Summary Appraisals of the Nation's 

Ground-Water ResourcesHawaii Region 

G E 0 L 0 G I C A L S U R V E Y P R 0 F E S S I 0 N A L P A P E R 8 I 3-M 

,28 SEP 1983 

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NEBR 

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Water Resources 

Regions 

M 

Reports,published or in 

press, as chapters in 

U.S.G.S. Professional 

Paper 813 

Letters indicate chapter 

designations 

Geographic Index to the Series, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 813, Summary Appraisals of the Nations Ground-Water Resources. 

Boundaries shown are those established by the United States Water-Resources Council for Water-Resources Regions in the United States. 
Summary Appraisals of the Nation's 

Ground-Water ResourcesHawaii Region 

By K. J. TAKASAKI 

G E 0 L 0 G I C A L S U R V E Y P R 0 F E S S I 0 N A L P A P E R 8 1 3-M 

Problems and opportunities related to the 

development and management of the 

ground-water resources in the region 

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON 1978 
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

W.A. Radlinski, Acting Director 

Library of Congress catalog-card No. 78-600035 

First Printing 1978 

Second Printing 1983 

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 

\Vashington, D.C. 20402 

Stock Number 024-001-03061-6 
CONTENTS 

Page Page 

1\bstract -------------------------------------------------- ~1 VVater use--Continued 

Introduction ---------------------------------------------- 1 Future water-use patterns--Continued 

Noteworthy ground-water development events __________ 1 Industrial ________________________________________ M13 

Regional setting ------------------------------------------ 2 

Geologic framework------------------------------------ 2 

lfydrographic areas ------------------------------------ 5 

Surface water versus ground water ______________________ 13 

Ground-water reservoirs_____________________________________ 13 

Optimizing ground-water development ______________________ 23 

Rainfall ___ _ ______ _ __________ _ ______ _ _ _ _ ________ ______ 5 Basal ground water ________ ____________ _____ _ ____ __ ____ 23 

Evapotranspiration _ _ _ _ ______ __ ______ _ _ __ _______ _ ______ 5 Dike-impounded water ____ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ __ _ __ _ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 23 

Surface runoff and infiltration -------------------------- 5 Surface activities to maximize recharge of ground water__ 24 

Distribution of rainfall ------------------------------------ 9 

VVater use ------------------------------------------------ 9 

VVateruse in 1975 ------------------------------------ 9 

Future water-use patterns------------------------------ 9 

Ground-water problems ------------------------------------- 24 

Problems arising from inadequate information ___ ---- _ _ _ 24 

Technological problems -------------------------------- 25 

Institutional problems __________________ ----------------_ 26 

~unicipal ________ _ _ _ _ ______ _ _______ _ _ __ ______ _ _ _ _ 9 Conclusions ________________________________________________ 26 

1\gricultural ____ ______ __ ______ _ _ _ _ ______ _ _ _ _ ____ _ _ 9 Selected references ---------------------------------------- 27 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

FIGURE 1. ~ap of lfawaiian 1\rchipelago ______________________________________________________________ -------------------- M3 

TABLE 

2. Diagrammatic cross section showing geologic structure of an idealized lfawaiian volcanic dome --------- ----------- 4 

3. ~ap oflfawaiian Islands showing hydrographic areas representing major drainage basins ------------------------ 6 

4. ~ap ofthe lfawaiian Islands showing lines of equal annual average rainfall in inches ---------------------------- 7 

5. Sketches showing orographic effects on rainfalL _________________________________________ ------------------------- 8 

6. ~ap of lfawaiian Islands showing distribution of rainfall ____________________________ ---------------------------- 10 

7. Graph showing distribution of rainfall into components of evapotranspiration, direct runoff, and deep infiltration in 

leeward l{oolau Range-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11 

8. Diagrammatic cross section showing occurrence and development of ground water in an idealized Hawaiian volcanic 

dome ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 14 

9--15. ~aps of islands showing ground-water recharge, 1975 draft, and approximate outlines of ground-water reservoirs. 

9. Island of lfawaii ------------------------------- ______________________________________________________ -- ___ 15 

10. Island of ~aui ---------------------------------- _________________________________ -------------------- ------ 16 

11. Islands of ~olokai and Lanai --------------------------------- ______________ ----------------- ---------------- 17 

12. Island of Oahu _______________________________________________________________ ----------------------------- 18 

13. Island of l{auai ___________________________________________________________________ -------- __ --------- _____ 19 

14. Island of l{ahoolawe ________________________________________________________________ -------- _---------- ____ 20 

15. Island of Niihau __________________________________________________________________ --------- ___ ----------- _ 21 

TABLES 

Page 

1. Distribution of rainfall to evapotranspiration, runoff, and ground-water recharge --------------------------------- ~12 

2. VV ater use in lfawaii Region ________________________________ -- __ ----------------------------------------------- 13 

3. Principal ground-water reservoirs ___________________________ -------------------------------------------------- 22 

III 
IV CONTENTS 

FACTORS FOR CONVERTING ENGLISH UNITS 

TO INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM (SI) UNITS 

The following factors may be used to convert the English units given herein to the International System of Units (SI) 

Multiply English units 

acre -------------------------------------------------------- square foot (ft2) _____________________________________________ _ 

square inch (in2) ___________________________________________ _ 

square mile (mi2) ___________________________________________ _ 

foot (ft) _____________________________________________________ _ 

inch (in.) ___________________________________________________ _ 

mile (mi) ___________________________________________________ _ 

yard (yd) ----------------------------------------------------

By 

4047 ------------------------ .0929 ___________________ _ 

.0006452 ----------------

2.590 --------------------

0.3048 ___________________ _ 

25.4 ----------------------

1.609 -------------------- .9144 ___________________ _ 

acre-foot (acre-ft) -------------------------------------------- 1233 ------------------------ cubic foot (ft3) __________ __ _____ ___ ______ __ _______ _ ________ ____ .02832 _________________ _ 

gallon (gal) ____ _ _ _ _ ______ __ ___ _ ____ _ _______ __ _______________ _ 3. 785 ___________________ _ 

million gallons (106 gal or Mgal) ------------------------------ 3785 ------------------------

cubic foot per second-day [(ft3/s)-d] ---------------------------- 2447 ------------------------

---------------------------- .002447 ---------------- cubic foot per second (ft3/s) ------------------------------------ .02832 ------------------

------------------------------------ 28.32 _____________________ _ 

gallon per minute (gal/min) ----------------------------------

million gallons per day (106 gal/d) or (Mgal/d) ------------------

foot per mile (ft/mi) ------------------------------------------ cubic foot per second per square mile [(ft3/s)/mi2] _______________ _ 

foot per day (ftld) --------------------------------------------

gallon per minute per foot [(gal/min)/ft] ------------------------

foot squared per day (ft2/d) ------------------------------------

.06309 ------------------

.04381 ------------------

0.1894 ___________________ _ 

.01093 ------------------

0.3048 ___________________ _ 

.207 -------------------- .0929 ___________________ _ 

To obtain SI units 

square meter (m2) 

square meter (m2) 

square meter (m2) 

square kilometer (km2) 

meter (m) 

millimeter (mm) 

kilometer (km) 

meter (m) 

cubic meter (m3) 

cubic meter (m3) 

liter (L) 

cubic meters (m3) 

cubic meter (m3) 

cubic hectometer (hm3) 

cubic meter per second (m3/s) 

liter per second (L/s) 

liter per second (L/s) 

cubic meter per second (m3/s) 

meter per kilometer (m/km) 

cubic meter per second per square 

kilometer [(m3Js)Jkm2] 

meter per day (m/d) 

liter per second per meter [(L/s)/m] 

meter squared per day (m2/d) 
SUMMARY APPRAISALS 

OF THE NATION'S 

GROUND-WATER RESOURCESHAWAII REGION 

By K. ]. T AKASAKI 

ABSTRACT 

The water resources of the Hawaii Region, taken as a whole, are 

far greater than foreseeable future demands on them, but this is not 

so for the individual islands. Each and every island is independent 

with respect to water supply, and the occurrence and availability of 

water vary widely from island to island. 

The ground-water resources offer better prospects for supplying 

additional water needs in the future than the surface-water resources. Most of the surface supplies that are easy to develop have 

been fully utilized where needed, and conduits and reservoirs necessary to develop new or additional supplies would generally require 

large and perhaps prohibitive outlays of capital. In 1975, ground 

water supplied 46 percent, and surface water 54 percent of the water 

needs but, in the years ahead, these percentages will likely be reversed as more ground-water development takes place. Total water 

use, in 1975, averaged about 1,775 million gallons per day, ofwhich 

about 810 million gallons per day was ground water. The total water 

use is divided into public supply, 11 percent; self-supplied industrial 

use, 23 percent; and agricultural, 66 percent. 

Rainfall is the principal source of ground-water recharge. Local 

mean annual rainfall ranges from less than 20 inches to more than 

300 inches, with the annual average rainfall on the large islands 

exposed to the trade winds being slightly more than 73 inches and 

that on the small islands situated in the rain shadow of the larger 

islands being less than 26 inches. Ground-water recharge has been 

estimated at about 2,400 billion gallons per year (6.5 billion gallons 

per day) or roughly 30 percent of the rainfall. 

Most fresh ground water in the region is stored below sea level in 

porous lava flows, much of it as basal-water lenses floating on saline 

ground water, as distinguished from dike-impounded water in the 

interior of the islands. The basal-water lens is maintained by recharge, which, if reduced, leads to thinning of the lens and subsequent encroachment of seawater. Seawater is the biggest pollutant 

of freshwater, and many of the ground-water problems are, in some 

way, associated with the encroachment of saline water induced by 

development. 

The major problem areas include the entire island of Oahu, south 

Kohala-Kona coast on the island of Hawaii, Lahaina District in 

Maui, and the Koloa and Kekaha-Mana areas in Kauai. 

INTRODUCTION 

The purpose of this report is to provide pertinent 

ground-water information and to relate this information to the potential role of ground water in meeting 

future water needs in the Hawaii Region. The report 

also focuses on some problems related to the hydrology 

of ground water in overall water supply and management, and on some of the deficiencies in information 

and understanding that hinder the optimum development of the ground-water resources. 

Ground water in the Hawaii Region is a large and 

valuable resource. Despite the large overall supply, 

ground water is not available in some areas, and much 

of it, especially that which is of suitable quality for 

domestic use, has to be imported by pipeline from distant areas. In 1975, only about 20 percent of the approximately 810 million gallons per day (Mgal/d) of 

ground water developed was used for public supplies. 

As a result of development, the quality of the ground 

water has deteriorated at some places, but water of less 

than potable quality can be tolerated in uses such as 

irrigation of sugarcane and cooling. 

Most recharge to ground water occurs in the wet 

interior mountains, generally upgradient from lowerlying developed areas where wastes and subsequent 

waste disposals are more likely to occur. This favorable 

situation is gradually changing for the worse as land 

developments encroach into the principal recharge 

areas. Some deterioration of the ground water is to be 

expected, the degree of which will depend greatly on 

how much deterioration is allowed by policies and decisions related to land use, land development, and 

waste-disposal practices. In most cases, the prevention 

of pollution by eliminating the pollutant at the source 

would be a more effective course to follow than attempting detection and surveillance of the pollutant 

after it reaches the ground-water reservoir. 

NOTEWORTHY GROUND-WATER DEVELOPMENT EVENTS 

In the early years of development in the Hawaiian 

Islands, water supply was generally not a major problem, except in the Honolulu area. Land and surface 

water were abundant at places within each of the 

larger islands, and development was concentrated in 

these areas. The early Hawaiians settled near perennial streams and springs and diverted water for their 

highly developed agriculture. Later, sugarcane was 

grown in areas where rainfall was sufficient or where 

M1 
M2 SUMMARY APPRAISALS OF THE NATION'S GROUND-WATER RESOURCES 

water could be easily diverted from perennial streams. 

In the water-scarce areas, the land remained largely 

undeveloped and unsettled. 

Domestic water needed for these early developments 

was not, as a rule, developed separately but was taken 

from the available irrigation supply. The water, thus 

obtained, was generally of good quality or was considered so because most of it came from sources in the wet 

interior areas and was usually diverted from ditches 

and streams upgradient from the developed areas. 

Some ground water, other than from springs, was 

developed by the early Hawaiians from shallow wells 

dug at or near the beach. Most of the water thus developed was brackish. 

By the middle 1850's, the population of Honolulu had 

grown to nearly 12,000. Whaling in the Pacific had 

reached its peak in activity, and Honolulu had become 

a principal port of supply. Thus, the city of Honolulu, 

unlike the rest of the Region, was even then experiencing a water-supply problem. Water was piped from distant surface-water sources but the supply could barely 

meet the demands of the population and of the ships. 

The availability of freshwater had, in fact, become a 

severely limiting factor to the growth of Honolulu 

(Honolulu Board of Water Supply, 1963). 

In 1879, a well tapping a basal ground-water aquifer 

under sufficient artesian head to flow freely was drilled 

in the arid land west of Pearl Harbor in Oahu. Many 

wells followed, first in Oahu and a little later in the 

other islands. The presence of a cheap and dependable 

ground-water supply in many of the dry leeward areas 

had immediate impact on the Region's development. 

By 1890, water from artesian wells provided a large 

share of the water needs for Honolulu, thereby removing the city's principal constraint to growth. By 1920, 

the cultivation of sugarcane had shifted from the generally wet windward areas to the drier leeward areas, 

and lands heretofore deemed useless became very 

much in demand. Sugarcane cultivation had become 

the principal economic base for the Region. By 1975, 

more than 1,000 wells had been drilled or dug, most of 

them to develop water for the irrigation of sugarcane. 

Rapid and indiscriminate drilling of wells followed 

the first successful well and continued virtually unabated for nearly 50 years, especially in southern 

Oahu. During this time, water from wells near the 

coast in southern Oahu, once of domestic quality, became brackish. Artesian head, once as much as 43 feet 

above sea level, steadily declined to about 25 feet above 

sea level. Concern over this decline led to legislation 

and the establishment of an authority to curb waste 

and to manage the seemingly deteriorating artesian 

water supply in Honolulu. 

Competition for the ground-water supply in Oahu 

did not become a serious problem until the Second 

World War, when the first significant transfer of 

sugarcane lands to other uses occurred. During the 

Second World War, large areas in the western part of 

Honolulu, abutting the Pearl Harbor area, were turned 

over to the military for their use. The military use 

necessitated the drilling of new wells to provide the 

domestic-quality water required. After the war urbanization increasingly replaced sugarcane lands, and the 

ensuing competition for water by the various users led 

to unplanned development in many areas. Problems 

related to water quality, rights, and management became apparent at this time and still persist. 

The advent of statehood for Hawaii, in 1959, led to 

increased tourism and hastened the growth of the 

population of southern Oahu. More agricultural land 

was urbanized. Meanwhile, considerations of possible 

impact on the environment of further water and land 

development added to the complexity of problems. 

Except for the intensive growth in sugarcane cultivation, the development and population growth in the 

other islands did not parallel that in Oahu in the years 

following the end of the Second World War. Sugarcane 

cultivation increased somewhat during this period, but 

owing to many technological advances, fewer workers 

were needed and the population on all the other islands 

declined. It was not until sometime after the coming of 

statehood and the growth of tourism in Oahu that resort areas and resort-residential complexes began to 

expand in the other islands. Tourism now is the fastest 

growing segment of the economy in all the islands. 

The ever-increasing demand for water, especially for 

domestic-quality ground water, in the heretofore undeveloped dry leeward areas that are favored for resort 

development, is a problem that needs to be solved if the 

tourist industry is to continue to grow. 

REGIONAL SETTING 

GEOLOGIC FRAMEWORK 

The Hawaiian Archipelago, which makes up the 

Hawaii Region, is a group of shoals, reefs, and islands 

trending northwest to southeast more than 1,500 miles 

across the Pacific Ocean (fig. 1). The Hawaiian Islands, 

which lie at the southeastern end of the archipelago, 

constitute more than 99 percent of the region's total 

land area. Only these islands are considered in the appraisal of the region's ground-water resources. 

The Hawaiian Islands are the tops of shield volcanoes rising from the ocean floor, the oldest is Kauai 

in the northwest part, and the youngest, the island of 

Hawaii in the southeast part. Each of the islands consists of one to five volcanic domes, the bulk of which is 

composed of thousands of basaltic lava flows. The lavas 

issued in repeated outpourings from narrow zones of 
175° 170° 165° 160° 155° 

Kure I. 

• .Midway I . 

• Peai'l and Hermes Reef 

p A c I F I c 0 c E A N 

Lisian'ski I. 

.Laysan 1. 

25° .G~a~r_d_n_e_r __ l_. __ -i--------------------~--------------------_j--~ 

;.~rench Frigate Shoal 

·.: I • 

Necker I. Nihoa I. 

NIIHAU 1 

Kaula 1.' 

0 200 400 MILES 

I I [I 1 1 I 11 ' 

OKAUAI 

OAHU~ MOLOKAI ~ 

LANAI<;:> ~MAU I 

Kahoolawe• 

HAWAII 

0 500 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 1.-The Hawaiian Archipelago. The small inset shows the location of the islands in the Pacific Ocean. 

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Caldera r---- ~ -...... --~ ...... ~ 

............. .... Posterosional volcanics, ', 

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roclastic cone, ', 

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·and flows ' 

/ Coastal-plain ' 

sediments, ', 

terrestrial and 'marine 

' ' 

Oi kes 

14 Unero de d state Eroded state---------~ II 

1 I 

FIGURE 2.-Geologic structure of an idealized Hawaiian volcanic dome (from Cox, 1954). 

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HAWAII REGION M5 

fissures associated with each volcano, first below sea 

level, then above it, to form huge mountain masses. 

The basaltic lavas that were extruded above sea level 

are generally thin-bedded, highly clinkery, and highly 

permeable. In contrast, the lavas extruded in water 

were quickly chilled, are less clinkery, more massive, 

and are likely to be less permeable. All of the islands 

have sunk, to some extent, to adjust isostatically for 

their great weight on the earth's crust. Consequently, 

the highly permeable lava flows, which were originally 

extJ-uded above sea level, now extend some distance 

below it. This rock assemblage of highly permeable 

basaltic lava flows, intruded in part by dikes in the 

zones of fissure and free of dikes outside ofthem, makes 

up the principal reservoirs for ground water in the 

Hawaiian Islands. 

A diagrammatic cross section showing the geologic 

structure of a typical Hawaiian volcanic island in the 

form of an idealized volcanic dome is shown in figure 2. 

Rocks other than the basaltic flank flows, although 

widespread in places, generally do not comprise important reservoirs of ground water. 

HYDROGRAPHIC AREAS 

In order to facilitate a study of the water resources, 

the six larger islands were subdivided into hydrographic areas by the Hawaii Water Authority in 1959. 

The boundaries of the areas were based on topography 

and generally outline the major surface drainage 

basins (fig. 3). The boundaries of ground-water reservoirs could be better delineated and described if they 

were based on geology. In order to take advantage of 

the results of the previous studies, however, the hydrographic areas established in the 1959 study will be 

used in this appraisal. 

RAINFALL 

Rainfall is the principal source of recharge and its 

quantity and variability are significant in determining 

the extent and quality of ground water. Open-ocean 

rainfall near the Hawaiian Islands is about 25 inches 

per year compared with an average of about 70 inches 

on land. The islands, by their presence, thus increase 

the open-ocean rainfall by 45 inches per year or by 

5,000 billion gallons (14 billion gallons per day). However, because most of the rainfall is orographic, that is, 

closely related to topography and exposure, the spatial 

variability of annual rainfall is extremely high. 

Annual average rainfall for the islands ranges from 

less than 35 inches to more than 100 inches per year. 

Local mean annual rainfall within the larger islands, 

however, ranges from less than 20 inches to more than 

300 inches per year. Variability of annual rainfall generally is greater where rainfall is low because rain 

types other than those due to trade wind, although 

small in total quantity, generally fall heavily during 

short and infrequent storms. These non-trade-wind 

rains make up most of the rainfall in the open-ocean 

and low-altitude areas, and their contribution to the 

recharge of ground water is generally small. The distribution of rainfall in the islands is shown in figure 4. 

Owing to the large spatial variation in the tradewind rainfall, there is a marked inverse relation between the areas of water supply and the areas of water 

demand. The orographic effects on rainfall are shown 

by cross-sectional sketches in figure 5. 

The high volcanic domes referred to in figure 5 are 

Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa on the island of Hawaii 

and Haleakala on Maui. Examples of medium high 

domes are the Koolau dome on Oahu, the West Maui 

dome, and the island of Kauai. The low domes include 

the islands of Kahoolawe and Niihau. 

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION 

The amount of evapotranspiration approaches that 

of evaporation from a free-water surface wherever 

water is constantly available to plants or crops, owing 

either to the proximity of ground water or to high frequency of rainfall or irrigation. Research in Hawaii, 

mainly by the sugar and pineapple industries, shows 

that, although evapotranspiration differs widely from 

place to place, annual variations at any one place are 

small. The average pan evaporation in the larger islands ranges from less than 20 inches to more than 80 

inches per year, and in the windy dry areas, to more 

than 90 inches per year. In Hawaii, where rainfall or 

an estimate of it is the only climatic datum generally 

available, the relation of rainfall to pan evaporation and to evapotranspiration recognized by Cox 

(Campbell and others, 1959) and Mink (1962b) is often 

the only tool available in studies involving the water 

budget of large drainage basins. 

SURFACE RUNOFF AND INFILTRATION 

Hawaiian streams, in general, are short and steep, 

and runoff depends largely on the intensity and duration of rainfall. Exceptions are streams in which runoff 

is made up largely of ground-water or swamp discharge. In areas where the infiltration capacity of the 

surface rocks is especially high, most r&infall is quickly 

absorbed, and there may be no runoff, except during 

intense storms. In some of these areas of high absorption rates overland runoff is so low that stream patterns have not yet been developed. 

Where rainfall is plentiful and well distributed during the year, as in the wet interior mountains, streams 

are generally perennial and abundant. Where rainfall 

is light, as in the dry leeward areas, streams are 

ephemeral and flow only at infrequent intervals during 

heavy storms. 
M6 SUMMARY APPRAISALS OF THE NATION'S GROUND-WATER RESOURCES 

Ill 

KAHOOL2J 

,. PACIFIC 

-~~EAN 

• 

HAWAIIAN ISLANDS RlOION. 

EXPLANATION 

( ........ , Hydrographic areas representing 

\~~) major drainage basins 

FIGURE 3.-Hydrographic areas of the Hawaiian Islands representing major drainage basins (from Hawaii Water 

Authority, 1959). 
HAW All REGION 

15 

KAHOOL2:J 

HAWAII 

Data from Blumenstock, 1961 

MAUl 

, . 

.. PACIFIC -:~EA N 

HAWAIIAN ISLANDS REGION. 

----50____,.--

Line of equal rainfall, in inches 

Interval is variable 

FIGURE 4.-Map of the Hawaiian Islands showing lines of equal annual average rainfall in inches. 

M7 
1-

w 

w 

1.1. 

z 

w 

Q 

~ 

II-

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< 

M8 

12,000 

SUMMARY APPRAISALS OF THE NATION'S GROUND-WATER RESOURCES 

HIGH VOLCANIC DOMES 

Poor trade-wind rainfall distribution. Most of island is dry except on 

windward side below altitude of 6,000 feet. 

OC.EAN 

MEDIUM HIGH VOLCANIC DOMES 

Ideal trade-wind rainfall distribution. Rainfall decreases rapidly 

from maximum near crest. Rainfall in coastal areas depends 

on distance from rainfall maximum. 

LOW VOLCANIC DOMES 

Island mostly dry 

FIGuRE 5.-0rographic effects on rainfall. 

4000 

Cl) 

a: 

w 

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2000~ 

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HAWAII REGION M9 

DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL 

Rainfall is the principal source of freshwater. Some 

of it evaporates or is transpired by plants, some replenishes soil moisture, some runs off, and the remainder percolates to ground-water reservoirs. The distribution of the rainfall, however, is not the same 

everywhere and depends largely on the quantity and 

variability, and the absorption ability of the land surface. The distribution of rainfall by islands is shown in 

figure 6. 

An example of the change in the distribution of rainfall with change in rainfall is shown in figure 7. The 

area considered in figure 7 consists roughly of the eastern two-thirds of hydrographic area IV on Oahu. The 

surface rocks are mostly highly permeable flank flows 

of the Koolau Volcan~c Series. The data used to construct the figure were taken from Hirashima (1971) 

and Dale and Takasaki (1976). 

Table 1 gives a rough estimation of the distribution 

of rainfall in the hydrographic areas of the region. This 

table was adapted from a study element report on the 

surface-water and ground-water resources prepared for 

the Hawaii Water Resources Regional Study (1975). At 

best, the figures on distribution of rainfall listed in 

table 1 are gross estimates and should be regarded as 

such. They do, however, reflect production possibilities 

of surface water and ground water in the hydrographic 

areas, based on known or inferred conditions of rainfall, surface geology, and the geologic framework ofthe 

subsurface. 

Ground-water pumpage and the quantity of water 

transported by pipelines and ditches from and into the 

various hydrographic areas are also listed in table 1. 

WATER USE 

WATER USE IN 1975 

Water use in the Hawaii Region in 1975 averaged 

about 1,775 Mgal!d, of which about 810 Mgal/d, or 46 

percent, was derived from ground-water sources. Table 

2 shows the breakdown in use and sources by islands. 

Public-.supply water use includes general domestic, 

commercial and limited industrial use. 

Self-supplied industrial water use is limited to water 

systems that are privately owned and operated by industry. The bulk of this use consists of process water 

used by the sugar industry and of cooling water for the 

electrical power industry. Industrial water supplied by 

municipal systems is not included. Brackish ground 

water used for cooling purposes is included. 

The largest use of water in the Region is for irrigation (1,175 Mgal/d) and, of this amount, as much as 90 

percent is used for irrigation of sugarcane in dry sunny 

areas. Sugar yields are highest where sugarcane is irrigated and water use may be as much as 12 acre feet 

per acre per year. In many places, the irrigation water 

is imported from distant wet areas. Upwards of 500 

Mgal/d of irrigation water is diverted from wet to dry 

areas, 360 Mgal/d of this quantity from one hydrographic area to another. 

The impact on the ground-water resources in the wet 

areas, resulting from the exportation of water, is 

usually not pronounced because much of the water exported represents natural ground-water discharge. The 

impact, however, on ground water in the dry areas to 

which the water is delivered for irrigation, is pronounced. When used for irrigation between furrows, as 

much as 60 percent of the irrigated water applied filters into the ground and recharges the underlying 

ground-water reservoir. In many dry areas, this return 

of irrigation water represents the principal source of 

recharge to ground water, the effect of which is to 

maintain a usable ground-water resource where none 

may have existed previously. 

FUTURE WATER-USE PATTERNS 

Most of the current demands for water are in the dry 

sunny areas where sugarcane yields are highest and 

where most of the population resides. No change is 

foreseen in this pattern for the future, except that the 

demand will increase significantly, owing to the development of larger tourist-oriented and residential complexes in presently little-developed coastal areas. In 

some areas, the demand is already larger than the supply and must be met by importing water. This is likely 

to be the situation for other areas of high growth in the 

future. Some of these problems could be avoided by 

locating new industries in the areas of plentiful water 

supply. Predictions of future water-use patterns and 

demands based on projections of past trends may be 

unreliable, however, owing to rapid changes in the 

principal economic base, shifts in population, and 

changes in life styles. 

MUNICIPAL 

Per-capita water-use figures based on current population samplings are generally not reliable for future 

projections. The higher proportion of use by the tourist 

and related industries, changes in life styles, and more 

widespread use of luxury home appliances are the 

reasons for possible discrepancies in projecting water 

use. 

AGRICULTURAL 

Many factors other than crop type affect the use 

pattern of irrigation water. Water use for sugarcane, 

for instance, is dependent on the type, slope, and profile 
NIIHAU 

6 

R=88 

R=2,430 

EXPLANATION 

2 rJO~ 

~ KAHOOLAWE 

20 10 

R=40 

Evapotranspiration 

Runoff 

Figure is percentage of rainfall 

Ground-water recharge 

R = Rainfall in millions of gallons per day 

40= Figure is percentage of rainfall 

HAWAII 

Note: Map of islands not drawn to scale nor in proper position (for pictorial presentation only). 

FIGURE G.-Distribution of rainfall by islands. 

a= 

....... 

0 

r:n 

~ a:: 

~ > 

~ 

~ 00 

> t"'4 

r:n 

0 

l'%j 

1-3 

ga 

z 

> 1-3 

0 

z 

r:i5 

0 

~ c:: 

z 

t::l 

tr.:l 

~ ~ 

~ r:n 

0 

c:: 

~ tr.:l 

r:n 
HAW All REGION Mll 

220 

160 

(/) 

w 

:I: 140 

u 

z 

z 120 

_, 

_, 

u.. 

~ 100 

z 

~ 

"' 80 

~ 

::::> 

z 60 

z 

~ 

u.. 

0 40 

z 

0 

1- 20 

::::> 

ca 

1- "' 

(/) 240 

0 

ANNUAL RAINFALL, IN INCHES 

-20 

-4C. 

-60 

,~I 

t~Evapotranspiration exceeds rainfall where water 

A.. I levels are shallow or where heavily irrigated. tto/ 

I 

-so 

-100 

FIGURE 7 .-Distribution of rainfall as related to rainfall range in leeward Koolau Range. 
M12 SUMMARY APPRAISALS OF THE NATION'S GROUND-WATER RESOURCES 

TABLE !.-Distribution of rainfall, in million gallons per day, to evapotranspiration, runoff, and ground-water recharge 

1975 ground-water 

Hydro- Distribution of rainfall quantities 

graphic (approximate) 

area rep- resenting 

major Total Evapo- Percent- Percent- Ground- Percent- Withdrawn drainage rain- trans- age of age of water age of from Island basin fall piration rainfall Runoff rainfall recharge rainfall Exported Imported wells 

Large islands exposed to trade winds ------- ------

Hawaii ________ I 1,430 695 49 430 30 305 21 5 1 5 

II 7,335 1,730 24 2,510 34 3,095 42 0 0 18 

III 2,340 1 1,705 73 235 10 400 17 0 0 8 

IV 1,790 1 1,265 71 180 10 345 19 0 0 3 

v 1,160 1745 64 180 16 235 20 1 5 1 

Totals (rounded) 14,100 6,200 44 3,500 25 4,300 31 6 6 35 ------------

Maui __________ I 340 125 37 145 41 70 21 0 0 60 

II 370 130 35 175 47 65 18 20 0 26 

III 685 215 31 325 47 145 21 0 180 170 

IV 925 145 16 310 34 470 51 160 0 7 

v 500 145 29 270 54 85 17 0 0 1 

Totals 2,820 760 27 1,225 43 835 30 180 180 264 ----------

Molokai ------ I 230 30 13 150 65 50 22 5 0 <1 

II 175 125 71 15 9 35 20 1 1 <1 2III, IV 160 150 94 5 3 5 3 0 5 <1 

Totals 565 305 54 170 30 90 16 6 6 1 ------~~-

Oahu __________ I 270 90 33 85 31 95 35 3 1 8 

II 255 115 45 100 39 40 16 25 3 42 

III 235 120 51 30 13 85 36 0 22 56 

IV 425 105 25 70 16 250 59 24 25 260 

v 98 77 79 15 15 6 6 0 2 6 

VI 520 210 40 130 25 180 35 1 0 48 

Totals (rounded) 1,800 715 40 430 24 655 36 53 53 420 -------------------------

Kauai -------- I 910 160 18 3 705 77 445 5 18 0 2 

II 710 219 31 3455 64 436 5 11 18 2 

III 280 75 27 3 195 70 4 10 4 25 11 12 

IV 414 89 21 3 300 72 425 6 55 25 2 

v 116 50 43 58 50 8 7 0 55 32 

Totals (rounded) 2,430 595 24 3 1,715 70 120 5 109 109 50 ------------

Kauai -------- Adjusted totals 2,430 595 24 5 1,455 60 380 16 109 109 

Large islands __ Totals (rounded) 21,700 8,520 39 6,820 31 6,340 30 354 354 770 -----~--~ 

Small islands in rain-shadow of large islands 

Kahoolawe ____ Total 40 28 70 8 20 4 10 0 0 0 Lanai Total 187 124 66 40 22 23 12 0 0 2 Niihau ________ Total 88 63 72 20 23 5 5 0 0 0 Small islands __ Totals (rounded) 315 215 68 70 22 30 10 0 0 2 

Region ________ Grand totals (rounded) 22,000 8,730 40 6,800 31 6,460 29 357 357 772 -~-------

1 Probably too high owing to infrequency of storms which provide much of rainfall total. 2

Hydrographic areas combined owing to low rainfall density in each area. 3lncludes large quantity of ground-water inflow, see footnote 5. 

"'Too low; ground water included with runoff. 5Reduced by 15 percent and added to ground water. 
HAW All REGION M13 

TABLE 2.-Water use in Hawaii Region, in million gallons per day 

[From water-supply study-element report, Hawaii Water Resources Regional Study (1975)] 

Water use Source 

Self- Public supplied Agri- Surface Ground Island supplies industrial cultural Total water water 

Hawaii -------------------- 15 117 31 163 134 29 Maui 13 85 467 565 305 260 

Molok~i= === ========== ===== = 0.4 0 2 2.4 2 1 

Oahu---------------------- 161 130 321 612 152 460 KauaL _____________________ 7 72 352 431 371 60 Lanai ______________________ 0.3 0 2.2 2.5 0 2 Kahoolawe ---------------- 0 0 0 0 0 0 Niihau -------------------- 0 0 0 0 0 0 

197 404 1,175 1,776 964 812 

of the soil, climatic parameters (rainfall, etc.), the 

length of fallow period, and the availability and 

quality of water. Available information is generally 

not adequate for planning future irrigation needs 

owing to large-scale shifts from furrow to drip 

irrigation. 

INDUSTRIAL 

At present most self-supplied industrial water is 

used as cooling water for air-conditioning and for 

electric power generation. Potential industries that 

may require large quantities of water include the 

mining of manganese or other ores from the sea floor, 

the extraction of minerals from seawater, or the 

utilization of geothermal energy resources. 

SURFACE WATER VERSUS GROUND WATER 

The major source of usable surface water is the 

fair-weather or base flow of streams. Much of this 

water is transported from wet to dry areas in extensive 

ditch systems which were constructed early in this century. More such water could be developed but only at 

high cost because new ditches or enlargements of the 

present ditches would be needed. Other constraints 

that could restrict future development and transfer of 

water include existing water rights, environmental 

considerations, and State and Federal statutory regulations. 

Generally, there are few constraints other than cost 

in the onsite development of ground water, except 

where land development is extensive such as in Oahu 

and possibly in the Lahaina area in Maui. Areas of 

high water demand in coastal areas generally coincide 

with areas underlain by poor-quality basal ground water. In many areas, availability of good-quality ground 

water would necessitate development 3 to 4 miles 

farther iriland to an altitude of 1,000 feet or higher. A 

well at these altitudes would have to be drilled to below 

sea level and the water pumped up from near sea level 

to the land surface. 

In areas where ground-water and surface-water 

sources are closely integrated and where the withdrawal of ground water is quickly reflected in reduced 

surface-water flow, the need to maintain streamflow 

may restrict ground-water development. Knowledge of 

the hydraulic characteristics of the aquifers and the 

nature of the stream-aquifer interconnection are 

needed in order to estimate safe limits for development 

in these areas. 

Compliance with the Federal Safe Drinking Water 

Act (PL 93-529, 1974) will have pronounced effect on 

managerial and planning decisions, especially in areas 

where both ground-water and surface-water sources 

are being considered as municipal supplies. The high 

costs of treating surface-water supplies must be 

weighed against the cost of developing new groundwater supplies. 

GROUND-WATER RESERVOIRS 

Most fresh ground water is stored near and below sea 

level to depths ranging to 1,000 feet or more below sea 

level. The principal fresh ground-water reservoirs consist of thin-bedded basaltic lava flows. These reservoirs 

contain interconnected water bodies that are impounded by dikes in the interior of the islands or are in 

dynamic equilibrium with the underlying saline 

ground water in the outer rims of the islands. Ground 

water in these settings is referred to, respectively, as 

dike-impounded water and basal water. Other water 

bodies, small in comparison, are perched above and isolated from these interconnected water bodies and are 

called perched water. The term high-level water is 

often used to describe both dike-impounded and 

perched water, or a combination of them when they 

occur at high altitudes. 

A diagrammatic cross section showing occurrence 

and development of ground water in an idealized 

Hawaiian volcanic dome is shown in figure 8. The principal ground-water reservoirs in each of the Hawaiian 

Islands are outlined in figures 9 to 15. Estimates of 

ground-water recharge and ground-water draft in each 

of the hydrographic areas are also shown in figures 9 to 

15 and table 1. A brief description of the principal reservoirs and their potential for additional development 

is given by hydrographic areas in table 3. 

Ground-water development is generally most favorable in areas directly downslope from mountain areas 

of high rainfall and becomes less favorable with increasing distance away from these downslope areas. 
Water in posterosional flows 

perched on alluvium 

Pit developing water 

in sediments 

Capr 

t-r Unero d ed s tote Eroded state----------...c 

Section drawn to miss caldera 

FIGURE B.-Occurrence and development of ground water in an idealized Hawaiian volcanic dome (from Cox, 1954). 

s:: 

....... 

~ 

00 

~ 

~ ~ 

to< 

> lo'tf 

~ 00 

~ 00 

0 

1-zj 

t-3 

gj 

z 

~ 

s 

z 

r:i5 

~ c:: 

z 

t:::l 

~ 

~ 

~ 

~ c:: 

~ t_:l:j 

00 
156°00' 

200 I 

00' 

30' I '" 

19° 

00' 

30' 155°00' 

I EXPLANATION 

f Ground-water recharge, million gallons per day ~ Ground-water draft, million gallons per day 

• Principal supply wells 

)~= ~ ~~~ I . . 1 •• 5. 

a High recharge rate owing to high capacity of 

land surface to absorb rainfall. Ground water 

brackish near coast because of intermittent 

recharge and high permeability of aquifer 

v 

~ \ .\ 

~t~~ ~ ~) {jl) Hydrographic area representing major drainage .. _, basin 

'l LJJ 1l}lli w lJJV 

: . 

l ! • 

3095 IUD \'·······:: .. 

\... ··=·=:::::> 

. ¢~ .~i 

I· d tW~ .·.··· t;. ./=======·=··;;:.:.:;;:=:=:=:=·:·;-.· .. 

a400 • 

9 

0 10 20 MILES 

0 10 20 KILOMETERS 

11111111111 

Ground water impounded by dikes 

I I 

Ground water perched on soil 

or ash layers overlying basal 

ground water 

I I 

Basal ground water floating on 

saline ground water 

c·.·.·.·.·~.-~ 

........ 

Brackish basal ground water 

FIGURE 9.-Map of island of Hawaii showing approximate outline of ground-water reservoirs, recharge, 1975 draft, and principal supply wells by hydrographic areas representing major drainage basins. (Modified from Davis and Yamanaga, 1973.) 

::I: 

> 

~ 

> 

:::::= 

~ 

9 

0 

z 

s= 

~ 

01 
3.0' 

21° 

00' 

-:-::::::·:·-::·:•·:··· 

• jl.. ••• J • • 

"U ••• • 

6 ( ·~ II : 110 

50' •, 

EXPLANATION 

~1111111~ 

Ground water impounded by dikes 

I I 

Ground water perched on soil or 

ash layers 

I I 

Basal ground water floating on 

saline ground water 

ErnJ 

Brackish basal ground water 

)• 

.. 

20' 

Ill 

~ 

145 • 

a 90 

235 

I 

. . 

I 

. . 

' . 

~~\ i 

10' 156°00' 

0 2 4 6 8 MILES 

I I I I 11 I 11 I 

0 2 4 6 8 10 KILOMETERS 

~ 

'o 

7 

mmrrrm ,;r·-··-

lliJmlllUITimillill- ~ 00 

v '\ \85 \ i ~ t~.v I 

KAUPO ... · . . -.·.·~·. 

EXPLANATION 

t Grouna-water recharge, million 

gallons per day ~ Ground-water draft, million 

gallons per day 

• Principal supply wells 

a Irrigation-water return, million gallons per day 

(jj)Hydrographic area representing major drainage basin 

FIGURE 10.-Map of island of Maui showing approximate outline of ground-water reservoirs, recharge, 1975 draft, and principal supply wells by hydrographic areas representing major drainage basins. (Modified from Stearns and Macdonald, 1942.) 

~ ....... 

~ 

00 

c:::: 

3: 

3: 

> ::0 

-< 

> ""0 

~ -

00 

> F;; 

0 

"%j 

t-3 

::I: 

t%j 

z 

~ 

0 

~ 00 

0 

::0 

0 

c:: 

z 

t; 

~ t%j 

::0 

~ 00 

0 

c:::: 

::0 

CJ 

t%j 

00 
157°10' 157°00' 

KALAUPJA{/~{:: u:: .. _ .. ·.·.·. 

21° 

00' 

0 2 4 6 8 MILES 

I I I I •' I '• I 

0 2 4 6 8 10 KILOMETERS 

20o EXPLANATION 

sor- + Ground-water recharge, gallons per day ~ Ground-water draft, million 

gallons per day 

• Principal supply wells 

a Low recharge rate because most 

ground water is accounted for 

as streamflow 

fit Hydrographic area representing ·· major drainage basin 

~.i 

J ... _.· .. 

156°50' 

EXPLANATION 

~ Ground water impounded by dikes or other structures 

Area underlain by geologic 

structures suitable for 

impounding ground water 

~ Ground water perched on soil 

or ash layers 

~ Basal ground water floating on 

saline ground water 

EE] . 

. 

Brackish basal ground water 

FIGURE 11.-Map of islands of Molokai and Lanai showing ground-water reservoirs, recharge, 1975 draft, and principal supply wells by hydrographic areas representing major drainage basins. (Molokai: modified from Stearns and Macdonald, 1947; Lanai: from S.P. Bowles, unpublished data, in 1973.) 

::I: 

> 

~ 

e:: 

-

~ 

t.%j 

8 

0 

z 

s= 

1--' 

-l 
21° 

40' 

30'----1 

21° 

20' 

158° 10' 

• 

6 

• • • • 

Barbers Pt 

~ 

48 

158°00' 

SCHOFIELD 

rnw~~~ HIGH- LEVEL 

WATER BODY 

··~p 

.. 

~ 

260 

• 

IV 

• 

250 • 

b 12 

262 

15 7°50' 

I EXPLANATION 

+ Ground-water recharge, million gallons per day ~ Ground-water draft, million gallons per day 

• Principal supply wells 

a Low recharge rate because most ground water is 

accounted for as streamflow 

b Irrigation-water return, million gallons per day 

c Significant part of recharge is diverted to 

Pearl Harbor area by Schofield water body 

a4 

d Low recharge rate owing to high evapotrans- piration from shallow water levels ·~ 

O!JHydrographic area representing major · drainage basin 

_.:=-111 

-~ 

-==-s6 

• 

Ground water 

-

impounded 

by dikes or other 

structures 

~ Ground water perched on 

soil or ash layers 

D 

Basal ground water 

floating on saline 

ground water 

0 2 4 6 MILES I I I I I I I I 

0 2 4 6 8 Kl LOMETERS 

FIGURE 12.-Map of island of Oahu showing approximate outline of ground-water reservoirs, recharge, 1975 draft, and principal supply wells by hydrographic areas representing major drainage basins. 

a= 

..... 

00 

00 

c 

a:: 

a:: 

> 

~ 

> "1::1 

"1::1 

...... 

~ 00 

> 

~ 

0 

l'%j 

t-3 

:I: 

tzj 

z 

> t-3 

...... 

0 

z 

00 

0 

~ 

0 

c 

z 

t:J 

~ ~ 

ga 

00 

0 

c 

~ tzj 

00 
159°40' 3.0' 

ANALEI 

---·~ 

22° 10' :::::;oa:zal/ 

• V' 

~ ........ ·- ........ . 

'~\~ 

··~ 

l"" 

...... 0 2 4 6 8 MILES -- I I I I 1 1 I '; I 

0 2 4 6 8 10 KILOMETERS 

I 

' =• 

. 

~· 

I'. 

159°20' 

• ,....., 

1 

Ul1rnrm~"= 

~, 

EXPLANATION 

f Ground-water recharge, million 

gallons per day ~ Ground-water draft, million 

gallons per day 

• Principal supply wells 

a Low recharge rate because most 

ground water is accounted for 

as streamflow 

b Irrigation-water return, million gallons per day 

r.·· \[1) Hydrographic area representing ~ 

•· major drainage basin ~ 

Ground water 

~ impounded by dikes or other structures 

Ground water ~ perched on soil, 

ash, or thick lava flows 

above basal ground water 

CJ 

Basal ground water floating 

on saline ground water 

> 

~ 

~ 0 

0 

z 

FIGURE 13.~Map of island of Kauai showing approximate outline of ground-water reservoirs, recharge, 1975 draft, and principal supply wells by hydrographic areas representing major drainage basins. 

~ ...... 

c:c 
20° 

35' 

20° 

30' 

156°40' 

t.~ 

~ ... "'\ 

156°35' 

/--

/ .......... 

// \ 

!op.\. A // \ 

~" ~/ o I 

'f..\ c:,V. --.-----"0 >) ~ 0 t. \ 

~ ~"" ...------- 4 t.~ '"' .• ,o "'t.~ I \ 

/'' o'~ ,.. " l ,o!>s,s'-E- Gv.o»"o J '-----------------------/ 

\)~0 

(;~0 

'14~1E.~ 

BRACKISH BASAL 

EXPLANATION 

f Ground-water recharge, million 

gallons per day ~ Ground-water draft, million 

gallons per day 

SHORT-LIVED 

PERCHED-WATER 

BODIES IN CLIFF 

0 1 2 3 4MILES 

0 1 2 S 4 S KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 14.-Map of island ofKahoolawe showing approximate outline of ground-water reservoirs, recharge, and 1975 draft. 

s= 

t,:) 

0 

~ 

~ 

~ 

> 1-C 

~ 00 

~ r:n 

0 

~ 

t-3 

::I: 

tz:j 

z 

~ 

0 

z 

r::i5 

0 

~ e 

z 

t::l 

~ > t-3 

tz:j 

~ 

~ r:n 

0 

e 

~ 

0 

tz:j 

r:n 
HAW All REGION M21 

10' 

EXPLANATION 

00' f Ground-water recharge, mi 11 ion ------::-----; 

gallons per day ~ Ground-water draft, million 

gallons per day 

0 1 2 3 4 5 MILES 

I I 

I I 

I 

I I I I I I 

0 ;l 3 4 5 6 KILOMETERS 

I FIGURE 15.-Map of island of Niihau showing approximate outline of ground-water reservoirs, recharge, and 1975 draft. 

This downslope direction generally coincides with the ground-water flow, ground-water development is seridownslope flow direction of the lavas and the favorable ously limited in leeward areas where rainfall is heavy 

direction of ground-water flow from the mountains and only on the windward side. The south Kohala-Kona 

the sea. Owing to this generally favorable direction of coast on the island of Hawaii and the Kihei-Makena 
M22 SUMMARY APPRAISALS OF THE NATION'S GROUND-WATER RESOURCES 

TABLE 3.-Principal ground-water reservoirs 

Hydrographic 

area repre- senting major 

drainage basin 

Principal ground-water reservoirs 

Occurrence 

Hawaii I________ Basal 

Dike impounded 

Basal 

Hawaii II ____________ do-------------- -- ____ do _____________ _ 

Hawaii III ------ High level 

Basal 

Hawaii IV ------ ______ do-------------- - _____ do _____________ _ Hawaii V ______ _ _____ do _____________ _ ______ do _____________ _ ______ do _____________ _ 

Maui !_ _________ Dike impounded 

Basal 

Maui II ________ Dike impounded 

Basal Maui III ________ _ _____ do _____________ _ 

Maui IV ________ Perched 

Basal 

Aquifer rock 

Kohala Mt. lavas ______ do _____________________ _ 

Mauna Kea lavas ______ do _____________________ _ 

Mauna Loa lavas ______ do _____________________ _ ______ do _____________________ _ ______ do _____________________ _ 

Hualalai Volcanic Series ______ do _____________________ _ 

Mauna Loa lavas 

Mauna Kea lavas 

West Maui lavas ______ do _____________________ _ ______ do _____________________ _ ______ do _____________________ _ 

Haleakala lavas 

Posterosional Haleakala lavas ______ do _____________________ _ 

Maui V '-------- ______ do-------------- Haleakala lavas 

Molokai I ------ Dike impounded Molokai II ______ Basal 

East Molokai Volcanic Series ______ do _____________________ _ 

Molokai Ill, IV ________ do _____________ _ East and West Molokai Volcanic 

Series 

Oahu L _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Dike impounded 

Basal 

Koolau Volcanic Series ______ do _____________________ _ 

Oahu II ________ Dike impounded 

Oahu III________ Basal 

______ do _____________________ _ ______ do _____________________ _ 

Oahu IV________ High level ______ do _____________________ _ 

Basal ______ do _____________________ _ 

______ do-------------- Waianae Volcanic Series 

______ do-------------- Coralline 

Oahu V -------- Dike impounded Basal 

Oahu VI-------- High level 

Waianae Volcanic Series ______ do _____________________ _ 

Koolau Volcanic Series 

Basal ______ do _____________________ _ 

______ do-------------- Waianae Volcanic Series 

Kauai I -------- ______ do-------------- Napali Formation 

Perched Koloa Volcanic Series 

Kauai II-------- Basal Napali Formation ______ do-------------- Koloa Volcanic Series 

Perched ______ do _____________________ _ 

Kauai III ______ Basal Napali Formation 

______ do-------------- Koloa Volcanic Series Perched ______ do _____________________ _ 

Kauai IV ------ Basal Makaweli Formation 

Kauai V -------- ______ do-------------- Napali Formation 

Kahoolawe ____ __ _ _____ do _____________ _ 

Lanai ---------- Dike or fault impounded Lanai Volcanic Series Niihau __________ Basal 

Remarks 

Large, untapped source. Excellent domestic quality. 

Flow increases toward south. 

Large, little-tapped source. Very large, little-tapped source. Large impounded supply. 

Large supply in eastern part. 

Brackish near coast. _ _____ do _________________________________ _ ______ do _________________________________ _ _ _____ do _________________________________ _ _ _____ do _________________________________ _ 

Excellent domestic quality. 

Poor quality near coast. 

Excellent domestic quality. 

Excellent quality water. 

Large recharge from return irrigation 

water, quality improves to the east. 

Excellent quality water. 

Fair to good quality in thin basal-water 

bodies. 

Good quality in east part and poor in 

west part. 

Excellent quality water. 

Quality and flow improve toward east. 

______ do _________________________________ _ 

Development will reduce streamflow. 

Separated into two parts by dike zone. Development will reduce streamflow. 

Heavily tapped in coastal plain areas. Schofield water body; development at 

expense of reduced flow to Pearl Harbor 

and Waialua areas. Thick lens, heavily tapped. 

Heavily pumped for irrigation, p<:~or 

general quality. 

Heavily pumped for irrigation and recharged 

by return irrigation water. 

Excellent quality in limited supply. 

Brackish near coast. 

Schofield water body, development at 

expense of reduced flow to Pearl Harbor 

and Waialua areas. Deep valleys restrict lateral flow. 

Thick lens. 

Large, little-tapped source, excellent 

quality. 

Large, untapped source, yield poorly to 

wells. 

Thick basal reservoirs, excellent quality. 

Large, little-tapped source, yield 

generally low to wells. 

Mostly in small reservoirs, excellent 

quality. 

High water levels owing to impoundment 

by Koloa Volcanic Series. 

Brackish near coast. 

Little-tapped source in eastern part. 

High water levels. 

Significant recharge by return irrigation 

water. 

Mostly brackish. 

Large storage, can be utilized for peaking. 

Mostly brackish. 

Potential for additional 

development 

Good 

Good 

Fair to good 

Good 

Good 

Good 

Poor to good 

Poor to fair 

Poor to fair 

Poor 

Poor 

Poor to fair 

Fair 

Poor 

Fair 

Fair to good 

Fair 

Good 

Fair to good 

Poor to fair 

Good 

Fair 

Poor to fair 

Fair 

Fair to good. 

Fair 

Poor 

Good 

Poor 

Poor 

Poor to fair 

Poor to fair 

Poor 

Fair to good 

Fair 

Fair 

Good 

Poor to fair 

Fair 

Poor to fair 

Fair 

Fair .to good 

Poor to fair 

Fair 

Fair 

Poor 

Poor 

Fair 

Poor 

area in Maui are such areas. In the high volcanic dome 

of Haleakala on Maui, for instance, more than twothirds of the rain falls on the windward side. About 160 

Mgal/d of water developed in this area is conveyed by 

ditches to irrigate sugarcane in the lower eastern 

slopes, but much more goes unused to the sea owing to 

the lack of adequate conduits. 

Water for domestic use in east Maui is currently 
HAW All REGION M23 

transported from limited ground-water sources in west 

Maui and plans are to increase the amount of water 

transported for this purpose. From the standpoint of 

long-term optimum use of the ground-water resource 

in west Maui, development of the large but unused 

water resources available in the windward slopes of 

east Ma ui should be considered for use in east Ma ui. 

OPTIMIZING GROUND-WATER DEVELOPMENT 

The ground-water resources of the region, taken as a 

whole, are far greater than foreseeable future demands 

of the region, but this is not true for single basins and 

single islands. Each island is a separate entity and 

stands alone with respect to utilization of its groundwater resources. Within each island, ground water 

may be obtained from the three types of reservoirs described in the preceding section. Optimal development 

will occur, however, only by taking into account the 

relationships of discharge and recharge that may exist 

locally among the various ground-water bodies. 

BASAL GROUND WATER 

It is commonly not recognized that basal ground 

water is a highly fugitive, as well as renewable, resource, and that the ocean, to which it escapes, represents a sink of no recovery and no return. Many existing well fields utilize ground water inefficiently by concentrating the wells in small areas, thus causing large 

local drawdowns while permitting large amounts of 

ground water to escape unused to the sea in the intervening areas. The wells are concentrated spatially, 

partly for efficiency of distribution, but in part this has 

been done because of mistaken belief that they tap an 

underground river. Pumping may also be unnecessarily intermittent rather than steady in the belief that 

the longer the hiatus in pumping, the greater the 

buildup in storage. 

Ideally, optimum development of basal ground water 

would occur by constantly pumping a line of wells 

normal to the flow paths, which are generally perpendicular to the coastline. Assuming that reliable estimates of ground-water recharge and hydraulic conductivity were obtained, the well spacing and pumping 

rates could be optimized. An optimum development 

plan is generally a com promise based on a theoretical 

scheme for maximum development, aquifer-test results, and economics. Land ownership and availability, 

however, may be the most important considerations in 

areas of high land cost and development. 

Problems in implementing an optimum plan are few 

if the existing ground-water draft is small. The problems, however, increase manyfold where the draft is 

large and the existing development is inefficient as the 

result of poorly constructed wells, improperly spaced 

wells, and sustained localized overdraft. The remedy 

for existing problem areas may involve high costs in 

the abandonment of old wells and the drilling of new 

wells, in land acquisition for new well sites, and in the 

curtailment of ground-water withdrawals at some 

places. These costs must be weighed against the longterm benefits of optimum development. 

At places where basal water is confined by sedimentary caprock and is under artesian pressure, optimum 

development may require reduction of the artesian 

heads and pumping at constant rates in order to 

minimize leakage through the caprock. This operating 

plan will result in permanent reduction of storage in 

the basal freshwater lens and possible intrusion of 

saline water into some existing wells. The costs of 

these consequences must be carefully considered. 

In order that reliable estimates of the consequences 

can be made and the alternatives properly considered, 

there is a need for development of hydrologic models of 

the aquifers. These models can be used to predict results of implementation or nonimplementation of certain operation plans. The degree of success derived 

from the use of such models would depend entirely, 

however, on the amount and reliability of the hydrologic data used in constructing the models. 

DIKE-IMPOUNDED WATER 

A dike-impounded reservoir accumulates rainfall, 

stores it temporarily, and steadily leaks it to abutting 

basal reservoirs or to streams cutting into the reservoir. Development of dike-impounded reservoirs is attractive because hydraulic heads are high and the reservoirs are isolated from saline water. One major consequence, not fully understood or acknowledged, is that 

withdrawal of water from such a reservoir reduces its 

leakage to abutting basal reservoirs by the quantity 

developed. The most perplexing consequence, however, 

is the loss of hydraulic head in the reservoir and the 

tremendous waste of water from storage during construction of water-development tunnels below the top 

of the reservoir. During the tunneling period, which 

lasts for many months, all of the storage above the 

invert of the tunnel is depleted and flow from the tunnel is reduced to some steady rate. The reduction of 

storage caused by construction of eight tunnels in 

Oahu has been estimated at 25,800 Mgal (Takasaki 

and others, 1969), equivalent to the total ground-water 

withdrawal in Oahu for about 60 days. The combined 

steady-state flow of these eight tunnels is about 28 

Mgal/d, which implies that it would require at least 

920 days for natural recharge to restore the depleted 

storage. 

The Honolulu Board of Water Supply recently drilled 

an inclined well to tap dike-impounded water in Oahu. 
M24 SUMMARY APPRAISALS OF THE NATION'S GROUND-WATER RESOURCES 

This technique permitted the development of dikeimpounded water without the large initial and uncontrollable waste of stored water common to development 

by tunneling. 

A significant part of the reduction in storage by tunneling could be restored by constructing bulkheads at 

the controlling dikes. Bulkheads have been installed in 

several tunnels, but only the one in a tunnel in W aihee 

Valley is effective in restoring water to its pretunnel 

level. Bulkheads in other tunnels in Oahu were not 

constructed at dikes that originally stored the most 

water; hence, they are only partly effective in the restoration of storage. The locations of dikes that control I 

the most water can best be determined at the time of 

tunneling. If tunneling information is not available 

and storage is depleted, gain in flow between dikes, 

determined by measurements, should indicate the best 

sites for bulkheads. Bulkheads are most effective 

where single dikes control large quantities of water 

and where the contrast in permeability between lava 

flows and dikes is great. In a dike complex, the permeability contrast is too small or the dikes are too 

numerous for bulkheads to be very effective. 

The storage above the tunnel in W aihee Valley has 

been estimated at 2,200 Mgal and capability of manipulating this amount of storage is of tremendous value 

in water-supply management. The remaining tunnels 

are operating at steady-state flow and storage is 

virtually nil. The restoration of significant amounts of 

storage above these tunnels would be invaluable. Optimum use of these tunnels would be to store water 

during the wet winter months for use during the dry 

summer months at rates much larger than the perennial steady-state flow of 28 Mgal/d. This scheme would 

eliminate excessive pumping of basal-w:ater wells during the high-demand summer months, thus allowing 

pumping to be held at some constant rate throughout 

the year. The reverse is the current practice, involving 

near-constant withdrawal from dike-impounded reservoirs and manipulated light-winter to heavy-summer 

withdrawal from basal reservoirs. 

SURF ACE ACTIVITIES TO MAXIMIZE 

RECHARGE OF GROUND WATER 

Owing to the general lack of surface-reservoir sites, 

surface activities designed to induce the recharge of 

ground water must be such that large surface storage 

is not essential. Possibilities are: 

1. Construction of multipurpose flood control structures designed to maximize or to induce recharge. 

2. Lowering near-surface ground-water levels by development to reduce evapotranspiration and induce recharge. 

3. Agricultural and forest-management practices conducive to recharge and the enhancement of water 

quality. 

4. Fog-drip inducement by artificial means for the 

purposes of recharge. 

5. Artificial recharge of excess surface and irrigation 

water or sewage effluent by ponding and deep injection. 

6. Land development conducive to preservation of 

water quality and increased recharge. 

7. Maximum use and storage of water at high altitudes instead of dropping the water quickly to 

lower altitudes as is commonly practiced where 

abutting property owners discharge water individually. 

8. Use of inexpensive or excess power generated by 

burning bagasse at sugar mills for pumping unused irrigation water for storage in reservoirs or 

for subsurface injection at high levels. 

GROUND-WATER PROBLEMS 

Water-supply and other water-assessment problems 

are rarely regional problems, but are, for the most part, 

single-island problems. Problems related to technology, water rights, use, pollution, and management of 

ground water, however, are generally regional in 

scope. 

, The ground-water problems common to the Region 

can be considered in three interrelated groups: (1) 

problems of inadequate information, (2) technological 

problems, and (3) institutional problems. 

PROBLEMS ARISING FROM INADEQUATE INFORMATION 

Inadequate information of the geologic framework, 

meterology, and streamflow often presents serious 

problems in interpretation of ground-water regimes. 

Inadequate geologic information leads to difficulty in 

describing the ground-water reservoirs, the flow within 

them, and the outflow from them. Inadequate 

meteorological and streamflow information leads to 

problems in determining quantitatively the recharge 

to and the discharge from the ground-water reservoirs. 

Major ground-water problems arise from lack of information on the following aspects of the geologic 

framework: 

1. The water-bearing properties of lava flows below 

sea level. Most of the Region's basal ground water, 

and the saline ground water that underlies it, 

occur in these rocks. Lava flows extruded below 

sea level are generally of low permeability; however, the aquifers that now occur below sea level in 

the Region are often highly permeable subaerial 

flows which were subsequently submerged. The 

extent of the submergence is not known nor is the 

thickness of the permeable lava flows below sea 
HA WAil REGION M25 

level. This leads to difficulty in evaluating 

amounts of storage and the deep circulation pattern of the fresh and saline ground water. 

2. The extent of water-bearing properties of nearshore sedimentary and volcanic rocks. The ensuing problems are those related to the discharge of 

polluted ground water at or near the shore resulting from the injection of wastes into these rocks. 

3. The structure, extent, and density of occurrence of 

dikes in the dike-intruded zones. The occurrence 

and movement of dike-impounded waters could be 

better described if this information were available, 

and related problems pertaining to water rights 

and priorities and to environmental impacts that 

would result from development could be handled 

more intelligently. 

4. The geology and hydrology of rift-zone areas of active or recently active volcanoes. Rift zones occur 

on the flanks of volcanoes in places where magma 

is extruded from long fissures. The rift zones become areas of dike intrusion as the magmas cool in 

the fissures. Hot waters of possible interest for geothermal development occur in these areas. A major 

concern is the determination of the sustained 

water yield and the potential energy yield as a 

basis for evaluating the economic potential of the 

geothermal waters. 

Problems in evaluating ground-water recharge and 

discharge arise from inadequacies in the following 

meteorological and streamflow information: 

1. The rainfall distribution in the wet interior areas 

where most recharge occurs. 

2. The relation between actual and potential evapotranspiration in the moderately dry to moderately 

wet areas, especially where the potential evapotranspiration has been estimated as being equal to 

pan evaporation. 

3. The contribution of fog drip to ground-water recharge. Preliminary studies in the region suggest 

that the contribution of fog drip to recharge may 

be significant either as direct infiltration or as a 

replacement for water lost by evaporation and 

transpiration. 

4. The relation between basin rainfall and basin 

runoff in the wet interior areas where drainage 

basins are small and where the ground-water divide often differs significantly from the topographic divide. 

TECHNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 

The major technical problems related to groundwater hydrology in the Region are those pertaining to 

basal ground water. Some of the more important are as 

follows: 

1. The relation of basal ground-water levels and their 

natural and induced fluctuations to the storage, 

recharge, discharge, and development of the basal 

lens. More importantly, how to evaluate anticipated changes in rates of natural recharge and discharge at places where water levels are declining. 

2. The general inadequacy of equations available for 

analyzing pumping-test data from partially penetrating wells, and also the application of the concept of transmissivity, which includes aquifer 

thickness, for determining hydraulic conductivity. 

The inadequacy is compounded for aquifers consisting of thin lenses, where pumping, even at 

moderate rates, causes rapid upconing of the saltwater interface. 

3. The determination of the relation between horizontal and vertical hydraulic conductivities in basaltic lava-flow aquifers. This relation often determines the yield and, consequently, the optimum 

mode of development, especially from thin basal 

lenses where upconing of the underlying saline 

ground water is always a threat. 

4. The evaluation, in space and time, of recharge to 

and discharge from storage in the part of the basal 

lens below sea level with change in water level 

above sea level. 

5. The evaluation of tidal responses in basal lenses, 

especially in thin lenses, and the application of 

this information to the understanding of the mechanics of flow and the mixing process in the 

lenses, and in determining hydraulic conductivity. 

This may be the only applicable hydrologic analytical method in many areas in the Region where the 

major stress on the basal aquifer is not caused by 

pumping but by tidal fluctuations. 

6. The analysis, in water-budget studies, of the large 

intermittent amounts of recharge to thin basal 

lenses as potentially recoverable increments of 

stored ground water. Intermittent recharge due to 

intense storm precipitation usually disperses 

quickly in thin basal lenses, particularly where 

these lenses occur in highly permeable recent lava 

flows. 

7. Many of the problems mentioned earlier are related 

to the potential for degradation of water quality 

which, although not restricted to basal groundwater bodies, is most evident in these water bodies 

because of their widespread occurrence. Water 

quality is a critical factor which often limits the 

use and development of ground water. Overdevelopment results in saltwater upconing or encroachment, and man's activities may produce 

other contaminants which may degrade present 
M26 SUMMARY APPRAISALS OF THE NATION'S GROUND-WATER RESOURCES 

supplies. There is a need to identify areas where 

overdevelopment has occurred, where the activities of man may endanger present and future 

supplies, and where geologic and hydrologic conditions might permit the surface or subsurface disposal of wastes without undesirable environmental consequences. 

INSTITUTIONAL PROBLEMS 

Owing to recent interest in the quality of the environment and the need to comply with government regulations on water quality and waste disposal, the roles 

of government, business, and the public in groundwater management have been significantly altered. 

Government's managerial role includes research, control, conservation, development, monitoring, and planning. The relations of these public functions at various 

levels of the Federal, State, and County governments 

warrant review because of these recent changes. The 

jurisdictional lines between different levels of government and between agencies at the same level remain 

extremely complex. 

Problems in water management related to priority 

and exchange or transfer of water may require government intervention and assistance for resolution so 

that water development can be better integrated and 

coordinated with land-use plans and comprehensive 

planning in general. 

The allocation and management of water has been 

left largely to private agreements through user associations, which generally include land estates, agricultural interests, municipal suppliers, and the military. 

Problems are beginning to arise as water supplies locally become more scarce and as land developments 

affect recharge rates and quality of the water. To cope 

with these problems, the State, through the Ground 

Water Use Statutes (Chapter 177, Hawaii Revised 

Statutes, as amended, was reenacted by Act 122, of the 

1961 Session Laws of Hawaii), is authorized to designate ground-water areas for regulation, protection, and 

control if conditions are found to exist that will endanger the quality or quantity of ground water in such 

areas. Technical problems will likely arise, however, in 

trying to establish that such conditions do exist. 

Management problems are likely to arise because of 

changes in the hydrology caused by: 

1. Intensive development of ground water, which 

would significantly reduce perennial flow in 

nearby streams. 

2. Massive shifts to drip irrigation from furrow irrigation. 

3. Extensive changes in land use and irrigation practice that would occur in the uHanapepe" State Supreme Court decision (1973, McBryde Sugar Co., 

Ltd. v. Almer F. Robinson, et al.) is upheld and the 

transfer of surface water from one watershed to 

another is curtailed. The Hanapepe decision establishes that all surfac~water rights belong to the 

State; appurtenant rights, as use rights, remain in 

existence; all other rights to the use of water are 

based on the riparian doctrine; and water rights 

are not transferable from one watershed to 

another. Clarification is still needed as to whether 

or not the state can transfer water from one 

watershed to another. 

4. The 1973 State Supreme Court decision which declared the State owner of surplus water in 

Hawaii's rivers and streams (Hanapepe decision) 

was overturned as unconstitutional on October 26, 

1977 by the Federal District Court in Honolulu 

(1977, Selwyn A. Robinson, et al. v. George K. 

Ariyoshi, et al.). The State may appeal the recent 

Federal Court ruling to the U.S. Supreme Court. 

The State did not seek title to the water rights in 

the initial suit. 

The State government has developed a carryingcapacity concept for use as a growth management tool 

and framework for decisionmaking (1976). The carrying capacity of a region can be defined as the capacity 

of the region's environmental and resource systems to 

support a given or planned level of economic activity. 

The methodology has been formalized and integrated 

for a prototype study of the water supply of Oahu. Safe 

yields representing reasonable developable supplies, 

assuming present technology and economics, need to be 

translated into carrying capacities which can be extrapolated into the future. A major problem in the effective implementation of such a concept lies in the 

general lack of information needed to adequately evaluate the water resources. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The ground-water resources of the Hawaii Region 

offer the best prospects for meeting future water needs. 

In comparison to the surface-water resources, they appear to be less costly to develop and more dependable 

when developed. Development of ground water may 

also be more compatible with environmental quality 

considerations, existing water rights, and statutory 

regulations. 

About 810 Mgal/d is currently withdrawn from the 

ground-water resources. This quantity represents 

about 4 percent of the estimated rainfall. In spite of 

this small percentage, many problems in the quantity 

and quality of the ground-water supply exist. Under 

natural conditions, these problems exist owing to the 

extremely uneven distribution of rainfall, size and 

shape of the islands, and the varying ability of the 
HAW All REGION M27 

rocks to absorb and transport the water. The heavy 

local development needed to meet increasing demands 

and the deterioration of the ground-water supply 

owing to withdrawal, land development, and waste 

disposal contribute most to the existing problems. 

Owing to the large spatial variation in the predominant trade-wind rainfall and the subsequent marked 

inverse relation in water availability between the 

areas of supply and areas of demand, most watersupply problems have been solved by the transport of 

water. With a significant increase in the number of 

conduits for water transport, many of the future supply 

problems can probably be best resolved in this way. 

The import of water from the wet to the dry areas, 

especially for irrigation, is a most desirable solution 

because it has the effect of widening the rainfall recharge area. 

In many water-deficient areas, where water is unavailable for import or is too costly, supply problems 

would have to be resolved by measures that would reduce demand or enable the use of treated sewage effluent or brackish water for some purposes. For example, in coastal areas where additional development of 

good-quality ground water is not feasible, brackish 

ground water might be substituted in irrigation and 

industrial uses for the domestic-quality water now 

being used for these purposes. Water-supply problems 

that now exist in areas where sugarcane is heavily 

irrigated, such as in the Lahaina District in Maui and 

the Kekaha-Mana and Koloa areas in Kauai, could be 

relieved somewhat by similar types of water-exchange 

practices. 

For the island of Oahu, where the demand for 

domestic-quality water has a high priority and where 

most easily obtainable water has already been developed, actions needed to resolve supply problems are 

more restrictive and specific. 

There has been a tendency for large users of water to 

ignore the development of small sources of water, the 

primary reason being the difficulty or infeasibility of 

assimilating small scattered supplies in the existing 

distribution systems. However, in view of the pressing 

need, many excellent small sources available in windward Oahu, the Waianae area, and the southeastern 

end of the island should be seriously considered for 

development. 

There is a general lack of manmade storage to meet 

summer peaking needs, and the prospects of significantly increasing the storage are nil. Lacking 

adequate storage, summer peaking needs are now met 

by increased pumping. This method is undesirable in 

that extreme pumping stresses are imposed in the 

basal-water bodies which are the principal sources of 

supply. Some of the summer peaking needs could be 

met by restoring dike-impounded storage in the 

Koolau Mountains which was lost by development. 

This additional storage and the use of water currently 

stored at high levels in the Schofield water body could 

be utilized principally for high-demand summer 

periods. This scheme would make it possible to reduce 

some of the extremely heavy summer pumping from 

the basal aquifers. 

Some increase in the domestic water supply could be 

accomplished on Oahu by the exchange of poor quality 

water, such as brackish water or treated sewage effluent for domestic-quality water now used for irrigation. Large amounts of nonpotable water are available from treated sewage or from water in coastal 

sediments. 

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HAWAII REGION M29 

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