SAND 2003-0396 

February 2003 

Counterterrorism and Potential 

 Constructive Cooperation Between China 

and the United States 

Rongrong Le 

Beijing, China 

Cooperative Monitoring Center Occasional Paper/26 

Sandia is a multiprogram laboratory operated 

by Sandia Corporation, a Lockheed Martin 

Company, for the United States Department of 

Energy under contract DE-AC04-94AL85000. 
Counterterrorism and Potential Constructive Cooperation 

Between China and the United States

The Cooperative Monitoring Center (CMC) at Sandia National Laboratories assists political and technical 

experts from around the world to acquire the technology-based tools they need to assess, design, analyze, 

and implement nonproliferation, arms control, and other cooperative security measures. As part of its 

mission, the CMC sponsors research on cooperative security and the role of technology. Reports of that 

work are provided through the Occasional Papers series. Research is conducted by Sandia staff, 

international technical experts, and visiting scholars. (The CMC’s Visiting Scholars Program is 

administered by the Institute for Public Policy at the University of New Mexico.) For additional 

information on the CMC’s programs, visit the CMC home page on the World Wide Web at 

<http://www.cmc.sandia.gov> or write to: 

Cooperative Monitoring Center 

Sandia National Laboratories 

Mail Stop 1373 

Albuquerque, NM 87185-1373 

For specific information on this report contact: 

John Olsen at the above address. 

This report was prepared by Sandia National Laboratories 

Albuquerque, NM 87185 and Livermore, CA 94550 

4
Counterterrorism and Potential Constructive Cooperation 

Between China and the United States 

Counterterrorism and Potential Constructive 

Cooperation Between China and the United States 

Abstract 

Terrorism is a scourge common to the international community and its threat to world 

peace and stability is severe and imminent. This paper evaluates the campaign against terrorism

and the possible modalities of constructive cooperation between China and the United States in 

this fight. 

Technical cooperation can enhance Sino-U.S. security capabilities for dealing with the 

terrorist threat. This paper identifies specific bilateral cooperative activities that may benefit 

common interests. Focusing on protecting people, facilities, and infrastructure, Sino-U.S. cooperation may introduce protective technologies and training, including means of boosting port and 

border security, and detecting explosives or nuclear materials. Cooperation will not only 

enhance the global counterterrorism campaign, but also form a sound foundation for constructive 

and cooperative relations between the two countries. 

5
Counterterrorism and Potential Constructive Cooperation 

Between China and the United States

Acknowledgements 

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the CMC and UNM for hosting me and 

giving me the opportunity to perform interesting research. I would like to thank Dr. John Olsen 

for his guidance and many essential and valuable inputs to my studies. I would also like to thank 

Diane Ross for her hard work to edit and polish my paper, and Stephanie Sustaita and Eric 

Whitmore for their considerate help in support of my study. 

6
Counterterrorism and Potential Constructive Cooperation 

Between China and the United States 

Contents 

1. INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................13

2. DEFINITION OF TERRORISM.....................................................................................14

2.1. DEFINITION OF TERRORISM FROM A CHINESE PERSPECTIVE..................................................................14

2.2. COMMON DENOMINATORS OF TERRORISM............................................................................................14

3. BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF TERRORISM.........................................................16

3.1. BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF TERRORISM .............................................................................................16

3.2. BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF TERRORISM TARGETED AT THE UNITED STATES .......................................19

3.2.1. Quantity, Proportion, and Casualties......................................................................................20

3.2.2. Regional Distribution ..............................................................................................................21

3.2.3. Targets and Means...................................................................................................................21

3.3. BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF TERRORISM TARGETED AT CHINA............................................................22

3.3.1. Background..............................................................................................................................22

3.3.2. Terrorist and Other Illegal Activities Committed by East Turkistan Groups..........................22

4. MAIN CAUSES OF TERRORISM.................................................................................24

4.1. MAIN DOMESTIC CAUSES OF TERRORISM .............................................................................................24

4.2. MAIN INTERNATIONAL CAUSES OF TERRORISM....................................................................................24

5. TRENDS IN TERRORISM..............................................................................................26

5.1. TRENDS IN TERRORIST METHODS .........................................................................................................26

5.2. TRENDS IN TERRORIST GROUPS’ DEVELOPMENT..................................................................................26

5.3. TRENDS IN TERRORIST TARGETS...........................................................................................................27

6. COOPERATION AND CHALLENGES ........................................................................29

6.1. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION............................................................................................................29

6.1.1. Diplomatic and Political Cooperation.....................................................................................29

6.1.2. Information and Intelligence Sharing......................................................................................30

6.1.3. Legislation Cooperation ..........................................................................................................30

6.1.4. Law Enforcement Cooperation................................................................................................31

6.1.5. Cooperation in the Economic Field.........................................................................................31

6.2. CHALLENGES AND DIFFICULTIES...........................................................................................................32

6.3. POSSIBLE APPROACHES AND PRINCIPLES ..............................................................................................33

6.4. CHINESE EFFORTS IN COMBATING TERRORISM .....................................................................................34

6.4.1. Diplomatic and International Cooperation .............................................................................34

6.4.2. Law Enforcement and Security Measures................................................................................34

6.4.3. Economic Measures.................................................................................................................35

7. SINO-U.S. COOPERATION ON COUNTERTERRORISM.......................................36

7.1. TECHNICALCOOPERATION....................................................................................................................36

7.1.1. Protecting Critical Infrastructure and Key Assets...................................................................36

7.1.2. Preventing Catastrophic Threats.............................................................................................37

7.1.3. Safeguarding Transportation Security.....................................................................................39

7.1.4. Safeguarding Border Security .................................................................................................40

7.1.5. Technical Training ...................................................................................................................41

7.2. INFORMATION AND INTELLIGENCE SHARING.........................................................................................41

7
Counterterrorism and Potential Constructive Cooperation 

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7.3. COOPERATION IN THE ECONOMIC FIELD................................................................................................42

7.4. LAW ENFORCEMENT COOPERATION ......................................................................................................42

7.5. COOPERATION IN MULTILATERAL FRAMEWORKS .................................................................................42

8. CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................................43

ABOUT THE AUTHOR .............................................................................................................44

Figures 

FIGURE 1. TOTAL INTERNATIONAL TERRORIST ATTACKS, 1981 TO 2001......................................16 

FIGURE 2. TOTAL INTERNATIONAL ATTACKS AND CASUALTIES....................................................17 

FIGURE 3. TERRORIST ATTACKS AND RESULTING CASUALTIES BY REGION ..................................18 

FIGURE 4. TOTAL FACILITIES STRUCK BY INTERNATIONAL ATTACKS, 1991 TO 2001 ...................19 

FIGURE 5. TOTAL ANTI-U.S. ATTACKS WORLDWIDE VS. INTERNATIONAL ATTACKS, 

1995 TO 2001...........................................................................................................................20 

8
Counterterrorism and Potential Constructive Cooperation 

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Acronyms 

APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation 

ARF ASEAN Regional Forum

ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations 

CMC Cooperative Monitoring Center 

EU European Union 

FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation 

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization 

OAS Organization of American States 

OSCE Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe 

OTF Outdoor Test Facility 

PIN personal identification number 

RDD Radiological Dispersal Device 

SCO Shanghai Cooperative Organization 

SNL Sandia National Laboratories 

UN United Nations 

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10
Counterterrorism and Potential Constructive Cooperation 

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Counterterrorism and Potential Constructive 

Cooperation Between China and the United States 

Executive Summary

Terrorism has long been recognized as a major threat to the security of states. However,

the September 11 attacks have underscored the seriousness of this threat, and made global cooperation in combating terrorism both necessary and pressing. All countries share the 

responsibility to eradicate this menace and safeguard international peace and stability. To this 

end, we should take the same resolute position against terrorism no matter when, where, and in 

what form it occurs, or at whom it is targeted. 

The recognition of terrorism as a predominant international threat began at the end of the 

1960s. During 1968 to 2001, terrorist incidents greatly increased in the 1970s and 1980s, then 

declined in the 1990s, especially after the end of the Cold War. However, the severity of and the 

casualties from attacks have become much more serious. The United States has been and 

remains the top target of international terrorist attacks. After the end of the Cold War, anti-U.S. 

terrorist attacks have declined in number, but have resulted in increased and more serious casualties. Based on the number of attacks and resulting casualties, Asia has become the second-mostaffected region in the last six years. The prevalent methods employed by terrorists were 

bombing, armed attacks, kidnapping, hijacking, and assassination, accounting for over 80% of 

the totals. The foremost targets were business related, and the attacks targeted at non-official 

interests greatly exceeded those targeted at official interests. This trend continues. 

International terrorism, as well as other non-traditional security problems, is derived from

a combination of political, economic, ethnic, and religious conflicts, and has deep-rooted historical and cultural dimensions. Poverty, development gaps, and a variety of social injustices are 

fertile breeding grounds for its growth. 

China is also a victim of terrorism. In order to found the state of “East Turkistan,” the alQaeda-linked East Turkistan forces have plotted a series of incidents in Xinjiang, China, and 

other countries. Especially in the last decade, these terrorist activities have seriously threatened 

the security and stability of China and Central Asia. 

Thanks to the close cooperation among countries, the international counterterrorism

campaign has made positive headway over the past year. But, as the terrorist threat is transnational, and deep-rooted in diversified contradictions, this campaign will be a long, hard-fought 

confrontation. Efforts should be made to work out a comprehensive strategy based on the United 

Nations (UN) Charter to treat both the symptoms and the root causes of terrorism. At the same

time, we must avoid linking terrorism to specific countries, ethnic groups, or religions. 

China and the United States are permanent members of the UN Security Council with a 

wide range of common interests. Because both are victims of terrorism, fighting terrorism has 

become a major shared interest. In the war on terror, the Chinese and Americans have created a 

consultative mechanism to carry out effective cooperation. The designation of the East Turkistan 

11
Counterterrorism and Potential Constructive Cooperation 

Between China and the United States

Islamic Party as a terrorist group by the UN Security Council is an important achievement of 

their concerted efforts. During the third summit meeting between Chinese President Jiang Zemin 

and U.S. President George W. Bush, the two countries agreed to strengthen exchanges and 

cooperation in antiterrorism in a “two-way and mutually beneficial basis.”1

Among the varied facets of cooperation, technical cooperation could be further expanded 

and strengthened. Science and technology can support essential security measures, which would 

help prevent and minimize the damage from future terrorist attacks. The following areas identify 

potential choices for expanded cooperation. 

Protecting critical infrastructure and key assets. Operation of modern society 

depends on networks of infrastructure. Attacking one or more sections of those assets could 

cause huge damage to the country. Applying the technology of physical protection could be an 

effective means to tackle the problem. 

Preventing catastrophic threats. Threats of terrorists using explosives, chemical, 

biological, radiological, and even nuclear weapons potentially exist, and the consequences could 

be catastrophic. To deal with those threats, technologies to detect explosives and nuclear 

material and to protect certain biological materials could provide countermeasures. 

Safeguarding transportation security. Terrorists may use international transportation 

to carry out an attack on a major port or city. Thus, providing transportation security while 

promoting the efficient flow of people and goods is an important field for cooperation. Several 

measures that may be considered include inspection of international shipments, electronic seals, 

and electronic documentation exchanges. 

Safeguarding border security. China has land borders 22,800 km long and links with 

South and Central Asia where active terrorist groups are located. Protecting such long borders in 

remote areas is a difficult task. Intrusion detection and surveillance technologies can help 

increase the effectiveness of border security forces while increasing their own security. The 

Cooperative Monitoring Center has an Outdoor Test Facility to demonstrate and test bordermonitoring technologies, which might provide one basis for cooperation. 

Technical training. Training can help to raise the capability for China and the United 

States. The United States has advanced technology and rich expertise to tackle terrorism; China 

also has its strong points. Technical training workshops, legal and financial training seminars, 

police and other security force training, or joint China-U.S. training for the region could benefit 

both sides. 

Other areas of cooperation include information and intelligence sharing, cooperation in 

the economic field, law enforcement, and multilateral frameworks. These ideas are offered to 

assist Chinese and U.S. authorities in identifying useful modes of cooperation in the counterterrorism fight. Promoting cooperation in this campaign will not only benefit the global antiterrorism efforts, but also encourage a healthy growth of a constructive relationship between the 

two countries. 

 1

 See “President Jiang Zemin Met with U.S. President Bush,” October 26, 2002, http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/

36544.html. 

12
Counterterrorism and Potential Constructive Cooperation 

Between China and the United States 

Counterterrorism and Potential Constructive 

Cooperation Between China and the United States 

1. Introduction 

With its complex transnational characteristics, international terrorism is derived from a 

combination of political, economic, ethnic, and religious conflicts, and has deep-rooted historical 

and cultural dimensions. Therefore, efforts to combat terrorism call for the United Nations (UN) 

to play the primary role in the campaign, must comply with the purposes and principles of the 

UN Charter and other recognized norms of international laws, and need to address its symptoms

and root causes with every means available, including political, economic, diplomatic, military, 

legal, scientific, and technological measures. In short, countries should seek common security 

through cooperation for mutual benefits. 

As two influential countries and permanent members of the UN Security Council, China 

and the United States shoulder common responsibility for world peace and stability, and share a 

wide range of common interests, including counterterrorism. China and the United States have 

cooperated against terrorism under a mechanism established by their Presidents in October 2001 

at the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Summit in Shanghai. 

This paper offers ideas to assist Chinese and U.S. authorities in identifying useful ways to 

cooperate in the counterterrorism fight, including technical cooperation in protecting critical 

infrastructure and key assets, safeguarding transportation and border security, information and 

intelligence sharing on terrorists’ movements and plans, and cooperation in the law enforcement 

and economic fields. 

13
Counterterrorism and Potential Constructive Cooperation 

Between China and the United States

2. Definition of Terrorism 

2.1. Definition of Terrorism from a Chinese Perspective 

No single definition of terrorism has been universally accepted. For the purposes of this 

paper, however, the author has chosen the definition of terrorism contained in The Shanghai 

Convention on Combating Terrorism, Separatism and Extremism concluded by members of the 

Shanghai Cooperative Organization (SCO) on June 15, 2001. That convention contains the 

following definition. 

The term “terrorism” means: 

• Any acts designated and defined as criminal offenses by one of the international 

conventions annexed to The Shanghai Convention on Combating Terrorism, 

Separatism and Extremism; 

• Any other acts resulting in death or serious bodily injury to civilians or those who did 

not actively participate in military activities; in substantial material damage of the 

targeted property; and of organizing, plotting, conspiring, and instigating the abovementioned activities. This includes those acts intended to terrify residents, sabotage 

public security, or compel authorities or international organizations to do or abstain 

from doing any act. Perpetrators must be prosecuted for their criminal responsibility 

in accordance with the domestic law of the member states.2

The Shanghai Convention states that terrorism, separatism, and extremism defined by the 

convention are under no circumstances justifiable, and that whoever commits terrorist acts would 

be punished by penalties consistent with their grave nature. The above definition would not 

hinder any international treaties or the domestic law of member states to include any other 

definitions with wider scope.3

2.2. Common Denominators of Terrorism 

The definition of terrorism has been an important topic for countries, academic institutes, 

and scholars. Based on the existing diversified definitions and research regarding this issue, we 

may find at least some characteristics of terrorism in common: 

1. Creating terror. Through violence or the threat of violence or other destructive 

activities, the perpetrators seek to create an atmosphere of terror in order to produce 

psychological pressure on people and society. Its true goals in most cases are broader 

than the chosen targets, aimed at influencing people, society’s reaction, and the state’s 

policy.

2. Conducting violence or destruction or threatening to do so. From the traditional 

meanings, violence is an inherent feature of terrorism, and must be punished by the 

 2 The Shanghai Convention on Combating Terrorism, Separatism and Extremism, June 15, 2001. 3 Ibid. 

14
Counterterrorism and Potential Constructive Cooperation 

Between China and the United States 

international law or domestic law of states. However, more countries and scholars 

now believe that the threat of violence is also a terrorist act. In addition, non-violent 

destructive acts that cause economic catastrophe, such as attacks on cyber systems, 

are commonly defined now as a kind of terrorist act. 

3. Having political or social goals. Terrorists perform violent or destructive acts to 

compel the government or society to change in order to reach their own goals. In 

recent years, terrorism has shifted from primarily political motivations to religious, 

sociological, or ideological motivations. 

4. Gaining publicity and disseminating propaganda in order to maximize terror and 

expand influence. The effect of terror depends upon the degree that people become

angry and terrified, but that also depends on how widely they attract social attention. 

Terrorism is usually aimed at a wider audience than its immediate victims. Terrorists 

inherently need propaganda, since “without propaganda, terrorism is like a gun 

without gunshot.”4

 The more propaganda is spread by the media through reporting 

on terrorist acts, the more powerful terrorism appears. 

5. Violating the law or committing criminal offenses. The criminal nature of

terrorism has been emphasized, because the use or threat of violence and destruction 

jeopardizes society, and violates international and domestic law. Since terrorism is 

often motivated by political considerations, terrorists claim they are political 

dissidents and seek political sanctuary to avoid punishment by the law. In order to 

combat terrorism effectively, most countries have stated that the principle of nonextradition of political refugees does not apply to terrorist crime. 

 4

 Stephen Segallar, Invisible Armies: Terrorism into the 1990s, London: Michael Joseph Ltd, 1986, p. 11. 

15
Counterterrorism and Potential Constructive Cooperation 

Between China and the United States

3. Basic Characteristics of Terrorism 

3.1. Basic Characteristics of Terrorism 

The recognition of terrorism as a predominant international hazard began at the end of 

the 1960s. From 1968 to 2001, terrorist incidents greatly increased through the 1980s, then 

declined in the 1990s, especially after the end of the Cold War. However, the severity of and the 

casualties from attacks have become much more serious. Based on the number of attacks and 

resulting casualties, Asia has become the second-most-affected region in the last six years. The 

prevalent means used by terrorists were bombing, armed attacks, kidnapping, hijacking, and 

assassination, accounting for over 80% of the totals. Among them, the predominant method of 

attack was by bombing. The foremost targets were business related, and the attacks targeted at 

non-official interests greatly exceeded those targeted at official interests. 

1. Quantity of terrorist attacks. During 1968 to 2001, the number of international 

terrorist acts ranged from 142 to 666 events a year.

5

 During the last 30 years, the 

peak of international terrorist incidents was 1987, with 666 attacks worldwide. The 

lowest point was 1998, with just 274 attacks recorded.6

 See Figure 1.7

Total International Attacks 1981-2001

489487

498

565

635

612

666

605

375

437

565

363

431

322

440

296

304

274

395

426

348

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

1981 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 2000 2001

Total Number of Occurrences

Figure 1. Total International Terrorist Attacks, 1981 to 2001 

 5 Quoted in Lianhe Hu, Modern World-Terrorism and Countermeasures, Beijing: Oriental Publishing House, 

2001, p. 88, and U.S. Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2001. 6 See U.S. Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2001, http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/pgtrpt/2001/pdf/. 7

 See U.S. Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2001, http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/pgtrpt/2001/pdf/. 

16
Counterterrorism and Potential Constructive Cooperation 

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From 1968 to 1979, international terrorism had the fastest expansion, with 5,954 

attacks around the world.8

 In the 1980s, international terrorism continued with 5,429 

terrorist incidents recorded worldwide. In the 1990s, the number of international 

terrorist incidents dropped to 3,827,9

 which coincided with the end of the Cold War. 

2. Casualties. Although the number of international terrorist incidents has fallen 

greatly in the last decade, the resulting casualties have increased. This is more 

pronounced after the end of the Cold War. From 1992 to 2001, 27,537 casualties 

were recorded globally, for an annual average of 2,754.10 See Figure 2.11 This is an 

increase of 86% from the annual average of 1,483, recorded immediately before the 

end of the Cold War and up 146% from the annual average of 1,119 casualties 

recorded during 1968 to 1991.12 Most of those casualties were caused by a small 

number of major acts. Islamic fundamentalists’ attacks resulted especially in heavier 

tolls. From 1991 to 2001, Asia was the most affected region with 10,745 casualties.13 

Total International Attacks and Casualties

1991 - 2001

565

317

363

431

322

440

296

304

274

395

426

348

729729

988

914939

6,454

3,225

6,694

4,887

1,205

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

1991 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 2000 2001

Total International Attacks Total International Casualties of Attacks

Figure 2. Total International Attacks and Casualties 

 8 Quoted in Lianhe Hu, Modern World-Terrorism and Countermeasures, Beijing: Oriental Publishing House, 

2001, p. 88. 9 See U.S. Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1996 and 2001, http://www.state.gov/www/images/

chart70.gif, http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/pgtrpt/2001/pdf/. 10 Analyses based on the figures come from U.S. Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1996 and 

2001, http://www.state.gov/www/images/chart73.gif, http://www.state. gov/s/ct/rls/pgtrpt/2001/pdf/. 11 See U.S. Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1996 and 2001, 

http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/pgtrpt/2001/pdf/. 12 Quoted in Lianhe Hu, Modern World-Terrorism and Countermeasures, Beijing: Oriental Publishing House, 

2001, p. 122. 13 Analyses based on the figures come from U.S. Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1996 and 

2001, http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/pgtrpt/2001/pdf/, http://www.state.gov/ www/images/chart73.gif. 

17
Counterterrorism and Potential Constructive Cooperation 

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3. Distribution. From 1991 to 2001, there were 4,164 international terrorist attacks in 

the world. Latin America was the most affected region with 1,450 attacks, accounting 

for 35% of the totals, followed by Western Europe, 1,210 attacks; Middle East, 606 

attacks; Asia, 457 attacks; Africa, 238 attacks; Eurasia, 179 attacks, and North 

America, 24 attacks.14 In contrast, from 1968 to 1990, the order of affected regions 

was Western Europe, Middle East, Latin America, Asia, North America, Africa, and 

Eurasia.15 See Figure 3.16

Total International Attacks and Casualties

1991 - 2001

358

1,616

1,131

3,415

4,561

238

457

179

606

24

6,025

10,745

1,210

1,450

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

Africa Asia Eurasia West

Europe

Latin

America

Middle

East

North

America

Total International Casualties from Attacks Total International Attacks

Figure 3. Terrorist Attacks and Resulting Casualties by Region 

4. Methods. From 1968 to 2001, the prevalent methods used by terrorists were 

bombing, armed attacks, kidnapping, hijacking, and assassination, accounting for 

over 80% of the total terrorist attacks recorded in the world. Bombing was the 

predominant type of attack. 

5. Targets. International terrorist acts focused on the general public. Any person or 

facility could be a target, as the trend continued toward more ruthless attacks on mass 

civilian targets. During the last three decades, non-official interests were always the 

top targets of terrorist attacks. By single category, diplomats were the primary targets 

of attacks in the 1970s. The attacks aimed at business interests have greatly increased 

in the last two decades, making it the number one target in the last 10 years, with 

3,263 attacks.17 See Figure 4.18 

 14 Source: U.S. Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1996 and 2001, 

http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/pgtrpt/2001/pdf/, http://www.state.gov/www/images/chart71.gif. 15 Quoted in Lianhe Hu, Modern World-Terrorism and Countermeasures, Beijing: Oriental Publishing House, 

2001, p. 98. 16 See U.S. Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1996 and 2001. 17 Source: U.S. Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1996 and 2001, 

http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/pgtrpt/2001/pdf/, http://www.state.gov/www/images/chart72.gif. 

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Counterterrorism and Potential Constructive Cooperation 

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Total Facilities Struck by International Attacks

1991 - 2001

3,263

463

196

105

1,159

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

Business Diplomat Government Military Other

civilians Total Facilities

Figure 4. Total Facilities Struck by International Attacks, 1991 to 2001 

6. Terrorist groups and terrorists. There are many types of terrorist groups, but four 

basic types predominate: ethnic separatist, fanatic religious, extreme rightist, and 

extreme leftist. Among them, ethnic separatist terrorism is one of the most prevalent 

and active types. Although there are fewer fanatic religious groups, they are 

responsible for higher numbers of casualties, and continue to dominate international 

terrorism. Terrorism by extreme rightists, mainly centered in the developed countries, 

Western European countries, and the United States, has been fast spreading after the 

end of the Cold War.

19 Meanwhile the extreme leftist groups have been on decline.20

3.2. Basic Characteristics of Terrorism Targeted at the United States 

The United States is the top target of international terrorist attacks. In the 30 years from

1968 to 1997, there were 5,655 international terrorist attacks targeted at U.S. interests, accounting for about 37% of the total international terrorist incidents.21 From 1998 to 2001, this proportion rose from 40% in 1998 to 66% in 2001 with 708 anti-U.S. attacks among 1,442 globally.

22 

The main features of anti-American attacks are described in the following sections. 

 18 Ibid. 19 Extreme right groups have been concentrated in Western Europe, the United States, and other developed 

countries. At the end of the 1980s, the extreme right began to spread in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union as 

a result of the changes there. Attacks by the extreme right were directed mainly at leftist parties and

organizations, Jewish people, people of color, foreign immigrants, political figures, government facilities, and 

the public. For example, in 1995, Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was killed by an Israeli extreme rightist. 20 Leftist groups have been active in some Western European countries and Latin America. They seek to change 

the current social political process through dangerous terrorist activities. Some of these organizations include 

the Red Army Party of Germany, the Red Brigade of Italy, Direct Action of France, and the Red Army of Japan. 21 Analyses based on the figures in Lianhe Hu, Modern World-Terrorism and Countermeasures, Beijing: Oriental 

Publishing House, 2001, p. 124. 22 See U.S. Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1998-2001, http://www.state.gov/. 

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Counterterrorism and Potential Constructive Cooperation 

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3.2.1. Quantity, Proportion, and Casualties 

During 1968 to 2001, U.S. interests were the top targets of international terrorist attacks. 

The number of annual anti-U.S. terrorist acts worldwide fluctuated from 68 to 396, accounting 

for 18% to 75% of the world’s totals. After the end of the Cold War, the incidents involving U.S. 

interests have declined in quantity, but the casualties of those attacks increased sharply, and its 

proportion of the world’s totals remains high. 

1. From 1968 to 1979, there were 2,671 anti-U.S. terrorist attacks, which accounted for 

about 35% to 75% of the world’s annual total. In the 1970s, dozens of U.S. citizens 

died in those attacks. Based on simply the number of attacks, 1978 was the peak with 

396 anti-U.S. attacks. With regard to the proportion of world totals, 1971 was the 

peak (about 75%). Dozens of U.S. citizens died in those attacks. 

2. In the 1980s, 1,802 terrorist attacks targeted U.S. interests, 869 less than the period 

from 1968 to 1979. Its proportion in the world’s annual totals dropped slightly, 

accounting for 18% to 44% over this period. Based on percentages, 1987 was the 

lowest point in the decade (about 18%). However, the resulting casualties increased 

to 1,146.23

3. In the 1990s, there were 1,462 anti-U.S. terrorist acts, continually falling from the 

previous decade; its proportion accounted annually for 20% to 56% of the world’s 

totals. Based on quantity, 1991 was the peak of this decade with 315 attacks, and 

1994 was the lowest year with 68 incidents. The casualties of those attacks have 

continually increased to 1,714 during 1991 to 1999. See Figure 5.24

Total Anti-US Attacks Worldwide vs. International

Terrorist Attacks 1995-2001 

163

73

123

111

169

200

228

440

296

304

274

395

426

348

0

100

200

300

400

500

1995 96 97 98 99 2000 2001

Total Anti-US Attacks Worldw ide Total International Attacks

Figure 5. Total Anti-U.S. Attacks Worldwide vs. International Attacks, 1995 to 2001 

 23 Analyses based on the figures in Lianhe Hu, Modern World-Terrorism and Countermeasures, Beijing: Oriental 

Publishing House, 2001, pp. 128, 130. 24 Source: U.S. Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1996-2001, Significant Incidents of Political 

Violence Against Americans, 1995. 

20
Counterterrorism and Potential Constructive Cooperation 

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3.2.2. Regional Distribution 

With the spread of international terrorism, U.S. facilities and citizens throughout the 

world are possible targets. In the last three decades, most anti-U.S. attacks occurred in Latin 

America. The basic features of attacks occurred by regions as follows: 

1. In the 1970s, anti-U.S. terrorist attacks occurred mainly in Latin America, accounting 

for about 28% of totals recorded, followed by Middle East, 26%, and Western 

Europe, 22%. Other regions (especially Asia) accounted for 24%. Anti-U.S. attacks 

were very few in the Soviet Union and East Europe. 

2. In the 1980s, anti-U.S. terrorist incidents also occurred mainly in Latin America, 

accounting for about 44% of the world totals. Western Europe followed with 34%; 

Middle East, 8%; and the other regions (especially Asia and Africa) accounted for 

14%. 

3. In the 1990s, anti-U.S. terrorist acts occurred mainly in Latin America, accounting for 

66% in the world’s totals; Western Europe, 17%; Middle East, 7%; and other regions 

(especially Asia), 10%. With the end of the Cold War, anti-U.S. attacks increased in 

the Former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe.25 

3.2.3. Targets and Means 

During the last three decades, U.S. non-official interests have been the most frequent 

victims of international terrorist anti-U.S. attacks. The attacks aimed at U.S. official interests 

were highlighted in the 1970s, but gradually reduced in the last two decades, especially in the 

last 10 years. Business-related interests were always the first targets. Those attacks greatly 

increased in the last decade, accounting for almost two thirds of the total anti-U.S. attacks in the 

last few years. The most-used means in those incidents were bombing, kidnapping, armed 

attacks, and hijacking. 

The analysis per decade is as follows: 

1. In the 1970s, terrorist attacks targeted American officials, accounting for 55% of the 

totals, including diplomatic, about 27%; military, 16%; and government, 12%. By 

single category, the foremost target of terrorists was business related, accounting for 

32% of the total. 

2. In the 1980s, the attacks aimed at American diplomatic targets had fallen from the 

previous decade. Those targeted on civilians increased visibly. The attacks directed 

at the non-official interests (54%) exceeded those directed at the official targets 

(47%). Business-related attacks still headed the list, accounting for 33% of the total. 

The other targets were diplomats, about 21%; other civilians, about 21%; military, 

about 16%; and government, about 10%. 

 25 Analyses based on the figures in Lianhe Hu, Modern World-Terrorism and Countermeasures, Beijing: Oriental 

Publishing House, 2001, p. 131; and U.S. Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1996-2001, 

http://www.state.gov/. 

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3. In the 1990s, the attacks directed at U.S. official interests declined, accounting only 

for 22% of the totals, but the attacks directed at business and other civilian targets 

continued to rise, accounting for 78% of the totals. Among them, the business-related 

attacks were very prominent, accounting for 89% of the totals in 2001.26

3.3. Basic Characteristics of Terrorism Targeted at China 

China is also a victim of terrorism. Over a long period (especially since the 1990s), East 

Turkistan forces inside and outside China have planned and organized a series of violent 

incidents in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China, and some other countries, in 

order to found a state of East Turkistan. These terrorist incidents have seriously jeopardized the 

lives and property of people of all ethnic groups as well as social stability in China. They also 

threatened the security and stability of related countries and regions. 

3.3.1. Background 

After the establishment of a frontier command headquarters in the Western Region by the 

Han Dynasty in 60 B.C., Xinjiang became a part of Chinese territory. From that time on, the 

central government has never ceased jurisdiction over Xinjiang. However, at the beginning of 

the 20th century, a handful of Xinjiang separatists and religious extremists created the concept of

“East Turkistan.” They claimed that “East Turkistan had been an independent state since ancient 

times,” and incited all ethnic groups speaking the Turkic language and believing in Islam to unite 

to form a state featuring the “integration of religion and politics.” They also called for “opposition to all ethnic groups other than the Turks,” and for the elimination of “infidels.” East 

Turkistan terrorist forces have instigated riots with the aim to split China and establish an Islamic 

State of East Turkistan under temporal and religious administration in Xinjiang, China.27

3.3.2. Terrorist and Other Illegal Activities Committed by East Turkistan Groups 

In the 1990s, East Turkistan adherents openly declared that terrorist violence was the 

only way to achieve their aims and conducted a series of violent acts in Xinjiang. Incomplete 

statistics show that from 1990 to 2001, the East Turkistan terrorist forces used explosions, 

assassinations, poison, arson, kidnappings, assaults, and other means of attack, creating over 200 

terrorist incidents in Xinjiang. The attacks resulted in the deaths of 166 people of all ethnic 

groups, injuries to more than 440 people, and serious economic losses.28 Among those attacks, 

business and other civilian targets accounted for 67% for the total. 

In addition, East Turkistan terrorists have secretly set up dozens of training bases in 

Xinjiang to teach terrorist skills and theories of religious extremism and terrorism. Some of 

those bases provide workshops for making weapons, ammunition, and explosive devices. They 

have smuggled arms and ammunition into China. The Xinjiang police uncovered and confis-

 26 Analyses based on the figures in Lianhe Hu, Modern World-Terrorism and Countermeasures, Beijing: Oriental 

Publishing House, 2001, p. 134. U.S. Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1996-2001, 

http://www.state.gov/. 27 Quoted in Information Office of the State Council, “‘East Turkistan’ Terrorist Forces Cannot Get Away with

Impunity,” January 21, 2002, p. 3. 28 Quoted in Information Office of the State Council, “‘East Turkistan’ Terrorist Forces Cannot Get Away with

Impunity,” January 21, 2002, p. 4. 

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cated large numbers of antitank grenades, hand grenades, detonators, guns, ammunition, and 

tools for making explosive devices. 

East Turkistan terrorist groups, especially the East Turkistan Islamic Party, have been 

closely connected with Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda networks. Al-Qaeda and the Taliban 

helped train personnel, provided capital, and assisted those terrorists in violent attacks in 

Xinjiang and Central Asia.29 

 29 Quoted in Information Office of the State Council, “‘East Turkistan’ Terrorist Forces Cannot Get Away with

Impunity,” January 21, 2002, pp. 5-14. 

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4. Main Causes of Terrorism 

International terrorism, as with other non-traditional security problems, usually has a 

very complicated background, as it is derived from a combination of political, economic, ethnic, 

and religious divergences, and with deep-rooted historical and cultural dimensions. Poverty, 

development gaps, and a variety of social injustices also provide fertile breeding grounds for 

terrorism. 

4.1. Main Domestic Causes of Terrorism 

The main domestic causes of terrorism include political, economic, ethnic, religious, and 

cultural divergences. The manifestation of those issues depends on each country’s situation. 

1. As a complicated political and social problem, terrorism is often derived from

economic imbalances among regions within a country and between related countries. 

Poverty, unemployment, and huge gaps between the poor and the rich are important 

sources of terrorism and fuel it. Less-developed regional economies or unbalanced 

economic development cause an increasing gap among the people of these regions, 

stimulating resentment. As a consequence, the people who feel mistreated try to 

reverse this situation, and, by any means, try to regain what they think belongs to 

them. 

2. Intensified ethnic and religious conflicts are also an important cause of the birth and 

growth of terrorism. Reasons such as the implementation of unreasonable ethnic and 

religious policies, unfair treatment, and other grievances are usually mixed with deeprooted historical and cultural factors. 

3. Political autocracy, political corruption, and loss of political legitimacy also directly 

or indirectly encourage the birth and growth of terrorism. 

4.2. Main International Causes of Terrorism 

International conflicts and contradictions are not only important external causes of terrorism’s birth and growth inside of a country or region, but are also the breeding ground of 

international terrorism, as follows: 

1. Conflict between Arab countries and Israel. The intensified Arab-Israeli conflict 

from the end of the 1960s is one essential factor causing international terrorism. That 

has not only resulted in the spreading of international terrorist activities in the Middle 

East region, but also is a major cause of international terrorist attacks targeting Israel, 

the United States, and some other Western countries, due to their pro-Israel policies. 

2. Contradictions between the United States and Muslim countries. These are 

closely connected with the United States’ Middle East policy, and especially related 

to its pro-Israel policy. Most states designated by the United States as “sponsors of 

terrorism” are Muslim countries (Iran, Iraq, Libya, Syria, and Sudan). As this 

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contradiction intensified, terror acts have risen accordingly, thus forming a vicious 

circle. 

3. Contradictions between East and West. These were especially acute during the 

Cold War between socialist and capitalist countries, and were caused by the Western 

countries’ policies of containing the development of socialist movements. This 

contradiction was greatly reduced with the end of the Cold War, but still exists. The 

double standard on ethnic separatism usually taken by Western countries reflects a 

partially continued contradiction. However, the United States has designated the East 

Turkistan Islamic Party as a terrorist group, showing its increased recognition of 

China’s concern with terrorism. 

4. Contradictions between South and North. The widening economic gap between 

the South and North aggravates the problem, and, as the axiom states, “as the rich get 

richer, the poor get poorer.” This hinders healthy and sustainable economic development and encourages social unrest and the growth of terrorism. 

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5. Trends in Terrorism 

Although the incidence of international terrorism has dropped sharply in the last decade, 

the overall threat becomes more serious with the continued increase in casualties. All the basic 

factors from which terrorism is derived still exist, and will not be eliminated in a short time. 

Moreover, advanced technology also could be used in terrorist activities. Thus, we have to tailor 

our policies to combat the shifting trends of terrorism. 

5.1. Trends in Terrorist Methods 

Besides the traditional methods previously discussed, terrorists could also take advantage 

of globalization and modern technology to improve their capability in order to create greater 

terror. However, because of their limitations in funding, knowledge, and availability of means, 

and growing pressure and restraint from the international community, simple and easy-to-use 

methods still could be their best choice. 

1. Bombings and explosions could remain the main choice for terrorists because 

explosives are easy to use, easy to handle, and easily available. Technological 

improvements would also follow. Kidnapping, hijacking, assassination, and armed 

attacks would also remain their basic means. As an easy way to raise funds at low 

cost, kidnapping tends to increase. Historically, hijacking airplanes has created a big 

sensation, but with the development of anti-hijacking techniques, enhanced security 

measures, and increased international pressure, hijacking may decrease. 

2. Cyber terror could become a new method of attack. Political, economic, military, and 

social activities increasingly rely on cyber technology. Thus, cyber attacks could lead 

to big disruptions and economic losses. Moreover, the preventive measures in many 

systems are relatively weak. According to cyber experts, up to 75% to 85% of web 

sites, even those in the United States with relatively strong security techniques, still 

could not resist all hackers’ attacks. 

3. Biological, chemical, and radiological weapons are highly possible choices for terror 

attacks. With the expertise, technology, and material needed to build such weapons 

inexorably spreading, the threat of terrorist use is increasing. 

4. The possibility of using a nuclear weapon or nuclear materials for terror still exists. 

Since the end of Cold War, the smuggling of nuclear materials has escalated. It is 

possible for terrorists to engage in nuclear material smuggling or even try to obtain 

nuclear weapons. 

5.2. Trends in Terrorist Groups’ Development 

After the end of the Cold War, international relations experienced huge changes and new 

conflicts have intertwined with traditional ones. Accordingly, some trends have emerged on 

terrorist groups, their organizational structures, scope of activities, and motivations. 

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1. Terrorist groups are diverse. Fanatical religious and extreme rightist terrorism

continue to dominate. Besides Islamic fundamentalist groups, new religious terrorist 

groups may appear, including some cults. Separatist terrorism will remain active and 

menacing, particularly in the multiethnic states. The danger of extreme rightist 

terrorism remains and could be even more serious in Western countries. Extreme 

leftist terrorism has been declining, but still exists, for example, in Nepal. With the 

increasing pressure from the international community, one positive result is a decline 

in state-sponsored terrorism. 

2. The organization of terrorist groups follows two main models. Technical advances, 

the availability of cell phones, the Internet, and globalization have provided new 

methods for terrorists to form well-organized international networks, which enable 

more liaisons among them and facilitates conspiracy and clandestine financing. At 

the same time, some groups have shifted to close-knit, smaller units resulting from

increased pressure and scrutiny from the international community. Both models make 

the apprehension of the perpetrators more difficult. 

3. With the decrease of state funding, terrorists are turning increasingly to other sources 

of funding, including private sponsorship, crime, illegal trade, and drug and precious 

stone (i.e., diamond) trafficking, as well as some charities. 

4. The shift in terrorism also parallels a change from primarily politically motivated 

terrorism to terrorism that is more religiously, sociologically, or ideologically 

motivated. There could yet be more small terrorist groups born for fighting against 

some specific policies. 

5. A visible trend shows a shift eastward of the locus of terrorism from the Middle East 

to South Asia, specifically Afghanistan and Central Asia. As most Middle Eastern 

countries have strengthened their counterterrorism measures, terrorists have sought 

safe haven in areas where they can operate and avoid punishment. 

5.3. Trends in Terrorist Targets 

Terrorist targets are not limited in scope: they could be anything, anybody, and anywhere. 

However, in order to maximize terror, attract wide attention to influence society’s reaction, and 

compel governments to change policies, targets are selected to meet certain conditions, as 

follows: 

1. Symbolic targets. Attacking these targets could have a lasting impact on society 

with relatively low cost and fewer people directly involved. Considering the current 

high pressure on terrorism by the international community, reducing cost and 

participants may be important factors in terrorist planning. As people quickly adapt 

to the new situation, ordinary terrorist acts may not create a satisfactory sensation; 

terrorists may tend to escalate attacks in order to capture a wider audience. The 

September 11 attacks are an extreme case. 

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2. Revenge targets. That is particularly evident in the Arab-Israeli conflicts. Terrorist 

attacks have been and will remain the main means for both sides to gain revenge on 

each other. That phenomenon has also highlighted the anti-U.S. attacks. Usually 

after the United States has intervened internationally, there have been increased antiU.S. terrorist acts occurring throughout the world. 

3. Economic targets will remain on top of the target list, because those attacks can 

cause great disruption, fear, and damage to society. Potential targets include items

within the critical infrastructure, such as nuclear facilities, cyber systems, electrical 

and water systems, transportation facilities, and other basic city infrastructures. 

4. Civilian targets. Terrorist attacks on civilian targets will increase and be more 

serious in the future. Security has been increased at official facilities, so attacking the 

public may be the easiest way to strike terror. As terrorists become more ruthless and 

attack civilians with more powerful means, the possible targets could include 

facilities where people are generally known to congregate or visit, such as shopping 

centers, restaurants, schools, or office buildings. 

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6. Cooperation and Challenges 

As discussed above, the terrorist threat is global in scope, many faceted, and deep rooted. 

The war on terror will be a long, hard-fought confrontation. Thus, defeating this threat requires 

the international community’s every available means and must elicit a multidimensional effort 

around the world. Counterterrorism cooperation across the world increased after the September 

11 attacks, including closer consultations, exchange of intelligence, and better cooperation in 

freezing the financial assets of terrorist organizations. 

6.1. International Cooperation 

Combating terrorism is a shared responsibility. Countries are more aware of the need to 

ensure common security through pooling wisdom and expanding cooperation. Many countries 

have carried out active bilateral and multilateral cooperation against terrorism. Those efforts 

have not only promoted multilateral security cooperation and mutual assistance among the 

international community, but have also accelerated positive changes in relationships among 

major powers. 

6.1.1. Diplomatic and Political Cooperation 

The campaign against terrorism is a prime example of a global coalition focused on a 

common goal, with the UN playing a leading role. The existing 12 UN conventions on 

terrorism30 strengthen international efforts by providing a legal foundation for nations to join this 

fight. The UN Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 1373,31 requiring all UN 

members to pursue terrorists and those who support them. The varied regional organizations 

actively coordinate efforts in the fight. This includes APEC, the SCO, European Union (EU), 

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Regional Forum (ARF), North Atlantic Treaty 

Organization (NATO), the Organization of American States (OAS), and Organization for 

Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), etc. The members of NATO and the Rio Pact 

invoked these treaties’ mutual defense clauses for the first time. Also, there is very energetic 

bilateral and multilateral coordination among them. All this reflects the trend toward deeper 

interdependence among countries of the international community. 

On the counterterrorism front line, the Asia-Pacific region, especially Central and South 

Asian countries, are very active in this fight. Under the concerted efforts of the international 

community, Afghanistan has changed its government and begun rebuilding. The members of 

SCO32 have signed The Shanghai Convention on Combating Terrorism, Separatism and 

Extremism and The Agreement on Regional Counter-terrorism Agency.

33 These documents 

establish a multilateral mechanism and legal foundation for anti-terror cooperation. 

 30 See “The UN Treaty Collection, Conventions on Terrorism,” http://untreaty.un.org/English/ Terrorism.asp. 31 See “The UN Action Against Terrorism, Action by the Security Council,” http://www.un.org/ terrorism/sc.htm. 32 SCO was founded by China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan on June 15, 2001. 33 See “The SCO Signed The Agreement on Regional Counter-terrorism Agency,” June 8, 2002, http://www.fmprc. 

gov.cn/chn/30856.html. 

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6.1.2. Information and Intelligence Sharing 

Sharing information and intelligence about terrorists, their movements, and their planned 

attacks is an absolute prerequisite for successful interdiction. Sharing information allows countries to expose the criminal network in which terrorists operate and to act preemptively to 

counter terrorists before they act. Strengthening cooperation in this field among countries is 

significant. 

In the wake of September 11, intelligence cooperation among countries has expanded to 

unprecedented levels and occupies a primary place in many bilateral and multilateral anti-terror 

agendas. The regional organizations, such as SCO, ASEAN, and OSCE, have all pledged to 

enhance information and intelligence exchanges in fighting terrorism. The anti-terror accord 

between ASEAN and the United States signed on August 1, 2002, is an example of this new type 

of cooperation. 

6.1.3. Legislation Cooperation 

Because of the transnational nature of terrorism, strengthening the international and 

domestic legislative infrastructure to deal with this issue is critical. Many nations have changed 

their laws, regulations, and practices in accordance with UN conventions. Currently, an 

International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism and a Comprehensive 

Convention on International Terrorism have been under negotiation in the UN. The 12 existing 

UN conventions on terrorism remove the legal obstacles to more effective international 

cooperation, and have the following features: 

1. Define the unlawful nature of terrorism. All 12 conventions designated terrorist 

acts as criminal offences, and require states to crack down on these acts within their 

jurisdiction. Current international law states that no terrorist acts are politically 

justifiable. Furthermore, those who are prosecuted for terrorism are deprived of right 

of asylum in other countries, and the principle of non-extradition of political refugees 

is not applicable to terrorist crime.34

2. Strengthen cooperation between State Parties in combating terrorism. Some conventions set up the principle of “prosecution or extradition,” stipulating that terrorist 

crime is an extraditable offense between the State Parties, and establish that the act of

funding terrorism is an offense.35

3. Expand States’ jurisdiction over terrorist acts. The conventions establish some

special jurisdiction bases for the state. For instance, “the offence is committed by a 

stateless person whose habitual residence is in the territory of that State.” “The 

offence is committed in an attempt to compel that State to do or abstain from doing 

any act”; “does not exclude the exercise of any criminal jurisdiction established by a 

 34 See “The International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism,” adopted by the General

Assembly of the UN on December 9, 1999, p. 14, http://untreaty. un.org/English/Terrorism.asp. 35 See “The International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism,” adopted by the General

Assembly of the UN on December 9, 1999, pp. 2, 7-9, http://untreaty.un.org/English/Terrorism.asp. 

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State Party in accordance with its domestic law.”

36 These conventions improve a 

state’s capability when it exercises jurisdiction over international terrorist acts. 

6.1.4. Law Enforcement Cooperation 

Because of the transnational nature of terrorism, it is imperative to establish effective 

cooperation among countries for prosecuting international terrorists. 

Bilateral and multilateral cooperation on law enforcement emphasizes freezing sources of 

funds for terrorists, stopping the flow of their weapons, and tracking their networks. Because the 

most active terrorist groups are located in the Asia-Pacific region, consultation and cooperation 

are more extensive among regional countries and organizations, such as APEC, ASEAN, ARF, 

and SCO. The SCO’s six members have signed The Shanghai Convention on Combating Terrorism, Separatism and Extremism.

37 This focuses especially on East Turkistan, Chechen 

terrorists, and the Uzbek Islamic movement. A Regional Counterterrorism Agency in Bishkek, 

Kyrgyzstan, coordinates efforts to implement this treaty. Other efforts include attempts to curb 

arms smuggling, drug trafficking, and other criminal activities in the region. 

6.1.5. Cooperation in the Economic Field 

Depriving terrorists of financial resources is critical to the war on terrorism. Thus, the 

UN Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 1373 requiring all UN members to prohibit terrorist financing, recruitment, and access to weapons and other support. Resolution 1373 

and The International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism strengthen 

countries’ capabilities to cut off the flow of funds to terrorist groups. Under this framework, 

countries and regional and international organizations have enhanced cooperation to combat 

terrorist financing in a global, systematic way. 

This effort has obtained encouraging results, as follows: 

• 210 individuals and entities have been designated by the United States and other 

countries as financiers of terrorism; 

• 161 countries and jurisdictions have taken concrete action to block terrorists’ assets; 

and 

• $116 million in terrorists’ assets have been frozen globally since September 11.

38

 36 See “The International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombing,” adopted by the General Assembly

of the UN on December 15, 1997, pp. 5-6, http://untreaty.un.org/ English/Terrorism.asp. 37 The Shanghai Convention on Combating Terrorism, Separatism and Extremism, concluded by China, 

Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan on June 15, 2001. 38 Quoted in U.S.-EU Terrorist Financial Fact Sheet, “Summary of Terrorism Financing War,” http://www.treas. 

gov/press/releases/po3070.htm. 

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6.2. Challenges and Difficulties 

Given the complicated background, transnational character, and deep-rooted historical 

and cultural dimensions of terrorism, the fight against terrorism will be a protracted and complicated task. The challenges are as follows: 

1. Lack of a universally accepted definition of terrorism. A definition of terrorism is 

important because it can pave the way for the creation of a multilateral action against 

terrorism. People with various political and cultural backgrounds may have diverse 

views on terrorism. Those who commit violent acts, which others see as terrorist 

actions, claim that they perform these acts for political and ideological purposes and 

therefore do not consider their actions as terrorism, but rather as heroic deeds. They 

also consider themselves to be the oppressed and not the aggressor. 

2. Political concerns and national interests. Some states may be concerned that their 

national interests conflict with the demands for international cooperation. It is more 

difficult for those states that have historically rooted conflicts to cooperate. There is 

also some political sensitivity for states, which are concerned that cooperation may 

hurt their national sovereignty and not serve their national interest. 

3. Insufficient international legal system on terrorism. The international antiterrorist legislative and judicial infrastructure is insufficient, which reduces the 

capability of states to tackle the threat. Moreover, each state generally defines and 

prosecutes terrorists according to its domestic law. Differences in the legal system of 

states involved are therefore a key challenge. Due to the lack of a universally 

accepted definition of terrorism, those differences could hinder multilateral 

cooperation. 

4. Law enforcement cooperation. Law enforcement depends on the states’ domestic 

system. Differences in the legal system of states may affect this cooperation. For 

instance, the UN Security Control Resolution 1373 requires states to provide 

maximum coordination in investigation and take necessary measures to starve 

terrorist financing. Judicial assistance between states may be difficult because of the 

differences between the systems and their capabilities. 

5. Technical progress and globalization. Terrorists can take advantage of fast capital 

flow, complicated financial systems, and differences between legal systems and 

capabilities of countries. Suspicious assets may be hidden in a legitimate business. 

6. Imbalanced capabilities among states. States’ capabilities are diverse in terms of

the availability of technology and professional expertise. Differences in legal and 

financial systems of states also create vulnerabilities and limitations. 

7. Sharing intelligence and information. States may not be willing to share 

information because of national security concerns or other ideological or political 

considerations. 

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6.3. Possible Approaches and Principles 

To meet the challenges posed by the terrorist threat, there is a need to explore new initiatives, thereby paving the way for a more effective cooperation among states. Emphasis should 

be given to the following points: 

1. Combating terrorism should be pursued on the basis of international law and 

norms governing international relations, allowing the UN and its Security Council to 

play a leading role. 

2. Strengthen the related international legislative infrastructure. For example, 

quick action is needed to finalize the UN formulation of an International Convention 

for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism and a Comprehensive Convention on 

International Terrorism. This will help states to improve their capabilities to 

prosecute terrorists. 

3. Develop an internationally accepted definition of terrorism within the UN 

framework. A common definition would clarify ambiguities. The international 

community should take the same position against terrorism no matter when, where, 

and in what form it occurs, or at whom it is targeted, avoiding double standards. 

4. Define the scope of operations against terrorists. Antiterror activities must not be 

arbitrarily enlarged. Operations should be based on convincing evidence, with 

clearly defined targets, and special care must be taken to avoid harm to the innocent. 

5. Settle regional conflicts fairly. Curb escalating violence in the Middle East and seek 

a peaceful solution of the Palestinian-Israeli conflict through promoting dialogue and 

understanding, in order to revive the Middle East peace process. It is also important 

to promote peace in and reconstruction of Afghanistan, which is key to the security of 

Central and South Asia. 

6. Address the root causes of terrorism. The international community needs to 

eliminate the social grounds for the breeding and spreading of terrorism. This would 

include alleviating poverty and the development gap, and eradicating social injustices 

and unfairness as well as racial, ethnic, and religious discrimination. 

7. Countries should support the peaceful coexistence of different social systems and 

civilizations. Thus, a new security concept based on mutual trust, mutual benefit, 

equality, and coordination should be cultivated. 

8. Strengthen countries’ antiterror capabilities. International cooperation must 

encourage countries to help each other by providing advice and expertise, especially 

in technical, financial, and legislative fields. It is particularly urgent to improve the 

capabilities of developing countries, which may have a less-developed antiterror 

infrastructure. 

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6.4. Chinese Efforts in Combating Terrorism 

The Chinese government has always firmly opposed terrorism in all forms and adopted a 

series of measures to fight terrorism internationally and domestically, especially after the 

September 11 events. These are summarized in the following sections. 

6.4.1. Diplomatic and International Cooperation 

China actively participates in international cooperation against terrorism. In the 

multilateral field, China supports the leading role of the UN and is a party to most of the 

international conventions on terrorism. China has actively pushed the UN General Assembly 

and Security Council to adopt a series of resolutions against terrorism. On the regional level, 

China supports ARF and the APEC Leadership Meeting’s declarations on counterterrorism. 

Most importantly, China has concluded The Shanghai Convention on Combating Terrorism, 

Separatism and Extremism with other member states of the SCO in an effort to strengthen 

regional anti-terrorist cooperation. 

China has undertaken closer bilateral cooperation with various countries and established 

consultation mechanisms on anti-terrorism with the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, 

France, India, Pakistan, and other countries.39 China has worked for years for a peaceful settlement of the Afghanistan issue and actively supports its post-war reconstruction. 

6.4.2. Law Enforcement and Security Measures 

Deeply concerned about the terrorist threat, Chinese law enforcement agencies have 

taken steps to strengthen its security and enhance international cooperation against terrorist, 

separatist, and extremist cells, especially East Turkistan terrorists in China. They have obtained 

encouraging results: 44 hideouts have been destroyed and over 100 East Turkistan terrorists who 

infiltrated Xinjiang have been apprehended. A large amount of ammunition was confiscated, 

including 4,500 grenades.40

After September 11, China tightened its borders and Customs control, especially at the 

border with Afghanistan, in order to block terrorists fleeing into the country. China has also 

taken measures to improve aviation security. In the last six months, China invested 200 million 

yuan ($US 24 million) to improve the airport security infrastructure, and plans to allocate 

another 800 million yuan ($US 96.4 million) to enhance civil aviation security after August 

2002.41

On June 7, 2002, China signed an agreement to set up the SCO Anti-Terrorism Agency. 

Chinese law enforcement agencies have expanded cooperation with their foreign counterparts in 

 39 Quoted in China Foreign Ministry Spokesperson’s Press Conference on September 5, 2002, 

http://news.xinhuanet.com/ english/2002-09/05/content551552.htm. 40 Quoted in China Foreign Ministry Spokesperson’s Press Conference on September 12, 2002, 

http://www.fmprc.gov. cn/eng/34813.html. 41 Quoted in Xinhuanet, “China to allot more for better aviation safety,” August 8, 2002, 

http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2002-08/08/contet517025.htm. 

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many areas, including information and intelligence exchanges on terrorists and their movements. 

A U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) office in Beijing opened this year. 

6.4.3. Economic Measures 

To combat terrorist financing, China implemented the UN Security Council Resolution 

1373 and conducted a thorough search within Chinese financial institutions and foreign financial 

institutions with branches in China for evidence of terrorist financing mechanisms. 

China also has taken measures to strengthen its legislative infrastructure on combating 

money laundering and other financial crimes. In recent years, the Chinese government promulgated a series of laws and regulations concerning money laundering. In September 2001, China 

set up a special anti-money laundering task force charged with the unified leadership and deployment of anti-money laundering operations throughout the Chinese banking system. Efforts are 

being stepped up to revise regulations governing cash management and to set up a system to 

report suspicious cash transactions. A center for overseeing financial transactions and payments 

to prevent money laundering is under active development.42

In the last two years, Chinese police enhanced international cooperation for identifying 

and disrupting terrorist financing networks. They assisted their foreign counterparts to investigate over 70 money-laundering cases related to 17 countries and regions.43 

 42 Quoted in China Financial and Economic Times, “People’ Bank directs Chinese campaign against money

laundering,” July 2, 2002, http://finance.sina.com.cn/g/20020702/227973. html. 43 Quoted in People’s Daily, “Crackdown on money laundering,” June 19, 2002, http://www.news.sina.com.

cn/c/2002-06-19/1720610561.html. 

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7. Sino-U.S. Cooperation on Counterterrorism 

China and the United States are permanent members of the UN Security Council with a 

wide range of common interests. Because both are victims of terrorism, fighting terrorism has 

become a major shared interest. In the war on terror, the Chinese and Americans have created a 

consultative mechanism to carry out effective cooperation. Designation of the East Turkistan 

Islamic Party as a terrorist group by the UN Security Council is an important product of their 

concerted efforts. During the third summit meeting between Chinese President Jiang Zemin and 

U.S. President George W. Bush, the two countries agreed to strengthen exchanges and 

cooperation in antiterrorism in a “two-way and mutually beneficial basis.”44

7.1. Technical Cooperation 

Science and technology provide valuable security measures. New technologies for analysis, detection of attacks, and countering chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear weapons 

could help prevent or minimize the damage from future terrorist attacks. 

7.1.1. Protecting Critical Infrastructure and Key Assets 

Operation of modern society depends on infrastructure networks, both physical ones such 

as energy and transportation and virtual ones such as cyber systems. Attacking one or more 

pieces of those critical assets could disrupt entire systems and cause huge damage to the country. 

In addition, China will host the 2008 Olympics. Ensuring security poses a big challenge, and the 

technology of physical protection could be an effective means to tackle the problem. Access 

control and intrusion detection technology address both covert and overt attacks. They aim to 

identify, reject, slow down, or repel attackers while alerting response teams to take appropriate 

countermeasures. 

Access control ensures that authorized personnel can enter a facility and that unauthorized personnel do not gain access. Moreover, technical access control systems can be programmed for complex access rules and reprogrammed easily. These systems use three 

categories of information: 

• Something you know. Various personal identification number (PIN) systems are well 

known and widely used. To avoid bystanders’ learning an authorized person’s PIN, 

the Hirsch Scramble Pad displays the number keys in a random pattern each time the 

Start key is pressed. Only a person standing directly in front of the keypad can read 

the number display.

• Something you are. Physical features are unique and can be used to recognize 

authorized persons with biometric access control systems. Iris and retinal scanners, 

hand and fingerprint readers, and voice and face recognition systems are commercially available. 

 44 See “President Jiang Zemin Met with US President Bush,” October 26, 2002, 

http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/36544.html. 

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• Something you have. At the simplest level, this can be a common key. However, a 

physical key can be stolen and used. An electronic key can be deactivated if stolen; 

hence, magnetic swipe cards or proximity readers are more secure. Lapel-worn 

infrared emitters can also be useful, especially where workers need to have both 

hands free to carry materials. 

Intrusion detection systems counter intruders who may use force to gain entry. Various 

approaches may focus on identifying and assessing an attack. Intrusion detection methods 

include switches on doors, motion detectors and other sensors, and video surveillance systems. 

Some typical technologies are listed below: 

• Fences can be instrumented to provide warning of attempts to climb over or cut 

through fences. Typical sensors attached to exterior fences can include fiber-optic 

nets or taut-wire strain gauges to detect personnel climbing over the fence. Interior 

fences can be set up with low-voltage electric fields, which are sensitive to 

movement. 

• Intrusion detection sensors between fences can detect motion of intruders. 

Aboveground sensors can include microwave or infrared emitters that set up a 

“curtain” of sensitivity. Underground sensors include buried fiber-optic cables that 

detect persons on the surface. 

• Video cameras help the guard force assess an intrusion. “Change detection” cameras 

can be used to alert the response force when scene changes occur. At a high-value 

facility, cameras might include pan, tilt, and zoom capabilities in both the visible and 

infrared light spectra. 

• Active “access denial” technologies can counter intruders. In especially high-value 

facilities, smoke generators can disorient intruders or special foam dispensers can 

immobilize them. 

• Planning for response to an attack (or accident) is an important part of protecting 

critical infrastructures. Disruption of water or electricity supplies could cause a 

collapse of other important services. This kind of planning could help Beijing 

prepare for the 2008 Olympics, for example. The United States and other countries 

have valuable experience in conducting tabletop simulations of these interactions.45

7.1.2. Preventing Catastrophic Threats 

Based on the analysis above, traditional terrorist methods such as bombing or causing 

explosions will probably remain the primary means in future terrorist attacks, perhaps with technological improvements. Threats of terrorist attacks using chemical, biological, radiological, or 

even nuclear weapons potentially exist, and the consequences could be catastrophic. To tackle 

those threats, the technologies and approaches discussed below could provide suitable countermeasures. 

 45 Discussion with John Olsen, Cooperative Monitoring Center (CMC), Sandia National Laboratories. 

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• Explosives detection portal. At entries to buildings, airports, or borders, people can 

walk through a portal, much like an airport metal detector portal, to be checked for 

explosives particulates. While the person pauses for a few seconds, puffs of air blow 

particles off their clothing, hair, and skin. The sample collection system sucks in the 

particulate, the sample is analyzed, and an alarm alerts the operator if explosives are 

present. Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) has successfully tested a prototype at 

the Albuquerque Airport. In cooperation with industry, a second-generation 

explosives detection portal has been developed for commercial use and may win 

approval for use at U.S. airports. 

• Explosives sniffer. A hand-held sniffer may be used to detect explosive particles on 

vehicles, shipping crates, or packages. These sniffers are rapidly becoming smaller 

and faster acting and could become standard tools at borders or near potential targets. 

• Nuclear material detectors. Recent news stories have considered the threat of a 

Radiological Dispersal Device (RDD) that would use explosives to spread 

radiological contamination over a target area. While the health hazard of the RDD 

would be mainly due to the explosives themselves, the economic impact of such 

terrorism could be very large. Portable detectors of gamma rays and neutrons could 

be used to scan personnel, cargoes, and vehicles at border crossings, ports, and near 

potential targets. The United States is currently very active in preventing smuggling 

of nuclear materials, with a strong emphasis on material originating from sites in the 

Former Soviet Union. This project, known as the “Second Line of Defense,” may 

supply nuclear detectors and train border inspectors in any countries that might be 

along a nuclear smuggling route. This concept might have applications in 

cooperation with China. 

• Biosecurity. The objective is to prevent the diversion of high-consequence pathogens 

and toxins that could be used for bioterrorism. Certain biological agents need to be 

controlled in a manner that is similar to the administrative and technical procedures 

used in the nuclear industry. However, many unique aspects of microbiological 

research make the nuclear security standard inappropriate for biosecurity. For 

instance, biological agents exist in the natural environment; can self-replicate, mutate, 

and die in ways that cannot be anticipated; cannot be detected outside of a sealed 

container; and can be cultured and weaponized with commercially available 

equipment. The Cooperative Monitoring Center (CMC) is currently engaged in 

assisting the U.S. Departments of Agriculture, Defense, and Energy in drawing up 

security plans and standards for various microbiological research laboratories. The 

specific plans will be confidential, but the concepts and methodologies could be of 

interest to Chinese authorities that confront similar responsibilities.46

 46 Discussion with John Olsen, CMC, Sandia National Laboratories. 

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7.1.3. Safeguarding Transportation Security

Modern life and economic development rely heavily on transportation. With globalization, virtually all countries of the world are connected to the global transportation network of 

seaports, airports, pipelines, waterways, and railroads that move people and goods within them. 

China is the fourth largest trading partner of the United States, and the United States is the 

second largest trading partner of China. The bilateral trade volume exceeded U.S. $80 billion in 

2001. Thus, providing transportation security while intensifying bilateral economic cooperation 

in this field is important. Security measures must allow the efficient flow of people and goods 

across borders while preventing terrorists from using transportation to deliver implements of

destruction. The measures discussed below may be considered: 

• Applying principles used in Second Line of Defense activities. The United States 

cooperates with the Former Soviet Union states to prevent smuggling of nuclear 

materials across international borders. Originally intended to prevent smuggling of

weapons-grade nuclear materials, this program is now expanding to detect and 

intercept other nuclear materials that could be used in a “dirty bomb.” 

• Inspection of international shipments. Several technologies are available for 

detecting dangerous contraband in international shipments. For instance, large x-ray 

scanning devices can create an image of the contents of a transportainer, crate, or 

truck in a few seconds. With either low-energy x-rays or higher-energy gamma rays, 

metallic or organic compounds can be highlighted respectively. In addition, 

specialized detectors can sniff out explosives, certain chemical agents, or detect 

emissions from nuclear materials. Planning an effective inspection system and 

training operators can be a major area of cooperation. 

• U.S. inspectors in Chinese ports. The United States has suggested placing Customs 

inspectors in Chinese ports for inspecting shipments to the United States, in order to 

enhance the security inspection and prevent terrorist attacks. This could also expedite 

acceptance of Chinese shipments into U.S. ports and avoid lengthy inspection delays. 

The United States has made similar requests of Holland, Singapore, and other 

countries. 

• Electronic seal. One way to speed up shipping without sacrificing security is to 

inspect transportainers at the point of origin, such as a factory or warehouse. 

Customs inspectors could inspect materials during loading and then affix an 

electronic seal to detect tampering. 

• Electronic documentation exchanges. Many cases of fraudulent shipping documents 

suggest that an international system of authenticated shipping invoices could help 

interdict the shipment of terrorist materials. Establishing an internet-based Customs 

system with electronic validation could be another topic for cooperation.47

 47 Discussion with John Olsen, CMC, Sandia National Laboratories. 

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7.1.4. Safeguarding Border Security

China has land borders 22,800 km long with 15 contiguous countries. Five countries 

neighbor China across the seas to the east and southeast. Moreover, China is contiguous with 

South and Central Asian areas where terrorists are very active. Despite peaceful relations 

between China and its neighbors, the ongoing war on terrorism in South Asia may cause 

terrorists to relocate into China’s western areas. Therefore, safeguarding border security is of 

great importance. 

Protecting such long borders in remote areas is a formidable task. However, technologies 

exist that can assist in this task. The CMC is currently testing border-monitoring technologies in 

a desert location as part of the development of a proposed monitoring system on the IndiaPakistan border. This test location is known as the Outdoor Test Facility (OTF) and includes a 

2-km-long “border” section. The OTF is intended to simulate the circumstances along a border 

with occasional civilian traffic that must be distinguished from illegal traffic. 

Various monitoring technologies are tested at the OTF. Sensors are buried in the ground 

along the test border and video cameras are mounted on a tower to assess the nature of traffic 

detected by the sensors. The entire OTF is powered by solar panels and reports via a microwave 

link to a central command station several kilometers away. The sensors include the following: 

• Ported coaxial cable. An electrical signal cable, like a television service cable, can 

emit a low-level, high-frequency field if the outer jacket is opened along part of its 

length. Personnel or vehicles entering this “leakage” electrical field will alter the 

signal in the cable, allowing detection of intruders. This cable is somewhat expensive 

but does not generate false alarms caused by ground motion. 

• Seismic detectors. Seismic detectors can measure the vibrations caused by people, 

vehicles, or animals. Modern systems can distinguish between vehicles and people, 

and to some extent, farm animals. Because these are buried below the surface, 

intruders may not be aware of the detectors. 

• Microwave or infrared intrusion detectors. Where a narrow path must be monitored, 

and where surrounding terrain provides concealment, a beam of microwaves or 

infrared light may be used to set up a “break beam” to detect the motion of people or 

vehicles. Some systems use both microwave and infrared sensors to discriminate 

between small animals and people. 

• Video cameras. While sensors indicate an event, a camera image is needed to assess 

the cause of the alarm and to plan the best response. At the OTF, both visible and 

infrared light cameras are placed on a tower to monitor the entire 2-km length. The 

visible light camera can automatically turn toward an alarmed sensor and zoom in on 

the intruder. Infrared cameras also provide night assessment capabilities. 

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Counterterrorism and Potential Constructive Cooperation 

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All sensor signals and video images are sent to the command center on a microwave link. 

Operators at the command center can manually aim the cameras and perform some remote 

programming.48

7.1.5. Technical Training 

Technical training is an important element of technical cooperation. Winning the war on 

terror depends on the capabilities of all the defenders. Without qualified personnel, any good 

strategy or advanced technology would be of little value. Therefore, technical training is vital. 

The United States has advanced technology and rich experience in combating terrorism with 

financial and legislative tools; China also has strong points in this regard. Therefore, sharing 

those experiences and knowledge could be justified for both countries. Cooperation could take 

the form of the following: 

• Training workshops. If the above-mentioned technologies appear to be useful, “train 

the trainer” workshops could transfer the expertise to responsible organizations in 

China. For instance, SNL conducted training workshops on the physical protection of 

nuclear materials and facilities in China in 1998, 2000, and 2002 at Daya Bay and in 

Beijing. In addition, U.S. laboratories and Chinese institutions cooperated to 

instrument a nuclear facility as a demonstration in 1999. 

• Specific training seminars to strengthen the capability of legal and financial officials. 

The emphasis would be on areas such as trafficking, money laundering, and other 

crimes related to terrorism or the support systems for terrorism. 

• Police and other security force training. Although Chinese civilian security forces 

are experienced, expert exchanges could benefit both sides. Topics of mutual interest 

include incident management, border security, trafficking in drugs or persons, money 

laundering, and arms trafficking, among others. Training to deepen police technical 

capabilities in protecting facilities, monitoring borders, and detecting dangerous 

materials offers several other useful areas of cooperation. 

• China-United States joint training for the region. In the Asia-Pacific region, 

especially Central and South Asia, China and the United States have common 

interests in combating terrorism and maintaining regional peace and stability. In 

cooperation with regional organizations such as ARF, SCO, and ASEAN, China and 

the United States might jointly organize counterterrorism training in the region, 

inviting the participation of concerned countries. 

7.2. Information and Intelligence Sharing 

Gathering and sharing information about terrorists, their movements, and their planned 

attacks are absolute prerequisites in the war on terror, with cooperation in bilateral and multilateral efforts. For instance, emphasis could be placed on information and intelligence exchange 

regarding terrorist groups and activities in the Asia-Pacific region. 

 48 Discussion with John Olsen, CMC, Sandia National Laboratories. 

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7.3. Cooperation in the Economic Field 

Depriving terrorists of financial resources is critical to the war on terrorism. The two 

countries could coordinate efforts in combating terrorist financing and money laundering, in 

order to effectively implement Resolution 1373 of the UN Security Council. China has to 

improve its capabilities and overcome technical, structural, or legal obstacles that may impede 

financial institutions from combating terrorist financing, money laundering, and other crimes. 

The United States could help China through provision of financial and legal advice and 

technical assistance, as well as sharing related expertise. China could then contribute more to 

counterterrorism efforts with a more efficiently operating financial system. 

7.4. Law Enforcement Cooperation 

Faced with the rising threat of terrorism, law enforcement agencies need to expand their 

missions accordingly. In addition to a traditional mission of investigating and prosecuting 

criminal activity, they must add this new task of preventing and interdicting terrorist activity 

within China. The legal infrastructure needs to be tailored to fit this new situation. China and 

the United States could help each other in ongoing terrorism-related investigations and 

prosecutions, particularly those that target border security, terrorist financing, trafficking in 

drugs, money laundering, arms trafficking, and other crimes. The two countries could share 

related experiences and expertise, especially concerning incident management. 

7.5. Cooperation in Multilateral Frameworks 

As major countries and permanent members of the UN Security Council, China and the 

United States could expand cooperation within multilateral frameworks, especially in the UN 

and the Asia-Pacific region. The following suggestions apply to multilateral frameworks: 

1. Enhance coordination and consultation in the UN and promote implementation of the 

existing international antiterrorism conventions, and encourage more countries to 

become parties and implement them. Contribute advice and expertise to help 

overcome obstacles that may arise. 

2. Enhance cooperation in the establishment of new international law on terrorism. For 

example, the UN is negotiating an International Convention for the Suppression of 

Acts of Nuclear Terrorism and a Comprehensive Convention on International 

Terrorism.

3. Strengthen cooperation to maintain regional peace and stability, especially in South 

and Central Asia, where conflicts between various religions and ethnic nationalities 

provide fertile ground for terrorism. Besides supporting the UN’s leading role in 

Afghanistan, it would be beneficial to enhance antiterror cooperation through the 

SCO in Central Asia. The two could coordinate efforts in mitigating regional 

conflicts, especially between India and Pakistan. 

4. Strengthen antiterrorism coordination and cooperation within APEC, especially in the 

fight against terrorist financing. Enhance consultation and coordination against 

terrorism and transnational crime with ASEAN and ARF through the exchange of 

information and intelligence, starving terrorist financing, and building capabilities. 

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Counterterrorism and Potential Constructive Cooperation 

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8. Conclusions 

In the current world, the international security situation is undergoing profound changes.

Besides traditional security problems, the non-traditional security issue of terrorism is of grave 

concern, imposing a real threat on international peace and stability. The September 11 incidents 

underscore the seriousness of this menace. 

As the terrorist threat is transnational, many-faceted, and deep-rooted in diversified 

conflicts, the international campaign against terrorism will be a long, hard-fought confrontation. 

Countries should strive for global cooperation to tackle this threat, and continually support the 

leading role of the UN and its Security Council, while further enhancing regional cooperation, as 

follows: 

• Assist each other through an integrated use of political, economic, diplomatic, 

military, legal, scientific, and technological means; 

• Redouble efforts in alleviating poverty and the development gap; 

• Endeavor to settle regional conflicts in a fair and reasonable manner, and promote 

understanding and dialogue among different countries, ethnic groups, and societies; 

• Oppose terrorism no matter when, where, or in what form it occurs, or at whom it is 

targeted, avoiding a double standard. 

China and the United States, two permanent members of the UN Security Council, share 

a wide range of common interests, especially in counterterrorism, since both are victims of 

terrorism. During his recent visit to the United States, President Jiang Zemin expressed his 

appreciation for the effective cooperation between two countries in the war against terror. China 

and the United States have agreed to continually strengthen antiterrorism cooperation. 

Among the varied facets of potential cooperation, technical cooperation should be 

emphasized and expanded to improve capabilities and efficiency in dealing with this threat. 

Focusing on protecting people, facilities, and infrastructures, this cooperation may introduce 

protective technologies and training, including the means for boosting port and border security 

and detecting explosives or nuclear materials. Promoting further cooperation in this campaign 

will not only benefit the global counterterrorism efforts, but also encourage a healthy growth of a 

constructive and cooperative relationship. 

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About the Author 

Rongrong Le is a staff member of the China Institute of International Studies (CIIS) and 

has been Director of the Secretariat for CSCAP China (Council for Security Cooperation in the 

Asia Pacific, China National Committee). CSCAP is a non-governmental (second track) 

organization that contributes to the dialogue on security issues in the Asia Pacific. Ms. Le has 

also worked for the China Southern Securities Company and several American investment 

companies. From 1977 to 1989, Ms. Le worked for the Foreign Affairs Ministry of China and 

was assigned to the Chinese Embassy in Zaire and the Chinese Mission to the United Nations in 

New York. She received her MBA from the Long Island University (New York). She also has a 

degree in French from Beijing Foreign Languages University and training in international 

politics from the Foreign Affairs College in Beijing, China. 

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Counterterrorism and Potential Constructive Cooperation 

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Distribution 

350 MS 1373 CMC Library, 5341 

1 MS 9018 Central Tech Files, 8945-1 

2 MS 0899 Technical Library, 9616 

1 MS 0612 Review & Approval Desk, 9612 

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