SAND 98-0505/22 

Unlimited Release 

December 2001 

How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring 

Can Contribute to Reducing Tensions 

Between India and Pakistan 

Air Marshal Mohammed Arshad Chaudhry PAF (Retd) 

Islamabad, Pakistan 

Air Marshal K.C. Cariappa IAF (Retd) 

Madikeri, India 

Cooperative Monitoring Center Occasional Paper/22 

Sandia is a multiprogram laboratory operated 

by Sandia Corporation, a Lockheed Martin 

Company, for the United States Department of 

Energy under contract DE-AC04-94AL85000. 
How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring Can Contribute to 

Reducing Tensions Between India and Pakistan 

The Cooperative Monitoring Center (CMC) at Sandia National Laboratories assists political and technical 

experts from around the world to acquire the technology-based tools they need to assess, design, analyze, 

and implement nonproliferation, arms control, and other cooperative security measures. As part of its 

mission, the CMC sponsors research on cooperative security and the role of technology. Reports of that 

work are provided through the Occasional Papers series. Research is conducted by Sandia staff, 

international technical experts, and visiting scholars. (The CMC’s Visiting Scholars Program is 

administered by the Institute for Public Policy at the University of New Mexico.) For additional 

information on the CMC’s programs, visit the CMC home page on the World Wide Web at 

<http://www.cmc.sandia.gov> or write to: 

Cooperative Monitoring Center 

Sandia National Laboratories 

Mail Stop 1373 

Albuquerque, NM 87185-1373 

For specific information on this report contact: 

Kent Biringer at the above address. 

This report was prepared by Sandia National Laboratories 

Albuquerque, NM 87185 and Livermore, CA 94550 

4
How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring Can Contribute to 

Reducing Tensions Between India and Pakistan 

How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring 

Can Contribute to Reducing Tensions 

Between India and Pakistan 

Abstract 

This paper studies the possibility of establishing an understanding between India and 

Pakistan through “cooperative aerial monitoring” (CAM), a concept that draws from the success 

of the Sinai Agreement brokered in 1973 between Egypt and Israel, and the Open Skies Treaty 

(OST) of 1992. That historical groundbreaking document has contributed in large measure to 

increased transparency as a confidence building measure (CBM) between the North Atlantic 

Treaty Organization (NATO) and the erstwhile Warsaw Pact States. The implementation of a 

similar but suitably tailored bilateral agreement involving CAM by India and Pakistan can do 

much to lessen tensions that have plagued their adversarial relationship for over 50 years. 

The possibility of misconstrued perceptions or accidents could exacerbate the ongoing 

impasse over Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) and add to tensions along the sensitive, fragile and 

overly militarized Line of Control (LOC) that could precipitate an unintended, unwanted nuclear 

exchange. The development imperatives of both countries and the exorbitant costs of 

maintaining and supporting a large number of troops in the most inhospitable terrain of the 

Siachen Glacier region place an enormous strain on already stretched-to-the-limit financial 

resources. Those resources could, and should, be invested in improving the lot of nearly a fifth 

of the world’s population. 

Using historical precedents, the authors propose a course of military transparency based 

on minimum intrusiveness. The authors believe that, backed by positive civil and military will, 

CAM can be instrumental in constructing bridges of confidence and friendship. The authors 

hope that by adopting military transparency and various measures that have been mooted by 

others, success will be achieved in removing barriers of distrust caused by years of mutual 

suspicion. 

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How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring Can Contribute to 

Reducing Tensions Between India and Pakistan 

Acknowledgments 

The subject of cooperative aerial monitoring between India and Pakistan has been 

suggested over a period of years. In the fall of 2000, the Cooperative Monitoring Center (CMC) 

at Sandia National Laboratories suggested that a paper be written jointly by retired Air Force 

officers of the two countries. The concept was first raised with one of the authors during a 

breakfast meeting between US Ambassador Shirin Tahir-Kheli, Maj. Gen. M. Durrani of 

Pakistan, and Air Marshal Cariappa in January 2001. It was believed that implementing 

cooperation in aerial monitoring might help in reducing tensions and building confidence levels 

between the neighbors. Subsequently, invitations were extended to both authors to research the 

subject at the Cooperative Monitoring Center. 

Our thanks are to Ambassador Tahir-Kheli for her efforts to get us together. To Kent 

Biringer, our friend, philosopher, and guide, goes our gratitude in keeping us focused and on 

track whenever there was a tendency to stray. We have had the good fortune in interacting with 

LTC Randy Parish United States Army (retd) who prepared the ground for us in compiling a 

very useful compendium on the Open Skies Treaty (OST.) From COL F.X. Stenger United 

States Air Force (USAF) (retd) of Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA) and Mr. J. L. 

Rookard of the Open Skies Media Processing Facility at Dayton, Ohio, we received first-hand 

advice as to how things are actually done in implementing the Treaty’s requirements. 

Tom Budge from the Earth Data Analysis Center at the University of New Mexico 

interacted, briefed, and discussed the intricacies of aerial mapping and utilization of sensors. At 

short notice, he put together the many fine mosaics and maps in this paper. Mike Vannoni’s 

paper on the Sinai Peace Accord and our discussions with him gave us a useful starting point for 

our own effort. Sally Bangora and Steve Garcia helped with preparing drawings and sketches. 

And, in putting together our joint effort, our thanks to Diane Ross, whose indefatigable patience 

in going through reams of paper made it easier for the reader to comprehend what we have 

written. 

On the administrative front, we make our first acknowledgment to Eric Whitmore and the 

Institute for Public Policy at the University of New Mexico. Eric received us on arrival at 

Albuquerque and thereafter proceeded to ensure we were well settled. He then continued to 

attend to all our other requirements throughout our stay. However, once we were settled in at 

CMC, Patricia Dickens, Stephanie Sustaita, and Sandra Garcia took over to ensure that there 

were no glitches or roadblocks to upset our day. They did all they could to lighten our workload 

and to facilitate our functioning in every possible way. Finally, Ramona Tenorio made sure we 

wore our security badges and was always the first one to greet us when we got to work. To them

all, we are deeply grateful. 

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How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring Can Contribute to 

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Contents 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .........................................................................................................11

1. INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................13

2. PRECEDENTS OF COOPERATIVE AERIAL MONITORING................................14

3. COOPERATIVE AERIAL MONITORING IN THE CONTEXT OF THE 

SUBCONTINENT.............................................................................................................16

4. TERRAIN ANALYSIS FOR APPLICATION OF COOPERATIVE AERIAL 

MONITORING .................................................................................................................18

4.1. THE SIACHEN GLACIER REGION..................................................................................19 

4.2. LINE OF CONTROL .......................................................................................................21 

4.3. J&K INTERNATIONAL BORDER/WORKING BOUNDARY...............................................23 

4.4. THE INTERNATIONAL BORDER (IB).............................................................................23 

4.5. THE SIR CREEK ...........................................................................................................25 

5. BASIC MECHANISMS AND TOOLS FOR CAM .......................................................26

5.1. PLATFORMS.................................................................................................................26 

5.1.1. Aircraft.............................................................................................................27

5.1.2. Helicopters.......................................................................................................27

5.1.3. Aerostats ..........................................................................................................27

5.1.4. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) .................................................................28

5.2. IMAGING SENSORS ......................................................................................................28 

5.2.1. Cameras (Optical/Electro-optical/Video)........................................................28

5.2.2. Infrared Line Scan (IRLS) and Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)....................30

5.2.3. Processing of Information ...............................................................................30

6. METHODOLOGY OF COOPERATIVE AERIAL MONITORING..........................31

6.1. PLANNING ...................................................................................................................31 

6.2. STUDY OF ONGOING OST OPERATIONS ......................................................................31 

6.3. EVOLVING BILATERAL AGREEMENT FOR EXPERIMENTAL FLIGHT ..............................31 

6.4. CONDUCTING THE EXPERIMENTAL FLIGHT .................................................................32 

6.4.1. Suggested Airfields ..........................................................................................32

6.4.2. Administrative Requirements...........................................................................33

6.4.3. Inspection and Calibration ..............................................................................34

6.4.4. Flight Planning and Conduct of the Mission...................................................34

6.4.5. Timeframe for Conduct of the Mission ............................................................36

6.4.6. Educate the News Media..................................................................................36

6.4.7. Evaluation of Flight Procedures and Results..................................................36

6.5. FULL-SCALE IMPLEMENTATION OF CAM REGIME ......................................................36 

6.5.1. Resolution of Disagreements...........................................................................37

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How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring Can Contribute to 

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7. RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................................................................38

7.1. SHORT-TERM RECOMMENDATIONS.............................................................................38 

7.2. MID-TERM RECOMMENDATIONS.................................................................................38 

7.3. LONG-TERM RECOMMENDATIONS ..............................................................................39 

8. CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................40

GLOSSARY..................................................................................................................................41

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES...................................................................................42

ABOUT THE AUTHORS ...........................................................................................................44

Figures 

Figure E-1. Political Map of South Asia.....................................................................................10

Figure 1. Division of Indo-Pak Border into Terrain-Based Sectors for 

Considering a CAM Regime .................................................................................................19 

Figure 2. Computer-Generated Terrain Map of the Siachen Glacier Region.............................20 

Figure 3. Computer-Generated Terrain Map Looking Northeast 

Along the Line of Control in Kashmir ..................................................................................21 

Figure 4. Destroyed Bridge on the Muzaffarabad-Srinagar Highway at Chakothi 

Along the Line of Control.....................................................................................................22 

Figure 5. Chakothi-Uri Sector Terrain (Jhelum River at left, India at right) 

Along the Line of Control.....................................................................................................22 

Figure 6. Composite Satellite Map of Jammu and Kashmir Region ..........................................24 

Figure 7. An-32...........................................................................................................................26 

Figure 8. C-130 Hercules............................................................................................................27 

Figure 9. Representative Coverage Areas for Two Types of Optical Sensors...........................29 

Figure 10. Coverage Available with Open Skies Video Camera ...............................................29 

Figure 11. Suggested Sectors for Proposed CAM Experiment ..................................................33 

Figure 12. Typical Camera and Coverage Footprint for Experimental Flight............................34 

Figure 13. Flight and Coverage Profiles for Experiment and Expanded Monitoring.................35 

Figure 14. Achieving 60-km Coverage with Two Overflights...................................................35 

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How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring Can Contribute to 

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Acronyms 

AFB Air Force Base 

Air HQ Air Headquarters 

CAM Cooperative Aerial Monitoring 

CBM Confidence Building Measure 

CCA Consultative Committee of Arbitration 

CMC Cooperative Monitoring Center 

FOV Field of View 

IB International Border 

INF Intermediate-range Nuclear Forces 

IRLS Infrared Line Scan 

J&K Jammu and Kashmir 

LOC Line of Control 

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization 

NTM National Technical Means 

OSCC Open Skies Consultative Committee 

OST Open Skies Treaty 

SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar 

SDI Strategic Defense Initiative 

UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle 

UK United Kingdom

UN United Nations 

US United States 

USAF United States Air Force 

USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 

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How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring Can Contribute to 

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Figure E-1. Political Map of South Asia 

10
How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring Can Contribute to 

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Executive Summary

The legacy of distrust, suspicion, and overt hostility between India and Pakistan has 

resulted in four wars that have not resolved any of the outstanding issues bedeviling their 

relationship. Instead, attitudes have hardened on both sides of the divide. This has resulted in 

militant religious and political elements surfacing to prominence in their respective domestic 

policies. 

Tensions that existed between NATO and the erstwhile Warsaw Pact countries until the 

end of the 1980s were no less in magnitude. It was then that the US leadership realized that 

military “transparency” was necessary to defuse the situation and suggested ways and means to 

do so. Finally, the then-Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) accepted the idea of 

transparency that they termed “glasnost.” In 1992, this set the stage for initiating the Open Skies 

Treaty (OST) among 27 countries who subsequently proceeded to lay open their territories, 

stretching from Vancouver to Vladivostok, for the purposes of aerial observation. Preceding this 

“path-breaking” pact, bilateral Cooperative Aerial Monitoring (CAM) between Egypt and Israel, 

and Hungary and Romania had proved successful in reducing tension and in enhancing 

confidence building. 

This paper proposes the application of existing models of CAM, albeit modified 

considerably, to India and Pakistan and hopefully with favorable results. This optimism is 

generated because international pressures and domestic realization have coalesced forcefully 

towards resolving long-standing and irritating conflicts, specifically in Jammu and Kashmir 

(J&K). Encouraged by Dr. Henry Kissinger’s incremental approach in solving the Egypt-Israel 

impasse by “nibbling” at major issues through small confidence-building steps, we have 

proposed that his successful strategy be applied in the Indo-Pak context. 

Two powerful factors that today form the bedrock of confidence building are first, the 

existing “political will” as demonstrated by the present political leadership, and second, the long 

list of existing bilateral agreements that have been honored by both countries and have stood the 

test of time. In the prevailing situation, the institution of a CAM regime would have 

considerable advantages, such as: 

• Monitoring military activity close to the border at low cost. 

• Building a secure and stable security understanding between both countries. 

• Reducing tension and suspicion. 

The authors analyzed the terrain of the entire length of the Indo-Pak border to determine 

the applicability of the CAM regime (Figure E-1). Contentious areas such as the Siachen Glacier 

region and the Line of Control (LOC) were considered unsuitable for CAM initially because of

the political sensitivities and the challenges in imaging the terrain. The Sir Creek region was 

also not selected initially because of the ongoing border dispute. However, CAM could be 

effectively carried out along the International Border (IB) from J&K to the Sir Creek. While 

recommending three small sectors along the IB, a small segment of 250 km of this border was 

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How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring Can Contribute to 

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determined to be particularly suitable for conducting an experiment because it is not too 

militarily sensitive. 

This paper also considers suitable platforms and sensors. The authors recommend that 

initially a Third Party aircraft be requested from the Open Skies Consultative Committee 

(OSCC) to conduct an experimental CAM flight. The entire series of steps (refer to the section 

on Methodology of Cooperative Aerial Monitoring) involves the aircraft to fly along the IndoPak border with observers from both countries on board. The on-board cameras would 

photograph a swath of territory 15 km on either side of the border (30 km total). Later, as 

confidence levels increase, the coverage could be extended progressively to 30 km and then to 

60 km. These later missions could be flown using Indian and Pakistani aircraft modified for 

photographic missions and flown over their own territory with observers from the other side. 

The authors have listed a set of recommendations to serve as a checklist. If CAM is 

applied by both India and Pakistan in a spirit of cooperation and with a will to succeed, various 

other military CBMs could be instituted. These may someday result in the lasting peace that has 

eluded the subcontinent for so long. 

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How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring Can Contribute to 

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How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring 

Can Contribute to Reducing Tensions 

Between India and Pakistan 

1. Introduction 

The long-standing territorial dispute between India and Pakistan in Kashmir has been the 

cause for three major wars, and a very serious confrontation that could have led to full-scale war. 

This confrontation (known as the Kargil War) was fraught with the specter of a nuclear 

exchange. The legacy of distrust, suspicion, and conflict for over 50 years cannot be wished 

away nor can attitudes be mellowed overnight. However, the introduction of nuclear weapons 

into the equation has created a new sense of urgency to find ways and means to defuse the 

tension between the two belligerent neighbors. 

The history of resolution of conflicts between India and Pakistan is unique because it 

does not follow patterns seen elsewhere. For example, ceasefire resolutions in India and 

Pakistan were not followed by proposals for serious disengagements to safe distances or for the 

creation of demilitarized zones. In some instances, the Indo-Pak agreements have been vague 

and incomplete, i.e., the Siachen issue is the creation of one such incomplete exercise of 

determining the Line of Control (LOC) under the Karachi Agreement of 1951. Essentially, on 

each ceasefire the troops pulled back to their original positions, retaining their weapons and 

maintaining eyeball-to-eyeball contact. This continued contact did not defuse tension; instead, 

hurt egos and a false sense of bravado exacerbated the situation. In contrast, in the aftermath of 

the Egypt–Israel War of 1973, Israeli forces withdrew to 20 km from the Suez Canal and a 10-

km buffer zone was established between the opposing armies. Later, the Israelis pulled back to 

east of the Giddi and Mitla passes. A fresh buffer zone was then accepted, and was manned and 

monitored by United Nations (UN) peacekeepers and the United States (US) Sinai Field Mission. 

Henry Kissinger, the architect of the Sinai Peace Agreement, showed that an incremental 

approach towards solving serious disputes without tackling the fundamental issue can make 

significant progress and the overall political situation can improve as a result of benefits derived 

from relatively small steps. This method suggests that the major issue must be “nibbled at” and 

reduced in its magnitude. Using the same logic, even the J&K impasse could be resolved if 

small steps are taken as confidence building measures (CBMs). Within this context, the authors

believe that the introduction of an incremental Cooperative Aerial Monitoring (CAM) regime

rather than the full application of the Open Skies Treaty (OST) would bear meaningful results in 

the subcontinent. 

In this paper, we make a case for the acceptance of a less-intrusive method of aerial 

monitoring while keeping in mind the sensibilities and sensitivities of the two countries. If this 

experiment succeeds, then a broader application of the CAM regime may be considered. It is 

hoped that as a collateral effect of military CBMs, mutual hostility and suspicion could be 

reduced, thereby building a basis from which a big step forward could be taken. 

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How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring Can Contribute to 

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2. Precedents of Cooperative Aerial Monitoring 

President Eisenhower first mooted the idea of “open skies” in 1955 to encourage bilateral 

transparency between the US and the USSR. However, the proposal was not acceptable to 

Premier Khrushchev who chose to keep the Iron Curtain drawn close around his country and the 

territories of his allies. This shroud of secrecy cost the two antagonists, North Atlantic Treaty 

Organization (NATO) and the Warsaw Pact States, trillions of dollars in an arms race. 

The proposal was revived by President Bush in 1989 and was later expanded to include 

the satellite states of the Soviet Union. Gorbachev accepted the concept of overflights as a 

means of enhancing trust and creating transparency, which until then was conspicuous by its 

absence. The ensuing multi-national negotiations spread out over a period of many years and 

prolonged discussions resulted in the acceptance and signing of the OST. 

Why did Khrushchev reject the OST in the first instance, and why did Gorbachev accept 

it? Perhaps because in the 1950s there was still great suspicion concerning US motives in the 

minds of Moscow’s rulers, whereas when the latter came to office, his policy of glasnost coupled 

with the economic collapse of the USSR had changed the political scenario. The hard realities of 

the time demanded pragmatism, astute leadership, and statesmanship, which Gorbachev was able 

to provide. Earlier, the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) as proposed by President Reagan had 

forced the Soviet Union into a corner economically, thereby exposing its lack of will to match 

the stakes. Dismantling the Iron Curtain soon commenced. Gorbachev was able to implement 

the Intermediate-range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty effectively and brought other arms control 

proposals to the discussion table. The US too, was keen on bringing Russia and Eastern Europe 

into the comity of nations. Thus, in this atmosphere of accommodation and understanding, the 

OST was proposed. It should therefore be apparent that an atmosphere of mutual suspicion and 

hostility can give way to one of trust and confidence if, as in the case of the US and the erstwhile 

Soviet Union, there is a change in the strategic relationship and a shared desire for peace. 

The OST signed on March 24, 1992, established a regime of unarmed aerial observation 

flights over the entire territories of the 24 signatories (subsequently increased to 27 on 

December 15, 1992). The original signatories did not intend to confine the benefits of the Treaty 

only to NATO and the Warsaw Pact countries, but had hoped to enlarge its scope. It was 

conceived that the openness it demanded, and the mechanisms it created, could be made relevant 

to many more countries, thereby mitigating long-standing regional conflicts. It was designed to 

enhance confidence and mutual understanding by providing all participants, regardless of their 

size, the possibility of obtaining information on activities (military or others) of concern to them. 

Once the Treaty enters into force, all smaller States will receive copies of data obtained and may 

not be required to conduct their own flights. Currently, the Treaty covers the broadest 

geographical space from Vancouver to Vladivostok and is the most wide-ranging international 

effort to date to promote openness and transparency. 

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How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring Can Contribute to 

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The Treaty is based on the following basic principles: 

• Complete territorial access 

• Use of unarmed reconnaissance aircraft 

• Commercial availability of advanced sensor suites to all parties 

• An annual quota of reciprocal flights 

In case of disputes and differences, the Treaty allows for consensus decisions in the Open 

Skies Consultative Commission (OSCC). This mechanism also permits upgrading of sensors, 

adjustment of quotas, and admission of new participants. 

There has thus far been just one example of a successful bilateral CAM regime, that 

between Hungary and Romania. Even as multi-national OST deliberations were in progress, 

Romania viewed the concept as an important step to reduce tension and build confidence with its 

neighbor Hungary. In January 1991, the latter responded to repeated Romanian initiatives to 

conclude the bi-national Treaty that was instrumental in reducing traditional hostility and tension 

that had existed for many years. Because both countries had the political will and courage to 

engage each other in promoting peace and confidence, the negotiating exercise was relatively 

simple. The main body of the document was agreed upon in a mere three days. This in turn 

proved that accepting the “open skies” concept had such advantages as: 

• Enhancing the monitoring regime at relatively low cost. 

• Creating stable and secure bilateral and regional security arrangements. 

• Building a new cooperative security structure between Treaty partners. 

• Satisfying tense and suspicious neighbors about each other’s intentions to respect 

international borders (IBs). 

As stated earlier, the Sinai Agreements depended heavily on ground and aerial 

monitoring for verification. The participants of the agreements were allowed to fly their own 

reconnaissance aircraft up to their own forward lines to observe the latest positions. They were 

assisted by the US (in coordination with the UN) in periodic, high-altitude overflights. The 

Third Party information thus collected was shared selectively with Egypt and Israel. 

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How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring Can Contribute to 

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3. Cooperative Aerial Monitoring in the Context of the Subcontinent 

In the Indo–Pak context, the application of the CAM concept begs two questions: 

• Is it necessary to achieve a political understanding before CAM negotiations can take 

place? 

• Will the implementation of CAM result in the necessary political accommodation and 

understanding?

Political will is a prerequisite for any understanding even if it is an experiment in CAM. 

Fortunately, this will does exist, as was evident when the Indian Prime Minister visited Lahore in 

February 1999. This was followed by a summit between him and the Pakistani President in July 

2001. Both leaders agreed that there should be more meetings and that the dialogue would 

continue in order to resolve disputes. During a press conference in Agra in July 2001, President 

Musharraf of Pakistan stated quite unequivocally that there was no military solution to the 

Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) imbroglio. He said answers would have to be found through 

negotiations. On September 6, 2001, Prime Minister Vajpayee of India reiterated that his 

government was optimistic about a negotiated settlement over the J&K impasse. At a national 

police convention (as reported by the Pakistani Dawn), he said, “It remains our hope that 

dialogue alone can build mutual trust and understanding and help us arrive at a negotiated 

settlement over various bilateral issues, including Kashmir.” 

As a matter of interest, after Reagan and Gorbachev had agreed in principle to the 

reduction of nuclear weapons, it did not take long for their respective technical and diplomatic 

experts to work out the INF Treaty in 1987. However, hammering out details of the OST was a 

lengthy and involved process because of inherent suspicion and distrust and because of the large 

numbers of participants. 

To facilitate matters in the subcontinent, there are already some confidence building 

mechanisms in place, which include: 

• Prohibiting Attacks against Nuclear Installations and Facilities – 1988 

• Advance Notice on Military Exercises, Maneuvers and Troop Movements – 1991 

• Prevention of Airspace Violations and Permitting Over-flights and Landings by 

Military Aircraft – 1992 

• Joint Declaration on the Complete Prohibition of Chemical Weapons – 1992 

Other non-military landmark Treaty achievements include The Indus Waters Treaty 

(September 19, 1960) and the Agreement on the Salal Hydro-Electric Plant (April 14, 1978) 1

. 

 

1 Crisis Prevention, Confidence Building and Reconciliation in South Asia. Edited by Michael Krepon and Amit

Sewak, published by the Henry L. Stimson Center, Washington, D.C., 1995. 

16
How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring Can Contribute to 

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This list is by no means exhaustive. With a fairly impressive track record of earlier CBMs to 

resolve differences amicably, and the honoring of those decisions, there is no reason why another 

such measure of equal importance cannot be considered for adoption. The mechanics of a CAM 

regime are therefore being introduced in the belief that it will have far-reaching and positive 

consequences for the subcontinent. 

The emphasis of CAM would be transparency and not intrusive intelligence gathering.

The authors purposely selected the equipment and operating procedures in order to achieve the 

desired balance between transparency and intrusiveness. The use of common equipment and 

operating procedures would limit photo acquisition capability. In the future, such flights could 

be used as a means to monitor force levels should both countries agree to restrict, formally or 

informally, troops and equipment deployment within specified geographical areas. Thus, some

CBMs that could emerge as a result of CAM are: 

• Disengagement of troops to a distance of 30 km in the first phase, and once confidence levels increase, to 60 km in the second phase. These distances have been recommended keeping in mind the “footprint” of the cameras that are being proposed for 

the aircraft engaged in aerial monitoring missions. 

• Establishment of limited force zones within the disengagement/demilitarized areas of

30 km and 60 km respectively. 

• The non-deployment of missiles within the stipulated zones. 

• Demilitarization of the Siachen area and Sir Creek. 

It is the authors’ belief that with the institution of a CAM regime, army formation commanders, particularly those with sensitive equipment, would themselves suggest the withdrawal 

of their forces further away from the “prying eyes” of the aerial monitoring sensors. 

17 
How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring Can Contribute to 

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4. Terrain Analysis for Application of Cooperative Aerial Monitoring 

Despite the availability of a wide variety of technological ground-based sensors, very few 

can be placed along the most contentious stretches of the Indo-Pak border. The demarcation 

between the two countries lies along some of the most inhospitable and inaccessible tracts of the 

towering Himalayas. Nearly 110 km of this border lie at heights varying from 15,000 ft and 

25,000 ft. Perpetual snow, blizzards, avalanches, sub-zero temperatures, and impassable terrain 

preclude normal human activity. Yet, in areas where access is possible, troops of the two nations 

have, through extraordinary effort, established pickets and fought one another in what is known 

as the highest battlefield in the world. 

For the purposes of establishing a CAM regime, the authors propose to divide the entire 

3200 km border into segments starting from the northern reaches of the Siachen Glacier to the 

southernmost tip of the Indo-Pak land border at Sir Creek (see Figure 1). This is necessitated 

because of the differences in terrain, not all of which lends itself to accurate or definitive photo 

reconnaissance, or for the use of other sensors. The segments could be described as follows: 

• Siachen Glacier Region north of grid reference point NJ 9842 

• The Line of Control stretching southwards from NJ 9842 to grid reference point NW

6565 

• The J&K International Border (India’s term)/Working Boundary (Pakistan’s term) 

• International Border (IB) to Sir Creek 

• The Sir Creek estuary 

The following sections describe the terrain along the entire Indo-Pak border and the 

applicability of suggested cooperative monitoring solutions based on earlier papers produced at 

the Cooperative Monitoring Center (CMC.) 

18
How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring Can Contribute to 

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Figure 1. Division of Indo-Pak Border into Terrain-Based Sectors 

for Considering a CAM Regime

4.1. The Siachen Glacier Region 

Steep and towering mountain ridges running generally north and south rising to heights 

above 25,000 ft characterize the glacier region commonly known as Siachen (Figure 2). The 

salient feature is the Siachen Glacier that stretches approximately 70 km. This is a region of 

perpetual, blinding snow and ice. Gale force blizzards induce an extremely low wind chill factor 

that further lowers temperatures below the ambient minus 40°C. The nearly vertical 

mountainsides and deep declivities make for inaccessible approaches to the ridges or the peaks. 

Analysis 

Given the nature of the hostile physical and climatic conditions, the possibility of any 

kind of cooperative aerial monitoring can be ruled out. Even such sophisticated sensors as synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and infrared line scanners (IRLS) have limited use. In the circumstances, it is recommended that establishment of a scientific and meteorological monitoring 

19 
How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring Can Contribute to 

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center at a suitable location near the glacier be considered and the area be demilitarized.2 

Another factor that must be considered is that this is a combat zone and as such could be 

excluded from an aerial monitoring regime, more so if the idea of a scientific center is accepted. 

Figure 2. Computer-Generated Terrain Map of the Siachen Glacier Region 

 

2

 Kent L. Biringer, Siachen Science Center: A Concept for Cooperation at the Top of The World, CMC Occasional 

Paper 98-0505/2, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, March 1998. 

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How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring Can Contribute to 

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4.2. Line of Control 

This demarcating line starts from NJ 9842 and heads in a generally southwesterly 

direction. The area is mountainous with peaks rising to approximately 20,000 ft in the NE with 

height reducing to about 5,000 ft progressing southwestwards. The tree line extends to about 

8,500 ft and the mountain slopes are thickly wooded. Above that height, the terrain is rocky and 

very steep in many places. Climatic conditions are neither as severe, nor as hostile as in the 

glacier region; however, freezing temperatures prevail during winter. 

Analysis 

The terrain and dense foliage make aerial monitoring impractical. In the circumstances, 

installing ground monitoring equipment as suggested by Maj. Gen. Durrani3

 is recommended. 

Further, as this too is a contentious area, at least until the J&K issue is resolved, no aerial 

monitoring is proposed in this area. (See Figures 3, 4, and 5.) 

Figure 3. Computer-Generated Terrain Map Looking Northeast Along the Line of 

Control in Kashmir 

 

3

 Major General Mahmud Ali Durrani (Retd), Enhancing Security Through a Cooperative Border Monitoring 

Experiment: A Proposal for India and Pakistan, Cooperative Monitoring Center Occasional Paper SAND 98-

0505/21, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, July 2001 

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Figure 4. Destroyed Bridge on the Muzaffarabad-Srinagar Highway 

at Chakothi Along the Line of Control 

Figure 5. Chakothi-Uri Sector Terrain (Jhelum River at left, India at right) 

Along the Line of Control 

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4.3. J&K International Border/Working Boundary 

The border region of Jammu and Kashmir (Figure 6) is referred to as the J&K International Border (by India) or the Working Boundary (by Pakistan) and is characterized by 

generally lower terrain, wooded hill slopes, and hilltops reaching to about 5,000 ft. The height 

decreases progressively as the border turns to a southerly/southeasterly direction. The climate 

and weather conditions are less severe than in the contiguous northern regions. The foothills 

lower into the plains that slope towards the major rivers that then join the mighty Indus at 

various points along its course. A combination of ground sensors and aerial monitoring could be 

put in place to provide confidence building measures along this segment of the border. 

Analysis 

This is the commencement of the plains area of the border, and renders itself entirely 

suitable to electronic/optical monitoring. Though there is considerable military activity in the 

area, at some future time it could come under the ambit of the monitoring agreement. 

4.4. The International Border (IB) 

This border (extending from that described in the preceding section) runs in a generally 

SSW direction with a median height of about 750 ft, lowering to sea level as it approaches the 

Sir Creek estuary. The northern areas of this region experience hot summers (45°+C) and cold 

winters with the temperature touching 0°C. The Great Thar Desert is easily the dominating 

feature of the area where temperatures rise to above 50°C. This undisputed and internationally 

recognized section of the border has large forces deployed in defensive positions and in depth on 

both sides of it. Because of the absence of high hill features, it is most suitable for aerial 

observation. Numerous airfields on either side of the border with the required infrastructure 

could support a CAM regime. To identify candidate experiment locations, this segment could be 

further subdivided to identify a length of border where, because of the terrain and harshness of 

climate, there is neither habitation nor any areas of military significance, and therefore of little 

security sensitivity. 

Analysis 

Because of the flat terrain, this area is highly suitable for conducting optical/electronic 

aerial monitoring. It would therefore be ideal for putting in place a preliminary monitoring 

regime. A practical experiment could be modeled and put in place in a small segment of this 

border.

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How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring Can Contribute to 

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Figure 6. Composite Satellite Map of Jammu and Kashmir Region 

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How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring Can Contribute to 

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4.5. The Sir Creek 

As the border moves further south, it enters the Rann of Kutch terminating in a 60-milelong riverine estuary known as the Sir Creek. It is flat and featureless with salt flats that are 

marshy and devoid of any vegetation; however, they are home to large flocks of flamingos and 

herds of wild asses. Demarcation of this portion of the border has been difficult because of 

varying interpretations by both countries. A minor conflict erupted here in April 1965. Despite 

international arbitration, differences remain unresolved. A.G. Noorani has made some

recommendations4

 to settle the dispute. Also, Occasional Papers authored at the CMC5 have 

suggested de-militarization in the first instance and then the institution of a confidence building 

CAM regime.

Analysis 

Although the flat terrain renders it perfectly suitable for aerial monitoring, the limited 

presence of military units makes it more suitable for another kind of cooperation. As in the case 

of the Siachen region, a proposal of establishing a joint Indo-Pak venture to study pollution, 

water quality and currents6

, and other studies concerning marine biology7 may be considered.

 

4 Easing the Indo-Pakistani Dialogue on Kashmir: Confidence Building Measures for the Siachen Glacier, Sir 

Creek, and the Wular Barrage Disputes. A.G. Noorani, Occasional Paper #16, The Henry L. Stimson Center, 

Washington, D.C., April 1994. 5 Maritime Cooperation Between India and Pakistan; Building Confidence at Sea, Ayesha Siddiqa-Agha, 

Cooperative Monitoring Center Occasional Paper SAND 98-0505/18, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, 

NM, November 2000. 

Reducing Risk in South Asia: Managing India - Pakistan Tensions, Shirin Tahir-Kheli and Kent L. Biringer, 

Cooperative Monitoring Center Occasional Paper SAND 98-0505/20, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, 

NM, March 2001 6 The South Asia Cooperative Environmental Monitoring Project: An Effort to Promote Regional Cooperation and 

Water Quality Data Sharing in South Asia. Gaurav Rajen, Kent L. Biringer, and J. David Betsill, Sandia National 

Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, SAND2001-0722, March 2001 7 Cooperative Environmental Monitoring in the Coastal Regions of India and Pakistan, Gaurav Rajen, Sandia 

National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, SAND 98-0505/11, June 1999 

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5. Basic Mechanisms and Tools for CAM 

Some fundamental requirements are essential for the conduct of CAM between participants. These include aerial platforms, sensors, and processing facilities. Also, a committee or a 

commission would need to be established to broker agreement on issues such as the type of 

sensors to be used and the desired level of resolution and for reconciling disputes. Possible 

platforms and applicable sensors for cooperative aerial monitoring are discussed in the following 

sections. Various national technical means (NTM) through which both sides are indulging in 

reconnaissance and intelligence-gathering operations are not relevant to this discussion. 

5.1. Platforms 

Aerial platforms that are presently available for aerial monitoring purposes in the 

inventories of India and Pakistan are: 

India 

• An-32—A twin-engine turboprop aircraft of Russian manufacture (Figure 7). 

• Dornier 228—A 12- to 14-seat capacity twin-engine turboprop aircraft of German origin. 

• Mi-17 Helicopter—A twin-engine helicopter of Russian manufacture capable of highaltitude operations. 

Figure 7. An-32 

Pakistan 

• C-130 Hercules—A four-engine turboprop aircraft of US manufacture (Figure 8). 

• Fokker F-27—A twin-engine turboprop aircraft of Dutch manufacture. 

• Mi-17 and Puma Helicopters—Twin-engine turboprop helicopters of Russian and French 

manufacture respectively. Both helicopters are capable of high-altitude operations. 

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Figure 8. C-130 Hercules 

5.1.1. Aircraft 

The An-32, Dornier 28, C-130 Hercules, and Fokker F-27 are being suggested because 

they are high-wing transport aircraft on which cameras and sensors could be fitted easily, have 

adequate range/endurance and could carry the requisite number of operators/observers for the 

monitoring mission. In the event that sensor modification is considered too expensive and timeconsuming, initial experimental flights could be flown with the assistance of a Third Party whose 

aircrew are trained in the role, and whose aircraft have been modified for Open Skies missions. 

Among countries that have the expertise and could be approached for support are Canada, 

Hungary, Romania, United Kingdom (UK), US, and USSR. 

5.1.2. Helicopters 

The Mi-17 and Puma helicopters that are being proposed meet the requirements of 

carrying sufficient numbers of personnel as observers or hosts. Because these machines are 

prone to vibration, they are not considered suitable for photo-reconnaissance missions of the type 

envisaged for CAM missions. They could be used ideally where visual observation is required 

in such areas as the LOC and Siachen. 

5.1.3. Aerostats 

These tethered, helium-filled balloons are equipped to carry a combination of aerial 

surveillance technologies. Precise operational characteristics vary considerably depending on 

payload, altitude, power source, and the sensor equipment suite. A major vendor claims that the 

aerostat is “an ideal platform for long-range, electro-optical/infrared suites and other sensing 

equipment.” However, most such platforms deployed along the US-Mexican border and the one 

with a television transmitter in Florida have not lived up to claimed capabilities in tracking drug27 
How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring Can Contribute to 

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runner aircraft8. On the other hand, it is claimed that a Westinghouse aerostat deployed with 

TPS-63 radar at 10,000 ft on the Kuwaiti border was able to acquire aircraft on the take-off roll 

on runways in Iran! It was also able to detect the massed armor used by Iraq as a prelude to its 

offensive against Kuwait9

. Thus, while the equipment did prove its worth, the US$25 million 

unit cost is exorbitant in the South Asian context. A major constraint to the deployment of these 

balloons is that they are susceptible to being damaged or to breaking their moorings in case of 

strong winds, or other weather phenomena. Further, used in aerial reconnaissance, only a small 

section and a fixed location can be monitored. In these circumstances, they are not considered 

suitable for deployment in a CAM role even if information could be transmitted to operation 

centers some distance away. 

5.1.4. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) 

Considerable financial savings could be effected if aerial monitoring is done by UAVs. 

These craft are capable of supporting a variety of sensors and operate at considerable altitudes. 

The newest additions to the US inventory are “Predator” and “Global Hawk,” both of which 

have phenomenal performance capabilities at great heights (25,000 ft to 100,000 ft), and 

endurance ranging from 4 to 24 hours10. They carry optical and electronic sensors and can 

transmit data in real time. A major constraint because of the line-of-sight requirements is the 

necessity of establishing a chain of monitoring/controlling stations. Other important factors to 

be considered are weather, endurance, and payload. However, what is likely to be the most 

important consideration in recommending their use is whether US and Israeli state-of-the-art 

technology would be released for requirements in the subcontinental context. For purposes of 

this study, the availability of these platforms could be ruled out. 

5.2. Imaging Sensors

5.2.1. Cameras (Optical/Electro-optical/Video) 

Despite the availability of more capable and “smarter” sensors, OST signatories have 

preferred the use of simpler and comparatively inexpensive surveillance cameras that are tailored 

to provide the required degree of image resolution and area coverage (footprint) from a specified 

altitude. For example, the KA-91 is one such camera that gives the desired result of a 15 km

swath while flying at an altitude of 7 km (23,000 ft). A combination of KA-91 (vertical) and 

KS-87 (oblique) cameras can provide greater swath width, but the altitude at which the platform

operates will have to be lowered to meet the resolution requirements of the KS-87 camera (see 

Figure 9). The right combination of altitude and camera would have to be determined by the 

professionals to give the desired swath width. Most cameras available in the market can obtain 

the OST-stipulated resolution of 30 cm. (Resolution is a function of the optical system selected, 

the film type and processing, and the altitude of the aircraft.) The area covered by an image (the 

8 Tethered Aerostat Radar System at www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/airdef/tars.htm, Federation of American 

Scientists, Washington, D.C. 9

 “Tethered Aerostat Alerted Kuwait to Iraqis Heading Across Border,” Bruce D Nordwell, Aviation Week and 

Space Technology, Sept. 24, 1990, Volume 133, No. 13, p.21. 10 Jane’s Military Aerospace Jane’s Defence Weekly, March 11, 1998.

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footprint) would in turn determine the number of flights required to image an agreed area. It is 

pertinent to state that India and Pakistan have some aerial NTM capabilities that can provide 

them with resolution better than 30 cm from ranges of up to 45 km. 

 

Figure 9. Representative Coverage Areas for Two Types of Optical Sensors 

A resolution of 30 cm means that to be detected, two objects must be at least 30 cm apart, 

or of 30 cm or more in dimension. In practical terms, this resolution would permit distinguishing 

between an armored fighting vehicle and a truck, thus indicating the presence or otherwise of 

specific military formations within the area to be monitored. Thus, transparency would be 

assured with a minimum degree of intrusiveness. Some video cameras can provide the same 30-

cm resolution at a lower height; however, these are not considered suitable because of their 

narrow field of view (FOV), thereby requiring multiple passes to cover a given area. (See Figure 

10.) 

Figure 10. Coverage Available with Open Skies Video Camera 

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5.2.2. Infrared Line Scan (IRLS) and Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) 

Infrared sensors can achieve resolutions as good or better than that of cameras. But, 

because of the narrow FOV (as in the case of video imaging), numerous runs are required to 

obtain coverage of a large area. These sensors are effective for day or night imagery but depend 

on good weather conditions. SAR is very efficient at obtaining imagery in all weather and 

varying light conditions, or even when atmospheric obscurants are present. However, data 

interpretation is difficult and requires specialists to do the analysis. 

In any case, despite obvious and well-known advantages, these sensors are not being 

considered for use in this proposal. Even though the OST provides for the use of IRLS and 

SAR, the signatories are not yet using these means. The sensors have known technical 

difficulties, high expense, and may have export restrictions. Also, in the Indo-Pak context, the 

principle of least intrusiveness discourages their use at this stage. 

5.2.3. Processing of Information 

On completion of a monitoring flight, the film would be removed from the camera, 

placed in sealed containers to prevent tampering, and transported to an agreed processing 

facility. Depending on whether the “observed” or the “observing” party processes the film, the 

OST allows either three days or 10 respectively to develop and duplicate all film used in the 

course of the mission. The processing must be done in the presence of both parties. If only one 

camera is used, then two sets of negatives/prints would need to be produced, one each for 

delivery to the representatives of each country. This would guarantee the availability of identical 

raw information and therefore a common base for discussions on observations between the two 

Parties. All cameras are film-based and not digital because the latter can be more easily 

manipulated. 

Film processing facilities could be established either independently or jointly by both 

India and Pakistan. Guidance and assistance could be sought from the Open Skies Media 

Processing facilities at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base (AFB), USA, a designated OST airfield. 

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6. Methodology of Cooperative Aerial Monitoring 

The OST has been used as the basis for proposing the concept of CAM to be 

implemented between India and Pakistan. The sensitivity of their rather tenuous relationship has 

necessitated that a model be designed keeping in mind their basic requirements of minimum

intrusiveness, yet fulfilling the necessity of maintaining transparency. To achieve this aim a 

practical and flexible series of steps is proposed and discussed as a possible course of action. 

6.1. Planning

Initial steps would be conducted independently by each country. Preliminary meetings 

conducted independently by the Ministries of Foreign/External Affairs, Defense, and the Armed 

Forces of both countries would be required. These meetings would produce a statement that 

would be used to convince the political leadership that agreeing to a CAM regime would not 

compromise national security, but would in fact enhance it. Aerial surveillance of the type being 

proposed would not be used as an instrument of intelligence gathering. In order to produce a 

comprehensive document, the OST and a plethora of other papers dealing with the subject could 

be used as references. The paper would point out that, despite the availability of highly 

advanced technology, OST signatories have agreed to the use of medium performance optical 

sensors (30 cm resolution) to assuage sensitivities about security. 

6.2. Study of Ongoing OST Operations

Representatives of India and Pakistan could visit a suitable OST airfield where planning 

procedures and mission parameters can be studied. Thereafter, they could accompany an Open 

Skies mission to learn first-hand how missions are conducted and how information is processed 

and shared. One candidate facility is the Wright-Patterson AFB, Dayton, Ohio, USA. It is 

understandable that India and Pakistan may not join the OST as full members because of their 

sensitivities regarding security of information. However, observer status is desirable in order to 

avail technical assistance and other advisory aspects. This status would also help them through 

their bilateral discussions and in the formulation of a subsequent agreement on CAM. 

6.3. Evolving Bilateral Agreement for Experimental Flight

Having familiarized themselves with Open Skies missions and other modalities, experts 

from India and Pakistan could hold joint discussions to evolve a bilateral agreement to enter an 

experimental CAM arrangement. Assistance could be sought from the Open Skies Consultative 

Committee (OSCC) if desired. Some aspects that would need to be covered during the course of 

deliberations are: 

• Scope and area to be monitored 

• Type of aircraft to be used 

• Flight planning 

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• Sensors and processing of data obtained 

• Schedule and preparation of the experimental observation flight 

6.4. Conducting the Experimental Flight

Because of sensitivity in the region, a limited CAM experiment is being suggested for 

mutual confidence building. Three geographic areas are proposed initially in order of priority 

and suitability. (See Figure 11.) However, both countries would mutually be the final arbiters in 

deciding where exactly the task could be carried out. 

1) From a line joining Munaba (Pakistan) and Gadra Road (India) to a line joining Jati 

(Pakistan) and Lakhpat (India) over a distance of approximately 250 km. This is a 

sparsely populated region where there is limited military activity and therefore low 

sensitivity. 

2) From a line joining Fort Abbas (Pakistan) and Anupgarh (India) to a line joining 

Sadiqabad (Pakistan) and Kishangarh (India) over a distance of approximately 

300 km. This is generally desert terrain, but has some tactical sensitivity. 

3) From a line joining Sadiqabad (Pakistan) and Kishangarh (India) to a line joining 

Munaba (Pakistan) and Gadra Road (India) over a distance of approximately 400 km. 

This is also desert terrain and may be viewed as being militarily sensitive too. 

At this stage of the experiment, an aircraft would fly over and along the border, photographing a swath of 15 km on either side of the border (30 km total). See Figures 12 and 13. 

One or more runs would be required to achieve the desired coverage. (See Figure 14.) 

Subsequently, and if viewed favorably, similar missions could be flown within the borders of 

each country to a depth of 15 km, photographing a width of 30 km within the recommended 

sector. With the passage of time, enhanced confidence levels, and increased trust, the coverage 

of such missions could be increased to 30 km from the border. The experimental mission would 

involve availing of the facilities of a suitably modified aircraft belonging to a Third Party made 

available by the OSCC. This suggestion is being mooted because of the known availability of 

such aircraft and the fact that both time and expenses would be saved where India and Pakistan 

are concerned. 

6.4.1. Suggested Airfields 

For the purposes of these trial flights, Ahmedabad, India, and Shara-e-Faisal Karachi, 

Pakistan, could be designated as preparation and launching bases. However, since these flights 

are being conducted for the first time ever, it is proposed that the initial briefings be carried out 

in New Delhi and Islamabad, respectively, designated as Prime Airfields where visiting aircraft

could arrive and depart. This would facilitate briefing prior to the mission and debriefing after it 

near Air Headquarters (Air HQ) of both countries. At the end of the experimental flight(s), the 

aircraft would refuel at the launching base before proceeding to the Prime Airfield, where photoprocessing facilities would be available. The processed photographs would then be made 

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available quickly to military and political leadership for their study and further briefings as 

necessary. 

6.4.2. Administrative Requirements 

Obtaining security clearances, visas, and providing other administrative necessities of the 

visiting air and ground crew and observers would be the responsibility of the host nation. 

Figure 11. Suggested Sectors for Proposed CAM Experiment 

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Figure 12. Typical Camera and Coverage Footprint for Experimental Flight 

6.4.3. Inspection and Calibration 

Technical personnel from the host nation and the observers would conduct an inspection 

of the aircraft and on-board sensors to satisfy themselves that equipment conforms to the 

requirements of the agreement in terms of intrusive characteristics of the latter. The owner of 

the third-party aircraft would calibrate the sensors to meet requirements for the desired degree of 

resolution. 

6.4.4. Flight Planning and Conduct of the Mission 

Details of these aspects would have to be decided by respective Air HQ. Routes to and 

from the designated airfield would then have to be discussed with the aircrew of the Third Party. 

In similar vein, the routes to and from the designated starting/terminating points on the border 

would have to be worked out and made known to all participating personnel. Both parties need 

to notify their respective air defense commands and troops on the border to avoid jeopardizing 

the safety of the mission. 

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Figure 13. Flight and Coverage Profiles for Experiment and Expanded Monitoring 

Figure 14. Achieving 60-km Coverage with Two Overflights 

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6.4.5. Timeframe for Conduct of the Mission 

Both countries need to agree to when the experimental or trial flight could be conducted, 

depending on the availability of the Third Party aircraft, the weather, and when convenient to 

both countries. 

6.4.6. Educate the News Media 

A most important factor that can influence the success or failure of a proposal is enlisting 

the support of the news media. The Press particularly could be skeptical, if not dismissive, about 

CAM and the possible emergence of CBMs. It is therefore essential that their support is elicited, 

and that the intelligentsia be informed about OST/CAM through informed discussion and 

seminars. 

6.4.7. Evaluation of Flight Procedures and Results 

After the experimental flight is conducted, a joint committee would meet to evaluate the 

data collected and to discuss lessons learned. This committee would then make recommendations for a regular CAM regime. 

6.5. Full-scale Implementation of CAM Regime

After conducting and evaluating the experimental flight (or more than one if required), 

India and Pakistan could look forward to the implementation of a full-scale CAM regime. At 

that stage, CAM flights would involve flying in one’s own aircraft, on one’s own side of the 

border, with observers from the other country on board. The observers would closely monitor 

the flight path of the aircraft and the functioning of the cameras. In order to assuage doubts and 

fears of the other side about the possibility of hidden sensing equipment being placed on board, 

both countries would conduct a joint pre-flight inspection of the monitoring aircraft. The 

platform height and sensor combination would ensure the desired resolution. Each party would 

receive a set of negatives and/or prints on completion of the mission. 

The onus of ensuring a successful mission would be on the host country. A stand-by 

aircraft may have to be provided to anticipate equipment problems or malfunctions. This 

proposal is slightly different from existing OST procedures where, after the joint pre-flight 

inspection, the observer aircraft over-flies the observed country with the host’s observers on 

board. This is possible only under circumstances of greater transparency and cooperation, but 

may be possible in India and Pakistan when their respective sensitivities are somewhat reduced. 

The authors propose that CAM be conducted between September 1st and May 31st

because this period is the typical “campaigning season” when troops of both countries are 

deployed for military exercises and training. During the span of this suggested nine-month 

period, two flights by each country are proposed. As confidence levels increase, a third 

“challenge” flight may be requested to allay suspicions, about a change in the military situation. 

The definition of a challenge flight is that either country may request that a monitoring flight is 

flown within a stipulated number of hours (to be mutually agreed upon by both countries) over a 

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How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring Can Contribute to 

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specific area. By this time, it is hoped that both countries would have seen it fit to modify their 

own aircraft for conducting CAM flights. While the OST could provide helpful guidelines, 

Pakistan and India would create a master document for their unique CAM regime. Apart from

participating in CAM, both countries would continue to conduct reconnaissance activity by use 

of their own NTMs to satisfy their own strategic and tactical requirements. 

6.5.1. Resolution of Disagreements

An institutionalized infrastructure is required in order to arbitrate disputes that may arise 

especially in the early stages of the CAM regime. The Consultative Committee of Arbitration 

(CCA) would be comprised of a member each from India and Pakistan with the OSCC providing 

a permanent chairperson. Some typical disagreements that this committee could deal with are: 

• Disputes arising out of non-compliance with CAM provisions. 

• Resolution of ambiguities and differences over camera malfunctions, quality of film, 

flight diversions due to bad weather, or for other technical reasons. 

• Determination of flight quotas or any other problems that may emerge. Because of 

the uncertain nature of disagreements that could arise, there can be no fixed template 

to resolve contentious issues. In the circumstances, it would be desirable for both 

countries to approach a problem with a spirit of cooperation and accommodation.

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7. Recommendations

In order to give confidence building measures a chance to take root and succeed, this 

paper has made some recommendations that are repeated below as a ready reference. India and 

Pakistan should therefore consider implementing an incremental, minimally intrusive CAM 

regime as follows: 

7.1. Short-Term Recommendations 

• Begin the educational process by having both countries set up independent committees to study existing methods of CAM.

• Learn about operational considerations pertaining to CAM through study of existing 

models such as the Hungary-Romania accord and the Sinai Treaty. The OST 

document could provide necessary guidelines.

• Request observer status with the OST signatories in order to obtain experience and 

technology.

• Authorize inspectors from both countries to fly on board actual OST missions for 

training purposes.

• Request the availability of Third-Party aircraft in order to accomplish an 

experimental flight in a selected sector.

• Establish a hot line between the two air headquarters.

• Prepare the news media through briefings as to what CAM hopes to achieve.

7.2. Mid-Term Recommendations 

• Sign a bilateral agreement for conducting an experimental flight. 

• Inform air defense commands/organizations and troops in the field of impending 

experimental flight. 

• Conduct the experimental overflight. Apply a modified version of CAM to one 

segment of the border covering a swath of 30 km, or, if the mission is flown along the 

border, to 15 km on either side of it. 

• Modify each country’s aircraft for use in conducting OST specifications within 

optical limits using a suitable camera. 

• Meet to evaluate and resolve lessons learned. 

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7.3. Long-Term Recommendations 

• Sign a bilateral agreement for a full CAM regime tailored to the unique circumstances 

of the India/Pakistan relationship. 

• Expand CAM to cover the entire IB, except the Siachen, LOC, and Sir Creek areas. 

• Evaluate role of CAM in existing and future military CBMs, 

• Each country flies its own planes over its own territory. 

• Consolidate and sustain political will for cooperation. 

• Modify each country’s aircraft to full OST capabilities to include SAR and IRLS 

equipment. 

• Apply for full membership in OST. 

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8. Conclusion

Prolonged periods of suspicion and ongoing conflict have characterized the IndiaPakistan relationship. Wars have not solved any problems that have prevailed between India and 

Pakistan. If anything, mutual distrust and paranoia have been exacerbated. This has in turn 

caused misery, suffering, and deprivation to a populace of over one billion. The presence of 

nuclear weapons in the subcontinent has raised the “peace-stakes” where even a minor 

confrontation could get out of hand and engulf the region, and perhaps even the world in a 

nuclear holocaust. 

The OST has been cited as an example wherein military transparency has led to 

cooperation and understanding. Further, the bilateral CAM agreement between Hungary and 

Romania is also a case in point where when the will exists, technology can be a useful tool in 

resolving political issues amicably. 

Declarations of the political leadership in the recent past demonstrate that the necessary 

political will is prevalent and is further testified by the long list of existing CBMs, some of 

which have been enumerated. With that in mind, the authors of this paper have dared to present 

an incremental CAM regime between India and Pakistan as a novel measure that would lead to 

further military confidence building measures. The proposal is intentionally narrow in scope in 

order to mitigate the abrasiveness on prevailing sensitivities. 

The authors divided the nearly 3200-km-long border on the basis of unique geographical 

features to aid the analysis for technical and political feasibility of CAM. A short segment of the 

International Border has been proposed for demonstrating the applicability of the CAM regime. 

It has been suggested that in the initial stages, and specifically for the proposed experiment, 

assistance is obtained from countries that are signatories to the OST. Mechanisms and tools that 

are required have been listed, and the process of elimination applied to determine their 

suitability. A methodology for the application of our proposals has been indicated. This could 

be refined with experience. 

We strongly urge that despite the knotty issue of Jammu and Kashmir begging resolution, 

an incremental approach to solving other contentious issues is applied. This would contribute in 

large measure towards building trust and confidence between India and Pakistan. The 

availability of weapons of mass destruction on both sides of the divide make it paramount that 

the people and the leadership of both countries display a desire to co-exist and live in peace for 

the sake of our peoples and future generations. 

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Glossary

Glasnost Russian policy permitting open discussion of political and social 

issues and freer dissemination of news and information. 

Infrared Line Scan The ability to receive and visualize thermal radiation emitted in the 

infrared part of the electro-magnetic spectrum by objects due to 

their temperatures and in the absence of artificial illumination. 

National Technical Means All systems available to a country for strategic and tactical reconnaissance. It includes imagery as well as electronic intelligence 

from satellites, aircraft, and remotely piloted vehicles/UAVs. 

Resolution The quality of information extracted from remotely sensed images. 

It is the minimum distance on the ground between two closely 

located objects at which they are distinguishable as separate 

entities. 

Synthetic Aperture Radar SAR is a high-resolution ground-mapping technique that takes 

advantage of the forward motion of a vehicle. The imaging system

has all-weather, day or night capability to “look” through clouds 

and smoke to detect, locate, classify, and sometimes identify 

ground targets. 

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Bibliography and References 

Ahmed, Samina and Varun Sahni, Freezing the Fighting – Military Disengagement on the 

Siachen Glacier, Cooperative Monitoring Center Occasional Paper SAND98-0505/1, Sandia 

National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, March 1998. 

Arnett, Eric, ed. Military Capacity and the Risk of War: China, India, Pakistan and Iran, 

Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), Stockholm, Sweden, 1997 

Biringer, Kent L., Siachen Science Center: A Concept for Cooperation at the Top of The World, 

CMC Occasional Paper 98-0505/2, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, March 

1998. 

Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict, Preventing Deadly Conflict: Final Report

Carnegie Corporation of New York, Washington D.C., December 1997. 

Carnegie Corporation of New York, “Preventive Diplomacy, Preventive Defense, and Conflict 

Resolution” in Report of Two Conferences at Stanford University and The Ditchley Foundation, 

prepared by the Carnegie Corporation of New York, October, 1999. 

Cotta-Ramusino, Paolo and Maurizio Martalleni, eds. , Nuclearization of South Asia; Problems 

and Solutions, UNESCO International School of Science for Peace, Como, Italy, May 1999. 

Dunn, Lewis A with Amy E Gordon, “Observation and Non-Nuclear Arms Agreements,” Arms 

Control Verification and the New Role of On Site Inspection, Lexington Books, 1989. 

Hawes, John and Terresita C Schaffer, Risk Reduction in South Asia: Role for Cooperative 

Aerial Observation, Henry L. Stimson Center Report #26/31, Washington, DC. November 1998. 

Hawes, John, Open Skies: Vancouver to Vladivostok, Occasional Paper # 10, Henry L. Stimson 

Center, Washington D.C., December 1992. 

Kamal, Nazir and Amit Gupta, Prospects of Conventional Arms Control in South Asia, 

Cooperative Monitoring Center Occasional Paper SAND98-0505/5, Sandia National 

Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, November 1998. 

Krepon, Michael, and Amit Sewak, eds., Crisis Prevention, Confidence Building and 

Reconciliation in South Asia, published by the Henry L. Stimson Center, Washington, D.C., 

1995. 

Krepon, Michael, and Amy E. Smithson, eds. Open Skies, Arms Control, and Cooperative 

Security, Henry L. Stimson Center, Washington, D.C., December 1992. 

Krepon, Michael, Mishi Faruqee, ed., Conflict Prevention & CBMs in South Asia –The 1990 

Crisis, Occasional Paper 17, The Henry L. Stimson Center, Washington, D.C., April 1994. 

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How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring Can Contribute to 

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Krepon, Michael and Peter Constable, Confidence-Building, Peace-Making and Aerial 

Inspections in the Middle East, Henry L. Stimson Center Occasional Paper #6, Washington, 

D.C., January 1992. 

Krepon, Michael, and Chris Gagne, eds., The Stability-Instability Paradox: Nuclear Weapons 

and Brinksmanship in South Asia, Report No. 38, Henry L. Stimson Center, Washington, D.C., 

June 2001. 

Mandell, Brian, The Sinai Experience: Lessons in Multi-method Arms Control Verification and 

Risk Management, Carlton University, Ottawa, Canada, 1988. 

Multispectral Imagery Reference Guide, Logicon Geodynamics Inc., Fairfax, VA, 1997 

Platt, Alan, ed. Arms Control and Confidence Building in the Middle East, Henry L. Stimson 

Center in association with the United States Institute of Peace, September 1992. 

Regional Center for Strategic Studies, “Managing the Stand Off” in Study Pack – Summer 

Workshop on Defence Technology & Cooperative Security in South Asia, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 

September 12 to 20, 1997 RCSS, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 1997. 

Renner, Michael, Ending Violent Conflict, World Watch Paper 146, World Watch Institute, 

Washington, D.C., April 1999. 

Synnott, Hilary, The Causes and Consequences of South Asia’s Nuclear Tests, Adelphi Paper 

#332, The International Institute for Strategic Studies, Oxford Press, London, December 1999. 

Tahir-Kheli, Shirin and Kent L. Biringer, Reducing Risk in South Asia: Managing India - 

Pakistan Tensions, Cooperative Monitoring Center Occasional Paper SAND98-0505/20, Sandia 

National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, March 2001. 

Tahir-Kheli, Shirin and Kent L. Biringer, Preventing Another India-Pakistan War: Enhancing 

Stability Along the Border, Cooperative Monitoring Center Occasional Paper SAND98-0505/17, 

Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, October 2000. 

Vannoni, Michael G., Sensors in the Sinai: A Precedent for Regional Cooperative Monitoring, 

SAND96-2574, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, reprinted June 1998. Also 

available at: http://www.cmc.sandia.gov/Links/about/papers/SensorsintheSinai/index.html. 

Verification in all Its Aspects, Including the Role of the United Nations in the Field of 

Verification, UN Report (No. A/50/377) reprinted and circulated by the Government of Canada. 

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How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring Can Contribute to 

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About the Authors 

Air Marshal Mohammed Arshad Chaudhry (Retd) was commissioned into the Pakistan Air 

Force in 1964 on completion of the Undergraduate Pilot Training Program with the USAF. He 

held a variety of fighter command and staff appointments including command of a Regional Air 

Command. During his career as a fighter pilot, he flew in all the fighter aircraft in the PAF 

inventory and had participated in Indo-Pak wars of 1965 and 1971. He retired as Vice Chief of 

Air Staff in 1997. 

He is a graduate of the Air Command and Staff College, USAF and holds a Bachelor’s Degree 

from Punjab University in Political Science and History. He earned his Masters in Strategic 

Studies from Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad, and holds a Post Graduate Diploma in War 

Studies from London University. 

He leads a retired life in Islamabad, Pakistan. 

Air Marshal K.C. Cariappa (Retd) was commissioned into the Indian Air Force in May 1957. 

He participated in the Indo-Pak Wars of 1965 and 1971. He commanded a helicopter unit and a 

fighter squadron, and has served in various other command and staff appointments. He retired as 

Air Officer Commanding in Chief of Southwestern Air Command in January 1996. 

Graduating from the Defence Services Staff College with an M Phil degree in Military Science, 

he attended a course at the Royal College of Defence Studies, London, in 1988. 

His interests include wildlife and the environment, and his hobbies include trekking and angling. 

He lives in Madikeri, a small town in Karnataka State, India. 

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How Cooperative Aerial Monitoring Can Contribute to 

Reducing Tensions Between India and Pakistan 

Distribution 

400 MS 1373 CMC Library, 5341 

1 MS 9018 Central Tech Files, 8945-1 

2 MS 0899 Technical Library, 9616 

1 MS 0612 Review & Approval Desk, 9612 

For DOE OSTI 

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