Ground Temperature Measurements
Ground Temperature Measurements

Part I, Pallmann Technique

By DANIEL R. NORTON and IRVING F^IEDMAN

Part II, Evaluation of the Pallmann Technique in Two Geothermal Areas of 

West-Central Nevada

By F. H. OLMSTED, TRYING FRIEDMAN, and DANIEL R. NORTON

Part III, Ground Temperatures in and near Yellowstone National Park

By IRVING FRIEDMAN and DANIEL R. NORTON

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1203

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1981
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

JAMES G. WATT, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Doyle G. Frederick, A cting Director

Catalog No. 81-607982

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 

Washington, D.C. 20402
CONTENTS

Page 

Part I, Pallmann technique, by Daniel R. Norton and Irving Friedman -------------------- 1

Part II, Evaluation of the Pallmann technique in two geothermal areas of west-central

Nevada, by F. H. Olmsted, Irving Friedman, and Daniel R. Norton --------.---------- 13

Part IE, Ground Temperatures in and near Yellowstone National Park,

by Irving Friedman and Daniel R. Norton ------------------------------------------- 23

m

GROUND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

PARTI, PALLMANN TECHNIQUE

By DANIEL R. NORTON and IRVING F^IEDMAN

CONTENTS

Abstract --------------------------------------------------- 1

Introduction -----.----------.----------------.--------.-..-- 2

Preparation of Pallmann solutions --------------------------- 2

Temperature probe ----------------------------------------- 2

Emplacement of temperature probe -------------------------- 2

Measurement of optical rotation ------------------------------ 3

Effective temperature ------------

Accuracy of the Pallmann method 

Precision of the method ----------

Acknowledgments ---------------

References cited -----------------

Page

3

4

4

5

5

ILLUSTRATION

FIGURE 1. Sixteen graphs showing plots of temperature range of a sample for 1 year versus effective temperature calculated for 

three reactions --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

TABLES

TABLE 1. Activation energy of several reactions ----------------------------------------------------------------

2. Constants for the Pallmann equation ---------------------------------------------------------------

3. Pallmann temperatures during 1977 at Bunsen Peak site as measured using two solutions of different pH

4. Pallmann temperatures during 1978 at two sites as measured using solution of pH 1.93 -----------------

ABSTRACT

The measurement of integrated ground temperatures by the use of 

the Pallmann method was investigated in the laboratory and in the 

field. The method makes use of the fact that the rate of inversion of a 

solution of sucrose to invert sugar is temperature-dependent and can 

be easily monitored. The rate, which is also a function of the pH of the 

solution, can be adjusted so that the reaction is only partially completed during the time that the temperature is to be monitored. 

Laboratory calibration of the solution is necessary if accuracies of 0.25° 

Celsius (C) are to be achieved.

Probes containing Pallmann solution at 1-meter (m) and 2-m depths 

were designed for insertion into the ground. A method for making 2-mdeep holes in the ground was developed that combines pounding a 

small steel rod into the ground and then enlarging this small hole by 

blasting with Primacord.

Field tests using these techniques show that the effective 

temperature, integrated over the annual temperature cycle at soil 

depths of 1 and 2 m can be measured with an accuracy of about 0.25°C. 

Differences in temperature between 1 and 2 m, and between adjacent 

probes can be measured to about O.Q5°C.

Figures are given which allow Pallmann-effective temperatures to be 

converted to arithmetic-mean temperatures, obsidian-hydration effective temperatures, and Ambrose-effective temperatures. In order to use 

these figures, the range in temperature experienced by the sample for 

the time period under consideration must be known, or estimated. A 

novel method of determining the temperature range utilizes two cells 

containing materials whose activation energy differs. These cells are 

buried side by side.

PARTS n and III of the present paper describe field use of the Pallmann method.
GROUND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

INTRODUCTION

Ground-temperature data are needed to date rhyolite 

flows and glacial moraines that contain rhyolite glass by 

the obsidian-hydration method and to date organic 

materials by the amino-acid-racemization dating technique. Shallow ground temperatures may also be useful 

in detecting and delineating thermal anomalies in potential geo thermal-resource areas.

For a number of years, the authors measured ground 

temperatures by burying temperature sensors in the soil 

and connecting them to various types of recorders. At 

many places this method was not feasible because 

electric power was not available, and access for servicing 

in the winter was difficult. In addition, malfunctions of 

the recorders and the necessity of changing recorder 

charts required frequent visits. In addition, thousands of 

points had to be read from the charts and then transferred to a computer to calculate average or integrated 

annual temperatures. The total cost of this method of 

temperature measurement is high.

A method for temperature measurement more convenient and less expensive than continuous recording, 

and applicable to remote areas, is the Pallmann method 

of temperature measurement, first described by Pallmann and others (1940). This method makes use of the 

fact that an aqueous solution of sucrose slowly hydrolyzes to invert sugar (mixture of glucose and fructose). The 

rate of this reaction is temperature- and pH-dependent. 

The higher the temperature the more rapidly the reaction proceeds. The reaction is easily monitored inasmuch 

as the sucrose has a different angle of rotation of 

polarized light than the invert sugar, and the rotation 

can be measured with a polarimeter. Pallmann and 

others (1940) investigated this reaction extensively and 

proposed its use for measuring temperatures in the soil 

for biological investigations. Other investigators 

(Schmitz, 1964; Schmitz and Volkert, 1959; Lee, 1969; 

O'Brien, 1971) used the Pallmann method and reported 

precision on the order of a few hundredths of a degree 

Celsius. These results, plus convenience, prompted us to 

investigate the technique as a replacement for the 

continuous-recording method.

PREPARATION OF PALLMANN 

SOLUTIONS

The Pallmann solution is a sucrose solution in aqueous 

media using a citric acid-sodium citrate buffer. Reagentgrade chemicals and distilled water were used. Formaldehyde was added to prevent deterioration of the 

solution by bacterial growth. Because the sucrose 

hydrolysis reaction is catalyzed by acid, it was necessary 

to adjust the pH of the solution to ±0.02 pH units. The 

Pallmann solutions were made according to the technique given by Schmitz (1964). The solutions were immediately bottled in ampoules or polypropylene bottles, 

and stored in a freezer at -32°C. The glass ampoules 

were made of 15-mm o.d. (millimeters outside diameter) 

tubing with a narrow neck for sealing, and contained 4 

ml (milliliters) of solution.

TEMPERATURE PROBE

In order to measure effective ground temperatures by 

the Pallmann method it is necessary to bury small 

amounts of sucrose solution sealed in glass ampoules and 

to be able to retrieve these ampoules after a suitable 

period of time. Our ampoules were about 15 mm in 

diameter and contained 4 ml of solution. These ampoules were inserted into probes for insertion into the 

ground. Our probes were constructed of plastic water 

pipe 0/2-inch (12.7-mm) diameter water pipe). One vial 

was placed at the bottom of the 2-m long probes in a 

small brass container and another vial was placed at the 

1-m position of the same probe enclosed in a brass sleeve 

to make good thermal contact with the ground. 

Styrofoam pellets were packed inside the pipe to prevent 

convection currents. The plastic probe was capped by a 

metal pipe cap. The probe was buried just below the surface of the ground and the earth was well tamped around 

it to eliminate air space between soil and probe. In order 

to locate the probe we mapped its location and then used 

a metal detector to detect the metal pipe cap at the top 

of the probe. This technique proved highly successful 

and we have had no difficulty in locating probes in 

remote, and in some places featureless, terrain.

When the probes were removed from the ground the 

Pallmann ampoules were retrieved from the probes and 

were immediately placed upright in a container of dry 

ice to freeze. Freezing in the upright position prevented 

stresses that might have cracked the ampoule.

EMPLACEMENT OF TEMPERATURE 

PROBE

Different methods of drilling holes to emplace the 

probes containing Pallmann solution, as well as different 

designs of probes, were evaluated. Hand augering of the 

1-in. (2.5-cm) diameter holes to 2-m depth was of 

marginal usefulness. It was slow and extremely difficult 

because the soil often contained pebbles and cobbles. 

However, this method of emplacing probes has been 

used on a few occasions. We also investigated the use of 

lightweight portable gasoline-driven drills. The problem 

with this technique was the plugging of the 2-m-long 

auger bit. In addition, the difficulty of handling the 2-mlong drill bits added complications. Small pebbles or 

cobbles also defeated this device.
PALLMANN TECHNIQUE

The most successful method of emplacing the probes 

has been to use Primacord1 to enlarge a small hole. The 

Primacord method was to first pound into the ground a 

steel device consisting of an outer thin steel tube/foin. 

o.d. and 1A in. i.d. (inside diameter) and an inner steel 

rod having a diameter slightly less than 1A in. The inner 

rod was then withdrawn and Primacord (50 grains per 

foot) was threaded down the tube to the bottom of the 

hole. The outer steel tube was then withdrawn, leaving 

the Primacord in place in the soil.

Upon detonation, the Primacord enlarges the hole 

from its initial Ke-in. diameter to approximately 1.5 in. in 

diameter. The Primacord is a relatively safe explosive 

because it cannot be detonated without the use of powerful detonators. The exploding bridgewire detonator that 

we are using is also relatively safe because it contains no 

sensitive explosive but is detonated by the shock wave 

produced by an exploding wire. This thin (0.001 in.) gold 

wire is exploded by passing a high current (approximately 1000 amperes) at high voltage (approximately 

3000 volts) through the wire for a short period (1 microsecond). These detonators can only be activated by the 

use of a special detonation box. We have emplaced 

several hundred probes using this technique without incident. The noise made by the detonating Primacord is 

equivalent to that of a 12-gauge shotgun and it can be 

sufficiently muffled so that a person standing 50 m away 

can hardly hear the detonation.

MEASUREMENT OF OPTICAL 

ROTATION

Optical rotation was measured with a Rudolph Model 

52A2 Polarimeter with a mercury lamp at 546.07 nm 

(nanometer). Digital readout of optical rotation was read 

to the nearest 0.01 degree. Water-jacketed polarimeter 

sample cells 200 mm long with a capacity of 2.5 ml were 

used throughout this study. Special glass filters were 

used to isolate the 546.07-nm line. The optical rotation of 

an NBS (National Bureau of Standards) quartz control 

plate was determined with each group of measurements. 

Over a 2-year period we found that the standard deviation of the measurement of the quartz plate was a 0.05- 

degree rotation. All optical rotation measurements 

reported by our method are the average values for 10 

readings corrected for instrument zero.

Prior to measurements, the ampoules were removed 

from the freezer, held in the hand to melt the solution, 

and constantly shaken. As soon as the crystals melted 

completely the ampoules were placed in a circulator-

'Primacord is a high-explosive (pentacrythrotrol trinitrate) filled cord manufactured by 

Ensign Bickford Co., Simsbury, Conn. 06070. The exploding bridgewire detonators and the 

special detonating box are made by Reynolds Industries, Inc., P.O. Box 1176, Marina Del Ray, 

Calif. Any trade names and trademarks found in this publication are used for descriptive purposes only and do not constitute endorsement by the U.S. Geological Survey.

water bath at 20.00°C and were kept there for 10 minutes 

with intermittent shaking. During this period the waterjacketed polarimeter tube sample cell was equilibrated 

to 20.00°C. Immediately after this equilibrium period 

the ampoules were opened and the Pallmann solutions 

were transferred with a narrow glass pipette into the 

polarimeter cell. It is important that the Pallmann solution, which is viscous, be introduced from the bottom of 

the cell to avoid air entrapment. After securing the cap 

on the end of the cell, another 5-minute period was allowed for temperature equilibrium. Readings were then 

immediately taken to reduce errors due to continued 

hydrolysis.

EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE

The rate of the Pallmann reaction, in common with 

many chemical and physical processes, responds in a 

nonlinear manner to temperature. A positive temperature change will speed up the cumulative reaction more 

than an equivalent negative temperature change will 

slow it down. Therefore, if the sucrose solution experiences a fluctuating temperature, the reaction will be 

the same as if the sucrose was exposed to a constant 

temperature that is higher than the arithmetic-mean 

temperature. This calculated constant temperature is 

referred to as the "effective temperature".

Because the Pallmann reaction responds nonlinearly 

with respect to temperature, the values calculated by 

this method are not arithmetic means but are logarithmic-integrated temperatures. These can be converted to 

arithmetic means if the range in temperature is known, 

as shown by Lee (1969). For many purposes, including 

obsidian and amino-acid dating, integrated (effective)' 

temperatures are more actually useful than arithmetic 

means, because the reactions being monitored (diffusion 

of water into volcanic glass, racemization of amino 

acids) also respond to temperature changes exponentially, not linearly. The closer the activation-energy rate 

constant of the monitoring method is to that of the reaction being monitored, the more accurate the integrated 

temperature will be. This can be illustrated as follows.

Given a temperature that varies sinusoidally between 

+5° and -5°C. The arithmetic average temperature is 

0°C. The integrated or effective temperature for a reaction having an activation energy of 20 kcal/mole 

(kilocalories per mole) is +0.74°C; if the activation 

energy is 10 kcal/mole, the integrated temperature is 

+0.43°C. If the amplitude of the temperature variation 

is doubled to +10°, or to -10°, the mean temperature 

will remain zero but the two integrated temperatures 

will now be 2.75°C and 1.66°C, respectively.

In the previous example of a sinusoidally varying 

temperature, the integrated or effective temperature is
GROUND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

seen to vary mainly as a function of the temperature 

range and the activation energy of the reaction. The activation energies of the reactions to be considered in this 

paper are shown in table 1.

TABLE 1. Activation energy of several reactions

Reaction

Activation 

energy, in 

kcal/mole

Water diffusion through plastic (Ambrose cell) ----------- -'11.7

Water diffusion into obsidian-hydration dating) -----------2 19 to 22

Inversion of sucrose (Pallmann solution) ------------------3 27.0

Isoleucine amino-acid racemization (amino-acid dating) - - - - 4 27.5

' Ambrose (1976); F. Trembour, (oral commun., 1978).

2 Friedman and Long (1976).

3 Lee (1969).

4 Bada and Schroeder (1972).

The rate at which the sucrose inverts to invert sugar is 

dependent upon the pH of the solution as well as upon 

temperature. By adjusting the initial pH, we prepared 

solutions that were useful for different effectivetemperature ranges. The basic equation, as originally 

proposed by Pallmann and others (1940) is:

T (°K) =

pH-fc-log t+log [log (R 0-RJ-\og(R t-RJ],

(1)

where T 

a 

b

i

K =

integrated temperature in degrees Kelvin (K)

constant

constant

time, in days

rotation angle of sucrose solution at time t = 0

rotation angle of sucrose solution at time = t

rotation angle of sucrose solution at time = °° (infinity).

This is the rotation angle when all of the sucrose

has inverted to invert sugar. 

Temperature in degrees Kelvin.

ACCURACY OF THE PALLMANN 

METHOD

In the pH range used in our investigation (pH 1.5-3.0), 

a difference of 0.01 pH unit corresponds to an annual 

temperature increment of 0.13°C. It is difficult to 

measure pH with an accuracy of ±0.01 units. The pH 

changes slightly with temperature and also changes as 

the reaction proceeds (Lee, 1969). Therefore, we 

calibrated our Pallmann solutions by measuring the 

change in rotation when aliquots of the solutions were 

kept in constant temperature baths for known time 

periods. The baths used were constant to ±0.01°C, and 

the temperatures were read to ±0.05°C using thermometers calibrated against NBS standards. The sealed 

vials containing the solutions were kept in the water 

baths for periods of time from 1 day to 3 months at

temperatures from 20° to 45°C. The rotation angles were 

measured and corrected according to figure 2d of 

Schmidt and Volkert (1959), recalculated for mercury 

light. At the conclusion of the experiment, reaction-rate 

constants were calculated using the corrected rotations, 

the known time, and the measured pH. The constants 

proposed by Pallmann and others (1940) and those 

calculated by us are given in table 2.

Temperatures calculated for the pH 1.93 solution using our constants are about 1°C lower than those using 

the original Pallmann constants. On the other hand, the 

temperatures calculated for the pH 2.51 solution with 

our constants are within 0.2°C of those calculated using 

the Pallmann constants. This discrepancy may be due to 

errors in our pH measurements. The pH meter had to be 

calibrated using pH 7 and 4 buffers. The buffer values 

were known to ±0.01. The farther the pH to be measured 

is from this pH range, the greater the error in the pH 

measurement. If the actual pH of the low pH Pallmann 

solution was 1.87 rather than the measured value of 1.93, 

the Pallmann constants would yield exact temperature 

values.

A check on the accuracy to be expected using the Pallmann method was carried out in the field using probes 

buried in the ground and placed 1 m apart. These probes 

contained vials of Pallmann solution at 1- and 2-m 

depths.

Four probes were spaced in an array where two of the 

probes contained solutions of pH 1.93 and the other two 

contained solutions of pH 2.51. All the probes were 

buried at one time, and all were removed 1 year later. 

The results are shown in table 3. The pH 1.93 solutions 

yielded temperatures that are about 0.25°C higher than 

those of the pH 2.51 solutions. The accuracy of the Pallmann method is about 0.25°C, and is limited primarily 

by the difficulty in determining the pH to closer than 

0.02 unit.

TABLE 2. Constants for the Pallmann equation

Constants'

pH'

Pallmann and others (1940) ----------------- -5856.6 20.1988

Present authors:

1.93 .................................... -5857.5 20.2725

2.51------------------------------------ -5913.5 20.3913

3.08------------------------------------ -5755.0 19.8171

'a and b are constants given in equation 1.

Constants derived by Pallmann and others (1940) are independent of pH.

PRECISION OF THE METHOD

The precision of the method that is how precisely 

can small temperature differences be measured is far
PALLMANN TECHNIQUE

better than 0.25°C. Under laboratory conditions, using a 

constant temperature bath, temperature differences as 

small as 0.05°C can be resolved. Under natural conditions, the limiting factor is the inherent "noise" because 

there are ground-temperature differences between sites 

as closely spaced as 1 m due to inhomogenieties in soil 

diffusivity, surface albedo, thermal inertia, and other 

variables.

In addition to the array given in table 3, two other arrays with multiple probes containing the pH 1.93 solution were emplaced 1 m apart and were measured after 

being buried for 1 year. The results are given in table 4. 

The 0.12°C difference at the Bunsen Peak site 1-m depth 

may be real, inasmuch as a difference of 0.16°C was 

found the previous year at the same site (see table 3). 

The temperatures at 2-m depth were the same for both 

years at this site. From the above data it can be seen that 

a precision of ±0.02°C can be realized by the Pallmann 

method.

The many curves shown in figure 1 (at end of PART I) 

define the relationships among the three parameters: (1) 

arithmetic-mean temperature, (2) effective temperature, and (3) temperature range for the different processes of sucrose inversion, obsidian hydration, and diffusion of water through methyl methacrylate plastic. 

The data for this figure were calculated assuming that 

the temperature varied sinusoidally (harmonically) 

through the temperature range plotted on the abscisa. 

From this figure, if the temperature range is approximately known, then Pallmann or Ambrose-effective 

temperature can be converted to obsidian-hydration or 

amino-acid effective temperatures, or to arithmeticmean temperatures. Plots are given for 2°C-increments 

in arithmetic mean temperature from 0° to 30°C.

The Ambrose technique is another method for 

temperature integration (Ambrose, 1976). It is based 

upon the temperature dependence of the rate of diffusion 

of water into a plastic cell.

Figure 1 shows that the Pallmann effective temperatures are somewhat higher than the obsidian-hydration 

effective temperatures.

Because the activation energy of the isoleucine aminoacid racemization is close to that of the Pallmann reaction (27.5 kcal versus 27.0 kcal), the effective 

temperatures measured by the Pallmann method will be 

close approximations to the amino-acid effective 

temperatures. The Ambrose method yields effective 

temperatures that are lower than both the Pallmann and 

obsidian temperatures.

If the temperature range can be determined, the 

Ambrose and Pallmann effective temperatures can be 

converted to amino-acid or obsidian-hydration effective 

temperatures, or to arithmetic-mean temperatures.

By burying a Pallmann vial next to an Ambrose cell, 

the effective temperature for each can be measured, and 

then the temperature range can be calculated from the 

difference in effective temperatures. For example, if the 

Pallmann vial yields an effective temperature of 15.1°C, 

and the Ambrose cell gives an effective temperature of 

12.5°C, the range in temperature is 26.0°C, and the 

mean temperature is 10.0°C (see fig. 1). PARTS II and 

in of the present paper give applications of the Pallmann 

technique.

TABLE 3. Pallman temperatures during 1977 at Bunsen Peak site1 as 

measured using two solutions of different pH

Depth 

(m)

pH 1.93 pH 2.51

Probe a Probe b Probe c Probed

4.77°C 

4.33°C

4.61°C 4.55° 

4.31°C 4.05°

4.53°C 

4.07°C

'See PART III for description of this site.

TABLE 4. Pallmann temperatures during 1978 at two sites as 

measured using solutions of pH 1.93

Depth 

(m)

1 .....

9 .... .

Bunsen Peak site'

Probe a

A ZAQ p

A O COO

Probe b

4.42°C 

4.31°C

Turbid Lake site1

Probe a

5.34°C 

5.44°C

Probe b

5.36°C

5.46°C

'See PART III for description of this site.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We owe a great debt of thanks to William Long who 

designed and constructed the steel device used to 

emplace the Primacord. He also designed the plastic 

probe and was most helpful at all stages of the research. 

Gary Giarratano and Mary Robison assisted in the 

laboratory phase of the research.

REFERENCES CITED

Ambrose, W., 1976, Intrinsic hydration rate dating of obsidian,

Chapter 5 in R. E. Taylor, ed., Advances in obsidian glass studies:

Park Ridge, N. J. Nayes Press, p. 81-106. 

Bada, J. L., and Schroeder, R. A., 1972, Racemization of isoleucine in

calcareous marine sediments; kinetics and mechanism: Earth and

Planetary Science Letters, v. 15, no. 1, p. 1-11. 

Friedman, I., and Long, W., 1976, Hydration rate of obsidian: Science,

v. 191, no. 4225, p. 347-352. 

Lee, R., 1969, Chemical temperature integration: Journal of Applied

Meteorology, v. 8, p. 423-430. 

O'Brien, P. J., 1971, Pallmann method for mass sampling of soil,

water, or air temperatures: Geological Society of America Bulletin,

v. 82, no. 10, p. 2927-2932.
GROUND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

Pallmann, H., Eichenberger, E., and Hasler, A., 1940, Eine neue 

Methode der Temperaturmessung bei okologischen oder bodenkundlichen Untersuchungen: Berichte der Schweizerishen Botanischen Gesellschaft, v. 50, p. 337-362.

Schmitz, W., 1964, Messprobleme bei reaktionskinetischen Untersuchungen mit dem Kreispolarimeter dargestellt am Beispiel der 

reaktionskinetischen Temperaturmessung: Zeiss Mitteilungen, v. 

3, p. 227-249. U.S. Department of Commerce Technical Translation TT67-61038, Washington, D.C., 1966 [English translation]. 

Schmitz, W., and Volkert, E., 1959, Die Messung von Mitteltemperaturen auf reaktionskinetischer Grundlage mit dem 

Kreispolarimeter und ihre Anwendung in Klimatologie und 

Biookologie, speziell in Forst- und Gewasserkunde: Zeiss Mitteilungen, v. 1, p. 300-337. U.S. Department of Commerce 

Technical Translation TT67-62408, Washington, D. C., 1966 

[English translation].
FIGURE 1

Plots of the temperature range experienced by a sample versus the effective temperatures 

calculated for the Pallmann reaction, the obsidian-hydration reaction, and the Ambrose method. In 

making the calculations we used equation 2 and assumed a harmonic or sinusoidal temperature variation with an amplitude given by the "temperature range", and an activation energy for each reaction 

as follows: Pallmann (27 kcal/mole), obsidian-hydration (19.7 kcal/mole), Ambrose (11.7 kcal/mole). 

Sets of curves are given for different arithmetic means from 0° to 30° Celsius in 2°-intervals. The effective temperature equals the arithmetic mean temperature when the temperature range equals 

zero.

~E 

RT

t= e +273.2,

(2)

where t - effective temperature in degrees Celsius 

e = base of natural logarithms 

E = activation energy 

R = gas constant, 1.98 cal/mole 

T = temperature in degrees Kelvin. This temperature varies

sinusoidally with an amplitude given by "temperature range".
EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE, IN D

CD

CD

30 M 

m o 

m 

CO

O 

mi 

co M

CO

EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE, IN DE

ui en 

CDm ->

CD

30 M 

m o
EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE, IN D

EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE, IN D
EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE, IN D

EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS

NJ NJ NJ NJ 

^ Ul O ~J

EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE, IN DE
EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE, IN 

EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE, IN D

CD

O

33 NJ m o

(/) M

C "1

GROUND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

PART II, EVALUATION OF THE PALLMANN TECHNIQUE IN TWO 

GEOTHERMAL AREAS OF WEST-CENTRAL NEVADA

By F. H. OLMSTED, IRVING FRIEDMAN, and DANIEL R. NORTON

CONTENTS

Page

Abstract--------------------------------------------------- 13

Introduction ----------------------------------------------- 14

Areas selected for field tests --------------------------------- 14

Field techniques and instrumentation ------------------------ 14

Data reduction and interpretation --------------------------- 16

Results in Soda Lakes geothermal area ------------------------ 17

Results in Upsal Hogback geothermal area ------------------- 17

Conclusions ------------------------------------------------ 17

References cited -------------------------------------------- 21

ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

FIGURE 2. Map of west-central Nevada, showing the location of Soda Lakes and Upsal Hogback geothermal areas----------------- 15

3. Map of Soda Lakes area, Nevada, showing measured Pallmann temperatures at 1 and 2 m for December 15, 1976,

to December 15, 1977, and temperatures at 15 m in test wells for fall 1975 ----------------------------------------- 18

4. Diagram showing correlation of temperature at 15 m in test wells with measured Pallmann temperatures at 2 m

for December 15, 1976, to December 15, 1977, Soda Lakes area, Nevada -------------------------------------------- 19

5. Map of Upsal Hogback area, Nevada, showing measured Pallmann temperatures at 1 and 2 m for December 15, 1976,

to December 15, 1977, and temperatures at 15 m in test wells for September 1975 ---------------------------------- 20

6. Diagram showing correlation of temperature at 15 m in test wells with measured Pallmann temperatures at 2 m

for December 15, 1976, to December 15, 1977, Upsal Hogback area, Nevada ---------------------------------------- 21

TABLES

Page 

TABLE 5. Comparison of measured and adjusted Pallmann temperatures with thermistor temperatures at a depth of 1 m ------- 16

6. Comparison of coefficients of determination (r2) for least-mean-squares linear regressions of temperature

at 15 m versus temperatures at 1 m and 2 m -------------------------------------------------------------------- 17

ABSTRACT

The Pallmann method, which derives an integrated temperature on 

the basis of the hydrolysis of sucrose to invert sugar, was tested as a 

means of geothermal exploration at shallow depths in two adjoining 

geothermal areas of west-central Nevada. Integrated Pallmann 

temperatures for a 12-month period and a 3-month, midwinter, period 

at depths of 1 and 2 meters (m) are compared with temperatures at 

15 m obtained by more conventional methods at 15 sites in the Soda 

Lakes area and 8 sites in the Upsal Hogback area. The field tests suggest that the Pallmann method is useful in mapping temperature 

anomalies at greater depths and that the method may be superior to a

conventional set of synoptic temperature measurements in outlining 

diffuse temperature anomalies where the areal differences in temperatures at depths of 15 m or more are relatively small. Better results were 

obtained with data obtained at a depth of 2 m than at 1 m. Correlations 

between the Pallmann temperatures for the 3-month, midwinter, 

period and temperatures at 15 m were better than between the Pallmann temperatures for the 12-month period and the 15-m 

temperatures, probably because of the smaller difference between the 

Pallmann temperatures (exponential means) and the arithmetic-mean 

temperatures for the shorter period.

13
14 GROUND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

INTRODUCTION

In principle, the utility of temperature measurements 

at depths of 1 or 2 m in geothermal exploration is 

enhanced if annual averages rather than single sets of 

synoptic values are used. Until recently, however, the 

determination of mean annual temperature generally 

has involved the use of either frequent periodic measurements with thermometer probes or buried thermometers 

of various types connected to expensive recording equipment. The cost advantages of many measurements at 

shallow depths over fewer measurements at greater 

depths, below the zone of annual temperature fluctuation, are therefore largely lost. Clearly, a measurement 

technique is needed which is more convenient and less 

expensive than instrumental methods and which is applicable to remote places where access is difficult.

One such technique, described by Pallmann and 

others (1940), derives an integrated temperature on the 

basis of the hydrolysis of sucrose to invert sugar. This 

method, hereinafter referred to for convenience as the 

"Pallmann method," has been tested in a variety of settings, summarized by Lee (1969), and particularly in 

soil-temperature measurements (O'Brien, 1971). 

O'Brien's results, in a small area near Schenectady, 

N.Y., were sufficiently encouraging that the method was 

tested by two of us in Yellowstone National Park 

(Friedman and Norton, PART HI, present paper) and 

further tests, in a different geologic and climatic setting 

in west-central Nevada, seemed warranted.

In this paper we describe the results of field tests in 

two adjoining geothermal areas in west-central Nevada, 

where abundant temperature data obtained by more 

conventional methods at depths of 15-30 m are available 

(Olmsted and others, 1975; Olmsted, 1977).

The theory as well as laboratory and field methods are 

discussed in PART I, Pallmann Technique, by Norton 

and Friedman.

AREAS SELECTED FOR FIELD TESTS

Two areas, designated the Soda Lakes and Upsal 

Hogback geothermal areas, were selected for field tests of 

the Pallmann method. Both areas are in the west-central 

Carson Desert, about 100 km east of Reno, Nev. (fig. 2). 

Abundant information about the geology, hydrology, 

and the temperature distribution to depths of about 

150 m was available from previous studies (Olmsted and 

others, 1975, p. 99-118; Olmsted, 1977).

The Soda Lakes geothermal area occupies about 21 

km2 (square kilometers) between Soda Lakes to the 

south-southwest and Upsal Hogback to the northnortheast. Both Soda Lakes and Upsal Hogback are late 

Pleistocene to Holocene basaltic eruptive centers, 

probably alined along a concealed fault or fault system. 

The Soda Lakes thermal anomaly probably results from 

upward leakage of hot water along a steeply inclined or

vertical fault-controlled conduit into shallow sand 

aquifers, through which the hot water moves northnortheastward, in the direction of the near-surface 

hydraulic gradient (Olmsted and others, 1975, p. 104). 

Previous data from synoptic temperature measurements 

at a depth of 1 m indicated relatively high temperatures 

and large heat flows in the hottest part of the thermal 

anomaly. Conditions seemed especially favorable for the 

application of the Pallmann method.

The Upsal Hogback geothermal area lies several 

kilometers north-northeast of the Soda Lakes area, 

generally east and north of Upsal Hogback. Although 

somewhat more extensive than the Soda Lakes geothermal area, the Upsal Hogback area is characterized by 

much lower near-surface temperatures and smaller heat 

flows. Correlation of synoptic temperatures at 1-m depth 

and temperatures at 30 m is poor, owing to the relatively 

small amplitude of the thermal anomaly and the 

relatively large perturbing effects of nongeothermal factors (Olmsted, 1977, p. B21, B24). Conditions, therefore, 

seemed much less favorable for application of the Pallmann method than in the Soda Lakes area. However, we 

hoped that the temperatures obtained with the Pallmann method at shallow depth would show a better correlation with those at greater depth than did the synoptic measurements at 1 m reported by Olmsted (1977).

FIELD TECHNIQUES AND 

INSTRUMENTATION

Most of the Pallmann samples were placed near sites 

of earlier U.S. Geological Survey or U.S. Bureau of 

Reclamation test wells, or 1-m temperature-measurement sites used by Olmsted (1977). Criteria for site 

selection included: (1) Level or nearly level ground; (2) 

absence of nearby vegetation which could shade the site 

for significant periods of time; (3) sufficient distance 

(generally at least 10 m) from nearby test wells to avoid 

possible perturbing effects; and (4) alinement of sites 

along and across the long axes of the two thermal 

anomalies so as to check the previous interpretation 

(Olmsted, 1977) of the extent and configuration of the 

anomalies. A total of 15 sites in the Soda Lakes area and 

8 sites in the Upsal Hogback area were occupied for the 

1-year period from mid-December 1976, to midDecember 1977. Additional samples were placed at 19 of 

the 23 sites for the 3-month period from mid-December 

1977, to mid-March 1978.

In order to provide data for comparison with and adjustment of some of the Pallmann-method temperatures, 

monthly measurements were made with a 1-m thermistor probe at four sites in the Soda Lakes area and 

four sites in the Upsal Hogback area from mid-December 

1976, to mid-March 1978. Measurement techniques were 

those described by Olmsted (1977, p. B5).
120°

EVALUATION OF PALLMAN TECHNIQUE, WEST-CENTRAL NEVADA

119° PERSHING CO

CHURCHILL CO

15

118°

CHURCHILL CO 

MINERAL CO

Hawthorne

r

\

10 20 30 40 KILOMETERS

I_____I_____|____I

10 20 MILES

FIGURE 2. West-central Nevada, showing the location of Soda Lakes and Upsal Hogback geothermal areas.
16 GROUND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

DATA REDUCTION AND 

INTERPRETATION

Pallmann temperatures at depths of 1 and 2 m were 

determined by the method described by Norton and 

Friedman in PART I of the present paper. As discussed 

by them and by Lee (1969) and O'Brien (1971), the Pallmann method consistently overestimates integrated 

arithmetic-mean temperature for the period of measurement because the rate of sucrose hydrolysis varies exponentially instead of linearly with temperature. The 

magnitude of the difference between the measured 

exponential-mean temperature and the arithmeticmean temperature increases with increasing temperature range but decreases slightly with increasing mean 

temperatures. Lee (1969, p. 427) and Norton and 

Friedman (PART I, fig. 1) have calculated the corrections to the measured Pallmann temperatures, assuming 

harmonic temperature fluctuation for the period of interest and using an activation energy of 27 kcal/mole 

(kilocalories per mole) for the Pallmann reaction. The 

larger corrections associated with the larger ranges in 

temperature fluctuation account for the higher measured Pallmann temperatures at 1 m than at 2 m at many 

sites in the Soda Lakes and Upsal Hogback areas. Actually, at most places net heat flow for a yearly cycle is 

upward, and the integrated arithmetic-mean annual 

temperature at 1 m is therefore less, not greater, than 

that at 2 m.

Comparisons between adjusted Pallmann temperatures integrated arithmetic means and means determined by thermistor measurements at monthly intervals 

at a depth of 1 m at eight sites in the Soda Lakes and Upsal Hogback areas are presented in table 5. Two periods 

of comparison were used: (1) The 3 months from 

December 15, 1977, to March 15, 1978; and (2) the 12 

months from December 15, 1976, to December 15, 1977. 

For each of these periods the measured Pallmann 

temperatures were adjusted to integrated arithmeticmean temperatures, using the temperature ranges and 

mean temperatures measured by thermistor and the corrections given by Norton and Friedman (PART I, fig. 1). 

Because the Pallmann solution ampoule at 1 m was 

broken upon recovery in December 1977, at one site (72) 

in the Upsal Hogback area, and another site (62), in the 

Soda Lake area, was not reoccupied during the ensuing 3 

months, only seven of the eight Pallmann sites provided 

temperature data for comparison with the concurrent 

thermistor temperatures.

For the 3 months from December 15, 1977, to March 

15, 1978, the corrections to the measured Pallmann 

temperatures at the seven sites were only 0.1 to 0.3°C 

because of the relatively small temperature fluctuation 

for this midwinter period (3.3-5.9°C). Except for two of

TABLE 5. Comparison of measured and adjusted Pallmann temperatures with thermistor temperatures at a depth of 1 m

[Leaders (- - -) indicate no data]

Temperature, in degrees Celsius

Pallmann

site 

number

Measured 

Pallmann

Adjusted 

Pallmann

Thermistor Difference1

3 months

57

58

60

72

73

74

76

8.8

26.6

16.5

12.7

9.1

9.7

9.9

8.6

26.3

16.2

12.5

9.0

9.6

9.7

7.9

21.8

16.0

10.7

8.7

10.1

9.6

2 0.7

2 4.5

30.2

'1.8

0.3 -0.5

0.1

12 months

57

58

60

62

73

74

76

19.0

>26.8

23.8

21.0

18.5

17.5

18.9

15.5

>24.8

22.1

17.4

15.7

15.0

16.3

15.8

26.6

22.2

17.4

16.2

15.5

16.0

-0.3

. . .

-0.1

0.0 -0.5

-0.5

0.3

'Adjusted Pallmann temperature minus thermistor temperature.

'Pallmann probe ~ 0.5 m too deep; adjusted temperature probably ~ 4°-5°C too high.

'Pallmann probe ~ 0.2 m too deep; adjusted temperature probably ~ 1°C too high.

the sites, where the Pallmann probe was inadvertently 

buried about 0.5 and 0.2 m too deep, agreement is good 

between the adjusted Pallmann temperatures and the 

thermistor temperatures: the differences are only a few 

tenths of a degree Celsius.

For the preceding 12-month period, larger corrections 

to the measured Pallmann temperatures were required 

(1.7°-3.6°C) because of the larger fluctuations in 

temperature (14.0°-21.6°C) for this period. In spite of 

the larger corrections, agreement between adjusted Pallmann temperatures and thermistor temperatures is as 

good for the annual period as for the 3-month period.

Because of the absence of concurrent thermistor 

temperature measurements the temperature-fluctuation 

data required for calculating adjusted Pallmann 

temperatures were not obtained at most of the Pallmann 

sites. For this reason, we use measured (unadjusted) 

Pallmann temperatures in the following discussions of 

results in the two geothermal areas. As described above, 

these measured temperatures may be several degrees 

Celsius higher than the integrated arithmetic-mean 

temperatures, especially for longer periods such as a year 

and at depth of only 1 m. However, the feasibility of the 

Pallmann method as a geothermal exploration tool depends in large part on the usefulness of the unconnected 

temperatures in delineating areas underlain by abnormal temperatures at greater depth.
EVALUATION OF PALLMAN TECHNIQUE, WEST-CENTRAL NEVADA 17

RESULTS IN SODA LAKES 

GEOTHERMAL AREA

Measured Pallmann temperatures for 12 months at 1 

and 2 m at 15 sites in the Soda Lakes area outline in a 

general way the thermal anomaly defined by temperatures at 15 m in test wells (fig. 3). Temperatures at 15 m 

range from more than 100°C (boiling temperatures at 

hydrostatic depth) in the southwest part of the anomaly 

to less than 20° C on the margins of the anomaly. The 

general north-northeasterly alinement of the anomaly is 

delineated clearly by the Pallmann temperatures, but 

the temperatures at 1 m delineate only the hottest area 

(more than 40°C at 15 m). Temperatures at 1 m in the 

hottest area probably are more than 10°C higher than 

the background values, which range from less than 19° C 

to more than 18°C.

Temperatures at 2 m for the same period at the same 

15 sites appear to define the north-northeasterly elongation of the deeper, 15-m anomaly somewhat better than 

do the 1-m temperatures. At many sites the 2-m 

temperatures are less than the measured 1-m temperatures for the same 12-month period because of the smaller fluctuation and correspondingly smaller negative correction at the 2-m depth.

Correlation of temperatures at a depth of 15 m 

below the range of significant annual temperature fluctuation with temperatures at depths of 1 or 2 m affords 

a useful index of the reliability of the shallower measurements in outlining deeper thermal anomalies. The correlation of temperature at 15 m with temperature at 2 m 

measured by the Pallmann method for the 

12-month period at nine sites is shown in figure 4. The 

coefficient of determination, r2 (a measure of variance), 

is 0.93, which indicates a fairly good fit to the leastmean-squares regression. Similar correlations for depths 

of 15 and 1 m and for the 3-month period are summarized in table 2. As might be expected because of 

larger range in annual temperature fluctuations at 1 m 

than at 2 m, the correlation of temperature at 15 m with 

that at 1 m is poorer than for 15 m versus 2 m (r2 = 0.77 

instead of 0.93). The similar correlations for the 3-month 

period indicate a somewhat better fit (larger values of r2 ) 

for these data, probably because of the smaller 

temperature fluctuations during the 3-month period as 

compared to the 12-month period.

RESULTS IN UPSAL HOGBACK 

GEOTHERMAL AREA

As shown in figure 5, the areal range in temperature at 

a depth of 15 m is only about 5°C in the Upsal Hogback 

area, as compared to a range of more than 80° C in the 

Soda Lakes area. The corresponding ranges in 12-month

Pallmann temperatures at 1 and 2 m are even smaller 

and do not correlate well with the temperatures at a 

greater depth. The highest temperature at 2 m (18.4°C) 

does occur at a site immediately southeast of the hottest 

part of the thermal anomaly at 15 m, but the temperatures at the other Pallmann sites show no consistent pattern related to the deepter anomaly. Unfortunately, the 

Pallmann-solution ampoule at 1 m was broken upon 

recovery from the hottest site at 2 m, so no pattern at all 

is apparent from the 1-m data.

Coefficients of determination (r2) for the least-meansquares linear regressions of temperatures at 15 m versus 

temperatures at 1 and 2 m corroborate the generally poor 

correlations described above (see table 6). As in the Soda 

Lakes area, the temperatures at 2 m show a somewhat 

better correlation with temperatures at 15 m than do the 

temperatures at 1 m, but the improved correlation for 

the 2-m data results entirely from the single value 

southeast of the hottest part of the 6 thermal anomaly, 

where the measurement at 1 m was lost because of the 

broken Pallmann ampoule (see fig. 6). Coefficients of 

determination are significantly higher for the 3-month 

period than for the 12-month period for both 1- and 2-m 

data, most likely because of the smaller amplitudes of 

temperature fluctuation during the shorter period.

TABLE 6. Comparison of coefficients of determination (r2 ) for leastmean-squares linear regressions of temperature at 15 m versus 

temperatures at 1 m and 2 m

Soda Lakes area Upsal Hogback area

Depths

(m)

1, 15

2, 15

1, 15

2, 15

Period

(months)

3

3

12

12

No. of

sites

9

8

9

9

Coefficient of

determination

(r2 )

0.84

.96

.77

.93

No. of

sites

5

4

4

5

Coefficient of

determination

(r2 )

0.48

.58

.06

.38

CONCLUSIONS

The results of our field test in the Soda Lakes and 

Upsal Hogback areas indicated that the Pallmann 

method of temperature integration, when used at depths 

of only 1 or 2 m, is useful in mapping temperature 

anomalies at greater depths, below the range of significant seasonal temperature fluctuation. As is true of more 

conventional synoptic measurements, the Pallmann 

method works best where areal differences in 

temperature at greater depths are large, as in the Soda 

Lakes area (more than 80°C at 15 m), and is least useful 

where the areal differences are small, as in the Upsal 

Hogback area (only about 5°C at 15 m).
18 GROUND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

118°50'

39°50'

T. 20 N. 

T. 19 N.

EXPLANATION

1 17.8 Measurement site and temperatures

18.8 at depths of 1 m (top number) and

2 m (bottom number), in degrees

Celsius, as measured by Pallmann

method

Line of equal Pallmann temperature 

at a depth of 2 m. Interval, 2° 

Celsius

-20 Line of equal temperature at a depth 

of 15 m, as measured in test wells. 

Interval, 20° Celsius

J8-

Ml

18.3

17.2

4 KILOMETERS

2 MILES

Base from USGS 15' topo series. Soda Lake, Nevada

FIGURE 3. Soda Lakes area, Nevada, showing measured Pallmann temperatures at 1 and 2 m for December 15, 1976, to December 15, 1977,

and temperatures at 15 m in test wells for fall 1975.
EVALUATION OF PALLMAN TECHNIQUE, WEST-CENTRAL NEVADA 19

75

U)

D 70 

in

o 65

U)

LLJ

60

O

£ 30 

cc 25

20

15

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 

TEMPERATURE AT 2 METERS (t 2 ), IN DEGREES CELSIUS

FIGURE 4. Correlation of temperature at 15 m in test wells with 

measured Pallmann temperatures at 2 m for December 15, 1976, to 

December 15, 1977, Soda Lakes area, Nevada.

In principle, the chief advantage of the Pallmann 

method over single sets of synoptic temperature measurements should be in minimizing the perturbing effects 

of areal differences in thermal diffusivity, degree of 

stratification of materials, and depth to the water table. 

All these factors affect both the amplitude and the phase 

lag of the annual temperature wave but do not 

significantly affect the average annual temperature at a 

given depth, which is indicated approximately by the 

Pallmann temperature. The perturbing effects of the 

other nongeothermal factors, such as nonuniform 

topography, albedo, and vegetative cover, would be expected to affect both Pallmann-method and conventional synoptic-method temperature measurements 

equally because these factors control the average annual 

temperature at land surface at a site. In principle, 

therefore, the Pallmann method should be a better exploration tool than a single set of synoptic temperature 

measurements in mapping diffuse temperature anomalies like that near Upsal Hogback.

Our field test, however, suggested but did not unequivocally demonstrate the superiority of the Pallmann 

method over conventional synoptic measurements in the 

Upsal Hogback area. The coefficient of determination

(r2 ) for the least-mean-squares linear regression of 

temperatures at 15 m versus temperatures at 1 m for the 

period December 15, 1977, to March 15, 1978, is 0.48 

(table 6); r2 for the equivalent regression using 

temperatures measured December 2, 1975, with a thermistor at 1 m at the same sites is only 0.20. For the 

12-month period December 15, 1976, to December 15, 

1977, r2 for temperatures at 15 m versus temperature at 1 

m by the Pallmann method is only 0.06, but this value 

represents only four of the five data pairs used in the 

other correlations; the measurement was lost at the 

critical site near the hottest part of the 15-m 

temperature anomaly.

In both the Soda Lakes and the Upsal Hogback areas, 

Pallmann temperatures at 2 m correlate better with 

temperatures at 15 m than do the Pallmann temperatures at 1 m. In large part, the improved correlation is a 

consequence of the smaller variation, at 2 m than at 1 m, 

in the differences between the Pallmann integratedmean temperature (an exponential mean) and the true 

integrated arithmetic-mean temperature. In addition, 

the temperatures at greater depths are affected less than 

are the temperatures at shallower depths by other surface and near-surface nongeothermal influences. Insofar 

as these influences affect the average annual 

temperature, a part of the advantage of deeper over shallower temperature measurements is common to both 

synoptic and Pallmann integrated temperatures.

Although in principle a period of a year might appear 

to be optimum for application of a temperatureintegration method, in our field tests the Pallmann 

temperatures at both 1 and 2 m for a 3-month midwinter 

period showed a somewhat better correlation with 

temperatures at a greater depth than did the Pallmann 

temperatures for a 12-month period at the same depths. 

The most likely explanation involves the fact that the 

Pallmann temperatures are integrated exponential 

means rather than arithmetic means. The smaller 

temperature flucuation for the shorter period results in 

smaller difference between the Pallmann temperatures 

and the arithmetic-mean temperatures. This factor apparently outweighs the effects of the areal differences in 

the amplitude and phase lag of the annual temperature 

wave, which would tend to produce more scatter in the 

3-month data and a poorer correlation of these shorter 

term data with temperatures at 15 m or more.

In general, the use of the Pallmann method at depths 

of 1 or 2 m will have many of the problems common to 

more conventional temperature measurements at shallow depths. However, the method is convenient and it 

eliminates the need for the frequent visits to sites that 

would be required to obtain data of similar quality from 

sets of synoptic measurements by thermistor or thermocouple probes.
20

118°50'

GROUND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

118°45'

EXPLANATION

 75.5 Measurement site and temperatures 

17.3 at depths of 1 m (top number) and 2 

m (bottom number), in degrees 

Celsius, as measured by Pallmann 

method

0 Line of equal temperature at a depth 

of 15 m, as measured in test wells. 

Interval, 2° Celsius

39°40'

Base from USGS 15' topo series. 

Desert Peak, 1951; Carson Sink, 1951; 

Soda Lake, 1951; Stillwater, 1950.

FIGURE 5. Upsal Hogback area, Nevada, showing measured Pallmann temperatures at 1 and 2 m for December 15,1976, to 

December 15, 1977, and temperatures at 15 m in test wells for September 1975.
EVALUATION OF PALLMAN TECHNIQUE, WEST-CENTRAL NEVADA 21

22.0

21.5

21.0

20.5

20.0

- 19.5

19.0

18.5

18.0

S 17.5

17.0

16.5

16.0

*15 = 1.47*2-6.50, 

r2 =0.38

16.0 16.5 17.0 17.5 18.0 18.5 19.0 

TEMPERATURE AT 2 METERS (t 2 ), IN DEGREES CELSIUS

FIGURE 6. Correlation of temperature at 15 m in test wells with 

measured Pallmann temperatures at 2 m for December 15, 1976, to 

December 15, 1977, Upsal Hogback area, Nevada.

REFERENCES CITED

Lee, Richard, 1969, Chemical temperature integration: Journal of Applied Meteorology, v. 8, p. 423-430.

O'Brien, P. J., 1971, Pallmann method for mass sampling of soil, 

water, or air temperatures: Geological Society of America Bulletin, 

v. 82, no. 10, p. 2927-2932.

Olmsted, F. H., 1977, Use of temperature surveys at a depth of 1 meter 

in geothermal exploration in Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey 

Professional Paper 1044-B, 25 p.

Olmsted, F. H., Glancy, P. A. Harrill, J. R., Rush, F. E., and VanDenburgh, A. S., 1975, Preliminary hydrogeologic appraisal of selected 

hydrothermal systems in northern and central Nevada: U.S. 

Geological Survey Open-file Report 75-56, 360 p.

Pallmann, H. E., Eichenberger, E., and Hasler, A., 1940, Eine neue 

Methode der Temperaturmessung bei okologischen oder bodenkundlichen Untersuchungen [A new method of temperature 

measurement in ecological or pedological investigations]: Berichte 

der Schweizerischen Botanischen Gesellschaft p. 337-362.

GROUND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

PART HI, GROUND TEMPERATURES IN AND 

NEAR YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK

BylRviNG FRIEDMAN and DANIEL R. NORTON

CONTENTS

Abstract ----------

Introduction -------

Field investigations

Page 

23

24 

24 

24

Page

.....-..----.-------. 34

QQ

QQ

ILLUSTRATIONS

 Page

FIGURE 7. Generalized sketch map of Yellowstone National Park and vicinity showing site localities and numbers ------------------- 25

8. Plot of instantaneous ground-temperature measurements made in late September 1978, and mid-February 1979 ----------- 32

9. Map of Yellowstone National Park and vicinity with the corrected 2-m Pallmann temperature shown for each site -i------- 35

10. Plot of 2-m corrected Pallmann temperatures, arranged by types of sites ----------------------------------------------- 36

11. Map of Yellowstone National Park and vicinity showing temperature groups, from 0 to 6 degrees Celsius

at 48 sites ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37

12. Plot of 2-m corrected Pallmann temperatures versus difference in temperature between 1 and 2 m ----------------------- 38

13. Plot of 2-m instantaneous maximum temperatures made in late September 1978, and normalized to a 7000-ft (2133-m)

altitude---------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 39

TABLES

Page

TABLE 7. Description of sites ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26

8. Pallmann temperatures ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 29

9. Instantaneous temperature measurements in degrees Celsius --------------------------------------------------------- 31

ABSTRACT

The Pallmann method was used to determine ground temperatures 

at 1- and 2-meter (m) depths at 57 sites in Yellowstone National Park 

and vicinity for several annual periods. These measurements were used 

for determining rates of obsidian hydration for dating. In order to 

utilize these measurements for heat-flow comparisons of the different 

sites, the 2-m data points were normalized to a common altitude and 

degree of shade. Using these corrected Pallmann temperatures, we

were able to define areas of anomalous heat flow at sites distant from 

known geothermal influence. In addition to Pallmann measurements, 

we made instantaneous ground-temperature measurements at most 

Pallmann sites at or near the temperature maximum and minimum for 

the year. These instantaneous measurements were made to determine 

the temperature range in order to convert Pallmann temperatures to 

arithmetic-mean annual temperatures.

23
24 GROUND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

INTRODUCTION

Ground-temperature measurements were made in 

order to calculate rates of hydration of obsidian collected 

from locations in and near Yellowstone National Park. 

These rates of hydration were used to date volcanic flows 

and other geologic features containing obsidian. Our first 

attempt at temperature measurements utilized continuous recorders to record the temperature of thermocouples buried in the ground. This technique severely 

limited the location of the sites where temperature could 

be measured, inasmuch as electric power and a shelter 

had to be available for the recorder. The difficulty of servicing the equipment during the winter proved to be 

another limitation. The Pallmann technique seemed 

well suited for these measurements. In September of 

1975, Irving Friedman and Daniel R. Norton, assisted by 

Fred Cater, emplaced forty-five 2-m probes containing 

Pallmann solution in various parts of the park (fig. 7). 

Some of the sites selected for probe emplacement were 

located adjacent to those places previously used to collect obsidian which was used to date volcanic flows and 

glacial events. Another group of probes was placed both 

inside and outside of the Yellowstone caldera in an attempt to determine if there was a measurable difference 

in ground temperature between these two areas. 

Previous analysis of data from obsidian-hydration 

measurements of K-Ar dated obsidian flows had suggested a higher ground temperature at 2-m depth inside 

of the caldera as compared with the outside. We tried to 

place all our probes as far as possible from known thermal areas. The probes were all emplaced in level ground. 

Where possible, we selected areas that would remain in 

the sun all day. A description of the location of the sites 

is given in table 7.

FIELD INVESTIGATIONS

In September 1976, the first group of probes was 

removed after having been in place for 1 year, and was 

reemplaced with new Pallmann solutions. In addition to 

these initial 45 sites, 12 new sites were added in 

September and October of 1976. In October 1977, the 

Pallmann vials were retrieved from all sites and most 

sites were then abandoned. All the vials containing the 

Pallmann solution were frozen in dry ice immediately 

upon removal from the probe. The rotation of polarized 

light of the solutions were all measured within a day or 

two with equipment set up in the park. The results are 

given in table 8.

In late September and early October of 1978, instantaneous ground-temperature measurements at 0.5- , 1-, 

and 2-m depth were made at all sites. In February of 

1979, ground temperatures at these same depths were

measured at a group of selected Pallmann sites. These 

instantaneous measurements taken in September 1978, 

and February 1979, at or near the maximum and 

minimum of the annual temperature cycle allow us to 

convert Pallmann-effective annual temperatures to 

obsidian-effective temperatures, and also to arithmeticmean annual temperatures (see PART I).

A description of the Pallmann probes and the techniques used to emplace them are given in PART I. The 

instantaneous temperatures were obtained using thermistor probes (Enviro Labs Model1 DT101) which were 

allowed to remain in place until the temperature 

stabilized to within 0.05°C (Celsius) when read at 10- 

minute intervals. The time to reach a constant 

temperature was minimized by adjusting the thermistor 

probe to the approximate ground temperature before inserting it into the ground. In the autumn, the thermistor 

probes reached equilibrium within Vz to 3/4 hour.

In the winter the above procedure was modified 

because of temperature changes in the holes caused by 

penetration of cold air. To minimize this effect, the 

probes were inserted in the ground as soon as possible 

after the holes were completed. The temperature of the 

probes was initially adjusted to be slightly cooler than 

that of the ground. Upon insertion into the ground, the 

temperature rapidly increased to a maximum, and then 

began to decrease as cold air penetrated into the freshly 

opened soil. When this occurred, we pounded the probes 

about 2-4 cm (centimeter) farther into the ground and 

observed a rise in temperature as fresh warm soil was 

penetrated by the probe. This second maximum was 

recorded as the actual ground temperature. The results 

of these instantaneous temperature measurements are 

given in table 9 and plotted in figure 8.

DISCUSSION

The annual integrated ground temperature is a function of the soil thermal diffusivities plus the:

1. Heat flow from the surface downward.

2. Heat flow from the interior upward.

The heat flow downward will be determined by the 

hours of sunlight, amount of shade received by the site, 

the type of ground cover, the albedo of the soil, the 

amount and duration of snow cover as well as the air 

temperature and wind velocity, both of which are 

somewhat dependent upon elevation.

If we desire to determine the effective annual 

temperature at a particular site for obsidian or aminoacid dating studies, then the Pallmann measurements 

will yield the necessary data. However, if we desire to

'Use of trade name in this paper is for descriptive purposes only and does not constitute endorsement of the product by the U.S. Geological Survey.
GROUND TEMPERATURES, YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK 110°

FIGURE 7. Generalized sketch map of Yellowstone National Park and vicinity showing site localities and numbers.
26 GROUND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS 

TABLE 7. Description of sites

Site (geographic order) 

No. Name

Topographic 

quadrangle name1

Latitude, N. Longitude, W. Altitude2

deg min s Directions to site3

1. TetonPass -------------- TetonPass (7.5')--------- 43 29 31 110 57 17 8630

2. Snake River------------- Jackson (7.5') -- 

3. Mosquito Creek---------- TetonPass (7.5')

4. West Yellowstone Flow - - - West Yellowstone 

(shade).

60. W. Yellowstone Flow ----- - - - do

(sun). 

5. Madison Plateau Rd. ----- - - - do

6. West Entrance - ---------- ---do

7. Miller Garden ----------- Miner-----

43 27 53 110 52 20 6160

43 26 24 110 56 39 6780

44 35 29 111 8 39 7540

44 35 29 111 8 39 7540

44 39 14 111 6 39 6660

44 39 9 111 5 0 6660

45 5 14 110 46 33 5120

55. MillerField ------------- ---do--

8. Pebble Creek ------------ Abiathar Peak

9. Lamar Ranger Station---- ---do ---

45 40 110 46 34 5120

44 55 4 110 6 54 7040

44 53 46 110 13 27 6740

10. SloughCreek ------------ Tower Junction---------- 44 45 35 110 18 58 6220

11. BunsenPeak ------------ Mammoth-------------- 44 55 28 110 43 21 7280

13. MesaRoadI--------------Madison Junction ------ 44 37 11 110 49 42 7180

14. CougarCreek------------ ... do

15. MesaRoadll------------ ---do

44 40 49 110 57 57 6900

16. Harlequin Lake ---------- ..-do ----

17. Norris Junction ---------- Norris Junction -

18. Cascade Meadows -------- ---do

(shade).

54. Cascade Meadows -------- ..-do

(sun)

19. UpperFalls ------------- ---do

2630

1880

2065

2300

2300

2030

2030

1560

1560

2145

2055

1895

2220

2190

2105

0. 7 mi S . on service road from 

Teton Pass to transmission 

tower; 20 yd W. from tower to 

site (not shown on fig. 7).

2.6 mi S. on secondary road from 

Wilson; 10 yd E. from road 

to site (not shown on fig. 7).

4.4 mi S. on secondary road from 

Wilson; 4.5 mi W. on dirt road; 

5 yd N. from road to site (not 

shown on fig. 7).

6.6 mi S. on Madison Plateau Rd. 

from W. Yellowstone; 40 yd W. 

from road to site.

15 yd E. of site 4.

0.4 mi S. on Madison Plateau Rd.

from W. Yellowstone; 15 yd E.

from road to site. 

0.3 mi S. on service road from

W. Entrance; 10yd from rear

of pumphouse. 

4.9 mi NW. on Rt. 89 from

Gardiner to Miller property;

60 yd N. of residence at end

44 38 20 110 48 15 7180 2190

44 38 27 110 53 30 6800 2075

44 43 30 110 40 54 7500 2285

44 44 7 110 30 57 7950 2425

44 44 7 110 30 46 7880 2400

44 42 57 110 30 57 7960 2425

4.9 mi NW. on Rt. 89 from Gardiner 

to Miller property; 120yd SW. 

of residence to site.

40 yd N. of parking lot of 

Pebble Creek Campground.

0.4 mi NW. on unimproved dirt 

road from Lamar Ranger Station; 60 yd W. from road to site.

0.4 mi N. on Slough Creek Campground road from its intersection with NE. Entrance 

road; 10 yd E. from road to site.

0.6 mi S. on Bunsen Peak Rd., 

from its intersection with 

Grand Loop Rd.; original site 

No. 11, 4yd SW. from road; site 

Nos. lla, b, c, and d, 13 yd SW. 

from road.

1.3 mi E. on Mesa Rd. from its 

intersection with Grand Loop 

Rd.; 10 yd S. from road to 

site.

I.5 mi NW. on trail starting 

from E. side of bridge crossing 

Madison R. at a point 7.4 mi 

E. of the W. Entrance on W. 

Entrance Rd.; lOydN. 80°E. 

from trail -marker sign to site.

3.1 mi E. andNE. onMesaRd. 

from its intersection with 

Grand Loop Rd.; 5 yd E. from 

road to site.

II.7 mi E.onW. Entrance Rd.

from W. Entrance; 30 yd N.

from road to site. 

0.8 mi W. on Norris- Canyon Rd.

from Norris Jet. ; 50 yd. S. from

road to site. 

1.2 mi E. on Norris-Canyon Rd.

from Canyon Jet.; 40 yd. N.

from road to site. 

1 .1 mi W. on Norris-Canyon Rd.

from Canyon Jet. ; 20 yd N. from

road to site. 

0.6 mi W. on service road from

its intersection with Grand

Loop Rd.; 40 yd S. from road

to site.
GROUND TEMPERATURES, YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK

TABLE 7. Description of sites continued

27

Site (geographic order) 

No. Name

Topographic 

quadrangle name 1

Latitude, N. Longitude, W. Altitude2

deg min deg min s Directions to site3

20. Elk Antler Creek--------- Canyon Village---------- 44 38 18 110 26 59 7720 2355 8.4 mi S. on Grand Loop Rd.

from Canyon Jet.; 70 yd NW. 

from road to site.

21. Blacktail Deer Dr. -------- Tower Junction ---------- 44 55 36 110 27 19 6840 2085 0.6mi W. on BlacktailDeerDr.

from its eastern intersection 

with Grand Loop Rd.; 20 yd S. 

from road to site.

22. TowerFall -------------- ... do ------------- 44 51 56 110 23 37 7080 2160 2.3 mi S. on Grand Loop Rd.

from its intersection with 

Tower Falls Campground; 

40 yd W. from road to site.

23. LeHardys Rapids -------- Canyon Village ---------- 44 36 15 110 23 0 7800 2375 2.6 mi N. on Grand Loop Rd. from

Lake Jet.; 50 yd W. from road 

to site.

24. Grants Pass I ------------ Old Faithful ------------ 44 23 17 110 49 53 7900 2410 2.4 mi S. on trail from footbridge over the Firehole R. 

located near Lone Star geyser; 

10 yd W. from trail to site.

25. GrantsPassH ----------- ... do ------------- 44 22 56 110 49 36 8000 2440 2.9 mi S. on trail from footbridge over the Firehole R. 

located near Lone Star geyser; 

5 yd S W. of trail to site at 

Continental Divide.

26. DeLacy Creek ----------- WestThumb------------ 44 27 4 110 41 15 8000 2440 7.9miW. on Grand Loop Rd.

from W. Thumb Jet.; 30 yd SW. 

from road to site.

27. DivideLake------------- ... do ------------- 44 26 5 110 38 17 8380 2555 4.1 mi W. on Grand Loop Rd.

from W. Thumb Jet.; 10 yd N. 

of road to site.

28. Little Thumb Creek------ ... do ------------- 44 25 14 110 36 11 8200 2500 2.1 mi W. on Grand Loop Rd.,

from W. Thumb Jet.; 20 yd SW. 

from road site.

29. Turbid Lake (shade).----- Canyon Village ---------- 44 33 7 110 16 1 7920 2415 3.0 mi E. on service road from its

intersection with E. Entrance 

Rd. at Squaw Lake; 15 yd NE. 

from road to site (22 yd SE. 

of site No. 30).

30. Turbid Lake (sun).------- --- do ------------- 44 33 10 110 16 3 7910 2410 20 yd NW. of site No. 29.

31. Mummy Cave ----------- Clayton Mountain (7.5')-- 44 27 33 109 42 57 6130 1868 17.4 mi E. on Wyoming Rt. 16

from E. Entrance; 15yd SE. 

from road to site, (not shown 

on fig. 7).

32. FishingBridge----------- Canyon Village---------- 44 33 42 110 21 49 7780 2370 1.0 mi E. on E. Entrance Rd.

from Fishing Bridge; 10 yd 

N. from road to site.

33. Pelican Creek Campground- ... do ------------- 44 36 16 110 20 49 7760 2365 0.4 mi N. on Pelican Creek Camp-

(sun). ground road from its intersection with E. Entrance Rd.; 

15 yd W. of parking turnout.

34. Pelican Creek Campground- ... do ------------- 44 36 16 110 20 50 7760 2365 0.4 mi N. on Pelican Creek Camp-

(shade). ground road from its intersection with E. Entrance Rd.; 

5 yd E.of parking turnout.

35. Natural Bridge ---------- ... do------------- 44 31 42 110 26 45 7820 2385 0.7 mi W. on Natural Bridge road

from its intersection with 

Grand Loop Rd.; 25 yd N. from 

road to site.

36. SandPoint-------------- Franklsland ------------ 44 29 36 110 25 26 7880 2400 3.6 mi S. on Grand Loop Rd. from

its intersection with Natural 

Bridge road; 35 yd NW. from 

road to site.

37. PumicePoint ------------ WestThumb------------ 44 27 47 110 28 45 7760 2365 9.9 mi N. on Grand Loop Rd. from

W. Thumb Jet.; 10yd NW. 

from road to site.

38. ArnicaCreek ------------ ... do ------------- 44 28 40 110 31 56 7760 2365 5.8 mi N. on Grand Loop Rd.

from W. Thumb Jet.; 30 yd 

N. from road to site.

39. Grant Village------------ --- do ------------- 44 23 24 110 33 57 7840 2390 0.2 mi E. on Grant Village road

from its intersection with S. 

Entrance Rd.; 15yd N. from 

road to site.

41. Falls River -------------- Warm River Butte ------- 44 3 1 111 11 39 5935 1810 0.3 mi E. on Reclamation Rd.

from Targhee National Forest 

boundary; 10 yd NE. from road 

to site.
28 GROUND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

TABLE 7. Description of sites continued

Site (geographic order) 

No. Name

Topographic 

quadrangle name 1

Latitude, N. Longitude, W. Altitude2

deg min s Directions to site3

42. Grassy Lake Grassy Lake Reservior---- 44 7 34 110 50 35 7300

43. Lamar Canyon East I----- Tower Junction---------- 44 54 53 110 15 49 6560

58. Lamar Canyon East II---- ---do ---

45. Fossil Forest------------- Abiathar Peak 

46. FlintCreek-------------- ..-do---

47. Timothy Creek ---------- Pelican Cone -

48. Saddle Mountain -------- Sunlight Peak

49. Little Lamar River ------- Pelican Cone -

50. ColdCreek------------- ..-do--

51. Miller Creek------------- Abiathar Peak 

52. Cache Creek (sun) -------- - - - do - - -

53. Cache Creek (shade)------ ---do --- 

56. Gravel Pit --------------- Tower Junction 

57. Lamar Canyon West------ ---do ----

59. Ashton ------------------ Warm River (7.5'

44 54 53

44 51 28

44 46 5

44 42 54

44 42 6

44 40 20

44 41 0

44 45 16

44 47 59

44 47 59

44 54 28

44 55 13

44 4 19

110 15 49 6560

110 14 20 8400

110 10 15 9025

110 9 47 8520

110 59 31 9820

110 1 32 7440

110 3 22 7250

110 5 51 7160

110 7 38 6870

110 7 38 6870

110 20 46 6180

110 18 12 6360

111 21 16 5565

2225 1.1 mi W. on Reclamation Rd. 

from the W. end of the Grassy 

Lake Dam; 5 yd SW. from road 

to site.

2000 2.6 mi E. on NE. Entrance Rd. 

from its intersection with 

Slough Creek Campground 

road; 20 yd N. from road to site.

2000 10 yd E. of site No. 43 to 

site No. 58

2560 2.7 air miles S.4°12'W. from

Lamar Ranger Station; 15 yd 

SW. from edge of forest.

2750 2.9 air miles S.77°48'W. from

Calfee Creek Patrol Cabin; 180 

yd N. of Flint Creek tributary.

2595 5.5 air miles N.67°0'W. from 

Cold Creek Patrol Cabin; 30 

yd. E. from buffalo wallow.

2995 2.1 air miles N.63°30'W. from 

Upper Lamar R. Ranger 

Station; 70 yd S. from saddle 

between Little Saddle Mountain and Hayne Mountain.

2270 1.8air milesN.66°0'W. from Cold 

Creek Patrol Cabin; 25 yd NE. 

from edge of forest.

2210 0.2 air miles E. from Cold Creek 

Patrol Cabin to forest edge; 20 

yd E. from forest edge to site.

2180 1.8 air miles S.27°36'E. from 

Calfee Creek Patrol Cabin.

2095 1.6 air miles N.26°24'W. from 

Calfee Creek Patrol Cabin to 

campsite 34 signpost; 40yd 

NE. from signpost to site.

2095 30 yd E. from site No. 52 to 

site No. 53.

1885 4.2 mi E. on NE. Entrance Rd. 

from Tower Jet.; 20 yd N. 

from road to site.

1940 6.6 mi E. on NE. Entrance Rd. 

from Tower Jet.; 15 yd N. 

from road to site.

1695 6.3 mi E. on Rt. 67 from Ashton 

to junction with Reclamation 

Rd.; site is in northerly part 

of triangular junction, 5yd 

from Reclamation Rd. (not 

shown on fig. 7).

'All quadrangles are 15 minute unless otherwise noted.

! Altitudes given to ±20 ft and ±5 m.

'Odometer mileage; paced yards. A 1-yd pace equals about 1 m.
GROUND TEMPERATURES, YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK

TABLE 8. Pallmann temperatures

[t, temperature; At, difference in temperature between 1-m and 2-m values; leaders (- - -) indicate no data]

29

Corrected temp '

Site (geographic order)

No.

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

55. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

43.

11. 

13. 

14. 

15. 

16. 

17. 

18. 

54. 

19. 

20. 

21. 

22. 

23. 

24. 

25. 

26. 

27. 

28. 

29. 

30. 

32. 

33. 

34. 

35.

Name

W. Yellowstone Flow (shade) -

MillerField ----------------

Pphhlp Prpplr

IVTpQfl Rnn H TT

Cascade Meadows (shade). - - -

Elk Antler Creek ------------

Rlanlrtail Floor Fir

TowerFall -----------------

FlpT flf*\7 Proolr

Little Thumb Creek ---------

Turbid Lake (shade) ---------

Pelican Creek Campground - - 

(sun). 

Pelican Creek Campground - - 

(shade).

Depth 

(m)

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2

1976

f°C

2.68 

2.38

5.99 

4.98 

4.62 

3.13 

2.83

4.56 

5.86 

5.23 

11.40 

12.08

5.22 

4.04 

4.83 

4.12 

6.49 

8.12

4.88 

4.64 

4.71 

4.47 

6.72 

6.06 

4.23 

4.36 

4.20 

4.16 

5.92 

6.29

3.26

4.53 

4.43 

3.82 

3.66 

5.59 

4.95 

6.07 

5.08 

3.04 

2.25 

2.57 

2.27 

2.81 

2.09 

4.05 

3.90 

3.22 

2.56

2.44 

3.65 

3.96

5.62 

3.54 

3.22 

7.17 

7.50 

4.79 

5.81 

5.35 

6.08

At

0.30

.36 

.30

.43 

-.28

1.18 

.71 

-1.63

0.24 

.24 

.66 

-.13 

.04

QB

.10 

.16 

.64 

.99 

.78 

.30 

.72 

.15 

.56

-.31

.32 

-.33 

-1.02 

-.73

t°c

2.64 

2.40 

7.58 

6.26 

5.24 

4.59 

3.05 

2.75 

6.25 

5.26

'10.99 

'11.74 

3 9.34 

'9.02

4.35 

5.02 

4.26

7.02 

6.03

5.05 

4.65

7.02 

6.14 

4.01 

4.29 

4.57 

4.19 

6.15 

6.48 

3.32 

3.20 

6.08 

5.54 

4.68 

4.64 

3.72 

3.69 

5.30 

4.91 

5.95 

4.99 

2.68 

2.32 

2.52 

2.27 

3.03 

2.33 

3.77 

3.86 

3.61 

2.99

3.41 

3.71 

5.72 

5.54 

3.44 

3.29 

7.17 

7.89 

4.50 

5.70 

5.44 

6.13

1977

At

0.24 

1.32 

0.65 

.30 

.99

-.75 

.32

.76

.99 

0.40

.88 

-.28 

.38 

-.33 

.12 

.53 

.4 

.03 

.39 

.96 

.36 

.25 

.70 

-.09 

.62

-.30 

.18 

.15 

-.72 

-1.20 

-.69

Correction 

(both 1 and 2 m)

Alt'

+1.6 

-.8 

-.2 

+ .5 

-.3 

-.3 

-1.9 

-1.9 

0

_ 0

-.8 

-.4

+.3 

+.2 

-.1 

+.2 

-.2 

+ .5 

+ 1.0 

+ .9 

+1.0 

+ .7 

-.2 

+.1 

+ .8 

+.9 

+ 1.0 

+1.0 

+ 1.4 

+ 1.2 

+.9 

+ .9 

+ .8 

+ .8 

+ .8 

+ .8

Site1

+ 2.0 

+ .5 

+1.0 

+2.0 

+1.0 

+1.0 

0 

0 

+.5 

0 

0 

0 

0 

+ 1.5 

0 

+.5 

+ 2.0 

+1.0 

+1.5 

0 

+.5 

0 

0 

+.5 

+ 1.5 

+1.5 

+ 1.5 

+ 1.5 

+ 1.5 

+2.0 

+2.0 

0 

+ 1.5 

+.5 

+ 2.0 

+1.0

1976

6.3 

6.0

5.7 

5.8 

5.4 

5.6 

5.3

5.3 

6.6 

5.9 

9.5 

10.2

5.7 

4.5 

4.5 

3.8 

5.7 

7.3

5.2 

4.9 

6.4 

6.2 

6.6 

6.0 

4.9 

5.1 

6.0 

6.0 

7.4 

7.8

5.8

6.0 

5.9 

4.5 

4.4 

5.4 

4.8 

7.6 

6.6 

5.3 

4.6 

5.0 

4.7 

5.3 

4.6 

6.6 

6.4 

6.1 

5.5

5.6 

6.6 

6.9

6.5 

5.8 

5.5 

8.5 

8.8 

7.6 

8.6 

7.2 

7.9

1977

6.2 

6.0 

7.3 

6.0 

6.0 

5.4 

5.6 

5.3 

7.0 

6.0

9.1 

9.8

7.4 

7.1

4.9 

4.7 

4.0

6.6 

5.6

5.4 

5.0

6.9 

6.0 

4.7 

5.0 

6.4 

6.0 

7.7 

8.0 

5.8 

5.7 

7.0 

6.4 

6.2 

6.1 

4.4 

4.4 

5.1 

4.7 

7.5 

6.5 

5.0 

4.6 

4.9 

4.7 

5.5 

4.8 

6.3 

6.4 

6.5 

5.9

6.3 

6.6 

6.6 

6.4 

5.7 

5.6 

8.5 

9.1 

7.3 

8.5 

7.2 

7.9

»C

Avg 

1976-77 

at 2m

6.0 

5.9 

5.4 

5.3 

5.7 

5.9 

10.0 

7.1 

4.7 

3.9 

7.3 

5.6 

5.0 

6.2 

6.0 

5.1 

6.0 

7.9 

5.8 

6.4 

6.0 

4.4 

4.8 

6.6 

4.6 

4.7 

4.7 

6.4 

5.7 

5.6 

6.8 

6.5 

5.6 

9.0 

8.6 

7.9
30 GROUND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

TABLE 8. Pallmann temperatures continued

Corrected temp °C

Site (geographic order) 

No. Name

Depth

(m)

1977

Correction 

(both 1 and 2 m)

t°C Alt' Site' 1976 1977

Avg 

1976-77 

at 2m

36. SandPoint----------------- 1 4.00

2 3 73

37. PumicePoint--------------- 1 5.09

2 5.68

38. ArnicaCreek -------------- 1 4.76

2 4.56

39. Grant Village--------------- 1 6.85

2 8.09

41. FallsRiver ----------------- 1 6.24

2 5.85

42. GrassyLake---------------- 1 3.54

2 3.18

45. Fossil Forest ---------------- 1

2

46. FlintCreek----------------- 1

2

47. Timothy Creek ------------- 1

2

48. Saddle Mountain ----------- 1

2

49. Little Lamar River ---------- 1 ---

2

50. ColdCreek----------------- 1

2

51. MillerCreek---------------- 1

2

52. CacheCreek(sun)----------- 1

2

53. Cache Creek (shade).-------- 1 ---

2

.27

-.59 

.20

-1.24 

.39 

.36

3.90

5.00

5.60

4.96

5.02

7.04

8.45

7.55

6.73

4.14

3.51

4.13

3.43

3.95

3.74

2.91

2.46

4.18

3.46

4.76

4.52

6.28

5.89

6.87

6.94

5.92

-.60

-.06

-1.41 

.82 

.63 

.70

.45 

.72 

.24 

.39 

.07

+ .9

+.8

+ .8

+ .8

-1.1

+ .3

+ 1.4

+2.0

+ 1.5

+2.8

+ .4

+ .3

+.2

-.1

-.1

+ 1.5 

+ 1.5 

+ 1.5 

+ 1.5 

0

+ 1.0 

0 

0 

0 

0

+ 1.0

0

0

0

2.0

6.4 

6.1 

7.4 

8.0 

7.1 

6.9 

9.2 

10.4 

5.1 

4.8 

4.8 

4.5

6.3

7.3 

7.9 

7.3 

7.3 

9.3 

10.8 

6.5 

5.6 

5.4 

4.8 

5.5 

4.8

6.0

5.2 

5.7 

5.3 

5.6 

4.9 

5.1 

4.8 

6.5 

6.1 

6.8 

6.8

7.8

6.1 

8.0 

7.1 

10.6 

5.2

4.7

4.8 

6.0

5.2

5.3 

4.9 

4.8 

6.1 

6.8 

7.8

'All sites are normalized to an altitude of 7000 ft (2133 m) by applying a lapse rate of FC per 1000 feet of altitude.

!A11 sites normalized to a condition where site receives full sun all day.

'Solution of pH=3.51 used for these probes. All other probes contained pH=1.93 Pallmann solution.
GROUND TEMPERATURES, YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK

TABLE 9. Instantaneous temperature measurements in degrees Celsius 

[Data in italics are estimated. Leaders (- - -) indicate no data. Last column, At, 2 m is the temperature difference between 1978, 2m and 1979, 2m]

31

No.

4.

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

11. 

14. 

15. 

16. 

18. 

19. 

20. 

21. 

22. 

23. 

24. 

25. 

26. 

27. 

28. 

29. 

30. 

32. 

33.

Site

Name

W. Yellowstone Flow ----- 

(shade)

Pebble Creek ------------ 

Lamar Ranger Station ----

Cascade Meadows (shade)

Grants Pass I ------------ 

Grants Pass n ----------- 

DeLacy Creek -----------

Little Thumb Creek ------ 

Turbid Lake (shade) ------ 

Turbid Lake (sun) -------- 

Fishing Bridge -----------

Pelican Creek Campground 

(sun)

Sept.-Oct. 1978 Feb. 1979

0.5m

5.4

12.1 

6.7 

7.6 

10 3

7.0

Q Q

4.2 

5.8 

5.2

5.0 

7.2 

7.2

4.9

4.0 

5.3 

3.3 

5.8 

4.5 

4.4 

5.5 

4.8 

7.5

1m

5.1

13.5 

7.4 

7.5 

9 9

7.0

5.1 

6.5 

5.1

5.7 

7.5 

7.7

4.5 

5.3 

5.0 

5.5 

4.6 

5.0 

6.7 

5.5 

8.9

2m 0.5m 1m 2m

4.7 0 0.6 1.7

6.4 

6.4

Q Q

6.7 .7 1.7 3.7

6.1 

6.7 -1.0 .9 4.1 

4.9 -.2 1.2 2.3 

6.2

6.9 0 2.1 4.4

7 *

3.9 

4.3 

6.2 

4.8 -.3 -.6 3.3 

4.8 

5.4 

7.3 

5.2 

9.8

At, 

2m

3.0

7.6 

3.0 

3.0 

3.0 

3.0 

3.0 

3.0 

2.6 

2.6 

3.0 

1.3 

2.5 

3.0

2.0 

2.0 

2.0 

1.5 

1.5 

3.0 

3.0 

3.0 

1.5

No.

34.

35. 

36. 

37. 

38. 

39. 

41. 

42. 

45. 

47. 

48. 

49. 

50. 

51. 

52. 

53. 

54. 

55. 

56. 

57. 

58. 

59. 

60.

Site

Name

Pelican Creek Campground 

(shade) 

Natural Bridge ---------- 

Sand Point -------------- 

Pumice Point ------------

Grassy Lake ------------- 

Fossil Forest ------------- 

TimothyCreek ---------- 

Saddle Mountain -------- 

Little Lamar River -------

Cache Creek (sun) -------- 

Cache Creek (shade) ------ 

Cascade Meadows (sun) - - 

MillerField ------------

Lamar Canyon West ------ 

Lamar Canyon East n ----

W. Yellowstone Flow (sun)

Sept.-Oct. 1978 Feb. 1979

1.5m

5.5

6.0 

5.5 

5.2 

6.1 

6.6 

9.4

4.5 

6.4 

5.3 

3.4 

6.2 

6.5 

8.0 

9.0 

6.0 

7.5 

10.4 

12.2 

9.8 

9.9 

9.9 

6.9

1m

6.8

7.3 

5.4 

6.1 

6.2 

8.1

4.9 

6.7 

6.0 

4.3 

6.7 

7.3 

8.7 

9.5 

6.9 

7.6 

11.5 

11.9 

9.5 

9.4 

10.8 

6.8

2m 0.5m 1m 2m

7.7

8.2 

5.4 

7.0

9.5 2.7 4.9 8.6

5.0 

6.0 

6.2 

4.3 

5.1 

6.4 

8.7 

9.4 

7.4

7.5 .5 1.6 4.4 

11.9 -.6 1.7 5.4 

10.6 

9.8 -1.8 .6 5.5 

8.4 

10.4 1.1 3.4 6.7 

6.7 .8 1.3 2.5

At, 

2m

2.0

1.5 

3.0 

2.0

0.9 

3.0 

3.0 

3.0 

3.0 

3.0 

3.0 

3.0 

2.0 

1.5 

1.5 

3.1 

6.5 

1.5 

4.3 

1.5 

3.7 

4.2
32 GROUND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

SLOUGH CREEK

AND VICINITY

(9 Sites)

-2

4 6 8 10 

TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS

12 14 16

FIGURE 8. Above and facing page. Plot of instantaneous ground-temperature measurements made in late September 1978, and 

mid-February 1979. The sites plotted under "geothermal" are those sites that fall in the temperature groupings 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 

in figure 9. Slough Creek plot is from areas of possible anomalous heat flow.
GROUND TEMPERATURES, YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK 33

0.5

1.5

PART SHADE 

(7 Sites)

-2 4 6 8 10 

TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS

12 14 16
34 GROUND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

determine the relative heat flow upward from the interior of the Earth, then we must have a method of normalizing all sites to the same net heat flow downward 

from the ground surface. We attempted to do this for the 

Yellowstone sites by first making an altitude correction 

normalizing all sites to an altitude of 7,000 feet. This was 

first attempted by applying the pseudoadiabatic lapse 

rate of 2°C/1000 ft elevation. This altitude correction, 

when applied to pairs of stations differing only in 

altitude, did not give corrected temperatures that were 

equal at the two sites. A correction of 1°C per 1,000 feet 

of elevation yielded corrected temperature values in better accord in each of the paired stations. A lower lapse 

rate may be due to the sinking of cold air to the valley 

bottom. This effect, most noticeable in winter, will tend 

to reduce the normal lapse rate. These corrections are 

given in table 8.

The second correction applied to the data was for 

degree of shade received by the site. A completely open 

site one that received all of the available sun all year 

long was found to have an effective annual temperature that was 2°C higher at a depth of 2 m than a nearby 

completely shaded site. After estimating the degree of 

shade on a scale of 1 through 5, all sites were normalized 

to the completely open site condition by adding the appropriate correction (see table 8) to the altitudecorrected temperature. These corrections are considered 

to be a first approximation. Other corrections, such as 

soil thermal diffusivity, snow cover, and soil albedo, are 

not easily made, and were not evaluated. The corrected 

Pallmann temperatures are listed in table 8. Figure 9 is a 

map of the area under investigation with the 2-m corrected Pallmann temperatures shown for each site.

To convert Pallmann-effective temperatures to 

obsidian-effective temperatures and to arithmetic-mean 

temperatures, the plots (16) in figure 1, PART I were 

used. The minimum ground temperatures could not be 

obtained for many sites, and therefore we have estimated the minimum temperature for these sites. These 

estimated temperatures are shown in italic type in table 

9.

The temperature spread between summer maximum 

and winter minimum at 2 m is small, 3°C or less for most 

sites. As a result, the difference'between Pallmann- and 

obsidian-hydration effective temperature is 0.1°C or less 

at 2 m for all sites in the park. This will not be true for 

obsidian exposed at depths shallower than 2 m. For these 

samples, the constants used to convert from Pallmannto obsidian-hydration effective temperature can be computed from the 1-m data given in tables 8 and 9, together 

with plots in figure 1, PART I.

In terms of snow depth, the winter of 1975-76 was normal. However, the winter of 1976-77 was extremely dry 

with about one-third the normal snow depth. In 1977-78, 

about two to three times the normal snow depth was

recorded in the park. The 1978-79 winter was extremely 

cold with no respite through February, 1979. The snowfall was normal, and the ground was insulated from the 

cold by the snow (1-2 m snow depth by early February).

RESULTS

As discussed in PART I, the Pallmann temperatures 

given in table 8 differ from arithmetic-mean annual 

temperatures. In general, they will show higher readings 

than "arithmetic" mean annual, because the Pallmann 

solutions react in a nonlinear manner, that is, the reaction rate is an exponential, rather than a linear, function 

of temperature. In addition, in areas of normal heat flow, 

the upper vial will indicate a higher integrated temperature than the lower, again due to the higher temperatures experienced by the upper solutions as compared to 

the lower. Several sites must have been close to sources 

of high geothermal heat flow. At these places, extremely 

high temperatures were recorded at 2 m and these 

temperatures were higher than those recorded at 1 m. 

The Pallmann site near Grant Village was particularly 

hot, and we understand that wells drilled in the vicinity 

of Grant Village have encountered extremely hot water 

at rather shallow depths. Anomalously high Pallmann 

temperatures were also recorded at other sites, including 

the Slough Creek site and the Norris Junction site.

As mentioned previously, the Slough Creek site (10) 

yielded anomalously high Pallmann temperatures as 

compared to similar sites nearby. Additional Pallmann 

probes were placed at sites adjacent to Slough Creek 

(sites 43, 58), and the results are shown in figure 9. In addition to these Pallmann probes, instantaneous temperature measurements (in September 1978, and February 

1979) were made at three places close to the Slough 

Creek site (sites 56, 57, 58). These results are given in 

table 9. All of these results suggest an area of high heat 

flow in the Slough Creek area.

The winter of 1978-79 was one of the coldest on record. 

Not only were extremely low temperatures recorded 

(-56° Fahrenheit at Old Faithful) but the cold persisted 

without letup from mid-November 1978, through 

February 1979. In spite of this, the frost level did not 

penetrate deeply into the ground. At all but one site, the 

freezing line was between 0.5 and 1 m. The exception 

was Elk Antler Creek in Hayden Valley where the freezing line was just below 1 m. This site was exposed to the 

wind, and the snow depth when we visited in February 

1979, was only about 0.25 m, in contrast to the 1-2 m of 

snow cover at all the other sites. Evidently, the lowdensity abundant snow fell early enough in the fall to act 

as an effective thermal insulation at most sites.

In figure 10 we have plotted the corrected effective 

annual Pallmann temperatures at 2 m. Inasmuch as the 

corrections that we have applied to the measured tern-
GROUND TEMPERATURES, YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK 35

110° 111°

Main roads 

Other roads 

Park boundary

5 10

I - t

10 15 MILES

FIGURE 9. Yellowstone National Park and vicinity with the average corrected 2-m Pallmann temperature for 1976 -1977 shown for 

each site. These temperatures, in degree Celsius, have been normalized to 7000 ft (2133 m) and to a site that received all available sun 

(unshaded).
36 GROUND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

TEMPERATURE, 

678

IN DEGREES CELSIUS 

10 11

Geothermal

Slough Creek _ 

and vicinity

Full sun

Deep shade

Part shade

+1 +2 +3 

TEMPERATURE GROUP

+4 +5 +6

FIGURE 10. Plot of 2-m corrected Pallmann temperatures, arranged by types of sites: geothermal, Slough Creek and vicinity,

full sun, deep shade, and part shade.

peratures have served to normalize these temperatures 

to a common heat flux from the surface downward, the 

variations in corrected temperatures at a depth of 2 m 

will be due to variable heat flux upward. If the sites with 

the lowest temperatures, (between 4° and 5°C) are taken 

as a base, the corrected temperatures at all other sites 

can be compared to this group. The sites in the 

temperature range 5°-6°C will be designated +1, those 

in the range 6°-7°C, +2, and so forth. These groupings, 

from 0 to +6, are a measure of the amount of geothermal 

heat flux received by members of each group. The group 

number is plotted on a map of the Yellowstone area (fig. 

11). Areas of high heat flow are also shown enclosed by 

dotted lines.

Although sites inside the Yellowstone caldera tend to 

show greater geothermal heat flux than do those outside 

the caldera, the relatively small number of total sites 

does not allow us to make a more definitive statement in 

this regard. The area of high heat flow near Slough Creek 

is somewhat surprising inasmuch as the closest known 

hot springs are those on the Yellowstone River, about 4.4 

mi (miles) west of the site. The hot area near Cache 

Creek is about 2 mi southwest from Wahb Springs (hot) 

while the Pelican Creek Campground sites are about 2.5 

mi from known hot springs. On the other hand, both the 

LeHardy Rapids and Elk Antler Creek sites are close 

(LeHardy, 2 mi, Elk Antler, 1 mi) to large thermal areas, 

and neither site shows any geothermal influence. The 

two sites at Grants Pass also do not show geothermal effects, even though they are 2 mi from the Shoshone 

Geyser Basin. Obviously, mere geographic proximity to a

geothermal feature is not a sufficient criterion, to predict 

geothermal contribution at a site. The ground-water 

regime must be the important link in order for a site to 

display a high geothermal heat flow at 2-m depth. In 

fact, the areas containing cool sites are probably places 

where ground water is moving downwards, whereas the 

hot sites are caused by warm ascending ground water.

It is interesting to note that site 7 is about 25 yd from a 

small warm-spring orifice. Site 55 is about 125 yd from 

site 7 and approximately 150 yd from the spring. The 

temperature at 2-m depth at site 55, while still high, is 

2.9°C less than at site 7 (see table 8).

In figure 12, we have plotted the 2-m corrected Pallmann temperatures versus the difference in Pallmann 

temperature recorded by the 1- and 2-m Pallmann vials. 

In addition to the sites in Yellowstone Park, we have also 

plotted data from eight sites outside the park; sites that 

we believe to be remote from the high geothermal heat 

flow associated with the park. These latter sites define a 

line (A) shown on the diagram, of positive slope. This 

means that those sites having the highest temperatures 

at 2 m also have the highest positive Pallmann temperature gradient (l:m vial higher Pallmann temperature 

than the 2-m vial). This is in keeping with the higher 

heat flux downward at these sites. On the other hand, 

the sites in Yellowstone define a line of negative slope 

(B). This indicates the greater contribution of upward 

heat flux at these sites.

The instantaneous temperature measurements made 

in late September and early October 1978, can be used to 

aid in delineating the extent of the area of possible
GROUND TEMPERATURES, YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK 37

110° 111°

Mem roads 

(Dther roads 

Park

,tD 15MHS

FIGURE 11. Yellowstone National Park and vicinity showing temperature group (from 0 to +6 degrees Celsius; each group 

represents a range of 1°, +1= 5° -6°C; +2= 6° -7°C . . .) at 48 sites. Areas of high heat flow containing sites with high 

temperature group values (+3 or greater) are shown enclosed by dashed lines.
38 GROUND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

678 

TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS

10 11

FIGURE 12. Plot of 2-m corrected Pallmann temperatures versus difference in temperature between 1 and 2 m. Solid circles are 

from data for sites outside Yellowston National Park that are believed to be remote from geothermal influence. Open circles 

are data for sites in and adjacent to the park. Lines A and B are least-mean-square fits to the two sets of data points.

anomalous heat flow adjacent to Slough Creek. In figure 

13 we have plotted the instantaneous 2-m temperatures, 

corrected for altitude using the 1°C per 1000 feet (305 m) 

lapse rate. The data is grouped by whether the sites were 

in full sun, partial shade, or deep shade. In addition to 

these groups, the sites that fall in the +3, +4, +5, and 

+6 categories of figure 9 have been plotted as a separate 

group labeled "geothermal". The group labeled "Slough 

Creek" are sites adjacent to Slough Creek. Note that 

sites 8 and 9 which are east of Slough Creek (Pebble 

Creek and Lamar Ranger Station) as well as site 21, 

(Blacktail Deer Drive) west of Slough Creek, all fall in 

the "normal" group having relatively low 2-m instan-

! taneous temperatures. On the other hand, the sites from 

just east of Lamar Canyon (site 58) to the gravel pit on 

the highway west of Slough Creek (site 56) all showed 

high ground temperatures in the range of the "geothermal" group, the temperature increasing from east to 

west.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, the Pallmann measurements made at 1- 

and 2-m depths in and adjacent to Yellowstone National 

Park can be used to calculate effective obsidianhydration temperatures for dating. The measurements 

have also been useful in locating and defining areas of
GROUND TEMPERATURES, YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK 39

Geothermal

Slough Creek 

and vicinity

Full sun

Deep shade - -

Part shade

789 

TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS

10 11 12 13

FIGURE 13. Plot of 2-m instantaneous maximum temperatures made in late September 1978, and normalized to a 7000-ft (2133-m) 

altitude. Sites are arranged by type: geothermal, Slough Creek and vicinity, full sun, deep shade, and part shade.

anomalous heat flow. Not only did the Pallmann annual 

effective temperatures measured at 2 m, corrected for 

altitude and site condition, allow us to locate areas of 

anomalously high heat flow, but also the temperature 

gradient between the 1- and 2-m Pallmann vials gave additional indication of such anomalous heat flow.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was made possible by the enthusiastic 

cooperation of Yellowstone National Park naturalists 

and rangers. In particular, we wish to thank Alan 

Mebane and John Tyers. Roger Rudolph arrived in 

Hayden Valley in the midst of a blizzard to give us 

much-needed help. Paul Miller and Terry Dansforth 

were of continual assistance during the four years of this

investigation. The remote sites on the Mirror Plateau 

and Lamar River were serviced by helicopter. Tom 

Black, who was in charge of the helicopters, was most 

cooperative in making them available to us.

Dick and Mary Lou Miller kindly allowed us to place 

probes on their property near Gardiner, Montana, and 

gave assistance and hospitality.

We wish to thank Fred Cater for his help during the 

first and most difficult field season. During subsequent 

seasons we were assisted by Garry Giarratano and Fred 

Trembour. The difficult and hazardous winter measurements were made with the assistance of Jon Connor.

Design, construction and repair of equipment was carried out by William Long and Joseph Jurceka. Without 

their help our project could not have functioned.

ft US GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 198O 777-O34/38