)—Federal, state, territorial, and 

commonwealth regulations on water quality 
National Park Service 19

standards provide a framework for designating and protecting water bodies for specific 

uses (GEPA 2001, CNMI DEQ 2002, ASEPA 

1999, HI DOH 2004a). Designated uses for 

PACN water resources are listed for each park 

in appendix I. The identification of impaired 

waters for 303(d) listing is limited by the shortage and small scope of existing monitoring programs. Table 1.7 lists the PACN water resources 

that have been identified as impaired by their 

respective governing agency in historical data 

sets and regulatory reports.

Several national park system units have ecologically distinctive and/or pristine water resources 

that could be considered Outstanding National 

Resource Waters, but this classification has not 

been developed by governments in the region. 

This provides an opportunity for the NPS I&M 

program along with other organizations, to set 

the precedent for evaluation and determination 

of such resources in Hawaii and the Pacific Territories. Table 1.7 lists PACN water resources (or 

waters adjacent to parks) that the network has 

identified as ecologically distinctive or pristine.

Air Quality Monitoring—Under the Clean 

Air Act, park managers have a responsibility 

to protect air quality and air quality related 

values (AQRV) from the adverse effects of air 

pollution. The latter are defined as resources 

sensitive to air quality, including wildlife, 

vegetation, water quality, soils, visibility, and 

cultural resources. Protection of air quality 

in national parks requires knowledge about 

the origin, transport, and fate of air pollution, 

Table 1.7. Park waters identified as ecologically distinctive or pristine park resources.

Park Resource Details

WAPA Wetlands Ecologically distinctive and rare in the region

AMME Wetlands Ecologically distinctive and rare in the region

NPSA Coastal waters off Ofu and Tau

Streams 

Pristine

Pristine in all units

USAR No unique or pristine park resources n/a

KALA Kauhako crater lake

Streams

Coastal waters

Ecologically distinctive 

Pristine

Pristine

HALE Streams and springs

Coastal waters

High elevation lakes and bogs

Pristine in Kipahulu district

Pristine in Kipahulu district, adjacent to park

Ecologically distinctive and pristine

ALKA Coastal waters

Wetlands

Streams

Anchialine pool complexes

Pristine in many areas, adjacent to park

Ecologically distinctive in the area and pristine

Ecologically distinctive in the area

Ecologically distinctive and pristine in many areas

PUHE No unique or pristine park resources n/a

KAHO Wetlands

Anchialine pools

Coastal waters

Ecologically distinctive and rare in the region

Ecologically distinctive and mostly pristine

Pristine

PUHO Anchialine pools

Coastal waters

Ecologically distinctive 

Pristine, adjacent to park

HAVO Anchialine pools

Coastal waters

Olaa bogs

Ecologically distinctive 

Pristine, adjacent to park

Ecologically distinctive
20 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 1. Introduction and Background

as well as its impacts on resources. To be 

effective advocates for the protection of park 

air resources, NPS managers need to know 

the air pollutants of concern, existing levels 

of air pollutants in parks, park resources at 

risk, and the potential or actual impact on 

these resources. Through the efforts of park 

personnel, support office staff, and the NPS Air 

Resources Division, the NPS meets its clean air 

affirmative responsibilities by obtaining critical 

data and using the results in regulatory-related 

activities. Current air quality in PACN parks 

is considered pristine by national standards. 

However, pollution from natural sources can, 

at times, considerably degrade air quality. In 

addition long range pollution plumes have 

reached remote Pacific Islands (such as smog 

from China affecting Guam) and increased 

urbanization may also lead to future air 

pollution in the PACN. At this time air quality 

in PACN parks is mainly affected by wildland 

fires and volcanic eruptions. Air quality was 

designated a Vital Sign for the network because 

of its importance as both an anthropogenic 

and natural driver of change. The PACN is 

not developing monitoring protocols for this 

Vital Sign as monitoring is conducted by NPS 

and other federal and state agencies (table 

1.8). However, the PACN will report on these 

monitoring results in Vital Sign monitoring 

reports. Air quality monitoring in PACN parks 

has been focused on HAVO and HALE, which 

are both class I areas, a designation that affords 

the most stringent requirements for protecting 

air quality under the Clean Air Act.

Development of the Pacific Island Network

The Pacific Island Network is guided by a Board 

of Directors (BOD) composed of Superintendents from each of the national park system 

units plus several advisory members (chapter 8). 

The BOD makes decisions regarding the development and implementation of the monitoring 

strategy, hiring, budgeting, and scheduling, and 

is responsible for ensuring the overall effectiveness and success of the network’s monitoring 

efforts. The board has established a network 

charter (appendix Q) to describe the organization and administration of the network.

The network charter established a standing 

Technical Committee (TC) to provide technical 

Table 1.8. Air quality monitoring efforts in or near PACN parks.

National park or site* Parameters monitored Time period Network or program

Tutuila, American Samoa

 (NPSA nearby)

Aerosols, gases, radiation, weather 

parameters

1970’s - present NOAA CMDL

Pearl City, Oahu, Hawaii 

(USAR nearby)

Particulate matter 1971 – present Hawaii DOH, Clean Air Branch

Olinda, Maui, Hawaii 

(HALE nearby)

Visibility (aerosols) 1991 – present IMPROVE

PUHO Aerosols 2003 - 2004 VOGNET

HAVO Aerosols – dry deposition, ozone 1999 - 2004 CASTNET

Mauna Loa Observatory 

(HAVO nearby)

Wet Deposition 1983 - 1993 NADP/NTN

HAVO Wet Deposition 2000 - 2005 NADP/NTN

HAVO UV radiation 1999 - 2004 UVnet/PRIMENet

HAVO Visibility (aerosols) 1986 - present IMPROVE

HAVO SO2 1986 - present NPS Gaseous Pollutant Network

HAVO Cloud presence and chemistry 1997 - 2003 University of Hawaii, Huebert

Mauna Loa Observatory, 

(HAVO nearby)

Aerosols, gases, radiation, weather 

parameters

1970’s - present NOAA CMDL

*

 nearby indicates that the station is not in national park boundaries but close enough to provide relevant data for the park.
National Park Service 21

Table 1.9. PACN timeline for completing the three-phase Inventory and Monitoring program planning and design 

process.

FY 2002 

(Phase I)

FY 2002

(Phase I)

FY 2003

(Phase I)

FY 2004

(Phase II)

FY 2005

(Phase III)

FY 2006 & 

beyond

(Phase III)

Anticipated Funding Monitoring 

+ inventory

Monitoring 

+ inventory

Monitoring 

+ inventory

Monitoring

+ inventory Monitoring Monitoring

Define goals and objectives X X X

Data gathering

internal scoping X X X X X X

Inventories X X X X X

Scoping Sessions X X

Conceptual Modeling X X X X

Vital Signs Prioritization and Selection X X

Protocol Development Monitoring 

Design X X

Monitoring Plan Due Dates: 

Phases I, II, and III

Phase 1

Oct 2003

Phase 2

Oct 2004

Phase 3

Dec 2005 and 

Sep 2006

assistance and advice to the board. The Technical Committee is comprised of natural resource 

managers and scientists who work in the parks 

and are familiar with park issues. This Technical 

Committee, along with the Board of Directors, 

assists the network in refining the scope of work 

for this monitoring plan.

Network Approach to Program 

Development—The PACN has approached 

developing the monitoring program in a 

stepwise fashion such that we will implement 

sections of the program sequentially. It is 

impossible to monitor all attributes of PACN 

ecosystems. Therefore, the program will 

evolve as we document patterns of change in 

ecosystems. To sustain an adaptive monitoring 

program, we will evaluate monitoring data 

at regular intervals, initially every five years 

(chapter 7).

The early focus of the PACN program was on 

gathering baseline data (inventories) that will 

build the foundation for long-term monitoring. 

At its inception, the NPS Inventory and Monitoring program developed extensive guidance 

for program preparation and implementation4, 

4 See: http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/monitor/

including a three-phase planning and design 

process. Phase I of this process included: (a) 

defining goals and objectives; (b) initiating the 

identification, evaluation, and synthesis of existing data; and (c) developing draft conceptual 

models. Phase II involved selecting and prioritizing Vital Signs. In Phase III, the monitoring 

plan is to be completed and implementation 

begun. A timeline of the progress the PACN has 

made through this process is presented below 

(table 1.9). 

To provide a starting point for our park scoping 

workshops, we organized 11 topical working 

groups (figure 1.9) that each identified ecosystem drivers, candidate attributes to monitor, and 

gaps in knowledge to help direct data mining 

efforts. Working groups were comprised of 

NPS and USGS subject area experts, as well 

as scientists from other federal, state, territory, 

and commonwealth agencies and organizations familiar with the PACN parks and their 

resources. The working groups played a key 

role in identifying, reviewing, and refining Vital 

Signs for the parks and network. The Technical Committee established network monitoring objectives. Working group members held 

discussions with park staff and cooperators dur-
22 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 1. Introduction and Background

Working Groups

Air Quality/Climate Marine

Data Management Terrestrial Invertebrates

Geology Terrestrial Vertebrates

Freshwater Biology Vegetation

Invasive Species Water Quality

Landscape

Hold park scoping workshops for discussion of

monitoring questions, drivers and attributes

(2002-2003)

Prioritize Selected

Vital Signs

(November 2004)

Write protocols, determine program

administration & implementation

(2005-2007)

Conceptual modeling workshop

(March 2003)

Water quality workshop

(August 2003)

Vital Sign workshop

(March 2004)

Draft monitoring questions, identify

ecosystem drivers, attributes, and

gaps in knowledge (2002-2003)

Review, input, approval

Establish monitoring program

TC meeting: review & modify proposed

Vital Signs (November 2003)

TC meeting: establish working

groups & monitoring objectives

(June 2002)

Review, input, approval

NPSA coral reef monitoring

workshop (June 2001)

Form a Technical Committee

(~30 members)

Form a Board of Directors

(11 Park superintendents)

Figure 1.9.

PACN program 

development 

between 2001 and 

2007.

ing park scoping workshops in 2002 and 2003. 

These discussions served as starting points 

to connect the components of the ecosystem 

monitoring program5. 

In addition to park scoping workshops, we 

held or participated in several topically focused 

workshops. In June 2001, a workshop at NPSA 

focused on evaluating coral reef monitoring 

from a small park perspective6. Desired future 

conditions for PACN parks were identified and 

a draft structure for the conceptual ecological 

models was initiated in a workshop in March 

2003. In August of 2003 we held a water quality 

planning workshop7.

5

 Topical working group reports may be found in 

appendix E: Topical Working Group Reports, with the 

exception of the Water Quality report (appendix I), and 

the Data Management group, which initiated preparation 

of a data management plan.

6

 A complete report of this meeting may be found in 

Appendix O: Part I Developing a Coral Reef Monitoring 

Program for the National Park of American Samoa.

7

 A complete report of this meeting may be found in

Appendix O: Part III Water Quality Workshop.

Results of these workshops were used by the 

topical workgroups to construct an initial list of 

proposed Vital Signs8. Both Vital Signs and conceptual models were refined in the Vital Signs 

workshop in March 2004. The list of Vital Signs 

was reduced through a series of park ranking 

exercises and Technical Committee discussions. 

In November 2004, a meeting was held to prioritize the final short list of Vital Signs for initial 

implementation (chapter 3 provides details on 

the process). All park scoping and workshop 

reports are found in appendix O. Since Vital 

Signs selection and prioritization, the PACN 

program has focused on protocol development 

and determining details of program administration and implementation.

Monitoring Objectives—The overarching 

strategic purpose of the PACN monitoring 

program is to evaluate and track ecological 

integrity. To achieve this, monitoring objectives 

were identified. These network monitoring 

8

 A complete report of this meeting may be found in 

Appendix O: Part IV Vital Signs Workshop.
National Park Service 23

objectives (table 1.10), organized in the national 

I&M program’s ecological framework, have 

been established to help focus the monitoring 

program and facilitate partnerships. Network 

monitoring objectives established during Vital 

Sign development ensured that a full spectrum 

of ecological attributes and management issues 

were considered for possible monitoring. 

Detailed, quantifiable, Vital Sign monitoring 

objectives have been identified for individual 

Vital Signs as part of protocol development 

(chapter 5).

Vital Signs Development and Selection—

Selection of the set of Vital Signs for 

implementation has been a multi-stage process, 

as shown below. Additional detail on the 

process and criteria for ranking and selecting 

Vital Signs is found in chapter 3.

Step 1: Defined goals and objectives 

of the monitoring program, reviewed 

available information about park 

resources, ecosystems, stressors, and 

concerns, and identified key characteristics of ecosystem integrity. 

Step 2: Conducted literature reviews, 

constructed conceptual models of 

ecosystem function, and developed 

an initial list of proposed Vital Signs. 

Solicited advice from the scientific 

community about key ecosystem attributes within particular ecosystems or 

topic areas. 

Step 3: Refined proposed Vital Signs 

based on input received, restructured 

our initial conceptual ecological 

framework to comply with the national 

framework, and created new Vital Signs 

to fill gaps identified during this stage. 

Step 4: Evaluated and prioritized 

proposed Vital Signs for each park. The 

final list of Vital Signs was selected with 

consideration of factors such as availability of existing protocols.

Current and Past Monitoring Within and 

Surrounding the Network—The Inventory 

and Monitoring program is an opportunity to 

establish new facets of ecosystem monitoring. 

It is also important to examine current and past 

monitoring conducted by national park system 

•

•

•

•

units and their neighbors. This will allow us to 

build upon those efforts and gain the maximum 

amount of understanding of park natural 

resources. The areas that are now protected in 

PACN parks have varying histories of scientific 

exploration and research. The history of 

monitoring (repeated data collection) is longest 

in the State of Hawaii parks, particularly Hawaii 

Volcanoes and Haleakala National Parks. Much 

less monitoring has been conducted in the 

newer Hawaii parks and the west and south 

Pacific parks. 

The National Park Service is pursuing cooperative programs and partnerships with other 

agencies at a regional and a park-based level. 

For example, the Coral Reef Task Force partners 

NPS with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), USGS, States, 

Territories, and universities to better understand 

and evaluate the condition and functioning of 

coral reefs in the national parks, and respond to 

threats to reef resources. In ALKA, community 

involvement and local school-based monitoring is anticipated to be integral to implementing monitoring. For the most part, on-going 

monitoring projects in both park and adjacent 

areas are specific to a single resource issue, and 

not oriented to an overall systems approach. 

Partnerships are a core component of the I&M 

program and are discussed in more detail in 

chapter 8 and appendix B.

This summary will continue to evolve over 

the next several years and reflects our current 

efforts to gather and organize information about 

current and past monitoring activities in and 

around Pacific Island Network parks. Our “data 

mining” task involves the entry of information into the Servicewide databases for existing 

data sets (Dataset Catalog), literature citations 

(NatureBib), and species occurrence information (NPSpecies). This data mining effort is 

ongoing and will continue for some time. We list 

current monitoring projects relevant to the network in appendix C, and describe current and 

past monitoring efforts at each national park 

system unit in appendix A. Detailed information on current and past monitoring programs 

grouped by subject area may be found in the 

topical reports in appendix E. Appendix B lists 

potential partners for monitoring. Table 1.11 

illustrates how current monitoring fits into the 

national Vital Signs framework.

“... a full spectrum 

of ecological 

attributes and 

management issues 

were considered 

for possible 

monitoring.”
24 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 1. Introduction and Background

Table 1.10. Preliminary PACN network monitoring objectives, organized in the Inventory and 

Monitoring program national Vital Signs framework—Continued.

Level 1 Level 2 Monitoring objective Air and Climate

Air Quality

Determine spatial and temporal patterns and trends in atmospheric 

particulates, gases, and deposition.

Track trends in sight distance and light extinction affecting visibility.

Weather & Climate Track the range of variation in weather patterns across PACN parks.

Geology & Soils

Geomorphology Document short- and long-term changes in coastal, stream, and 

dune morphologies.

Subsurface Geologic 

Processes

Understand spatial and temporal patterns and variation in volcanic 

and seismic activity.

Track changes in cave and lava tube environmental and morphological characteristics.

Soil Quality Track physical, chemical, and biological changes in soils.

Paleontology Document changes in condition of paleontological resources such 

as archived pollen cores and fossils.

Water

Hydrology

Track spatial and temporal patterns and variation in hydrology of 

freshwater and marine systems.

Determine magnitude and trends of water withdrawal for human 

use.

Water Quality Track spatial and temporal patterns and variation in water quality in 

freshwater and marine systems

Biological Integrity

Invasive Species

Use monitoring data for early detection & predictive modeling of 

incipient invasive species.

Document changes in established populations of invasive species, 

including response to treatment.

Infestations & Disease Determine trends in incidence of disease and infestation in selected 

communities and populations.

Focal Species or Communities

Determine trends in composition, structure, and function of populations of selected focal species within the parks.

Determine trends in composition, structure, and function of selected focal communities within the parks.

At-risk Biota Determine trends in populations of threatened, endangered, and 

at-risk species within the parks.

Table 1.10. Preliminary PACN network monitoring objectives, organized in the Inventory and 

Monitoring program national Vital Signs framework.
National Park Service 25

Table 1.10. Preliminary PACN network monitoring objectives, organized in the Inventory and 

Monitoring program national Vital Signs framework—Continued.

Level 1 Level 2 Monitoring objective Human Use

Point-Source Human 

Effects

Use monitoring data to determine patterns of litter and debris 

within parks and identify possible sources.

Non-point Source Human 

Effects

Use monitoring data to determine patterns of litter and debris 

within parks and identify possible sources.

Consumptive Use Determine magnitude and trends in harvest of biological resources 

and sand.

Visitor & Recreation Use Determine spatial and temporal patterns of visitor use of park 

resources.

Cultural Landscapes Determine trends in condition of resources with shared natural and 

cultural value.

Landscapes

(Ecosystem Pattern & Processes)

Fire & Fuel Dynamics Determine spatial and temporal patterns and effects of fire on vegetation communities.

Landscape Dynamics

Determine spatial and temporal patterns and changes in land cover 

and community distribution.

Determine spatial and temporal patterns and changes in marine 

benthic cover and community distribution.

Determine spatial and temporal patterns in land use and effects on 

park resources.

Determine spatial and temporal patterns in marine use and effects 

on park resources.

Extreme Disturbance 

Events Track extreme disturbance events in parks.

Soundscape Determine trends in natural and anthropogenic sounds in selected 

areas.

Viewscape

Determine whether viewsheds, landscapes, and underwater seascapes are changing within and surrounding the park.

Determine trends in levels of artificial light and shading in selected 

areas.

Nutrient Dynamics Determine rates of nutrient turnover in terrestrial and aquatic 

systems.

Energy Flow Determine trends in productivity of plants and algae in terrestrial 

and aquatic communities.
26 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 1. Introduction and Background Table 1.11. Current monitoring by individual parks and other organizations in the Pacific Island Network—Continued. [ a= Currently monitored by park; A= Currently monitored by another agency or organization] Level 1 Level 2 Monitored variable

AMME

WAPA

NPSA

USAR

KALA

HALE

ALKA

PUHE

KAHO

PUHO

HAVO

Air & Climate Air Quality Particulates (IMPROVE suite)

A

A

Volcanic Ash AContaminants (ozone, CO2, SO2 etc.)

A A A

A

A

Weather Weather/ climate A A A A A aA A A aA A aA

Geology & Soils Subsurface Geologic Processes Earthquakes A A A A A A A A A A A

Ground deformation A A

Soil Quality Erosion aA a A

Water Hydrology Stream flow A A A A A

Tsunamis A A A A A A A A A AGroundwater levels A A

Water Quality Chemistry (pH, N, DO) A A A A aA

Toxics A A AMacroinvertebrates & algae A A aAMicroorganisms A A A A AWater temperature A A aA A A A aA

Table 1.11. Current monitoring by individual parks and other organizations in the Pacific Island Network.
National Park Service 27

Table 1.11. Current monitoring by individual parks and other organizations in the Pacific Island Network—Continued.[ a= Currently monitored by park; A= Currently monitored by another agency or organization]

Level 1 Level 2 Monitored variable

AMME

WAPA

NPSA

USAR

KALA

HALE

ALKA

PUHE

KAHO

PUHO

HAVO

Biological Integrity Invasive Species Established alien plants A a a

Argentine ant aInvasive small mammal monitoring & control

a a a a

Kalij pheasants aAInvasive insect monitoring & control a AFeral ungulate monitoring & control a a aA

Focal species or Communities (including at-risk species)

Coral reef fish communities A A A A A A ACoral dist./abund./recruitment A A a A A aA AEffects of vegetation management/restoration a aVegetation growth/ composition A a A aATerrestrial invertebrate communities ARare upland plant species & communities aRare coastal plant species & communities ADark-rumped petrel nesting a aSea turtle dist./abund. A A aA A a Silverswords & silversword restoration a aNene (hawaiian goose) dist./abund., genetic info, nesting

a a

Shark/manta ray dist./abund. ALeafhopper dist./abund. AWaterbird dist./abund. ABrown tree snake A ABats AMarine mammals A aA A A A A A AForest bird dist./abund. A a

Human Use Consumptive Use Fisheries A aA A A A A

Human Use Visitation a a a a a a a a

Landscape (Ecosystem Pattern & Processes)

Fire Landscape pattern

a
28 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 1. Introduction and Background

Summary

 In Chapter 1, we summarize legislation, NPS 

policy and guidance, Servicewide and Networkspecific strategic goals for management, and 

park-enabling legislation relevant to PACN Vital 

Signs monitoring. According to federal law and 

National Park Service policies, national park 

managers are directed to know the status and 

trends in the condition of natural resources 

under their stewardship. This knowledge is 

necessary to fulfill the NPS mission to conserve 

park resources unimpaired for the enjoyment 

of future generations as stated in the National 

Park Service Organic Act of 1916. As part of 

the Natural Resource Challenge, efforts are 

being made to improve park management and 

expand institutional knowledge and reliance 

on scientific information. The PACN, comprised of 11 units, is one of 32 Inventory and 

Monitoring networks establishing a Vital Signs 

monitoring plan to assess the condition of 

park natural resources. Long-term monitoring of natural resources provides site-specific 

information needed to understand and identify 

changes in natural systems and to determine 

whether these changes are within natural levels 

of variability. It also helps to detect changes in 

ecosystem integrity and species viability before 

irreversible loss has occurred. It is impossible 

to monitor all attributes of PACN ecosystems. 

Therefore, Vital Signs are a subset of physical, 

chemical, and biological elements and processes of park ecosystems that are selected to 

represent the overall health or condition of park 

resources, effects of stressors, or elements that 

have important human values. An important 

emphasis of the Vital Signs monitoring program 

is to facilitate communication, coordination, 

and collaboration among parks, programs, 

academia, and government agencies. The PACN 

is guided by a Board of Directors composed of 

superintendents from each of the national park 

system units, plus several advisory members and 

is responsible for ensuring the overall effectiveness and success of the network’s monitoring efforts. A standing Technical Committee 

provides technical assistance to the board and 

is comprised of natural resource managers and 

scientists who work in the parks and are familiar 

with park issues. The PACN I&M program will 

evolve as we document patterns of change in 

ecosystems through our Vital Signs monitoring.
National Park Service 29

Monitoring efforts must be based on a fundamental understanding of how an ecosystem 

functions. Conceptual model development, a 

vital part of the NPS Inventory and Monitoring 

program, provides a framework for clarifying 

meaningful monitoring strategies, enabling us 

to progress from more general to more specific 

monitoring questions (Gross 2003). Models 

promote communication among scientists, 

managers, and the public, providing a means for 

ecosystem monitoring evaluation and interpretation and discussion of ecosystem components.

Most conceptual models are a combination of 

visual and narrative summaries that illustrate 

the important components of a system and the 

interactions among them. These models can 

communicate system functions that may: (a) 

represent current knowledge of the processes 

occurring in systems, (b) illustrate system 

dynamics, (c) identify the bounds and scope of 

the systems of interest, and (d) provide a framework for testing hypotheses about how systems 

function. Conceptual models are also useful for 

justification of monitoring indicators. No single 

model depicts any “correct” system. Rather, it 

represents the current best understanding of 

system dynamics, and should be refined as our 

understanding of park ecosystem processes 

expands (Jorgensen 1988, Roman and Barrett 

1999, Maddox et al. 1999). 

PACN Holistic Model 

The overarching goal of the National Park 

Service is the restoration and maintenance of 

ecological integrity within park boundaries 

(NPS 2001). Ecological integrity is the ability of 

an ecological system to support and maintain 

(a) native (appropriate) species, populations and 

communities, (b) the occurrence of ecological 

processes at appropriate rates and scales, and 

(c) the existence of environmental conditions 

that support these taxa and processes (Karr and 

Dudley 1991). Ecological integrity implies the 

physical, chemical, and biological components 

of an ecosystem are present, functioning, and 

capable of self-renewal (Parrish et al. 2003). 

The PACN uses this standard to guide network 

ecosystem monitoring efforts, including efforts 

to develop ecosystem conceptual models, and in 

choosing the monitoring Vital Signs.

 Jenny’s (Jenny 1941, 1980) state-factor 

approach has been widely applied as a framework for examining temporal and spatial 

variations in ecosystem structure and function (figure 2.1A) (Walker and Chapin 1987, 

Vitousek 1994, Seastedt et al. 2001). Chapin 

and colleagues (1996) extended this framework 

(figure 2.1B) with a set of ecological principles 

concerning ecosystem sustainability, describing 

“...a sustainable ecosystem as one that, over the 

normal cycle of disturbance events, maintains 

its characteristic diversity of major functional 

groups, productivity, and rates of biogeochemical 

cycling” (Chapin et al. 1996). PACN adopted 

a modified version of the interactive-control 

model (Miller et al. 2003) as a holistic network 

model (figure 2.1D). By substituting water quality and quantity for soil resources in the model, 

it can be applied to aquatic as well as terrestrial 

ecosystems (Chapin et al. 1996). In the PACN 

interactive-control model, water and soil quality are represented as water and soil resources 

and conditions. Climate, as represented in this 

model, falls underneath the broader term of 

atmospheric resources and conditions. This 

term encompasses climatic variables (e.g., temperature, precipitation), as well as atmospheric 

drivers and stressors (e.g., gaseous and particulate matter). This interpretation of climate 

is an important clarification in the context of 

global environmental changes. In figure 2.1B 

and C, higher order effects are depicted as: (1) 

climate, (2) soil and water resource supply, (3) 

major functional groups of organisms, and (4) 

disturbance regimes interacting with ecosystem 

processes (Miller et al. 2003). 

A key aspect of the interactive-control model 

is the hypothesis that interactive controls must 

be conserved for an ecosystem to be sustained. 

Large changes in any of the four interactive controls are predicted to result in a new ecosystem 

Chapter 2. Conceptual Models

“Conceptual models 

are a combination 

of visual and 

narrative 

summaries 

that illustrate 

the important 

components of a 

system and the 

interactions among 

them.”
30 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 2. Conceptual Models

with different characteristics than the original 

system (Chapin et al. 1996). For example, major 

changes in soil resources (e.g., erosion, salinization, fertilization, or other mechanisms) can 

greatly affect productivity, recruitment, and 

competitive relations between plants which, 

in turn, can result in major alterations in the 

structure and function of plant communities as 

well as higher trophic levels. These factors and 

processes in combination can result in fundamentally different types of ecosystems, threatening ecological integrity. 

Pacific Island Systems

The Pacific Island Network has created a set of 

holistic models that illustrate the broad characteristics of Pacific islands. We use a graphical 

illustration of an island as a base for which to 

present several of our models. This graphical 

island format illustrates three important features 

regarding island ecosystems in which all PACN 

parks are located: (1) islands are topographically and biologically diverse, (2) islands are 

governed by interconnections between land, 

sea, and air, and (3) islands are threatened by a 

common group of agents of change.

Figure 2.2 presents a generalized Pacific island 

that illustrates typical ecosystem zonation as it 

relates to altitude and characteristic rainfall patterns generated by trade winds. Elevations of all 

PACN islands rise into the montane mesic/cloud 

forest or mid-elevation seasonal/rainforest ecological zones. However, the islands of Maui and 

Hawaii also extend into the sub-alpine, alpine, 

and alpine Aeolian1 zones. Most parks occupy 

only a portion of the generalized island. Cave 

and lava tube systems may be located at any 

elevation.

Saipan, Guam, and islands of American Samoa 

differ somewhat from this model, as they lack 

substantial windward-leeward distinctions. Rel1

The alpine aeolian zone, primarily wind-supported, is differentiated from the alpine zone in that little or no photosynthetic production occurs in this ecosystem.

ECOSYSTEM PROCESSES

Regional climate Disturbance

regimes

Functional

Soil resources groups

GLOBAL

CLIMATE

TOPOGRAPHY

PARENT MATERIAL OR 

WATER RESOURCES

POTENTIAL

BIOTA

TIME (since disturbance)

A. B.

ECOSYSTEM PROCESSES

GLOBAL

CLIMATE

TOPOGRAPHY

PARENT MATERIAL OR 

WATER RESOURCES

POTENTIAL

BIOTA

TIME (since disturbance)

ECOSYSTEM PROCESSES

Regional atmospheric

resources & conditions Disturbance

regimes

Functional

groups

Soil or water 

resources &

conditions

Increasing CO2 concentrations

Incressing temperatures

Change in inversion layer elevation

Changing precipitation patterns

Other airborne pollutatns

(NOX, SO2, particulates)

Species additions

Species deletions

Species interactions (cumulative)

Fire occurrence

Tropical cyclones

Volcanic activity

Trampling & herbivory by animals

Trampling by visitors

Traditional fishing, hunting, gathering

Subsistence agriculture

Water diversions

Agricultural, industrial, residential pollutants

Recreational pollutatns (from vehicles)

Trampling from animals/ visitors

Defecation from animals/ visitors

GLOBAL

CLIMATE

TOPOGRAPHY

PARENT MATERIAL OR 

WATER RESOURCES

POTENTIAL

BIOTA

TIME (since disturbance)

ECOSYSTEM PROCESSES

Regional atmospheric

resources & conditions Disturbance

regimes

Functional

groups

Soil or water 

resources &

conditions

C. D.

Figure 2.1.

Relationships (A) 

between Jenny’s 

(1941) state factors 

and ecosystem 

processes, and (B) 

among state factors, 

interactive controls, 

and ecosystem 

processes. The 

circle represents 

the boundary of 

the ecosystem. The 

modified version 

of the interactivecontrol model for the 

PACN is represented 

in (C), and (D) is the 

array of stressors 

affecting PACN 

ecosystems arranged 

in relation to their 

first-order effects 

(modified from Jenny, 

1941, Chapin et al. 

1996, Miller et al. 

2003).
National Park Service 31

atively low relief, coupled with their locations in 

the Pacific, have not created a trade wind-generated rain shadow effect (Mueller-Dombois & 

Fosberg 1998) as with the Hawaiian islands.

Lower elevation ecosystems on all PACN 

islands have been heavily altered by humans 

since first colonization (Kirch 1982, Burney et 

al. 2001), and anthropogenic impacts continue 

at an accelerated rate. All ecosystem zones were 

used by native peoples to some degree, although 

the extent and exact nature is not fully known. 

Traditional uses and practices continue today in 

many national parks, though more recent land 

use practices have dominantly superseded traditional cultural impacts on ecosystems.

Key PACN Ecosystems—Knowledge of island 

biogeography is essential to understanding 

Pacific island ecosystems. As a general rule, the 

number of functional biotic groups decreases 

with increasing distance from continental 

source populations, resulting in less taxonomic 

groups in the Hawaiian Islands, relative to the 

west and south Pacific islands (i.e., numbers 

of Pacific reef fish and invertebrate species are 

highest near their source populations in IndoMalaysia) (Connell 1978, Briggs 1999). Because 

a low number of species have colonized the 

islands (Keast 1996, Convention on Biological 

Diversity 2003), fewer functional groups exist 

than in most continental regions. Islands 

farther from source populations tend towards 

higher levels of endemism than those near 

source populations (Munroe 1996, Font 2003). 

Endemism can arise from both evolution of 

single species in isolation and from adaptive 

radiation, where multiple species are derived 

from a single ancestral species. Both of these 

speciation mechanisms have occurred among 

native species that inhabit PACN ecosystems 

(Keast 1996, Polhemus and Asquith 1996, 

Brasher 2003). Thus, despite the low number of 

colonizing species, Hawaiian island ecosystems 

are considered remarkable for the high levels 

of endemism exhibited by their flora and fauna 

(Loope and Gon 1989, Slikas 2003).

The Pacific Island Network has identified six 

key ecosystem groupings: (1) scrub land, (2) forest and shrubland, (3) subterranean, (4) stream, 

(5) coastal, (6) nearshore marine. 

Distinctive communities within each of these 

categories vary by park. Because of the vast 

geographical range of the network, community 

composition varies in different regions (Hawaiian Islands, American Samoa, and Marianas 

Islands) within each of these ecosystem types.

Inversion Tradewinds

Warm air

Tidepool

Dry coastal

lowlands

Mid-elevation

seasonal

Montane mesic

Cave/

lava tube

Stream

Estuary

Rainforest

Open ocean

Coral reef

Bog/pond Cloud forest Cool air

Coastal wetland/

anchialine pool Seagrass meadow/

mudflat

Coastal strand

Windward Leeward

Sub-alpine

Alpine

Sub-alpine

Aeolian

Figure 2.2.

Generalized Pacific 

island ecosystem 

zonation showing 

altitudinal gradients 

and windward-leeward 

distinction.
32 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 2. Conceptual Models

Interactions of Pacific Island Ecosystems

Ecosystems do not exist in isolation, but are 

linked by movement of air, water, and organisms 

(Polis et al. 1997). To demonstrate these interactions, including processes that occur outside 

park boundaries and island-wide, we used a 

standard Pacific island conceptual diagram 

(figure 2.4). Water is one of the main linkages between systems. Surface water systems 

often connect terrestrial and marine systems 

(e.g., transport of nutrients and organic matter 

from forests to coral reefs via streams). Surface 

water and groundwater systems are also highly 

Table 2.1. Six dominant ecosystem types located within or immediately adjacent to PACN parks.

Ecosystem Type Description Parksa

1. Scrub land Alpine and subalpine, very low rainfall, and includes 

non-alpine lava fields.

HALE, HAVO

2. Forest and shrub land Rain forest, cloud forest, montane bog and pond, 

Hawaiian mesic forests, Marianas limestone, Hawaiian dry forest and grassland, and Mariana Island 

savanna. 

WAPA, NPSA, KALA, HALE, PUHE, KAHO, 

PUHO, HAVO, ALKA

3. Subterranean Cave and lava tube ecosystems. WAPA, HALE, KAHO, HAVO, ALKA

4. Stream Perennial and intermittent streams and seeps, including sources, riparian areas, and estuaries.AMME, WAPA, NPSA, KALA, HALE, ALKA, 

PUHE, PUHO, HAVO

5. Coastal Coastal marshes, mangrove swamps, anchialine 

pools, man-made enclosed fishponds, sea cliffs, 

limestone and basalt rocky shores, sand and cobble 

beaches, and strand vegetation communities.

all parks

6. Nearshore marine Coral communities, fringing reefs, seagrass beds, 

and shoreline intertidal. 

all parks

a

. Resources of ALKA have not been inventoried, as the trail is in planning stages. Resources listed for ALKA in this table are found along the 

proposed route.

Figure 2.3.

Riparian area at 

Puukohola Heiau 

National Historic Site 

(left) and Puu Alii 

bog at Kalaupapa 

National Historical 

Park (right).
National Park Service 33

interconnected. All groundwater resources on 

Pacific islands are formed by the percolation 

of rainwater into bedrock. Fresh groundwater 

also exists in a “lens” that floats upon seawater. 

Additionally, freshwater springs may be found 

under the ocean surface, providing a source 

of nutrients to nearby organisms. Withdrawal 

of freshwater for human consumption often 

reduces the flow of streams and lowers the 

water table in wells and wetlands, illustrating 

the interconnectivity of these resources. 

Several important marine processes also affect 

terrestrial and surface water systems. Wave 

action (figure 2.5) and ocean intrusion affect the 

physical and chemical environment of coastal 

habitats. Deep-water upwelling provides an 

important source of nutrients to both marine 

and coastal communities, although this effect 

is less pronounced than in temperate regions. 

Coastal currents are highly important in the 

dispersal of larvae and adult marine organisms, 

including the larvae of freshwater fish species 

and terrestrial plants such as mangroves.

Numerous additional linkages exist. An important interaction that has greatly diminished over 

time is the transport of nutrients from the ocean 

to land by mountain-nesting seabirds. Many 

of these seabird species are now extinct or 

greatly reduced in numbers (Loope 1998). Solar 

radiation also affects ecosystem productivity. In 

marine systems, for example, selective absorption of light wavelengths by the water column 

has a significant effect on ecological communities (e.g., zonation of macroalgae). Important 

atmospheric processes affecting terrestrial and 

aquatic ecosystems include: (a) evaporation, 

(b) rainfall, (c) deposition of marine aerosols, 

locally and globally generated particulate matter 

and nutrients, and (d) short and long-term wind 

patterns. 

Pacific Island Agents of Change

Pacific islands share several primary stressors, 

or agents of change. Common stressors arise 

from both 

anthropogenic 

and non-human 

sources (figures 

2.6 and 2.8). 

These stressors 

affect multiple 

ecosystems, 

and can represent possible 

threats to human 

health or safety. 

The ecological 

Solar radiation Inversion Tradewinds

Rainfall

Groundwater lens

Coastal currents

Groundwater lens

Evaporation

Atmospheric deposition

(local sources)

Land-atmosphere

exchanges

Surface water

discharge, nutrient

& sediment transport

Light

absorption

Upwelling

Groundwater

discharge, nutrient

transport

Biological

nutrient transport

Diurnal

wind patterns

Tidal

flux

Wave energy Ocean intrusion

Marine aerosols

Surfacesubterranean

exchanges

Atmospheric deposition

(global sources)

Figure 2.4.

Key interactions 

between the 

atmosphere and 

marine, freshwater, and 

terrestrial ecosystems. 

Figure 2.5.

Wave action at 

Hawaii Volcanoes 

National Park.
34 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 2. Conceptual Models

impacts and effects of these stressors arise from 

the small size, isolation, geological activity, and 

histories of human occupation in the Pacific 

islands. Effects of disturbance at one scale may 

affect structure, function, and community composition at another scale. For example, urbanization affects streams at multiple scales including microhabitat-scale changes in temperature, 

siltation, and substrate, reach-scale riparian 

canopy removal and channelization, and watershed-scale reduction in native fish and invertebrate populations (Brasher 2003). Similarly, land 

clearing in lowland ecosystems can alter energy 

budgets and rainfall over a broad scale (Lawton 

et al. 2001). As another example, increasing 

global CO2 levels are predicted to reduce the 

ability of calcareous marine organisms to calcify, 

causing the physical structure of coral reefs to 

weaken (Andersson et al. 2003). 

It is important to understand the distinction 

between natural and anthropogenic agents of 

change, in order to manage NPS ecosystems 

for ecological integrity. Many Pacific island 

ecosystems have evolved with natural disturbances, such as tropical cyclones and volcanic 

activity (figure 2.7). We include both natural 

and anthropogenic agents of change in our 

ecosystem models as the latter also alters natural 

ecosystem succession and ecological integrity 

(Vitousek et al. 1998, Chapin et al. 1996).

Most stressors in PACN parks occur throughout 

the region, and are not confined to a single park. 

To better illustrate these stressors, they are summarized by individual PACN parks in table 2.2. 

They include natural and anthropogenic, as well 

as local and global agents of change. The section 

below table 2.2 further explains the categories 

of stressors.

Invasive Species—Invasive species are one of 

the most significant stressors to Pacific island 

ecosystems. Additionally, introductions of 

invasive species not yet present in the parks 

represent one of the greatest threats. Changes 

resulting from introduction of invasive species 

extend beyond alteration of ecosystem 

composition to impacts on ecosystem structure 

and function (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, 

Vitousek et al. 1996, Brasher 2003). In several 

Pacific island ecosystems, alien species now 

form the dominant biological components, and 

restoration of native systems will require an 

enormous effort. In cases of species extinction 

(e.g., lowland birds and tree snails, Burney et 

al. 2001), complete system restoration is not 

possible.

Oceanic islands are particularly susceptible to 

biological invasions (Loope and Mueller-Dombois 1989, Denslow 2003). A strong correlation 

exists worldwide between percentage of biotic 

endemism and vulnerability of the biota to 

displacement by biological invaders (Loope and 

Mueller-Dombois 1989). In many cases, new 

introductions meet less resistance and have proportionately greater negative effects on Pacific 

islands than in continental settings (UNEP 

2003, Denslow 2003).

Various facets of land use and human activity 

drive biological invasions such as the breakdown of biogeographic barriers through intentional or unintentional transport of biological organisms by humans. Such transport of 

organisms by humans is increasing through the 

process of globalization (Ehrenfeld 2005, Wilson 1995). Therefore, species invasions will only 

be slowed in the immediate future by measures 

purposely implemented to prevent, detect, rapidly respond to, and manage invasions (Vitousek 

et al. 1997, Loope et al. 2001). 

Adjacent Land and Resource Use—Adjacent 

land and resource use is of concern to all PACN 

parks, although resources in some parks are 

threatened by adjacent use more than others. 

Several small PACN parks are located in or 

near developed areas which are experiencing 

rapid population growth (e.g., West Hawaii 

parks). Adjacent land and water use are also a 

concern for the large parks. Specific concerns 

for these parks include land and marine uses 

(e.g., development, light pollution, increased 

vehicular traffic, increased fishing pressure), 

water withdrawal, water quality, petrochemical 

spills, solid waste disposal, and erosion and 

sedimentation.

Fire—Before human colonization, fire was rare 

on most Pacific islands (Mueller-Dombois 1981) 

as lightning is uncommon. Fires are, however, 

associated with volcanic activity. Pacific island 

species and ecosystems evolving under these 

conditions are extremely sensitive to fire which 

kills native vegetation, facilitates invasion by 

alien species (particularly fire-prone grasses), 

modifies soil surfaces, and contributes to erosion 

“Oceanic islands 

are particularly 

susceptible 

to biological 

invasions. A 

strong correlation 

exists worldwide 

between 

percentage of 

biotic endemism 

and vulnerability 

of the biota to 

displacement 

by biological 

invaders.”
National Park Service 35

Figure 2.7.

Volcanic activity at 

Hawaii Volcanoes 

National Park has large 

effects on ecosystems. 

Photo by USGS/Don 

Swanson.

Reduced discharge,

increased nutrients

& sediment

Reduced discharge,

increased nutrients

Groundwater

withdrawal

Saltwater

intrusion

Surface water

diversion

Habitat

destruction

Resource

extraction

Nutrient influx

Atmospheric deposition

(anthropogenic sources)

Loss of

buffering habitat

Light pollution

Petrochemical

spills

Increased erosion

Groundwater

lens

Solid waste

disposal

Groundwater

contamination

Figure 2.6.

Generalized model of 

anthropogenic stressors 

for Pacific islands and 

ecosystems. 
36 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 2. Conceptual Models

(Minton 2005). Many Pacific island ecosystems 

have been extensively modified or destroyed 

through the use of fire.

In-Park Use—Most national parks in the Pacific 

continue to experience an increase in visitation2

due to spectacular scenic vistas, wilderness 

areas, historical resources (both natural and 

cultural), and numerous other features. The 

primary mission of the National Park Service is 

to provide the public with a venue to experience 

natural and cultural resources, while preserving 

resources “unimpaired for enjoyment of 

future generations.” PACN park usage causes 

measurable impacts to natural resources. 

Specific concerns include damage due to 

visitation (e.g., trail compaction, boat anchoring, 

trash, petrochemical spills), subsistence 

agriculture, hunting, gathering, and fishing.

Natural Hazards—Pacific islands are subject 

to a variety of natural hazards due to their 

geographic and geologically active setting. 

While Pacific island ecosystems have evolved 

in concert with these natural events, largescale disturbances may facilitate the invasion 

of alien species, which are a particular threat 

2

 Online at http://www2.nature.nps.gov/stats/

to disturbed ecosystems. Such events include 

volcanic activity, earthquakes, mass wasting 

(i.e., landslides), tsunami, and tropical cyclones 

(figure 2.9).

Climate Change—Climate change is a potential 

threat to all PACN parks. While climate change 

may be an on-going natural phenomenon 

recorded throughout the planet’s geologic 

history, the rate of climate change (including 

increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide, ozone 

depletion, and concomitant increases in air and 

sea surface temperatures) is unprecedented 

(Hughes et al. 2003, Board on Atmospheric 

Sciences and Climate 2006). Increases in 

atmospheric carbon dioxide could lower sea 

water pH and reduce calcification rates for 

corals, and many other marine organisms, thus 

significantly impacting reef accretion rates 

(Kleypas and Langdon 2000, Langdon et al. 

2000, McNeil et al. 2005). 

Sea Temperature Increase—Global mean sea 

surface temperatures have increased 0.6±0.2 

degrees Celsius during the twentieth century 

(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 

2001) and pose a significant threat to coral reefs, 

particularly in the shallow lagoons of NPSA in 

American Samoa where water temperatures 

Sediment discharge

Ocean intrusion,

sea level rise

Volcanic activity

Erosion

Shift in 

Trade wind inversion 

Tsunami

Climate change

Storm & cyclone

frequency or intensity

Invasive species

Mass

wasting

Atmospheric

deposition

(natural sources)

Fire

Seismicity

Sea temperature

increase

Figure 2.8. 

Generalized model of 

non-human stressors 

for Pacific islands and 

ecosystems.
National Park Service 37

Table 2.2. Summary of stressors and natural resource management concerns of PACN 

parks.

AMME

WAPA

NPSA

USARKALA

HALE

ALKAa

PUHE

KAHO

PUHO

HAVO

Invasive Species X X X X X X X X X X X

Adjacent Land & Resource Use

Land use X X X X X X X X X X X

Water withdrawal and/or diversion X X X X X X X X X X

Erosion & sedimentation X X X X X X X

Water quality (freshwater & marine) X X X X X X X X X X

Marine useb O X O X X O X O O

Air quality X X X X X X X X

Fire X X X X X X X X

In-Park Use

Visitor damage X X X X X X X X

Fishingb O X X X X X O O

Subsistence agriculture X X

Hunting & gathering (not including fishing) X X X X X X X X

Natural Hazards

Volcanic activity X X X X X X X X

Frequent tropical cyclones X X

Sea Temperature Increase X X X X X

Sea Level Rise X X X X X X X X X X X

Global Climate Change X X X X X X X X X X X

a

The managed areas of the trail corridor have yet to be determined; these stressors are present within the corridor 

and will likely be included.

bX= cases where marine resources are located within park boundaries; O= cases where park boundaries end at the 

high-tide line and marine resources lie outside park boundaries.
38 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 2. Conceptual Models

can reach 35°C (Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2000, 

Craig 2005). Increased sea surface temperatures 

contribute to bleaching, a process in which 

corals expel zooxanthellae (algal symbionts) 

leaving bleached tissue and white skeletons (e.g., 

Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). If prolonged, bleaching 

can result in coral mortality. 

Sea Level Rise—The effect of global climate 

change on sea level is expected to be a concern 

for all PACN parks. Sea level rise is an immediate 

concern in the coastal parks including the West 

Hawaii parks, coinciding with subsidence of 

the island resulting from active volcanism. All 

PACN parks are affected by storm damage due 

to the reach of breaking waves which, coupled 

with salt stress, can lead to the destruction of 

coastal habitat. Ecosystems that are particularly 

affected include coastal marshes, anchialine 

pools, fishponds, mangrove swamps, and the 

coastal spray zone. The growth of coral may also 

be inhibited due to decreased light availability 

in increased water depth (Kennedy et al. 2002, 

Baker et al. 2006). 

The Watershed as a Key Geographic Unit

The watershed is an important geographic unit 

for evaluating ecosystem structure, function, 

and composition, coupled with understanding 

drivers and stressors in PACN parks. A watershed-based approach emphasizes the interconnections and interactions at the landscape 

level. Watershed-based management is also a 

traditional cultural means of land and resource 

distribution in the Pacific. For example, the 

traditional Hawaiian ahupuaa land management 

system (figure 2.10), consisting of strips of land 

that extend from the ocean to the mountains, 

provides a holistic framework for sustainable 

use and conservation of natural resources by the 

local community. 

While the ahupuaa system is an excellent form 

of watershed management, none of the PACN 

parks’ legislative boundaries, expect NPSA, 

include an entire watershed from mountain to 

nearshore marine habitat. Most of the parks 

contain either fragments of ecosystems within 

a watershed, or they terminate at the mean 

high-tide line and abut marine ecosystems (e.g., 

HAVO and HALE). 

The national Inventory and Monitoring 

program guidance for design of sampling 

schemes3 does not recommend a watershedbased approach for study design. This type of 

approach would select a single watershed for 

intensive study, with results inferred to other 

watersheds. Nevertheless, the PACN recognizes 

that we must consider a landscape scale broader 

than the watershed 

when considering issues such as 

marine transport 

of propagules, air 

quality, or volcanic 

activity. This landscape-scale view of 

ecological processes 

emphasizes the 

need for interactive management 

partnerships with 

external agencies 

and organizations. 

For further information on the PACN 

ecosystem and Vital 

Sign conceptual 

3

 Online at http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/monitor/docs/

nps_sg.doc

Figure 2.9.

Effects of typhoon 

Pongsona at War in 

the Pacific National 

Historical Park.
National Park Service 39

models, we direct the reader to Conceptual 

Models and Ecological Overview in appendix 

H. In this appendix, a description of each 

ecosystem group is provided. Each description 

includes several “layers” of models as follows:

In all cases, we have identified or developed a generalized ecosystem-specific 

model that includes the primary biotic 

and abiotic resources found within the 

ecosystem, and their relationships to 

one another. We also discuss the major 

stressors, or agents of change, that affect 

these ecosystems.

Where appropriate, we provide narratives and models of distinctive systems 

(e.g., anchialine pools).

Each ecosystem-specific description 

contains an ecosystem dynamics diagram 

that depicts the major agents of change, 

interactions among those agents, and the 

resources that they affect. 

1.

2.

3.

Each Vital Sign selected for monitoring 

accompanies a conceptual model stressing its importance.

Each system is also discussed in both a regional 

and a network or park-specific context. For further information on components of each model, 

a literature review on the agents of change and 

park resources included within the models is 

also contained within appendix H. Literature 

reviews are to a large extent summarized from 

the topical reports in Appendix E: Topical 

Working Group Reports, and Appendix I: Water 

Quality Report. 

Summary

Conceptual models simplify the organization 

and communication of information about 

ecosystem structure, function, and composition, 

along with drivers and stressors of each system. 

Knowledge gained from defining, testing, and 

applying the PACN models can be utilized in 

park management, as well as provide a framework for selecting which Vital Signs to monitor. 

4.

Marine sh

Land use

patterns

Fisheries

harvest

Focal terrestrial

plant communities

Freshwater

animal communities

Benthic marine

community

Climate

Cave communities

Erosion and

deposition

Bats

Seabirds

Landbirds

Early detection of

invasive species

Water chemistry

Terrestrial

invertebrate

communities

Groundwater

dynamics

Figure 2.10. 

Conceptual 

illustration of Vital 

Signs important in a 

watershed, and in an 

ahupuaa (a traditional 

land and resource 

management system 

in the Hawaiian 

Islands).
40 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 2. Conceptual Models

The Pacific Island Network’s nested system of 

models is designed to demonstrate similarities 

between network parks and allow use of different scales and factors while developing the 

monitoring program. In this chapter, we outline 

the overall theoretical framework of our conceptual model development. We also present 

the PACN landscape-scale view of ecological 

processes, which emphasizes the need for interactive management partnerships with external 

agencies and organizations.

Appendix H: Conceptual Models and Ecological Overview contains the finer-scale models 

developed by the PACN network. This appendix is organized into four sections. The first section consists of a general, simple network model 

(also presented in this chapter) describing 

factors and processes controlling the structure 

and function of ecosystems. The second section 

introduces ecosystem conceptual models that 

articulate ecosystem composition, structure, 

and function. The second section also conveys 

our understanding of how natural ecosystem 

drivers and major agents of change influence 

key structural components, functional relationships, interactions, and system dynamics. The 

third section contains narrative descriptions 

of major agents of change affecting the network that are integrated on a landscape level. 

The fourth section of the appendix contains 

conceptual models specific to individual Vital 

Signs. These models will be expanded within 

protocols as they are developed. Further details 

about model elements may be found in the topical reports in Appendix E as well as Appendix I: 

Water Quality Report.
National Park Service 41

Vital Signs are “a subset of physical, chemical, 

and biological elements and processes of park 

ecosystems that are selected to represent the 

overall health or condition of park resources, 

known or hypothesized effects of stressors, or 

elements that have important human values.” 

The Pacific Island Network used a multi-step 

process to select and prioritize the list of network Vital Signs. 

The NPS Water Resources Division requires 

that the network determine priorities for 

impaired and pristine waters, define site-specific monitoring objectives, and develop a 

detailed water quality monitoring plan to be 

implemented in close coordination with Vital 

Signs monitoring. The PACN has chosen to fully 

integrate water quality monitoring with the Vital 

Signs monitoring plan, thus Water quality Vital 

Signs are discussed in this chapter as well.

Identifying Potential Vital Signs 

The Pacific Island Network used a combination of network-wide meetings, topical working 

groups, and individual park scoping sessions 

to identify potential Vital Signs. Through these 

processes, we also evaluated the attributes that 

make potential Vital Signs high-quality indicators of ecosystem health. 

Topical Working Groups and Park Scoping 

Sessions—The first stage in Vital Sign 

identification included a review of available 

information about park resources, ecosystems, 

stressors, and concerns, as well as identification 

of key characteristics of ecosystem integrity. The 

ten topical working groups each constructed a 

general model identifying ecosystem drivers and 

candidate attributes to monitor for their subject 

area. The working groups were extensively 

involved in revising and refining Vital Signs 

throughout the prioritization process. 

Scoping sessions and workshops (documented 

in appendix O) were also held at each of the 

PACN parks (figure 3.1), allowing staff to critique conceptual models on park resources and 

attributes that stress or serve as drivers to those 

resources. The scoping sessions also provided 

information on park-specific concerns which 

may not have previously been identified.

Vital Signs Evaluation and Ranking— In the 

subsequent phase of Vital Signs selection, the 

PACN conducted literature reviews and began 

to develop conceptual models of ecosystem 

functions. The list of proposed Vital Signs was 

compiled, and later adapted to the national 

Inventory and Monitoring framework.

Park staff members ranked potential Vital Signs 

based upon four weighted criteria: ecological 

significance, management significance, legal 

mandate, and 

cost-effectiveness 

(table 3.1). Use of 

a database allowed 

each park to independently rank each 

Vital Sign according 

to the above criteria. 

PACN staff provided 

a detailed justification statement for 

each Vital Sign that 

included information about ecological significance and 

legal/policy mandates. However, park staff were 

expected to base cost effectiveness and feasibility rankings on their own practical experience 

and expectations, and to rank management 

significance according to the park’s priorities. 

The database allowed parks to review detailed 

information about each Vital Sign, rank Vital 

Signs, view Vital Sign ranking summaries, and 

revisit the rankings as desired.

Completion of our ranking database process 

was iterative. Hence, the network went through 

two significant refinements of the proposed 

Vital Signs list and sent the database to the parks 

for ranking over three iterations. 

Vital Signs Workshop—A Vital Signs workshop 

was hosted by the PACN in March 2004 to gain 

Chapter 3. Vital Signs

Figure 3.1.

A Pacific Island 

Network Technical 

Committee meeting, 

August 2003.
42 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 3. Vital Signs

input from subject area experts and network 

park staff. Goals of the three-day workshop 

held in Honolulu, Hawaii were to: (1) make 

suggestions for prioritization for the proposed 

list of Vital Signs; (2) identify existing sampling 

methods and needs for development of new 

methods; and (3) recommend partnerships for 

Vital Signs monitoring. A report detailing the 

outcome of the workshop, the resulting list of 

115 Vital Signs (each Vital Sign representing an 

individual monitoring protocol), and a list of 

participants is in appendix O. 

Vital Signs Selection

PACN staff met with Technical Committee 

members in November 2004 to prioritize the 

PACN Vital Signs. Knowledge of park-specific 

management brought to the I&M network 

by TC members was crucial to this process. 

Initially, a reduced list of 47 Vital Signs was created based on the results of the ranking exercise. Several Vital Signs were added to the list 

because they involved well-established monitoring programs by other agencies (e.g., monitoring 

of air quality and volcanic activity) and because 

these subjects had been identified as important 

ecosystem drivers in our conceptual models. 

The goal of the workshop was to prioritize 12 

Vital Signs for initial implementation, with an 

additional short list of 5 Vital Signs to be “waitlisted” for future implementation. Potential Vital 

Signs were grouped by subject area into three 

sets: (1) terrestrial biology; (2) aquatic biology, 

hydrology, and water quality; and (3) human 

use, geology, and air quality. Technical Committee members broke into groups by area of 

expertise to discuss these potential Vital Signs. 

Group members were also tasked with lumping 

the 47 prioritized Vital Signs based on thematic 

similarity and network monitoring objectives 

(table 1.10) into a more compact list affording 

greater flexibility when preparing monitoring 

protocols. Based on further discussions with 

the whole group, a list of 19 lumped Vital Signs 

were selected for implementation during this 

final TC meeting. This list included several Vital 

Signs monitored by other agencies.

During preparation of protocol development 

summaries (PDS) for the Vital Signs, it became 

apparent that it would be more practical to split 

some Vital Signs. For example, the Vital Sign 

“Focal bird species” was split into two: Landbirds and Seabirds (figure 3.2). Therefore, the 

final number of Vital Signs under development 

was increased to 21. 

Following this process, the PACN Board of 

Directors preliminarily approved the Technical 

Committee’s recommendations while recognizing the following points:

Some minor name changes to Vital 

Signs may occur in the future.

As protocol development occurs during Phase III, some major changes may 

be requested for BOD approval, including addition or deletion of Vital Signs.

A strong possibility exists that the 

current list is beyond the program’s 

resource capabilities, and further partnerships will be sought.

In November 2005, the BOD requested that the 

network reduce the number of Vital Signs from 

21 to a list of 12 or 14. Consequently, network 

and regional staff proposed a phased implementation, with 14 Vital Signs in phase 1 and 4 

Vital Signs in phase 2. Phase 2 implementation 

will not occur until all phase 1 Vital Signs are 

successfully implemented. Several Vital Signs 

were combined with a reduction in the scope of 

the protocol (e.g., frugivorous bats and insectivorous bats). The BOD approved the reduced 

list on November 30, 2005. The final prioritization of Vital Signs for network funding was 

•

•

•

Table 3.1. Vital Sign ranking criteria (see appendix G for 

sub-criteria).

Criterion Weight

Management Significance 30 %

Ecological Significance 30 %

Legal / Policy Mandatea 20 %

Cost Effectiveness and Feasibility 20 %

a

 This criterion is separated from “Management Significance” to emphasize those 

Vital Signs and resources that are required to be monitored by legal or policy mandates. 

“Knowledge of 

park-specific 

management 

brought to the 

I&M network 

by Technical 

Committee 

members was 

crucial to the 

process of selecting 

and prioritizing 

Vital Signs.”
National Park Service 43

based on the following factors: (1) information 

gained from the monitoring program would aid 

in making management decisions; (2) information gained from the monitoring program would 

help explain changes in ecosystem structure, 

function, and composition; and (3) opportunities exist to augment network funds through 

partnerships and agreements. Figure 3.3 illustrates the complete steps taken by the Pacific 

Island Network during the process of Vital Signs 

development, selection, and prioritization.

The list of 31 Vital Signs for the Pacific Island 

Network is presented in table 3.2, along with 

the parks in which each Vital Sign will likely be 

monitored. The table includes the 14 PACN 

phase 1 Vital Signs and 4 phase 2 Vital Signs for 

which the PACN is developing protocols. In 

addition, table 3.2 includes 13 Vital Signs that 

are being monitored by an individual park or 

another agency. 

Figure 3.2.

The Hawaiian 

petrel (Pterodroma 

sandwichensis) (left) 

will be included under 

the Seabirds Vital 

Sign, while the Hawaii 

amakihi (Hemignathus 

virens) will be part of 

the Landbirds Vital 

Sign (photo by © Jack 

Jeffrey).

Use input from workshop to 

further refine list of Vital Signs

Use national ecological framework to 

identify gaps in Vital Signs list, refine 

Vital Signs to remove redundancies

Identify Vital Signs for each 

significant topic area, as well as 

those across multiple topic areas

Each park ranks Vital Signs list 

using database

Review by Technical Committee to 

create proposed final list of Vital Signs

Preliminary approval by Board of 

Directors to Vital Signs list

Final Vital Signs list

Top-ranked Vital Signs from 

parks

Proposed final list of Vital Signs for 

protocol development

Addition of Vital Signs with 

current ongoing monitoring

Refinement of list as Protocol 

Development Summaries are generated

Small group ranking of list split 

by discipline, combine similar 

Vital Signs 

Large group discussion of results, 

voting to prioritize list of 12 and 

second-priority list of 5

Additional high-ranked Vital 

Signs from ecological 

framework

Identify park resources, 

stressors, and concerns

Literature survey, develop 

conceptual models

Final approval by Board of Directors to

create phased approach to Implementation Figure 3.3.

Steps followed in 

Vital Signs selection.
44 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 3. Vital Signs

Table 3.2. PACN list of Vital Signs. Shaded are Vital Signs for which the network is developing monitoring protocols. 

Other Vital Signs are monitored by individual parks or state and federal agencies—Continued.

Level 1 Level 2 Vital Sign

AMME

WAPA

NPSA

USARKALA

HALE

ALKA

PUHE

KAHO

PUHO

HAVO

Air &

Climate

Air Quality Visibility & particulate matter – – – – – • – – – – •

Atmospheric gases – – • – – – – – – – •

Weather & 

Climate

Climate

+ + + + + + + + + + +

Geology & 

Soils

Subsurface 

Geologic 

Processes

Volcanic ground deformation/lava flows * – – – – • – – – – •

Seismic activity • • • • • • • • • • •

Soil Quality Erosion & deposition – x x x x x – x – – –

Water

Hydrology Stream flow * • • • • • • * – * –

Sea level • • • • * • * • * • *

Groundwater dynamics + • • * + * + * + * *

Water Quality Water quality + + + + + + + + + + +

Toxics • • • • * * * * • * *

Microorganisms • • • • * * • • * * *

+ = Protocol development & implementation in phase 1. Funding from VS or water quality monitoring programs.

x = Protocol development & implementation in phase 2. Funding from VS or water quality monitoring programs.

* = Vital Sign which cannot currently be implemented; future monitoring possible.

• = Monitored by a network park, other NPS program, or other federal or state agency.

– = VS does not apply to park, or no foreseeable plans to conduct monitoring

The Relationship of PACN Vital Signs to Cultural 

Resources

Each of the selected Vital Signs have shared cultural and natural significance. This is reflected 

in the addition of the PACN I&M program’s 

sixth monitoring program goal: to “provide data 

to better understand, protect, and manage important resources that share cultural and natural 

value.” The PACN I&M program recognizes 

that the cultural values and practices of people 

may be interwoven with the biologic, climatic, 

geologic, hydrologic, and landscape resources 

we have chosen as Vital Signs. In some cases, 

they are one in the same (e.g., Marine fish). In 

other cases, the Vital Sign to be monitored may 

impact cultural sites (e.g., Invasive species, Climate) or habitats of culturally important plants 

and animals (e.g., Water quality, Focal terrestrial 

plant communities). Discussions of the significance of PACN Vital Signs would, therefore, 

be incomplete without an understanding and 

appreciation of the cultural values placed on 

these natural resources. 

In all Pacific island cultures, natural resources 

are collected for food, medicines, and tools. 

Many individuals of these Pacific island cultures continue to invoke their gathering rights 

in PACN parks today. For example, various 

native plants, freshwater stream animals (gobies, 

shrimp, eels, snails), and marine fishes and 

seaweeds are collected for food (figure 3.4), or 

medicinal uses. Historically and currently, many 

of these natural resources are also of utilitarian 

value and used in daily life. In PACN national 

parks, cultural practitioners are allowed to practice their traditions and religions through the 

collection of resources, visiting sites of religious 

value, and other activities. It is therefore important to determine if cultural practices impact 

Table 3.2. PACN list of Vital Signs. Shaded are Vital Signs for which the network is developing monitoring protocols. 

Other Vital Signs are monitored by individual parks or state and federal agencies.

“The selected 

Vital Signs have 

shared cultural 

and natural 

significance.”
National Park Service 45

Table 3.2. PACN list of Vital Signs. Shaded are Vital Signs for which the network is developing monitoring protocols. 

Other Vital Signs are monitored by individual parks or state and federal agencies—Continued.

Level 1 Level 2 Vital Sign

AMME

WAPA

NPSA

USARKALA

HALE

ALKA

PUHE

KAHO

PUHO

HAVO

Biological Integrity

Invasive Species Status and trends of established invasive plant species + + + * + + + + + + +

Early detection of invasive plants + + + – + + + + + + +

Early detection of invasive 

invertebrates * * x – x x * * * * *

Focal species or Communities (including 

at-risk species)

Benthic marine community * + + * + * * * + * *

Marine fish * + + * + * * * + * *

Sea turtles * * * * * * • * • • •

Hawaiian monk seal – – – • • • • • • • •

Freshwater animal communities * + + – + + + + + + +

Cave community – x x – * x * – x x x

Focal terrestrial plant communities + + + – + + * * + * +

Terrestrial invertebrate communities x x x – x x * x x x x

Nene distribution/abundance – – – – – • * * * * •

Waterbird distribution/abundance * • * * * * * • * *

Landbirds + – + – + + – – – – +

Seabirds * * + * + + * * + + +

Bats – + + – + + + + + + +

Human Use

Consumptive 

Use

Fish harvest * + + * + * * * + * *

Visitor & 

Recreation 

Use

Visitation

* • • • • • * • • • •

Landscapes Landscape 

Dynamics

Landscape dynamics + + + + + + + + + + +

+ = Protocol development & implementation in phase 1. Funding from VS or water quality monitoring programs.

x = Protocol development & implementation in phase 2. Funding from VS or water quality monitoring programs.

* = Vital Sign which cannot currently be implemented; future monitoring possible.

• = Monitored by a network park, other NPS program, or other federal or state agency.

– = VS does not apply to park, or no foreseeable plans to conduct monitoring
46 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 3. Vital Signs

the natural resources selected as Vital Signs and, 

conversely, how the resources impact and are 

valued in cultural practices. 

The significance of resources to indigenous and 

other cultural groups extends beyond tangible 

examples (e.g., archeological sites, artifacts, 

plants and animals). Natural resources can be 

inseparable from the spiritual and religious 

values that give the resources and traditional 

practices their context (see table 3.3 for examples). Some of the resources, which carry food, 

spiritual/religious, medicinal, biological, and 

utilitarian value to the cultural groups represented in PACN parks are summarized in table 

3.3. Biological value in the table refers to items 

of both ecological and cultural significance. 

Appendix M provides expanded examples of 

these cultural resources, values, and associated 

threats.

In PACN parks, strong bonds often exist 

between local individuals, families, communities, and these resources. Specific archeological sites and artifacts are not only held in trust 

for the people of the United States, but may 

be familial artifacts, history, or components 

of a community’s culture. Cultural sensitivity appropriate to these stewardship concerns 

will be reflected in monitoring activities and 

section 106 (historic preservation) compliance. 

Culturally sensitive 

activities may include 

but are not limited to: 

(a) collaborating with 

NPS cultural resources 

(CR) staff, traditionally 

associated families, and 

cultural practitioners 

when planning monitoring projects; (b) removal 

of markers or equipment used in temporary 

monitoring projects; (c) 

taking care not to introduce invasive species 

that might degrade the 

landscape; (d) consulting NPS CR staff if 

suspected artifacts are 

found; and (e) returning sites to their original 

state after monitoring.

The Relationship of Vital Signs to PACN 

Conceptual Models

The Pacific Island Network’s Vital Signs are 

designed to improve our understanding of 

changes to and management of the composition, structure, and function of the network’s 

natural resources. The list of Vital Signs includes 

significant biotic and abiotic natural resources, 

stressors or agents of change to those resources, 

and important ecological processes as illustrated in the expanded interactive control 

model below (figure 3.5). Selected Vital Signs 

are all linked to one or more of our conceptual 

models in appendix H. Additionally, focused 

conceptual models will be created for each Vital 

Sign as monitoring protocols are developed. 

General conceptual models for each Vital Sign 

are included in appendix H.

The list of Vital Signs was created in an effort 

to encompass the dominant PACN ecosystem 

types (table 3.4). Thus, many of the Vital Signs 

span two or more ecosystem types. Therefore, 

we included all objectives for the Vital Signs 

framework (table 1.10) for the range of ecosystems in our network. The ‘motivations for monitoring’ identified in table 3.4 were identified in 

the process of conceptual model development, 

and were considered during the ranking and 

prioritization process.

Integration of Vital Sign Monitoring With Other 

Park Monitoring Programs

The PACN program must integrate with other 

ongoing park monitoring programs to enhance 

available information that facilitates informed 

management decisions in PACN parks. To 

successfully synthesize and report on the state 

of the parks’ ecosystems, in addition to I&M 

program activities, the network will work 

with the parks to update and revise existing 

protocols, as well as provide direct assistance 

with data management. The network will collaborate with park staff to develop mutually 

accepted minimum requirements for existing 

and future monitoring protocols in the parks. 

This process will allow for shared involvement 

in the development of protocols for monitoring (new or ongoing) that are funded by parks 

and should lead to consistency among projects. 

While modifications to protocols necessitated 

by guidelines will vary, the network will provide 

Figure 3.4.

Fishing with 

traditional enu or 

fishtrap, (i.e., Fish 

harvest Vital Sign) 

at National Park of 

American Samoa.

“The 

significance 

of resources to 

indigenous and 

other cultural 

groups extends 

beyond tangible 

examples...”
National Park Service 47

Table 3.3. Cultural and natural resource values of PACN Vital Signs—Continued.

Climate

Pacific islanders revered aspects of nature, including weather and climate, in song and dance. Numerous 

words for wind, rain, and cloud forms reflect the importance of weather and climate to early Polynesians 

and Micronesians. 

Global climatic changes will likely raise sea levels and inundate low-lying, culturally important sites, 

regions, and resources.

•

•

Erosion & deposition

Erosion and deposition are a threat to cultural sites, natural communities of cultural significance (coral 

reefs, anchialine pools), and culturally significant species (wetlands, fishponds).

•

Groundwater dynamics & Water quality

Fresh water is a vital resource for all island cultures for drinking, cooking, bathing, and agriculture. Its 

significance is reflected in names of various forms or locations of water (Valentine n.d.). In origination 

stories and dances, names were given to places that served as sources of water. 

Water sources influenced settlement patterns; many natural habitats were modified.

•

•

Status and trends of established invasive plant species

• Established invasive plants threaten native ecosystems of cultural value and degrade archeological sites. 

Early detection of invasive plants & invertebrates

Incipient populations of invasive plants and invertebrates can negatively impact culturally important 

plant or animal populations, change culturally significant viewscapes, and disturb archeological sites.

•

Benthic marine community, Marine fish, & Fish harvest

Pacific island cultures are highly dependent on marine resources for food, tools, weaponry, medication 

and ornamentation (Bishop Museum 2003). Fishing is still an important cultural practice for subsistence, 

income, and sport. Fish parts (e.g., bones, teeth) are used commercially in contemporary reproductions 

of Pacific island weapons.

Many marine animals (e.g., turtles, sharks) are prominent figures in Hawaiian, Samoan, Chamorro, and 

Carolinian legends. Some represent family gods or guardians (Brandt 1999, Kamakau 1987). 

•

•

Freshwater animal communities & Terrestrial invertebrate communities

Stream and anchialine pool animals were important food sources. Shrimp, fish, nerites, and/or eels from 

freshwater streams in Hawaii, the Marianas, and Samoa are still collected by indigenous groups for food. 

Wild-collected and raised opae ula (red shrimp) are presently marketed as a novelty and as fish food in 

Hawaii.

Native aquatic invertebrates were family gods (Juvik and Juvik 1998) and were used in indigenous rituals 

(Howarth et al. 1998). 

•

•

Cave community

Caves were culturally important for water collection, shelter, and as burial sites throughout the PACN. 

Access to freshwater seeps in caves influenced settlement patterns. 

Caves remain important for their cultural significance and for their endemic invertebrate communities.

•

•

•

Table 3.3. Cultural and natural resource values of PACN Vital Signs.
48 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 3. Vital Signs

Table 3.3. Cultural and natural resource values of PACN Vital Signs—Continued.

Focal terrestrial plant communities 

Collections of plant material for medicines, food, fish poison, dyes, basket or helmet plaiting, cordage, 

weaponry, musical instruments, utensils, house construction, clothing, digging tools, & decoration were 

an integral part of Pacific island cultures. Cultural practitioners continue to collect plant material today.

Specific sites, ecosystems, and regions were places of reverence, requiring specific protocols to enter 

(e.g., prayers, request for permission). Chamorro, Carolinian, Samoan, and Hawaiian cultures continue 

these practices. 

•

•

Landbirds

Landbirds were important food sources for some indigenous peoples (e.g., nene).

Forest bird feathers were once collected for clothing, adornments, and ceremonies. Due to extinctions 

or rarity of native forest birds, collection is now prohibited; colored duck or goose feathers are used 

instead.

Certain bird species are associated with deities (e.g., elepaio). 

In PACN parks, native birds play an important role as pollinators of culturally significant plants.

Recent introductions of predatory alien animals and invasive plants have significantly reduced native 

forest bird populations. Many species are now rare, species of concern, threatened, or endangered.

•

•

•

•

•

Seabirds

Some seabird species are collected for food, while bones were used for tools by Hawaiians, Samoans, 

Chamorro, and Carolinian (Moniz 1997). In Hawaii, seabird feathers were used in ceremonial standards 

(Rose et al. 1993). 

Pacific islanders use seabirds to locate fish and to navigate back to land while at sea (Irwin 1992).

Seabirds are prominent icons in Pacific island mythology and described in ancient chants and dances 

(Kamakau 1987). Some modern families identify themselves with particular seabird species as guardians. 

•

•

•

Bats

Frugivorous bats were culturally significant for use as food (Sheeline 1991). Collection of fruit bats is 

now prohibited, but they are undoubtedly harvested illegally for food or poached for export, although 

on a smaller scale than in the 1980s (Craig et al. 1994, Sheeline 1991).

In Samoa, fruit bats are prominent figures in legends (Sinavaiana and Enright 1992), tattoos, and lava 

lava designs. In Guam, fruit bats are valued as an important Chamorro cultural symbol (Sheeline 1991).

Hawaiian hoary bats were given the name opeapea, which means “half-leaf”, said of a taro plant remaining on the stalk after the top half has been removed for cooking (Pukui and Elbert 1986). Opeapea are 

the only extant native terrestrial mammal in Hawaii (Stone and Pratt 1994).

Insectivorous bats feed on agricultural pests and are commercially, agriculturally, and ecologically valuable.

•

•

•

•

Landscape dynamics

Cultural land uses have influenced how land is used today (e.g., agriculture in and around PACN parks). 

Land and marine areas were not divided into parcels, but managed on an integrated basis, analogous to 

watersheds (called ahupuaa in Hawaii).

•
National Park Service 49

technical resources when possible to facilitate 

development of other park protocols.

In addition to updating and revising park-based 

protocols, the network will work with park 

staff to adapt their databases and information management procedures to existing NPS 

templates and standards, adhering to the goal 

of increasing the usefulness of collected data. 

For example, this process will involve building 

database models through user requirements and 

systems analysis for marine and water quality 

information management. The purpose of this 

exercise is to outline the information needs of 

both park and Vital Sign monitoring programs, 

before adapting the database model for park- or 

I&M program-specific needs. 

Regional atmospheric

resources & conditions

Disturbance regimes

Functional groups Soil or water resources

& conditions

ECOSYSTEM PROCESSES

GLOBAL CLIMATE

TIME

(since disturbance)

POTENTIAL BIOTA

PARENT MATERIAL OR

WATER RESOURCES

TOPOGRAPHY

Climate

Groundwater dynamics

Water quality

Erosion & deposition

Fish harvest

Landscape dynamics

Marine fish  Benthic marine community

Freshwater animals  Terrestrial invertebrates

Cave community  Landbirds  Seabirds  Bats

Focal terrestrial plant communities

Status & trends of established invasive plant species

Early detection of invasive plants 

Early detection of invasive invertebrates

Figure 3.5.

Modified interactive 

control model 

including PACN Vital 

Signs.
50 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 3. Vital Signs

Table 3.4. Vital Sign monitoring across PACN ecosystem types—Continued.

PACN Vital Sign PACN Ecosystem Type Monitoring motivation

Climate All ecosystem types Climate is widely recognized as a major driver for terrestrial as well 

as marine ecosystems, affecting biotic as well as abiotic ecosystem 

attributes. Land cover and use in parks and surrounding lands also 

have cascading effects on a myriad of ecosystem processes and 

characteristics. Monitoring climate and landscape dynamics on various temporal and spatial scales is essential for the understanding of 

processes and changes in all ecosystem types.

Landscape dynamics

Status and trends of established 

invasive plant species

Coastal to subalpine, 

including wet forest, mesic 

forests, dry forests, and 

grassland

The PACN encompasses many specialized habitats which include 

species highly adapted to their surroundings. A high level of interconnectedness exists among all the terrestrial ecosystems. Thus, 

PACN Vital Sign monitoring in terrestrial ecosystems includes species (native or alien) that require (or invade) specialized habitats, as 

well as species that exist in a broad range of habitats.

Early detection of invasive plants

Early detection of invasive invertebrates

Landbirds

Bats*

Focal terrestrial plant communities

Terrestrial invertebrate communities

Water quality Streams, coastal, nearshore 

marine

As a result of the small size of PACN islands and porosity of the 

substrate, all types of aquatic habitats in the PACN are highly interconnected. For instance, anchialine pools are influenced by both 

freshwater influx and tidal fluctuations. This connection to ocean 

and freshwater influences salinity levels and brings species into 

and out of the pools. Furthermore, the presence of amphidromous 

species emphasizes the importance of monitoring across ecosystem 

types. Integrated water quality monitoring facilitates understanding 

of ecosystem processes, particularly effects on populations which 

span several habitat types.

Freshwater animal communities

Seabirds Coastal, nearshore marine, 

subalpine

Coastal and nearshore marine ecosystems are interconnected. For 

example, seabirds rely on marine fish for food and rely on high 

elevation terrestrial sites (e.g., Hawaiian petrels nest at non-forested 

subalpine sites, Tahiti petrels nest in high elevation wet forest sites). 

Another example is coral reef destruction by deposition of sediments through coastal erosion. Likewise, declines in the groundwater level allow influx of seawater. Evaluation of ecosystem dynamics 

and changes in ecosystem processes are likely only successful if both 

stressors and focal species are monitored across these ecosystems.

Erosion and deposition Coastal, nearshore marine

Groundwater dynamics

*

 Bats monitored in the PACN are tree-roosting. Thus, bats will not be monitored as part of the cave community.

Table 3.4. Vital Sign monitoring across PACN ecosystem types.
National Park Service 51

Table 3.4. Vital Sign monitoring across PACN ecosystem types—Continued.

PACN Vital Sign PACN Ecosystem Type Monitoring motivation

Fish harvest Nearshore marine Consumptive use (harvest) and/or focal species and communities are 

not well described in this ecosystem for most PACN parks. However, 

studies outside of PACN parks indicate that nearshore marine systems are complex, fragile, and threatened by a number of stressors. 

Long term monitoring of stressors and focal species communities in 

nearshore marine ecosystems is a high priority for the PACN.

Benthic marine 

community

Marine fish

Cave community* Subterranean This specialized habitat may be the least known in the PACN parks. 

However, preliminary studies indicate that this ecosystem may 

include un-described species. Caves are at risk due to stressors such 

as visitor use, introduced species, and climate change.

*

 Bats monitored in the PACN are tree-roosting. Thus, bats will not be monitored as part of the cave community.

Summary

The Pacific Island Network initially identified 

115 potential Vital Signs for monitoring. An 

iterative selection process yielded 13 Vital Signs 

that will be monitored by individual parks or 

cooperators and 18 Vital Signs for which the 

PACN is pursuing development of protocols. 

Of these 18, 14 will be implemented in the first 

phase of monitoring. The remaining four, as well 

as expansions of three phase 1 Vital Signs, will 

be implemented in phase 2 if funding allows.

The network’s 18 Vital Signs were chosen to: 

(a) augment current monitoring in the parks, 

(b) focus on issues with high management 

relevance, and (c) ensure monitoring of natural 

resources, stressors, and ecological processes 

in the dominant ecosystem types found in the 

PACN.
52 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 3. Vital Signs
National Park Service 53

Each Vital Sign protocol of the Inventory and 

Monitoring program will have a clear, statistically defensible, and detailed sampling 

design. Four key characteristics of a sampling 

design occur for monitoring: (a) the ability to 

make valid inferences beyond an area actually 

sampled (when applicable), (b) representativeness of a sample across space and time, (c) the 

minimum quality of data (i.e., precision and 

bias) necessary to achieve objectives, and (d) 

feasibility such as logistics and cost-effectiveness. Proper monitoring of natural resources 

is often quite expensive and time-consuming. 

Therefore, sampling designs should provide 

reliable information in a cost-efficient manner. 

Monitoring in the PACN is particularly challenging because our parks are geographically 

dispersed on islands separated by an area of 

Pacific Ocean larger than the contiguous U.S. 

In addition, the PACN includes working with 

Territorial or Commonwealth governments and 

cultures, which may operate differently than 

in the contiguous U.S. Therefore, time, logistics, costs, and access can be challenging when 

designing sampling approaches. For example, in 

many locations we are limited to airplane and/or 

boat transport, which can be expensive and time 

consuming, so co-location and co-visitation are 

highly desirable. Monitoring activities can be 

disrupted by climate (e.g., storms, typhoons) or 

socio-cultural practices which require planning 

flexibility in order to conduct monitoring in the 

PACN national parks. These logistical obstacles 

require some adaptability when designing sampling schemes. 

In the initial section of this chapter, we discuss 

sampling concepts and definitions, as well as 

basic sampling design considerations. These 

provide a framework for statistical concepts and 

design issues that are used throughout the chapter. In the next section, we present an overview 

of sampling approaches which introduces and 

explains sampling plans for each Vital Sign. Subsequent sections are grouped into the four types 

of sampling proposed: (a) linear-based sampling, (b) list-based, (c) index-based, and (d) a 

census. In these sections, the overall statistical 

design is described for each Vital Sign that will 

be monitored in the earlier phases of the longterm monitoring program. Beyond this chapter, 

further details of the sampling designs will be 

included in Appendix L: Protocol Development 

Summaries. Complete details will be provided 

in the individual protocols, which will include 

detailed maps of sample locations. 

Sampling Concepts and Definitions

In this section we describe background concepts for sampling designs and define sample 

unit, panels, rotation design, and membership 

design, among other terms. Our working definition of monitoring is the collection and analysis 

of repeated observations (figure 4.1), or measurements over a long period of time to document status and trends in ecological parameters. 

Monitoring is often designed to provide unbiased statistical estimates of status and trends in 

large areas (e.g., a national park) or across study 

units (e.g., ohia forest in PACN parks). Longterm monitoring programs collect unbiased 

and scientifically defensible data to address 

specific hypotheses, and/or monitoring objectives. Through monitoring activities, long-term 

correlations may be drawn between ecological 

changes, natural ecosystem perturbations, and 

anthropogenic activities. This information can 

provide compelling information for managers, 

and enhance our overall understanding of ecosystems and ecosystem changes in PACN parks.

The monitoring plans proposed for the PACN 

Vital Sign protocols typically rely on concepts 

in finite population sampling. For finite population sampling, the area for which inferences are 

desired (e.g., a park or ecoregion) is generally 

viewed as a finite collection of sample units. In 

general, sample units are the smallest entities 

upon which measurements are taken. The total 

collection of sample units is called the population, and the defined area from which sample 

units is drawn is the sampling frame. In some 

protocols, sample units will be discrete entities 

Chapter 4. Sampling Design

“Proper 

monitoring of 

natural resources 

is often quite 

expensive and 

time-consuming. 

Therefore, 

sampling 

designs should 

provide reliable 

information in 

a cost-efficient 

manner.”
54 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 4. Sampling Design

such as stream segments, ponds, or lakes. In 

other protocols, sample units will be standardized areas such as transects, plots, or pixels in an 

image. The subset of units from the population 

for which we collect responses is the sample

(figure 4.2). Response variables (or responses) 

are defined as measurements recorded on the 

sample units. 

Sampling Design Considerations

Spatial Allocation of Sampling and Sample 

Selection—If a sample is chosen using random 

selection, the sample is a probability sample, 

free of bias and hence representative of the 

population. Whenever possible, PACN has 

opted for a probability sample to monitor Vital 

Signs. A simple random sample is a method 

in which n units are selected from a population 

of size N via a random process, such that every 

sample unit has the same probability of being 

Figure 4.1. 

Field sampling 

lizards at Puukohola 

Heiau National 

Historic Site (left) 

and field sampling in 

Kalaupapa National 

Historical Park (right).

Figure 4.2 

Diagrammatic 

depiction of 

sampling concepts.
National Park Service 55

included in the sample. A systematic random 

sample is a sampling method in which one 

subject is typically selected at random and 

subsequent subjects are selected according 

to a systematic pattern. A common form of 

systematic sampling is randomly selecting one 

unit from the first k units in the sampling frame 

and every kth unit thereafter (Mendenhall et 

al. 1971). Stratified sampling is used when 

relatively homogeneous sub-populations 

(strata) can be identified. Stratified sampling 

may be used to reduce cost per observation, 

estimate population parameters for each subpopulation, and increase precision of estimates 

across strata. Stratification within sampling is 

analogous to blocking in experimental design. 

The precision of stratified sampling is improved 

by eliminating between-strata variance. 

The Generalized Random Tessellation Stratified (GRTS) design is a method that produces 

a spatially well-balanced stratified random 

sample (Stevens and Olsen 2004). Simple 

random samples may yield ‘clumps’ of sample 

sites and relatively large, unsampled areas, while 

systematic samples do not allow for random 

selection of sample sites once the first site has 

been identified (Stevens and Olsen 2004). The 

GRTS methodology is based on creating a 

function that maps two-dimensional space onto 

one-dimensional space, and uses a restricted 

randomization algorithm to produce a sample 

that is well balanced, yet randomly selected with 

known probabilities for each sample (Stevens and Olsen 2004). Below in figure 4.3, we 

illustrate the different types of spatial allocation 

units.

The PACN will follow four sampling schemes to 

collect Vital Sign monitoring data: (1) Linearbased sampling which delineates sampling 

units along a linear segment and draws a probability sample; (2) List-based sampling which 

uses a list of sample units and selects a probability sample, or attempts to census all units; (3) 

Index-sites which are areas or points that are 

hand-picked to yield adequate data for a specific 

Vital Sign; and (4) Census which is used when 

it is possible to collect data on the full spatial 

extent of an area (e.g., national park).

Temporal Allocation of Samples—A 

monitoring program must face the trade-off 

between precision in estimating trends (i.e., 

revisit design, minimizing temporal and spatial 

variance), and precision in estimating current 

status (variance minimized by visiting new sites). 

Most sampling designs in the PACN will address 

this trade-off by assigning field sampling efforts 

to a combination of fixed and randomly chosen 

sample units over time. 

Figure 4.3 

Graphical 

representation of 

3 spatial sampling 

schemes used in the 

PACN monitoring 

program.
56 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 4. Sampling Design

The temporal sampling schedule which specifies the pattern of visits through time is the 

revisit design (McDonald 2003). The notation commonly used for a revisit design is a 

pair of digits. The first digit is the number of 

consecutive occasions that a panel (sampling 

area) is sampled, and the second is the number 

of consecutive occasions that a panel is not 

sampled. For example, if a single panel is visited 

every sampling occasion, its revisit design can 

be expressed as [1,0]. If a panel is to be sampled 

once, and then never revisited, the notation is 

[1,n]. The notation [1-0, 1-4] indicates a dual 

frame revisit design and signifies that units in 

panel 1 are visited every occasion, and units 

in panel 2 are visited once every 5 years (table 

4.1). In table 4.1, the revisit design 1, notated 

[1-1, 1-1] indicates that units in panel 1 will be 

visited during occasions 1, 3, 5, ..., 9, and units 

in panel 2 be visited during occasions 2, 4, 6, ..., 

10. Revisit design 2 notated [1-0,1-2] specifies 

that units in panel 1 be visited every occasion, 

while those in panel 2 are visited every third 

occasion. Revisit designs that incorporate dual 

frames are particularly effective in monitoring the resources where sample size presents a 

challenge to sampling design, such as landbirds, 

seabirds, bats, plant species, and freshwater 

animals in the PACN.

Another method of sampling rare resources is 

to use adaptive sampling, which selects sample 

sites or units dependent on observed values of 

the variable of interest. The primary purpose 

of adaptive sampling is to utilize population 

characteristics to obtain more precise estimates 

of population abundance or densities. The Focal 

terrestrial plant communities’ protocol will 

employ an adaptive sampling design to monitor 

selected plant species in PACN parks. Because 

many populations of rare and endangered 

plants have aggregation tendencies, due to patterns of dispersion or environmental patchiness, the locations of new aggregations cannot 

be predicted. Once original locations of focal 

plants are identified, nearby sites can be investigated to increase the potential for capturing 

data on other individuals in the population.

Co-location and Co-visitation—Another 

method of sampling sites efficiently is to 

co-locate and co-visit across Vital Signs. Colocation refers to sampling the same physical 

units for multiple Vital Signs. Co-visitation refers 

to sampling the same units for multiple Vital 

Signs on the same occasion, thus reducing travel 

and personnel costs. In addition, co-location 

and co-visitation increase the potential for 

documenting potential correlation between 

Vital Signs. While not providing cause-andeffect linkages, identifying potential correlations 

across Vital Signs will permit broader synthesis 

and stronger linkages to management decisions. 

In an effort to reduce time, personnel, and 

travel costs between different park units, we 

plan to coordinate membership, revisit designs, 

sampling co-location, and co-visitation of 

different monitoring protocols as much as 

possible (described below). Hence, co-location 

and co-visitation should maximize spatial 

balance and optimize sampling logistics when 

applied across all Vital Signs in the respective 

11 PACN parks, while keeping within the limits 

of resources available for field work. Table 4.2 

summarizes potential areas of co-location and 

co-visitation among the PACN monitoring 

protocols.

Table 4.1. Two sample revisit designs.

Sampling 

occasion

Revisit design 1 Revisit design 2

Panel 1 Panel 2 Panel 1 Panel 2

1 X X X

2 X X

3 X X

4 X X X

5 X X

6 X X

7 X X X

8 X X

9 X X

10 X X X

“While not 

providing 

cause-andeffect linkages, 

identifying 

potential 

correlations 

across Vital 

Signs will permit 

broader synthesis 

and stronger 

linkages to 

management 

decisions.”
National Park Service 57

Table 4.2. Summary of potential co-location and co-visitation of monitoring for PACN Vital 

Signs.

Vital Sign Other protocol(s) for

co-location 

Other protocol(s) for covisitation

Phase 1 implementation

Climate N/A N/A

Groundwater dynamics Water quality Water quality

Water quality Benthic marine, Marine fish, 

Freshwater animals, Groundwater dynamics, Erosion & 

deposition

Freshwater animals, Benthic marine, Marine Fish, Groundwater 

dynamics, Erosion & deposition

Status and trends of established 

invasive plant communities

Plant communities, Terrestrial 

invertebrates, Landbirds

Plant communities, Terrestrial 

invertebrates, Erosion and deposition

Early detection of invasive plants Landscape dynamics (field 

ground-truthing)

Status & trends

Benthic marine community Marine fish, Water quality, 

Erosion & deposition

Marine fish, Water quality, Erosion & deposition

Marine fish Benthic marine, Water quality Benthic marine, Water quality

Fish harvest None None

Freshwater animal communities Water quality, Erosion & 

deposition

Water quality, Erosion and 

deposition

Focal terrestrial plant 

communities

Status & trends, Landbirds, 

Terrestrial invertebrates

Status & trends, Erosion and 

deposition, Terrestrial invertebrates

Landbirds Plant communities Frugivorous bats, Seabirds

Seabirds Bats Caves, Bats 

Bats Seabirds Seabirds, Landbirds

Landscape dynamics Early detection Status and trends, Early 

detection

Phase 2 Implementation

Erosion and deposition Plant communities, Benthic marine, Marine fish, Water quality, 

Freshwater animals

Plant communities, Benthic marine, Marine fish, Water quality, 

Freshwater animals

Cave community None Seabirds

Terrestrial invertebrate communitiesFocal Plants Focal Plants, Status and Trends, 

Erosion & Deposition

Early detection of invasive invertebratesTBD TBD
58 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 4. Sampling Design

Overview of Sampling Approaches

Table 4.3 summarizes the sampling design, 

spatial and temporal sampling allocation, as well 

as response variables (e.g., biological or physical 

processes). 

The PACN Vital Signs are categorized below 

into the four dominant sampling designs earlier 

discussed. The Vital Signs sampling section is 

then separated into Aquatic, Marine, or Terrestrial ecosystems. The PACN recognizes the 

importance of integrating Vital Signs, and below 

describe which Vital Signs monitoring will be 

co-located and/or co-visited. 

Linear-Based Sampling Design – Marine Ecosystems—Three marine/aquatic protocols will 

be collocated and co-visited: Benthic marine 

community, Marine fish, and Water quality. 

Monitoring for Benthic marine and Marine fish 

Vital Signs will be conducted using transectbased sampling.

Benthic Marine Community—This protocol 

will initially be implemented at WAPA, NPSA, 

KALA, and KAHO. The sampling frame for this 

protocol is hard-bottom marine areas in the 10 

to 20 meter depth range (figure 4.4). Several 25 

meter permanent transects will be established in 

each park to monitor five parameters: (a) cover, 

(b) coral disease, and (c) benthic rugosity, (d) 

coral recruitment, and (e) growth. These will 

be monitored at discrete sites along transects. 

The sampling frame will not be stratified. For 

the parameters of cover, disease, rugosity, and 

growth, the transects will be sampled in a split 

panel design with 0.5 of the transects fixed and 

0.5 non-revisit random (i.e., 15 transects in each 

park will be fixed sites and revisited; the other 

15 will be new random locations each sampling 

event). Figure 4.5 illustrates the non-revisit 

random points at KALA. Recruitment will be 

monitored at fixed sites along the permanent 

transects. This protocol will be co-located and 

co-visited with the Marine fish protocol, and 

partially co-located and co-visited with Water 

quality monitoring. 

Marine Fish— The sampling frame for the 

Marine fish protocol is hard-bottom marine 

areas in the 10 to 20 meter depth range, as 

with the Benthic marine community protocol. 

Marine fish monitoring will initially be implemented at WAPA, NPSA, KALA, and KAHO. 

The two variables monitored for this protocol 

are (a) fish count, and (b) fish length. Three 

sampling methods will be used: belt transects, 

line transects, and circular plots. The sampling 

frame will be stratified by hard-bottom type.

Transects will be sampled in a split-panel 

design, stratified by habitat type, with 0.5 of the 

transects fixed and 0.5 rotational (i.e., 15 transects in each park will be fixed sites and revisited; the other 15 will be new random locations 

each sampling event). This protocol will be colocated and co-visited with the benthic marine 

protocol, and partially co-located and co-visited 

with water quality monitoring. Further details 

on monitoring design and co-visitation may be 

found in table 4.5

Linear-Based Sampling Design – Terrestrial 

Ecosystems—Three terrestrial and transectbased Vital Signs will be co-located and partially 

co-visited in PACN national parks: Focal 

terrestrial plant communities, Status and trends 

of established invasive plants, and Terrestrial 

invertebrate communities. These three Vital 

Signs will use a linear-based approach, and 

sample according to a GRTS spatial allocation. 

Temporal allocation may differ for Terrestrial 

invertebrates. Integration of Vital Signs will 

occur with Landbirds co-locating with Focal 

terrestrial plant communities (but not covisiting) and co-visiting with Bats (frugivorous, 

NPSA) and Seabirds (Hawaiian petrels).

Figure 4.4.

Marine ecologist 

collecting 

benthic marine 

monitoring 

data at KalokoHonokohau 

National Historical 

Park.
National Park Service 5

9

Table 4.3. Sampling schemes, sample units, spatial and temporal allocations, and response variables for PACN Vital Signs—Continued.Protocol Sampling Scheme Spatial Allocation Temporal Interval Response VariablesFocal terrestrial plant communities

linear + list panel [1-0, 2-4] spp abundance/unit

Status and trends of established invasive plants

linear +list GRTS 5 year intervals; more frequent 

for urgent invasions

proportion of transect with occurrence, abundance per site

Terrestrial invertebrate communities

linear + index judgment + stratified 

random

TBD organisms/station

Early detection of invasive plants

list+ index + linear judgment + stratified 

random

2-3 years revisit # hits/site

Early detection of invasive invertebrates

list+ index judgment TBD organisms/station

Landscape dynamics census census 5-10 yrs spectral signature; road density, 

population change

Cave community index judgment TBD species observed and indicesClimate list existing + judgment continuous weather dataLandbirds linear + index panel [1-0, 2-4] # birds/transectSeabirds:Low elevationHawaiian petrelSpecial Interest

transectlistindex 

stratified randomstratified randomjudgment

TBD #observations/unit

Bats:InsectivorousFrugivorous

indexindex + list

GRTS + judgmentjudgment

TBD #detections/time unit

#observations/unit

Table 4.3. Sampling schemes, sample units, spatial and temporal allocations, and response variables for PACN Vital Signs.
60 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 4. Sampling Design Table 

4.3. Sampling schemes, sample units, spatial and temporal allocations, and response variables for PACN Vital Signs—Continued.

Protocol Sampling Scheme Spatial Allocation Temporal Interval Response VariablesWater quality linear + list + index GRTS + judgment monthly & TBD temperature, conductivity/

salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen, chlorophyll, turbidity, flow/stage level, PAR, total nitrogen and total phosphate

Benthic marine community

linear random 1 year % coral cover, rugosity, growth, 

recruitment

Marine fish linear random 1 year # spp fish/siteFreshwater animal communities

list + index GRTS 3 years # of organisms/quadrat

# organisms/station

Erosion and deposition index judgment TBD amount sediment/trapGroundwater dynamics list existing 3 years water chemistry & level in wellsFish harvest index stratified 5 years catch/unit effort, fish length
National Park Service 61

Figure 4.5.

Map of Benthic marine 

non-revisit random 

points at Kalaupapa 

National Historical Park 

(Molokai).
62 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 4. Sampling Design

Focal Terrestrial Plant Communities— The 

sampling frame for this protocol may include 

eight focal plant communities within the parks: 

rain forest/cloud forest (HAVO, HALE, NPSA, 

and KALA), subalpine/alpine communities 

(HAVO, HALE), limestone forest (WAPA), 

diverse mesic and dry forest (HALE, HAVO), 

summit scrub (NPSA), pioneer communities on 

new lava flows and lava flow/kipuka mosaics 

(HAVO), montane bogs (HALE), and coastal 

communities (KAHO, HAVO, AMME). This 

list will be refined during protocol development 

in consultation with local park managers. The 

sampling frame will consist of units within these 

communities, with unit size adjusted by community size (ranging from small, discrete sites up to 

10 ha areas). Three parameters will be monitored using this protocol: plant density, cover, 

and species composition. Within-year temporal 

variance and measurement error for each of 

these three parameters are low, yet spatial variance is high. 

Sample units will use a rotating panel design. 

For the rotating panel design, the plots will be 

permanent and will be revisited every 5 years 

(table 4.4). Longer sampling intervals could 

occur for selected PACN parks, and will be 

finalized when the protocol is fully developed. 

For trees, the entire plot will be sampled, but 

for smaller plant forms, random subplots will 

be sampled. Specific plant species (i.e. rare, 

threatened and endangered) will also be monitored. Plant distribution, abundance, and stand 

structure will be monitored for specific plant 

species while collecting data on the grid system 

of transects. Adaptive sampling will be used due 

to the highly aggregated distribution of these 

plants.

This protocol will be co-located and co-visited with the Status and trends of established 

invasive plants protocol, and only co-located 

with the Landbirds protocol. Further details on 

monitoring design may be found in table 4.5.

Status and Trends of Established Invasive Plant 

Communities—Status and trends of invasives 

monitoring will partially occur within the sampling units established for the focal plant communities protocol. This Vital Sign will be monitored using detection sampling, also known as 

“hot spot” sampling, a strategy based on the 

target species natural history characteristics. 

Three discrete types of monitoring will occur 

with this protocol: status and trends, incipient 

species, and selected secies. Status and trends 

monitors invasive established species within 

Focal terrestrial plant communities: rain forest/

cloud forest [HAVO, HALE, NPSA, and KALA], 

subalpine/alpine communities [HAVO, HALE], 

limestone forest [WAPA], diverse mesic and dry 

forest [HALE, HAVO], summit scrub [NPSA], 

pioneer communities on new lava flows and 

lava flow/kipuka mosaics [HAVO], montane 

bogs [HALE], coastal [KAHO, HAVO, AMME], 

and selected intensively managed communities. Incipient species monitors invasive species established next to park borders. Incipient 

species monitoring will employ a census design 

for monitoring along linear transects of roads, 

trails, and other developed areas within the 

park. Selected species monitoring will also be 

conducted along roads, trails, and developed 

areas, but a linear lattice transect and detection array will be used, rather than exhaustive 

sampling, or a census. This protocol will be colocated and co-visited with the Focal terrestrial 

Table 4.4. Sampling frame for collecting data on focal plant communities and species within 

a PACN park.

Plot 

Set Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Year 7 Year 8 Year 9 Year 10

A X X X X X X X X X X

B X X X X

C X X X X

D X X X X

E X X X X

F X X X X
National Park Service 63

plant communities protocol, and the incipient 

detection component may be co-located with 

the Early detection of invasive plants protocol. 

Further details on monitoring design may be 

found in table 4.5.

Terrestrial Invertebrates (phase 2)—The Terrestrial invertebrate protocol will be monitored 

using a dual linear-and index-based approach. 

This protocol will initially be implemented at 

AMME, WAPA, NPSA, KALA, HALE, KAHO, 

PUHO, PUHE, ALKA, and HAVO. The single 

parameter monitored by this protocol is species 

and individual counts. Spatial and within-year 

temporal variance are both high. A transectbased approach will allow monitoring of several 

community-level species of invertebrates. The 

index-based approach will need to be utilized 

in focal searches for rare, and at-risk biota. 

Co-location or co-visitation will partially occur 

with the Focal terrestrial plant communities and 

Status and trends of invasive plants protocol. 

Further details on monitoring design may be 

found in table 4.5.

Landbirds—The Landbirds protocol will 

initially be implemented at AMME, NPSA, 

KALA, HALE, and HAVO. The sampling frame 

will consist of selected biomes within parks, 

and sample units will be tracts within these 

biomes. The sampling design will be based on 

linear transects, except in the case of rare bird 

searches which will utilize an index approach 

using specifically selected monitoring sites. The 

single parameter monitored by this protocol is 

species and individual count. Spatial and withinyear temporal variance are both high. Standard 

approaches to monitoring land birds have been 

refined for Pacific islands (Camp, pers. com.). 

For species detected frequently, variable circular 

plot counts (along transects) can generate density estimates and proportion of area occupied, 

whereas rare bird searches offer another quantitative approach to monitoring populations of 

seldom encountered species. 

Sampling will be systematic with random placement of the first sampling unit and systematic 

distribution of remaining sample units. A rotating panel design will be used with membership 

panel and revisit panel specific to the membership: [1-0, 2-4]. This protocol will be co-located 

with the Focal plant communities protocols, 

and co-visited with the Bats (Frugivorous) and 

Seabirds (NPSA) protocols. Further details on 

monitoring design and co-visitation may be 

found in table 4.5. A graphical representation 

of the Landbirds Vital Sign sampling scheme at 

NPSA is represented in figure 4.6.

Seabirds—The Seabirds protocol will be monitored using a combination of transect-, list-, 

and index-based approaches. “Low elevation 

seabirds” will be monitored using transects, 

“Hawaiian petrels” using a list-based design, 

and “seabirds of special interest” using an 

index-based approach. 

Transect-based monitoring will initially be 

implemented at NPSA, KALA, and KAHO. 

The sample frame for low elevation seabirds 

will consist of park shorelines, with individual 

birds within the frame being the sample units. 

Transect placement will be stratified by proximity to the shoreline, and will consist of a count 

of all birds sighted along transects. The single 

parameter monitored by this protocol is species 

and individual count using a stratified random 

design. Spatial and within-year temporal variance are both high. Low elevation seabird monitoring may be co-located with the Insectivorous 

and Frugivorous Bat monitoring protocol.

Hawaiian petrels will be monitored at HALE 

and HAVO using two complimentary listbased approaches, consisting of a list of known 

nesting sites and a list of potential locations. 

Spatial allocation will utilize a stratified random 

approach. Sample units will consist of grid 

squares, and the sample frame will be stratified 

into known colony sites and areas of potential 

colony location. This portion of the protocol 

will be co-visited with the Cave community and 

Insectivorous Bat protocols. 

Seabirds of special interest will be monitored 

at NPSA, KALA, HALE, and HAVO using an 

index-based approach, therefore spatial allocation must utilize expert-based judgment. Birds 

will be monitored by radar detection or call 

counts. Seabird monitoring at NPSA may be 

co-located with the Frugivorous Bat protocol, 

and with the Insectivorous Bat protocol at the 

other three parks. Further details on monitoring 

design and co-visitation may be found in table 

4.5.
64 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 4. Sampling Design

Figure 4.6.

Map of proposed 

Landbirds sampling 

scheme on the 

Island of Tau, Manua 

group, National Park 

of American Samoa.
National Park Service 65

List-Based Sampling Design – Aquatic 

Ecosystems—To increase integration of the 

PACN program, Water quality as a list-based 

Vital Sign will be co-located and co-visited 

with two other aquatic monitoring programs: 

Groundwater dynamics and Freshwater animal 

communities.

Water Quality—This protocol will be implemented at all PACN parks. The PACN Water 

quality Vital Sign will utilize two sampling 

schemes: (a) list-based, and (b) index-based. 

The sampling frame for this sampling method 

consists of 4 strata: marine waters, streams, 

mixohaline waters, and groundwater wells 

within a park’s water quality area of interest 

(appendix I). Sample units are random point 

samples allocated proportionately to the relative 

area of each resource type. The spatial allocation will be a GRTS design (temporal allocation 

will be annually independent for each stratum, 

with a target of 30-50 samples in American 

Samoa, Mariana Islands, and Hawaiian Islands). 

There will be several index sites for each park 

to monitor both status and trends in water 

quality parameters. Fiscal resource constraints 

may limit our efforts of focused sampling to 

1 or 2 strata in a single geographic region per 

year. Thus, a period of approximately 6 years 

may elapse between status updates for a given 

geographic strata. 

The other monitoring method for Water quality 

will consist of a series of automated, continuous 

data loggers deployed at index sites in conjunction with freshwater, marine, and groundwater 

monitoring protocols. Continuous sampling will 

focus on gathering trend information for integration with spatial status information. Instruments will be rotated among pre-established 

index sites. The sampling frame for the indexbased component is the same as the GRTS 

sample frame, with site selection by professional 

judgment (e.g., watershed collector sites in 

streams, co-located with Benthic marine community Vital Sign monitoring in marine strata). 

Sample units are index sites addressing priority 

management areas and issues. The index sites 

will be annually rotated across the network 

in conjunction with GRTS sampling rotation 

discussed previously. This approach will permit 

characterization of temporal variability at multiple scales, including diel and seasonal cycles.

This combination of status (GRTS sampling) 

rotated in conjunction with trend (continuous, index site) monitoring provides a hybrid 

approach for addressing a broad suite of 

management issues. This hybrid approach also 

characterizes a specified target population 

(strata) on a broad spatial basis using a randomized GRTS approach, as well as refined temporal basis using continuous-recording index sites 

from within the same sample frame. Potential 

water bodies for monitoring within the PACN 

are presented in figure 4.7. 

Groundwater Dynamics—The Groundwater 

dynamics protocol will initially be implemented 

at AMME, KALA, ALKA, and KAHO and 

co-located and co-visited with Water Quality. 

Groundwater dynamics will be monitored using 

a list-based design in several discrete groundwater wells, streams, springs, and wetlands. 

Sampling frames consist of a list of accessible 

wells within the water quality area of interest (see appendix I), and a list of streams and 

springs within the water quality area of interest. 

Regarding wells, given the limited number of 

monitoring wells available, the spatial allocation is being treated as a list-based design, with 

the intention of monitoring the entire list. The 

protocol will recommend additional monitoring well locations for future consideration. 

Whenever possible, wetlands and ponds will 

be randomly selected from a list using a GRTS 

spatial allocation. Parameters to be measured 

include: groundwater level, surface discharge, 

and conductivity/salinity. This protocol may be 

co-located and co-visited with Water quality monitoring. Further details on monitoring 

design and co-visitation may be found in table 

4.5.

Freshwater Animal Communities—The 

Freshwater animals communities Vital Sign will 

initially be implemented at AMME, WAPA, 

NPSA, KALA, HALE, ALKA, PUHE, KAHO, 

PUHO, and HAVO and will be co-located and 

co-visited with Water Quality. The sampling 

frame consists of a list of all accessible intermittent streams, anchialine pools, and ponds within 

a park. This protocol will be monitored using a 
66 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 4. Sampling Design

Figure 4.7.

PACN potential water 

quality sampling 

water bodies.
National Park Service 67

list-based design. The spatial allocation is stratified random sampling (SRS) for pools, perennial 

streams, and intermittent water bodies within 

and immediately adjacent to park boundaries. Sample units will consist of reaches within 

streams, and individual anchialine pools. Two 

methods that will be used include visual surveys 

and electro-shocking. The list-based sampling 

design for streams will use a GRTS design for 

reach selection. This protocol will be co-located 

with Water quality index-based monitoring. 

Further details on monitoring design and covisitation may be found in table 4.5.

List-Based Sampling Design – Terrestrial 

Ecosystems

Climate—This protocol will be implemented 

at all PACN parks and monitored using a listbased design. The sample frame will consist of a 

list of automated weather stations, and monitoring will consist of a suite of continuously 

monitored measures. The spatial allocation will 

be existing climate stations. Spatial variance in 

data collection in each park can be modeled, 

and there is no issue of allocation of within-year 

temporal variance. No co-location or co-visitation opportunities are foreseen for this protocol. 

Index-Based Sampling Design – Terrestrial 

Ecosystems—Index-based sampling for 

PACN Vital Signs monitoring will include: 

Bats (frugivorous and insectivorous), Cave 

community, Fish harvest, and Erosion and 

deposition. In terrestrial/aquatic ecosystems, 

Erosion and deposition may be co-located with 

Water quality and Benthic marine community 

Vital Signs. The terrestrial erosion component 

may be co-visited with Focal terrestrial plant 

communities.

Insectivorous Bats—Insectivorous bats will be 

monitored using an index-based design. The 

Hawaiian hoary bats protocol will initially be 

implemented at KALA, HALE, ALKA, PUHE, 

KAHO, PUHO, and HAVO. Bats will be monitored at mobile and fixed bat detection stations along roads and trails (in large parks), or 

throughout the park (at small parks). Locations 

of remote data collection stations for bat detections will be based on expert judgment. One 

parameter, individual count (# detections/unit 

time), will be monitored for this protocol. Spatial variance and within-year temporal variance 

are both high. Two sampling methods will be 

used: road and/or trail transect counts for active 

data collection and vista counts for remote 

echolocation monitoring stations.

Sites will be stratified for Hawaiian hoary bats 

based upon habitat. Co-visitation will occur 

with components of the Landbirds and Seabirds 

protocols. Further details on monitoring design 

and co-visitation may be found in table 4.5.

Frugivorous Bats—The fruit bats protocol will 

initially be implemented at NPSA. If inventory 

data suggests adequate populations are present at WAPA, then fruit bat monitoring will be 

implemented at WAPA as well. An index-based 

sample design will be used to monitor frugivorous bats (also called fruit bats or flying foxes) 

from vista points (figure 4.8), and a list-based 

design for roosting colonies. Both known colonies and individuals will be monitored, utilizing expert judgment for spatial allocation, and 

existing colonies. Only a single parameter of 

individual count will be monitored for this protocol. Spatial variance is high and within-year 

temporal variance is moderate. Two sampling 

methods will be used: colonial counts and vista 

counts. Measurement error for colonial counts 

is high, and measurement error for vistas is 

moderate. 

Counts will consist of both colony-based emergence and activity counts, as well as solitary bats 

within sampling units. Sampling locations may 

change based upon both species’ mobility, and 

roosting locations. Co-location will occur with 

the Seabirds protocol. Co-visitation will occur 

with the Seabirds (in NPSA), and Landbirds 

Figure 4.8.

Frugivorous bat surveys 

co-visited with Landbirds 

and Seabirds Vital signs 

monitoring, Tutuila 

Island, National Park of 

American Samoa.
68 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 4. Sampling Design

protocols (matching both index designs). Further details on monitoring design and co-visitation may be found in table 4.5.

Cave Communities (phase 2)—An Index-Based 

Design will be used to monitor this protocol, 

which will initially be implemented at KALA, 

HALE, KAHO, PUHO, NPSA, WAPA and 

HAVO. The sample frame will include accessible caves with significant biological and/or 

cultural resources. Three types of monitoring 

will be conducted: (a) cave biological resources, 

(b) surface vegetation, and (c) other resources 

within caves (e.g., cultural or paleontological 

features). 

This protocol has little potential for co-location, 

but will be co-visited with the Seabirds Vital 

Signs protocol. Further details on monitoring 

design and co-visitation may be found in tables 

4.5.

Index-Based Sampling Design – Aquatic 

Ecosystems

Fish Harvest—The Fish harvest Vital Sign will 

be monitored using an index-based approach. 

It will initially be implemented at WAPA, NPSA, 

KALA, and KAHO. The sample frame includes 

park shorelines and marine waters, with a 

potential buffer area. Two parameters, catch per 

unit effort and fish length, will be monitored for 

this protocol. For spatial allocation, the sites to 

collect creel-survey data will be selected using 

scientific judgment. Both spatial and withinyear temporal variance for each parameter are 

high. Two methods will be used: creel counts 

and participation surveys. 

This protocol has little potential for co-location 

or co-visitation with other Vital Signs. Further 

details on monitoring design and co-visitation 

may be found in table 4.5

Erosion and Deposition (phase 2)—The erosion 

and deposition protocol will be monitored using 

an index-based approach for sampling design. 

This protocol will initially be implemented 

at WAPA, NPSA, USAR, KALA, HALE, and 

PUHE. Three types of monitoring will occur: 

terrestrial erosion monitoring, surface water/

marine turbidity monitoring, and marine sedimentation monitoring. Spatial allocation will be 

identified from expert judgment of the terrestrial, surface water, and marine sites.

This protocol will be co-located and co-visited 

with Benthic marine, Focal terrestrial plant 

community, and Water quality monitoring. Further details on monitoring design and co-visitation may be found in table 4.5.

Buffer Zone Vital Sign Monitoring—Two 

of PACN Vital Signs are unusually grouped 

together by sampling location outside the PACN 

parks, rather than sampling design. Both Early 

detection of invasive plants and Invertebrates, 

and Landscape dynamics will collect data in 

the buffer zones of the PACN parks. Therefore, 

while Early detection is list, linear, and indexbased, the census-based Landscape dynamics 

will be co-visited and potentially co-located 

with the Early detection monitoring team, for 

the purpose of ground-truthing the monitoring 

data.

Early Detection of Invasive Plants and 

Invertebrates (Linear, List, and Index-Based)—

The Early detection of invasive plants protocol 

will be initially be implemented at AMME, 

WAPA, NPSA, KALA, HALE, ALKA, PUHE, 

KAHO, PUHO, and HAVO. The sample frame 

will consist of nurseries, roads, and other 

dominant invasive species entry points (figure 

4.9) on the islands where a park is based. Three 

sampling schemes will be utilized: (a) linearbased sampling, (b) list-based sampling, and 

Figure 4.9.

Monitoring of 

invasive plants is 

planned in Pacific 

Island Network 

Parks such as 

Hawaii Volcanoes 

National Park.
National Park Service 69

Table 4.5. Sample units and sampling designs for PACN Vital Signs—Continued.

Vital Sign Sample Units Sampling design

Sampling Frame Within-Park Units Within Park Within Sample Unit

Climate List from existing weather stations 

(more stations are expected in 

future)

Weather station One or more weather stations per park, convenience 

sample. Criteria must be 

selected for multiple stations 

in a park (e.g., windward/leeward, elevation).

Continuous sampling

Groundwater dynamicsa) List from monitoring wells 

within/adjacent to parks

b) List of streams and springs 

within/adjacent to parks

a) Monitoring wells

b) Streams and springs 

a) Complete list, or systematic sample

b) All available sites

a) 2-3 measures/site visit

b) 1 measure/site visit

Water quality a) Lists of resources for 4 strata: 

marine, perennial streams, mixohaline (pools & ponds), groundwater 

b) Index site(s) from each strata: 

marine, perennial streams, mixohaline (pools & ponds), groundwater 

a) Discrete point samples in strata: 

marine, perennial streams, mixohaline 

(pools & ponds), groundwater

b) Continuous point samples

a) GRTS proportional to 

area of resource type. Never 

revisit

b) Index-site instrument rotated by park and/or resource 

type

a) ~30 samples per strata

b) Continuous sampling

Status and trends of 

established invasive 

plant species

a) 8 focal communities in parks

b) Transport routes (transects, 

roads, trails, developed areas)

c) Within park boundaries

a) Sampling units adjusted by habitat 

(small sites to 10 ha)

b) 10-m segments of transects, 1-mi 

road segments, sites in developed areas

c) 10-m segments of transects, 1-mi 

road segments, sites in developed areas

a) Stratified by sub-habitats, 

GRTS sample

b) Exhaustive (canvass)

c) Detection array, linear 

lattice

a) Varies by life form: 

trees- whole plot; shrubs 

& small forms- sub-plot; 

random panel, refresh new 

random subplots & revisit 

large plots

b) No sub-sampling

c) N/A

Early detection of 

invasive plants

a) Units that must be individually 

selected

b) Units that can be randomly 

selected (list-based, linear-based)

a) Nurseries, stretches of road

b) Road types (public-paved; publicunpaved, & private)

a) Index: selected by site; 

b) Sample within strata, 

stratified by risk

Survey within nursery, or 

road units

Benthic marine 

community

10-20 m strata in Marine realm 

with hard bottom

25-m transect (cover, disease rugosity); 

arrays along a 25-m transect (recruitment); discrete Pocillopora spp colony 

(growth)

SRS, Split Panel Design (1/2 

fixed, 1/2 50% rotational) 

for cover, disease, rugosity, 

growth; SRS of 1/2 fixed 

transects (recruitment)

SRS of images; counts of 

recruitment, and disease; 

total growth of index corals; rugosity measurement 

per site

Marine fish 10-20 m strata in Marine realm 

with hard bottom

25 m x 5 m transect Stratified by hard bottom 

habitat types; split panel 

design

Species, length, abundance 

per transect

Fish harvest Park shoreline & marine waters 

(potentially plus buffer)

N/A Potentially exhaustive sampling of marine areasEffort- systematic sampling 

of # fishermen by gear 

type, stratified by day vs. 

night.

Catch- opportunistic creel 

survey

Freshwater animal 

communities

a) List of all accessible streams 

b) List of all accessible streams, 

anchialine pools, and ponds

a) Quadrats within reaches (2 levels of 

units)

b) Reaches within streams, anchialine 

pools, and ponds 

GRTS for reaches, Anchialine 

pools, and ponds. Canvass 

pools in stream reaches

Random reaches within 

streams, random quadrats 

within reaches. 

Aquatic fauna: random 

quadrats within pools or 

net/trap samples

Focal terrestrial plant 

communities

8 focal communities in parks By sampling units: Unit size adjusted by 

habitat (small discrete sites to10 ha)

Stratified by sub-habitats, 

GRTS sample

Varies by life form: Treeswhole plot, shrubs & small 

forms- sub-plot, random 

panel, refresh new random 

subplots & revisit large 

plots

Table 4.5. Sample units and sampling designs for PACN Vital Signs.
70 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 4. Sampling Design

Table 4.5. Sample units and sampling designs for PACN Vital Signs—Continued.

Vital Sign Sample Units Sampling design

Sampling Frame Within-Park Units Within Park Within Sample Unit

Landbirds Selected biomes of parks Tracts (within a biome of a park) Systematic sampling with 

random placement of the 

first sampling unit & systematic distribution of remaining sampling units; rotating 

panel design with membership panel and revisit panel 

specific to the membership: 

[1-0,2-4]

Transects, stations, searcharea sites, mark-resight 

sites, or nest searching 

(within tracts)

Seabirds

a) Hawaiian Petrel

b) Species of special 

interest

c) Low elevation 

surveys

a) Known nesting areas & potential habitat (list)

b) Within-park sampling design 

c) Park shorelines (linear)

a) Grid squares

b) Radar detection (individual birds), 

calling birds

c) Individual birds

a) 2 strata: Known areas & 

potential areas

b) Index sites

c) Along-shore strata

a) Known: canvass or 

sample; Potential: sample 

(i.e., grid)

b) Radar or call counts

c) Count of all birds seen 

on transect

Bats

a) Insectivorous bats

b) Frugivorous bats

a) HALE, HAVO, and KALA: All 

accessible roads and trails, & other 

focal areas; PUHE, PUHO, and 

KAHO: park level

b) NPSA: Focal coastal, road, 

and/or trail areas

a) Mobile and/or immobile bat detection stations

b) Colony: Colonial species

 Individual: Both solitary & colonial 

species

a) Hawaiian hoary bats: sites 

allocated by expected habitat 

utilization with fixed, echolocation detection equipment. 

Other fixed sites selected to 

give better representation of 

park, survey using mobile 

detectors. Stratified: Forest, 

non-forest, ecotones. 

b) Within island: Direct colony counts and emergence 

counts at roosts (colonies); 

station counts at roosts and 

vistas (solitary species or 

individuals)

 Within sampling units: 

Count individual bats (solitary and colonial species).

a) Minutes of activity/ unit 

time will be recorded for 

each site. All sites will be 

visited monthly during 

year one and annually after 

determining those months 

with highest bat activity 

levels. Number of sites 

TBD. 

b) Count individual bats 

(both solitary & colonial 

species); locations may 

change due to resource 

availability

Landscape dynamics Park plus buffer 4-m imagery cells Census Census

Erosion and depositiona) Potentially same as vegetation

b) Potentially same as water quality

c) Potentially same as benthic 

marine

a) 3-5 soil samples

b) Automated turbidity meter

c) TBD

a) Potentially incorporate 

into vegetation design; index 

based

b) Incorporate into WQ; 

stratify by proximity to point 

sources; index-based

c) Potentially incorporate 

into benthic protocol; index 

based

a) TBD

b) TBD

c) TBD

Cave community a) Selected accessible caves with 

resources

b) Roots in caves, surface vegetation above caves

c) Selected accessible caves with 

resources

a) Plots in caves

b) Roots within caves, surface vegetation over cave footprint

c) Caves

a) Plots & cave obligate species; index based

b) Plots & cave for roots, surface vegetation transects over 

cave footprint; index based

c) Opportunistic distribution, note change

a) Timed counts, bait 

counts, walk-through

b) Photo documentation, 

relative cover of roots, root 

samples for ID

c) Change in status, photo 

documentation, data loggers for human visits

Terrestrial invertebrate communitiesSelected tracts within parks Fixed transects within tracts Random placement of bait 

stations; some sites indexbased design

Bait stations along transects

Early detection of 

invasive invertebrates

a) Units that will be individually 

selected

b) Units that can be randomly 

selected (list-based + index)

Index trap sites a) Index: selected by site; 

b) Sample within strata, 

stratified by risk

Survey within units
National Park Service 71

(c) index sampling. Linear sampling will occur 

along road corridors that serve as vectors 

of invasive species introductions, and may 

spatially allocate by a stratified random sample, 

if necessary. The linear corridors may be 

stratified by road type: primary (public-paved), 

and secondary (public-unpaved), and private 

property roads (where accessibility is granted). 

Details of the early detection of invasive 

invertebrates will be determined in phase 2.

List-based sampling of Early Detection invasive plants will occur for plant distribution 

centers, including nurseries, botanical gardens, and retail stores where ornamentals can 

be purchased, in addition to other sites such 

as refuse dumps and supply yards. Stratified 

random sampling will be used near parks where 

the buffer zones around a park can be stratified as concentric rings within a pre-set buffer 

distance of the park. For the parks where the 

plant distribution centers and botanical gardens 

are minimal, an index-based approach will be 

used to hand-pick these sites, as well as ports of 

entry (e.g., marine vessels or airports) known to 

distribute ornamentals and/or other potential 

invasive plant species. This protocol will partially be co-located with the Status and trends 

of established invasive plants protocol, and be 

co-located and co-visited with the Landscape 

Dynamics protocol. Further details on monitoring design may be found in table 4.5.

Census-based Design

Landscape Dynamics—This protocol will initially be implemented at AMME, WAPA, NPSA, 

KALA, HALE, PUHE, KAHO, PUHO, USAR, 

and HAVO. Landscape dynamics will use a 

census approach with field sampling for training and accuracy assessment data. The sample 

frame consists of the park, in addition to a buffer area, and sample units consist of 4-m2

 imagery cells. Further details on monitoring design 

and co-visitation may be found in table 4.5.

Summary

Chapter 4 describes the sampling designs that 

will be used for the fourteen phase 1 (and four 

phase two) Vital Sign monitoring protocols that 

are being developed for the Pacific Island Network. In an effort to reduce program costs and 

increase efficiencies, we have found numerous 

opportunities for terrestrial and aquatic Vital 

Signs to be co-located and/or co-visited. These 

efforts should substantially reduce time, personnel, and travel costs for protocol implementation. In this chapter, we describe four general 

sampling approaches that will be used in our 11 

national park system units: linear-based, listbased, index based, and a census, as well as specific spatial and temporal sampling designs. The 

information presented herein summarizes the 

results of work accomplished at several meetings over a three-year period. Many individuals 

contributed including: Inventory and Monitoring staff, other NPS staff, CESU Cooperators, 

as well as other agencies, Universities, NGOs, 

and professional biometricians, whose scientific 

expertise and quantitative skills contributed 

substantially to the PACN Vital Sign monitoring 

program.

“In an effort to 

reduce program 

costs and increase 

efficiencies, 

we have found 

numerous 

opportunities for 

terrestrial and 

aquatic Vital Signs 

to be co-located 

and/or co-visited.”
72 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 4. Sampling Design
National Park Service 73

The Pacific Island Network is developing 

14 Vital Sign monitoring protocols that are 

planned for implementation during 2006-2011. 

Schedules for implementation are described 

in chapter 9. In general, the PACN protocols 

will be extensive documents, outlining welldefined objectives and detailing: (a) background 

research, (b) sampling design, (c) field, laboratory and data analysis methods, (d) data management, (e) QA/QC procedures, (f) reporting 

procedures, and (g) other Standard Operating 

Procedures (SOP) and materials that are protocol specific (figure 5.1). All PACN protocols 

will closely follow the national standards for 

long-term monitoring protocols as outlined by 

Oakley et al. (2003). Thus, each protocol will 

consist of three primary sections: (1) a protocol 

narrative, (2) a set of standard operating procedures, and (3) supplementary materials. 

Chapter 5. Monitoring Protocols

“Monitoring protocols are detailed study 

plans that explain how data are to be collected, managed, analyzed, and reported, and 

are a key component of quality assurance 

for natural resource monitoring programs. 

Protocols are necessary to ensure that changes 

detected by monitoring actually are occurring 

in nature and not simply a result of measurements taken by different people or in slightly 

different ways.” (Oakley et al., 2003)

Narrative

Background

& objectives

Personnel

requirements &

training

Data handling,

analysis, reporting

References

Operational

requirements

Field methods

Sampling

design

Supplementary

materials

Databases

Custom

support software

Supporting

data & reports

Review comments

& responses

Photographs

Maps Revision history

Standard

operating

procedures

Revision

procedure Pre-monitoring

procedures

Training

Photo

documentation

Using GPS

Establishing &

marking plots

Monitoring

method

Legal

compliance

Data

management

Reporting

Data

analysis

Post-monitoring

procedures

Safety

Figure 5.1.

The three primary 

sections of Vital Sign 

monitoring protocols 

(blue boxes), with 

secondary components 

(green boxes). 
74 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 5. Monitoring Protocols

Applicability

Applicability

Applicability

Reliability

Reliability

Feasibility

Reliability

Selection

of Vital Signs

Field methods

Implementation

Sampling

design & analysis

Reporting

Monitoring

objectives

Data

management

Scope of

inference

Management

objectives

Management

decisions

Conceptual

models

Threats

Sampling

error Precision Bias Robustness

Data

stewardship

Info

systems Training Documentation QA

Qualifications Training SOPs QA

Timing Audience Content Format

Cost Logistics

Figure 5.2.

Vital sign conceptual 

framework 

illustrating the 

importance 

of individual 

components to 

applicability, 

reliability, and 

feasibility for 

protocols.

As the PACN list of Vital Signs was refined, we 

emphasized applicability, feasibility, and reliability (i.e., scientific defensibility) of metrics 

to detect change. These elements have been 

addressed in previous monitoring plan chapters. 

Figure 5.2 illustrates how the pieces of the protocols contribute to major program components 

of applicability, reliability, and feasibility of our 

monitoring program.

Vital Sign Protocol Development Roles

To ensure a system of checks and balances 

regarding the roles of NPS staff and cooperators, we have defined five primary roles in 

protocol development, as described below. 

Individuals responsible for each protocol are 

identified in table 5.1.
National Park Service 75

Table 5.1. PACN protocol development roles and individuals involved—Continued.

Protocol Principal Investigator NPS Lead I&M Project 

Manager

CESU Cooperator

Climate Fritz Klasner (NPS) TBD Fritz 

Klasner

Karin Schlappa

Status & trends of established 

invasive plant species 

Jim Jacobi (USGS-BRD)

Linda Pratt (USGS-BRD)

Rhonda Loh

Steve Anderson

Leslie 

HaySmith

Joan Yoshioka

Alison Ainsworth

Water quality Tahzay Jones (NPS) Eric Brown Tahzay Jones Kimber DeVerse

Seabirds Darcy Hu (NPS)

David Duffy (CESU)

Cathleen Bailey Leslie 

HaySmith

Gail Ackerman

Landscape dynamics Melia Lane-Kamahele 

(NPS)

Barbara Gibson (Univ. of 

Hawaii)

Sandy Margriter Fritz 

Klasner

Page Else

Viet Doan

Fish harvest Jim Beets (UH) Peter Craig Tahzay Jones Raychelle Daniel

Landbirds Rick Camp (USGS-BRD)

Thane Pratt 

(USGS-BRD)

Cathleen Bailey, 

Darcy Hu

Leslie 

HaySmith

N/A

Freshwater animal communities 

(perennial & intermittent streams 

& ponds)

Anne Brasher 

(USGS-WRD)

Tahzay Jones Tahzay Jones N/A

Bats (insectivorous & frugivorous) Leslie HaySmith (NPS) Darcy Hu Leslie 

HaySmith

Gail Ackerman, 

Heather Fraser

Focal terrestrial plant communities Jim Jacobi (USGS-BRD)

Linda Pratt (USGS-BRD)

Rhonda Loh Leslie 

HaySmith

Alison Ainsworth

Early detection of invasive plants Lloyd Loope 

(USGS-BRD)

Steve Anderson Leslie 

HaySmith

Joan Yoshioka

Benthic marine community Eric Brown (NPS) Dwayne Minton Tahzay Jones Raychelle Daniel

Marine fish Jim Beets (UH)

Alan Friedlander 

(NOAA ) 

Peter Craig Tahzay Jones

Raychelle Daniel

Groundwater dynamics Steve Anthony 

(USGS-WRD)

Tahzay Jones Tahzay Jones N/A

Erosion & deposition TBD Dwayne Minton Fritz 

Klasner

Raychelle Daniel

Terrestrial invertebrate communitiesDavid Foote 

(USGS-BRD)

TBD Gordon Dicus TBD

Cave community Frank Howarth 

(Bishop Museum) 

Jadelyn Moniz 

Nakamura (NPS)

TBD Gordon Dicus TBD

Early detection of invasive 

invertebrates

Lloyd Loope 

(USGS-BRD)

Steve Anderson Leslie 

HaySmith

TBD

Table 5.1. PACN protocol development roles and individuals involved.
76 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 5. Monitoring Protocols

Principal investigator (PI) - The PI takes overall 

responsibility for a Vital Sign in the network. 

He or she works with the network coordinator, 

PACN staff, and Technical Committee to ensure 

long-range perspectives for project design, data 

collection, data analyses, and reporting. Principal investigators oversee summarization and 

reporting of the monitoring data.

NPS lead - The staff member from a park or 

I&M who ensures that NPS-wide interests are 

maintained throughout monitoring development for each Vital Sign. 

I&M project manager - I&M staff that are 

assigned to each protocol to steward the 

planning, development, budget, timeline, and 

implementation phase, in accordance with 

program guidelines. The I&M project manager 

may assume “contracting officer representative” 

duties.

CESU cooperator - The CESU staff member 

who assists with literature reviews, data mining, 

writing and editing of protocol development 

summaries, study plans, and protocols, including standard operating procedures. Other duties 

include coordinating meetings for protocol 

development, data management of protocols, 

and some data analysis.

Parks point of contact (PPOC) – The park staff 

member who coordinates the PIs and team visits 

for field reconnaissance to their parks. PPOC 

also review study plans and draft protocols with 

respect to plans for Vital Sign monitoring in 

their parks.

In addition to NPS leads, project managers, and 

PPOC who are formally involved in Vital Sign 

monitoring, many other staff members, ecologists, and natural resource managers provide 

assistance and information about their park, 

which is invaluable in preparing protocols 

and conducting monitoring in PACN parks. 

This collaboration for Vital Sign monitoring is 

particularly important, considering the geographic isolation and travel and logistics costs to 

conduct monitoring in the PACN.

Protocol Summary Information

Detailed protocol development summaries are 

presented in appendix L. Table 5.2 presents an 

abbreviated version of the justifications and 

objectives for each protocol and lists parks in 

which each of the 18 Vital Signs will be monitored. Implementation will occur in two phases 

over a 5-year period. Note that some Vital Signs 

will be implemented in both phase 1 and phase 

2.

“...collaboration 

for Vital Sign 

monitoring is 

particularly 

important, 

considering 

the geographic 

isolation and 

travel and logistics 

costs to conduct 

monitoring in the 

PACN.”
National Park Service 77

Table 5.2. Summary information for PACN Vital Sign monitoring protocols—Continued.

Vital Sign Justificationa Vital Sign Monitoring Objectivesb Parks Planned for Implementation

ClimateI

Climate is a major driver for terrestrial and marine ecosystems, affecting biotic and abiotic ecosystem attributes. In many of the PACN parks, basic weather/climate data collection is completely lacking or inadequate. Identification of climate variability and change, and its effect on natural resources, is complicated by the lack of baseline data.

Determine:Ia. Ranges of average (statistical mean) conditions for monthly, yearly, and seasonal measurements of core weather parameters on various spatial scales.Ib. Trends for core climate parameters on park, island, and network-wide scales.Ic. Long-term trends and spatial extent for other parameters (based on site-specific needs).IIa. Limits for extreme conditions for core weather parameters on various spatial scales.IIb. Frequency, spatial extent, duration of extreme weather events (droughts, tropical cyclones, El Nino cycles, PDO, changes in predominant wind patterns).

AMME, WAPA, NPSA, USAR, KALA, HALE, ALKA, PUHE, KAHO, PUHO, HAVO

Status and trends of

established invasive

plant speciesI

Alien species invasions reduce native plant diversity and abundance, and alter vegetation structure. At their worst, ecologically disruptive species are able to completely displace the native vegetation and alter ecosystem processes. Among the >4,600 alien species established in Hawaii, there are 100+ highly disruptive alien pest species. Over 105 species are identified as disruptive or potentially so in American Samoa; and 133 species identified as disruptive or potentially so in Micronesia.

Ia: Periodically compile information and develop lists of invasive non-native species in or adjacent to PACN parks.Ib: Prioritize non-native species to identify the most disruptive species threatening PACN parks.II: Determine distribution and abundance of disruptive non-native species along major corridors and randomly located belt transects spanning plant communities from 0 to 10,000 ft elevation (5 year intervals). III: For highly disruptive non-native species, determine the stand structure (number of individuals in different size classes), and record reproductive status in permanent plots.

AMME, WAPA, NPSA, KALA, HALE, ALKA, PUHE, KAHO, PUHO, HAVO

Water qualityI

The quality of surface waters, marine waters, and groundwater is critical to the functioning of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Water resources in the PACN parks span a range of conditions from pristine to highly impaired water bodies. Both point and nonpoint sources impact waters at various locations. NPS management policies mandate that parks determine the quality of their water resources and strive to avoid anthropogenic pollution both within and outside of park boundaries.

Determine:I: Range and spatial variance of temperature, pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, flow/stage/level, PAR, total nitrogen, total phosphorous, and chlorophyll a in PACN surface water bodies and groundwater (annually). not in groundwater.II: Temporal and spatial trends for temperature, pH, conductivity, and dissolved oxygen in PACN surface water bodies and groundwater. If necessary, collect and analyze pilot field data to resolve knowledge gaps.III: Temporal water quality trends in individual park water bodies and document changes in land uses in watersheds; identify correlations.

AMME, WAPA, NPSA, USAR, KALA, HALE, ALKA, PUHE, KAHO, PUHO, HAVO

a. Justification is for entire Vital Sign, and is condensed. Justification for individual objectives is presented in protocol development summaries (appendix L).b. Specific objectives presented here are condensed.I. Implementation in phase 1.II. Implementation in phase 2

Table 5.2. Summary information for PACN Vital Sign monitoring protocols.
78 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 5. Monitoring Protocols Table 5.2. Summary information for PACN Vital Sign monitoring protocols—Continued. Vital Sign Justificationa Vital Sign Monitoring Objectivesb Parks Planned for Implementation

SeabirdsI

Prior to human colonization, seabirds nested widely and in enormous numbers on all PACN islands. Today the group is marked by precipitous declines and extirpations on all inhabited islands. Any extant colonies are remnants in dire need of protection, active monitoring, and management. Rare, threatened, and endangered seabird species are of primary concern to PACN. Two species are federally listed: the Hawaiian petrel (Pterodroma sandwichensis, Uau) is endangered, and Newell’s shearwater (Puffinis newelli, Ao) is threatened. Other rare species include band-rumped storm-petrel (Oceanodroma castro, Akeake), Tahiti petrel (Pterodroma rostrata), Herald’s petrel (Pterodroma arminjoniana), and Polynesian stormpetrel (Nesofregetta fuliginosa).

Hawaiian petrel:Ia: Detect changes in distribution of colonies by searching suitable nesting habitat at intervals of every 5-10 years. Calculate density of colonies by locating active nests and delineating colony area.Ib: Determine numbers of active nests and annual fledging success.Other threatened and rare species:IIa: Determine seabird species presence and relative abundance by nonintrusive means such as radar and combined use of night vision and call recognition. IIb: Periodically (<annually) monitor reproductive success of all seabirds. Common, low-elevation seabirds:IIIa: Use repeated surveys along prescribed routes, or counts from fixed points, to assess changes in distribution and relative abundance of common seabirds.IIIb: In accessible colonies where human disturbance will not disrupt nesting, determine changes in colony density over time. I,II,IIIc: Compare numbers of active nests and fledging success for areas (times) with/without predator control. 

NPSA, KALA, HALE, KAHO, PUHO,HAVO

Landscape

dynamicsI

Land use and land cover change have become a central component in current strategies for managing natural resources and monitoring environmental change. Remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are providing new tools for advanced ecosystem management. 

I: Map existing land cover in small parks at1:24,000 scale (or better) using high resolution imagery. For larger parks Landsat Imagery may be used to key in on focal changing areas for analysis with higher resolution imagery. IIa: Map land use/land cover for PACN parks every 10 years and use GIS to analyze land use changes. IIb: Map the distribution and density of infrastructure (roads and developments) at the wildland-urban interface of PACN parks every 5 years. 

AMME, WAPA, NPSA, USAR, KALA, HALE, ALKA, PUHE, KAHO, PUHO, HAVO

Fish harvestI

In PACN parks, a wide variety of coral reef fish, invertebrates and algae are harvested annually in either traditional, artisanal, recreational, or subsistence fisheries. The impact of a seemingly small but persistent level of daily fishing activity can be substantial. Fishing has well-documented significant impacts on reef ecosystem structure and function, and on the condition of fish populations. 

I. Determine annual composition, sizes, catch-per-unit-effort, and quantities (by weight, and numbers where possible) of park-specific targeted coral reef fishes and invertebrates (shellfish, octopus, lobster, sea urchins and palolo polychaetes) harvested in park waters. Use standardized catch and effort surveys consisting of fishermen interviews or “creel surveys”, and participation surveys.

WAPA, NPSA, KALA, KAHO

a. Justification is for entire Vital Sign, and is condensed. Justification for individual objectives is presented in protocol development summaries (appendix L).b. Specific objectives presented here are condensed.I. Implementation in phase 1.II. Implementation in phase 2
National Park Service 79

Table 5.2. Summary information for PACN Vital Sign monitoring protocols—Continued.

Vital Sign Justificationa Vital Sign Monitoring Objectivesb Parks Planned for Implementation

Land birdsI

Birds are the principal, and sometimes only, terrestrial vertebrates on islands. Pacific islands’ avifauna is composed overwhelmingly of endemic species. Human settlement of Pacific islands has brought about extinction of a large proportion of the original avifauna, and many of the surviving species are greatly reduced. However, hope remains for Pacific island birds in situations where they can escape alien threats (e.g., high elevation rainforests), can be assisted by human management of ecosystems, or can ultimately adapt to novel pressures.

Ia: Determine distribution and density of all non-threatened native and most non-native land bird species. Ib: Determine distribution and estimate reproductive success and annual survival for birds of special interest, including T&E species, species of concern, and species that require more precise monitoring than is provided by count surveys. Ic: Document all observations of rare or elusive birds and newly arrived invasive bird species. II: Monitor changes in native and non-native forest bird species abundance and composition relative to forest restoration (alien plant and animal control) and reforestation actions. 

AMME, NPSA, KALA, HALE, HAVO

Freshwater animal

communitiesI

Due to the isolation of the Pacific islands, there is a high level of endemicity in the small number of native species found in the diverse array of freshwater/brackish habitats in the PACN. Several freshwater animals are listed as candidate endangered species or species of concern. Throughout the region, exotic species introductions and habitat destruction are significant threats to native animal populations. PACN parks protect some of their last remaining habitats.

Ia: Determine long-term trends in composition and diversity of selected fish and invertebrates in selected freshwater and mixohaline communities. Ib: Determine trends in distribution and abundance of selected fish and invertebrate populations in selected stream and lentic habitats.II: Improve understanding of relationships between freshwater or brackish water animal communities and their habitat by correlating physical/chemical habitat measures with changes in distribution and abundance of fish and invertebrates.

WAPA, NPSA, KALA, HALE, ALKA, PUHE, KAHO, PUHO, HAVO

BatsI

The Hawaiian hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus semotus), is found throughout the Hawaiian Islands. Large fruit bats, or flying foxes, are ecologically important pollinators and seed dispersers. Flying foxes are subjected to hunting, habitat loss, climatic disturbances, and predation, leading to population declines. Lack of knowledge of status, distribution, and habitat needs, coupled with conflicting and vague population estimates, makes long-term monitoring critical to the survival of bat species in the PACN.

Insectivorous:I: Determine presence, distribution, and relative activity levels of hoary bats in national parks of the Hawaiian Islands.II: Determine foraging habitats associated with insectivorous bats in national parks of Hawaii.Frugivorous:I: Determine long-term trends (10-20 years) in population size (i.e., relative abundance) and distribution of flying foxes (WAPA monitoring contingent upon inventory results). II: Determine roosting and foraging habitats associated with flying foxes in and near the national parks (WAPA monitoring contingent upon inventory results).

 WAPA, NPSA, KALA, HALE, ALKA, PUHE, KAHO, PUHO, HAVO

a. Justification is for entire Vital Sign, and is condensed. Justification for individual objectives is presented in protocol development summaries (appendix L).b. Specific objectives presented here are condensed.I. Implementation in phase 1.II. Implementation in phase 2
80 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 5. Monitoring Protocols Table 5.2. Summary information for PACN Vital Sign monitoring protocols—Continued. Vital Sign Justificationa Vital Sign Monitoring Objectivesb Parks Planned for Implementation

Focal terrestrial plant 

communitiesI

The central reasons for monitoring terrestrial plant communities are: (a) they are key indicators of ecosystem health, (b) they reflect the dynamic between invasive plant species and native species, (c) they indicate management needs and effectiveness.Monitoring key characteristics (e.g., species composition, community structure) of focal plant communities informs managers of changing conditions that may require management action and provides feedback on the effectiveness of those actions in protecting important plant community resources.

I: Determine changes at 5-10 year intervals in vascular plant species presence/absence, cover, and density and woody species density by height or diameter classes in focal plant communities.II: Compile species lists and location data from previous plant inventories, existing databases, ongoing surveys, and mapping projects.III: Determine long-term trends in the distribution and abundance of selected rare, threatened, endangered, and other focal plant species within selected native plant communities. IV: Determine size class distribution (stand structure) of focal plant species populations within the five major native plant communities.V: Determine long-term trends in the abundance and stand structure of focal plant species populations in selected native plant communities with or without (or before and after) management intervention.

AMME, WAPA, NPSA, KALA, HALE, KAHO, HAVO

Early detection of 

invasive plantsI

Invasive alien species pose an enormous threat to the world’s biological diversity. Hawaii has the most severe non-native species problem of any state in the United States, and other Pacific islands are comparably vulnerable. Early detection of targeted ecosystem modifying/displacing alien species will provide data needed to prioritize rapid response to prevent invasions and subsequent damage to national park resources. 

Ia: Develop a list of targeted known invasive plant species potentially posing threats to a park by causing major ecological or economic problems if they were to become established. Ib: Develop and implement an optimal search and reporting strategy based on sampling to efficiently cover large areas. Ic: Working with partners, refine knowledge of dispersal pathways and search high-risk sites (nurseries, botanical gardens) for targeted incipient populations of invasive plants.II. Determine management actions for eradication of priority invasive plant species, based on life history attributes (especially its seed bank), dispersal modes, invasion corridors, vectors of spread, invasibility of areas, and number and size of known locations.

AMME, WAPA, NPSA, KALA, HALE, ALKA, PUHE, KAHO, PUHO, HAVO

Benthic marine communityI.IIThe benthic marine communities in the PACN parks comprise rich and diverse biota includ- ing algae, corals, and thousands of other invertebrates. Nearshore or shallow-water benthic marine communities in the PACN include coral reefs, mangrove stands, sea grass beds, and intertidal habitats. Given multiple existing threats to coral reefs and resources therein, and limited funds, monitoring of this Vital Sign will focus at present on coral reef communities. Determine (annual surveys) trends in: Ia: Abundance of sessile marine benthic macroinvertebrate and macroalgal assemblages at randomly selected sites stratified by habitat along a 10-20 m isobath. Ib: Benthic small-scale topography or rugosity at randomly selected, fixed stations stratified by habitat or reef zone (e.g., reef flat, reef slope). IIa: Hard coral recruitment rate to uniform artificial surfaces at selected sites on the fore reef along a 10-20 m isobath. IIb: Growth and survival rates of randomly selected coral colonies of a common Pacific species (Pocillopora sp.) found in all parks and growing at similar depths. IIc: Incidence and severity of coral and algal disease and bleaching. WAPA, NPSA, KALA, KAHO

a. Justification is for entire Vital Sign, and is condensed. Justification for individual objectives is presented in protocol development summaries (appendix L).b. Specific objectives presented here are condensed.I. Implementation in phase 1.II. Implementation in phase 2
National Park Service 81

Table 5.2. Summary information for PACN Vital Sign monitoring protocols—Continued.

Vital Sign Justificationa Vital Sign Monitoring Objectivesb Parks Planned for Implementation

Marine fishI,II

Fish are a major component of the coral reef ecosystem, including 500-900 species in PACN parks depending on geographic location. Fish assemblages or selected species can act as indicators of general reef health and provide a warning of environmental stress and potential ecosystem change.

I. Determine the density and biomass of the defined component* of the reef fish assemblage at randomly selected sites. II. Determine the distribution of fishes in each park. *visible diurnal component of the coral reef fish fauna.

WAPA, NPSA, KALA, KAHO

Groundwater 

dynamicsI,II

Groundwater levels impact significant resources including wetlands, anchialine pool systems, springs and seeps, and municipal/agricultural water supplies. Due to the high permeability of substrate on Guam, Saipan, and Hawaii, there is high infiltration to groundwater. The potential for seawater intrusion to the freshwater lens is a primary limiting factor of Pacific island groundwater resources. Long-term groundwater monitoring data can be used to establish trends, develop models to predict future conditions, and potentially detect groundwater-supply problems for dependent ecosystems. 

Determine:I. Areal and vertical distribution of salinity levels in the PACN park units (monthly).IIa: Groundwater levels in park units and surrounding areas (monthly).IIb: Surface-water discharges from streams and springs (monthly).IIc: Rainfall in park units and surrounding areas (frequency TBD).IIIa: Current and proposed distribution and rates of groundwater withdrawals in park units and surrounding areas.IIIb: Effect of land-use changes on infiltration capacity and the recharge component of the water budget.

AMME, KALA, KAHO, ALKA

Erosion and depositionII

Erosion and sedimentation are directly indicative of soil disturbance and movement and represent a significant threat to terrestrial, aquatic, and marine resources. In the PACN, soils occur in limited quantities (very thin or no soil in many locations) and have variable quality. Loss of soil through erosion can result in conversion or loss of entire vegetation communities. When suspended in water, fine sediments increase turbidity, decrease light penetration, and alter primary productivity. Sediments also settle on the bottom and smother benthic organisms such as corals. 

I: Annually assess soil depth, quality (organic matter, pH, infiltration, aggregate stability, soil crusts), and loss/accretion at randomly selected monitoring sites stratified across rainfall and slope gradients in PACN parks. IIa: Seasonally (wet/dry season) measure water column turbidity at randomly selected marine and freshwater monitoring sites. IIb: Seasonally (wet/dry season) measure sediment collection rate and determine percent contribution and total load of terrestrial soils in marine and freshwater sediments at randomly selected, fixed monitoring sites.

WAPA, NPSA, USAR, KALA, HALE, PUHE

a. Justification is for entire Vital Sign, and is condensed. Justification for individual objectives is presented in protocol development summaries (appendix L).b. Specific objectives presented here are condensed.I. Implementation in phase 1.II. Implementation in phase 2
82 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 5. Monitoring Protocols Table 5.2. Summary information for PACN Vital Sign monitoring protocols—Continued. Vital Sign Justificationa Vital Sign Monitoring Objectivesb Parks Planned for Implementation

Early detection of invasive

invertebratesII

Invasive alien species pose an enormous threat to the world’s biological diversity, believed by most authorities to rank second only to land-use change. Hawaii has the most severe non-native species problem of any state in the United States, and other Pacific islands are comparably susceptible. Available strategies include prevention, early detection and rapid response with eradication or containment, and biological control. Early detection lends itself well to the goals of the NPS PACN monitoring program, especially the goal of heading off incipient problems before it is too late.

 Ia: Develop a list of targeted known invasive invertebrate species (primarily ants, wood-boring beetles, and yellowjackets) that potentially pose threats to a park by causing major ecological or economic problems if they were to become established.Ib: Develop and implement an optimal search and reporting strategy for targets to efficiently cover highest risk sites and large areas. Ic: Working with partners, refine knowledge of dispersal pathways and search high-risk sites (port areas, industrial areas, nurseries) for targeted incipient populations.II. Determine management actions for eradication of highest priority invertebrate threats, based on life history attributes, dispersal modes, likely rate of spread, invasibility of surrounding areas, and number and size of known locations.

NPSA, KALA, HALE

Terrestrial invertebrate

communitiesII

The terrestrial invertebrate fauna of the PACN is extraordinarily diverse and serves as a model for the evolution of island biotas worldwide. These species also play important functional roles in nutrient cycling, pollination, and as prey for endemic birds and bats. Invertebrates have been generally poorly inventoried and under-monitored in PACN national parks. However, taxonomically well-characterized endemic taxa (e.g., snails, picture-wing Drosophila, and native bees) are readily monitored. 

Ia: Quarterly determine the relative abundance of terrestrial insects and other macroinvertebrate assemblages at bait stations along transects, stratified in representative wet, mesic, and coastal habitats. Ib: Annually conduct focal searches to detect rare or at-risk invertebrate taxa. IIa: Annually measure the relative abundance of native and alien terrestrial invertebrate species in paired treatment and non-treatment resource management sites. IIb: Seasonally (bimonthly) measure the population size and distribution of invasive predacious social insects, including ants and wasps. 

AMME, WAPA, NPSA, KALA, HALE, PUHE, KAHO, PUHO, HAVO

a. Justification is for entire Vital Sign, and is condensed. Justification for individual objectives is presented in protocol development summaries (appendix L).b. Specific objectives presented here are condensed.I. Implementation in phase 1.II. Implementation in phase 2
National Park Service 83

Table 5.2. Summary information for PACN Vital Sign monitoring protocols—Continued.

Vital Sign Justificationa Vital Sign Monitoring Objectivesb Parks Planned for Implementation

Cave communityII

Caves are particularly sensitive to physical disturbance and changes in the outside environment. Key reasons for monitoring cave habitat at PACN parks are: (1) Caves contain pre-contact Hawaiian ruins and artifacts which provide a wealth of information on early Hawaiian use and adaptation to the landscape, (2) Caves contain geologic information that may hold keys to understanding the formation and history of the islands, and (3) The living ecosystem in park caves harbor endemic, caveadapted organisms. 

Ia: Compile information and develop lists of known caves and cave resources within the PACN parks. Ib: Prioritize the list to identify caves with significant and vulnerable resources. Ic: Select candidate caves with significant resources for long-term monitoring.Monitor long term trends in: IIa: Cave arthropod diversity and relative abundance. IIb: The health of the cave ecosystem (distribution, abundance, breakage of tree root patches). IIc: The integrity of cultural and geological resources.

WAPA, NPSA, HALE, KAHO, PUHO, HAVO

a. Justification is for entire Vital Sign, and is condensed. Justification for individual objectives is presented in protocol development summaries (appendix L).b. Specific objectives presented here are condensed.I. Implementation in phase 1.II. Implementation in phase 2
84 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 5. Monitoring Protocols

Summary

The Pacific Island Network is carefully planning 

the development and subsequent implementation of its monitoring protocols. By following 

national Inventory and Monitoring program 

guidance, we will produce protocols that 

articulate three important themes: applicability, reliability (i.e., scientific defensibility), and 

feasibility. Each protocol will consist of three 

primary sections: (1) a protocol narrative, (2) 

a set of standard operating procedures, and (3) 

supplementary materials, which are outlined by 

Oakley et al (1993). During protocol development and Vital Sign monitoring we will work 

closely the network Technical Committee, NPS 

leads, parks point of contacts and other park 

staff, as well as HPI-CESU cooperators.
National Park Service 85

Information is the common currency among 

the activities and staff involved in the stewardship of natural resources for the National Park 

Service. This chapter summarizes the data 

management strategy for the Pacific Island Network using material drawn from the network 

Data Management Plan (DMP). The DMP, as a 

companion document to this PACN monitoring plan, serves as a guide for PACN staff and 

for current and future PACN project leaders 

to ensure the continuity and documentation of 

data management methods and procedures over 

time. The DMP, in turn, refers to other guidance 

documents and standard operating procedures 

which convey the specific standards and steps 

for achieving the network’s data management 

goals.

The data management mission of the Pacific 

Island Network is to provide data and information resources that are organized, available, 

useful, compliant, and secure. The data management strategy described in the DMP focuses on 

the processes used to:

Acquire, store, manage, and archive 

data

Ensure data quality

Document and disseminate data

Ensure the long-term access to and 

utility of data

Data Management Goals

The data management goals articulated in the 

DMP are framed around the Servicewide I&M 

program goal of identifying, cataloging, organizing, archiving, and making available relevant 

natural resource information (http://science.

nature.nps.gov/im/monitor/DataManagement.

cfm). These data management goals and their 

associated objectives are as follows:

Goal 1 - Ensure the high quality and 

long-term availability of the ecological data and related analyses produced 

•

•

•

•

•

from the network’s inventory and 

monitoring work

Objective - Outline the procedures and 

work practices that support effective 

data management

Objective - Establish an organizational 

schema for PACN program data and 

information so that they are retrievable 

by staff, cooperators, and the public

Objective - Establish standards for data, 

data distribution, and data archiving to 

ensure the long-term integrity of data, 

associated metadata, and any supporting information

Goal 2 - Integrate data management 

activities with all aspects and at all 

stages of network business

Objective - Encourage effective data 

management practices as an integral 

part of project management so all 

data are available and usable for park 

management decisions, research, and 

education, now and into the future

Objective - Establish quality control 

and quality assurance standards

Goal 3 - Specify data stewardship 

responsibilities for all personnel

Objective - Guide current and future 

staff of the PACN to ensure that sound 

data management practices are followed

Objective - Establish data management 

roles and responsibilities of PACN staff

Goal 4 - Work within and outside the 

network, as appropriate, to improve the 

quality and availability of legacy NPS 

datasets and data from outside sources

Objective – As time and resources permit, migrate high-priority legacy data-

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

Chapter 6. Data Management

“The data 

management 

mission of the 

Pacific Island 

Network is to 

provide data 

and information 

resources that 

are organized, 

available, useful, 

compliant, and 

secure.”
86 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 6. Data Management

sets into modern formats and improve 

the quality and documentation of these 

datasets or other data originating from 

outside the Inventory and Monitoring 

program

Objective – Work with partner agencies 

and institutions to promote the sharing 

and development of data, software 

applications, and analyses

The PACN data management strategy is more 

fully presented in the DMP, which serves as the 

overarching strategy for achieving the goals and 

objectives noted above, and supports Servicewide I&M program goals by ensuring that network data are documented, secure, and remain 

accessible and useful indefinitely.

Data Management Priorities—The priorities 

for network data management efforts are to:

* Produce and curate high-quality, well-documented data originating with the I&M program

* Assist with data management for current projects, legacy data, and data originating outside 

the I&M program that complement program 

objectives

* Help ensure good data management practices 

for park-based natural resource projects that 

are just beginning to be developed and implemented

•

The range of data products coordinated or managed by PACN fall into four general categories: 

data, documentation, reports, and administrative records (table 6.1). Documentation, in the 

form of protocols, data dictionaries, database 

user guides, SOPs, and metadata, provides the 

long-term value of data by setting the context of 

how and why the data were collected, analyzed, 

and reported.

Data Stewardship Roles and Responsibilities

Every individual involved in the I&M program 

is required to understand and perform data 

stewardship responsibilities in the production, analysis, management, and end use of the 

data as described in the DMP and the specific 

Vital Sign monitoring protocols. Network 

coordinators, project leaders, data managers, 

and GIS specialists comprise the central data 

management team for inventory and monitoring 

projects. Each is responsible for certain aspects 

of project data and all share responsibility for 

some overlapping tasks (figure 6.1). Because of 

the collaborative nature of project data management, good communication among these 

personnel is essential to meeting program goals.

Stewardship of data and information assets 

requires that knowledgeable individuals from 

scientific, administrative, and technological 

disciplines work in concert to ensure that data 

are collected using appropriate methods, and 

Project Leader Joint

Responsibilities Data Manager

-Data collection

-Data entry, verification,

 validation

-Metadata generation/

 maintenance

-POC for data content/

 quality

-QA/QC protocols/

 execution

-Catalog data, 

 reports, etc.

-Archiving field sheets,

 etc.

-Data maintenance

-Data design &

 maintenance

-Database development

-Network data management

 coordination

-Develop, maintain, track use of 

 data management system

-Ensure data management system

 is populated & up-to-date

Data Management Responsibilities Figure 6.1.

Core data 

management 

responsibilities for 

a project leader and 

the data manager.
National Park Service 87

Table 6.1. Categories and examples of data products addressed in the PACN Data 

Management Plan.

Category Description Examples

Data

• Raw data Data obtained from the environment that has 

not been subjected to any quality assurance 

or control beyond those applied during field 

work.

• Field data sheets

• Specimens

• Remotely sensed data

• Data gathered electronically on 

field computers

• GPS rover files

• Photographic imagery

• Verified and 

validated data

Data that have been evaluated for completeness, correctness, and conformance/compliance of a specific data set against the standard 

operating procedure (verified), as well as 

reviewed for specific analytic quality (validated).

• Relational databases

• Tabular data files

• Laboratory results

• GIS layers

• Maps

• Analyzed data Data that have been subjected to analytical 

routines after validation (may include statistical operations for arriving at a measure of the 

given ecological parameter) or a compilation 

of analyzed data from different sources or 

time periods to derive new information.

• Summarized reports, data, and 

maps from statistical or query 

operations

Documentation Documentation provides the information required to understand the context of the data.• Data collection protocols

• Data processing/analysis protocols

• Record of protocol changes

• Data dictionary

• FGDC metadata

• Database design documents

• QA/QC reports

• Catalogs

Reports Reports provide a means of presenting and 

publishing the methods and the results of 

analysis in the context of which it was intended.

• Annual progress reports

• Final reports

• Trend analysis reports

• Publications

Administrative 

Records

Administrative records supplement the 

context of a project and should be considered 

part of the project deliverables.

• Contracts and agreements

• Study and work plans

• Research permits

• Critical administrative correspondence
88 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 6. Data Management

that resulting datasets, reports, maps, models, 

and other derived products are well managed. 

Datasets and the presentations of these data 

must be credible, representative, and available for current and future needs. Stewardship 

responsibilities apply to all personnel who 

handle, view, or manage data (table 6.2). Vital 

Sign monitoring protocols will describe more 

detailed, project-specific data stewardship roles 

and responsibilities.

Data and Information Workflow

Understanding the life cycle of data throughout a project will help to manage the staffing 

resources necessary to complete and support 

quality data. PACN projects include short-term 

data collection, analysis, and reporting efforts, 

such as inventories, and long-term efforts such 

as Vital Sign monitoring, as well as efforts external to the I&M program that generate data of 

interest to PACN. Short- and long-term projects 

share workflow characteristics and both generate products that must be managed and made 

Table 6.2. Programmatic roles and responsibilities for data stewardship.

Role Data Stewardship Responsibilities

Project crew member Collect, record, and verify data

Project leader/principal investigator Direct project operations. Communicate data management 

requirements and protocols to project staff, data manager, 

and GIS specialist(s). Responsible for data verification, validation, and documentation, and for submission of products 

and deliverables.

Data/GIS manager (project) Develop and manage GIS data and metadata in standard file 

formats

Data/GIS specialist (network or region) Process and manage data

Statistician/biometrician (project or 

network)

Analyze data and/or consult on analysis

Park research coordinator (park) Facilitate data acquisition by external researchers; communicate NPS requirements to permit holders

Park resource specialist Validate and make decisions about data

Curator (park or region) Oversee all aspects of specimen acquisition, documentation, 

and preservation; manage park collections

Network data manager Ensure inventory and monitoring data are organized, useful, 

compliant, secure, and available

Network ecologist Integrate science in park and network activities

Network coordinator Coordinate and oversee all network activities

GIS manager (region) Support park management objectives with GIS and resource 

information management

Information technology specialist (region)Provide IT support for hardware, software, networking

I&M data manager (national) Provide servicewide database availability and support

End users (managers, scientists,

interpreters, public)

Inform the scope and direction of science information needs 

and activities; interpret information and apply to decisions

“Datasets and 

the presentations 

of these data 

must be credible, 

representative, 

and available for 

current and future 

needs.”
National Park Service 89

available. The workflow of project management 

can be divided into five primary stages (figure 

6.2), each of which entails a set of project management and data management tasks.

Descriptions of the data management related 

activities associated with each of the five project 

stages depicted in figure 6.2 are as follows:

Planning and approval- In this stage, 

many of the preliminary decisions 

are made regarding project scope and 

objectives. In addition, funding sources, 

permits, and compliance are addressed. 

Primary responsibility rests with project 

leaders and program administrators. It 

is important that data managers remain 

informed of projects in this stage, especially as timelines for deliverables are 

finalized. Contracts, agreements, and 

permits should include standard descriptions for formats, specifications, and 

timelines for project deliverables.

Design and testing- During the design 

stage, details are worked out regarding 

data acquisition, processing, analysis, 

reporting, and availability. Applicable 

SOPs, guidance documents, and training 

materials are collected and/or developed. 

The project leader is responsible for 

development and testing of methods, 

sampling design, field forms, database 

design requirements, and SOP for data 

collection and processing. Regular 

communication between the project 

leader, the network data manager, and 

the regional GIS specialist will establish 

good data management throughout 

the project. An important part of such 

collaboration is the development of the 

data models and data dictionaries, which 

define in detail the parameters to be collected and allow the project leader, data 

manager, and GIS specialist to construct 

the project database application(s).

Implementation- During the implementation stage, data are acquired, processed, error-checked, and documented. 

This stage is also when products such 

as reports, maps, GIS themes, and other 

products are developed and delivered. 

The project leader oversees all aspects of 

1.

2.

3.

implementation from logistics planning 

to data acquisition, report preparation, 

and final delivery. Throughout this stage, 

data management staff fills a facilitation 

role by providing training and support 

for database applications, GIS, GPS, 

and other data processing applications; 

facilitating data summarization, validation, and analysis; and assisting with the 

technical aspects of documentation and 

product development.

Product integration- During this stage, 

data products and other deliverables are 

integrated into national and network 

databases, metadata records are finalized 

and posted in clearinghouses, and products are distributed or made available to 

intended audiences. Another aspect of 

integration is merging data from a work4.

Project initiation

Evaluation

& closure

Product

integration

Project conclusion

Yes

No

Design & testing

Planning &

approval

Revisions to

protocols &

databases

Changes

needed?

Long-term monitoring

and other multi-year

projects

Preparation 

Implementation

Data acquisition

& processing

Product

development,

delivery & review

Administrative

reporting &

work plan

Figure 6.2.

Project work flow 

with the five primary 

project stages shown 

in green boxes.
90 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 6. Data Management

ing database to a master database maintained on the network server. This step 

occurs only after the annual working 

dataset has been validated and certified 

by the project leader. Certain projects 

may also have additional integration 

needs, such as when working jointly 

with other agencies sharing a common 

database.

Evaluation and closure- Upon project 

closure, network records and projecttracking tools are updated to reflect the 

status of the project and its associated 

deliverables. For long-term monitoring and other cyclic projects, this stage 

occurs at the end of each field season, 

and leads to an annual review of the 

project. For non-cyclic projects, this 

stage represents project completion. 

Program administrators, project leaders, 

and data managers will work together to 

assess how well the project met its objectives, and determine possible improvements in methodology, implementa5.

tion, and formatting of the resulting 

information. For monitoring protocols, 

careful documentation of all changes is 

required. Changes to methods, SOPs, 

and other procedures are maintained 

in a tracking table associated with each 

document. Major revisions may require 

additional peer review.

During a project’s five stages, project data take 

different forms and are maintained in different 

places as they are acquired, processed, documented, and archived. This data life cycle can 

be modeled as a sequence of events and tasks 

(figure 6.3), which involves interaction with the 

following objects:

Raw data – Analog data recorded by 

hand on hard-copy forms and digital 

files from handheld computers, GPS 

receivers, telemetry data loggers, etc. 

Working database – A project-specific 

database for entering and processing 

data for the current season (or other 

logical time period); this may be the 

•

•

Raw data

Working

database

Certified

data &

metadata

Master

database

Distribute data & information

Products

Reports, maps,

checklists, etc.

Archives &

digital library

wDigital library on

file server

wDocument archives

(analog) or off-line

archival media

National databases

wNatureBib

wNR-GIS Data Store

wNR Data Image Server

National databases

wNR-GIS Metadata Database

wNR-GIS Data Store

wNPSpecies

wNP STORET

Track

changes Update

Reporting

& analysis

Data entry/import

Post & update

Verficiation,

processing,

validation

Acquire data

Archive

raw data

Documentation

& certification

Post &

update

Short-term

projects

Data upload

Store products

according to demand

Archive versioned

data set

Edit log

Figure 6.3.

Diagram of project 

data life cycle.
National Park Service 91

only database for short-term projects 

with no need to distinguish current 

season data from the full set of validated data 

Certified data and metadata – Completed data and documentation for 

short-term projects, or one season 

of completed data for long-term 

monitoring projects; certification is a 

confirmation by the project leader that 

the data have passed all quality assurance requirements and are complete 

and ready for distribution; metadata 

records include the detailed information about project data needed for its 

proper use and interpretation 

Master database – Project-specific 

database for storing the full set of validated project data; current season data 

from working database(s) must pass all 

quality assurance steps prior to upload 

into this master project database 

Reports and data products – Information that is derived from certified 

project data 

Edit log – A means of tracking changes 

to certified data 

National databases and repositories 

– Applications and repositories maintained at the national level, primarily 

for the purpose of integration among 

national park system units and for 

sharing information among NPS staff, 

cooperators, and the public 

Digital libraries and archiving – All 

certified digital files associated with a 

project are stored on file servers at the 

network level, including data backups; 

archiving of all project hard-copy items 

is accomplished at the park level by 

cultural resources staff, with coordination from both the project leader and 

PACN staff 

For long-term projects, this sequence of data 

life cycle events occurs in an iterative fashion, 

repeating at the end of each field season or 

other logical data collection and reporting 

period. Conversely, this sequence is followed 

•

•

•

•

•

•

only once for short-term projects. PACN uses a 

project tracking database (see DMP) to document and track project status, changes to protocols, and archiving and distribution of product 

deliverables.

Infrastructure and System Architecture

Infrastructure refers to the network of computers and servers that our information systems are 

built upon. PACN relies heavily on the national, 

regional, and park information technology (IT) 

personnel and resources to maintain its computer infrastructure. This includes computers, 

servers, and other related hardware, backups of 

server data, software installation and support, 

email administration, security updates, virusprotection, telecommunications, and computer 

networking.

The infrastructure supports these required 

functions:

Provides a central repository for master 

datasets

Provides controlled subsets of data for 

local computing

Provides a means for uploading and 

downloading data for both NPS and 

the public

Supports desktop and internet applications

Provides security, stability, and backups 

of digital data products

PACN offices are located at Hawaii Volcanoes 

National Park, and the PACN information 

system architecture consists of file and database 

servers maintained at the servicewide, network, 

and park level, with access by staff workstations provided through the regional wide-area 

network (figure 6.4). This system allows for park 

and PACN staff sharing of working files, PACN 

archiving of products and metadata, posting 

of products and metadata to national clearinghouses, and secure data backups.

Database Design Strategies

For PACN inventory projects and Vital Sign 

monitoring projects, the project leader and the 

•

•

•

•

•
92 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 6. Data Management

data manager will work together to develop 

conceptual and logical data models to:

Understand the data life cycle flow of 

the data collection process; identify the 

starting point of data collection (e.g., a 

visit to a site) and the steps involved in 

data processing

Determine the data relationships for 

database development (e.g., one site 

visited on multiple dates with numerous 

categories of data collected)

Determine how the information will 

be organized for efficient retrieval and 

presentation

Each database must ultimately meet the needs 

of the project leaders and network staff. 

Considerations for these needs may include 

interactions with other agencies and ease of use, 

maintenance, integration, and customization. 

1.

2.

3.

Data management elements or principles common to more than one Vital Sign protocol will, 

to the greatest extent practical, be standardized 

so as to enhance overall data integrity and the 

comparability of data across the network. 

Acquiring and Processing Data

The types of data handled by the I&M program 

fall into three general categories:

Program data – produced by projects 

that are initiated (funded) by and/or 

involve the I&M program (e.g., natural 

resource inventories and Vital Signs 

monitoring projects)

Non-program legacy/existing data 

– produced by NPS entities without the 

involvement of the I&M program (e.g., 

park or regional projects)

•

•

Figure 6.4.

Schematic 

representing 

the layout and 

connectivity of IT 

resources. Most of 

the PACN natural 

resource information 

system is maintained 

on servers at the 

Servicewide and 

network levels.

1011001

1011001

Network staff workstations

Tape drive

(off-site server

backup)

Network attached

storage devices

Server

Natural Resource Information Division

Oracle DB and Web Servers

Network (I & M) Operations

Server

Park staff workstations

Online data entry & upload

of desktop databases

Park Operations

Service-wide Operations

(Fort Collins, WASO)
National Park Service 93

Non-program external data – produced 

by agencies or institutions other than 

the NPS (e.g., weather and water quality data)

Data acquisition steps outlined in the DMP are 

data discovery, data harvesting, and data collection for projects (including remote sensing), 

as well as data compilation, processing, and 

integration. Most data acquired by the network 

will be collected as field data (inventories and 

long-term monitoring) or discovered through 

data mining initiatives (legacy/existing data). 

Methods of field data collection, such as paper 

field data forms, field computers, automated 

data loggers, and GPS units, will be specified 

in individual monitoring protocols and study 

plans. Field crew members must closely follow 

the established SOPs in project protocols. Data 

acquired through non-program sources, such as 

data downloaded from other agencies, will also 

be specified in individual monitoring protocols.

Ensuring Data Quality

High quality data and information are vital to 

the credibility and success of the I&M program 

and everyone plays a part in ensuring products 

conform to data quality standards.

Although many quality assurance/quality 

control (QA/QC) procedures depend upon the 

individual Vital Sign being monitored, some 

general concepts apply to all. Specific procedures to ensure data quality must be included 

in the protocols for each Vital Sign. It is critical 

that each member of the team work to ensure 

data quality. Examples of QA/QC practices 

include:

Field crew training

Standardized field data sheets with 

descriptive data dictionaries

Use of handheld computers and data 

loggers

Equipment maintenance and calibration

Procedures for handling data in the 

field

Database features to minimize transcription errors, including imports 

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

from data loggers, range limit, pick lists, 

etc.

Verification and validation, including 

automated error-checking database 

routines

Quality assurance methods must be in place 

at the inception of any project and continue 

through all project stages to final archiving of 

the dataset (figure 6.5). The final step in project 

quality assurance is the preparation of summary documentation that assesses the overall 

data quality. A statement of data quality will be 

composed by the project leader and incorporated into formal metadata. Metadata for each 

dataset will provide information on the specific 

quality assurance procedures applied and the 

results of the review, and these procedures will 

be documented in the protocol and SOPs.

Data Documentation

Documenting datasets, data sources, and 

methodology by which the data were acquired 

establishes the basis for interpreting and appropriately using data. At a minimum, all data managed by the network will require the following 

elements of documentation:

Project documentation

Formal metadata compliant with 

Federal Geographic Data Committee 

(FGDC) standards

Data dictionaries and Entity Relationship Diagrams (ERD) for all tabular 

databases

Data documentation will be available and 

searchable in conjunction with related data 

and reports via the PACN website as well as the 

national I&M program’s NR-GIS Metadata and 

Data Store, a searchable online application for 

managing and sharing natural resource and GIS 

metadata and data generated by the NPS.

Data Analysis and Reporting

Providing meaningful results from data summary and analysis is a cornerstone of the I&M 

program and characterizes the network’s data 

management mission to provide useful information for managers and scientists. Each moni-

•

•

•

•

“Providing 

meaningful 

results from 

data summary 

and analysis is 

a cornerstone of 

the I&M program 

and characterizes 

the network’s 

data management 

mission to provide 

useful information 

for managers and 

scientists.”
94 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 6. Data Management

toring protocol establishes requirements for 

on-demand and scheduled data analysis and 

reporting. Based on these requirements, the 

associated databases for the protocols include 

functions to summarize and report directly from 

the database as well as for import to other analysis software programs. In addition to tabular 

and charted summaries, the network provides 

maps of natural resource data and GIS analysis 

products to communicate spatial locations, relationships, and geospatial model results. Chapter 

7 of the PACN monitoring plan provides more 

details regarding the network’s analysis and 

reporting schedule and procedures.

Figure 6.5.

Schematic of the 

Quality Assurance/

Quality Control 

procedures to be 

carried out during 

the project stages 

associated with 

the typical data life 

cycle.
National Park Service 95

Data Dissemination

The PACN data dissemination strategy aims to 

ensure that:

Data are easily discoverable and obtainable

Only data subjected to complete quality 

control are released, unless necessary 

in response to a Freedom of Information Act request

Distributed data are accompanied by 

appropriate documentation

•

•

•

Sensitive data are identified and protected from unauthorized access and 

inappropriate use

Access to PACN data products will be facilitated 

by a variety of means that allow users to browse, 

search, and acquire network data and supporting documents (table 6.3). These means include, 

but are not limited to:

Links to public data products from 

PACN public website

NR-GIS Metadata and Data Store, an 

online application for managing and 

sharing natural resource and GIS meta-

•

•

•

Table 6.3. Primary repositories for PACN information and associated specimens.

Item Repository

Reports (public)

• digital NPS Focus, Data Store, PACN website

• hard copy Park and network libraries, park archives

• bibliography NatureBib

Network-generated digital datasets and 

data products (public, non-sensitive)

certified data and data 

products (including photos)

metadata

•

•

NR-GIS Data Store, PACN website, NPSpecies, 

NPSTORET

Network-generated digital datasets and 

data products (NPS staff, sensitive)

raw, validated, and analyzed 

data

metadata

submitted reports

digital photos

digital presentations

•

•

•

•

•

PACN intranet website; selected Vital Sign data may be 

housed externally with an established Memorandum of 

Understanding

Project product materials

specimen vouchers

photograph film

•

•

Park archives, Bishop Museum, or other curation facility 

(according to project protocol)

Project administrative records or 

miscellaneous items (hard copy)

PACN office
96 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 6. Data Management

data and data (distribution instructions 

for each dataset will be provided in the 

respective metadata)

Servicewide databases, such as 

NPSTORET for water quality data, 

NPSpecies for species biodiversity data, 

and NatureBib for bibliographic data

Regional, network, or park data servers 

for providing datasets in a read-only 

format

External repositories such as the 

University of Hawaii, US Geological Survey, US Forest Service, Bishop 

Museum, Western Regional Climatic 

Center, and many others

FTP sites, CDs, DVDs, or hard drives, 

as appropriate

Information will be made available to two primary audiences: public and NPS employees, as 

determined by data sensitivity and development 

status. Only fully documented, certified, nonsensitive data and data products will be released 

to the public. 

Ownership, FOIA, and Sensitive Data—PACN 

products are considered property of the NPS. 

However, the Freedom of Information Act 

establishes access by any person to federal 

agency records that are not protected from 

disclosure by exemption or by special law 

enforcement record exclusions. The NPS is 

directed to protect information about the 

nature and location of sensitive park resources 

under one Executive Order and four resource 

confidentiality laws:

Executive Order No. 13007: Indian 

Sacred Sites

National Parks Omnibus Management 

Act (NPOMA; 16 U.S.C. 5937)

National Historic Preservation Act (16 

U.S.C. 470w-3)

Federal Cave Resources Protection Act 

(16 U.S.C. 4304)

Archaeological Resources Protection 

Act (16 U.S.C. 470hh)

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

When any of these regulations are applicable, 

public access to data can be restricted. If disclosure could result in harm to natural resources, 

the records may be classified as ‘protected’ or 

‘sensitive’. The NPS recognizes the following 

resources as sensitive:

Endangered, threatened, rare, or commercially valuable NPS resources

Mineral or paleontological sites

Objects of cultural patrimony

Significant caves

The PACN will comply with all FOIA restrictions regarding the release of data and information, as instructed in NPS Director’s Order #66 

and accompanying Reference Manuals 66A 

and 66B (currently in development). Managing 

natural resource information that is sensitive or 

protected requires the following steps:

Identification of potentially sensitive 

resources

Compilation of all records relating to 

those resources

Determination of which data must not 

be released in a public forum

Management and archive of those 

records to avoid their unintentional 

release

Classification of sensitive data will be the 

responsibility of network staff, park superintendents, and project leaders. Network staff 

will classify sensitive data on a case-by-case, 

project-by-project basis and will work closely 

with project leaders and park staff to ensure that 

potentially sensitive park resources are identified, that information about these resources is 

tracked throughout the project, and that potentially sensitive information is removed from 

documents and products that will be released 

outside the network.

Digital Data Maintenance, Storage, and 

Archiving

PACN data maintenance, storage, and archiving 

procedures aim to ensure that digital data and 

related metadata documentation are:

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•
National Park Service 97

Kept up-to-date with regards to content and format such that the data are 

easily accessed and their heritage and 

quality easily learned

Physically secure against environmental hazards, catastrophe, and human 

malice

Primary data maintenance occurs on the PACN 

file server and on Servicewide servers maintained by NPS staff and cooperators at the 

Washington Area Support Office in Fort Collins, 

Colorado. PACN staff are responsible for keeping data and information current on PACN and 

Servicewide servers, and depend on national 

and regional IT staff for assistance with regular 

data backups. PACN staff will ensure that the 

latest versions of primary data are available in 

conventional formats reflecting common data 

usages in the resource management community.

Project data are electronically archived as standalone products that include:

Project documentation

Data in raw, verified, and analyzed 

conditions

Respective metadata

Supporting files, such as photographs, 

maps, etc.

All associated reports

Non-digital Data Archiving and Records 

Management

In most instances, administrative documents, 

natural history specimens, photographs, audio 

tapes, and other materials are essential companions to the digital data. Direction for managing 

many of these materials (as well as digital materials) is provided in NPS Director’s Order 19: 

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

Records Management (2001) and its appendix, 

NPS Records Disposition Schedule (NPS-19 

appendix B, revised 5-2003). NPS-19 states that 

all records of natural and cultural resources 

and their management are considered mission-critical records; that is, they are necessary 

for fulfillment of the NPS mission and must be 

permanently archived.

The PACN data management strategy includes 

assisting project leaders in complying with 

archival directives. Whenever necessary, physical items considered project products such as 

reports, maps, photographs, or notebooks 

will be cataloged and archived by the park(s) 

involved with the project. When this is not possible, an alternative storage strategy and location 

will be found and fully described in the project 

documentation. Physical specimens, such as 

plants and animals, will be accessioned and 

housed at the appropriate archival institution 

(typically a park archival facility, but may be a 

partner institution such as the Bishop Museum).

Water Quality Data

All water quality data collected by the PACN 

will be managed according to guidelines from 

the NPS Water Resources Division. This 

includes using the NPSTORET desktop database application at the parks to help manage 

data entry, documentation, and transfer. PACN 

I&M data management staff will implement 

and maintain a desktop copy of NPSTORET 

and transfer its contents at least annually to 

NPS Water Resource Division for upload to the 

STORET database (figure 6.6). Although WRD’s 

data dissemination needs dictate a monthly 

schedule for uploads to their data warehouse, 

PACN data collection and summation activities 

will likely be on an annual schedule requiring 

data uploads to the master WRD database only 

once a year.

STORET National Data

Warehouse

EPA, Washington, DC

www.epa.gov/storet

Monthly

uploads

NP STORET

Network copy

(MS Access)

NP STORET

NPS-WRD

Fort Collins

Annual

uploads

Edits or

changes

Figure 6.6.

Data flow diagram for 

water quality data.

“PACN staff will 

ensure that the 

latest versions 

of primary data 

are available 

in conventional 

formats reflecting 

common data 

usages in 

the resource 

management 

community.”
98 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 6. Data Management

Implementation

The Data Management Plan contains practices 

that may be new to staff and principal investigators. With a few exceptions, however, the 

DMP does not include any requirements that 

are new. Almost every requirement comes from 

law, Director’s Orders, or the I&M program. 

The DMP helps to put these requirements into 

context and in sequence, and provides operational guidance for achieving these requirements. Good data management practices will 

take time. Some Vital Sign collection procedures 

and data management practices are already in 

use and may require minimal revisions. Others 

may involve several iterations of procedures and 

databases before reaching their acceptable and 

functional data reporting formats.

Vital signs monitoring protocols will be the primary focus of PACN data management efforts. 

Integration of data management guidance and 

standards among these monitoring protocols 

and associated SOPs is an overarching goal of 

the PACN data management strategy, and will 

contribute significantly to the long-term usefulness of the I&M program and its data products.

Summary

The overarching goal of our data management 

strategy is to provide timely and usable scientific 

information about the status and trends of park 

resources to park managers. The success of our 

program hinges upon our ability to produce, 

manage, and deliver this information to its 

intended audience. Our strategy aims to ensure 

the quality, interpretability, security, longevity, 

and availability of our natural resource data. In 

implementing our data management strategy we 

will strive for the following:

Confidence in the security and availability of natural resource data and 

related information

Easy access to most information, and 

appropriate safeguards for sensitive 

information

Awareness of the intended use and 

limitations of each dataset

Infrastructure and documentation that 

encourages data exploration

•

•

•

•

Compatibility of datasets for exploration and analysis at larger scales and 

across disciplines

Implementation of standards and 

procedures that facilitate information 

management, and that reinforce good 

habits among staff at all levels of project implementation

A proper balance between the standards needed to ensure quality and 

usability, and the flexibility to meet specific needs and encourage innovation

The PACN Data Management Plan outlines 

how we intend to implement a data management strategy and maintain an infrastructure 

that will meet the data and information needs 

of our Inventory and Monitoring program. This 

plan reflects our commitment to establishing 

and maintaining a robust data management 

system to ensure the availability and usability of 

high-quality natural resource information.

•

•

•

“The overarching 

goal of our data 

management 

strategy is to 

provide timely and 

usable scientific 

information about 

the status and 

trends of park 

resources to park 

managers.”
National Park Service 99

The six monitoring goals of the Pacific Island 

Network require communication of relevant, 

timely, and reliable monitoring results and 

related information to park managers, administrators, and the public. Consistent, diverse, and 

effective communications facilitate a smooth 

transition between the five steps in the cycle 

of adaptive management for natural resources 

(figure 7.1). Because the I&M program places a 

strong emphasis on information management, 

we must interpret and communicate monitoring results, as well as synthesize and analyze the 

information for appropriate audiences.

The broad-based, scientifically sound information obtained through natural resource monitoring has multiple applications for management 

decision-making, research, education, and promoting understanding of park resources. The 

primary audience for the results of Vital Signs 

monitoring are park managers. Monitoring 

results provide superintendents, park resource 

chiefs, and other managers with the data they 

need to make and defend management decisions and to work with others for the benefit of 

park resources. However, other key audiences 

for monitoring results include: park planners, 

interpreters, researchers and other scientific 

collaborators, the general public, Congress, 

and the President’s Office of Management and 

Budget (OMB). To be most effective, monitoring data must be analyzed, interpreted, and 

provided at regular intervals to each of these key 

audiences in a format they can use. This means 

that there must be several different scales of 

analysis, and the same information needs to be 

packaged and distributed in different formats to 

the different key audiences.

Scientific data indicating the status and trends 

in the condition of park resources, which is 

needed to better manage the parks, will come 

Chapter 7. Data Analysis and Reporting

Figure 7.1.

The five steps in the 

adaptive management 

cycle.

Figure 7.2.

Data collection, 

analysis, and 

reporting of beach 

profile monitoring at 

American Memorial 

Park, Saipan.
100 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 7. Data Analysis and Reporting

from many sources. In addition to new field 

data collected (figure 7.2) through the I&M 

program, data will come from other park projects and programs, other agencies, and from 

the general scientific community . To the extent 

that staffing and funding are available, the network monitoring program will collaborate and 

coordinate with these other data collection and 

analysis efforts, and will promote the integration 

and synthesis of data across projects, programs, 

and disciplines (figure 7.3).

reports. In this chapter we outline the general 

strategy the PACN will use for analysis of Vital 

Sign monitoring data.

PACN Analytical Strategies—In this 

monitoring plan, we identify two steps for 

analysis of PACN Vital Sign monitoring data: 

(1) data characterization (i.e., outliers, mean or 

median values, and other descriptive statistics), 

and (2) identification of the range of temporal 

and spatial variability and trends (MacCluskie 

& Oakley 2004). This range may include 

establishment of a normal range of variation 

and identifying valid data that falls outside 

these expected bounds. Establishing a range of 

normal variation may take years for many Vital 

Signs, and be both spatially and temporally 

scale-dependent. These two steps are included 

in data management and data stewardship 

strategies which are discussed in the PACN Data 

Management Plan.

Analytical Approaches for PACN Vital Signs—

Several analytical approaches are anticipated 

for the PACN given the diversity of Vital Signs 

and associated management issues. Details on 

analyses will be provided in individual Vital Sign 

protocols. The approaches anticipated include: 

(a) integrative approaches such as diversity 

indices or multivariate analyses; (b) Bayesian, 

or probability distributions using pre-existing 

knowledge and accumulated monitoring data; 

(c) model development and testing, such as 

targeted searches for invasive species based on 

modeled habitat and dispersal patterns; and 

(d) hypothesis testing. It is important to note 

that individual or a combination of analytical 

approaches will be used with Vital Sign analyses.

Four basic levels of analysis will be common 

to the PACN monitoring data: (1) sample unit 

level, (2) sample frame and sample design level, 

(3) trend assessment level, and (4) data synthesis. The sample unit level addresses whether 

finite or infinite populations are included, and 

clarifies relative, absolute, or index response 

variables for individual monitoring locations. 

This facilitates clear data collection and data 

management which will produce comparable 

and scientifically valid data throughout the 

monitoring protocol.

The sample frame and sample design level of 

analysis provides within-year status estimates 

for an individual park. The sample frame and 

Analysis of Monitoring Data

Appropriate analysis of monitoring data is 

directly linked to the monitoring objectives, 

the spatial and temporal aspects of the sampling design used, the intended audiences, and 

management uses of the data. Analysis methods 

need to be considered when the objectives are 

identified and the sampling design is selected. 

Each monitoring protocol (chapter 5) will 

contain detailed information on analytical tools 

and approaches for data analysis and interpretation, including the rationale for a particular 

approach, advantages and limitations of each 

procedure, and standard operating procedures 

for each prescribed analysis.

Data analysis is the process by which observations of the environment are turned into meaningful information. Thus, data analysis includes 

quality assurance and control efforts that occur 

in field settings, during exploratory analysis and 

data interpretation, as well as when compiling 

Figure 7.3.

Transformation 

of scientific data 

toward effective 

communication for 

various audiences.
National Park Service 101

Table 7.1. Four approaches to analyzing monitoring data.

Level of 

Analysis Description Responsible party Sample Unit Level

Calculation of individual sample unit statistics from 

monitoring data (e.g., multiple sample locations 

along transects).

Step 1: (characterization): Measures of mean, median, variation, and other basic statistics. Graphical 

presentation of data.

Step 2: (range of variation): Establish historical or 

expected range of values, relationship to regulatory 

levels, and confidence intervals.

Vital Sign Specific: Indices or other site-specific metrics may be developed.

Data management staff produce unit 

level summaries under the supervision 

of the protocol principal investigator, 

network coordinator, network data 

manager, and network ecologists*. 

Variables and procedures are specified 

in the monitoring protocol.

Sample Frame and 

Sample Design Level

(Status Determination)Integration of sample unit data across each park’s 

sample frame to determine ecological status on a 

temporal basis.

Step 1: Integration of sample unit summarization 

results across each park’s entire sample frame.

Step 2: Integration of sample unit variation results 

across the sample frame with additional refinement 

of spatial pattern analyses.

Vital Sign Specific: Sample design and target population will guide selection of appropriate methods.

The protocol principal investigator, 

network coordinator, and network 

ecologists* share responsibility for 

frame level analyses. This entails consultation and assistance with partners, 

cooperators, subject matter experts, 

and regulatory agencies to conduct 

analysis and interpret results.

Trend Assessment Level

Evaluation of Vital Sign trends over time. Typically, 

regression will be among the methods used.

Step 1: Integration of each park’s sample frame summarization over time.

Step 2: Integration of each park’s sample frame variation results over time. Include establishing direction 

and rate of change that may be used to provide early 

warning. Confidence intervals for trends will be 

established.

Vital Sign Specific: Parametric and nonparametric 

statistics and models will be used. Trend assessment 

will include accounting for influences of drivers and 

stressors. 

The protocol principal investigator, 

network coordinator, and network 

ecologists* share responsibility for 

sample frame level analyses. This entails consultation and assistance from 

partners, cooperators, subject matter 

experts, and regulatory agencies to 

conduct analysis and interpret results. 

Comparison with other relevant longterm research and monitoring will aid 

interpretation.

Synthesis

Examination of patterns within and across Vital 

Signs and ecological factors to gain broad insight on 

ecological processes and integrity. Includes qualitative and quantitative comparison, additional data 

exploration, and development of predictive model 

based approaches.

The network coordinator and network ecologists* are the lead analysts, 

working with subject matter experts, 

partners, cooperators, and others 

to conduct analyses and assist with 

interpreting results. Integration with 

research and experimental work 

throughout the region is critical.

*

Includes network quantitative ecologist.
102 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 7. Data Analysis and Reporting

sample design level also identifies the spatial 

and temporal allocation of samples, such as 

the revisit scheme. The long-term trend assessment level of analysis integrates sample unit and 

sample frame data, where typically regression 

is used to identify the slope or trend over time. 

Finally, the synthesis level of analysis examines 

patterns within and across Vital Signs to gain 

broad insight into ecological processes and 

integrity. Each Vital Sign protocol identifies the 

sample design and analytical methods (table 

7.1) with synthesis addressed at a network level 

rather than within individual Vital Signs.

Data analysis will be addressed in each Vital 

Sign monitoring protocol including: (a) adequate resources devoted to data analysis; (b) 

timely data analysis and feedback to field, operational, and management personnel; (c) analytical methods appropriate to sampling design 

using quantitative and qualitative principles; and 

(d) a discussion of adaptive analytical methods, 

documented in Vital Sign protocols and SOPs. 

An overview of analytical approaches for each 

PACN Vital Sign protocol under preparation is 

shown in table 7.2.

Communicating & Reporting

A well-communicated monitoring program will 

enhance resource protection and stewardship, 

and foster a stronger monitoring program and 

more effective resource management. All monitoring program elements are relevant to communication strategies including goals and objectives of the monitoring program and specific 

Vital Signs, administration, implementation, 

data management, data analysis, reporting, and 

outreach. To effectively reach the diverse audiences of the monitoring program, the PACN will 

adopt a variety of media tailored to each group. 

Clearly targeted audiences and communication 

venues are critical to reaching broad groups, 

and generating interest and concern toward 

resource protection and stewardship.

The network must emphasize prompt data 

analysis and communication on a regular schedule. A consistent schedule will ensure stronger 

communication between field scientists, data 

analysts, park interpretation staff, managers, 

planners, and others. A clear communication 

strategy will include both quality control and 

quality assurance issues that arise with delays in 

communication processes. Additionally, prompt 

and timely analysis, reporting, and communication of monitoring data and information are 

essential for effective adaptive management.

Reporting of Monitoring Results—Monitoring 

program products should include a diversity 

of formats (i.e., written, oral, website, and 

informal) to reach the varied audiences in 

the PACN. The dominant audiences for 

monitoring products and information are the 

resource managers and superintendents of each 

network park, along with other NPS managers 

who utilize status and trends information 

when making management decisions. Table 

7.3 identifies schedules for reporting PACN 

monitoring results. Other target audiences 

include federal and state agencies, scientists, 

educators, and the general public. 

The network recognizes that funding and time 

must be available to support these reports, 

meetings, and scientific symposia. Products that 

are produced by the network for dissemination 

to the parks and public must comply with applicable laws, be available on the internet, adhere 

to NPS Inventory and Monitoring program 

report format guidance, and include brief summaries with findings in the reports. Table 7.4 

identifies product type, purpose, targeted audience, responsible party, production frequency, 

and review process in more detail. 

The various approaches and products we 

plan to use to disseminate the results of the 

monitoring program and to make the data and 

information more available and useful to our 

key audiences are organized into the following 

seven categories and described in the following 

sections:

Annual reports for specific protocols and 

projects

Annual briefings to park managers

Analysis and synthesis reports

Protocol and program reviews

Scientific journal articles, book chapters, 

and presentations at scientific meetings

Internet and intranet websites

Interpretation and outreach

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

“Monitoring 

program products 

should include 

a diversity of 

formats (i.e., 

written, 

oral, website, 

and informal) to 

reach the varied 

audiences in the 

PACN.”
National Park Service 103

Table 7.2. Summary of analytical approaches for each PACN Vital Sign protocol—Continued.

Vital Sign protocol Data analysis approach Frequency of analysis

Responsible 

party for data 

analysis

Climate Sample Unit level: Summaries and range-of-variation of monitoring variables (i.e., 

temperature and precipitation) at individual monitoring stations.

Annual summaries of individual station-based variables, annual sample frame-level analyses of status (both design- and model-based), and annual and decadal designand model-based analyses of trends.

PACN ecologist

Sample Frame level: Status analysis of individual variables (i.e., trade-wind and precipitation patterns) and indices (e.g., ENSO) at a park, regional (island group), and network level.Trend Assessment level: Trend analysis of individual station-based (unit level) variables and sample frame level status of both variables and indicators (i.e., drought and climate normals).

Groundwater dynamics

Sample Unit level: Salinity and water level in individual monitoring wells and anchialine ponds and discharge rates in seeps and springs. Annual analysis of monthly sampling data for unit level 

trends, and modeled sample frame level seasonal and annual spatial patterns and temporal trends.

USGS-WRD cooperator/partner; PACN aquatic ecologist Sample Frame level: Groundwater models integrating geologic data with unit level measurements. Sample frame determined by variation at fixed points (wells).

Trend Assessment level: Trends in individual (unit level) monitoring sites such as salinity and water level, with sample frame level trends in modeled groundwater levels and salinity.

Water quality Sample Unit level: Range-of-variation in core water quality variables of pH, temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, chlorophyll a, and nutrients (N and P) at randomly 

selected and fixed (continuously recorded) sites.

Annual analysis of continuously recorded sites for both within and multi-year trends. Decadal scale analysis of trends from geostatistical characterization and from probability-based monitoring.

PACN aquatic ecologist

Sample Frame level: Spatial distribution (mapping) of unit level parameters. Similar techniques as employed in EPA National Coastal Assessment (NCA) by park, island, and island group (Hawaii, American Samoa, Northern Mariana Islands).Trend Assessment level: Trend and rate of change at continuously monitored sites.

Status and trends of established invasive plant species

Sample Unit level: Presence / absence of targeted species in specific park areas, and where spatial and temporal sampling efforts will be conducted.

Annual synthesis of plant species at unit and sample frame level, more frequent analyses of species with high rate of spread or high impact on native species.

USGS-BRD cooperator/partner; PACN ecologist Sample Frame level: Species density, habitat range, and invasion fronts of targeted species as estimated within a sample frame consisting of corridors (transects, trails, 

and roads). Increased sampling effort along inferred invasion fronts.Trend Assessment level: Multi-year change in species density, extent, and habitat range, with emphasis on tracking change in invasion fronts and changes in multispecies invasion relationships.

Table 7.2. Summary of analytical approaches for each PACN Vital Sign protocol.
104 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 7. Data Analysis and Reporting Table 7.2. Summary of analytical approaches for each PACN Vital Sign protocol—Continued. Vital Sign protocol Data analysis approach Frequency of analysis Responsible party for data analysis Early detection of invasive plants and Early detection of invasive invertebrates Sample Unit level: Documented detection of targeted invasive species in units defined by duration and area of search effort. When in conjunction with random or systematic sample design, includes areas that are potentially susceptible to invasion and areas that are considered to be invasion free. Annual reporting of docu- mented casual reports and planned surveys. USGS-BRD cooperator/ partner; PACN ecologist Sample Frame level: Spatial layout targeted at geographic areas at risk for invasion by new species at scale of island regions, entire islands, and island groups. When in conjunction with random or systematic sample design, includes areas potentially susceptible to invasion and areas considered to be invasion free. Risk estimates based on presence/absence and search effort considered to be more appropriate than probabilistic estimates of abundance or status. Trend Assessment level: Annual and inter-annual variation in targeted species detection rates and geographic (map) distribution. Benthic marine community Sample Unit level: Summaries and range-of-variation for annual % benthic cover by transect, rugosity ratios, recruitment rate by site, and growth rates by site. Spatial unit consists of fixed points along transect. Annually, within six months of field data collection for each of the three levels. NPS marine ecologist, PACN aquatic ecologist Sample Frame level: Annual status of % benthic cover, rugosity ratios, recruitment 

rates, and growth rates for area of interest (e.g., entire park like KAHO, individual islands in NPSA, or individual units in WAPA). Spatial layout consists of transects on selected depth contours within accessible marine areas, but with no stratification. Statistical inference within spatial layout to be determined.Trend Assessment level: Multi-year change in % benthic cover, rugosity ratios, recruitment rates, and growth rates for both unit level data (transects/sites) and sample frame level areas of interest.

Marine fish Sample Unit level: Species richness and abundance by transect. Counts of species 

(or lowest selected taxon level) in units of known lengths along 25-m x 5-m strip transects.

Annually, within three months of field data collection.

NPS marine ecologist, PACN aquatic ecologist

Sample Frame level: Annual status of species richness and abundance by park. Same spatial layout and inference as benthic marine protocol.Trend Assessment level: Year-to-year change in species abundance and distribution on individual transects and at sample frame level.
National Park Service 10

5

Table 7.2. Summary of analytical approaches for each PACN Vital Sign protocol—Continued.

Vital Sign protocol Data analysis approach Frequency of analysis

Responsible 

party for data 

analysis

Freshwater animal communities

Unit level: Summary and range-of-variation determined with monitoring parameters (density, abundance, and species composition) in quadrats of known area. Annual (or after each sampling season) summaries of unit and 

sample frame-level analyses; annual (or after each sampling season) trend assessments.

USGS-WRD cooperator/partner; PACN aquatic ecologist Sample Frame level: Status analysis of individual unit-level parameters, within and between pool complexes, as well as longitudinal species distribution in each stream. 

Statistical inference within spatial layout to be determined.Trend Assessment level: Trend analysis of unit-level parameters and total species abundance in pool complexes or along stream reaches.

Focal terrestrial plant communities

Sample Unit level: Summary and range-of-variation for species diversity and composition at monitoring plots, and abundance and density for targeted species at monitoring plots.

Annually, with multi-year and decadal comparisons for less frequently visited plots.

USGS-BRD cooperator/partner; PACN ecologist Sample Frame level: Distribution (spatial and frequency) of community types, and 

distribution and gradient analysis of sample unit level variables by physical habitat type. Spatial layout and inference within layout to be determined.Trend Assessment level: Change in species diversity and composition at both unit level (monitoring plots) and in sample frame distribution. Change detection maps for distribution and gradient analyses by physical habitat type.

Landbirds Sample Unit level: Summary and range-of-variation in plot and transects for species 

presence/absence and abundance, and correlation with habitat variables.

Annual for sites monitored, although individual sites may not be visited every year.

USGS-BRD cooperator/partner; PACN ecologist Sample Frame level: Statistical inference within spatial layout to be determined. Correlation with habitat variables and documenting species distribution.

Trend Assessment level: Trend in species presence/absence and abundance at individual sites, abundance across a given habitat, and changes in distribution (range expansion or contraction).

Seabirds Sample Unit level: Range-of-variation and frequency distribution of active nesting 

burrows in monitoring plots; both random and targeted areas. 

Annual analysis post-breeding season.

PWR-HNL science advisor

Sample Frame level: Estimation of total nesting activity in known areas and identification of other similar habitats that may also contain active nesting burrows. Spatial layout and inference within layout to be determined.Trend Assessment level: Annual variation in total nesting activity in known areas and summary for park(s) and species.
106 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 7. Data Analysis and Reporting Table 7.2. Summary of analytical approaches for each PACN Vital Sign protocol—Continued. Vital Sign protocol Data analysis approach Frequency of analysis Responsible party for data analysis Bats Sample Unit level: Range-of-variation and frequency distribution of detection using bat detectors (sound frequency), emergence counts, and individual counts. Unit of search effort to be determined. Annual, post summer moni- toring season for unit, sample frame, and trend levels. PACN network coordinator/ ecologist Sample Frame level: Estimation of species distribution and abundance (including density). Spatial layout and inference within layout to be determined. Trend Assessment level: Change in abundance and distribution by habitat. Landscape dynamics Sample Unit level: Remote sensing image analysis which addresses pixel-by-pixel characterization, although unit-level emphasis typically focused on field-validation sites. Decadal mapping of individual parks and affected region, an- nual narrative descriptive sum- mary of change to facilitate decadal mapping and identify- ing rapidly changing areas. PWRH cartogra- pher, PACN ge- ographer, PACN ecologist Sample Frame level: Image analysis of remote sensing data addressing entire park; mapping land use and dynamic feature boundaries. Trend Assessment level: Change detection mapping, trend in land use density (de- velopment levels), and mapping of features such as invasive species fronts. Erosion and 

deposition

Sample Unit level: Soil and sediment depth, and soil type and benthic cover type at existing monitoring sites.

Annual unit level monitoring of soil and sediment depth and trend assessment of unit level data. Also soil type and benthic cover type, with decadal (or other frequency as determined by landscape dynamics Vital Sign), sample frame level and trend assessments.

PACN ecologist and aquatic ecologist Sample Frame level: Landscape dynamic and benthic cover types correlated with 

monitoring soil and sediment depth, and soil type and benthic cover type plot data to permit extrapolation across the landscape.Trend Assessment level: Loss and accretion rates at monitoring sites and scaled across landscape using landscape dynamic maps and benthic marine cover types.

Cave community Sample Unit level: Summary and range-of-variation for physical parameters (i.e., 

temperature and moisture), human impacts (i.e., soil compaction and damage), and species presence / absence as well as abundance.

Annual synthesis of continuous data on physical parameters, 5-10 year analysis of human impact and species indices where monitoring activity has potential for impacts.

Bishop Museum cooperator; and NPS archaeologist Sample Frame level: Qualitative characterization of status in parks, and integrating 

the unit levels of physical, human impact, and species indices.Trend Assessment level: Site specific characterization of trends in physical and species parameters, with documentation of rate of human impact occurrence.
National Park Service 107

Table 7.2. Summary of analytical approaches for each PACN Vital Sign protocol—Continued.

Vital Sign protocol Data analysis approach Frequency of analysis

Responsible 

party for data 

analysis

Terrestrial invertebrate communities

Sample Unit level: Range-of-variation and summary of species diversity and abundance of target species. Annual where monitoring frequency permits, decadal at 

a minimum for less frequently monitored parks/sites.

USGS-BRD cooperator/partner; and PACN ecologist Sample Frame level: Variability and abundance across habitat types.

Trend Assessment level: Year-to-year variability and trends at unit level monitoring stations and sample frame level assessments.

Fish harvest Sample Unit level: Visual and creel surveys to document effort, gear type, catch per 

unit effort.

Annual visual surveys and 5 year creel surveys.

NPS marine ecologist, PACN aquatic ecologist Sample Frame level: Park summary details of parameters.

Trend Assessment level: Document change parameters and overall synthesis to park (sample frame) level changes.
108 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 7. Data Analysis and Reporting

Table 7.3. Schedule for recurrent reporting of PACN monitoring results to NPS staff.

Type Purpose Primary audience Frequency Primary 

presenter(s)

Technical 

Committee 

(administrative meeting)

Provide an update on 

network activities and 

findings; receive feedback 

from Technical Committee on resource issues and 

monitoring program

Park resource staff, 

partners from other 

agencies

Semi-annuallyNetwork coordinator, ecologists, data 

manager, protocol 

managers

Board of 

Directors (administrative 

meeting)

Update park management 

and network managers on 

PACN operations; present 

draft budget and workplan; 

obtain feedback and guidance on administrative and 

programmatic issues, and 

park planning needs

Superintendents, 

PWR regional program manager, PWR 

science advisor(s)

Semi-annuallyNetwork coordinator, ecologists, data 

manager

Protected 

area managers briefing / 

park science 

fair (results 

synthesis)

Communicate highlights 

and potential management 

action items, with 1-2 page 

briefing statements for each 

protocol

Park resource staff; 

network staff; agency 

and academia scientists; other federal, 

state, and territorial protected area 

managers, discipline 

specialists, interpretive staff

Annually, 

perhaps in 

conjunction 

with Board 

of Directors 

administrative meetings

Network coordinator, ecologists, and 

other scientists 

involved in parks 

monitoring

Park staff 

meetings (results synthesis)

Communicate network mission and results to a nontechnical audience; receive 

feedback on resource and 

monitoring issues in park 

operations

All park staff, 

volunteers, and 

partners, especially 

those not typically 

encountered in I&M 

program operations

Annually, for 

each network 

park

Network coordinator, ecologists, data 

manager, biological 

technicians, CESU 

cooperators

Park trainings 

and orientations

Communicate inventory 

and monitoring (Vital Sign) 

results for further distribution to public

Park interpretive and 

outreach staff

Annually or 

as requested

Network coordinator, ecologists, data 

manager, biological 

technicians, CESU 

cooperators
National Park Service 109

Annual Reports for Specific Protocols and Projects—The primary purposes of annual reports 

for specific protocols and projects are to:

summarize and archive annual data and 

document monitoring activities for the 

year;

describe current condition of the 

resource;

document changes in monitoring protocols; and,

increase communication between the 

parks and network.

The primary audiences for these reports are 

park superintendents and resource managers, network staff, park-based scientists, and 

collaborating scientists. Most annual reports 

will receive peer review at the network level, 

although a few may require review by subject 

matter experts with universities or other agencies. Many of our monitoring protocols involve 

data collection each year, and those protocols 

will generate an annual report each year (table 

7.4). However, some sampling regimes do not 

involve sampling every year. Those projects will 

produce “annual” reports only when there are 

significant monitoring activities to document. 

Wherever possible, annual reports will be based 

on automated data summarization routines built 

into the database for each protocol. The automation of data summaries and annual reports 

will facilitate the network’s ability to manage 

multiple projects and to produce reports with 

consistent content from year to year at timely 

intervals. For analyses beyond simple data summaries, data will first be exported to external 

statistical software.

Annual Briefings to Park Managers—Each year, 

in an effort to increase the availability and usefulness of monitoring results for park managers, 

the network coordinator will take the lead in 

organizing a “Science briefing for park managers” (possibly in conjunction with a Board of 

Director’s meeting) in which network staff, park 

scientists, USGS scientists, collaborators from 

academia, and others involved in monitoring 

the parks’ natural resources will provide managers with a briefing on the highlights and poten-

•

•

•

•

tial management action items for each particular 

protocol or discipline. These briefings may 

include specialists from the air quality program, 

fire ecology program, and collaborators from 

other programs and agencies to provide managers with an overview of the status and trends 

in natural resources for their parks. Unlike the 

typical science presentation that is intended for 

the scientific community, someone representing 

each protocol, program, or project will be asked 

to identify key findings or “highlights” from 

the past year’s work, and to identify potential 

management action items. The scientists will be 

encouraged to prepare a 1- or 2-page “briefing 

statement” that summarizes the key findings 

and recommendations for their protocol or 

project; these written briefing statements will 

then be compiled into an annual ‘Status and 

Trends Report’ for the network. In the process 

of briefing the managers, the various scientists 

involved with the monitoring program will learn 

about other protocols and projects, and the 

process will facilitate better coordination and 

communication, while promoting integration 

and synthesis across disciplines.

Analysis and Synthesis Reports—The role of 

analysis and synthesis reports is to:

determine patterns/trends in condition 

of resources being monitored;

discover new characteristics of 

resources and correlations among 

resources being monitored;

analyze data to determine amount of 

change that can be detected by this type 

and level of sampling;

provide context: interpret data for the 

park within a multi-park, regional, or 

national context;

recommend resource management 

changes (feedback for adaptive management).

The primary audiences for these reports are 

park superintendents and other resource 

managers, network staff, park-based scientists, 

and collaborating scientists. These reports 

will receive external peer review by at least 

•

•

•

•

•
110 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 7. Data Analysis and Reporting

three subject-matter experts, including a 

statistician. Analysis and synthesis reports can 

provide critical insights into resource status 

and trends, which can then be used to inform 

resource management efforts and regional 

resource analyses. This type of analysis, more in 

depth than that of the annual report, requires 

several seasons of sampling data. Therefore, 

these reports are usually written at intervals of 

every three to five years for resources sampled 

annually, unless there is a pressing need for the 

information to address a particular issue. For 

resources sampled less frequently, or which 

have a particularly low rate of change, intervals 

between reports may be longer. An overview of 

anticipated PACN analysis and synthesis reports 

is presented in table 7.4.

It is important that results from all monitoring 

projects within and across all parks be integrated across disciplines in order to interpret 

changes to park resources. This will be accomplished with a network synthesis report produced at three to five year intervals.

Protocol and Program Reviews—Periodic 

formal reviews of individual protocols and the 

overall monitoring program are an important 

component of the overall quality assurance and 

peer review process. A review of each protocol will be conducted before the first five year 

analysis and synthesis report and in conjunction 

with future analysis and synthesis reports as 

needed, but at least at 10-year intervals. Because 

protocols must be reviewed in light of the data 

they produce, it is most efficient to review 

protocols coincident with synthesis reports. 

Features of these protocol reviews include:

A USGS scientist, outside contractor, 

or academic is enlisted to analyze data, 

and evaluate results of the monitoring 

protocol (e.g., power analyses of the 

data) and report findings.

Subject-matter experts/peers are 

invited to review the analysis and 

synthesis report, power analysis, and 

protocol.

Subject-matter experts/peers are 

invited to a workshop to discuss the 

protocol, results of the data analysis 

•

•

•

and evaluation, whether or not the protocol is meeting its specific objectives 

and is able to detect a level of change 

that is meaningful, and to recommend 

improvements to the protocol.

The protocol P.I., network coordinator, or contractor writes a report 

summarizing the workshop. The 

report is reviewed and edited by the 

participants, and then the final report 

is posted on the network’s website. 

Copies of the report are sent to NPS 

regional and WASO program offices.

The network coordinator will initiate the network monitoring program review. The purpose 

of these reviews is to have the program evaluated by highly qualified professionals. Features 

include:

Network staff and collaborators provide a summary of the program and 

activity to date including a summary of 

results and outcomes of any protocol 

reviews.

Scientific review panel obtains input 

from Board of Directors, network staff, 

park scientists, and others. Panel holds 

a workshop to discuss the program 

and whether it is meeting its goals and 

expectations. Review panel makes 

recommendations for improving the 

effectiveness and value of the monitoring program.

Network coordinator develops a strategy with 

the PACN Technical Committee and Board 

of Directors as to which of the review panel’s 

recommendations to implement.

Topics to be addressed during the program 

review include program efficacy, accountability, 

scientific rigor, contribution to adaptive park 

management and larger scientific endeavors, 

outreach, partnerships, data management 

procedures, and products. These reviews cover 

monitoring results over a longer period of time, 

as well as program structure and function to 

determine whether the program is achieving its 

objectives, and also whether the list of objectives is still relevant, realistic, and sufficient.

•

•

•

“Periodic 

formal reviews 

of individual 

protocols and 

the overall 

monitoring 

program are 

an important 

component of the 

overall quality 

assurance and 

peer review 

process.”
National Park Service 111

Scientific Journal Articles, Book Chapters, and 

Presentations at Scientific Meetings—The publication of scientific journal articles and book 

chapters is done primarily to communicate 

advances in knowledge, and is an important and 

widely-acknowledged means of quality assurance and quality control. Putting a program’s 

methods, analyses, and conclusions under the 

scrutiny of a scientific journal’s peer-review 

process is basic to science and one of the best 

ways to ensure scientific rigor. Network staff, 

park scientists, and collaborators will also 

periodically present their findings at professional symposia, conferences, and workshops 

as a means of communicating the latest findings 

with peers, identifying emerging issues, and 

generating new ideas.

All journal articles, book chapters, and other 

written reports will be listed in the network’s 

Annual Administrative Report and Work Plan 

that is provided to network staff, Technical 

Committee, Board of Directors, and regional 

and national offices each year. Additionally, all 

scientific journal articles, book chapters, and 

written reports will be entered into the NatureBib bibliographic database maintained by the 

network.

Internet and Intranet Websites—Internet and 

(restricted) intranet websites are a key tool for 

promoting communication, coordination, and 

collaboration among the many people, programs, and agencies involved in the network 

monitoring program and the general public. 

All written products of the monitoring effort, 

unless they contain sensitive or commercially 

valuable information that needs to be restricted, 

will be posted to the main network website: 

http://www1.nature.nps.gov/im/units/pacn

Documents to be posted to the network website 

include the PACN monitoring plan, all protocols, annual reports, analysis and synthesis 

reports, and other materials of interest to staff at 

the park, network, regional, and national levels, 

as well as documents of interest to our collaborators.

In addition, to promote communication and 

coordination within the network, we will 

maintain a password-protected “team website” 

where draft products, works in progress, and 

materials which require restricted access can be 

shared within the program.

Interpretation and Outreach—The National 

Park Advisory Board, in their July 2001 report 

“Rethinking the National Parks for the 21st 

Century”, wrote that “A sophisticated knowledge of resources and their condition is essential. The Service must gain this knowledge 

through extensive collaboration with other 

agencies and academia, and its findings must 

be communicated to the public. For it is the 

broader public that will decide the fate of these 

resources.” In keeping with this statement and 

the vision statement of the PACN Board of 

Directors, the network will make a concerted 

effort, working with park interpreters and others, to ensure that the results of natural resource 

monitoring are made available to the interested 

public. To increase integration with the parks, 

the PACN I&M program is fostering crossprogram coordination through environmental 

education and outreach activities with park 

employees, the public, and select community 

groups (figure 7.4). The PACN views interpretation divisions as particularly vital to this effort, 

as interpretive rangers are a major conduit of 

natural resource information from the parks to 

the public. 

We will develop an internal science communications and outreach plan in FY 2007 to build 

Figure 7.4

Bat researchers 

conducting outreach 

in Fagatele Village, 

Tutuila Island, National 

Park of American 

Samoa.
112 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 7. Data Analysis and Reporting

linkages with interpretation programs in all 11 

PACN units. As part of this plan (initiated in 

FY 2006), the I&M science communications 

specialist, network coordinator, and program 

ecologists will meet with the interpretation divisions of all network parks during FY 2006-2007. 

These meetings will enhance mutual understanding of goals, identify needs for interpretive 

material, and generate joint outreach activities. 

One product of these meetings will be the development of a specific plan to integrate the Vital 

Signs monitoring program and scientific results 

as educational tools within each park. 

The PACN staff is already working with chiefs 

of interpretation, staff interpreters, and others 

to convey information in interesting and understandable formats to various audiences (figure 

8.4). Some examples of program integration 

already implemented are: a brown-bag lunch 

series with interpretation division staff, presentations at all-employees meetings in the parks 

and at public outreach programs (e.g., HAVO’s 

“After-Dark-in-the-Park”), and informational 

newsletters distributed to regional and PACN 

park staff, as well as other agencies, university 

affiliates, and other entities. Other specific 

examples of how the PACN could integrate with 

outreach programs in network parks include:

Participate in ranger and volunteer 

interpreter training in network parks 

by giving an overview of the I&M 

program, as well as providing specific 

scientific materials for interpreters and 

the public. For example, the I&M program has produced resource bulletins 

on several natural resource subjects, 

including bats and invasive species, that 

can be distributed to staff and the public. These bulletins provide information on natural history of species and 

conservation needs, such as species 

location documentation and identification of invasive plant locations.

Participate in national park and community fairs and festivals with I&M 

exhibits. (Figure 7.5)

Produce an interpretative program 

with park interpretation staff highlighting select public-interest natural 

resources, such as imperiled Hawaiian 

forest birds, or producing a bird species 

checklist for general use.

Meet annually with park staff in a 

scientific forum to provide updates on 

network activities and identify opportunities for collaboration.

Produce an I&M brochure for distribution at conferences and to the general 

public.

Develop an outreach / environmental 

education plan targeting local community interests and values, as well as 

soliciting input and developing environmental education materials for use 

in schools, universities, national parks, 

and community-group activities.

Work with Vital Signs protocol teams to 

develop and integrate each protocol’s 

education and outreach component 

with parks, community groups, and 

educational institutions.

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

Figure 7.5.

I&M staff and 

volunteers with 

interpretation and 

outreach display for 

cultural festival at 

Puukohola Heiau 

National Historic 

Site.
National Park Service 113

Table 7.

4. Summary of anticipated Pacific Island Network reports, grouped by type and frequency—Continued.

Type of report Purpose of report Targeted audience Initiated by Frequency of reporting Review process

Annual reports for specific protocols and projects

Vital Sign monitoring protocol reports

Documents and archives annual monitoring activities and data, describes current resource conditions and 3 core analysis results, documents data management activities, documents changes in monitoring protocol, and communicates monitoring efforts to resource managers. During protocol development stages, report will emphasize progress made and challenges encountered.

Park resource staff, PACN staff, external scientists, partners

Protocol manager, network coordinator, ecologists, data manager

Annually Peer review at network level

Non-technical summary of Vital Sign monitoring protocol reports

Prepared concurrently with “Vital Sign monitoring protocol reports” above, but highlights key points for non-technical audiences

Superintendents, NPS interpreters, public, partners

Network coordinator, science outreach staff (CESU), & interpretive divisions

Annually, compiled each spring

Peer review at network level

Annual briefings to park managers

PACN Technical Committee and Board of Directors meetings (administrative meetings)

Review and summarize information on PACN Vital Signs, refine interpretation and presentation of information, identify emerging issues, assist with park planning, and generate new ideas

Superintendents, park resource staff, network staff

Network coordinator Annually (integrated into existing meetings) Meeting presenta- tion is a form of peer 

review

Protected area managers briefing / park science fair (results synthesis)

Communicate highlights and potential management action items, with 1-2 page briefing statements for each protocol

Park resource staff, network staff, scientists, other federal, state, and territorial protected area managers, discipline specialists, interpretive staff

Network coordinator, PACN ecologists, and scientists involved in monitoring

Annually, in conjunction with Board of Directors administrative meetings

Peer review by network and monitoring staff

Analysis and synthesis reports

Trend analysis and synthesis report

Describes and interprets patterns / trends of monitored Vital Signs resources, identifies correlations among monitored resources, identifies relationships between drivers / stressors and responses at various scales, recommends changes to management of resources (adaptive management feedback). Analysis and reporting will occur at multiple scales, including park, multi-park, and network / region.

Park resource managers, PACN staff, external scientists, partners Protocol managers and network coor- dinator, ecologists, biological 

technicians, CESU cooperators

3-5 year intervals for all Vital Signs

Peer review at the network level and region

Table 7.

4. Summary of anticipated Pacific Island Network reports, grouped by type and frequency.
114 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 7. Data Analysis and Reporting Table 7.

4. Summary of anticipated Pacific Island Network reports, grouped by type and frequency—Continued.

Type of report Purpose of report Targeted audience Initiated by Frequency of reporting Review process

Non-technical summary of trend analysis and synthesis report

Prepared concurrently with “trend analysis and synthesis report” above, but highlights key points for non-technical audiences

Superintendents, NPS interpreters, public, partners

Network coordinator, science outreach staff (CESU), and park interpretation divisions

Commensurate with reporting activity of “Trend Analysis and Synthesis Report”

Peer review at the network level

“Status and trends” (state of the parks) report for the PACN Vital Signs program

Describes current condition of park resources, reports trends and highlights of monitoring activities, identifies resource issues of concern, explores future directions 

Superintendents, park resource managers, network and monitoring program staff, external scientists, partners, public

Network coordinator, ecologists Annually, published each spring for preceding calendar year Peer review at net- work level

PACN contribution to NPS-wide “state of the parks” report

Describes current conditions of park resources, reports interesting trends and highlights of monitoring activities, identifies resource issues of concern, explores future directions

Congress, budget office, NPS leadership, superintendents, general public

Compiled by the Washington Area Support Office (WASO) from data provided by networks

Annually Peer review at national 

level

Protocol and program reviews

Program review report Periodic formal review of operations 

and results, including the effectiveness of communications to audiences, the use of results in adaptive management decision-making, and success at engaging external scientists through data sharing, or in designs of resourcemonitoring studies

Superintendents, park resource managers, PACN staff, Servicewide program managers, external scientists, partners

Network coordinator, ecologists, data manager

5-year intervals, in accordance with PACN charter

Peer review at regional and national level, PACN Board of Directors, Technical Committee

Protocol review reports

Documents where protocol procedures fall short or exceed expectations, recommends necessary changes, documents changes since last protocol review report; and documents overall quality of protocol, focusing on protocol objectives, implementation, effectiveness, and data management

Superintendents, park resource staff, PACN staff, Servicewide program managers, external scientists, partners

Protocol managers, network coordinator, ecologists Within 1-3 years of im- plementation, 5-year intervals thereafter Peer review at net- work and regional level

Annual administrative report and work plan

Account for funds and FTEs expended. Describe objectives, tasks, accomplishments, products of the monitoring effort. Improves communication within park, network, and region.

Superintendents, Technical Committee, network staff, program managers, Congressional reporting

Network coordinator, ecologists, data manager

Annually, due early November

Reviewed and approved by BOD, regional I&M coordinator, and Servicewide program manager
National Park Service 11

5

Table 7.4. Summary of anticipated Pacific Island Network reports, grouped by type and frequency—Continued.

Type of report Purpose of report Targeted audience Initiated by Frequency of reporting Review process

Scientific journal articles, book chapters, and presentations at scientific meetings

Scientific journal articles and book chapters

Documents and communicates advances in knowledge, provides a broader perspective on quality assurance and peer review

External scientists, park resource managers, and professional staff

Protocol scientists, network coordinator, ecologists, data manager

Variable Peer review according to journal or book 

standards

Other symposia, conferences, and workshops Review and summarize information on PACN Vital Signs, help identify emerg- ing issues and generate new ideas External scientists, professional staff, and park resource managers Network coordi- nator, ecologists, data manager, protocol scientists, 

CESU cooperators

Variable. Opportunities include professional conferences, NPS Pacific West Region meetings, and regional and national professional meetings

Peer review at network level; may also be peer reviewed if written papers are published

Internet and intranet websites

Web-based media Centralized repository of all final reports to ensure products are easily accessible in commonly-used electronic 

formats; other synthesized information on the PACN

Superintendents, park resource staff, PACN & NPS staff, Servicewide program managers, external scientists, partners, students, public

Network coordinator, ecologists, data manager

As media is completed Peer review at network level to NPS 

web standards; and finalized, reviewed products

Interpretation and outreach

Interpretive meetings Interactive meetings with park interpretive staff to discuss key monitoring 

program findings as well as underlying data; discuss potential significance for management, further monitoring, additional research potential, and for outreach

Park interpretive staff, environmental educators, PACN staff

Network coordinator, ecologists, data manager, protocol scientists, biological technicians, CESU cooperators

Variable by park, at least annual when possible

Peer review by network staff

Park staff meetings (results synthesis)

Communicate network mission and results to a non-technical audience, receive feedback on resource and monitoring issues in park operations

All park staff, volunteers, and partners, especially those not typically encountered in I&M program operations

Network coordinator, ecologists, data manager, protocol scientists, biological technicians, CESU cooperators

Annually for each network park

Peer review by network staff

PACN newsletter Review and summarize network activities and findings of general interest; 

describe the role and purpose of the network to non-technical audiences

Park staff, agency partners, cooperators, academia, informed public

Ecologists, CESU cooperators

Quarterly (email and web distribution)

Peer review by network staff and outside experts when necessary
116 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 7. Data Analysis and Reporting

Summary

The Pacific Island Network emphasizes providing park management with timely monitoring 

results that are synthesized with regards to 

monitoring goals and Vital Sign objectives. The 

PACN network will emphasize planning for 

data analysis and reporting throughout all facets 

of the monitoring program. Two data analysis 

outcomes are emphasized for PACN: (1) annual 

status summarization, and (2) long-term trend 

assessment. Expanding upon these two data 

analyses and management components, the 

network identified a hierarchy of four analytical 

strategies for Vital Signs: (1) sample unit level, 

(2) sample frame level, (3) trend assessment 

level, and (4) synthesis of results.

The communication and reporting plan for 

the PACN incorporates a diverse strategy to 

address our multiple audiences. The reports of 

the PACN emphasize communicating results of 

the program to the Board of Directors, Technical Committee, and other park staff, followed 

by other agencies, institutions, and the general public. This communication strategy will 

document long-term monitoring activities and 

facilitate program improvement, while validating the scientific integrity of the I&M program 

in the parks. These reports and products have 

been grouped into seven categories for our 

diverse audiences with the varied communication needs including: (1) annual reports for 

specific protocols and projects, (2) annual briefings to park managers, (3) analysis and synthesis 

reports, (4) protocol and program reviews, (5) 

scientific journal articles, book chapters, and 

presentations at scientific meetings, (6) Internet 

and Intranet websites, and (7) interpretation 

and outreach.

“The 

communication 

and reporting 

plan for the PACN 

incorporates a 

diverse strategy 

to address 

our multiple 

audiences.”
National Park Service 117

To develop and implement a large-scale monitoring program in the 11 Pacific island national 

parks, a significant effort in planning and 

administration is required. This planning effort 

includes communication and decision-making between national, regional, network, and 

park levels. Furthermore, planning for longterm monitoring, as described in this chapter, 

requires: a staffing plan, integration of network 

functions with park operations, identification of 

key partnerships, established field procedures, 

and a periodic review process for the program.

PACN Administrative Structure and Function

The PACN charter (appendix P), signed in 

March 2001, describes the basic practices used 

to plan, organize, manage, evaluate, and modify 

the efforts of the PACN. The charter established the Board of Directors as the network’s 

governing body and a Technical Committee to 

provide technical assistance and advice to the 

BOD. Amendments to the charter recognized 

the Ala Kahakai National Historic Trail as part 

of the PACN in December 2002 and designated 

the point of contact for the PACN databases in 

December 2003. 

The Board of Directors for the PACN includes 

superintendents from each national park system 

unit in the network, plus additional ex-officio 

members with non-voting status (table 8.1). 

The charter specifies that one superintendent 

serves as the chairperson of the BOD on a 

rotating three-year basis and that all decisions 

are made by consensus. The BOD also provides 

overall direction for the PACN by reviewing 

and approving annual accomplishment reports, 

work plans, and budget. 

The Technical Committee is composed of natural and cultural resource specialists and other 

key staff from each PACN park, USGS partners, 

science advisors, and I&M staff (table 8.2). The 

Technical Committee provides the BOD with 

information about park resources, participates 

in the development and evaluation of Vital Signs 

protocols, and reviews progress reports. The 

network coordinator chairs the TC and acts as 

liaison to the board. 

The network is transitioning from inventories 

and planning for long-term monitoring to Vital 

Sign protocol development and implementation. In this process, the BOD will re-evaluate 

the network’s administrative structure to ensure 

that the BOD and network information needs 

are continually met.

Chapter 8. Administration and Implementation of the 

Monitoring Program

Table 8.1. PACN Board of Directors.

Title Current Member Voting Advisor

Superintendent: AMME & WAPA Sarah Creachbaum X

Superintendent: NPSA Roger Moder X

Superintendent: USAR Doug Lentz X

Superintendent: KALA Tom Workman X

Superintendent: HALE Marilyn Parris X

Superintendent: ALKA Aric Arakaki X

Superintendent: PUHE Daniel Kawaiaea X

Superintendent: KAHO & PUHO Geri Bell X

Superintendent: HAVO Cindy Orlando X

Pacific Area Director Frank Hays X

PWR Coordinator Penny Latham X

PWR-HNL Science Advisor Darcy Hu X

Network Coordinator Leslie HaySmith X
118 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 8. Administration and Implementation of the Monitoring Program

PACN Staffing Plan

The PACN staffing plan is intended to assist the 

network with the professional expertise and scientific guidance needed to implement a scientifically credible monitoring program. Through 

diverse expertise, the staffing plan addresses 

critical long-term monitoring issues which are 

reflected in the network Vital Signs.

The proposed network staffing plan consists of 

eleven NPS positions which comprise a combination of permanent, permanent subject-to-furlough, term, and seasonal positions. These positions include a network coordinator/ecologist, 

four professional ecologists, two biotechnicians, 

a data manager, a database programmer (term), 

an administrative technician, and a GIS specialist (the latter two are <1.0 FTE). In addition to 

the above NPS/I&M positions, the network has 

proposed to allocate 1.0 FTE toward 6 parks, to 

cover staff time for field assistance in monitoring. The time allocation will cover eight weeks 

for field monitoring assistance in each of these 

parks (HAVO, HALE, KALA, AMME, WAPA, 

NPSA) for all of the Vital Signs monitoring. At 

the remaining five parks I&M PACN staff will 

conduct all of the monitoring, because small 

park staffs already have significant collateral 

duties. The other positions are Hawaii-Pacific 

Islands Cooperative Ecosystems Studies Unit 

(HPI-CESU) cooperators. Collectively, these 

positions meet the network’s need for broad 

subject matter expertise in several areas, 

institutionalize professional data management 

practices, provide qualified field personnel, 

and ensure proper administration of the I&M 

program (figure 8.1). 

Table 8.3 lists the primary responsibilities of 

these positions, the duty station, and time 

allocations. NPS term positions consist of a 

standard one to four year time period. CESU 

cooperator positions may change as program 

needs change.

Table 8.2. PACN Technical Committee (as of June 2006).

Name Park Scientific Discipline Management Discipline

Leslie HaySmitha I&M Terrestrial ecology Network coordinator

Doug Lentza USAR/PIN NA Board liaison

Darcy Hu Network Terrestrial flora and fauna PWRH science Advisor

Larry Basch Network Marine ecology PWRH-Coral Reef 

Program Science advisor

Tavita Togia NPSA Natural resources Natural resource specialist

Dwayne Minton WAPA & AMME Marine sciences Natural resource specialist

Guy Hughes KALA Wildlife biology Natural resource 

management

Steve Anderson HALE Vegetation Natural resource specialist

Linda Prattb USGS/BRD (HAVO) Botany Natural resource 

management

Rhonda Loh HAVO Vegetation Natural resource 

management

TBD PUHO Archaeology Cultural resources

Sallie Beavers KAHO Marine ecology Natural resources

Stephen Anthonyb USGS WRD 

(Honolulu)

Aquatic (groundwater, water 

quality)

Natural resources

a

. Not a voting member.

b

. USGS agency scientist; all others are NPS staff.
National Park Service 119

Figure 8.1. Proposed

PACN organization 

chart.
120 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 8. Administration and Implementation of the Monitoring Program

Table 8.3. PACN staff and their duties—Continued.

Position Duty 

Station Primary Duties % of Time

NPS Permanent Positions

Network coordinator/

ecologist

(GS-12)

HAVO Provides direction and manages overall planning and implementation of the PACN I&M program, including communications 

with network parks, the Board of Directors, Technical Committee, Scientific Review Panel, PWR regional coordinator, and 

agency or CESU cooperators; administers/oversees program 

budget and coordinates development of monitoring plan

35

Oversees protocol development and implementation to ensure 

scientific integrity of sampling design, data analysis, summary, 

and reporting; as ecological duties inter-mingle, oversees biological protocols; serves as principal investigator on selected projects

30

Supervises PACN professional level positions and provides general oversight and accountability for the program15

Ensures scientific and program information is communicated to 

parks and partners in useful formats, working with interpretation 

and other divisions

10

Coordinates and oversees I&M partnerships 10

Ecologist

(GS-11)

HAVO Provides guidance, oversight, and management of I&M projects, 

particularly physical Vital Signs, including data analysis, summary and reporting, data validation and verification; serves as NPS 

lead on relevant protocols under development, works extensively 

with monitoring plan and protocol documents

25

Works with administrative components of program including 

budget, task agreements, and contracts

25

Oversees and provides input to program and select protocol 

projects on data management, data programming, and adherence 

to I&M policies on data management

25

Works with program professionals to provide information to 

parks and partners in useful formats, including web-design and 

other written communications

10

Provides oversight to selected I&M projects and liaises with 

CESU cooperators on projects

10

Initiates and coordinates I&M partnerships 5

Aquatic ecologist

(GS-11, Subject to furlough)

HAVO Coordinates all aspects of aquatic I&M projects, including 

aquatic projects sampling design and pilot testing, data collection 

and analysis, project documentation and metadata management, 

data validation and verification, and preparation and dissemination of Vital Sign protocols, project summaries, and reports

35

Serves as the primary network expert for aquatic resources 

issues and provides guidance, oversight, and management of 

aquatic I&M projects

25

Works with program professionals to provide information to 

parks and partners in useful formats for aquatic related projects

20

Initiates and coordinates aquatic related I&M partnerships 10

Primary liaison for CESU technicians working on aquatic I&M 

partnerships

10

Table 8.3. PACN staff and their duties.
National Park Service 121

Table 8.3. PACN staff and their duties—Continued.

Position Duty 

Station Primary Duties % of Time

Data manager

(GS-11)

HAVO Ensures project data conforms with program standards and 

serves as lead in data archiving, security, and dissemination; 

database development; and overall QA/QC for the I&M program 

by working with protocol PIs and NPS leads to develop data 

entry forms, project QA/QC procedures, and automated reports

50

Supervises data management staff and provides oversight and supervision for data management activities; provides oversight to 

CESU cooperators in parks and for data management 

25

Coordinates and implements data management partnerships 15

Collaborates with PWRH GIS specialist to maintain standards 

for data and associated metadata, and ensures GIS information is 

provided to network parks and partners in useful formats

10

GIS specialist

(GS-11)

HAVO Coordinates the dissemination of I&M-generated GIS information with clearinghouses; works closely with I&M data manager 

and other data management staff (supervised by PWR-Honolulu 

office; funded 0.25 by PACN I&M)

25

Administrative 

technician

(GS-7)

PWRHNLProvides administrative support for NPS staff, including working 

with I&M budget, travel, purchasing, and other program support 

needs (supervised by PWR-Honolulu science advisor; funded 

0.75 by PACN I&M)

75

NPS Term Positions

Quantitative ecologist

(GS-11)

HAVO Serves as subject matter expert for protocol sampling designs 

and analytical methods by providing input on within-park and 

between-park sampling designs for Vital Signs monitoring, and 

assures continuity between monitoring projects such as co-location and co-visitation, whenever possible; serves a dominant role 

in development and writing of Vital Signs protocols

100

Database programmer

(GS-9)

HAVO Performs database design and data management with protocol 

PIs, NPS leads, and park staff conducting I&M-related work; 

works closely with the data manager

60

Conducts data archiving and dissemination, assists with QA/QC 

procedures for I&M metadata and datasets

40

Aquatic biotechnician

(GS-5/7)

KAHO Serves as field biotechnician on aquatic-based Vital Signs 

monitoring projects in all PACN parks (Water quality, Groundwater dynamics, Benthic marine, Marine fish, Fish harvest, and 

Freshwater animal communities); works closely with aquatic 

ecologist; works with I&M ecologists, PIs, and NPS leads to collect monitoring data, including water quality, document methods, verify and correct data values, and document procedures 

and deviations from protocols; assists in preparation and writing 

of monitoring protocols; performs data management duties on 

aquatic projects 

30

Conducts data entry and verification, including performing regular data transfer and backup.20
122 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 8. Administration and Implementation of the Monitoring Program

Table 8.3. PACN staff and their duties—Continued.

Position Duty 

Station Primary Duties % of Time

Terrestrial 

biotechnician 

(GS-5/7)

TBD Serves as field biotechnician on terrestrial-based Vital Signs 

monitoring projects in all PACN parks (3 Plants-related protocols, Landbirds, Seabirds, Bats, Climate, Landscape dynamics, 

Terrestrial invertebrates, and Caves); works closely with I&M 

network coordinator, ecologists, terrestrial ecologists, PIs, and 

NPS leads to collect monitoring data, document methods, verify 

and correct data values, and document procedures and deviations from protocols; performs other data management duties 

on terrestrial projects, and assists with writing of monitoring 

protocols 

100

Proposed NPS Positions

Terrestrial ecologist

(Perm-STF, GS-7/9)

HAVO Serves as project coordinator and planner for terrestrial-based 

Vital Sign monitoring in PACN parks (3 Plants-related protocols, Landbirds, Seabirds, Bats, Climate, Landscape dynamics, 

Terrestrial invertebrates, and Caves); serves as lead coordinator 

and ecologist for terrestrial ecology components of the program 

protocols; coordinates monitoring implementation in all parks 

where terrestrial projects will occur and works closely with I&M 

ecologists, PIs, and NPS leads; this includes site-specific field 

scientific issues, logistical monitoring issues, schedules with 

I&M and park-staff who assist with monitoring, and leading field 

crews; works closely with PACN network coordinator/ecologist, 

quantitative ecologist, and other staff, as well as CESU cooperators in planning, and assists with writing of monitoring protocols; ensures data management duties are maintained

100

Parks staff monitoring 

assistance 

(GS variable)*

HAVO 

HALE 

KALA 

NPSA 

WAPA 

AMME

Provides park-specific and on-site monitoring field assistance 

with terrestrial and aquatic related monitoring projects; works 

closely with Vital Signs monitoring teams when teams are conducting monitoring in parks; advises on field sampling, logistics, 

and management concerns; may assist with preparation and or 

reviews of park-specific components of monitoring protocols; 

total allocation for each park is 8 weeks per year for planning 

field data collection, data analysis, management, and reporting. 

23

CESU Cooperators

Science 

communications/CESU 

facilitator*

HAVO Provides administrative support and supervision for the CESU 

cooperators, including management of the CESU budget and 

administration of the HPI-CESU task agreement between NPS 

and University of Hawai`i at Manoa 

50

Works closely with various PACN park divisions, partners, and 

communities to communicate I&M activities and scientific findings through outreach programs, preparation of newsletter and 

other publications, and other outreach venues; works closely 

with network park interpretation specialists

25

Provides technical support for PIs and NPS leads to develop and 

support the implementation of the education outreach sections 

of the monitoring protocols 

25
National Park Service 123

Table 8.3. PACN staff and their duties—Continued.

Position Duty 

Station Primary Duties % of Time

Inventories Coordinator/

abiotic monitoring 

facilitator

HAVO Works with I&M ecologists, PIs and NPS leads to collect data on 

abiotic protocols including climate data (from field or existing 

sources), document methods, verify and correct data values, and 

document procedures and deviations from protocols; position 

liaison with I&M staff; conducts data entry and verification, 

including performing regular data transfer and backup; works on 

planning, preparation, and writing phases of climate monitoring 

protocol

60

Works with network coordinator, I&M ecologists, and parks 

staff to develop a long-term inventory strategy, and oversees all 

inventory reports to publication

40

Aquatic monitoring 

cooperators

TBD Works on development of aquatic-related protocols; works with 

I&M ecologists, PIs and NPS leads to collect aquatic projects 

data (Benthic marine communities, Marine fish, Fish harvest, 

Water quality, Freshwater animals, and Groundwater dynamics); 

documents methods, verifies and corrects data values, and documents procedures and deviations from protocols; assists with 

preparation and writing of monitoring protocols

70

Conducts data entry and verification, including performing regular data transfer and backup30

Terrestrial monitoring 

cooperators 

TBD Works on development of terrestrial-related protocols; works 

during implementation stages with I&M ecologists, PIs and NPS 

leads to collect terrestrial projects data (3 Plants-related protocols, Landbirds, Seabirds, Bats, Climate, Landscape dynamics, Terrestrial invertebrates, and Caves); documents methods, 

verifies and corrects data values, and documents procedures and 

deviations from protocols; assists with preparation and writing 

of monitoring protocols

70

Conducts data entry and verification, including performing regular data transfer and backup30

Data management 

assistant 

HAVO Provides technical support for database design and data management with protocol PIs, NPS leads, and park staff conducting 

I&M-related work; works closely with the data manager and 

database programmer

60

Assists with metadata creation and GIS/GPS support for I&M 

projects

40

GIS specialist HAVO Develops GIS spatial data layers for 18 Vital Signs long-term Vital 

Signs monitoring projects; coordinates with I&M ecologists, PIs, 

and NPS leads in developing spatial layers for long-term monitoring, which includes protocol development and implementation, once monitoring data is available; works closely with I&M 

data manager and PWRH GIS specialist

100
124 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 8. Administration and Implementation of the Monitoring Program

Table 8.4. Additional staffing approaches for accomplishing PACN monitoring tasks.

 Approach Program element 

addressed

Advantages Disadvantages

Permanent 

professional 

positions

Program administration, planning, 

data analysis and 

interpretation

Consistency, technical 

knowledge, accountability

Long term commitment of 

funds, NPS administrative 

costs

Permanent 

technician 

positions

Data collection, data 

entry

Consistency, direct supervision by core staffLong term commitment of 

funds, NPS administrative 

costs

Seasonal 

technician 

positions

Data collection, data 

entry

Direct supervision by 

core staff, flexibility

Turnover will increase 

training needs and decrease consistency, NPS 

administrative costs

Contractors/

Cooperators

Data collection, data 

entry, analysis and 

interpretation

Flexibility, technical 

knowledge

Turnover will increase 

training needs and 

decrease consistency, 

non-supervision by NPS 

core staff

Multi-year 

graduate and 

undergraduate 

interns

Data collection, data 

entry, analysis and 

interpretation

Low cost, flexibility, integration with 

agency and research 

partners, technical 

knowledge

Lack of consistency

Information Exchange within the Pacific Island 

Network 

In addition to positions in the staffing plan, the 

PACN depends on substantial involvement of 

numerous park staff, and agency partners to 

execute the program. The staffing plan in figure 

8.1 provides for staff to conduct field monitoring through a combination of NPS permanent, 

subject-to-furlough, term, and seasonal positions, along with assistance by CESU cooperators. Therefore, the needs for Vital Signs 

monitoring that remains are dominantly travel 

and equipment costs. This staffing plan helps 

address a long-held concern by parks’ staff, 

regarding how monitoring will be accomplished, 

since many park staff are already working on 

numerous collateral duties. We elaborate on 

the some of the advantages and disadvantages 

of various staffing plan approaches in table 8.4. 

Based on the network’s experience to date, we 

anticipate that a combination of three or more 

of the staffing approaches described in table 8.4 

will be employed during operational monitoring. Final staffing decisions will be made by the 

PACN Board of Directors.

In addition to working closely with the BOD, 

TC, and parks staff, I&M works extensively with 

Pacific West Regional offices, the NPS Washington Area Support Office, and network IT and 

regional GIS staff. This information exchange 

ensures continuity and adherence to the program mission and guidance, and it allows for 

broad technical support. 

I&M staff will also guide and administer the 

monitoring protocol development teams. Since 

the PACN staffing plan combines permanent, 

subject-to-furlough, term/seasonal, park staff 

assistance, and CESU cooperator positions, the 

plan is fiscally conservative, while allowing staffing flexibility as the program matures. Figure 

8.2 provides a more comprehensive schematic 

of the network staff and their interactions with 

other entities, including recommendations for a 

scientific review panel to work closely with the 

TC.

In accordance with the language in the PACN 

charter, the Technical Committee can establish 

finite-term sub-committees to address various 

issues, including soliciting scientific advice from 

internal and/or outside scientists. One of these 

“The PACN 

depends on 

substantial 

involvement 

of numerous 

park staff, and 

agency partners 

to execute the 

program.”
National Park Service 125

Figure 8.2.

Interactions between 

Pacific Island Network 

staff, cooperators, and 

national and regional 

offices.
126 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 8. Administration and Implementation of the Monitoring Program

sub-committees, the Scientific Review Panel 

(SRP), can offer relatively unbiased reviews of 

Vital Signs protocols throughout the development process and into the implementation 

phase for PACN parks. Scientific Review Panel 

members will be selected through recommendations generated by PACN I&M, reviewed and 

approved by the TC, with final approval given by 

the BOD. The TC will review and approve the 

SRP recommendations of Vital Sign protocols 

before they go to the BOD. Specific roles of the 

SRP are listed in table 8.5.

Inventory and Monitoring Partnerships and

Program Integration

One of the keys to monitoring success is 

adequate integration of I&M with other park 

programs, including interpretation and outreach efforts, park resource operations, and 

with non-NPS partners. Figure 8.3 illustrates 

the manner that I&M can serve as a catalyst for 

integration of Vital Signs monitoring programs 

and individual parks. In addition, the Vital 

Signs development and implementation phases 

must allow for adequate planning through the 

park divisions and permitting processes, which 

include compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) and National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) for monitoring 

projects. 

Integration with Park Operations—To better 

integrate with park operations, the network 

has assigned an NPS lead and an I&M project 

manager to work closely with each principal 

investigator in developing monitoring protocols. 

The NPS leads are responsible for contacting 

parks and exchanging information about protocols under development, particularly where 

these may impact or interact with ongoing 

park operations. Additionally, the PACN I&M 

program has conducted meetings with staff at 

each network park to explain the I&M program, 

identify their needs, and acquire additional staff 

knowledge on historical changes of our Vital 

Signs. These meetings enhance the network’s 

ability to work collaboratively with select park 

divisions, better understand the scope of work 

conducted by those divisions, and identify how 

the PACN I&M program can collaborate on 

various activities to enhance respective goals 

(figure 8.3). Additional integration is facilitated 

through the network’s Board of Directors and 

the Technical Committee, who bring pertinent 

activities and concerns of network parks to the 

attention of the I&M program, and vice versa. 

Furthermore, the information that I&M will 

provide through numerous reporting mechanisms (chapter 7), will facilitate more open and 

frequent communications between network 

parks. 

Partnerships and Integration with other Programs—Partnerships with universities, NGO’s 

and other organizations make use of expertise 

inside and outside of the NPS. Numerous partners have been involved in inventories of PACN 

park resources and development of monitoring 

protocols (appendix B). Due to the iterative 

process in developing the I&M program, the 

Pacific Island Network will solicit more partners 

as protocol development progresses. Furthermore, the PACN recognizes the importance 

of integrating our Vital Signs monitoring with 

other federal, state, and commonwealth agency 

programs. The USGS Biological Resources and 

Water Resources Divisions, as well as the NPS 

Pacific Islands Coral Reef program are working 

closely with the PACN on inventory projects 

and on development of Vital Signs monitoring. 

The network will further identify ways to work 

with the USGS-BRD and WRD, the USDA 

Forest Service (USFS), DOI Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), and state, territorial, or 

commonwealth natural resource programs. In 

addition, PACN works closely with the HawaiiPacific Islands CESU on cooperative agreements for inventories and monitoring.

Program Review and Management

Adaptive Management—The PACN monitoring plan is an active and iterative document 

with an adaptive modification process based on 

monitoring results, budget, program reviews, 

and other factors. For example, while monitoring protocols are being developed, the costs for 

monitoring are only estimates. Therefore, once 

monitoring data are available, decisions must be 

refined regarding sampling design, numbers and 

locations of permanent plots, and other critical 

implementation issues. Once completed, these 

protocols may be revised to accommodate new 

methodologies or analyses, based on monitoring results. For example, if response variables 

“One of the keys 

to monitoring 

success is 

adequate 

integration of 

I&M with other 

park programs...

and with nonNPS partners.”
National Park Service 127

Figure 8.3.

Integration of the 

PACN Vital Signs 

program into park 

operations.

Table 8.5 Roles of the scientific review panel in the Pacific Island Network monitoring 

programs.

1. Review study plans of Vital Signs protocols focusing on: scientific feasibility of objectives, methodologies, sampling schemes, and budget adequacy for scientific methods proposed

2. Review draft protocols for network application before being sent for external peer review

3. Evaluate and provide input on long-term VS monitoring after implementation. This evaluation 

addresses: (a) scientific issues (e.g., species or ecosystem applications, methodologies, ecological 

sampling problems), (b) VS data-based results, and (c) trends analysis results

4. Provide advice to the Technical Committee who makes recommendations to the BOD
128 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 8. Administration and Implementation of the Monitoring Program

have more variability than originally planned in 

sampling layout, more samples may be necessary to reach stated statistical confidence levels. 

This could lead to cost inflation, which would 

impact other monitoring activities.

Long-term monitoring is most valuable when 

implemented consistently over time. Therefore, 

the early development phases of the I&M program should be viewed as a window for making adjustments, while minimizing impacts of 

changes. In the current PACN schedule (chapter 

9), a program benchmark will be reached in 

late 2008 when final monitoring protocols are 

implemented. A program review is planned for 

2009, which will provide an opportunity for 

program adjustment, following adaptive management strategies.

Program Review Process—The Inventory and 

Monitoring program has developed a multilevel review process (table 8.6) that evaluates 

many facets of the program. For example, the 

Annual Administrative Report and Work Plan 

(AARWP) provides the Technical Committee 

and Board of Directors with an opportunity to 

review what has occurred in the prior year and 

what is planned for the next year. This annual 

program evaluation will be particularly important during the next three to five years, as actual 

monitoring of Vital Signs is implemented.

The PACN will incorporate a second level 

review for the program, represented in an 

annual report/symposium to the Technical 

Committee and Board of Directors. This report 

will be conducted as a one or two-day symposium, which includes technical presentations on 

results and status of monitoring projects. A TC 

meeting to discuss scientific presentations as 

progress reports and evaluate the scientific and 

operational merit of the work will follow the 

symposia. Results and decisions from this symposium review will be presented to the Board 

of Directors for endorsement. This format is 

used by National Science Foundation Longterm Ecological Research sites, and is effective 

in keeping a program appropriately focused. 

The first report to the Technical Committee will 

be held in spring 2007, after the first season of 

program implementation.

A 5-year program review will also be incorporated as a third level of evaluation. This review 

Table 8.6. Review process for the PACN monitoring program.

Review Scheduling Who conducts review Intent of the review

Annual 

Administrative

Report and Work Plan

Annual Technical Committee and 

Board of Directors

Provide yearly accountability for the program; 

report on accomplishments and explain goals 

and projects for the next fiscal year

Report to the Technical

Committee

Biannual All parties collecting data for 

the network, other invited 

experts as needed, representatives of the TC and BOD

Provide technical details on results and status of 

monitoring data within the program; evaluate if 

goals are being met appropriately and if focus 

of program is consistent with goals; evaluate if 

operations of program are working in concert 

with other aspects of program

5-year Program Review Every 5 years All parties collecting data for 

the network, other invited 

experts as needed, representatives of the TC and BOD

Provide synthesis of data collected by program 

and evaluate the utility to park management; 

evaluate administration and operations of the 

program; make recommendations for improvement of all aspects of the program 
National Park Service 129

is an expanded version of the Report to the 

Technical Committee symposium/review, focusing on salient results from data collected and 

their relevance to park management. The review 

will include data presentation and syntheses 

followed by discussion and evaluation by the 

Technical Committee. Decisions to phase out 

projects or to adjust the program focus may 

be recommended to the Board of Directors. 

A separate workgroup will evaluate program 

administration and operations based on goals 

and objectives as determined by the TC and 

endorsed by the BOD.

All reviews should focus on program implementation and how effectively the PACN achieves 

programmatic goals. I&M program implementation also includes the collection, management, 

quality assurance and quality control, analysis, 

summarization, and reporting of data. Likewise, 

implementation of the program also includes 

integration of monitoring information, collaboration with park operations and partners, and 

information dissemination and outreach. 

Summary

The Pacific Island Network Inventory and 

Monitoring program is planning to implement 

the I&M program through numerous mechanisms including: adequate governing structure 

and staffing; close collaboration and exchange 

between PACN parks, WASO, PWRH, and 

cooperators; science communications and 

outreach; partnerships; and three levels of 

program review. We will work closely with our 

Board of Directors and Technical Committee to 

finalize staffing and ensure protocol credibility. 

Through a staffing arrangement that incorporates a team approach, we are strategically planning to employ a combination of permanent 

and non-permanent NPS positions, parks staff, 

and CESU cooperators to balance and augment 

skills needed by the program, yet heed potential 

fiscal constraints. The Pacific Island Network 

is already beginning to integrate with divisions in all 11 PACN parks, to expand science 

communications and outreach. We will also be 

expanding our partnership outreach to augment 

monitoring activities and collaboration by working closely with other federal, state, and county 

agencies, and NGOs that are already conducting 

monitoring in or near the PACN national parks. 

To facilitate effective and critical review of our 

monitoring program, we will engage in a threelevel review process, which is locally based with 

the Technical Committee and Board of Directors, in addition to a WASO review. In summary, 

we believe that through the administration and 

implementation plan presented in this chapter, 

we can effectively implement our monitoring 

program over the coming decades.

“Implementation 

of the program also 

includes integration 

of monitoring 

information, 

collaboration with 

park operations 

and partners, 

and information 

dissemination and 

outreach.”
130 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 8. Administration and Implementation of the Monitoring Program
National Park Service 131

A strategic monitoring plan will only be successful if a schedule is identified early in the 

planning processes. Scheduling allows the 

network to balance short- and long-term planning requirements and ensure timely implementation, data analysis, and reporting. Various schedules address timing and frequency 

of monitoring protocols and peer reviews for 

the 11 PACN parks. These schedules will help 

the network adaptively develop staffing plans, 

budgets, and plan work needs for NPS staff and 

CESU cooperators. 

Protocol Schedule

Fourteen monitoring protocols are scheduled 

for development in phase 1 as discussed in 

chapters 4 and 5 of this monitoring plan. Upon 

successful implementation of the initial 14 

phase 1 monitoring protocols, we will begin 

the second phase of implementation, which 

includes four Vital Signs. In this chapter we 

describe the protocol development plan and key 

tasks that must be addressed for each protocol 

over the next five years (table 9.1). All protocols 

implemented with partial or full Inventory and 

Monitoring program funding must be written 

according to rigorous standards (Oakley et al. 

2003) and be formally reviewed. Some Vital 

Signs monitoring will entail coordination with 

government and state agencies already collecting data (e.g., water quality parameters). Others 

will require detailed scoping, adaptive data collection efforts, and determination of analytical 

methods.

In table 9.2, we outline the planned implementation schedule for phase 1 monitoring protocols under development. This table identifies 

which parks protocol development and implementation will occur, as well as noting for which 

parks monitoring (not in current protocols) may 

be expanded in the future. For each protocol in 

the table, a protocol development summary is 

available in appendix L. 

Monitoring Schedule

The transition from planning and development to implemented monitoring signals an 

important milestone in the monitoring program. 

Implementation includes all aspects of monitoring operations such as data collection, data 

management, analysis, and reporting. For the 

PACN program, monitoring officially begins in 

2006 with the implementation of the benthic 

marine community monitoring protocol. Vital 

Signs monitoring will increase incrementally 

as monitoring protocols are completed and 

approved for implementation by the Pacific 

West Regional Office and the I&M program’s 

peer review process (table 9.3). 

In table 9.4, we depict the frequency and timing 

of sampling for eight phase 1 Vital Signs for 

which protocol development was initiated in 

2005 and 2006. While some data will be collected continuously (e.g., climate data), other 

data will be collected over several days in one 

season (e.g., freshwater animals). This table 

demonstrates that our field efforts are not 

entirely weighted to one season but are distributed throughout the calendar year due to 

consistent seasons in the islands, yet variability 

in select parameters (e.g., rain). In many cases, 

field efforts for a protocol will also be geographically staggered throughout the year (e.g., 

sampling in southern hemisphere parks October 

- December, and in northern hemisphere parks 

April - July).

Development and testing of phase 1 monitoring 

protocols continues through 2009. Appendix N 

portrays the phased approach to the development and implementation of phase 1 PACN 

monitoring protocols. Protocol development 

is complex and includes: refining and testing 

methods, preliminary data collection, analyses of preliminary data to determine adequate 

sample size, and refinement of sampling based 

on these analyses. Preliminary or enhanced data 

collection for some protocols will occur during 

the field season following submission of draft 

protocols for review.

Chapter 9. Schedule

“The transition 

from planning 

and development 

to implemented 

monitoring signals 

an important 

milestone in 

the monitoring 

program.”
132 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 9. Schedule Table 9.1. Development tasks for phase 1 and phase 2 Vital Signs monitoring protocols—Continued. Vital Sign Key issues to be addressed in development stage Target year for protocol completion Benthic marine communitya A number of existing methods to monitor benthic marine communities are readily available. Many commonly used monitoring methods lack statistical power or may need modification to function at PACN parks. A comprehensive review of these methods, and thorough testing and evaluation of methods and sampling design is necessary. 2007 Early detection of invasive plantsa Several methods for detecting distribution and abundance of newly invasive plant species have been tested for inva- sion corridors/pathways. These protocols will be reviewed based on detection rates vs. cost, and will largely form the basis for the invasive species protocol. 

Focal terrestrial plant communities

Procedures for plant community and focal and RTE plant species monitoring are established and will be reviewed and evaluated. The work focuses on drafting the sampling design, preparing a database, and developing SOPs. 

Landbirds Standard approaches to monitoring land birds in Pacific islands and protocols for bird survey methodologies already 

exist. Work will consist primarily of designing sampling schemes tailored to each park and its avifauna. 

Water quality Development of new techniques or protocols is not needed. Protocol development will utilize a combination of 

previously defined spatial and temporal sampling designs. Work will focus on tailoring the established protocol and sampling design to the specific resource type and the individual park. 

Status and trends of established invasive plant species

Work focuses on compiling and prioritizing invasive species for each PACN park based on a review of current lists, reviewing and evaluating existing exotic plant monitoring protocols, and developing a sampling design based on them. The National Invasive Species Program will be asked to review this protocol.

Landscape dynamics Available information concerning land use or landscape change conducted within or adjacent to PACN parks will be 

considered prior to initiating any new work. Land cover/land use maps and protocols have been developed by the NOAA C-CAP/ USGS for Landsat imagery and are currently being developed for IKONOS, and will be adapted for PACN parks. We will collaborate with other networks conducting similar protocols.

a

.

Table 9.1.

 A second phase of protocol implementation will be established in 2008 – 2010 for these protocols.

Development tasks for phase 1 and phase 2 Vital Signs monitoring protocols.
National Park Service 133

Table 9.1. Development tasks for phase 1 and phase 2 Vital Signs monitoring protocols—Continued.

Vital Sign Key issues to be addressed in development stage

Target year 

for protocol 

completion

Climate Climate monitoring will rely primarily on historic and active weather monitoring efforts in and near PACN parks, and 

other agencies’ protocols. If parameters or stations are lacking, additional sensors may be added to existing stations or new long-term stations will be added. 

2008

Groundwater dynamicsa

The USGS Pacific Islands Water Science Center currently conducts groundwater monitoring using well-defined procedures. The primary task will be to document the questions being asked and to determine an appropriate network design and sampling frequency to answer the questions. 

Freshwater animal communities

Several sampling methods have been established for animal communities in PACN streams and will be evaluated for this protocol. SOPs will be created for each sampling method, along with standard criteria to be used to determine which method to use at each site. Crustacean trap and release methods are currently being refined for anchialine pool shrimp, and the utility of other sampling methods will be evaluated for the different mixohaline habitats.

Seabirds Protocols to monitor the Hawaiian petrel have been developed at HALE and HAVO. These protocols will be evaluated and modified to ensure monitoring is comparable between the two parks. Initial intensive inventories for additional species of interest are needed to gather basic information on presence/absence, seasonality, and gross distribution. 

The focus of work will be on developing sampling methods and designing a database. 

Bats Methodologies for monitoring insectivorous bats are established, while several count techniques have been successful in assessing the distribution and abundance of frugivorous bats. These methods need to be reviewed and field 

evaluated to develop a successful long-term monitoring program for PACN. Pilot surveys will help to determine the status of insectivorous bats on Molokai and Maui, and to test sample sites and methods for fruit bats. The work focuses on establishing standardized survey methods, designing sampling methods, and developing a database.

Marine fish There are a number of existing methods to monitor coral reef fish. Initial tasks will be to review and summarize existing reef fish monitoring methods, evaluate the literature comparing specific techniques, assess their applicability to 

our current monitoring needs, and then tentatively select and test methods. 

Fish harvest Fisheries data are routinely conducted by fisheries agencies around the world. Work will focus on analyzing existing 

NPSA and WAPA fisheries data, the review of existing literature, developing study design, and developing a database. 

2009

Early detection of invasive invertebratesa

Several methods for detecting distribution and abundance of newly invasive invertebrate species have been tested for invasion corridors/pathways. These protocols will be reviewed based on detection rates vs. cost, and will largely form the basis for the invasive species protocol.

Cave communitya Existing methodology for detecting human intrusion in caves will be modified for the PACN. Established methods 

for sampling cave insects and vegetation will be incorporated into the protocol. Only a sample of known caves from each PACN park targeted for this protocol will be monitored; these must be selected prior to implementation. 

Terrestrial invertebrate communitiesa Work focuses on developing sampling design and preparing database(s) and SOPs. Erosion & depositiona A number of existing protocols are available in the literature and through appropriate agencies (e.g. NOAA, NRCS, USGS). Comprehensive review and field testing of these methods is needed to develop a sampling design for PACN.

a

. A second phase of protocol implementation will be established in 2008 – 2010 for these protocols.
134 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 9. Schedule

Table 9.2. Phase 1 PACN Vital Sign implementation schedule for each park: 2006 – 2009*.

*

Projections in table to 2009, with the assumption that monitoring will continue indefinitely

a

. Preliminary protocol development to begin in 2006.

b

. Pilot data collection to begin in 2006.
National Park Service 135

Table 9.2. Phase 1 PACN Vital Sign implementation schedule for each park: 2006 – 2009*—

Continued.

*

Projections in table to 2009, with the assumption that monitoring will continue indefinitely

a

. Preliminary protocol development to begin in 2006.

b

. Pilot data collection to begin in 2006.
136 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 9. Schedule

Table 9.3. Schedule of peer review process of phase 1 PACN Vital Signs monitoring protocols.

The reporting of monitoring results will also 

be phased over time. As principal investigators 

and protocol teams collect data, the PIs and 

staff will prepare annual reports of activities 

and findings for each monitoring protocol. As 

data accumulate, protocol development teams 

will include comprehensive analysis and results 

synthesis in their annual reports. Once the 

fourth year of monitoring is completed, reports 

will include trend assessments within park units 

and network-level summaries and comparisons 

between parks. Additional details of planned 

reports are in chapter 7.

Other Important Planning Needs

In addition to data collected through monitoring the 14 phase 1 Vital Signs, results of park 

or partner sponsored monitoring programs 

will provide information that will enhance the 

Vital Signs monitoring program. Such monitoring should also be guided by protocols that are 

adequately documented and include a strategy 

for data stewardship and reporting. As network 

monitoring protocols are approved and implemented, effort will shift towards working with 

park staff and partners to update and/or revise 

high-priority existing park monitoring programs 

and to adequately document these in protocols.

Over the next five years, the network plans 

to provide technical assistance and support 

to park- and partner- sponsored monitoring 

programs for these activities, dependent on 

budgetary and staffing availability. The goal is 

an integrated approach to acquiring network 

Vital Signs and park- and partner-sponsored 

monitoring information (figure 9.1). The 

technical expertise of network staff can help 

to standardize procedures and establish quality control, data management, and reporting 

protocols. Most importantly, this strategy will 

allow parks to increase the quality of monitoring 

data that they produce and use. It will also help 

to promote coordination and communication 

of monitoring activities at the park and (where 

appropriate) network and regional levels, and 

will encourage broad participation in monitoring and the use of resulting data. 
National Park Service 137

Table 9.4. Frequency and timing of sampling for PACN Vital Signs whose development will be 

initiated in 2006-2007.

Observers for the Benthic marine community Vital Sign will be trained during April/Maybc and October/Novemberd. Training 

for the Landbirds Vital Sign observers will occur in Aprilb and October c.

Vital Sign

Sample type/interval

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

** = two to three 

day sampling event

¤ = weekly 

Groundwater 

dynamics

Spaced sampling 

events   **  **  

Status and 

trends of established invasive 

plant species

Annual + 

multi-annual 

sampling visits ¤ ¤ ¤ ¤

Early detection of invasive 

plants a

Annual + 

multi-annual 

sampling visits

¤ ¤ ¤ ¤

Benthic marine 

community

Annual surveys ¤d ¤d ¤bc ¤bc ¤bc ¤d

Freshwater 

animal communities

Biannual multi-day 

sampling visits **  ** ** **

Focal terrestrial 

plant communities

Annual + 

multi-annual 

sampling visits

¤b ¤b ¤b ¤b ¤c ¤c

Landbirds Annual surveys + 

more frequent monitoring ¤b ¤c

Landscape 

dynamics

5 & 10 year review of 

available imagery NA

a

. Timing of sampling dependent on personnel status. Sampling distributed throughout the year for different parks.

b

. Hawaii national parks (statewide)

c

. AMME/WAPA

d. NPSA
138 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 9. Schedule

Summary

The Pacific Island Network has an ambitious 

protocol development and monitoring schedule, 

with 14 protocols to be developed and implemented for phase 1 Vital Sign monitoring within 

the next five years, and four phase 2 Vital Signs 

in the following three years. The program implementation schedule for 2007-2011 will require 

comprehensive planning and adequate staffing 

to stay on schedule. Inventory and Monitoring 

staff must collaborate and communicate closely 

with network parks, cooperators, and partners 

on Vital Sign protocol development, budgets, 

and schedules in order to submit protocols for 

peer review on time. However, with adequate 

planning, budget, and collaboration we anticipate full implementation of the Pacific Island 

Monitoring program. The planning outlined in 

this chapter will enable the network to adequately develop and fully implement Vital Signs 

monitoring. 

Figure 9.1.

Traditional 

community fishing 

practice (hukilau) 

demonstrated 

at a Puuhonua o 

Honaunau National 

Historical Park 

cultural festival; 

one of many fishing 

practices potentially 

monitored by 

the Fish harvest 

protocol.
National Park Service 139

The PACN receives $1,570,100 from the NPS 

Inventory and Monitoring program for Vital 

Sign monitoring and $151,000 from the NPS 

Water Resources Division for water quality 

monitoring. Annual expenditures presented in 

the network budget match income amounts, yet 

do not reflect in-kind contributions of existing park and partnership efforts. Calculation 

of these tangible and intangible benefits to the 

I&M program from NPS, other state and government agencies, and additional partnerships 

will be included in program reports as identified 

in chapter 7.

Annual Vital Sign Monitoring Budget

The PACN, similar to other NPS Inventory and 

Monitoring networks, annually prepares an 

annual administrative report for the previous 

fiscal year, and a work plan for the upcoming 

fiscal year which is sent to the Washington Area 

Support Office. The categories identified in figure 10.1 mirror the categories used in the annual 

report and work plan which is presented to 

Congress on a Servicewide basis. The network 

has elected to phase in monitoring of Vital Signs, 

as discussed in chapters 3 and 9, by staggering 

protocol development and implementation over 

multiple years. The budgets presented in figure 

10.1 represent the aggregate of this phased-in 

approach to Vital Signs monitoring.

Personnel costs are 42% of total expenses 

beginning in FY 2007 and increase to 49% by 

2011. These cost increases are due to estimated 

annual pay and step increases (3.5% per year). 

These personnel expenditures include permanent staff (network coordinator, data manager, 

aquatic ecologist, terrestrial ecologist, ecologist, 

GIS specialist, administrative technician, and 

park staff assistance) as well as term, seasonal 

and temporary staff (database programmer, 

quantitative ecologist, aquatic biological technician, and terrestrial biological technician) 

which are funded by the PACN. Cost-sharing 

and partnership opportunities will be pursued 

as appropriate, such as joint funding of the 

aquatic biological technician with the coral reef 

program. The network assumes a conservative 

approach to permanent staffing through working with the Cooperative Ecosystems Studies 

Unit. The CESU can provide skilled cooperators 

who augment I&M and existing resource staff 

in parks by providing expertise in planning for 

ecological monitoring, science communications, 

Chapter 10. Budget

Figure 10.1.

Comparison of the 

projected Pacific Island 

Network Vital Sign 

Monitoring program 

budgets in FY 2007 

and FY 2011. Fiscal Year 2007 Fiscal Year 2011

Cooperative Agreements:

Vital Signs - 14.5%

Cooperative Agreements:

Program Support - 23.3%

Personnel: temporary

13.9%

Personnel: permanent

28.5%

Travel

11.3%

Operations/

Equipment

8.1%

Contracts/

Other - 0.4%

Cooperative Agreements:

Vital Signs - 0%

Cooperative Agreements:

Program Support - 28.3% Personnel: temporary

16.0%

Personnel: permanent

32.6%

Operations/

Equipment

8.8%

Travel

13.8%

Contracts/

Other - 0.5%
140 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 10. Budget

Table 10.1. Proposed network expenditures for the Pacific Island Network Vital Signs 

monitoring program in the first five years of implementation.

Category 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Personnel: permanent $489,500 $506,500 $524,500 $543,000 $561,600 

Personnel: term, temporary, and 

seasonal

$240,000 $248,000 $257,000 $266,500 $275,000 

Cooperative agreements: program 

support

$401,500 $422,000 $443,000 $465,000 $488,500 

Cooperative Agreements: Vital Sign 

development

$249,100 $189,600 $128,600 $65,600 $0 

Contracts and other $6,000 $7,000 $7,500 $7,500 $8,000 

Operations and equipment $140,000 $143,000 $145,000 $148,000 $151,500 

Travel $195,000 $205,000 $215,000 $225,500 $237,000 

Total $1,721,100 $1,721,100 $1,721,100 $1,721,100 $1,721,100

GIS, databases, and field monitoring, among 

other tasks. The ability to work with CESU 

cooperators gives us flexibility to increase, 

decrease, or reallocate human resources as program needs change in the early years of monitoring implementation.

Cooperative and interagency agreements are 

integral components of the PACN monitoring 

program. The PACN will obligate 38% for 2007 

and 28% of the 2011 budgets to CESU, as well 

as other agency agreements. These cooperative 

agreements are displayed in two categories: (1) 

program support reflecting science communication, data management, and Vital Sign assistance 

(chapter 8), and (2) Vital Sign protocol development of selected Vital Signs.

Program costs such as building rent and office 

supplies are included in budget allocations. We 

anticipate that operations and equipment costs 

will gradually increase from 8% in 2007 to 9% 

in 2011 due to inflation, the need for expanded 

office space, and monitoring equipment 

replacement. Operations and equipment costs 

in the Pacific islands can be expensive due to 

environmental issues (e.g., cyclones, corrosion) 

and logistical considerations (e.g., increased 

shipping time and costs, storage considerations, and limited transportation options on 

remote islands). Likewise, travel costs between 

islands in the PACN are substantial, particularly 

between the island groups of Hawaii, American 

Samoa, and the Mariana Islands. The network is 

dependent upon commercial air, land, and sea 

transportation between most parks and to local 

and national meetings, trainings, and other venues. However, we anticipate that, through careful management, travel costs will only gradually 

increase from 11% in 2007 to 14% in 2011.

The remaining expenditure category of “contracts and other” will comprise a small portion 

of the budget. This category primarily includes 

General Services Administration (GSA) coordinated vehicle leases and helicopter rentals. We 

anticipate that 0.4% of funds will be allocated to 

this category in 2007 and 0.5% in 2011.

As Vital Sign monitoring protocols are approved 

and implemented, associated expenses shift 

from cooperative agreements (research and 

design of protocols) to personnel and travel 

(staff time and travel to implement monitoring). 

Approximately $249,100 will be available for 

cooperative agreements associated with Vital 

Signs development in 2007, which will decrease 

to $0 in 2011 (table 10.1).
National Park Service 141

Data Management Expenditures—National 

monitoring program guidance specifies that 

approximately 1/3 of the monitoring budget 

should be devoted to data management. Data 

management related expenses include NPS 

personnel (data manager, GIS specialist, and 

database programmer), cooperative agreement 

data management assistance, related equipment 

and supplies, and travel for NPS data management personnel. Individual Vital Sign data 

management budgets, and the portion of time 

that biological technicians and CESU cooperators dedicate to data management, are anticipated to be approximately 33% in accordance 

with Vital Sign protocol standards. Additional 

data management expenses, not included in this 

summary, will include analysis, reporting, and 

communications. The approximate data management expenditure proportions for FY 2007 

($565,500 out of the $1,721,100 total budget, or 

33%) will continue through subsequent fiscal 

years.

Summary

The PACN annually receives $1,721,100 for 

Vital Sign and water quality monitoring. In 

the initial implementation phase of the I&M 

program, we will allocate approximately 28% of 

these funds for permanent personnel. Approximately 52% of the total funds will be obligated 

in cooperative agreements and limited-term 

personnel in 2007. Over subsequent years, we 

anticipate that expenditures for cooperative 

agreements will drop, while personnel and 

travel costs rise, reflecting the shift from vital 

sign development to implemented monitoring. 

As part of our annual reporting and planning, 

financial allocations will be adjusted yearly 

after approval by the Board of Directors, with 

systematic program reviews and adjustments 

occurring at five-year intervals. These annual 

and five-year reviews will evaluate costs of Vital 

Sign monitoring, partnerships, and personnel in order to enhance long-term monitoring 

effectiveness. In addition, the PACN will pursue 

future partnership and leveraging opportunities 

to increase effectiveness and long-term alliances 

for monitoring in our national parks (figure 

10.2).

Figure 10.2.

A portion of the 

proposed alignment 

of the Ala Kahakai 

National Historic Trail. 

The trail requires 

extensive partnerships 

for monitoring 

success.
142 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Chapter 10. Budget
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National Park Service 151

A

Adaptive management is a systematic process for continually improving management 

policies and practices by learning from the 

outcomes of operational programs. Its most 

effective form employs management programs 

that are designed to experimentally compare 

selected policies or practices by implementing management actions explicitly designed 

to generate information useful for evaluating 

alternative hypotheses about the system being 

managed.

Aeolian: An ecological zone characterized 

by little or no photosynthetic productivity and 

having a food web supported by windblown 

organic matter. This zone occurs only on the 

islands of Hawaii and Maui in the PACN.

Ahupuaa: Traditional system of land division 

in the Hawaiian Islands, typically consisting of 

a watershed from mountaintop to nearshore 

marine habitat.

Amphidromy: Type of life history shared by 

most native Pacific island stream organisms, in 

which species migrate between fresh and salt 

water at two points in their life cycle: from fresh 

to salt as embryos and from salt to fresh as juveniles (Fitzsimons et al. 2002).

Anchialine: Anchialine pools or ponds are 

brackish land-locked bodies of water with 

underground connections to the ocean. Their 

salinity and volume varies in a delayed manner 

with the tides.

Area (sampling) frame: A sampling technique where the population or area to be surveyed is subdivided into geographic areas. 

(Ecological) Attributes are any feature or 

process of the environment that can be measured or estimated and that may provide insight 

into the state of the ecosystem. Attributes are 

selected to represent the overall health of the 

system, known or hypothesized effects of stressors, or elements that have important human 

values. Examples include: diversity of native 

species, presence of alien species, and sediment 

in the water column. In PACN models, they are 

represented by an octagon.

B

Belt transect: A sampling technique that 

involves taking measurements along a long, 

two-dimensional sample area that has a length 

much greater than width. This is similar to the 

line transect method but gives information on 

abundance as well as presence or absence of the 

target. For example, a typical vegetation belt 

transect might involve recording all plants that 

occur in a sampling area 10 m wide and 500 m 

long, at 100 m intervals, forming consecutive 

quadrats.

Benthic: Pertaining to the bottom of a body 

of water, in the bottom sediments, or bottomdwelling organisms.

Bog: A type of wetland that accumulates 

acidic peat, a deposit of dead plant material. In 

the PACN region, bogs can occur in both lower 

and upper elevation ecosystems and are most 

often dominated by herbaceous plant species.

Brackish: Having a combination of fresh and 

sea water, as occurs naturally in estuaries and 

anchialine pools.

C

Chamorro: The native Pacific island people of 

Guam.

Cloud forest: A generally wet, tropical, or 

subtropical montane forest characterized by a 

profusion of epiphytes and the regular emersion 

of the canopy in low-level clouds.

Glossary
152 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Glossary

Coastal strand: Beach and very shallow 

coastal area dominated by shoreline processes, 

particularly wave processes.

Co-location: Refers to sampling the same 

physical units for multiple Vital Signs, which can 

result in simplified logistics, decreased travel 

costs, and decreased time spent in the field. 

Composition is defined as the identity and 

variety of elements within an ecosystem, including species present and their population structure, abundance, and genetic diversity (Noss 

1990).

Cover (of plants, land, or substrate): Refers 

to the percentage of ground covered by living or 

organic material (e.g., plants).

Co-visitation: Refers to sampling the same 

units for multiple Vital Signs on the same occasion, thus reducing travel and personnel costs.

Cultural landscape: A landscape created by 

people and their culture, which is the product of 

human interactions with nature and has cultural 

significance. Cultural landscapes include historic designated landscapes, historic vernacular 

landscapes, historic sites, and ethnographic 

landscapes. 

D

Data dictionary: A file or document that 

defines the basic organization of a database. It 

is a repository of descriptive information about 

data and includes database elements and valid 

values used to describe datasets.

Data mining: Process of extracting useful 

information or knowledge from large data stores 

or sets. For the I&M program, this involves the 

entry of information into the Servicewide databases for existing data sets (Dataset Catalog), 

literature citations (NatureBib), and species 

occurrence information (NPSpecies).

(Ecosystem) Drivers are major external forces 

of change to ecosystems, both natural and 

anthropogenic, including state factors. Examples of drivers include storm frequency and sea 

level rise, fire cycles, climate, and hydrological 

cycles. In PACN models, they are represented 

by a rectangle.

Dry forest: Vegetation community characterized in the PACN region by greater than 25% 

tree cover and prevailing rainfall of less than 

2,500 mm per year. Other factors such as topography, seasonality, and soil moisture regime 

contribute to the moisture regime within this 

forest type.

Dry grassland: Vegetation community characterized in the PACN region by greater than 

40% grass cover and prevailing rainfall of less 

than 2,500 mm per year. Other factors such 

as topography, seasonality, and soil moisture 

regime contribute to the moisture regime within 

this forest type.

Dual frame: Statistical design that incorporates more than one sampling frame. For 

example, a list frame that contains known 

information about the targeted resources and 

an area frame where the population or area to 

be surveyed is subdivided into geographic areas. 

By combining the frames, researchers can make 

inferences about the data beyond the specific 

targeted resources.

E

Ecological effects are the physical, chemical, 

biological, or functional responses of ecosystem 

components to stressors. In ecosystem conceptual models, they are also the working hypotheses of the links between environmental stressors 

and ecological attributes. Ecosystem effects are 

represented by a diamond in PACN models. 

Ecological integrity is a concept that 

expresses the degree to which the physical, 

chemical, and biological components (including composition, structure, and process) of an 

ecosystem and their relationships are present, 

functioning, and capable of self-renewal. It 

implies the presence of appropriate species, 

populations and communities, the occurrence 

of ecological processes at appropriate rates and 

scales, and environmental conditions that support these taxa and processes.

Ecosystem: A community of organisms living 

in and interacting with a physical and chemical 

environment, which may be characterized by 

energy and matter flows between the different 

elements.
National Park Service 153

Ecotone: A transitional area between two (or 

more) ecological communities, which may have 

characteristics of both as a blended habitat or its 

own distinct characteristics reflected as a sharp 

boundary line. 

Ethnographic: The qualitative description of 

specific cultures.

Exhaustive sampling: Sampling scheme that 

is a census of all sample units within the area of 

interest. 

F

Fishponds: Brackish-water ponds constructed 

by early Hawaiians in coastal areas and used for 

farming of marine and estuarine fish species. 

Though most fishponds have fallen into disuse, 

they are culturally significant and continue to 

serve as habitat for many native species.

Focal species include those species that play 

significant functional roles in the maintenance 

of ecosystem structure, function, and composition (encompassing the concepts of keystone 

species, umbrella species, and ecosystem engineers) as well as those species that do not necessarily play significant functional roles but may 

be harvested, endemic, alien, or have protected 

status.

Function refers to how ecosystem parts 

interact with each other. Ecosystem functions 

include flow of nutrients or energy between 

ecosystem components and succession of biological communities after disturbance. 

G

Generalized Random Tessellation Stratified 

(GRTS) Design: A relatively new, list-based, 

sampling design method which produces a 

spatially well-balanced random sample using 

restricted randomization algorithms (Stevens 

and Olsen 2004). 

Guild: A group of species that use ecological 

resources in similar ways or have similar foraging strategies.

H

Heiau: A Hawaiian place of worship, including temples and shrines.

Hot spot: A fixed area below the earth’s crust 

where magma rises from the mantle. As the 

crust moves over the hotspot, magma pushes 

through the mantle, creating volcanic eruptions 

that eventually form islands. The Hawaiian 

and Samoan Island chains were formed in this 

fashion.

Hurricane: see tropical cyclone.

I

Index-based sampling: Sampling scheme that 

collects information on areas or at points (index 

sites) that are hand-picked by lead investigators 

to yield adequate data on a particular vital sign. 

Indicators are a subset of monitoring attributes that are particularly information-rich in 

the sense that their values are somehow indicative of the quality, health, or integrity of the 

larger ecological system to which they belong 

(Noon 2003). They are a selected subset of the 

physical, chemical, and biological elements and 

processes of natural systems that are selected to 

represent the overall health or condition of the 

system.

Interactive controls are defined in the interactive-control ecosystem sustainability model 

as drivers that generally operate inside the 

bounds of ecosystems. They respond dynamically to each other and interact with ecosystem 

processes, but are constrained by state factors 

(Chapin et al. 1996). They include: disturbance 

regime, biological functional groups, soil or 

water resources and conditions, and regional 

and local climate.

(Temperature) Inversion: A characteristic 

feature of the latitudes in which the trade winds 

occur. Subsiding air in the Hadley cell warms 

as a result of compression. At the same time, air 

rising from the surface cools. At the meeting 

point of the two air masses warm air overlays 

cool air forming a temperature inversion.

K

Karst: Geologic topography characterized by 

rugged, irregular limestone erosion patterns 

with sinks, underground streams, and caverns.

Kipuka: Hawaiian term for an island of vegetation surrounded by lava.
154 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Glossary

L

Lava tubes: Natural conduits through which 

lava travels beneath the surface of a lava flow. 

The conduits cool, leaving a long, cave-like 

channel that may support unique cave-dwelling 

organisms.

Line transect: A sampling technique that 

involves taking measurements along a sample 

line lain out along the area of study. The line 

transect provides present or absence data and 

relative frequency information. For example, 

a typical line transects might involve recording the number of centimeters at the start and 

end points for all plant species and bare ground 

falling directly beneath the meter tape or the 

species or substrate directly under reference 

points at preset intervals along the tape or rope 

to determine the relative cover of each species. 

List (sampling) frame: A sampling technique 

that incorporates known information about the 

targeted resources such as known nest sites, 

specific geomorphologic features, etc. Sampling these known units can provide valuable 

information about changes in those specific 

resources over time, but it will not allow inferences to be generalized to the rare resource as a 

whole. By combining list frame with other sampling frames (e.g. area frames) in a dual frame 

design, researchers are able to make inferences 

about the data beyond the specific targeted 

resources.

List-based sampling: Sampling scheme that 

constructs a list of sample units and either 

draws a probability sample from the list or 

attempts to census all units. 

M

Matai: Traditional system of land management in the Samoan Islands.

Mauna: In Hawaiian, ‘mountain’.

(Ecological) Measures are the specific variables used to quantify the condition or state of 

an attribute (or Vital Sign). These are specified 

in definitive sampling protocols. One example 

is stream flow as an attribute, while discharge 

measurements in cubic feet per second are the 

measure. In PACN models, they are represented 

by a parallelogram.

Membership design: The way in which units 

in the population are selected to become members of a sampling panel. 

Mesic forest: Moist forest characterized in 

the PACN region by prevailing rainfall of 1,200 

to 2,500 mm per year. Other factors such as 

topography, seasonality, soil moisture regime, 

and fog drip contribute to the moisture regime 

within this forest type. 

Metadata: Data describing other data, including: when the data was created, who created it, 

how it was created, and where it is stored.

Mixohaline: Brackish; mixed fresh and salt 

waters.

Monitoring: The collection and analysis of 

repeated observations or measurements over 

a long period of time to document changes in 

status and trends in ecological parameters.

N

Nearshore marine: A coastal zone extending seaward from the shoreline to the depth of 

maximum light penetration (about 10 m). 

Nonparametric statistics: The branch of 

statistics dealing with variables without making 

assumptions about the form or the parameters 

of their distribution; normal distribution curves 

cannot be drawn. 

P

Panel: A group of sample units that are always 

sampled during the same sampling occasion or 

time period. A sample unit may be a member of 

two or more different panels.

Parametric statistics: The branch of statistics 

dealing with one or more variables, or parameters, which can be varied to elicit different 

results. It is a group of statistical procedures 

used to test data that are normally distributed.

Parent material: The primary material from 

which soil is formed, generally bedrock or sediment. 

Passerine birds: Birds of the order Passeriformes, typically called perching birds or less 

accurately, “songbirds.” They are distinguished 

by the orientation of their four grasping toes. 

Warblers, finches, and sparrows are typical passerines.
National Park Service 155

Pelagic zone: The zone located in the open 

sea, away from the sea bottom.

Population: In sampling terminology, the total 

collection of units from which a sample will be 

drawn.

Probability sample: A sample chosen using 

some type of random draw. 

R

Responses: Measurements taken on sample 

units.

Restricted randomization algorithm: An 

algorithm used to produce a sample that is well 

balanced, yet randomly selected. 

Revisit design: The temporal sampling schedule that specifies the pattern of visits through 

time to all panels.

Rotating panel design: Monitoring design 

that entails repeat sampling of sites or units 

each year over a set cycle period, after which 

the cycle is repeated. Rotating panel designs 

may allow for visiting a subset of sites every 

year, revisiting some sites on longer cycles, and 

incorporating new sites each year along with the 

revisit schedule. 

Rugosity: Measure of the roughness of a 

surface. Provides an index of potential habitat 

or hiding places for marine organisms.

S

Sample: The subset of units from the population for which we collect responses.

Sample frame: The defined area of the target 

population from which one draws a sample. 

Ideally, the sample frame is identical to the 

target population.

Sample units: The smallest entities of a target population upon which measurements are 

taken. In some studies, sample units will be discrete entities such as stream segments, ponds, 

lakes, etc. In other studies, sample units will be 

standardized areas such as transects, plots, or 

pixels in an image. 

Scalar (ecological processes): A variable 

quantity that cannot be resolved into components and can only be described in terms 

of magnitude, such as time, temperature, and 

speed.

Simple random sample: Sampling method 

in which n units are selected from a population 

of size N via a random process, such that every 

sample unit has the same probability of being 

included in the sample. 

Spatial variance: Statistical measure of variation in horizontal or vertical space such as distribution, distance, direction, or area occupied 

by individuals/populations.

Stand structure: The number of individuals 

in different size classes within a stand which can 

be described by species, vertical or horizontal 

spatial patterns, size or age of individuals, or a 

combination of these.

State factors as defined in the interactivecontrol ecosystem sustainability model are 

variables with independent variation which 

function as ultimate controls on ecosystem 

structure and function (Chapin et al. 1996). 

They are considered ecosystem drivers. They 

are major forces of change in ecosystems, and 

may be affected by human activity. State factors 

include: time since disturbance, potential biota, 

parent material or water supply, topography, 

and global climate.

Stratified sampling: A sampling technique 

in which the population of interest is divided 

according to a common characteristic or attribute (stratum), commonly used when the population is heterogeneous or dissimilar. Stratified 

sampling may be used to reduce cost per observation, estimate population parameters for each 

sub-population, and increase accuracy of sampling within strata. 

Subalpine shrubland: Vegetation community 

characterized in the PACN region by greater 

than 40% shrub cover which occurs between 

1,700 and 3,000 m in elevation.

Systematic sample: Sampling method in 

which one subject is typically selected at random and subsequent subjects are selected 

according to a systematic pattern.
156 Pacific Island Network Monitoring Plan: Glossary

(Environmental) Stressors are physical, 

chemical, or biological perturbations to a system that may be either foreign or natural to the 

system, but applied at an excessive or deficient 

level (Barrett et al. 1976). Stressors often move 

the ecosystem away from desired future conditions through forcing change in ecosystem 

composition, function, or structure. Examples 

include: air pollution, water pollution, water 

withdrawal, pesticide use, land-use change, and 

introduction of invasive terrestrial, marine, and 

aquatic species. Stressors act together with drivers to influence ecosystem attributes. In PACN 

models, they are represented by an oval.

Structure is the physical organization or spatial patterns of organisms and habitats (i.e., the 

arrangement of species in space). Structure can 

be seen at widely divergent spatial scales, from 

the micro-scale structure in a patch of moss 

growing on a stream boulder to the landscapescale three-dimensional profile of a coral reef 

system as measured from sandy shore to outer 

reef.

T

Transect-based sampling: Sampling scheme 

that draws a probability sample based upon a set 

of permanent transects. 

Tropical cyclone: For simplicity, we use the 

term topical cyclone in this report for the entire 

PACN region to refer to storms with sustained 

wind speeds above 63 knots/hr even though the 

terminology varies by geographic region.

Typhoon: see tropical cyclone.

V

Viewscape: An area of particular scenic, 

historic, or cultural value, generally visible from 

a fixed vantage point or series of points, which 

is deemed worthy of preservation. Also called 

viewshed.

Viewshed: See viewscape.

Vital Signs are a subset of physical, chemical, 

and biological elements and processes of park 

ecosystems that are selected to represent the 

overall health or condition of park resources, 

known or hypothesized effects of stressors, or 

elements that have important human values.

Vog: Photochemical haze from volcanic emissions, “Volcanic Smog”.

W

Wet forest: Vegetation community characterized in the PACN region by prevailing rainfall 

of more than 2,500 mm per year. Other factors 

such as topography, seasonality, soil moisture 

regime, and fog drip contribute to the moisture 

regime within this forest type. Includes rain forest and cloud forest.
The U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI) is the nation’s principal conservation agency, charged with the mission “to protect and provide access to 

our Nation’s natural and cultural heritage and honor our trust responsibilities to Indian tribes and our commitments to island communities.” More 

specifically, Interior protects America’s treasures for future generations, provides access to our nation’s natural and cultural heritage, offers recreation 

opportunities, honors its trust responsibilities to American Indians and Alaska Natives and its responsibilities to island communities, conducts scientific 

research, provides wise stewardship of energy and mineral resources, fosters sound use of land and water resources, and conserves and protects fish 

and wildlife. The work that we do affects the lives of millions of people; from the family taking a vacation in one of our national parks to the children 

studying in one of our Indian schools.

NPS D-2, September 2006
Natural Resource Program Center

1201 Oakridge Drive, Suite 150

Fort Collins, CO 80525

www.nature.nps.gov

National Park Service

U.S. Department of the Interior

Natural Resource Program Center

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