Air University

Style and Author Guide

April 2005

Air University Press

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama
ISBN 1-58566-143-0

First Printing April 2005

Second Printing May 2006

Third Printing September 2006

Air University Press

131 West Shumacher Avenue

Maxwell AFB AL 36112-6615

http://aupress.maxwell.af.mil
Contents

Section Page

FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Part 1

Air University Style Guide for Writers and Editors

1.0 Terms and Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2.0 Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3.0 Grammar and Punctuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3.1 Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3.2 Punctuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

4.0 Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

4.1 Capitalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

4.2 Spelling and Word Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

4.3 Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

4.4 Italics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

4.5 Display Dots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

5.0 Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Appendix

A Note Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

B Bibliographic Entries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

C Copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

iii
Part 2

Air University Press Author Guide

Section Page

About Us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Payment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Classified Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Security and Policy Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Production Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Our Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

Submitting Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

Formatting Your Manuscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

Electronic Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

Permissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

Formatting Your Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Signatures and Date of Birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Distribution List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Appendix

A Publishing Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

B Submitting Images for Publication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

C Author’s Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

CONTENTS

iv
Foreword

The faculty, staff, and students of Air University—longtime, productive

members of the academic community—will find that AU-1, Air University

Style and Author Guide is designed to unify their writing stylistically and to

give them information about publishing with AU Press. Rapid expansion in the

field of electronic media—especially the Internet—has made AU research and

writing increasingly accessible. For that reason, we should assure that our

efforts in these areas are sound—not only substantively but also stylistically.

Based on recognized but forward-looking principles of standard English usage,

the Air University Style Guide for Writers and Editors, part one of this publication, provides reliable guidance on such matters as punctuation, capitalization, abbreviation, documentation, numbers, spelling, and much more.

Following the advice found there will make AU publications stylistically consistent and acceptable. Part two, the Air University Press Author Guide, contains instructions to writers who wish to have their studies considered for

publication by the Air Force’s air and space power publisher. I commend

AU-1 to your use.

v

JOHN F. REGNI

Lieutenant General, USAF

Commander, Air University

Preface

I take great pleasure in introducing this new edition of AU-1, Air

University Style and Author Guide. Officially serving as AU’s arbiter of style

since 2001, the Air University Style Guide for Writers and Editors, part one

of this publication, has assisted many writers who have labored in the composition trenches. It offered guidance unofficially for many years before that

when it served as the in-house stylebook for Air University Press. The Style

Guide provides guidance to Air University’s community of writers, whether

students preparing papers or theses for an AU school or college; faculty members developing articles, monographs, or books for publication; or those brave

individuals who edit the prose of their students, colleagues, or customers.

Writers outside AU who submit material for university-sponsored publications

should also find the Style Guide useful. Indeed, anyone who has ever wondered whether airpower is one word or two, whether National Command

Authorities is still current, whether Jr. is set off by commas, or whether 53

is written with numerals or spelled out will find help in the following pages.

The Style Guide doesn’t presume to teach its readers how to write or edit,

but it does offer a coherent, consistent stylistic base for writing and editing.

It includes guidance on a number of questions that inevitably arise during

the process of composition, basing that guidance not only on the conventional wisdom available in a variety of authoritative sourcebooks, but also on

users’ specific needs that have emerged since its inception as the Air University

Press Style Guide for Writers and Editors. By freeing its users from juggling

one handbook against another, the guide brings some stylistic consistency to

AU writing.

This printing of the Style Guide reflects a major reorganization of its entries,

with an eye toward making them both more accessible and more transparent in

terms of their function. That is, rather than appearing in a straight alphabetical

list, dictionary style, as in previous versions, the items in this edition fall into

major categories designated Terms and Usage, Abbreviations, Grammar and

Punctuation, Mechanics, and Documentation. The Mechanics section is further

divided into the component parts Capitalization, Spelling and Word Formation,

Numbers, Italics, and Display Dots. Entries in each section are arranged alphabetically. Other innovations, designed to help locate information quickly and

make the Style Guide easier to use, include assigning each item a unique number based upon its categorization (e.g., 1.56, 4.2.95), as well as providing a

comprehensive index and extensive cross-references.

The Style Guide by no means covers every problem that faces writers and

editors. For additional help, we recommend The Chicago Manual of Style, 15th

edition, on which much of this guide relies for stylistic principles. Explanations

and/or examples taken from the 15th edition with little or no modification

are italicized and followed by the appropriate reference in parentheses (e.g.,

vii
Chicago, 16.3). For spellings and definitions, the Style Guide uses Webster’s

Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged,

and its chief abridgement, Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 11th

edition (in the guide, the term dictionary refers to either or both of these

sources). For advice on grammatical issues, we recommend the eighth edition

of Index to English by Wilma R. and David R. Ebbitt.

Karl Kraus, Austrian satirist, critic, poet, and curmudgeon-at-large, once

quipped, “I have decided many a stylistic problem first by head, then by

heads or tails.” If a harried writer or editor, unsure of where to place that

errant comma, reaches for the Style Guide rather than leave such a momentous decision to chance, then it will have served its purpose.

For the first time, AU-1 includes between its covers a thoroughly revised

edition of the Air University Press Author Guide, part two of this publication. As the publishing arm of Air University, the press makes available a

number of publications on airpower and space power topics in a variety of

formats. The Author Guide offers simple, concise instructions both to writers

who wish to submit a manuscript to the press for consideration and to individuals whose work has been accepted for publication and who now wish to

submit their final package of materials. Since the press uses the Style Guide

as its in-house manual of style, it makes perfect sense to combine these two

resources. Authors can now find answers to stylistic questions that arise during the composition of their manuscripts and learn how to submit their work

for publication by consulting one convenient reference. It is our hope that

AU-1’s new look is to your liking and that you find answers to your questions even more easily than before.

As always, we are indebted to all of the people who reviewed the manuscript and gave their thoughtful suggestions for its improvement. We invite

interested writers and editors to send their comments and suggestions for

later editions to Dr. Marvin Bassett, the editor of the Air University Style and

Author Guide. He can be reached at Air University Press, 131 West

Shumacher Avenue, Maxwell AFB, Alabama 36112-6615 or by e-mail at

aupress.style@maxwell.af.mil.

viii

PREFACE

Dr. Shirley B. Laseter

Director

Air University Library & Press
Part 1

Air University Style Guide for Writers and Editors

1.0 Terms and Usage

This section contains explanations of the conventional use of selected

common words (e.g., a or an, bimonthly, entitle or title, while) and of

terms having distinctive meanings in publishing (e.g., caption/legend,

foreword, glossary, illustrations/figures, running heads, tables). It also

provides guidance on the use of terms that might prove distracting or

offensive to readers (e.g., Negro, profanity, sexist language) and identifies acceptable variants of certain words (e.g., US Air Force/Air

Force/USAF, weapon system/weapons system, World War I/World

War 1/First World War/Great War).

1.1 a/an. Use a before consonant sounds and an before vowel sounds: a

historical event, not an historical event. Since an acronym is usually

read as a series of letters or as a word, choose the indefinite article in

accordance with the pronunciation of the first letter (an NCA decision)

or the pronunciation of the word (a NATO meeting).

1.2 above. You may use above to refer to information higher on the same

page or on a preceding page:

There are flaws in the above interpretation.

1.3 aerospace. See air and space (1.7).

1.4 aircraft. Show model designations by adding the letter without a space:

F-4C, B-52H.

1.5 air force. Spell out air force either as a noun or an adjective. When

referring to the United States Air Force, you may use that term as well

as US Air Force, Air Force, or USAF.

1.6 Air Force–wide (adj., adv.). Use an en dash in this compound. See

also dash (3.2.6).

1.7 air and space. Use this term rather than aerospace.

1.8 and/or. Acceptable, but don’t overuse. According to Ebbitt and Ebbitt

(see “Bibliography,” p. 181), “and/or is used primarily in business writing. . . . It is objected to by some readers because and/or looks odd

and because and or or alone is often all that’s needed. But it’s sometimes useful when there are three alternatives—both the items mentioned or either one of them: inflation and/or depression” (p. 24). See

also slash (3.2.17).

1.9 arms control (n.)

3
1.10 arms-control (adj.)

1.11 art, artwork. See illustrations (1.33).

1.12 back matter. Elements following the main text of a book are known

as the back matter. In order, they include appendix(es), chronology (if

not in front matter), abbreviations (if not in front matter), glossary,

bibliography, list of contributors, and index(es). Use Arabic numerals

to number the pages of the back matter.

1.13 below. You may use below to refer to information lower on the same

page or on a following page:

These exercises, discussed below, are important to a unit’s training.

1.14 biannual, biennial. Biannual and semiannual mean twice a year;

biennial means every two years. For clarity, use twice a year or every

two years.

1.15 bimonthly. Bimonthly can mean every two months or twice a month;

semimonthly means twice a month. For clarity, use every two months or

twice a month.

1.16 biweekly. Biweekly can mean every two weeks or twice a week. For

clarity, use every two weeks or twice a week.

1.17 black (people) (n., adj.). You may either capitalize or lowercase

black(s); choose one style, and use it consistently. See also Negro,

Negroes (1.39); white (people) (1.70).

1.18 caption/legend. These terms, sometimes used interchangeably, refer

to explanatory material that appears immediately below an illustration (figure, photograph, etc.). Not necessarily a full sentence, the

caption/legend can consist of two or more sentences or a title followed

by one or more full sentences (Chicago, 12.8). The caption/legend

follows the figure number on a line parallel to and flush left with the

bottom of the illustration. Place a period at the end if it is a complete

sentence; preferably, use sentence-style capitalization even if it is not

a complete sentence (see also titles of works [4.1.148]; tables [1.55]).

Do not use a period at the end of a caption/legend that is an incomplete sentence unless you follow it with a complete sentence:

Figure 1. Carrier air wing. As the Air Force assembles composite wings, it

would do well to study how the Navy operates its carrier air wings. The

composite nature of the carrier air wing is evident from this deck photo of

the USS Theodore Roosevelt and its complement of aircraft.

Figure 2. System flowchart applied to mission accomplishment

4

1.0 TERMS AND USAGE
Note that the figure designation and caption/legend may be set in

boldface:

Figure 2. Operationally responsive space: view of near-space architecture

Figure 3. Responsiveness of space architecture. The ORS initiative divides

improvements in responsiveness into categories that include the space

vehicle, launch vehicle, and infrastructure. Improving each of these areas

simultaneously presents a challenge. (Reprinted from briefing, Lt Col Gus

Hernandez, Headquarters Air Force Space Command [AFSPC], Directorate

of Plans and Requirements, subject: ORS Overview, 7 March 2005.)

If the caption/legend is the title of a work of art, use headline-style

capitalization and italics (Chicago, 12.33):

Figure 9. Starry Night

An illustration number may be separated from the caption/legend by

a period or, if the number is typographically distinct, by a space. The

word “figure” may be either spelled out or abbreviated as “fig.”

(Chicago, 12.34):

Fig. 1. US bomb tonnage dropped on Germany by month

Figure 3 US airpower versus the world

Plate 3 Venice in winter

Identify the source of an illustration with a credit line. Place it at

the end of the caption/legend, in parentheses or in different type (or

both) (Chicago, 12.42). Use “reprinted from” or “adapted from,”

depending upon whether you have copied the illustration or modified

it, respectively:

Figure 3. Competitive effects on general and administrative costs. (Adapted

from Maj Paul G. Hough, “Financial Management for the New World

Order,” Airpower Journal 6, no. 3 [Fall 1992]: 51.)

A photographer’s name occasionally appears in small type parallel to the bottom side of a photograph (Chicago, 12.42). For material

that the author has obtained free and without restrictions, the word

“courtesy” may appear in the credit line (Chicago, 12.46):

Photograph courtesy of Col Mike Schrieve

Mayor Lunsford at the groundbreaking ceremony for the industrial plant,

September 2002. Courtesy of Cathi Fredericks.

Unless fair use applies (see appendix C), an illustration reproduced from a published work under copyright requires permission

(Chicago, 12.47):

Reproduced by permission from T. R. Fehrenbach, This Kind of War

(Washington, DC [or D.C.]: Brassey’s, 2000), facing 237.

5

1.0 TERMS AND USAGE
If you use words such as left, right, top, bottom, or left to right to

identify individual subjects within an illustration, put them in italics,

preceding the subjects they identify:

Figure 1. Left to right: George Jones, Henry Johnson, and John Hopkins

Figure 3. Upper left, B-1; upper right, F-15; lower left, C-5; center, XV-3;

lower right, XV-15

If your table of contents includes a list of illustrations, do not simply

reprint the captions/legends as they appear in the text. If they are

lengthy, you should shorten them:

[caption]: The White Garden, reduced to its bare bones in early spring. The box

hedges, which are still cut by hand, have to be carefully kept in scale with the

small and complex garden as well as in keeping with the plants inside the

“boxes.”

[entry in list]: The White Garden in early spring (Chicago, 12.55)

See also illustrations/figures (1.33).

1.19 click. One kilometer.

1.20 copyright. See appendix C of this guide.

1.21 dates. Write exact dates in the sequence day-month-year, without commas. Spell out the month, use figures for the day, and use a four-digit

year. When you use only the month and year, no commas are necessary:

FDR referred to 7 December 1941 as a day that would live in infamy.

The date March 2003 was special to her.

Do not use the all-numeral style for dates (3/11/50, etc.) in formal

writing. However, in text discussing the events of [11 September 2001,]

the use of 9/11 is acceptable (Chicago, 6.115). If documentation, figures, and tables contain numerous dates, you may abbreviate certain

months (Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., May, June, July, Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov.,

Dec.) and use the sequence day-month-year without internal punctuation (7 Dec. 1941) to reduce clutter (Chicago, 9.39, 15.42, 17.225).

Choose one style for the documentation, figures, and tables, and use it

consistently. See also numbers (4.3).

1.22 direct quotations. See quotations (5.3).

1.23 dot-com (n., adj.). A company that markets its products or services

online via a World Wide Web site.

1.24 East Berlin, East Germany. Use East Berlin or East Germany, not

just Berlin or Germany alone, in references to the city and country

when they were divided.

6

1.0 TERMS AND USAGE
1.25 entitle, title (v.). The terms entitle and title are used interchangeably

in the sense of designating or calling by a title: A book entitled [or

titled] Roderick Random was on the list of required readings.

1.26 epigraph. An epigraph is a pertinent quotation that may be used at the

head of a chapter. Do not enclose an epigraph in quotation marks. Set it

in italics in the same sized type as the text or in Roman a size smaller.

Identify the source of the quotation on the following line. Cite only the

author’s name (sometimes preceded by a dash) and usually the title of

the work. If the author is well known, you may cite the last name only

(Chicago, 1.38–.39). Do not place an endnote at the end of an epigraph.

A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds, adored by

little statesmen and philosophers and divines.

—Ralph Waldo Emerson

Essays, First Series: Self-Reliance

1.27 figures. See numbers (4.3) or illustrations/figures (1.33), as appropriate.

1.28 foreword. A foreword (not spelled forward) is part of the front matter

of a book, appearing before the preface. Usually it is two to four

pages long and written by someone other than the author of the book.

The name of the person who wrote the foreword appears at the end of

the piece. See also front matter (1.29).

1.29 front matter. Elements preceding the main text of a book are known

as the front matter. In order, they include the title page, copyright page,

dedication, epigraph, table of contents, list of illustrations, list of

tables, foreword, about the author [AU Press publications], preface,

acknowledgments (if not part of preface), introduction (if not part of

text), abbreviations (if not part of back matter), and chronology (if not

in back matter). Use lowercase Roman numerals to number the pages

of the front matter.

1.30 glossary. Include a glossary if you use a number of unfamiliar or technical terms in your text. Arrange the words to be defined in alphabetical order, each word on a separate line and accompanied by its definition. Place the glossary before the bibliography (Chicago, 1.87). See

also back matter (1.12).

7

1.0 TERMS AND USAGE

Glossary of Internet Terms

browser A client program (software) that is used to look at various kinds of

Internet resources.

cookie The most common meaning of “cookie” on the Internet refers to a

piece of information sent by a Web server to a Web browser that the

browser software is expected to save and to send back to the server

whenever the browser makes additional requests from the server.

download Transferring data (usually a file) from another computer to the

computer you are using. The opposite of upload.
If your text includes a number of acronyms or initialisms, you may

wish to include them in a list of abbreviations (an umbrella term that

includes both acronyms and initialisms), located before the bibliography.

Abbreviations

AWACS Airborne Warning and Control System

LGB laser-guided bomb

MANPADS man-portable air defense system

1.31 headings. See subheadings (1.53).

1.32 idem (the same). See notes (5.1).

1.33 illustrations/figures. Illustrations or figures (the terms are pretty much

interchangeable) include maps, line drawings, photographs, paintings,

or charts (graphs, diagrams, flow charts, bar charts, etc.) (Chicago,

12.3). Tables are not considered illustrations even though they may

occasionally be listed under a subhead in the list of illustrations (e.g., if

space so dictates) (Chicago, 1.47). See also tables (1.55).

Place an illustration so that it appears as soon as possible after

the first text reference to it. It may precede the reference only if it

appears on the same page or the same two-page spread as the reference—or if the text is too short to permit placing it after the reference. If a book includes more than a handful of illustrations, they

should normally be numbered. However, if the illustrations are neither

integral to the text nor specifically referred to, numbers are unnecessary (Chicago, 12.10–.11, 12.15). If appropriate, number illustrations

consecutively throughout the text, and refer to them by their numbers,

either parenthetically (fig. 8) or as part of the text:

The totals shown in figure 3 are rounded off to the nearest dollar.

Maps are sometimes numbered separately if that is more convenient for readers (Chicago, 12.12).

If each chapter in a book is written by a different author, the numbering of figures and tables restarts with each new chapter. For precise

identification of figures and tables, use a combination of chapter

number, a period, and figure/table number: 2.1, 2.2., 2.3, and so

forth. If a book has appendixes with figures and/or tables, the numbers should include the letter of the particular appendix (A.1, A.2,

B.1, B.2, C.1, C.2, etc.).

If illustrations are gathered into a gallery (a section devoted solely

to illustrations), they need not be numbered unless referred to in the

text. If they are numbered and if other numbered illustrations are interspersed throughout the text, use two number sequences (e.g., “figure

8

1.0 TERMS AND USAGE
1,” etc. for text illustrations and “plate 1,” etc. for gallery illustrations)

(Chicago, 12.16). It is seldom necessary to list [illustrations printed

together in a gallery or galleries] separately in a list of illustrations.

Their location may be noted at the end of the table of contents; for

example, “Illustrations follow pages 130 and 288” (Chicago, 1.43).

An illustration number may be separated from the caption/legend by

a period or, if the number is typographically distinct, by a space. The

word “figure” may be either spelled out or abbreviated as “fig.”

(Chicago, 12.34).

Fig. 1. US bomb tonnage dropped on Germany by month

Figure 3 US airpower versus the world

Plate 3 Venice in winter

Identify the source of the illustration with a credit line. Place it at

the end of the caption/legend, in parentheses or in different type (or

both), introduced by reprinted from or adapted from, depending upon

whether you have copied the illustration or modified it, respectively:

Before using an illustration from a copyrighted source, obtain a formal (written) release from the copyright owner. See also caption/legend (1.18); tables (1.55); appendix C.

If a book has either very many or very few illustrations, it is not

necessary to include a list of them following the table of contents.

Multiauthor books, a collection of symposia proceedings, and so

forth do not usually include lists of illustrations. If such a list is

included, it may be divided into subheadings if the book contains

various types of illustrations (e.g., charts, photographs, plates, drawings, maps, etc.) (Chicago, 1.44–.45).

1.34 index. An index helps the reader find details about particular subjects.

Meaningful entries direct the reader to pertinent references in the text

but not to merely passing remarks. Consult the 15th edition of The

Chicago Manual of Style (18.1–.149) for information about the preparation of an index.

1.35 Internet address. See URL (uniform [or universal] resource locator)

(2.425).

1.36 latitude, longitude. Spell out the terms latitude and longitude in text or

standing alone: longitude 80 degrees east; the polar latitudes, from 20°

50′ north latitude to 20° 50′ south latitude. In tables you may abbreviate

as follows:

lat 41°15′40′′ N

long 90°18′30′′ W

9

1.0 TERMS AND USAGE
1.37 lists. Run lists into the text or set them apart in a vertical enumeration. Use Arabic numerals in both styles.

For a run-in enumeration, enclose the numbers in parentheses without a period. Use commas to separate items in a simple series if there

is little or no punctuation within the items; otherwise, use semicolons:

Plain English standards include the following: (1) present material in a

logical, orderly sequence, (2) write in a clear, uncluttered style, and (3)

write in active voice.

Note that items in the series should be syntactically parallel.

For a vertical enumeration, follow these principles:

1. Use a grammatically complete sentence (like the one above), followed by a colon, to introduce a vertical list.

2. Entries do not require periods at the end unless at least one entry

is a complete sentence, in which case each entry requires a period

at the end.

3. Items in a list should be syntactically similar.

4. If items are numbered, as they are in this example, a period follows each number, and each entry begins with a capital letter—

whether or not the entry forms a complete sentence.

5. Unnumbered items, each of which consists of an incomplete sentence, should begin in lowercase and require no terminal punctuation.

6. If a list completes the sentence that introduces it, items begin with

lowercase letters; commas or semicolons separate each item; and

the last item ends with a period. (Such lists are often better run into

the text rather than presented vertically.) (Chicago, 6.127, 6.129).

Set the list flush with the text or indent. Align run-over lines with

the first word after the numeral:

The following steps increase your effectiveness as a communicator:

1. Use English that is alive. 

2. Analyze the purpose and audience, taking care to select a subject

that will be of interest to the audience. 

3. Conduct the research. 

4. Support your ideas. 

Compose three sentences:

1. To illustrate the use of commas in dates

2. To distinguish the use of semicolons from the use of periods

3. To illustrate the use of parentheses within dashes

10

1.0 TERMS AND USAGE
The five categories of research sources are as follows:

abstracts of student papers

Air Force sources

DOD sources

periodicals

other sources

The loan officer told Richard to

1. fill out the application forms,

2. make a copy for himself, and 

3. return all paperwork in one week.

1.38 mottoes. Enclose mottoes and similar expressions in quotation marks,

capitalize them as if they were titles, or capitalize the first word only:

“A penny saved is a penny earned” was his favorite maxim.

The flag bore the motto Don’t Tread on Me.

He was fond of the motto All for one and one for all.

1.39 Negro, Negroes. Since the use of Negro(es) may sometimes be

offensive, use black(s) or Black(s), African-American(s), or AfroAmerican(s). The use of Negro(es) is appropriate in certain historical

citations: “In October 1940, the War Department announced . . . that

Negro Aviation Units would be organized as soon as the necessary personnel were trained.” See also white (people) (1.70); black (people)

(1.17).

1.40 nicknames. Enclose a nickname in quotation marks when it accompanies the full name:

George Herman “Babe” Ruth 

Omit the quotation marks when a nickname is used as part of or in

place of a personal name:

Stonewall Jackson

the Iron Duke

1.41 percent. Always spell out percent in humanistic text, and precede it

with Arabic numerals: a 3 percent increase. You may use the % symbol in tables and in scientific or statistical text.

1.42 preliminaries. See front matter (1.29).

1.43 profanity. Do not arbitrarily use profanity, vulgarity, abusive/offensive

language, and so forth, in any of the writing you do under the auspices

of Air University.

11

1.0 TERMS AND USAGE
12

1.0 TERMS AND USAGE

1.44 proofreaders’ marks. The following signs are used in marking manuscripts:

Delete Insert em dash

Delete and close up Insert en dash

Close up; delete space ; Insert semicolon

Insert space : Insert colon

Begin new paragraph . Insert period

Indent one em from left set ? Insert question mark

or right

Move to left ? Query to author––in

margin

Move to right sp Spell out

Center tr Transpose

Move down wf Wrong font––circle letter

Move up bf Set in boldface type

Insert marginal addition Rom Set in roman type

Straighten type; align ital Set in italic type––

horizontally underscore word

Align vertically cap Set in CAPITALS

Insert comma S C Set in SMALL CAPS

Insert apostrophe (or lc Set in lowercase

single quotation mark)

Insert quotation marks C&lc Caps and lowercase

subscript (H2O) L Lowercase letter

superscript (a2) stet Let it stand; restore

words crossed out

Insert hyphen

NOTE: If you want to underline a word for emphasis, you must so indicate in

a marginal note to the printer. All words underscored in a typed manuscript without such a note will always appear in italics.

2

2
The following paragraph illustrates the use of proofreaders’ marks:

lc

HOW AN EDITOR MARKS A MANUSCRIPT

Editing a manuscipt from which type is to be set

requires a different method than that used in correcting

proof.1 A correction or an operational sign are inserted in

a line of type not in the margins as in proof reading.

Operators looks at every line of the manuscript as they

set type, so any editors change must be in it’s proper

place and clearly written.

For more information on proofreaders’ marks, see the 15th edition

of The Chicago Manual of Style.

1.45 retired military personnel. Use this style in running text: Maj

Ronald R. Dowdy, USAF, retired.

1.46 running heads. Running heads are located at the tops of pages of published works; they serve as reference points for readers. If running

heads are to be included in a book, they should also appear on the pages

of the contents, preface, foreword, and so forth (but not on the first page

of those parts) when they run more than one page. Use the same running head (e.g., Contents, Preface, etc.) on both the verso (left) and

recto (right) pages of these front-matter elements. Headings should not

appear on display pages such as the title, disclaimer, dedication, and so

forth.

The first page of a chapter should not contain a running head; neither

should part titles or any page containing only a table or an illustration.

If a page includes both a table (or an illustration) and lines of text, however, it should include a running head. The following are some acceptable arrangements for running heads on text pages (for others, see the

15th edition of the Chicago Manual of Style, 1.95):

13

1.0 TERMS AND USAGE

from

tr

?

is or above

rather than

follow each

stet ..............
Verso Recto

Part title Chapter title

Chapter title Chapter title

Chapter title Chapter subtitle

Chapter number Chapter title

Author (multiauthor books) Chapter title

Including the book title as a running head on the verso page is no

longer common practice since most readers know what book they’re

reading and would rather have running heads tell them where they

are in the book.

Acceptable arrangements for running heads in the back matter

include the following:

Verso Recto

Appendix A Title of appendix

Appendix Appendix (if not titled)

Glossary Glossary

Bibliography Bibliography

Bibliography Section title

Index Index

Use running heads on the text pages and those of the front and

back matter of any AU Press publication (whether book or monograph) that contains chapters. If a publication does not contain chapters (e.g., a Maxwell Paper or Wright Flyer), do not use running

heads on either the text pages or those of the front and back matter.

For publications that contain chapters, use running heads in accordance with the guidance above (e.g., if the foreword, preface, etc. run

more than one page). Select running heads for the text and front/back

matter from the options specified above.

1.47 Russia, Russian. Use Russia and Russian in reference to the nation

before 1917; to the former Russian Soviet Socialist Republic; to the

independent state formed after the breakup of the Soviet Union in

1991; and to the language and the ethnological origin of the people

of that state. See also CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States)

(2.92); Soviet(s), Soviet Union, USSR (1.52).

1.48 semiannual. Avoid semiannual; use twice a year.

1.49 sexist language. Do not use terms that denigrate or patronize people

(the weaker sex), that stereotype occupations by sex (always referring

to a nurse as she or a pilot as he), or that exclude either sex from positions of authority (a commander should brief his staff on new policy).

You may use pairs of masculine and feminine pronouns (his or her,

he or she, him or her) in reference to antecedents whose sex is

unspecified (every patient had his or her temperature checked). Such

references can become numerous and awkward, however, so use them

sparingly. You can avoid this problem by making both the pronoun and

14

1.0 TERMS AND USAGE
antecedent plural (all patients had their temperatures checked). If the

antecedent is an indefinite pronoun (each, either, neither, one, no one,

everyone, someone, anyone, nobody, everybody, somebody, anybody),

which is considered singular, use a pair of singular pronouns—not a

plural pronoun—to refer to it (everyone had his or her temperature

checked [instead of] everyone had their temperature checked). Avoid

the practice of alternating masculine and feminine pronouns in referring

to antecedents of unspecified sex (using she in one passage and he in

another) since this may be confusing to readers. Similarly, avoid such

clumsy combinations as he/she and s/he as pronouns of common gender.

You may use she (and appropriate variants) in reference to nations,

cities, and ships (Britain must guard her traditions).

You may use he (and appropriate variants) in reference to military

foes (The enemy had massed his forces on the border).

You may use man, whether freestanding or in compounds, in references to occupations and offices (policeman, chairman, congressman) or to both men and women (mankind, manpower, free men).

However, if you find such usage offensive or if you believe your

audience might, consider substituting gender-neutral terms (officer,

chairperson or chair, member of Congress, persons, people).

1.50 sic (so; thus; in this manner). Use sic, italicized and bracketed, to

indicate misspelling or improper usage in original text:

The newscaster announced that “the pilot got out of his plane and laid

[sic] down on the ground after his harrowing flight.”

1.51 so-called. A word or words following so-called should not be enclosed

in quotation marks or italicized:

The so-called model citizen beat his wife regularly.

1.52 Soviet(s), Soviet Union, USSR. Use Soviet(s), Soviet Union, or USSR

instead of Russian(s) or Russia in references to the people or the

nation from 1917 to 1991. See also CIS (Commonwealth of

Independent States) (2.92).

1.53 subheadings. Use up to three levels of subheadings to divide text: centered, flush and hang, and run-in (highest to lowest). Text should be

divided into at least two parts (i.e., at least two centered, at least two

flush-and-hang, and at least two run-in subheadings). If at all possible,

do not “stack” headings (i.e., immediately follow one heading with

another); rather, separate headings by text. Do not place an endnote at

the end of subheadings; instead, find an appropriate place in the running

text for the note number.

Observations [centered]

Given this background, the key question remains, Does the

composite wing work in combat? The answer is obvious. . . .

15

1.0 TERMS AND USAGE
Why the Composite Wing Worked So Well [flush and hang]

The composite training undergone by the wing’s personnel

contributed to the successful completion of their mission. . . .

Evaluation and Inspection. [run-in] Tactical evaluations,

operational readiness inspections, and other exercises have created

a solid foundation of training in both units and individuals. . . .

1.54 subtitle. Use a colon to separate a title from its subtitle. One space

follows the colon. Alternatively, the subtitle may be set in a smaller

size font than that of the main title (no colon). 

Skating on Thin Ice: A Study of Honesty in Political Campaigning

Skating on Thin Ice

A Study of Honesty in Political Campaigning

1.55 tables. Tables permit the economical presentation of large amounts of

information. Number all tables and refer to them in the text by those

numbers, either directly or parenthetically. In referring to a table, don’t

just repeat the facts presented in the table. Most of the time, a simple

cross-reference is sufficient (see table 10). Number the tables (with

Arabic numerals) in the order in which they appear in the text.

Numbering is continuous throughout the text. However, if a book consists of chapters by different authors, the numbering restarts with each

chapter (e.g., 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 3.2, etc.). If a book has appendixes

with tables, the table numbers should include the letter of the particular

appendix (A.1, A.2, B.1, B.2, C.1, C.2, etc.).

Place the title above the table, flush left with the table, following

the number, separated by punctuation or by space and typographic

distinction. Use sentence-style capitalization; if the author and editor prefer, headline-style is also acceptable (one style should be used

consistently throughout the text). Alternatively (and less commonly),

the number may appear on a line by itself, with the title starting a

new line (Chicago, 13.16, 13.18):

Table 3. Army and air component budgets, 1922–41

TABLE 3 Army and air component budgets, 1922–41

Table 6

Army officer manning between the world wars

Note that the table designation and caption/legend may be set in boldface:

Table 2. Two assessment information requirements

The title should identify the table and give facts rather than provide

discussion and comment:

Table 3. Improvement of prediction of peer leadership characteristics

Not:

Table 3. Improvement of prediction of peer leadership characteristics by

addition of other managerial leadership characteristics

16

1.0 TERMS AND USAGE
If the table continues to other pages, use a notation such as Table

3 (continued) at the top of the next page. Parenthetical information

included in the title should be lowercased:

Table 13. Federal employees in the progressive era (total plus selected agencies)

A table must have at least two columns. At the top of the columns,

include headings that identify the material in the columns. Do not use

vertical rules to separate the columns. Make the first column heading

singular in number (e.g., Party). The other headings may be singular or

plural (e.g., Votes, Seats won). Preferably, all headings should be in

sentence-style capitalization. If you include subheadings with the column headings, enclose them in parentheses. You may use abbreviations

in the subheadings. Because the width of the column headings determines the width of the table, keep the headings as brief as possible.

List the names of items in the left-hand column (stub) of your table;

use sentence-style capitalization and put information about them in the

other columns. Be sure that items in the stub are grammatically parallel. Do not number stub items, and do not use ditto marks in the stub.

Indent run-over lines one em. Write stub items in sentence style, without a period at the end:

Computers at headquarters

Zenith

Gateway

IBM

Printers at headquarters

Hewlett-Packard

Epson

Star

If you use the word Total at the foot of the stub, indent it more

deeply than the greatest indention above it or distinguish it typographically (Chicago, 13.29).

Align a column of figures on the decimal points or commas. Also

align dollar signs and percentage signs. If all figures in a column are

the same kind, place the dollar signs and percentage signs only at the

top of the column and after any horizontal rule cutting across it. Omit

the signs if the table title or column head shows what the figures are.

In a column consisting of information expressed in words, center

all items if they are short, but flush them left if they are long.

If you wish to refer to specific parts of a table, use superior letters—

beginning with a—as reference marks. You may use them on column

headings, on stub items, and in the body of the table—but not on the

table number or title. Place the reference marks beginning at the upper

left and extending across the table and downward, row by row. If you

reproduce a table from another source, identify it below the body of the

table, introduced by the word Source(s) (often in italics and followed by

17

1.0 TERMS AND USAGE
a colon). Since the word source lacks specificity, consider using

reprinted from or adapted from, depending upon whether you have

copied the table or modified it, respectively. Unless fair use applies [see

appendix C], a table reproduced without change from a published work

under copyright requires formal permission (Chicago, 13.45). Do not

identify the source by placing a note number after either the table number or the title and then including an endnote in the list of chapter notes.

A note applying to the table as a whole follows any source note, is

unnumbered, and is introduced by the word Note and a colon (often in

italics) (Chicago, 13.46).

If a book has either very many or very few tables, it is not necessary

to include a list of them. Multiauthor books, a collection of symposia

proceedings, and so forth do not usually include lists of tables

(Chicago, 1.44). If such a list is included, it follows the list of illustrations, if there is one. Although tables are not considered illustrations,

they may occasionally be listed under a subhead in the list of illustrations (e.g., if space so dictates) (Chicago, 1.47).

Table 1. Sorties flown in Operation Desert Storm

Total

Sortie Allies USAF Other US Coalition

AIa 4,600 24,000 11,900 40,500

OCAb 1,400 4,500 11,600 6,500

CASc 1,4 0 1,500 1,500 3,000

Total strike sortiesd 6,000 30,000 14,000 50,000

Aerial refueling 1,500 10,000 1,500 13,000

DCAe 4,100 3,200 2,700 10,000

SEADf 1,400 2,800 1,200 4,000

Tactical airlift 4,300 14,000 11,400 18,300

Otherg 1,100 6,000 7,900 15,000

Total nonstrike sorties 11,000 36,000 13,300 60,300

Approximate grand total of all Desert Storm sorties 110,300

Reprinted from Department of the Air Force, Air Force Performance in Desert Storm

(Washington, DC [or D.C.]: Government Printing Office, April 1991); and author’s collation of

published data.

Note: These figures represent the most reliable information currently available. aAir interdiction—in this case a conflation of both strategic (against Iraqi installations) and

operational (against Iraqi air, ground, and naval forces) bombing, including battlefield interdiction (against Iraqi forces behind the front).

bOffensive counterair (i.e., attacks against Iraqi air force bases and related facilities).

cClose air support (i.e., attacks against Iraqi ground forces at the front).

dStrike as here defined includes all aircraft that penetrated hostile airspace in the course of groundattack missions, with or without ground-attack ordnance of their own. eDefensive counterair (i.e., air defense patrols and intercepts).

fSuppression of enemy air defenses (i.e., attacks against Iraqi antiaircraft missiles, guns, and

related radar and other facilities).

gAirborne early warning, airborne electronic surveillance, electronic warfare, and other.

18

1.0 TERMS AND USAGE
1.56 the. If an initial the is part of the titles of journals, magazines, or

newspapers, incorporate it into the surrounding text:

Most of the people in the office read the Wall Street Journal.

Omit an initial the in note and bibliography entries:

1. Cameron W. Barr, “Mideast Takes a First Wary Step,” Christian

Science Monitor, 30 June 2003.

See also abbreviations (2.0).

1.57 trademarks. The symbols ® and TM, which often accompany registered trademark names on product packaging and in advertisements,

need not be used in running text.

1.58 Truman, Harry S. Use a period after the initial S.

1.59 United States. Spell out United States in text when it is used as a

noun. See also abbreviations (2.0); US (United States) (2.426).

1.60 United States Air Force, US Air Force, Air Force, USAF. See also

USAF (United States Air Force) (2.428).

1.61 United States Army, US Army, Army, USA

1.62 United States Marine Corps, US Marine Corps, Marine Corps,

the Corps, USMC

1.63 United States Navy, US Navy, Navy, USN

1.64 upon (prep.). Upon may be used as a synonym of on: His salary

depends upon his performance.

1.65 vice (prep.). Vice can mean “in place of, replacing”: John Doe was

appointed postmaster vice Richard Roe.

1.66 weapon system(s) or weapons system(s). Choose one variant of this

phrase, and use it consistently.

1.67 Web address. See URL (uniform [or universal] resource locator)

(2.425); see also Web, Web site, Web-site (adj.) (4.1.153).

1.68 West Berlin, West Germany. Use West Berlin or West Germany, not

Berlin or Germany alone, in references to the city and country when

they were divided.

19

1.0 TERMS AND USAGE
1.69 while. You may use this term to mean “during the time that”:

Take a nap while I’m out. 

or “as long as”:

While there’s life, there’s hope. 

or “whereas”:

Skiing is easy for an expert, while it is dangerous for a novice. 

or “although”:

While respected, he is not liked. 

or “similarly and at the same time that”:

While the book will be welcomed by scholars, it will make an immediate

appeal to the general reader.

1.70 white (people). Use white (or White) officer, white (or White) people,

whites (or Whites), Caucasians. See also black (people) (1.17); Negro,

Negroes (1.39).

1.71 word division. Generally, you should follow the syllable division

indicated in the dictionary when you break words at the ends of lines.

Note the following prohibitions: do not carry over a final syllable

whose only vowel sound is that of a syllabic “l” (prin-ciples, not

princi-ples); do not carry over a vowel that forms a syllable in the

middle of a word (preju-dice, not prej-udice); do not divide a word if

doing so would result in a one-letter division (e.g., again, idol, item,

unite); avoid carrying over two-letter endings (fully, not ful-ly); if

possible, do not break hyphenated compound words except at the

hyphen (court-/martial, not court-mar-/tial); words originally compounds of other words but now spelled solid should be divided at the

natural breaks whenever possible (school-master is better than

schoolmas-ter); also, try to make a division after a prefix rather than

dividing at any other point in the word (dis-pleasure is better than

displea-sure). Do not end more than three succeeding lines in

hyphens.

1.72 World War I (or 1), the First World War, the Great War, the war,

the world war

1.73 World War II (or 2), the Second World War, the war, the world war

20

1.0 TERMS AND USAGE
1.74 Xerox. The term Xerox is a registered trademark. You can use the

capitalized word as a noun meaning a xerographic copier and the

lowercased word (xerox) as a verb meaning to copy on a Xerox

copier.

1.75 zero, zeros (also zeroes). Use a 0 in tables to denote zero amount

instead of using a dash or leaving the space blank.

1.76 zip code or ZIP (zone improvement plan) code; zip (n.); zip-code

(v.). In writing a mailing address, do not use a comma before the ZIP

code (or after, if including “USA”): Troy, AL 36081 USA.

21

1.0 TERMS AND USAGE

2.0 Abbreviations

“Abbreviations” is an inclusive term for “acronyms” (terms based

on the initial letters of words and read as single words [NATO,

NORAD]), “initialisms” (terms read as a series of letters [NBC, ISR]),

and “contractions” (terms consisting of the first and last letters of

full words [Mr., Dr.]), as well as other shortened forms of words

(Chicago, 15.3). Use abbreviations sparingly: don’t abbreviate words

and phrases merely for the sake of doing so when brevity is not of the

essence, and don’t saturate writing with abbreviations to the detriment

of reader comprehension.

Avoid using abbreviations in headings unless the spelled-out term

would make the heading unwieldy. You may, however, begin or end

a sentence with an abbreviation.

Spell out the name of an agency, organization, and so forth, the first

time you use it, and follow it with the abbreviation in parentheses;

you may use the abbreviation (without periods) thereafter (if you are

certain that your audience is familiar with a particular abbreviation

[e.g., AFB, USAF], you need not define it on first usage):

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

Air Command and Staff College (ACSC)

Internal Revenue Service (IRS)

Cable News Network (CNN)

program evaluation review technique (PERT)

professional military education (PME)

As a reminder to the reader, you may want to spell out an abbreviation that you have identified previously—especially when you haven’t

used it in a long time—and then resume using the abbreviation (it

isn’t necessary to include it again parenthetically after the subsequent

spelled-out form):

The Pioneer unmanned aerial vehicle provided substantial imagery support to Marine, Army, and Navy units during Operation Desert Storm.

These UAVs were so good that many more could have been used.

Because readers may not look at the elements of the front matter

consecutively (if at all), establish abbreviations within each element

(foreword, preface, abstract, etc.). For example, even if you have

established “AWACS” in the foreword (e.g., Airborne Warning and

Control System [AWACS]), reestablish this abbreviation if it occurs

later in the front matter (e.g., in the preface). Reestablish abbreviations starting in the body of the publication (e.g., first chapter, section, part, etc.) even though they appear in the front matter. The same

principle holds true for elements of the back matter and for a book

collection of essays by different authors. For example, reestablish

23
abbreviations in an appendix even if you have used them in the front

matter or body and reestablish abbreviations in each essay even if you

have used them in other essays in the book. 

Although a term may be plural or possessive, do not make the abbreviation plural or possessive on first usage: cluster bomb units (CBU); low

noise amplifiers (LNA). Use the plural or possessive form for subsequent

occurrences of the abbreviation, when appropriate: CBUs, LNA’s.

Even though an abbreviation may stand for a plural term (e.g.,

precision-guided munitions [PGM]), consider the abbreviation itself a

singular noun: PGMs (plural), PGM’s (possessive), the PGM is(not are).

Generally, use the with an abbreviation if you would use it with

the spelled-out term in the particular context in which it appears,

unless the combination seems awkward:

He works for the DOD.

The city is home to many DOD employees.

NATO found itself at a crossroads.

Use capital letters for the abbreviations of computer-file extensions such as PDF, GIF, and JPG (or JPEG) unless they are actually

appended to file names (f22.jpg).

Italicize an abbreviation only if it would be italicized if spelled out

(Chicago, 15.8):

Oxford English Dictionary (OED)

Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA)

Spell out the names of countries in text when they are used as nouns

(however, you may use USSR [Union of Soviet Socialist Republics] to

refer to the country as it existed between 1917 and 1991). If space is a

consideration, you may abbreviate the names of countries in tables,

lists, notes, and so forth. See also CIS (Commonwealth of Independent

States) (2.92); US (United States) (2.426); USSR (Union of Soviet

Socialist Republics) (2.444).

United States (US)

United Arab Emirates (UAE)

United Kingdom (UK)

France (Fr.)

Germany (Ger.)

Israel (Isr.)

Abbreviate civilian and military titles or ranks that precede a person’s full name. Do not use periods with military ranks. Spell out titles

or ranks that precede a person’s last name only (see also military titles

and offices [2.258]):

Adm Chester W. Nimitz Admiral Nimitz

Vice Adm John Smith Admiral Smith

Rear Adm Michael Wiggins Admiral Wiggins

Cdr Henry Price Commander Price

Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Harris Marshal Harris

Gen Richard B. Myers General Myers

24

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
Brig Gen James Stewart General Stewart

Lt Col Martin L. Green Colonel Green

Maj Frank T. Boothe Major Boothe

Capt Donald D. Martin Captain Martin

1st Lt Peter N. Cushing Lieutenant Cushing

2d (or 2nd) Lt Boyd D. Yeats Lieutenant Yeats

CMSgt Robert Patterson Chief Patterson

MSgt Walter Austin Sergeant Austin

A1C K. L. Jones Airman Jones

Prof. Harold Bloom Professor Bloom

Assoc. Prof. John Cooper Professor Cooper

Asst. Prof. Dwight Hicks Professor Hicks

Gov. Bob Riley Governor Riley

Pres. George W. Bush President Bush

Amb. John D. Negroponte Ambassador Negroponte

Rep. Terry Everett (R-Ala. [or AL]) Representative Everett

Cong. Robert Cramer (D-Ala. [or AL]) Congressman Cramer

but Senator Jon Kyl (R-Ariz. [or AZ]) Senator Kyl

Rev. John Brannon the Reverend John Brannon

Hon. James Lunsford the Honorable James Lunsford

Always abbreviate social titles whether they precede the full name or

last name only: Mr., Mrs., Messrs., Mr., Dr. When Mister or Doctor is

used without a name, in direct address, spell it out (Chicago, 15.16).

Spell out a unit of measure on first usage, follow it with the abbreviation in parentheses, and use the abbreviation thereafter. In nonscientific copy, periods customarily accompany English units of measure

(e.g., lb., mi., in., ft. cu. in., qt., gal.) (Chicago 15.71). Capitalize abbreviations for terms derived from proper names (e.g., Hz). Singular and

plural abbreviated forms for units of measure are the same (e.g., 5

lb.). See also numbers (4.3).

gallon gal.

hertz Hz

kilogram kg

miles per hour mph

degrees Celsius 70° C

revolutions per minute rpm

kilometer km

millimeter mm

pounds per square inch psi

nautical mile nm

Spell out the names of states, territories, and possessions of the

United States in textual material. When the names appear in lists,

tabular matter, notes, bibliographies, and indexes, use either the older

forms of state abbreviations or the two-letter, no-period state abbreviations preferred by the US Postal Service (Chicago, 15.29). Choose one

system, and use it consistently:

Ala. (AL) Kans. (KS) N.Dak. (ND)

Alaska (AK) Ky. (KY) Ohio (OH)

25

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
Amer. Samoa (AS) La. (LA) Okla. (OK)

Ariz. (AZ) Maine (ME) Oreg. or Ore. (OR)

Ark. (AR) Md. (MD) Pa. (PA)

Calif. (CA) Mass. (MA) P.R. (PR)

Colo. (CO) Mich. (MI) R.I. (RI)

Conn. (CT) Minn. (MN) S.C. (SC)

Del. (DE) Miss. (MS) S.Dak. (SD)

D.C. (DC) Mo. (MO) Tenn. (TN)

Fla. (FL) Mont. (MT) Tex. (TX)

Ga. (GA) Nebr. (NE) Utah (UT)

Guam (GU) Nev. (NV) Vt. (VT)

Hawaii (HI) N.H. (NH) Va. (VA)

Idaho (ID) N.J. (NJ) V.I. (VI)

Ill. (IL) N.Mex. (NM) Wash. (WA)

Ind. (IN) N.Y. (NY) W.Va. (WV)

Iowa (IA) N.C. (NC) Wis. or Wisc. (WI)

Wyo. (WY)

In notes, bibliographies, and reference lists, you may use abbreviations freely, but be consistent. You may also use abbreviated forms in

parenthetical references. Use the following terms: vol. 1, bk. 1, pt. 2, no.

2, chap. 2, fig. 4, art. 3, sec. 4, par. 5, col. 6, p. 7, n.d. (no date). The plurals are vols., bks., pts., nos., chaps., figs., arts., secs., pars., cols., pp.

2.1 AAA (antiaircraft artillery)

2.2 AAM (air-to-air missile)

2.3 AB (air base). Cite a first reference to a specific air base as follows:

Rhein-Main Air Base (AB), Germany. Subsequent references:

Rhein-Main AB, Germany; the air base; the base.

2.4 ABCCC (airborne battlefield command and control center)

2.5 ABM (antiballistic missile)

2.6 academic degrees and titles. Abbreviate academic degrees and titles

(no periods) after a personal name. See also associate’s degree

(4.1.22); bachelor’s degree (4.1.23); doctorate (4.1.55); master’s

degree (4.1.97).

BA

MA

PhD

LLD

MD

DDS

JP (justice of the peace)

MP (member of Parliament)

2.7 ACC (Air Combat Command)

2.8 ACSC (Air Command and Staff College)

26

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
2.9 AD (anno Domini). Use either small caps with or without periods or

full caps without periods (choose one style, and use it consistently); the

abbreviation precedes the year: AD 107. See also BC (before Christ)

(2.65, 4.1.26).

2.10 ADVON (advanced echelon)

2.11 AEF (air and space expeditionary force)

2.12 AEG (air expeditionary group)

2.13 AETC (Air Education and Training Command)

2.14 AETF (air and space expeditionary task force)

2.15 AEW (airborne early warning; air expeditionary wing)

2.16 AFB (Air Force base). Because of its familiarity, you need not spell

out this abbreviation on first usage: Maxwell AFB, Alabama.

Subsequent references: the Air Force base; the base. In notes and bibliographies, abbreviate the name of the state: Maxwell AFB, AL (or

Ala.).

2.17 AFCC (Air Force component commander)

2.18 AFCERT (Air Force computer emergency response team)

2.19 AFDC (Air Force Doctrine Center)

2.20 AFDD (Air Force doctrine document)

2.21 AFFOR (Air Force forces)

2.22 AFHRA (Air Force Historical Research Agency)

2.23 AFI (Air Force instruction)

2.24 AFIADL (Air Force Institute for Advanced Distributed Learning)

2.25 AFIT (Air Force Institute of Technology)

2.26 AFLC (Air Force Logistics Command)

2.27 AFMAN (Air Force manual)

2.28 AFMC (Air Force Materiel Command)

2.29 AFOATS (Air Force Officer Accession and Training Schools)

2.30 AFOSI (Air Force Office of Special Investigations)

2.31 AFPAM (Air Force pamphlet)

27

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
2.32 AFPD (Air Force policy directive)

2.33 AFRC (Air Force Reserve Command). See also Reserve(s) (4.1.125).

2.34 AFROTC (Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps)

2.35 AFSOC (Air Force Special Operations Command)

2.36 AFSPC (Air Force Space Command)

2.37 AFTTP (Air Force tactics, techniques, and procedures)

2.38 AF/XO (Deputy Chief of Staff for Plans and Operations, USAF)

2.39 AF/XOI (Air Force Director of Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance)

2.40 AI (air interdiction)

2.41 AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome)

2.42 ALCM (air launched cruise missile)

2.43 a.m. (ante meridiem [before noon]). Either write the abbreviation

in lowercase with periods or set it in small caps without periods

(choose one style and use it consistently): 9:00 a.m.

2.44 AMC (Air Mobility Command)

2.45 ampersand (&). Change an ampersand in original titles to and (Aviation Week and Space Technology). Consistently use either the ampersand or and as it appears in company names in notes, bibliographies,

lists, and parenthetical references (Harper & Row, Harper and Row),

but use and in running text. The ampersand also occurs in some

abbreviations: R&D (no space on either side of the ampersand in

such abbreviations).

2.46 AMRAAM (advanced medium-range air-to-air missile)

2.47 ANG (Air National Guard). Capitalize the shortened title: the Guard,

but guardsman.

2.48 AO (area of operations)

2.49 AOC (air and space operations center)

2.50 AOR (area of responsibility)

28

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
2.51 ARM (antiradiation missile)

2.52 ARNG (Army National Guard). Shortened form: the Guard.

2.53 ASAP (as soon as possible)

2.54 ASAT (antisatellite weapon)

2.55 ASBC (Air and Space Basic Course)

2.56 ATACMS (Army Tactical Missile System)

2.57 ATAF (Allied Tactical Air Force [NATO])

2.58 ATO (air tasking order)

2.59 AU (Air University)

2.60 AUL (Air University Library)

2.61 AWACS (Airborne Warning and Control System)

2.62 AWC (Air War College)

2.63 AWOL (absent without leave)

2.64 base. See AB (air base) (2.3); AFB (Air Force base) (2.16).

2.65 BC (before Christ). Use either small caps with or without periods or

full caps without periods (choose one style, and use it consistently); the

abbreviation follows the year: 240 BC. See also AD (anno Domini)

(2.9, 4.1.5).

2.66 BCE (before the common era). See also CE (2.85).

Herod Antipas (21 BCE–39 CE) was tetrarch of Galilee from 4 BCE until

his death. (Chicago, 9.38)

2.67 BDA (battle damage assessment)

2.68 BMD (ballistic missile defense)

2.69 BMDO (Ballistic Missile Defense Organization)

2.70 BRAC (base realignment and closure)

2.71 BVR (beyond visual range)

29

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
2.72 C2 or C2 (command and control)

2.73 C3 or C3 (command, control, and communications)

2.74 C3I or C3I (command, control, communications, and intelligence)

2.75 C4 or C4 (command, control, communications, and computers)

2.76 C4I or C4I (command, control, communications, computers, and

intelligence)

2.77 CADRE (College of Aerospace Doctrine, Research and Education)

2.78 CALCM (conventional air-launched cruise missile)

2.79 CAOC (combat [or combined] air operations center) [Joint Pub

1-02]; (combat [or combined] air and space operations center)

[USAF]

2.80 CAP (Civil Air Patrol; combat air patrol; crisis action planning)

2.81 CAS (close air support)

2.82 CBU (cluster bomb unit)

2.83 CBW (chemical and biological warfare)

2.84 CCAF (Community College of the Air Force)

2.85 CE (of the common era). See also BCE (2.66)

Herod Antipas (21 BCE–39 CE) was tetrarch of Galilee from 4 BCE until his

death. (Chicago, 9.38)

2.86 CEPME (College for Enlisted Professional Military Education)

2.87 CFACC (combined force air component commander) [Joint Pub

1-02]; (combined force air and space component commander)

[USAF]

2.88 chapter. Abbreviate chapter in parenthetical references (chap. 5).

Lowercase and spell out the word in text. Use Arabic figures for

chapter numbers, even if the chapter numbers in the work cited are

spelled out or in Roman numerals. The same principle holds true for

other divisions of a book: part 1, section 3, book 7, volume 2.

30

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
2.89 CHOP (change of operational control)

2.90 CIA (Central Intelligence Agency)

2.91 CINC (commander in chief). Use only in reference to the president

of the United States. Use commander of a combatant command in

reference to leaders of combatant or unified commands (e.g., commander of US Central Command).

2.92 CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States). The free association

of sovereign states formed in 1991, comprising Russia and 11 other

republics formerly part of the Soviet Union. See also Soviet(s), Soviet

Union, USSR (1.52).

2.93 CJCS (chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff)

2.94 CNA (computer network attack)

2.95 CNO (chief of naval operations)

2.96 CO (commanding officer)

2.97 COC (combat operations center)

2.98 COG (center of gravity)

2.99 COMAFFOR (commander, Air Force forces)

2.100 COMPUSEC (computer security)

2.101 COMSAT (communications satellite)

2.102 CONOPS (concept of operations)

2.103 CONUS (continental United States)

2.104 CRAF (civil reserve air fleet)

2.105 CSAF (chief of staff, United States Air Force)

2.106 CSAR (combat search and rescue)

2.107 CV (aircraft carrier; carrier)

2.108 CW (chemical warfare)

2.109 DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency)

31

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
2.110 DC or D.C. (District of Columbia)

2.111 DEA (Drug Enforcement Administration)

2.112 DEFCON (defense readiness condition)

2.113 DET (detachment)

2.114 DFAS (Defense Finance and Accounting Service)

2.115 DHS (Department of Homeland Security)

2.116 DIA (Defense Intelligence Agency)

2.117 DMPI (designated [or desired] mean point of impact)

2.118 DMSP (Defense Meteorological Satellite Program)

2.119 DMZ (demilitarized zone)

2.120 doctrine documents, instructions, manuals, pamphlets, and policy directives. On first usage, spell out the type of publication (doctrine document, instruction, etc.) and follow it with the abbreviation

in parentheses; use the abbreviation and number for subsequent references. Italicize the title of the publication: Air Force Doctrine

Document (AFDD) 2-4.3, Education and Training, AFDD 2-4.3;

Air Force Instruction (AFI) 90-201, Inspector General Activities,

AFI 90-201; Air Force Manual (AFMAN) 10-100, Airman’s Manual,

AFMAN 10-100; Army Field Manual (FM) 27-10, The Law of Land

Warfare, FM 27-10; Air Force Pamphlet (AFPAM) 36-2705,

Discrimination and Sexual Harassment, AFPAM 36-2705; Air Force

Policy Directive (AFPD) 36-4, Air Force Civilian Training and

Education, AFPD 36-4.

2.121 DOD (Department of Defense)

2.122 DODD (Department of Defense directive)

2.123 DODI (Department of Defense instruction)

2.124 DODM (Department of Defense manual)

2.125 DODR (Department of Defense regulation)

2.126 Dr. (doctor). Use a period with the abbreviation. See also abbreviations (2.0); Mr., Mrs., Mme, Ms. (2.269); Messrs., Mmes. (2.252).

32

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
2.127 DRU (direct reporting unit)

2.128 DSN (Defense Switched Network)

2.129 EAF (expeditionary air and space forces)

2.130 EBO (effects-based operations)

2.131 e.g. (for example). Avoid using e.g. in text; use for example instead.

Use the abbreviation, followed by a comma, only in parenthetical

references or tabular matter.

2.132 ELINT (electronic intelligence)

2.133 EO (executive order). Lowercase and spell out executive order in

general references when the number is not given: the executive order.

Always capitalize the term when a number accompanies it, but abbreviate the term with the number only after spelling it out on first reference: Executive Order (EO) 1654, EO 1654, the executive order.

2.134 et al. (and others). Et al. follows the full name of the first author

listed in a note reference to a work by more than three authors:

1. Jaroslav Pelikan et al., Religion and the University, York University

Invitation Lecture Series (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1964), 109.

2.135 etc. (and so forth). The spelled-out term et cetera is rarely used.

Use its abbreviation, etc., only in lists, tables, and parenthetical references. Use and so forth in running text, set off by commas.

Joan had a variety of candy bars in her purse (Baby Ruths, Snickers,

Mounds, etc.).

The animal shelter offered such dogs as terriers, Pomeranians,

Chihuahuas, and so forth, for adoption.

2.136 EU (European Union)

2.137 EW (early warning; electronic warfare)

2.138 FAC (forward air controller)

2.139 FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation)

2.140 FBIS (Foreign Broadcast Information Service)

2.141 FEBA (forward edge of the battle area)

33

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
2.142 FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency)

2.143 FLIR (forward-looking infrared)

2.144 FLOT (forward line of own troops)

2.145 FM (field manual [Army])

2.146 FOA (field operating agency)

2.147 FOIA (Freedom of Information Act)

2.148 FOUO (for official use only)

2.149 FP (force protection)

2.150 FPCON (force protection condition)

2.151 FRAG (fragmentation code)

2.152 frequencies. See abbreviations (2.0).

2.153 FS (fighter squadron)

2.154 FSCL (fire support coordination line)

2.155 FW (fighter wing)

2.156 FY (fiscal year). FY 2004, FY 04.

2.157 GAO (Government Accountability Office)

2.158 GBU (guided bomb unit)

2.159 GCA (ground controlled approach)

2.160 GCI (ground control intercept)

2.161 general (military rank). See abbreviations (2.0); capitalization (4.1);

military titles and offices (2.258).

2.162 GEO (geosynchronous Earth orbit)

2.163 g-force

2.164 GHz (gigahertz)

34

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
2.165 GLCM (ground launched cruise missile)

2.166 GMT (Greenwich Mean Time)

2.167 GO (general order). Lowercase and spell out general order in references when the number is not given: the general order. Capitalize the

term when a number accompanies it, but abbreviate the term with the

number only after spelling it out on first reference: General Order

(GO) 6-325, GO 6-325, the general order.

2.168 GPS (global positioning system)

2.169 GSA (General Services Administration)

2.170 G suit

2.170.1 GWOT (global war on terrorism)

2.171 HARM (high-speed antiradiation missile)

2.172 HF (high frequency)

2.173 H hour (specific time when an operation or exercise begins)

2.174 HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)

2.175 HMMWV (high mobility multipurpose wheeled vehicle)

2.176 HMW (health, morale, and welfare)

2.177 HRO (humanitarian relief organizations)

2.178 HUD (head-up display)

2.179 HUMINT (human intelligence)

2.180 HUMRO (humanitarian relief operation)

2.181 Hz (hertz)

2.182 IA (information attack or information assurance)

2.183 IADS (Integrated Air Defense System)

2.184 ibid. (in the same place). The abbreviation “ibid.” (“ibidem,” “in the

same place”) refers to a single work cited in the note immediately

preceding. Never use “ibid.” if more than one work is cited in the

35

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
preceding note (Chicago, 16.47). Do not italicize this abbreviation

in your notes. Do not use op. cit. (opere citato, “in the work cited”)

or loc. cit. (loco citato, “in the place cited”). Instead, use the shortened

form of the citation. You may use “ibid.” within the note to indicate

successive references to the same work (Chicago, 16.48).

7. Richard G. Davis, Carl A. Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

(Washington, DC [or D.C.]: Office of Air Force History, 1993), 331.

8. Ibid., 301.

9. Gen Richard B. Myers, “A Word from the Chairman: Shift to a Global

Perspecitve,” Air and Space Power Journal 17, no. 3 (Fall 2003): 5. “By shifting our view from a regional to a global perspective, we will better comprehend

and respond to America’s security needs in the twenty-first century” (ibid., 8).

2.185 ICBM (intercontinental ballistic missile)

2.186 i.e. (that is). Avoid using i.e. in running text; use that is instead. Use

the abbreviation, followed by a comma, only in parenthetical references or tabular matter.

2.187 IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)

2.188 IFF (identification, friend or foe)

2.189 IG (inspector general)

2.190 IMA (individual mobilization augmentee)

2.191 IMINT (imagery intelligence)

2.192 INFOCON (information operations condition)

2.193 INFOSEC (information security)

2.194 INS (inertial navigation system)

2.195 INTELSAT (International Telecommunications Satellite Organization)

2.196 IO (information operations)

2.197 I/O (input/output)

2.198 IOS (International Officer School)

2.199 IR (infrared)

36

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
2.200 ISR (intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance)

2.201 IW (information warfare)

2.202 I&W (indications and warning)

2.203 J-1 (manpower and personnel directorate of a joint staff)

2.204 J-2 (intelligence directorate of a joint staff)

2.205 J-3 (operations directorate of a joint staff)

2.206 J-4 (logistics directorate of a joint staff)

2.207 J-5 (plans directorate of a joint staff)

2.208 J-6 (command, control, communications, and computer systems

directorate of a joint staff)

2.209 J-7 (Operational Plans and Joint Force Development, Joint Staff)

2.210 J-8 (Director for Force Structure, Resource, and Assessment, Joint

Staff)

2.211 JAG (judge advocate general)

2.212 JAOC (joint air operations center) [Joint Pub 1-02]; (joint air

and space operations center) [USAF]

2.213 JAOP (joint air operations plan) [Joint Pub 1-02]; (joint air and

space operations plan) [USAF]

2.214 JASSM (Joint Air-to-Surface Standoff Missile)

2.215 JCS (Joint Chiefs of Staff). Shortened form: joint chiefs.

2.216 JDAM (Joint Direct Attack Munition)

2.217 JFACC (joint force air component commander) [Joint Pub 1-02];

(joint air and space component commander) [USAF]

2.218 JFC (joint force commander)

2.219 JFLCC (joint force land component commander)

2.220 JFMCC (joint force maritime component commander)

37

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
2.221 JFSOCC (joint force special operations component commander)

2.222 JOC (joint operations center)

2.223 JP (joint publication)

2.224 Jr. Use with a period. Commas are not required; if you do use commas, place one before and after the abbreviation. Select one style,

and use it consistently. Use a comma before the abbreviation when the

name is inverted (as in an index).

James Adair Jr. is the mayor.

James Adair, Jr., is the mayor.

Adair, James, Jr.

2.225 JSOW (joint standoff weapon)

2.226 JSTARS (Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System)

2.227 JTF (joint task force)

2.228 kg (kilogram)

2.229 kHz (kilohertz)

2.230 KIA (killed in action)

2.231 km (kilometer)

2.232 LANDSAT (land satellite)

2.233 LANTIRN (low-altitude navigation and targeting infrared for

night)

2.234 latitude, longitude. Spell out latitude and longitude in text or standing alone: longitude 80 degrees east; the polar latitudes, from 20°

50′ north latitude to 20° 50′ south latitude. In tables you may abbreviate as follows:

lat 41°15′40′′ N

long 90°18′30′′ W

2.235 LEO (low Earth orbit)

2.236 LF (low frequency)

2.237 LGB (laser-guided bomb)

38

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
2.238 LGM (laser-guided missile)

2.239 LGW (laser-guided weapon)

2.240 LIC (low intensity conflict)

2.241 LIMFAC (limiting factor)

2.242 LOC (line of communications)

2.243 loc. cit. (loco citato). In the place cited. Use a shortened reference

instead. See also notes (5.1).

2.244 LORAN (long-range aid to navigation)

2.245 MAAP (master air attack plan)

2.245.1 MAAS (master of airpower art and science [degree, School of

Advanced Air and Space Studies]) [Press editors: spell out on

first usage]. See also master’s degree (4.1.97).

2.246 MAGTF (Marine air-ground task force)

2.247 MAJCOM (major command [USAF])

2.248 MANPADS (man-portable air defense system)

2.249 MAW (Marine aircraft wing)

2.250 MEDEVAC (medical evacuation)

2.251 MEO (medium Earth orbit)

2.252 Messrs., Mmes. Messrs. is the plural of Mr.; use a period: Messrs.

Bailey, Bryant, and Richardson. Mmes is the plural of madam or

madame or Mrs.; no period: Mmes Clark, O’Neal, and Terrell. See

also Mr., Mrs., Mme, Ms. (2.269).

2.253 MET (mission essential task)

2.254 MHz (megahertz)

2.255 MIA (missing in action)

2.256 MiG(s). Capital M, lowercase i, capital G. Soviet aircraft developed by

the design bureau of Gen Artem Mikoyan and Gen Mikhail Gurevich.

Abbreviation derived from the transliteration Mikoyan i Gurevich.

39

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
2.257 military abbreviations. See Joint Publication 1-02, Department of

Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms.

2.258 military titles and offices. Capitalize and abbreviate titles that precede full names; capitalize and spell out titles that precede surnames

only. Lowercase and spell out titles following a personal name or

used alone in place of a name:

Gen Ulysses S. Grant, commander in chief of the Union army; General

Grant; the commander in chief; the general

Lt Col Antulio J. Echevarria II, USA; Colonel Echevarria; the colonel

Gen Curtis E. LeMay, commander of Strategic Air Command; General

LeMay; the general

But General of the Army Douglas MacArthur; Douglas MacArthur, general

of the Army; General MacArthur; the general

Sgt Phyllis Forsman; a noncommissioned officer (NCO); Sergeant

Forsman; the sergeant

Adm Chester W. Nimitz; Admiral Nimitz, commander of the Pacific

Fleet; the fleet admiral

Col (Brig Gen–select) Peter D. Haynes; Brig Gen (sel) Peter D. Haynes

Generals Eisenhower and Montgomery (but Army generals Patton and

Bradley)

See also abbreviations (2.0); capitalization (4.1).

The following service-specific abbreviations for military rank are

provided primarily for reference purposes. In the body of your text,

for the sake of simplicity and uniformity, use the cap-and-lowercase

style for all ranks, regardless of the service (e.g., Capt rather than

CAPT [Navy]). If appropriate, however, you may use the all-caps

style in the front and back matter and documentation of books,

monographs, theses, and so forth; the same holds true of chapter

bylines in a book by multiple authors and in the bylines and documentation of journal articles, as well as material other than the text

of the articles (e.g., staff and editorial-board listings, letters to the

editor, contributors section, etc.). The cap-and-lowercase variants, if

any, are indicated parenthetically below:

Air Force Army

Gen general GEN (Gen) general

Lt Gen lieutenant general LTG (Lt Gen) lieutenant general

Maj Gen major general MG (Maj Gen) major general

Brig Gen brigadier general BG (Brig Gen) brigadier general

Col colonel COL (Col) colonel

Lt Col lieutenant colonel LTC (Lt Col) lieutenant colonel

Maj major MAJ (Maj) major

40

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
Air Force Army

Capt captain CPT (Capt) captain

1st Lt first lieutenant lLT (1st Lt) first lieutenant

2d/2nd Lt second lieutenant 2LT (2d/2nd Lt) second lieutenant

CMSAF chief master sergeant

of the Air Force

CMSgt chief master sergeant CW5 chief warrant officer 5

SMSgt senior master sergeant CW4 chief warrant officer 4

MSgt master sergeant CW3 chief warrant officer 3

TSgt technical sergeant CW2 chief warrant officer 2

SSgt staff sergeant CW1 chief warrant officer 1

SrA senior Airman

A1C Airman first class SMA sergeant

Amn Airman major of the Army

AB Airman basic CSM command sergeant major

SGM sergeant major

1SG (1st Sgt) first sergeant

MSG (MSgt) master sergeant

PSG platoon sergeant

SFC sergeant first class

SSG (SSgt) staff sergeant

SP6 specialist 6

SGT (Sgt) sergeant

SP5 specialist 5

CPL (Cpl) corporal

SP4 specialist 4

PFC (Pfc) private first class

PVT (Pvt) private

Marine Corps Navy/Coast Guard

Gen general ADM (Adm) admiral

Lt Gen lieutenant general VADM (Vice Adm) vice admiral

Maj Gen major general RADM (Rear Adm) rear admiral (O-8/O-7)

B Gen (Brig Gen) brigadier general CAPT (Capt) captain

Col colonel CDR (Cdr) commander

Lt Col lieutenant colonel LCDR (Lt Cdr) lieutenant commander

Maj major LT (Lt) lieutenant

Capt captain LTJG (Lt JG) lieutenant junior grade

1st Lt first lieutenant ENS (Ensign) ensign

2d/2nd Lt second lieutenant

CWO-5 chief warrant officer 5 CWO5 chief warrant officer 5

CWO-4 chief warrant officer 4 CWO4 chief warrant officer 4

CWO-3 chief warrant officer 3 CWO3 chief warrant officer 3

CWO-2 chief warrant officer 2 CWO2 chief warrant officer 2

CWO-1 chief warrant officer 1 MCPON master chief petty officer of the Navy

Sgt Maj sergeant major MCPO master chief petty officer

Mgy Sgt master gunnery sergeant SCPO senior chief petty officer

1st Sgt first sergeant CPO chief petty officer

MSgt master sergeant PO1 petty officer first class

GySgt gunnery sergeant PO2 petty officer second class

SSgt staff sergeant PO3 petty officer third class

41

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
Marine Corps Navy/Coast Guard

Sgt sergeant SN seaman

Cpl corporal SA seaman apprentice

LCpl lance corporal SR seaman recruit

PFC (Pfc) private first class

Pvt private

2.259 MIRV (multiple independently targeted reentry vehicle) (n.,v.).

MIRVed, MIRVing.

2.260 MISREP (mission report)

2.261 MITRE Corp. (Massachusetts Institute of Technology Research

Corporation)

2.261.1 MMOAS (master of military operational art and science

[degree, Air Command and Staff College]) [Press editors: spell

out on first usage]. See also master’s degree (4.1.97).

2.262 MOA (memorandum of agreement)

2.263 MOE (measure of effectiveness)

2.264 months of the year. Write exact dates in day-month-year sequence,

without commas. Spell out the month, use figures for the day, and

use a four-digit year. When you use only month and year, no commas are necessary.

FDR referred to 7 December 1941 as a day that would live in infamy.

The date March 2003 was special to her.

Do not use the all-numeral style for dates (3/11/50, etc.) in formal writing. However, in text discussing the events of [11 September

2001], the use of 9/11 is acceptable (Chicago, 6.115). If documentation, figures, and tables contain numerous dates, you may abbreviate

certain months (Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., May, June, July, Aug., Sept.,

Oct., Nov., Dec.) and use the day-month-year sequence without internal punctuation (7 Dec. 1941) to reduce clutter. Choose one style for

the documentation, figures, and tables, and use it consistently. See

also numbers (4.3).

2.265 MOOTW (military operations other than war)

2.266 MOS (military occupational specialty)

2.267 MOU (memorandum of understanding)

2.268 mph (miles per hour)

42

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
2.269 Mr., Mrs., Mme, Ms. Use a period with all except Mme. Spell out

“Mister” when it connotes military rank: Mister Roberts. See also

Messrs., Mmes (2.252).

2.270 MRE (meal, ready to eat)

2.270.1 MSS (master of strategic studies [degree, Air War College])

[Press editors: spell out on first usage]. See also master’s degree

(4.1.97).

2.271 MTW (major theater war)

2.272 NAF (nonappropriated funds; numbered air force)

2.273 NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)

2.274 NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

2.275 NAVSAT (navigation satellite)

2.276 NBC (nuclear, biological, and chemical)

2.277 NCA (National Command Authorities). No longer used. Use

president and/or secretary of defense, as appropriate.

2.278 NCO (noncombat operations; noncommissioned officer)

2.279 NCOIC (noncommissioned officer in charge)

2.280 NDU (National Defense University)

2.281 NEA (northeast Asia)

2.282 NEO (noncombat evacuation operation)

2.283 NGA (National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency). Formerly the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA).

2.284 NGB (National Guard Bureau)

2.285 NGO (nongovernmental organization)

2.286 NIPRNET (Nonsecure Internet Protocol Router Network)

2.287 nm (nautical mile)

2.288 no. Use a period after the abbreviation for number.

43

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
2.289 NOFORN (not releasable to foreign nationals)

2.290 NORAD (North American Aerospace Defense Command)

2.291 NOTAM (notice to Airmen)

2.292 NRO (National Reconnaissance Office)

2.293 NSA (National Security Agency)

2.294 NSC (National Security Council)

2.295 NVG (night vision goggle)

2.296 OCA (offensive counterair)

2.297 OCI (offensive counterinformation)

2.298 OCS (offensive counterspace)

2.299 OJT (on-the-job training)

2.300 OL (operating location)

2.301 O&M (operation and maintenance)

2.302 OMB (Office of Management and Budget)

2.303 OODA (observe, orient, decide, act)

2.304 op. cit. (opere citato). In the work cited. Use a shortened reference instead. See notes (5.1).

2.305 OPCON (operational control)

2.306 OPLAN (operation plan)

2.307 OPM (Office of Personnel Management)

2.308 OPORD (operation order)

2.309 OPR (office of primary responsibility)

2.310 OPTEMPO (operating tempo)

44

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
2.311 OSD (Office of the Secretary of Defense)

2.312 OT&E (operational test and evaluation)

2.313 OTS (Officer Training School)

2.314 PA (Public Affairs)

2.315 PACAF (Pacific Air Forces)

2.316 page numbers. You may either use the abbreviations p. and pp.

(pages) to designate page numbers, or you may omit them—as long

as you are consistent:

2. Lt Col Kenneth Keskel, “The Oath of Office: A Historical Guide to

Moral Leadership,” Air and Space Power Journal 16, no. 4 (Winter 2002): 48

(or p. 48), http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj02/win02/

win02.pdf.

2.317 PAWS (phased array warning system)

2.318 PCS (permanent change of station)

2.319 PGM (precision-guided munitions)

2.320 PIREP (pilot report)

2.321 PKO (peacekeeping operations)

2.322 p.m. (post meridiem [after noon]). Either write the abbreviation in

lowercase with periods, or set it in small caps without periods

(choose one style, and use it consistently).

2.323 PME (professional military education)

2.324 POC (point of contact)

2.325 POL (petroleum, oil, and lubricants)

2.326 POM (program objective memorandum)

2.327 POW (prisoner of war)

2.328 PPBS (Planning, Programming, and Budgeting System)

45

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
2.329 Prime BEEF (Prime Base Engineer Emergency Force)

2.330 PSYOP (psychological operations)

2.331 PSYWAR (psychological warfare)

2.332 pub (publication)

2.333 RAF (Royal Air Force [United Kingdom])

2.334 rank. See military titles and offices (2.258).

2.335 rates of speed, frequencies, and so forth. See abbreviations (2.0);

measurements (4.3.15); numbers (4.3).

2.336 RCS (radar cross section)

2.337 R&D (research and development)

2.338 RDA (research, development, and acquisition)

2.339 RDT&E (research, development, test, and evaluation)

2.340 RECCE (reconnaissance)

2.341 RECON (reconnaissance)

2.342 RED HORSE (Rapid Engineers Deployable Heavy Operations

Repair Squadron, Engineers)

2.343 RMA (revolution in military affairs)

2.344 ROE (rules of engagement)

2.345 ROK (Republic of Korea)

2.346 ROTC (Reserve Officer Training Corps)

2.347 RPV (remotely piloted vehicle)

2.348 RRF (rapid reaction force)

2.349 SAASS (School of Advanced Air and Space Studies)

46

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
2.350 SACEUR (Supreme Allied Command, Europe)

2.351 SACLANT (Supreme Allied Command, Atlantic)

2.352 SAF (secretary of the Air Force)

2.353 Saint. When Saint is part of someone’s name, follow that person’s

usage (e.g., as indicated in Webster’s New Biographical Dictionary). 

Marco de Saint-Hilaire Barry St. Leger

Place-names with Saint may be abbreviated or spelled out in text

(Chicago 15.32).

St. Louis or Saint Louis

2.354 SAM (surface-to-air missile)

2.355 SAOC (sector air operations center)

2.356 SAR (search and rescue; synthetic aperture radar)

2.357 SATCOM (satellite communications)

2.358 SBIRS (space-based infrared system)

2.359 SBR (space-based radar)

2.360 SBSS (space-based space surveillance)

2.361 SDI (Strategic Defense Initiative)

2.362 SEA (Southeast Asia)

2.363 SEAD (suppression of enemy air defenses)

2.364 SEAL (sea-air-land team)

2.365 SHAPE (Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers, Europe)

2.366 SIGINT (signals intelligence)

2.367 SIOP (Single Integrated Operational Plan)

2.368 SIPRNET (Secret Internet Protocol Router Network)

47

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
2.369 SITREP (situation report)

2.370 SJA (staff judge advocate)

2.371 SLAM (standoff land attack missile)

2.372 SLAR (side-looking airborne radar)

2.373 SLBM (submarine-launched ballistic missile)

2.374 SLCM (sea-launched cruise missile)

2.375 SLOC (sea line of communications)

2.376 SO (special order). Lowercase and spell out special order in general

references when the number is not given: the special order. Capitalize

the term when a number accompanies it, but abbreviate the term

with the number only after you spell it out on first reference: Special

Order (SO) T-013, SO T-013, the special order.

2.377 SOC (space operations center; special operations command;

Squadron Officer College)

2.378 SOF (special operations forces)

2.379 SOP (standing [or standard] operating procedure)

2.380 SORTS (Status of Resources and Training System)

2.381 SOS (Squadron Officer School)

2.382 SP (security police)

2.383 SPINS (special instructions)

2.384 Sr. Use with a period. Commas are not required; if you do use commas, place one before and after the abbreviation. Select one style,

and use it consistently. Use a comma before the abbreviation when

the name is inverted (as in an index).

M. H. Abrahms Sr. lives at the end of the street.

M. H. Abrahms, Sr., lives at the end of the street.

Abrahms, M. H., Sr.

48

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
2.385 SROE (standing rules of engagement)

2.386 SSA (space situational awareness)

2.387 SSBN (fleet ballistic missile submarine)

2.388 SSM (surface-to-surface missile)

2.389 SSN (attack submarine, nuclear)

2.390 state names. See abbreviations (2.0).

2.391 STO (space tasking order)

2.392 STOL (short takeoff and landing)

2.393 STOVL (short takeoff and vertical landing aircraft)

2.394 SWA (Southwest Asia)

2.395 TACAIR (tactical air)

2.396 TACP (tactical air control party)

2.397 TAF (tactical air force)

2.398 TAW (tactical airlift wing)

2.399 TBM (tactical/theater ballistic missile)

2.400 TDY (temporary duty)

2.401 T&E (test and evaluation)

2.402 TEMPEST (telecommunications electronics material protected

from emanating spurious transmissions; transient electromagnetic pulse emanation standard)

2.403 TERCOM (terrain contour matching)

2.404 titles of persons and offices. See capitalization (4.1); military titles

and offices (2.258).

2.405 TLAM (Tomahawk land-attack missile)

49

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
2.406 TMD (theater missile defense)

2.407 TO (technical order). Lowercase and spell out technical order in

general references when the number is not given: the technical

order. Always capitalize the term when a number accompanies it,

but abbreviate the term only after spelling it out on first reference:

Technical Order (TO) 00-25-4, TO 00-25-4.

2.408 TOF (time of flight)

2.409 TOT (time on target)

2.410 TOW (tube launched, optically tracked, wire guided)

2.411 TPFDD (time-phased force and deployment data)

2.412 TPFDL (time-phased force and deployment list)

2.413 TRADOC (US Army Training and Doctrine Command)

2.414 TRS (tactical reconnaissance squadron)

2.415 TTP (tactics, techniques, and procedures)

2.416 UAV (unmanned aerial vehicle)

2.417 UCMJ (Uniform Code of Military Justice). See also italics (4.4).

2.418 UCP (Unified Command Plan)

2.419 UHF (ultrahigh frequency)

2.420 UK (United Kingdom)

2.421 UMD (unit manning document)

2.422 UN (United Nations). The abbreviation can be used as either a

noun or an adjective.

2.423 UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund)

2.424 UNPROFOR (United Nations protection force)

50

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
2.425 URL (uniform [or universal] resource locator). A string that identifies a resource in the World Wide Web. In a printed work, if you

must break a URL, do so after a slash (single or double) if possible.

Do not break after a dot since this looks like a period at the end of

a line and might confuse the reader; rather, place the dot at the

beginning of the next line. Do not hyphenate a word at the end of a

line since some URLs contain hyphens as part of the address, and

do not leave a hyphen that’s part of a URL at the end of a line.

Additionally, break before a tilde (~), a hyphen, a comma, an underline (_), a question mark, a number sign (#), or a percent symbol—

or before or after an equals sign or an ampersand (&).

2.426 US (United States). Use the abbreviation as an adjective only.

2.427 USA (United States Army)

2.428 USAF (United States Air Force). Can be used as either a noun or

an adjective (serving in the USAF; USAF people). See also United

States Air Force, US Air Force, Air Force, USAF (1.60).

2.429 USAFE (United States Air Forces in Europe)

2.430 USAFR (United States Air Force Reserve)

2.431 USC (United States Code)

2.432 USCENTAF (United States Central Command Air Forces)

2.433 USCENTCOM (United States Central Command)

2.434 USCG (United States Coast Guard)

2.435 USEUCOM (United States European Command)

2.436 USJFCOM (United States Joint Forces Command)

2.437 USMC (United States Marine Corps)

2.438 USN (United States Navy)

2.439 USSBS (United States Strategic Bombing Survey). Italicize in references to the published work. Initial caps in Roman type are appropriate in references to the project prior to publication: United States

Strategic Bombing Survey (USSBS).

51

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
2.440 USSOCOM (United States Special Operations Command)

2.441 USSOUTHAF (United States Air Force, Southern Command)

2.442 USSOUTHCOM (United States Southern Command)

2.443 USSPACECOM (United States Space Command)

2.444 USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). Use Union of Soviet

Socialist Republics and its abbreviation in references to the country as

it existed between 1917 and 1991. The abbreviation can be used as

either a noun or an adjective. See also CIS (Commonwealth of

Independent States) (2.92); Soviet(s), Soviet Union, USSR (1.52).

2.445 USSTRATCOM (United States Strategic Command)

2.446 USTRANSCOM (United States Transportation Command)

2.447 USW (undersea warfare)

2.448 UTC (unit type code)

2.449 v. (versus). Use v. instead of vs. in names of legal cases; in other contexts, use versus. See also italics (4.4).

2.450 VFR (visual flight rules)

2.451 VHF (very high frequency)

2.452 viz. (videlicet; that is to say, namely)

2.453 VLF (very low frequency)

2.454 V/STOL (vertical and/or short takeoff and landing aircraft)

2.455 VTOL (vertical takeoff and landing)

2.456 WARNORD (warning order)

2.457 Washington, DC (or D.C.). It is not necessary to spell out the abbreviation in running text.

2.458 WIA (wounded in action)

52

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
2.459 WMD (weapons of mass destruction)

2.460 WRSK (war readiness/reserve spares kit)

2.461 WWW (World Wide Web). Shortened form: Web (e.g., Web site,

Web page, etc.)

2.462 XO (executive officer)

2.463 zip code or ZIP (zone improvement plan) code; zip (n.); zip-code

(v.). In writing a mailing address, do not use a comma before the

ZIP code (or after, if including “USA”): Troy, AL 36081 USA.

2.464 ZULU (time zone indicator for Universal Time or Greenwich

Mean Time)

53

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS

3.0 Grammar and Punctuation

3.1 Grammar

3.1.1 active voice. When the grammatical subject performs the action represented by the verb, the verb is in active voice.

The congregation sang “Abide with Me.”

Mr. Conrad gave his son a car.

The police caught the thieves. 

See also passive voice (3.1.15).

3.1.2 aircraft. Form plurals by adding an s (no apostrophe): F-15s, F-22s,

F-4Cs, B-52Hs.

3.1.3 court-martial (n., v.), courts-martial (n., plural)

3.1.4 dangling modifier. A verbal phrase at the beginning of a sentence

dangles when the word it should modify is not present:

Running along the street, my nose felt frozen.

Here, running along the street seems to modify nose. Correct this

problem by adding a word that the verbal phrase can logically modify:

Running along the street, I felt as if my nose were frozen.

3.1.5 data. Singular or plural. Choose one, and use it consistently. Be sure

that verbs and qualifiers agree with the number that you choose:

The data is now in, but we have not examined it.

The data are now in, but we have not examined them.

3.1.6 first, firstly. Use firstly, secondly, and so forth as sentence modifiers;

or first, second, and so forth. Do not mix the two: first, secondly.

3.1.7 first person. See I, we (3.1.11).

3.1.8 he, him, his. See sexist language (1.49).

3.1.9 important, importantly. You may use either word as a sentence

modifier. Choose one, and use it consistently.

More important, the truth will prevail.

Just as importantly, the truth will prevail.

55
3.1.10 it. Use it to refer to inanimate objects and some living things; you

may also use this pronoun in impersonal statements and idioms:

The couple bought a house but did not like it.

The newborn baby kept its eyes shut tightly.

It has been three hours since it began to rain.

We will have to play it by ear.

Using it rather than an appropriate personal pronoun or noun can

make writing stilted: use I believe, the Air Force believes, and so forth,

instead of it is believed.

3.1.11 I, we. You may use I or we occasionally in the text rather than the

formal “the author(s).”

3.1.12 logistics (n.). Logistics may take either a singular or plural verb.

Choose one, and use it consistently.

3.1.13 media. Media is the plural of medium. Use it with a plural verb.

Although media is used in the singular in references to agencies of

mass communications (plural medias), that usage is not well established. See also data (3.1.5).

3.1.14 none. None can be either singular or plural. Choose one, and use it

consistently.

None of those accused was really responsible.

None of those accused were really responsible.

3.1.15 passive voice. Passive voice is a verbal construction consisting of a

past participle and some form of the verb be; all other forms are active.

When the subject of a verb receives the action, the verb is in the

passive voice:

“Abide with Me” was sung by the congregation.

Jimmy was given a car by his father.

The pit was dug fully eight feet deep.

They had been caught.

Characteristics of passive voice:

1. The receiver of the verb’s action comes before the verb.

2. The verb has two parts: some form of the verb be plus the past participle of a main verb (most of them end in -en or -ed).

56

3.1 GRAMMAR
3. If the doer appears at all, it follows the verb and is usually the object

of the preposition by.

Use passive voice sparingly; otherwise, your writing can become

wordy and lack forcefulness. But passive voice has several important

uses. In the writer’s mind, the object may have more importance

than the doer:

The bill was passed without opposition.

The well was drilled in solid rock.

Our house was painted last year.

Use passive voice if you do not want to name the person or thing

performing the action. For example:

President Reagan was elected in 1980.

The parts were shipped on 1 June.

Passive voice allows various degrees of emphasis by placing the

name of the act or the doer at the end:

Our house is being painted. (Active: They are painting our house.)

Our house was painted by Joe Mead and his brother. (Active: Joe Mead

and his brother painted our house.) 

“Abide with Me” was sung by the choir. (Active: The choir sang “Abide

with Me.”)

Since passive voice does not always show the doer, you may forget to include important information. The result may be confusing. 

Requests must be approved beforehand. (By whom?)

The commander must approve requests beforehand.

The figures were lost. (By whom?)

We lost the figures.

3.1.16 that, which. Clauses introduced by the relative pronouns that and

which are of two kinds: restrictive and nonrestrictive.

A clause is restrictive or defining when the information it provides about something in the main clause is essential to the meaning of the statement. It is generally preceded by the relative pronoun

that; which can also introduce a restrictive clause:

I am looking for the book that (which) I lost yesterday. 

57

3.1 GRAMMAR
A nonrestrictive clause is descriptive, can be set off from the rest

of the sentence by commas, must be self-contained, and is introduced only by which:

My house, which is old and large, is located on Elm Street.

In some circumstances that can be omitted from restrictive clauses:

When it is the object of a verb: the songs (that) we used to sing.

When it is the object of a preposition: the house (that) we made the delivery to.

When it is the complement of some form of the verb be: Rascal is not the

horse (that) his father was.

When it is technically the subject of the verb be but standing in the complement position: We gave him all (that) there was.

Some writers take this option to the extreme by omitting that

altogether. Oftentimes, however, that must be retained for clarity.

For example, when a time element follows the verb, the conjunction

that is always needed to make clear whether the time element

applies to the material preceding or following:

Governor Riley announced today that he would sign the income tax bill.

Here, if that is omitted, the sentence could mean either that the

governor made the announcement today or that he would sign the

bill today.

When a sentence with two parallel clauses requires the expression and that in the second part, you must retain that in the first part

of the sentence for parallel construction:

The senator said that she would run next year and that James Corley

would be her campaign manager.

After verbs like said or announced, you may omit that for conciseness: He said (that) he was tired. But if the subject of the clause

following the verb can be mistaken for that verb’s direct object, that

must be retained:

He said that a good many things about the project bothered him.

See also which (3.1.22).

3.1.17 that, which, who, what. Use that to refer to persons, animals, or

things; which to refer to animals or things; who, whom, and whose

to refer to persons (but an argument whose point was convincing);

and what to refer to nonliving things.

58

3.1 GRAMMAR
3.1.18 there is, there are. When there is the anticipatory subject, the verb

should agree in number with the “real” subject, which follows it:

“There is a lesson to be learned here, and there are many more lessons to be learned.” However, like repeated use of it is . . . , repeated

use of there is . . . and there are . . . deprives the sentence of strong

subject-verb combinations. See also it (3.1.10).

3.1.19 this. Although criticized by some writers, using this to refer to the

idea conveyed in a preceding sentence is acceptable if the reference

is neither confusing nor ambiguous:

John lost his job. This made his creditors uneasy. 

However, do not use this when it refers only to some part of an

idea or to an antecedent not actually expressed:

Because of inherited venereal disease, their population remains static. This

worries the elders of the tribe. (Venereal disease? Static population? Both?)

The poet is widely admired, but it is difficult to make a living at this.

(Writing poetry, but not expressed in sentence.)

Do not use demonstrative this in place of personal pronouns:

We were much impressed by the tour director. This person (not this) is

capable and well informed.

3.1.20 Vietnamese (n., sing. and pl.; adj.)

3.1.21 whether. When this term introduces either a complete or elliptical

adverbial clause, use or not after whether: Whether or not the car was

in good condition, he was determined to buy it. In noun clauses, you

may use the words or not with whether for emphasis, but they are not

necessary: Whether Tom goes to Birmingham today depends on the

weather. When the alternatives are fully expressed, the use of or not

with whether is redundant: Whether he lived inside or outside the city

limits was irrelevant. You should repeat whether after or when the

alternatives are long and complex (Whether . . . or whether . . .).

3.1.22 which. Which can introduce both nonrestrictive and restrictive

clauses:

I read The Once and Future King, which is a retelling of Arthurian legend.

They proposed an operational testing and evaluation method that was

based on an approach which evolved from their experiences during the

testing of the weapon system.

59

3.1 GRAMMAR
Which sometimes unambiguously refers to an entire preceding

statement rather than to a single word:

She ignored him, which proved unwise. 

Sometimes, however, the antecedent of which may be in doubt:

Some people worry about overeating, which can be unhealthy.

(Worrying? Overeating?)

Sometimes it is better to rewrite the sentence:

Worrying about overeating can be unhealthy.

See also that, which (3.1.16).

60

3.1 GRAMMAR
3.2 Punctuation

3.2.1 apostrophe. Form the possessive of singular nouns by adding an

apostrophe and an s, and the possessive of plural nouns (except for

irregular plurals) by adding an apostrophe only: the student’s book,

the oxen’s tails, the libraries’ directors. However, if the addition of ’s

to a singular noun causes difficulty in pronunciation, add the apostrophe only: for righteousness’ sake. When the singular form of a

noun ends in “s” and the plural form is the same as the singular, form

the possessive of both the singular and plural forms by adding an

apostrophe only: politics’ true meaning, economics’ forerunners.

The same principle applies when the name of a place or organization is a plural ending in “s” even though the entity is singular: the

United States’role in international law, Calloway Gardens’ former

curator (Chicago, 7.19).

Show joint possession by using the possessive form for the second

noun only: Bill and Judy’s home. Show individual possession by using

the possessive form for both nouns: our dog’s and cat’s toys. Form

expressions of duration in the same way you do possessives: an

hour’s delay, three weeks’ worth, six months’ leave of absence.

You can apply the general rule to most proper nouns, including

most names ending in sibilants: Burns’s poems, Marx’s theories,

Jefferson Davis’s home (but Aristophanes’ play), the Rosses’ and the

Williamses’ lands.

To avoid an awkward appearance, use an apostrophe without an s

for the possessive of singular words and names ending in an unpronounced s (Chicago, 7.21): the Marine Corps’ motto.

To show possession for compound nouns, add an apostrophe and an

s to the final word: secretary-treasurer’s, mother-in-law’s, mothers-inlaw’s.

To show possession for indefinite pronouns, add an apostrophe and

an s to the last component of the pronoun: someone’s car, somebody

else’s books.

Do not use apostrophes in plurals of decades identified by century: 1960s, 1980s.

Do not use apostrophes to show plurals of letters and figures

unless such punctuation is necessary to avoid confusion: Bs and Cs;

1s, 2s, and 3s; B-52s and F-15s; but A’s, a’s, i’s, and u’s.

3.2.2 brackets. Use brackets to enclose editorial interpolations within

quoted material (to clarify references and make corrections) or in

place of parentheses within parentheses.

61
“In April [actually July] 1943, Jones published his first novel.”

Gen Charles Horner controlled coalition air assets during the Gulf War

(specifically, he was the joint force air and space component commander

[JFACC]).

See also sic (1.50).

3.2.3 bullets. See display dots (4.5).

3.2.4 colon. In a sentence, the presence of a colon indicates a break of the

same degree as one indicated by a semicolon. It also signals some

sort of relationship between the separated elements. The second element may illustrate or amplify the first:

Music is more than a collection of notes: it conveys deep feelings and

emotions.

Use a colon to introduce a list or a series. If you use namely, for

example, or that is to introduce the list or series, do not use a colon

unless the list or series consists of one or more complete clauses:

The book covered three of the most important writers of the Romantic

Period: Byron, Shelley, and Keats.

The book covered three of the most important writers of the Romantic

Period, namely, Byron, Shelley, and Keats.

Use a colon after as follows or the following to enumerate several

items:

Test scores were as follows: two 95s, two 80s, and one 65.

The class made the following test scores: two 95s, two 80s, and one 65.

When a colon is used within a sentence, lowercase the first word

that follows it unless (1) that word is a proper name, (2) the colon

introduces two or more sentences, or (3) the colon introduces speech

in a dialogue or extract:

Beneath the surface, however, is the less tangible question of values:

are the old truths true?

Ed had two must-see attractions on his itinerary: Northwest Florida

Alligator Emporium and Crazy Bill’s Pink Flamingo Ranch.

He had two reasons for not attending the awards ceremony: First, he

was shy. Second, he had nothing appropriate to wear.

The umpire heard the fan loud and clear: “You need glasses, you bum!”

62

3.2 PUNCTUATION
Note also that one space, not two, separates the colon from the

following text.

Do not use a colon before a series introduced by a verb or preposition:

NOT

My three immediate goals are: to survive midyear exams, to get to

Colorado, and to ski until my legs wear out. 

BUT 

My three immediate goals are to survive midyear exams. . . . 

NOT 

His friend accused him of: wiggling in his seat, talking during the lecture, and not remembering what was said.

BUT 

His friend accused him of wiggling in his seat. . . .

Place a colon outside quotation marks:

Will had one objection to the poem “Altarwise by Owl Light at the

Halfway House”: it was incomprehensible.

See also subtitle (1.54).

3.2.5 comma. Use a comma as follows:

• to set off nonrestrictive clauses—those you could omit without

changing the meaning of the main clause:

Ebeneezer Scrooge, who lived alone, refused to celebrate Christmas.

• after relatively long introductory phrases:

After reading the letter from the manufacturer, Mary decided to sue

the company.

• before and or or in a series of three or more elements:

Thomas Hobbes said life in the Middle Ages was solitary, poor,

nasty, brutish, and short.

• to set off addresses and place-names:

The harmless drudge lives at 108 Deerfield Drive, Troy, Alabama,

with a full complement of dogs and cats. 

They moved from Paris, Texas, to Rome, Georgia, in 1987.

(Note commas before and after the name of the state.)

• to separate the independent clauses of a compound sentence:

Dr. Lopez criticized the report, and he asked the committee to revise it.

63

3.2 PUNCTUATION
• to separate adjectives that modify the same noun (as a general rule

of thumb, if and can be substituted for the comma, then the

comma is appropriate):

Most people consider her a generous, outgoing person.

• to separate groups of three digits in numbers of 1,000 or more

(except page numbers):

2,100

465,230

5,722,465

• When a comma is needed at the end of material enclosed in quotation marks, parentheses, or brackets, place the comma inside the

quotation mark (whether single or double) but outside the closing

parenthesis or bracket:

Tom commented, “The remark ‘I mean what I say,’” used by a character in Alice in Wonderland, provoked a heated discussion.”

Although the speaker appeared nervous (he stammered quite a bit), he

managed to finish his speech.

When the great ship sailed in 1911 [actually 1912], nobody suspected

what lay ahead.

Do not use a comma in the following situations:

• to set off restrictive clauses—those you could not omit without

changing the meaning of the main clause:

The notion that all men are created equal was a radical one. 

• after a short introductory phrase:

By 1865 the Confederacy was clearly doomed. 

• to set off the year in military-date style:

They signed the order on 26 July 1947 in Washington. 

• to separate compound predicates in a simple sentence:

Patsy graduated in May and went to work in June. 

• to separate adjectives when the first modifies the combined idea

of the second plus the noun:

The estate is surrounded by an old stone wall.

The professor was a little old man.

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3.2 PUNCTUATION
Note that the converse of the rule of thumb for determining whether

to use a comma to separate adjectives (see above) applies here: since

and would not be appropriate either between old and stone or

between little and old, then no comma is needed.

• to set off Jr., Sr., or a Roman numeral from a name (although commas are no longer necessary with Jr. and Sr., you may use them if

you wish; if so, place one before and after the abbreviation

[choose one style, and use it consistently]; commas never set off

Roman numerals when used as part of a name except when the

name is inverted, as in an index):

Harry Connick Jr. plays piano and sings.

T. Coraghessan Boyle, Sr., is my neighbor.

Adlai E. Stevenson III

Stevenson, Adlai E., III. The Citizen and His Government.Austin, TX (or Tex.):

University of Texas Press, 1984.

See also ZIP code (1.76).

3.2.6 dash. The most common dashes are the em dash (sometimes typed

as two hyphens) and the en dash (sometimes typed as a hyphen).

Use an em dash or a pair of em dashes to indicate a sudden break

or abrupt change in thought:

My world and the real world—what a contrast!

He asked—no demanded—that the door be opened.

to set off interrupting or clarifying elements:

These are shore deposits—gravel, sand, and clay—but marine

deposits underlie them.

to introduce a final statement that summarizes a series of ideas:

Freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom from want, freedom

from fear—these are the fundamentals of moral world order.

to set off a word or phrase in the main clause that emphasizes or

explains:

George worked several days on the system—a system that was

designed to increase production in the department.

If text set off by a pair of dashes requires a question mark or an

exclamation point, place it before the second dash:

Mr. Incredible’s unctuous acquaintance Mr. Blowhard—did he realize how

tiresome he was?—excelled at making stupidity a virtue.

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3.2 PUNCTUATION
Do not use more than one pair of em dashes in a sentence.

The en dash is one-half the length of an em dash and is longer

than a hyphen. Use an en dash (signifying up to and including or

through) to connect continuing or inclusive numbers such as dates,

time, or reference numbers:

1957–63

February–March 1971

pages 12–15

The en dash is also used in place of a hyphen in a compound

adjective, one element of which is an open compound or a hyphenated

word:

New York–London flight

Air Force–wide changes

quasi-public–quasi-judicial body

Use an en dash (signifying to) to express scores from sporting

events, voting results, and travel expressions even though they don’t

reflect a range of values:

The Biscuits beat the Lugnuts 12–10 last night.

The delegates to the convention approved the proposal 150–97.

The London–Paris train leaves at two o’clock.

You may also use an en dash to identify a particular university

campus:

The University of Alabama–Huntsville

3.2.7 ellipses. Indicate the omission of a word, phrase, line, or paragraph

from a quoted passage with ellipsis points, which come in threes;

are set on the line like periods; and are separated from each other,

from the text, and from any contiguous punctuation by one space.

Use three ellipsis points to indicate an omission in the middle of a

quoted sentence: “The nuclear-armed GALOSH ABM interceptor . . .

has an inherent ASAT capability against low-altitude satellites.”

Indicate the omission of the last part of a sentence by a period and three

ellipsis points (assuming that more quoted material follows). Leave no

space between the period and the preceding word: “The Soviets also

have research programs under way on kinetic energy weapons. . . .

These programs have been highly successful.” Note that the first word

after ellipsis points is capitalized if it begins a grammatically complete

sentence, even if it was lowercased in the original (Chicago, 11.55); a

space precedes the capitalized word. (Four ellipsis points should be

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3.2 PUNCTUATION
preceded and followed by grammatically complete sentences.) If space

so dictates, you may leave the period at the end of a line and begin the

next line with three ellipsis points.) A comma, a colon, a semicolon, a

question mark, or an exclamation point may precede or follow three

(but never four) ellipsis points (Chicago, 11.58): “What is the major

strength of the Soviet space program? . . . This is the question we

intended to explore fully.” Remember that ellipsis points are seldom

used at the beginning or end of a quoted passage.

Indicate the omission of one or more paragraphs in a long block

quotation by three ellipsis points following the period at the end of the

paragraph preceding the omitted paragraph. If a paragraph in the block

quotation—other than the first paragraph—begins with a sentence that

does not open the paragraph in the original, it should be preceded by

three ellipsis points:

Such a tremendous increase in capability exceeds their future civil

and scientific requirements. The gap between what we perceive to be

Soviet launch requirements and launch capabilities is of great concern

to us. . . . 

. . . This system will expand the current US ICBM field coverage to

include US submarine-launched ballistic missiles.

When you replace part of a quoted passage with different wording, enclose the new term(s) with square brackets, but do not use

ellipsis points to show that the original wording has been omitted:

The nuclear-armed GALOSH ABM interceptor deployed around

Moscow has an inherent ASAT capability against low-altitude satellites.

The nuclear-armed GALOSH [missile] deployed around Moscow has

an inherent ASAT capability against low-altitude satellites.

However, if bracketed material is next to ellipsis points which show

that part of a quoted passage has been omitted (and not replaced

with different wording), retain the ellipsis points:

The nuclear-armed GALOSH [missile] . . . has an inherent ASAT

capability against low-altitude satellites.

In a run-in quotation, do not use ellipsis points before the first

word of the quotation, even if the beginning of the original sentence

has been omitted, or after the last word of the quotation, even if the

end of the original sentence has been omitted:

For example, we now know that the Soviets “are currently producing

about 50 SL-4/SL-6-type vehicles each year—a rate of nearly one a

week.”

See also brackets (3.2.2).

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3.2 PUNCTUATION
3.2.8 hyphenated compound words. Compounds are words joined by a

hyphen or hyphens, such as many-sided, ill-fated, and mother-in-law.

No all-inclusive rule exists for hyphenating compound words. If you

are not sure about a particular compound, look it up in the dictionary

or The Chicago Manual of Style’s (15th ed.) “Hyphenation Guide for

Compounds, Combining Forms, and Prefixes” (7.90), or refer to

“The Writing of Compounds” in Webster’s Third New International

Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged. The following are

a few general principles:

Use a hyphen to prevent ambiguity. For example, slow moving van

could mean a moving van that is slow (in which case, hyphenating

moving van would be acceptable) or a van that is moving slowly:

slow-moving van. Although adjective compounds traditionally are

hyphenated before the noun they modify and are written open after

the noun, you may omit the hyphen in all cases if there is no chance

of ambiguity or misreading: smoke filled room, red hot iron. This

principle holds true even if the compound is hyphenated in the dictionary. Do not hyphenate an adjective compound consisting of an

adverb ending in -ly plus a participle or an adjective (highly developed organism).

Hyphenate adjective compounds beginning with well, ill, better,

best, little, lesser, and least when they precede the noun, and leave

them open after the noun: well-dressed man (but the man is well

dressed); best-known work (but the work is best known); ill-advised

action (but the action is ill advised). Leave such compounds open

when they are modified by an adverb: very well dressed man. If you

use quotation marks to enclose an adjective compound that you

would normally hyphenate, you may omit the hyphen: “well

dressed” man. See also well- (4.2.270).

Measurement compounds are also hyphenated: six-inch-wide

board, three-mile limit, 24-gallon tank. If you abbreviate the unit of

measure, omit the hyphen: 24 gal. tank.

Compounds consisting of numerals and the word percent are left

open: 25 percent decrease.

Hyphenate when the second element of a compound is capitalized

or is a number: mid-Atlantic tempest, post-1980 developments.

Hyphenate when spelling the word solid creates a homonym, as in

re-mark (mark again) versus remark (say).

Hyphenate some compounds in which the last letter of the prefix

is the same as the first letter of the word following: anti-intellectual,

anti-inflammatory.

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3.2 PUNCTUATION
Use a “suspension” hyphen to carry the force of a modifier to a later

noun: second- or third-rate powers; second-, third-, and fourth-grade

students.

Some noun compounds are always hyphenated: relative words

with great and in-law, such as great-uncle, great-great-grandmother,

sister-in-law; noun plus noun, expressing two different but equally

important functions, such as secretary-treasurer; two-word compounds ending in elect, such as governor-elect (but probate judge

elect); some multiple-word compounds including a preposition and

describing someone or something, such as jack-of-all-trades (but

flash in the pan). Some permanent compounds beginning with vice

are hyphenated, such as vice-chancellor, but not vice admiral or vice

president or viceroy. See also vice- (4.2.249).

Do not hyphenate capitalized geographical terms used as adjectives: Southeast Asian country, Mobile Bay cruise. See also compound words (4.2.52); titles of works (4.1.148).

Hyphenate age terms in both adjective and noun forms: a fiveyear-old child, a five-year-old.

See also word division (1.71).

3.2.9 omissions. See ellipses (3.2.7).

3.2.10 parentheses. Use parentheses when material inserted in a sentence

is so loosely connected with the main thought of the sentence that

commas would not be adequate. Such insertions may be explanatory, amplifying, or digressive:

Another illustration reflects a much more recent instance of a doctrinal notion (table 4).

This manual (issued to all students) covers the fundamental problems.

The funeral for her brother (she misses him terribly) was a sad affair.

If a comma is necessary, place it after the second parenthesis, not

before the first. If the parenthetical element within a sentence is

itself a sentence, omit the period but retain a question mark or exclamation point:

As the machine gunner opened fire (it was a .50-caliber gun), all

movement ceased.

As the machine gunner opened fire (was it a .50-caliber gun?), all

movement ceased.

If parentheses enclose a freestanding sentence, place the period

inside the second parenthesis:

69

3.2 PUNCTUATION
Albert convinced me to go back to college. (I always found his logic

irresistible.)

Use parentheses to enclose enumerating letters or numerals

(without periods) within a sentence:

He wanted to (1) consolidate the position, (2) establish contact with

guerrillas, and (3) regain control over the inhabitants.

3.2.11 period. Place a period at the end of a declarative or imperative sentence. If you use a quotation at the end of a sentence, place the

period within the closing quotation mark (double or single). If you

use a quotation before the end of a sentence, omit the period or

replace it with a comma. To separate sentences, use only one space

after a closing quotation mark, as well as after a period or other terminal punctuation (e.g., question mark, exclamation point) (see also

colon [3.2.4]). When using parentheses or brackets to enclose a freestanding sentence, place the period inside the final parenthesis or

bracket. If the enclosed matter is part of a sentence, place the period

outside the final parenthesis or bracket:

The commander said, “You’re only half right.”

“One should always say, ‘I mean what I say.’ ”

“I’m sure I say what I mean,” said Alice. The Cheshire Cat, however,

didn’t believe her.

The decision to keep the sentence or drop it is a judgment call. (Writing

is hard work precisely because it requires so many judgment calls.)

The driver glanced in his rearview mirror at the passenger (certainly

an eccentric fellow).

See also Dr. (doctor) (2.126); Jr. (2.224); lists (1.37); Messrs.,

Mmes. (2.252); Mr., Mrs., Mme, Ms. (2.269); no. (2.288); parentheses (3.2.10); quotation marks (3.2.14); Sr. (2.384); Truman,

Harry S. (1.58).

3.2.12 possessive. See apostrophe (3.2.1).

3.2.13 question mark. Put a question mark at the end of a direct question

that stands alone, as well as one that occurs within a sentence:

How can I miss you if you won’t go away?

How am I going to pass this test? was the question I kept asking myself.

As Mary asked herself, Why am I doing this for him? she glared balefully at John.

Do not put a question mark at the end of an indirect question:

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3.2 PUNCTUATION
I asked him what he was doing.

How he had managed to fool me was the question no one could answer.

Put a question mark inside quotation marks, parentheses, or

brackets only when it is part of the quoted or parenthetical matter:

The colonel asked, “Did you receive our inspection report?”

Did you say, “The base commander wants the report immediately”? 

Which of the concepts do you believe to be generally shared (at least

by your contemporaries)?

3.2.14 quotation marks. Enclose quoted words, phrases, and sentences in

double quotation marks. Use single quotation marks to enclose quotations within quotations. Quotations within block quotations

require double quotation marks.

Enclose a nickname in quotation marks when it accompanies the

full name:

George Herman “Babe” Ruth 

Omit the quotation marks when a nickname is used as part of or

in place of a personal name:

Stonewall Jackson

the Iron Duke

Enclose a conference title in quotation marks:

“American Writers in the 1930s,” a symposium held at the University

of Alabama, 15–16 September 1975

but

the 1994 State Conference on Writing across the Curriculum

Use quotation marks to enclose words used in an ironic sense,

references to spoken language, and slang terms. Subsequent occurrences of these terms need not include the quotation marks. See also

italics (4.4). 

The “consultation” could be heard three blocks away.

In Elizabethan dialogue, a change from “you” to “thou” often implies

studied insult.

Jacob’s grandfather called his Adam’s apple his “go fetch it.”

Place a comma or a final period within quotation marks, single or

double. Put other punctuation marks within quotation marks only if

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3.2 PUNCTUATION
they are part of the quotation. See also period (3.2.11); question

mark (3.2.13). 

He said, “I will go.”

He asked, “Shall we evacuate the area?”

“I am sure he used the word ‘moron.’ ”

If you place quotation marks around an adjective compound that

you would normally hyphenate, you may omit the hyphen: “well

dressed” man.

Place a colon outside quotation marks or parentheses:

There is one problem with Walt Whitman’s “O Captain, My

Captain”: it is doggerel.

You may use quotation marks to refer to a word as a word (see

also italics [4.4]):

The word “boy” has a pejorative sense in some contexts.

Do not enclose words such as yes, no, where, how, and why in

quotation marks when they are used singly, except in direct discourse:

Ezra always answered yes; he could never say no to a friend.

“Yes,” he replied weakly.

Enclose in quotation marks the titles of articles in journals and

newspapers; chapter titles; the titles of draft versions of books and

other unpublished works; and the titles of short stories, short poems,

dissertations, theses, and essays. See also italics (4.4); mottoes

(1.38); words as words (4.4.23).

3.2.15 semicolon. Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses not

connected by a coordinating conjunction:

John stayed home for the holidays; he had nowhere else to go.

Use a semicolon (not a comma) before words such as however,

therefore, hence, consequently, moreover, nevertheless, and so forth,

when they connect two independent clauses. (Use a comma after these

words.) 

All such missions should remain secondary to the primary mission;

however, all commanders of flying Air Force units must prepare to fly

such missions with minimum notice.

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3.2 PUNCTUATION
You may want to use a semicolon with a coordinating conjunction in a compound sentence whose independent clauses are long

and contain internal punctuation:

Ishmael, the narrator, goes to sea, he says, “Whenever it is a damp, drizzly November” in his soul; and Ahab, the captain of the ship, goes to sea

because of his obsession to hunt and kill the great albino whale, Moby

Dick.

When items in a series are lengthy or contain internal punctuation, separate them by semicolons:

Mark prepared for the exam by reading the material, which caused him

great difficulty; by studying with Tom, who knew less than he did; and

by praying, which he did frequently.

We will need the following supplies: pencils, three boxes; pens, five

boxes; paper, four reams; typewriter ribbons, 15; and staples, two boxes.

Place a semicolon outside quotation marks or parentheses:

Dan’s favorite poem is “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening”; he

reads it whenever he feels troubled.

Sam gave his wife a toaster oven for her birthday (he was a very practical fellow); needless to say, she was overwhelmed.

3.2.16 series of items. The number of commas separating items in a series

should be one fewer than the number of items in the series. Hence,

three items in a series should be separated by two commas: planes,

boats, and trains. See also comma (3.2.5).

3.2.17 slash. The slash (/)—also known as virgule, solidus, slant, or forward

slash, to distinguish it from a backward slash, or backslash (\)—has

various distinct uses. . . . A slash most commonly signifies alternatives. . . . Where one or more of the terms separated by slashes is an

open compound, a thin space before and after the slash is helpful:

he/she, and/or, Hercules/Heracles, World War I / World War II. . . .

A slash is used in certain contexts to mean and: an MD/Phd student,

a Jekyll/Hyde personality. . . . A slash is sometimes used in dates

instead of an en dash . . . or even in combination with an en dash, to

indicate the last part of one year and the first part of the next: the winter of 1966/67, fiscal years 1991/92–1998/99. . . . In a context where

the events of [11 September 2001] are being discussed, 9/11 is quite

acceptable. . . . A slash may stand as shorthand for per, as in . . .

“$450/week” . . . or in certain abbreviations, in lieu of a period, as

in “c/o” (in care of). . . . Single and double slashes are used in

URLs. No space should precede or follow them. In typeset URLs,

line breaks may occur after a slash but not between two slashes.

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3.2 PUNCTUATION
(Chicago, 6.111–16, 6.119). See also and/or (1.8), dates (1.21),

URL (2.425).

3.2.18 year (punctuation with). See dates (4.3.6).

3.2.19 zip code or ZIP (zone improvement plan) code (punctuation

with). See 1.76.

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3.2 PUNCTUATION
4.0 Mechanics

4.1 Capitalization

Use as few capital letters as possible, and avoid capitalizing anytime

you are in doubt. The following conventions will help you decide

whether capital letters are appropriate.

Proper nouns—those that name a particular person, place, or thing—

are capitalized. One test of a proper noun is that it does not take a limiting modifier; thus, “this [or] any [or] some 857th Combat Support

Group,” for example, is not appropriate (since there’s only one such

group). However, a common noun, which isn’t capitalized, can take a

limiting modifier, as in “this combat support group” (since it’s

generic). Because the following examples can take a limiting modifier,

they are common nouns and, therefore, are not capitalized:

base supply

civil engineer squadron

military personnel flight

accounting and finance office

Capitalize civil, military, religious, and professional titles and titles

of nobility when they immediately precede someone’s name:

President Bush General Regni

Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld Sergeant Mann

Queen Caroline Professor Elliott

Cardinal Richelieu Colonel Allen

Capitalize titles associated with more than one person:

Generals Grant and Lee 

Lowercase titles that follow someone’s name or that stand alone:

George W. Bush, president of the United States the president

Donald Rumsfeld, secretary of defense the secretary

Richard Shelby, senator from Alabama the senator

Gen John P. Jumper, Air Force chief of staff the chief of staff

Lt Gen John F. Regni, the commander

Air University commander

Lowercase titles used in apposition to a name—no commas (see

comma, “restrictive clauses” [3.2.5]):

Montgomery mayor Bobby Bright

Air Force general John W. Handy

75
Capitalize the names of buildings, monuments, and so forth:

the White House the Eiffel Tower

the Israeli Embassy the Tomb of the Unknowns

Capitalize the full and (oftentimes) the shortened names of national

governmental and military bodies:

US Congress Congress

Department of Defense Defense Department, the department

Department of State State Department, the department

US Air Force Air Force

US Army Army

US Marine Corps Marine Corps, Marines

US Navy Navy

Montgomery City Council the city council

Capitalize the full names of boards, committees, organizations, and

bureaus:

National Labor Relations Board

Committee on Foreign Affairs

Organization of American States

Bureau of the Census

Veterans Administration

Do not capitalize shortened forms of the full titles for departments,

directorates, centers, and similar organizations; the same principle applies

to the names of conferences:

Department of Labor the department

Directorate of Data Processing the directorate

Center for Strategic Studies the center

Special Plans Division the division

Air University Press the press

Design Branch the branch

Western Region Writing-Style Conference the conference

Capitalize the full titles of treaties, laws, acts, bills, amendments,

and similar documents, but lowercase their shortened forms:

Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty the treaty

Conventional Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty the treaty

Treaty of Verdun the treaty

National Labor Relations Act the labor act, the act

First Amendment (to the US Constitution) the amendment

Capitalize the full names of judicial bodies; lowercase shortened forms

and adjective derivatives:

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4.1 CAPITALIZATION
California Supreme Court, state supreme court

Circuit Court of Calhoun County, county court, circuit court

traffic court, juvenile court

Capitalize the names of national and international organizations,

movements, alliances, and members of political parties. The words

party and movement are capitalized when they are part of an organization’s name.

The African National Congress party

Bolshevik, Bolshevist, Bolshevik movement, Bolshevism,

bolshevist (generic), bolshevism (generic)

Communist Party, the party, Communist(s), Communist 

bloc, Communism, communist (generic), communism (generic)

Communist Party USA (CPUSA)

Common Market

Democratic Party, Democrat, democracy, democrat (general 

advocate of democracy)

Eastern bloc

Fascist Party, Fascist(s), fascist (generic), fascism (generic)

Federalist Party, Federalist(s), federalist (generic)

Holy Alliance, the alliance

Marxism-Leninism, Marxist-Leninist, marxism (generic), marxist 

(generic)

right wing, right-winger, leftist, the Right, the Left

Socialist Party, the party, socialism (generic), socialist (generic)

Capitalize the names of generally accepted historical or cultural

epochs:

Dark Ages

Jazz Age

Middle Ages

Reformation

Roaring Twenties

but

information age

Capitalize the full titles of armies, navies, air forces, fleets, regiments,

battalions, companies, corps, and so forth. Lowercase the words army,

navy, air force, and so forth when they are not part of an official title

(except when they refer to US forces). Similarly, capitalize the official

names of foreign military forces, but lowercase subsequent references

to those forces:

Allied armies

Al Quwwat al Jawwiya il Misriya, Egyptian air force, the air force

Army of Northern Virginia

77

4.1 CAPITALIZATION
Axis powers

Confederate army (American Civil War)

Continental army (American Revolution)

Eighth Air Force

Fifth Army, the Fifth, the army

1st Battalion, 178th Infantry; the battalion, the 178th

3d [or 3rd] Infantry Division, the division, the infantry

1st Armored Division, the division

III Corps Artillery

French foreign legion

Fuerza Aérea Argentina, Argentinean air force, the air force

Heyl Ha’avir, Israeli air force, the air force

Luftwaffe, the German air force

Nihon Koku Jieitai, Japan air self-defense force, the air selfdefense force

the 187th Fighter Group (Air National Guard), the group

People’s Liberation Army, Red China’s army, the army

Red Army (Russian, World War II), Russian army

Royal Air Force, British air force, the air force

Royal Navy, British navy, the navy

Royal Scots Fusiliers, the fusiliers

Seventh Fleet, the fleet 

Twenty-first Air Force

Union army (American Civil War)

United States Air Force, the Air Force

United States Army, the Army, the American Army, the armed 

Forces

United States Coast Guard, the Coast Guard

United States Marine Corps, the Marine Corps, the US Marines,

the Marines, the Corps, Fleet Marine Corps

United States Navy, the Navy

United States Signal Corps, the Signal Corps

Capitalize the full titles of wars but lowercase the words war and battle when used alone:

American Civil War, the Civil War, the war

American Revolution, the Revolution, the Revolutionary War

Battle of Britain

Battle of the Bulge, the bulge

battle of Bunker Hill, Bunker Hill, the battle

the Blitz

European theater of operations

Falklands War

Gulf War

Korean conflict

Korean War

Operation Overlord

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4.1 CAPITALIZATION
Seven Years’ War

Spanish civil war

Tet offensive

Vicksburg campaign

Vietnam War

western front (World War I)

World War I (or 1), the First World War, the war, the two world 

wars

World War II (or 2), the Second World War

Capitalize the names of medals and awards:

Distinguished Flying Cross

Medal of Honor, congressional medal

Purple Heart

Victoria Cross

Croix de Guerre (sometimes lowercased)

Capitalize but don’t italicize the designations of make, names of

planes, and names of space programs:

Boeing 747 Project Apollo

Concorde Trident Missile

Nike U-boat

Do not capitalize or italicize generic types of vessels, aircraft, and

so forth:

aircraft carrier

space shuttle

submarine

Capitalize the titles of official documents, instructions, directives,

letters, standard forms, and shortened forms of titles, but don’t capitalize

common nouns that refer to them:

AFMAN 13-220, Deployment of Airfield Operations the manual

AFPAM 11-216, Air Navigation the pamphlet

AFPD 10-1, Mission Directives the policy directive

AFI 63-101, Acquisition System the instruction

Capitalize such words as empire, state, county, and so forth, that designate political divisions of the world, when they are part of a proper

name. Lowercase these terms when they are not part of a proper name

or when they stand alone:

Montgomery County, the county

11th Congressional District, the congressional district, the

district

79

4.1 CAPITALIZATION
Fifth Ward, the ward

Indiana Territory, the territory of Indiana, the territory

New England states

New York City, the city of New York, the city

Roman Empire, the empire

Washington State, the state of Washington

the British colonies

Capitalize all principal words in titles and subheadings. See also

titles of works (4.1.148).

Capitalize proper names that designate parts of the world or specific

regions:

Central America North American continent

central Europe, but Central Europe North Pole

(political division of World War I) the South, southerner, Southerner

the Continent (Europe), the (Civil War context)

European continent Southern Hemisphere

the East, easterner, eastern South Pacific, southern Pacific

seaboard the Southwest (US)

eastern Europe, but Eastern tropic of Cancer

Europe (political division) West Coast

Far East western Europe, but Western

Far West Europe (political division)

the Gulf, Persian Gulf region Western world

the North, northerner, Northerner Southeast Asia

(Civil War context)

North Africa, northern Africa

Lowercase the names of the four seasons unless they are personified; however, capitalize them as part of the date of publication in note

references:

spring, summer, fall, winter

In April, Spring sends her showers to pierce the drought of March.

2. Dr. James H. Toner, “Military OR Ethics,” Air and Space Power

Journal 17, no. 2 (Summer 2003): 80.

Capitalize the names of specific academic courses:

DS 613-Strategic Force Employment

CL 6362-Air Staff Familiarization

Capitalize registered trademark names (see also trademarks [1.57]):

Coca-Cola (but cola drink) Levi’s

Kleenex (but tissue) Ping-Pong (but table tennis)

Band-Aid Xerox (but xerox [v.])

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4.1 CAPITALIZATION
Capitalize signs, notices, and mottoes in text (see also mottoes

[4.1.106]):

The company had a No Entrance sign at the gate. 

The cry of the French Revolution was Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity.

4.1.1 academic courses. Capitalize the names of specific academic courses:

DS 613-Strategic Force Employment

CL 6362-Air Staff Familiarization

4.1.2 active Air Force

4.1.3 active duty (n., adj.)

4.1.4 acts, amendments, bills, and laws. Capitalize the full title (formal or

popular) of an act or a law, but lowercase all shortened forms: Atomic

Energy Act, the act; Sherman Antitrust Law, the antitrust law, the law;

Article 6, the article.

A legislative measure is a bill until it is enacted; it then becomes

an act or a law. Lowercase the names of bills and proposed constitutional amendments: equal rights amendment (not ratified), food

stamp bill.

Capitalize the formal title of an enacted and ratified amendment

to the United States Constitution (including the number): the Fifth

Amendment, the 18th Amendment. But lowercase informal titles of

amendments: the income tax amendment.

4.1.5 AD (anno Domini). Write the abbreviation using either small caps

with or without periods or full caps without periods (choose one

style, and use it consistently); the abbreviation precedes the year:

AD 107. See also BC (before Christ) (2.65, 4.1.26).

4.1.6 administration. Capitalize administration as part of the proper name

of an agency: General Services Administration. Lowercase the term

as part of the name of a political organization: Nixon administration.

4.1.7 agency. Capitalize agency in proper names, but lowercase the

shortened form: Federal Security Agency, the agency.

4.1.8 air base. Capitalize air base when it is part of a proper noun: Kadena

Air Base, Japan. Lowercase the shortened form: the air base.

4.1.9 air force. Capitalize air force when you refer to the US service:

United States Air Force, Air Force. Use lowercase letters for an air

81

4.1 CAPITALIZATION
force in general. Capitalize the term when it is part of the official

name of a foreign air force: Royal Air Force. Use lowercase letters for

subsequent references: British air force. See also capitalization (4.1).

4.1.10 Air Force base. Capitalize base when the full term is part of a

proper noun: Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama. Otherwise, lowercase base: the Air Force base.

4.1.11 Air Force One (the president’s aircraft)

4.1.12 AirLand Battle

4.1.13 Airman, Airmen (in references to US Air Force personnel)

4.1.14 Air Staff

4.1.15 allied, allies. Capitalize allied or allies in the context of World War

I and World War II.

4.1.16 a.m. (ante meridiem [before noon]). Either write the abbreviation

in lowercase with periods or set it in small caps without periods

(choose one style, and use it consistently). See also p.m. (post meridiem [after noon]) (4.1.118).

4.1.17 amendments. See acts, amendments, bills, and laws (4.1.4).

4.1.18 appendix. Capitalize appendix as a document title: Appendix A,

Appendix B, Appendix C. Lowercase the term in textual references

(see appendix A). If you wish to include a document such as an Air

Force instruction as an appendix to your study, reproduce that document verbatim.

4.1.19 armed forces

4.1.20 army. Capitalize army when you refer to the US service: United

States Army, Army. Lowercase the term when you refer to an army

in general. Capitalize army when it is part of the official name of a

foreign army: Red Army. Use lowercase letters for subsequent references: Russian army. See also capitalization (4.1).

4.1.21 article (part of a document). See acts, amendments, bills, and laws

(4.1.4).

82

4.1 CAPITALIZATION
4.1.22 associate’s degree. Capitalize the name of the degree (Associate of

Arts, Associate of Science) when it follows someone’s name (John

Smith, Associate of Arts). Lowercase the term when referring to the

degree in general terms (John Smith has an associate of arts degree).

See also academic degrees and titles (2.6); bachelor’s degree (4.1.23);

doctorate (4.1.55); master’s degree (4.1.97).

4.1.23 bachelor’s degree. Capitalize the name of the degree (Bachelor of

Arts, Bachelor of Science) when it follows someone’s name (John

Smith, Bachelor of Arts). Lowercase the term when referring to the

degree in general terms (John Smith has a bachelor of arts degree).

See also academic degrees and titles (2.6); associate’s degree

(4.1.22); doctorate (4.1.55); master’s degree (4.1.97).

4.1.24 battalion. Capitalize battalion in proper names: 3d [or 3rd] Battalion,

10th Battalion.

4.1.25 battle. Capitalize battle in proper names (you may lowercase the term

to indicate the location where the battle took place): Battle of the

Bulge, battle of Bunker Hill.

4.1.25.1 Battlefield Airman/Airmen

4.1.26 BC (before Christ). Write the abbreviation using either small caps

with or without periods or full caps without periods (choose one

style, and use it consistently); the abbreviation follows the year: 240

BC. See also AD (anno Domini) (2.9, 4.1.5).

4.1.27 Berlin airlift

4.1.28 Berlin Wall

4.1.29 bills (congressional). See acts, amendments, bills, and laws (4.1.4).

4.1.30 black (people) (n., adj.). You may either capitalize or lowercase this

term; choose one style, and use it consistently. See also white (people)

(4.1.158).

4.1.31 board. Capitalize board when it is part of a proper name: National

Labor Relations Board. Lowercase it in generic references: the board.

4.1.32 Bosnian crisis

4.1.33 building names. Capitalize the names of governmental buildings,

churches, office buildings, hotels, and specially designated rooms:

83

4.1 CAPITALIZATION
the Capitol (state or national), Criminal Courts Building, First

Presbyterian Church, Empire State Building, Oak Room.

4.1.34 bureau. Capitalize bureau when it is part of a proper name but not in

reference to a newspaper’s news bureau: Bureau of Indian Affairs,

Newspaper Advertising Bureau, Washington bureau of the New York

Times.

4.1.35 chief of staff. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.36 civil service

4.1.37 coalition forces

4.1.38 cold war or Cold War. Lowercase cold war in references to an ideological conflict in general; uppercase the term in references to the ideological conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union.

4.1.39 committee. See congressional committees and subcommittees

(4.1.46).

4.1.40 communism. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.41 communist. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.42 Communist bloc. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.43 Communist Party. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.44 Congress. Capitalize this term when referring to the US Congress.

4.1.45 congressional. Lowercase congressional except when it is part of a

particular title or office: Congressional Record, Congressional Budget

Office, congressional district.

4.1.46 congressional committees and subcommittees. Capitalize committee

or subcommittee when either is part of a full title: Committee on

Foreign Affairs, the committee; Subcommittee on Energy and the

Environment, the subcommittee.

4.1.47 congressman, congresswoman. Lowercase congressman and congresswoman except when they precede a person’s name. Capitalize

senator and representative when they precede a person’s name:

84

4.1 CAPITALIZATION
Congresswoman Lowey, the congresswoman from New York; Senator

Shelby, the senator from Alabama. See also abbreviations (2.0).

4.1.48 constitutional amendments. Capitalize the full titles of amendments

to the US Constitution: Fifth Amendment, 18th Amendment, the

amendment. See also acts, amendments, bills, and laws (4.1.4).

4.1.49 courses, academic. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.50 Cuban missile crisis

4.1.51 Democratic Party, Democrat(s) (member[s] of the party), democracy. See also capitalization (4.1).

4.1.52 department. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.53 directions (north, south, east, west, north-northwest [NNW],

north-northeast [NNE], south-southwest [SSW], south-southeast

[SSE]). See also capitalization (4.1).

4.1.54 director, directorate. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.55 doctorate. Capitalize the name of the degree (Doctor of Philosophy,

Doctor of Education) when it follows someone’s name (John Smith,

Doctor of Philosophy). Lowercase the term when referring to the

degree in general terms (John Smith has a doctorate). See also academic degrees and titles (2.6); associate’s degree (4.1.22); bachelor’s degree (4.1.23); master’s degree (4.1.97).

4.1.56 earth. In nontechnical writing, do not capitalize “earth” (in the sense

of our planet) when preceded by “the” or in such idioms as “down to

earth.” When the term is used as the proper name of our planet, especially in context with other planets, capitalize it, usually omitting

“the” (Chicago, 8.149).

Some still believe the earth is flat.

Where on earth have you been?

The astronauts have successfully returned to Earth.

The words “sun” and “moon” are usually lowercased in nontechnical text and always lowercased in the plural (Chicago, 8.150).

The moon circles the earth as the earth circles the sun.

Jupiter has several moons.

85

4.1 CAPITALIZATION
4.1.57 Earth station

4.1.58 e-mail (n., sing. and pl.).

4.1.59 e-mail (v.)

4.1.60 e-mailer (n.)

4.1.61 empire. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.62 exercises. Capitalize only the initial letter(s) of the name of the

exercise unless the name is an acronym: Desert Strike, REFORGER

(return of forces to Germany). See also operations, names of

(4.1.112).

4.1.63 federal, federal government

4.1.64 floor leader. Lowercase floor leader, whether preceding or following

the name:

He consulted floor leader Hugh L. Brown, a Republican.

Rep. Hugh L. Brown, the Republican floor leader, was available for

questions.

4.1.65 foreign military services. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.66 fort. Spell out and capitalize fort when it is part of a proper name:

Fort Hood.

4.1.67 free world or Free World

4.1.68 führer or fuehrer

4.1.69 general (military rank). See abbreviations (2.0); capitalization (4.1);

military titles and offices (2.258).

4.1.70 Geneva convention(s)

4.1.71 g-force

4.1.72 global war on terrorism (GWOT)

4.1.73 government, federal government, US government

86

4.1 CAPITALIZATION
4.1.74 group. Capitalize group when it is part of a proper name: 42d [or

42nd] Medical Group, the group.

4.1.75 G suit

4.1.76 Gulf War. See also capitalization (4.1); Persian Gulf War (4.1.116).

4.1.77 headquarters. Spell out and capitalize headquarters when referring

to Air Force headquarters and headquarters of major commands:

Headquarters USAF, Headquarters ACC, but the headquarters.

4.1.78 highway. Capitalize highway in proper names, but lowercase the

shortened form: Alcan Highway, the highway. Use Arabic numerals

to designate state, federal, and interstate highways: Interstate 85,

Alabama 41.

4.1.79 Ho Chi Minh Trail

4.1.80 house. Capitalize house when referring to the House of Representatives, in full or shortened form: the House. Lowercase in other contexts: the lower house of Congress.

4.1.81 information age

4.1.82 international date line

4.1.83 Internet (the global network of computers)

4.1.84 iron curtain. The term iron curtain is often capitalized when it refers

to the political, military, and ideological barrier that isolated an area

under control of the former Soviet Union.

4.1.85 jeep. Lowercase jeep when referring to a military vehicle. Capitalize

when referring to the trademark of the civilian vehicle.

4.1.86 joint doctrine

4.1.87 Joint Staff. The staff under the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

4.1.88 journals. Capitalize all main words of the title of a journal, and italicize both the full title and its abbreviation: Air and Space Power

Journal, ASPJ. See also italics (4.4); titles of works (4.1.148).

4.1.89 judicial branch. See capitalization (4.1).

87

4.1 CAPITALIZATION
4.1.90 Korean conflict

4.1.91 Korean War

4.1.92 laws. See acts, amendments, bills, and laws (4.1.4).

4.1.93 legislative bodies, legislative branch. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.94 localities and regions. Capitalize the popular names of specific

localities and regions: East Side, Sun Belt, Twin Cities. See also

capitalization (4.1).

4.1.95 Marine Corps, Marine(s), marine. Capitalize Marine(s) as a

synonym for the US Marine Corps: Jim enlisted in the Marines; a

Marine landing; but three marines, a company of marines.

Shortened title: Marine Corps, the Corps. As a guide to capitalization, apply the following test: If the word soldier or soldiers would

fit logically in place of marine or marines, use m. If Army, Navy,

or Air Force can be substituted logically for Marines, use M.

4.1.96 Marshall Plan, the plan

4.1.97 master’s degree. Capitalize the name of the degree (Master of Arts,

Master of Science) when it follows someone’s name (John Smith,

Master of Arts). Lowercase the term when referring to the degree

in general terms (John Smith has a master of arts degree). See also

academic degrees and titles (2.6); MAAS (2.245.1); MMOAS

(2.261.1); MSS (2.270.1); associate’s degree (4.1.22); bachelor’s

degree (4.1.23); doctorate (4.1.55).

4.1.98 medals. Capitalize names of specific medals and awards:

Medal of Honor; congressional medal

Distinguished Flying Cross

Legion of Merit

See also capitalization (4.1).

4.1.99 Middle Ages

4.1.100 MiG(s). Capital M, lowercase i, capital G. Soviet aircraft developed

by the design bureau of Gen Artem Mikoyan and Gen Mikhail

Gurevich.

4.1.101 military establishment

4.1.102 military-industrial complex

88

4.1 CAPITALIZATION
4.1.103 military terms. Capitalize proper names of armies, navies, air

forces, fleets, regiments, battalions, companies, corps, and so forth.

Lowercase the words army, navy, air force, and so forth, standing

alone or when they are not part of a proper name (except when they

refer to US forces):

When questioned about a separate air force, the general saw it as a matter for the Army to decide.

See also capitalization (4.1).

4.1.104 military titles and offices. See 2.258.

4.1.105 moon. See earth (4.1.56).

4.1.106 mottoes. Enclose mottoes and similar expressions in quotation

marks, capitalize them as if they were titles, or capitalize the first

word only:

“A penny saved is a penny earned” was his favorite maxim.

The flag bore the motto Don’t Tread on Me.

He was fond of the motto All for one and one for all.

4.1.107 naval forces. Lowercase naval forces, but use Navy forces in the

context of the US Navy.

4.1.108 naval station. Capitalize naval station only in proper names:

Norfolk Naval Station, the naval station, the station. Use Navy station to refer to a US Navy installation.

4.1.109 Navy. Capitalize Navy when referring to the US service. For foreign naval forces, see capitalization (4.1).

4.1.110 nuclear triad

4.1.111 officials, government. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.112 operations, names of. Write the names of operations with initial

capital letters: Operation Haylift, Operation Torch, Operation

Crossroad, Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm, Operation

Iraqi Freedom.

4.1.113 organizations. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.114 panzer (German tank)

89

4.1 CAPITALIZATION
4.1.115 party (political). See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.116 Persian Gulf War. See also capitalization (4.1); Gulf War (4.1.76).

4.1.117 plans. Capitalize the names of military plans.

Air War Plans Division, Plan 1 (AWPD-1), Munitions Requirements of

the Army Air Forces

4.1.118 p.m. (post meridiem [after noon]). Either write the abbreviation in

lowercase with periods or set it in small caps without periods (choose

one style, and use it consistently). See also a.m. (ante meridiem

[before noon]) (4.1.16).

4.1.119 president. Capitalize president only when the term precedes a

person’s name; otherwise, lowercase it. Abbreviate the term when

it precedes a full name; spell it out when it precedes a surname

only (Pres. John F. Kennedy, President Kennedy, the president).

See also capitalization (4.1); abbreviations (2.0).

4.1.120 RAND Corporation or RAND

4.1.121 regiment. 2d [or 2nd] Armored Cavalry Regiment, the regiment.

See also capitalization (4.1); military units (4.3.17).

4.1.122 regions of the world. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.123 regular. Capitalize regular when it is part of the name of a component: Regular Air Force, Regular Army.

4.1.124 Republican Party, Republican(s) (member[s] of the party). See

also capitalization (4.1).

4.1.125 Reserve(s). Capitalize Reserve(s) if the term is part of the name of a

component: Air Force Reserve, Ready Reserve, Standby Reserve.

Capitalize it as a synonym for Air Force Reserve: the Reserve. But

write reserve component, the reserve officer, the reservist(s) (all

generic, service unspecified). As a guide to capitalization, apply the

following test: if Air Force Reserve can be logically substituted for

reserve, use R. The same rule applies to other military services.

4.1.126 seasons. Do not capitalize the four seasons unless they are personified: spring, summer, fall, winter. Capitalize them in publication dates in endnotes for journal references: (Fall 2003). See also

capitalization (4.1).

90

4.1 CAPITALIZATION
4.1.127 security classification. Capitalize only the initial letter of a term

indicating a specific security classification: Secret, Confidential.

4.1.128 Senate. Capitalize this term in references to the US Senate.

4.1.129 senator. Capitalize senator when it precedes someone’s name (do

not abbreviate it before a full name); lowercase the term when it

follows a personal name or is used alone in place of a name:

Senator Richard Shelby; Senator Shelby; Richard Shelby,

Republican senator from Alabama; the senator from Alabama. See

also abbreviations (2.0); capitalization (4.1).

4.1.130 service. Lowercase service in references to one of a nation’s military

forces (e.g., an army or navy).

4.1.131 show of force

4.1.132 Signal Corps, the corps

4.1.133 Smithsonian Institution

4.1.134 Socialist Party, Socialist (member of the party), socialism,

socialist (advocate of socialism). See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.135 South. Capitalize this term in references to a specific geographical

region. See also capitalization (4.1).

4.1.136 space programs. Capitalize but do not italicize the names of space

programs: Project Apollo.

4.1.137 space shuttle

4.1.138 Speaker of the House of Representatives, the Speaker of the

House, the Speaker. Capitalize Speaker to avoid ambiguity.

4.1.139 Spetsnaz

4.1.140 Sputnik. Capitalize this term; italicize when it is part of the name

of a specific satellite: Sputnik II.

4.1.141 squadron. Capitalize squadron in references to a numbered unit, but

lowercase it when used alone: 732d [or 732nd] Bomber Squadron,

the squadron.

91

4.1 CAPITALIZATION
4.1.142 standby (n., adj.). Capitalize standby in references to the Air Force

Reserve: Standby Reserve. See also Reserve(s) (4.1.125).

4.1.143 stealth bomber, stealth technology

4.1.144 sun. See earth (4.1.56).

4.1.145 Supreme Court (of the United States). Shortened form: the Court.

See also capitalization (4.1).

4.1.146 theater, theatre. Shortened form of theater of operations or theater

of war. Lowercase, as in European theater. Either spelling is standard; choose one, and use it consistently.

4.1.147 third world or Third World (n., adj.)

4.1.148 titles of works. Capitalize the first and last words and all nouns,

pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and subordinating conjunctions

in titles and subheadings. Lowercase articles (the, a, an), coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, for, nor, yet, so), and prepositions, unless they are the first or last words of the title or subtitle.

Lowercase the to in infinitives. 

The Problem with Our Airpower Doctrine 

Always capitalize the first element of a hyphenated compound

word in a title; capitalize the other elements unless they are articles, prepositions, or coordinating conjunctions:

Eighteenth-Century Fiction

Over-the-Hill Gang

Fly-by-Night Businesses

Do not capitalize the second element of a hyphenated prefix

unless it is a proper noun or proper adjective:

Anti-inflationary Guidelines

Non-Christian Religions

Do not capitalize the second element of a hyphenated, spelledout number:

Lolita’s Twenty-first Birthday

92

4.1 CAPITALIZATION
Capitalize the final element of a hyphenated compound at the

end of a title, unless it is a hyphenated prefix:

Avoiding a Run-In

Haven of Anti-intellectualism

See also italics (2.0).

4.1.149 treaties, pacts, and plans. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.150 Vietnam War

4.1.151 wars. Capitalize full titles of wars, but lowercase the shortened

form: Spanish-American War, the war; Korean War, the war;

Vietnam War, the war.

4.1.152 Warsaw Pact, Warsaw Pact nations

4.1.153 Web, Web site, Web-site (adj). See also WWW (World Wide

Web) (2.461).

4.1.154 West(ern). Capitalize terms that include West(ern) if they are considered proper names; lowercase such terms if they are not considered proper names or if they are merely directional: Western

world, the West, Midwest (US), Far West, but western, far western,

western Pacific Ocean. See also capitalization (4.1).

4.1.155 western front (World War I)

4.1.156 Western Hemisphere

4.1.157 white paper. Lowercase white paper unless it is part of a title:

The State Department summarized its findings in a white paper on

terrorism.

The State Department released its findings in a report, “A White Paper

on Terrorism.”

4.1.158 white (people). (n., adj.). You may either capitalize or lowercase

this term; choose one style, and use it consistently. See also black

(people) (4.1.30).

4.1.159 wing. Capitalize wing when it is part of a proper name: 42d [or

42nd] Air Base Wing, but the wing.

93

4.1 CAPITALIZATION
4.1.160 work order. Lowercase work order when it is used generically.

Capitalize the term when it is part of a title (e.g., Minor

Maintenance Work Order [AF Form 1827]).

4.1.161 Wright brothers

4.1.162 Xerox, xerox (v.). See also 1.74.

4.1.163 zip code or ZIP (zone improvement plan) code. See also 1.76.

94

4.1 CAPITALIZATION
4.2 Spelling and Word Formation

This style guide uses Webster’s Third New International

Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged and the 11th edition of Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary as authoritative

sources for the spelling of common words. These dictionaries often

identify variations in spelling that are considered standard usage

(e.g., toward or towards; adviser also advisor; flyer variant of flier).

Either spelling is acceptable. Select the one you prefer, and use it

consistently throughout a particular piece of writing. For the spelling

of place-names, refer to such authoritative sources as the Columbia

Gazetteer of North America, The Times Atlas of the World, MerriamWebster’s Geographical Dictionary, and the section “Geographical

Names” in Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 11th edition.

Note that the noun forms listed below can also be used attributively

(e.g., African-American population).

4.2.1 African-American (n.)

4.2.2 Afro-American (n.)

4.2.3 aiming point (n.)

4.2.4 air base (n.)

4.2.5 air chief marshal (n.)

4.2.6 aircrew (n.)

4.2.7 airdrop (n.)

4.2.8 air-drop (v.)

4.2.9 air-droppable (adj.)

4.2.10 airfield (n.)

4.2.11 airframe (n.)

4.2.12 airhead (n.)

4.2.13 airland (v.)

95
4.2.14 AirLand Battle

4.2.15 air lane (n.)

4.2.16 airlift (n., v.)

4.2.17 Airman (n.)

4.2.18 air marshal (n.)

4.2.19 air-minded (adj.)

4.2.20 air-mindedness (n.)

4.2.21 airmobile (adj.)

4.2.22 airpower (n.). But land power, sea power, space power.

4.2.23 airspace (n.)

4.2.24 airspeed (n.)

4.2.25 air strike (n.)

4.2.26 airstrip (n.)

4.2.27 air vice-marshal (n.)

4.2.28 airworthiness (n.)

4.2.29 airworthy (adj.)

4.2.30 al-Qaeda

4.2.31 anti-. Words formed with the prefix anti are usually solid: antiaircraft,

antisubmarine. Exceptions include capitalized words (anti-Semitic),

repeated vowels (anti-inflammatory), and misleading or difficult-toread forms (anti-utopia). See also compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.32 Ba’ath Party

4.2.33 battlefield (n.)

4.2.34 battlefront (n.)

96

4.2 SPELLING AND WORD FORMATION
4.2.35 battleground (n.)

4.2.36 battle line (n.)

4.2.37 battlespace (n.)

4.2.38 beddown (n.)

4.2.39 bed down (v.)

4.2.40 bin Laden, Osama

4.2.41 biplane (n.)

4.2.42 Brookings Institution

4.2.43 buildup (n.)

4.2.44 build up (v.)

4.2.45 by-product (n.)

4.2.46 call sign (n.)

4.2.47 cease-fire (n.)

4.2.48 choke point (n.)

4.2.49 citizen-soldier (n.)

4.2.50 code name (n.)

4.2.51 code-name (v.)

4.2.52 compound words. There are three types of compound words: open

(air brake), solid (aircrew), and hyphenated (air-dry). Compounds

are either permanent (found in the dictionary) or temporary (not

found in the dictionary). Use the dictionary’s spelling of permanent

compounds. For help in the spelling of compounds, refer to the

“Hyphenation Guide for Compounds, Combining Forms, and

Prefixes” (7.90) in The Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition.

When in doubt, use open spelling for a temporary compound (e.g.,

war fighter). See also “The Writing of Compounds” in Webster’s

Third New International Dictionary of the English Language,

Unabridged.

97

4.2 SPELLING AND WORD FORMATION
Words formed with prefixes like non-, pre-, and re- are usually

solid: nonnuclear, prearrange, reenlist.

Words with the suffix -like are often used to form new compounds

and are generally solid: childlike, businesslike, lifelike; but bull-like,

Faulkner-like.

Words combined with the suffix -fold are solid unless they are

formed with numerals: threefold, multifold, 20-fold.

A few noun compounds are always open: those beginning with

relationship words, such as Mother Nature, fellow traveler, sister

ship, parent company, and most compounds ending with general,

such as attorney general, adjutant general, and comptroller general

(but governor-general).

Adjective compounds consisting of adverbs ending in -ly plus

participles or adjectives are left open: poorly written story, rapidly

developing area. Compounds formed from unhyphenated proper

names are left open: Methodist Episcopal Church, Southeast Asian

country. Chemical names are open: carbon monoxide poisoning,

hydrochloric acid bottle. Words naming colors are open: sea green

gown, grayish blue car.

Combining forms (e.g., electrocardiogram, socioeconomic,

politico-scientific, practico-inert, network-centric) are usually

closed if permanent, hyphenated if temporary (Chicago, 7.90). See

also hyphenated compound words (3.2.8) and “Words Formed with

Prefixes,” in “Hyphenation Guide for Compounds, Combining

Forms, and Prefixes,” in The Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition,

pp. 306–8.

4.2.53 copilot (n.)

4.2.54 cost-effective (adj.)

4.2.55 cost-effectiveness (n.)

4.2.56 counter-. Compound words with the prefix counter are usually solid:

counterair, countermeasure, counterblow, counterclockwise. See also

compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.57 countries. Spell out the names of countries in text. See also abbreviations (2.0); United States (1.59); US (United States) (2.426); USSR

(Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) (2.444).

4.2.58 court-martial (n., v.), courts-martial (n., plural)

4.2.59 coworker (n.)

98

4.2 SPELLING AND WORD FORMATION
4.2.60 crew member (n.)

4.2.61 cross-train (v.)

4.2.62 cyberspace (n.)

4.2.63 database (n., v.)

4.2.64 data link (n.)

4.2.65 data-link (v., adj.)

4.2.66 daytime (n.)

4.2.67 D-day (n., adj.)

4.2.68 decision maker (n.)

4.2.69 decision making (n.)

4.2.70 decision-making (adj.)

4.2.71 de-emphasize (v.)

4.2.72 dive-bomb (v.)

4.2.73 dive-bomber (n.)

4.2.74 downsize (v.)

4.2.75 drawdown (n.)

4.2.76 draw down (v.)

4.2.77 e-mail (n., sing. and pl.)

4.2.78 e-mail (v.)

4.2.79 e-mailer (n.)

4.2.80 endgame (n.)

4.2.81 endnotes. See notes (5.1).

4.2.82 end state (n.)

4.2.83 end-state (adj.)

99

4.2 SPELLING AND WORD FORMATION
4.2.84 en masse (adv.)

4.2.85 en route (adv., adj.)

4.2.86 ensure. To make sure or certain, guarantee. See also insure

(4.2.132).

4.2.87 fact finder (n.)

4.2.88 fact-finding (n., adj.)

4.2.89 fait accompli (n. sing.), faits accomplis (n. pl.) (a thing accomplished and presumably irreversible).

4.2.90 feedback (n.)

4.2.91 field marshal (n.)

4.2.92 field test (n.)

4.2.93 field-test (v.)

4.2.94 fighter-bomber (n.)

4.2.95 fighter pilot (n.)

4.2.96 firearm (n.)

4.2.97 firebomb (n., v.)

4.2.98 firepower (n.)

4.2.99 firsthand (adj., adv.)

4.2.100 flight crew (n.)

4.2.101 flight line (n.)

4.2.102 flight-line (adj.)

4.2.103 flight path (n.)

4.2.104 flight suit (n.)

100

4.2 SPELLING AND WORD FORMATION
4.2.105 flight-test (v.)

4.2.106 followership (n.)

4.2.107 follow-on (n.)

4.2.108 follow-up (n.)

4.2.109 follow up (v.)

4.2.110 footnote (n.) See notes (5.1).

4.2.111 foreword (n.) See also foreword (1.28).

4.2.112 front line (n.)

4.2.113 frontline (adj.)

4.2.114 führer or fuehrer

4.2.115 full time (n.)

4.2.116 full-time (adj., adv.)

4.2.117 Gadhafi, Mu‘ammar

4.2.118 geo-. Most compounds with the prefix geo are solid: geoeconomics,

geomagnetic, geonavigation, geopolitics.

4.2.119 g-force (n.)

4.2.120 G suit (n.)

4.2.121 half-. Most adjective compounds with the prefix half are

hyphenated; a few are closed: half-blooded, half-cocked, halfwitted, halfhearted, halfway. See also compound words (4.2.52);

hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.122 half century (n.)

4.2.123 high-. Most adjective compounds with the prefix high are hyphenated before the noun: high-level meeting. After the noun, write them

open (but hyphenate after the noun if doing so will prevent ambiguity). Some compounds with this prefix are closed: highbrow,

101

4.2 SPELLING AND WORD FORMATION
highfalutin, highland. See also compound words (4.2.52);

hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.124 home page (n.)

4.2.125 Hussein, Saddam

4.2.126 ill-. See hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.127 inbrief (v.)

4.2.128 inbriefing (n., v.)

4.2.129 in depth (adv.)

4.2.130 in-depth (adj.)

4.2.131 in-process (v.)

4.2.132 insure. This term is often synonymous with ensure (i.e., to make

certain by taking necessary measures and precautions). Insure also

carries the distinctive sense of providing or obtaining insurance.

See also ensure (4.2.86).

4.2.133 inter-. The prefix inter nearly always occurs in solid compounds:

interrelated, interaction, international. Add a hyphen when the

second element is capitalized: inter-American. See also compound words (4.2.52); hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.134 in-theater (adj., adv.)

4.2.135 -keeper. Compound words with the suffix keeper are usually

written solid: bookkeeper, scorekeeper, timekeeper, hotelkeeper;

but tollgate keeper. See also compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.136 landmass (n.)

4.2.137 land power (n.)

4.2.138 log in (v.)

4.2.139 log-in (n.)

4.2.140 logistic or logistical (adj.)

102

4.2 SPELLING AND WORD FORMATION
4.2.141 log off (v.)

4.2.142 log-off (n.)

4.2.143 log on (v.)

4.2.144 log-on (n.)

4.2.145 long term (n.)

4.2.146 long-term (adj.)

4.2.147 longtime (adj.)

4.2.148 man-. The prefix man occurs in solid, hyphenated, and open

compound words: mankind, man-hour(s), man jack. See also

compound words (4.2.52); hyphenated compound words (3.2.8);

sexist language (1.49); work hour(s) (4.2.281).

4.2.149 man-hour(s) (n.). See also sexist sexist language (1.49); work

hour(s) (4.2.281).

4.2.150 material, matériel (or materiel) (n.) Material refers to any matter

or substance from which something is made. Materiel refers more

specifically to apparatus or equipment (e.g., military supplies).

4.2.151 microcomputer (n.)

4.2.152 mid-. Adjective compounds with the prefix mid are usually solid

unless the second element begins with a capital letter: midair collision, mid-Atlantic tempest. Noun compounds with this prefix are

usually solid; if the second word is a proper noun, the compound

may be either open or hyphenated: midsummer, mid Atlantic,

mid-Victorian, mid-1944 (all of the following are acceptable: midto late 1944, mid-to-late 1944, mid to late 1944). See also compound words (4.2.52); hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.153 militia (sing.), militias (pl.)

4.2.154 Milosˇevic ́, Slobodan

4.2.155 mind-set (n.)

4.2.156 minelayer (n.)

103

4.2 SPELLING AND WORD FORMATION
4.2.157 mine laying (n.)

4.2.158 mine-laying (adj.)

4.2.159 minesweeper (n.)

4.2.160 minesweeping (n., v.)

4.2.161 missileman (n.)

4.2.162 multi-. Words with the prefix multi are usually solid: multibreak,

multicylinder, multiengine. See also compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.163 must-read (n.)

4.2.164 nation-state (n.)

4.2.165 near real time (n.)

4.2.166 near-real-time (adj.)

4.2.167 near term (n.)

4.2.168 near-term (adj.)

4.2.168.1 network-centric (adj.) See also compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.169 nighttime (n.)

4.2.170 non-. Words with the prefix non are usually solid: nonviolent,

nonoperating, nonnegotiable, nonparty. But non-English-speaking

world. See also compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.171 off-line (adj., adv.)

4.2.172 off-load (v.)

4.2.173 onboard (adj.). An onboard computer.

4.2.174 on board (adv.). Aboard. He is on board the ship.

4.2.175 ongoing (adj.)

4.2.176 online (adj., adv.)

4.2.177 onload (v.)

104

4.2 SPELLING AND WORD FORMATION
4.2.178 on-station (adj.)

4.2.179 on station (adv.)

4.2.180 outbrief (v.)

4.2.181 outbriefing (n., v.)

4.2.182 out-process (v.)

4.2.183 over-. Compound words with the prefix over are usually solid:

overage, overproduction, overeager, override. See also compound

words (4.2.52).

4.2.184 part-time (adj., adv.)

4.2.185 part-timer (n.)

4.2.186 peacekeeper (n.)

4.2.187 peacekeeping (n.)

4.2.188 peacemaker (n.)

4.2.189 peacemaking (n.)

4.2.190 peacetime (n.)

4.2.191 per annum (adv.)

4.2.192 per capita (adv., adj.)

4.2.193 Philippines

4.2.194 policy maker (n.)

4.2.195 policy making (n.)

4.2.196 policy-making (adj.)

4.2.197 post-. Compound words with the prefix post are usually solid:

postwar, postaxial, postmortem, but post-cold-war world or

post–Cold War world. See also compound words (4.2.52).

105

4.2 SPELLING AND WORD FORMATION
4.2.198 pre-. Compound words with the prefix pre are usually solid: preexisting, predetermined, prejudge, preempt. But pre-latency-period

development. See also compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.199 pro-. Compound words with the prefix pro are usually solid: progovernment, pronuclear. See also compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.200 proactive (adj.)

4.2.201 proactively (adv.)

4.2.202 problem solver (n.)

4.2.203 problem solving (n.)

4.2.204 problem-solving (adj.)

4.2.205 re-. Compound words with the prefix re are usually solid: reedit,

reeducate, reelect, reenlist, reequip, reexamine, reunify. See also

compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.206 real time (n.)

4.2.207 real-time (adj.)

4.2.208 real-world (adj.)

4.2.209 risk taking (n.)

4.2.210 risk-taking (adj.)

4.2.211 road map (n.)

4.2.212 sea-lane (n.)

4.2.213 sealift (n., v.)

4.2.214 sea power (n.)

4.2.215 self-. Most self- compounds are hyphenated: self-reliant, selfsustaining, but selfless, selfsame. See also hyphenated compound

words (3.2.8).

106

4.2 SPELLING AND WORD FORMATION
4.2.216 semi-. Compound words with the prefix semi are usually spelled

solid: semifinal, semiofficial, but semi-indirect. See also compound

words (4.2.52).

4.2.217 semiannual. See also semiannual (1.48).

4.2.218 Shiite

4.2.219 short-range (adj.)

4.2.220 short term (n.)

4.2.221 short-term (adj.)

4.2.222 space-. Compounds with this term are solid, open, and hyphenated:

spaceman, spaceship, spaceflight, spacewalk (v.), space suit, space

station, space walk (n.), space age, space power, space shuttle,

space-age (adj.), space-time. See also compound words (4.2.52);

hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.223 space lift (n.)

4.2.224 space-lift (v., adj.)

4.2.225 space power

4.2.226 standby (n., adj., adv.)

4.2.227 stand by (v.)

4.2.228 standoff (n.)

4.2.229 stand off (v.)

4.2.230 state of the art (n.)

4.2.231 state-of-the-art (adj.)

4.2.232 sub-. Compound words with the prefix sub are usually written

solid: subcommittee, subcontract, substandard, but sub-Saharan

Africa. See also compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.233 superpower (n.)

107

4.2 SPELLING AND WORD FORMATION
4.2.234 takeoff (n.)

4.2.235 take off (v.)

4.2.236 takeover (n.)

4.2.237 take over (v.)

4.2.238 test-fly (v.)

4.2.239 theater, theatre. Shortened form of theater of operations or theater of war. Lowercase, as in European theater. Either spelling is

standard; choose one, and use it consistently.

4.2.240 third-. Compound words with this term occur in all three

stylings: third base, third baseman, third class (n.), third degree

(n.), third grader, thirdhand (adj., adv.), third-class (adj.), thirddegree (adj.). See also compound words (4.2.52); hyphenated

compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.241 trans-. Words formed with the prefix trans are generally closed:

transship, transcontinental, transoceanic. Compounds whose second element is a capitalized word are hyphenated: trans-America,

but transatlantic. See also compound words (4.2.52); hyphenated

compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.242 tri-. Compound words with the prefix tri are usually closed: tricolor, trilingual, tristate. See also compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.243 U-boat

4.2.244 ultra-. Most compounds with the prefix ultra are solid: ultramodern, ultrasonic, but ultra-atomic, ultra-German. See also

compound words (4.2.52); hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.245 un-. Most compounds with the prefix un are solid: unbiased,

unsolved, unused. See also compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.246 under-. Most compounds with this term are solid: underbid, underdevelop, underestimate, underground, undersea, undersecretary,

underreport. See also compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.247 underway (adj.)

4.2.248 under way (adv.)

108

4.2 SPELLING AND WORD FORMATION
4.2.249 vice-. Compounds with this term can be open, solid, or hyphenated: vice admiral, vice-chief, vice-commander, vice-marshal, viceminister, vice president, vice squad, viceroyalty, vice-chairman,

vice-consul. Hyphenate if the word is not in the dictionary. See

also compound words (4.2.52); hyphenated compound words

(3.2.8).

4.2.250 vice versa (adj.)

4.2.251 Vietcong (n., sing. and pl.)

4.2.252 Vietminh (n., sing. and pl.)

4.2.253 walk-. Most compounds with this term are either hyphenated or

solid: walk-on (n.), walk-up (n.), walkout (n.), walkover (n.). See

also compound words (4.2.52); hyphenated compound words

(3.2.8).

4.2.254 war-. Compounds with this term occur in all three stylings: war

chest, war power, war room, war zone, warlike, warpath, warplane,

warship, wartime, war-game (v.). See also compound words

(4.2.52); hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.255 war fighter (n.)

4.2.256 war fighting (n.)

4.2.257 war-fighting (adj.)

4.2.258 war-game (v.) (e.g., to war-game an invasion)

4.2.259 war game (n.)

4.2.260 war gamer (n.)

4.2.261 war gaming (n.)

4.2.262 war-gaming (adj.)

4.2.263 warhead (n.)

4.2.264 war making (n.)

4.2.265 war-making (adj.)

109

4.2 SPELLING AND WORD FORMATION
4.2.266 warplane (n.)

4.2.267 warship (n.)

4.2.268 wartime (n.)

4.2.269 wavelength(s) (n.)

4.2.270 well-. Most compounds formed with well are either hyphenated

or solid: well-being (n.), well-defined (adj.), well-grounded (adj.),

well-intentioned (adj.), well-known (adj.), well-read (adj.), wellspoken (adj.), well-timed (adj.), wellborn (adj.), wellness (n.).

Generally, you should hyphenate compounds with well before the

noun: A well-known man came to my house. Do not use the

hyphen when the expression carries a modifier: A very well

known man made an unexpected appearance at the party. Do not

use the hyphen when the compound follows the word it modifies:

She is well known for her recipes. See also hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.271 weltanschauung (n., often capitalized). Worldview.

4.2.272 wide-. Compounds beginning with this term occur in all three

stylings: wide receiver (n.), wideawake (n.), widemouthed (adj.),

widespread (adj.), wide-awake (adj.), wide-eyed (adj.), widespreading (adj.). See also compound words (4.2.52); hyphenated

compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.273 -wide. Compounds ending in this term are written solid unless they

are long and cumbersome (i.e., if the suffix follows most words of

three or more syllables) or unless they include a proper noun:

countrywide, nationwide, servicewide, statewide, theaterwide,

worldwide, but university-wide, Chicago-wide, Air Force–wide.

The hyphenated forms remain hyphenated both before and after the

words they modify: The rule applied university-wide. See also

compound words (4.2.52); hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.274 wingspan (n.)

4.2.275 wiretap (n., v.)

4.2.276 wiretapper (n.)

110

4.2 SPELLING AND WORD FORMATION
4.2.277 work-. Compounds with this term occur in all three stylings: work

ethic, workday, work-up (n.). See also compound words (4.2.52);

hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.278 work-around (n.)

4.2.279 work around (v.)

4.2.280 workforce (n.)

4.2.281 work hour(s) (n.). See also man-hour(s) (4.2.149).

4.2.282 workload (n.)

4.2.283 worldview (n.). See also weltanschauung (4.2.271).

4.2.284 worldwide (adj., adv.)

4.2.285 year-. Compounds beginning with this term occur in all three

stylings: year of grace, yearbook, year-end. See also compound

words (4.2.52); hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.286 zero (n. sing.), zeros (n. pl.), also zeroes (n. pl.). See also 1.75.

4.2.287 zero hour (n.)

4.2.288 zero-sum (adj.)

111

4.2 SPELLING AND WORD FORMATION

4.3 Numbers

Spell out whole numbers zero through nine. Use figures for numbers

greater than nine:

Katie read three books in two months.

The convention center can hold 5,000 people.

You may use figures followed by million, billion, and so forth to

express large numbers:

China has more than one (or 1) billion people. 

By the end of the year, the corporation was in debt by $2.3 million.

If a sentence contains several numbers, some of them 10 or above,

follow the basic rule:

We are authorized six officers, 39 enlisted personnel, and three civilians

in our two squadrons.

The general rule for spelling numbers also applies to ordinal numbers. Either use d for both second and third or use nd and rd for second

and third, respectively (placed on the line rather than written as superscripts). Choose one style, and use it consistently. 

Sergeant Adams conducted the 92d through 103d hours of the drill.

The 122nd and 123rd days of the strike were marked by renewed violence.

Spell out any number that starts a sentence:

Twelve people applied for the job. 

Apply to adjective modifiers the rules for spelling out whole numbers zero through nine and for expressing large numbers:

four-mile hike 11-mile hike

five-day week 40-hour week

five-ton truck 9,000-ton ship

two (or 2)-million-member union 10-million-vote margin

four-year-old boy zero-based budgeting

In mathematical, statistical, technical, or scientific texts, express

physical quantities such as distances, lengths, areas, volumes, pressures,

and so forth in figures:

113
60 miles 110 volts

15 yards 10 tons

40 acres 3 meters

3 1/3 cubic feet 45 pounds

In ordinary textual matter, apply the basic rule for the spelling of

numbers:

Doris lost five pounds in a week.

John’s car can barely go 60 miles an hour.

Spell out common fractions in textual matter:

More than one-third of the class failed the exam.

My brothers and I live within three and one-half miles of each other.

Use figures to express a combination of mixed numbers and whole

numbers:

He typed the report on 81

⁄

2-by-11-inch paper. 

If you abbreviate a unit of measure, express the quantity with a figure:

9 mi. 35 mm

30 lb. 20 km

For two or more quantities, the abbreviation or symbol is repeated if

it is closed up to the number, but not if it is separated:

35%–50% 2 x 5 cm

Use figures with symbols:

51

⁄

2" 8 ̊ F

Use figures for decimal fractions:

He multiplied the number by 3.17. 

In textual matter, use the word percent preceded by figures; in a table

or chart, or in scientific or statistical text, you may use the symbol %.

1 percent

50 percent

114

4.3 NUMBERS
Spell out or use figures for amounts of money in US currency in

accordance with the basic rule. If you spell out the number, spell out

the unit of currency; if you use figures, use the symbols $ or ¢:

The commission raised the tax four cents.

The club raised a total of $425.

Use a dollar sign, figures, and units of millions or billions to express

large sums of money:

Jim signed with the Atlanta Falcons for $3 million. 

Use figures for fractional amounts over one dollar, like other decimal

fractions. When you use whole-dollar amounts in the same context with

fractional amounts, set the whole-dollar amounts with zeros after the

decimal point:

The music store sold CDs for $12.00 to $15.98.

In textual matter, indicate inclusive years as follows: 1900–1901;

1907–8; 1968–72 or from 1968 to 1972 (never from 1968–72). In endnotes, use 1968–1972. If you are composing a book title that includes

dates, repeat all digits: My High School Incarceration, 1965–1968.

However, do not alter a published title that includes abbreviated dates:

Clarkson’s Antagonism, 1946–51. In chapter titles, subheadings, and

legends/captions, use the abbreviated form (in chapter 4, “From

Meeting to Marriage, 1932–38”).

Spell out references to particular centuries; spell out or use figures

and apostrophes for references to decades:

the twentieth century

during the sixties and seventies

the ’60s and ’70s 

If you identify decades by their century, use figures:

the 1880s and 1890s 

Spell out times of day in even, half, and quarter hours:

We went to the theater at a quarter after seven.

The service starts at five o’clock.

Use figures to emphasize an exact time:

The program is televised at 8:35 in the morning. 

115

4.3 NUMBERS
If you use the 24-hour system, do not punctuate between the hours

and minutes:

The office opens at 0815.

Our duty hours are from 0730 to 1100 and from 1130 to 1600.

Use the following style for inclusive numbers:

First Number Second Number Examples

Less than 100 Use all digits 3–10, 71–72, 96–117

100 or multiple of 100 Use all digits 100–104, 600–613,

1100–1123

101 through 109 (in Use changed part 107–8, 505–17,

multiples of 100) only, omitting 1002–6

unneeded zeros

110 through 199 (in Use two digits, or 321–25, 415–32,

multiples of 100) more if needed 1536–38, 1496–504,

14325–28,

11564–78,

13792–803

To avoid ambiguity, do not condense inclusive Roman numerals:

cvi–cix

Use an initial ordinal number (spelled out if ninth or less) to designate particular dynasties, governments, and governing bodies:

First Continental Congress 98th Congress

Third Reich 18th Dynasty

Sixth International Fifth Republic

Use ordinal numbers to designate political divisions. The rule for

spelling out numbers applies:

Fifth Congressional District

12th Precinct

Second Election District

Form the plurals of spelled-out numbers just as you would form the

plurals of other nouns; add s (no apostrophe) to form the plurals of

figures:

Hickock’s hand contained two pairs: aces and eights.

The grades for the class were six 98s, three 100s, and the rest below 89.

116

4.3 NUMBERS
In figures of one thousand or more (except page numbers), use a

comma to set off groups of three digits, counting from the right:

2,000 34,000

In spelled-out fractional numbers, connect the numerator and the

denominator with a hyphen unless either contains a hyphen:

three-fourths

six and seven-eighths

four and one-half years

seven and twenty-one thirty-seconds

4.3.1 air force (numbered). See 4.3.19.

4.3.2 caliber (of weapons). Use whole numbers or decimals, depending on

the type of weapon: .38-caliber revolver, Colt .45, 9 mm automatic (no

hyphen between a numeral and an abbreviation), 105 mm howitzer,

12-gauge shotgun.

4.3.3 centuries and decades. Spell out (in lowercase letters) references to

particular centuries: eighth century, twentieth century. Use figures if

decades are identified by their century: the 1880s and 1890s. See

also numbers (4.3).

4.3.4 chapter (numbers). Use Arabic figures for chapter numbers, even

if the chapter numbers in the work cited are spelled out or in Roman

numerals. The same principle holds true for other divisions of a

book: part 1, section 3, book 7, volume 2.

4.3.5 currency. See money (4.3.18); numbers (4.3).

4.3.6 dates. Write exact dates in the sequence day-month-year, without

commas. Spell out the month, use figures for the day, and use a fourdigit year. When you use only the month and year, no commas are

necessary.

FDR referred to 7 December 1941 as a day that would live in infamy.

The date March 2003 was special to her.

Do not use the all-numeral style for dates (3/11/50, etc.) in formal writing. However, in text discussing the events of [11 September

2001], the use of 9/11 is acceptable (Chicago, 6.115). If documentation, figures, and tables contain numerous dates, you may abbreviate certain months (Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., May, June, July, Aug.,

117

4.3 NUMBERS
Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec.) and use the sequence day-month-year without

internal punctuation (7 Dec. 1941) to reduce clutter (Chicago, 9.39,

15.42, 17.225). Choose one style for the documentation, figures,

and tables, and use it consistently. For inclusive numbers, see 4.3.

4.3.7 decades. Use figures if decades are identified by their century: the

1880s and 1890s. Spell out or use figures and apostrophes for particular decades: the eighties, the ’80s. See also numbers (4.3).

4.3.8 dollars. See money (4.3.18); numbers (4.3).

4.3.9 Earth satellites. Use Arabic numerals in designations of artificial

satellites: Skylab 2, Voyager 2. Earlier spacecraft used Roman

numerals: Gemini II. Specific names of spacecraft and artificial

satellites are italicized. See also spacecraft (4.4.21).

4.3.10 figures. See numbers (4.3) or illustrations (1.33), as appropriate.

4.3.11 fractions. See numbers (4.3).

4.3.12 highway (numbered). Use Arabic numerals to designate state,

federal, and interstate highways: Interstate 85, Alabama 41.

4.3.13 hundreds. See numbers (4.3).

4.3.14 Mach 2 (etc.). Use numerals with “Mach.”

4.3.15 measurements. Numerals precede abbreviations for units of measure:

3 mi. 50 lb.

55 mph 35 mm film

See also abbreviations (2.0); hyphenated compound words

(3.2.8); numbers (4.3).

4.3.16 military time. Measured in hours numbered zero to 23 (e.g., 0100,

0800, 1600, 2300), from one midnight to the next; midnight is 0000,

not 2400. No internal punctuation. See also numbers (4.3).

4.3.17 military units. Air Force units. Use Arabic numerals to designate

units up to and including wings. Spell out the names of numbered

air forces:

42d [or 42nd] Civil Engineer Squadron

31st Combat Support Group

22d [or 22nd] Fighter Wing

Twenty-third Air Force

118

4.3 NUMBERS
Army units. Use Arabic numerals to designate units up to and

including divisions. Write corps names with Roman numerals, and

designate Army groups with Arabic numerals. Spell out the names of

numbered armies:

2d [or 2nd] Armored Cavalry Regiment

210th Field Artillery Brigade

82d [or 82nd] Airborne Division

XVIII Airborne Corps

3d [or 3rd] Army Group

First Army 

Navy units. Use Arabic numerals to designate the number of task

forces; spell out fleet numbers:

Task Force 58

Fifth Fleet

Marine Corps units. Use the same designations as Army units.

For writing ordinal numbers (e.g., 2d or 2nd), see 4.3.

4.3.18 money. Use a dollar sign and numerals to express large sums of

money. See also numbers (4.3).

Both companies agreed on a price of $2 million.

4.3.19 numbered air force. Spell out names of numbered air forces: Eighth

Air Force, Twenty-third Air Force. Use figures for a smaller unit:

15th Air Group. See also military units (4.3.17).

4.3.20 percent. Always spell out percent in humanistic text, and precede it

with Arabic numerals: a 3 percent increase. You may use the % symbol in tables and in scientific or statistical text. See also numbers (4.3).

4.3.21 quantities. See measurements (4.3.15); numbers (4.3).

4.3.22 satellites. See Earth satellites (4.3.9).

4.3.23 temperature. See numbers (4.3).

4.3.24 time. See military time (4.3.16); numbers (4.3).

4.3.25 units of measure. See measurements (4.3.15).

119

4.3 NUMBERS
4.3.26 weights and measurements. See measurements (4.3.15); numbers

(4.3).

4.3.27 year. Use figures to designate specific years unless the sentence begins

with the year:

Nineteen forty-five was an eventful year. 

World War II ended in 1945.

In informal contexts, you may abbreviate the full number of a

particular year: the spirit of ’76.

If you use the month with the year, do not use internal punctuation:

The study began in May 1979. See also dates (4.3.6); numbers (4.3).

4.3.28 zero, zeros (also zeroes). Use a 0 in tables to denote zero amount

instead of using a dash or leaving the space blank.

120

4.3 NUMBERS
4.4 Italics

Italicize titles and subtitles of published books, periodicals, pamphlets, manuals, proceedings and collections, newspapers, and sections of newspapers published separately, as well as abbreviations of

those publications (The Art of War, The United States Strategic

Bombing Survey, USSBS, Fortune 500, Air and Space Power

Journal, ASPJ, etc.). If you are marking a manuscript by hand, use

underlining to indicate italics.

Italicize titles of motion pictures, continuing television and radio

series, long poems and musical compositions, plays, and computer/

video games. Put titles of TV shows, songs, and radio programs in

Roman type and enclose them in quotation marks:

Casablanca Handel’s Messiah

public television’s Masterpiece Theater N.Y.P.D. Blue

public radio’s All Things Considered “In the Mood”

Paradise Lost radio’s “Christmas ’99 at the

Tomb Raider: Chronicles Kennedy Center”

If you use the names of newspapers, titles of books, or other italicized names in the plural, set the plural inflection in Roman type:

There were five Journals and two Tribunes on the shelf.

All punctuation marks should appear in the same font—Roman or

italic—as the main or surrounding text, except for punctuation that

belongs to a title or an exclamation in a different font (Chicago, 6.3).

Smith played the title role in Hamlet, Macbeth, and King Lear; after

his final performance, he announced his retirement.

A History of the United States Air Force, 1907–1957

Many editors admire Wired Style: it is both elegant and easy to use.

An Apache Life-way: The Economic, Social, and Religious Institutions

of the Chiricahua Indians

What is meant by random selection?

She is the author of What’s Next?

For light entertainment, he reads King Lear!

The manual Online! is always at my elbow.

We heard his cries of “Help!”

When a proper name is set in italics, the possessive ending (including the apostrophe) should be in Roman:

the Pueblo’s captain

121
Parentheses and brackets should appear in the same font—Roman or

italic—as the surrounding text, not in that of the material they enclose:

The Asian long-horned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis) attacks

maples.

The letter stated that my check had been “received [sic] with thanks.”

When a phrase in parentheses or brackets appears on a line by

itself, the parentheses or brackets are usually in the same font as the

phrase (Chicago, 6.6):

[To be concluded]

Italicize the proper names of specific ships and submarines but not

the accompanying abbreviations (e.g., USS, SS, HMS): HMS

Shannon, SS United States, CSS Alabama, Kiev-class aircraft carrier.

Capitalize but do not italicize the make of aircraft and ships and the

names of space programs: Boeing 707, Project Apollo, ICBM, U-boat,

DC-3.

Do not italicize titles of forms or put them in quotation marks.

Instead, capitalize the main words: AF Form 673, Request to Issue

Publication; AU Form 107, Request for Loan.

Italicize terms singled out as terms, and words referred to as words

(see also quotation marks [3.2.14]):

The standard meaning of the term leftist is an adherent of the left wing

of a party or movement.

Gladys cringed whenever anyone said ain’t.

Italicize terms from languages other than English: Leutnant, sic

transit gloria mundi, aux armes. However, if foreign terms have

become familiar enough to be included in the main listing of a standard English dictionary, do not italicize them: weltschmerz, schadenfreude, ad hoc, fin de siècle, blitzkrieg, détente, déjà vu, perestroika,

raison d’être, vis-à-vis.

Isolated foreign proper nouns are not italicized, even when cited

as foreign terms:

Moscow (in Russian, Moskva) has been the capital of the Russian national

state since the late fourteenth century.

When you provide a translation of the title of a foreign work in the

text, use headline-style capitalization for the translated title but do

not italicize it if the translation has not been published. However, use

122

4.4 ITALICS
italics and headline style capitalization if the translation has been

published. Enclose the translation in parentheses (Chicago, 10.6):

Leonardo Fioravanti’s Compendio de i secreti rationali (Compendium

of Rational Secrets) became a best-seller.

Proust’s À la recherche du temps perdu (Remembrance of Things Past)

was the subject of her dissertation.

When you cite the names of foreign institutions and businesses,

capitalize them according to the usage of the country concerned.

Unless they are transliterated from a non-Latin alphabet, do not italicize them. If you translate them, capitalize according to English

usage (Chicago, 10.8).

He is a member of the Société d’entraide des membres de l’ordre

national de la Légion d’honneur.

He was comforted to learn of the Mutual Aid Society for Members of

the National Order of the Legion of Honor.

Italicize the names of legal cases when they are mentioned in text;

in notes, they may be written in Roman; v. (versus) is preferably written in italics rather than Roman (Chicago, 8.88):

Brown v. Board of Education

Italicize the shortened case name:

Miranda or the Miranda case 

You may occasionally use italics (not boldface) to emphasize a point:

Effective intelligence is essential to military operations. 

This device should be used sparingly. If your text is well written, the

reader should have no problem determining what you consider

important. See also emphasis (4.4.4).

4.4.1 aircraft. Do not italicize the class designation and class name of aircraft: F-15 Eagle, SR-71 Blackbird, Boeing 747. Italicize the name

of a particular aircraft: Spirit of St. Louis, Enola Gay. See also italics

(4.4).

4.4.2 doctrine documents, instructions, manuals, pamphlets, and policy

directives. Italicize the title of the publication: Air Force Doctrine

Document (AFDD) 2-4.3, Education and Training, AFDD 2-4.3 (subsequent reference); Air Force Instruction (AFI) 90-201, Inspector

123

4.4 ITALICS
General Activities, AFI 90-201; Air Force Manual (AFMAN) 10-100,

Airman’s Manual, AFMAN 10-100; Army Field Manual (FM) 27-10,

The Law of Land Warfare, FM 27-10; Air Force Pamphlet (AFPAM)

36-2705, Discrimination and Sexual Harassment, AFPAM 36-2705;

Air Force Policy Directive (AFPD) 36-4, Air Force Civilian Training

and Education, AFPD 36-4.

4.4.3 Earth satellites. Specific names of spacecraft and artificial satellites

are italicized: Skylab 2, Voyager 2, Gemini II.

4.4.4 emphasis. If you use italics to emphasize a word or words in a quotation, indicate that you have done so by adding a phrase such as

“emphasis added” or “italics added” in parentheses following the

quotation, as in this block quotation:

Today we know that in wartime, even in a conventional war of limited

duration, the two superpowers would fight a battle of attrition in space

until one side or the other had wrested control. And the winner would

use the surviving space system to decide the contests on land and sea.7

(emphasis added)

Similarly, you may use an appropriate phrase to show that an italicized part of a quotation is not your doing but appears in the original,

as in this run-in quotation:

Gen Muir S. Fairchild noted that “each nation differs from all other

nations, not only in its degree of vulnerability to air attack, but also in

the kind of vulnerability” (emphasis in original).21

In a quotation with a mixture of original and added italics, use

bracketed phrases immediately following the italicized passages to

differentiate between them, as in this block quotation:

Whether the means of protecting satellites will be adequate to ensure the

survivability [emphasis added] of particular space-based BMD systems

will depend in part on the kinds of systems deployed and in part on

future Soviet antisatellite capabilities. Insufficient information is now

available to resolve the survivability question.24 [emphasis in original]

4.4.5 epigraph. Do not enclose an epigraph in quotation marks. Set it in italics in the same sized type as the text or in Roman a size smaller. See

also 1.26.

4.4.6 foreign terms. See italics (4.4).

4.4.7 forms (titles of). See italics (4.4).

124

4.4 ITALICS
4.4.8 instructions. See doctrine documents, instructions, manuals, pamphlets, and policy directives (4.4.2).

4.4.9 journals. Capitalize all main words of the title of a journal, and italicize both the full title and its abbreviation: Air and Space Power

Journal, ASPJ.

4.4.10 legal cases. See italics (4.4).

4.4.11 Luftwaffe. No italics.

4.4.12 magazines. See italics (4.4); journals (4.4.9).

4.4.13 manuals. See doctrine documents, instructions, manuals, pamphlets, and policy directives (4.4.2).

4.4.14 newspapers. Italicize the names of newspapers: Christian Science

Monitor, Chicago Sun-Times. In text, lowercase the and set it in

Roman type: John read the Wall Street Journal religiously. Omit the

definite article in note references to newspapers.

4.4.15 pamphlets. See doctrine documents, instructions, manuals, pamphlets, and policy directives (4.4.2).

4.4.16 periodicals. See italics (4.4); journals (4.4.9).

4.4.17 policy directives. See doctrine documents, instructions, manuals,

pamphlets, and policy directives (4.4.2).

4.4.18 see, see also. Italicize these terms in an index but not in documentation (e.g., endnotes). Capitalize only when they begin a sentence.

4.4.19 ships, names of. See italics (4.4).

4.4.20 sic (so; thus; in this manner). Use this term, italicized and bracketed,

to indicate misspelling or improper usage in original text:

The newscaster announced that “the pilot got out of his plane and laid [sic]

down on the ground after his harrowing flight.”

See also italics (4.4).

4.4.21 spacecraft. Italicize specific names of spacecraft and artificial

satellites: Gemini II, Apollo 11. Also italicize names of particular

125

4.4 ITALICS
space vehicles or components: Eagle (Apollo 11 lunar module),

Columbia (Apollo 11 command module or space shuttle), and

Friendship 7 (Alan Shepard’s Mercury capsule).

4.4.22 Spetsnaz. No italics.

4.4.23 words as words. Place words referred to as words in either italics

or quotation marks: Tom wasn’t sure whether airpower was one

word or two.

126

4.4 ITALICS
4.5 Display Dots

Display dots are typographical devices used to emphasize specific

items; they are not organizational devices used to subordinate textual

elements. Use them when one item is no more important than the others

or when the items do not show a sequence. Entries may be either complete or incomplete sentences but should be syntactically parallel and

no longer than two or three sentences. Since display dots are used primarily for emphasis, use them sparingly and keep the information as

short as possible. Indent each entry, and align run-over lines with the

first word after the dot.

A special court-martial tries intermediate, noncapital offenses. It may be convened by any of the following:

• Any person who may convene a general court-martial.

• A commander empowered by the secretary of the Air Force

unless otherwise directed.

• A commander of a wing, group, or separate squadron of the Air

Force unless otherwise directed.

Specifically, the Office of Antiterrorism is charged with the following measures:

• Helping the newly formed Air Force Antiterrorism Council keep

pace with related developments. Members of the council include

senior officers of various deputy and assistant chiefs of staff, the

Office of Security Police, the Office of the Judge Advocate

General, and other agencies.

• Developing policy and guidance concerning security measures and

precautions.

• Monitoring terrorist trends and providing information on such

matters to interested agencies and commands.

The Camp David accords provide a process to facilitate the implementation of

Resolution 242:

• a five-year transitional period for the West Bank and Gaza, providing full autonomy to the inhabitants;

• negotiations on the final status of the West Bank and Gaza and

on a peace treaty between Jordan and Israel, to begin no later

than three years into the transitional period;

• a framework for peace negotiations between Israel and Egypt; and

• principles for peace treaties between Israel and its other neighboring states.

The following engineering-data support centers have been established:

• The Cryptologic-Equipment Engineering-Data Support Center

• The Nuclear-Ordnance Engineering-Data Support Center

127
• The Air and Space Guidance and Metrological Engineering-Data

Support Center

• Communications-Electronics Engineering-Data Support Center

In classified reports, material emphasized by display dots is considered part of the paragraph that introduced it, not as a separate paragraph.

128

4.5 DISPLAY DOTS
5.0 Documentation

5.1 notes. Use the numbered-endnote system of documentation. Number the

notes consecutively—beginning with 1—throughout a chapter and

throughout the list of notes at the end of the chapter. Do not place note

numbers after epigraphs, chapter or article titles, or subheadings. In text,

put a superior (superscript) number at the end of a sentence or at least at

the end of a clause, following any punctuation mark (except a dash) or a

closing parenthesis. In the note itself, place the number (full-sized, not

superscript) on the line and follow it with a period.

Strategic considerations were often discussed, and Arnold urged abandonment of the “old ‘island to island’ theory.”6

Russia agreed to stop sales to Brazil—a longtime practice7—at the urging of the State Department. 

(When General Franks gave Bush a probable number of casualties, the

president approved the attack.)8

3. Joseph S. Nye Jr., The Paradox of American Power: Why the

World’s Only Superpower Can’t Go It Alone (New York: Oxford

University Press, 2002), 8.

Include the following items in a full note reference to a book: (1)

author’s or editor’s full name (as it appears on the title page), first name

first, including military rank or academic title if included on title page,

or name of institution responsible for writing the book (alternatively, the

editor’s name may follow the title of the book [see (3)]); (2) title of the

book, including subtitle, in italics; (3) editor, compiler, or translator, if

any; (4) edition, if not the first; (5) number of volumes (if referring to a

multivolume work as a whole); (6) volume number of multivolume

work (if referring to one specific volume); (7) title of volume, if applicable; (8) series, if any, and number in the series; (9) facts of publication—city where published, publisher, and date of publication, all in

parentheses; (10) volume number (if citing a multivolume work, all of

whose volumes have the same title), followed by a colon; (11) page

number(s) of the specific citation; and (12) a URL for Internet sources

or some indication of the medium cited (e.g., DVD, CD-ROM).

1. Walt Whitman, Leaves of Grass (Philadelphia: David McKay, 1891),

29, http://www.whitmanarchive.org/archive1/works/leaves/1891/text/frame

set.html.

Include the following items in a full reference to an article in a periodical: (1) author’s full name, first name first, including military rank

or academic title if included in byline of article; (2) title of the article

in quotation marks; (3) title of the periodical in italics; (4) volume num129
ber (no abbreviation for volume) and issue number (use no. for number) of the periodical; (5) date of the volume or of the issue (enclosed

in parentheses and followed by a colon if volume and/or issue number

are given; otherwise, the date is set off with a pair of commas); (6)

page number(s) of the particular citation; and (7) a URL for online

periodicals. 

2. Col Rex R. Kiziah, “The Emerging Biocruise Threat,” Air and Space

Power Journal 17, no. 1 (Spring 2003): 85, http://www.airpower.maxwell

.af.mil/ airchronicles/apj/apj03/spr03/spr03.pdf.

For subsequent references to a source, use only (1) the last name of

the author; (2) a shortened form of the title (if the full title is more than

four words long), omitting an initial “A” or “The” (Chicago, 16.42);

(3) a comma; and (4) the page number of the reference. If the notes

include works by authors with the same last name, use the full name

or initials in subsequent references to differentiate between them

(Chicago, 16.44).

3. Edward M. Coffman, The War to End All Wars: The American Military

Experience in World War I (Madison, WI [or Wis. or Wisc.]: University of

Wisconsin Press, 1986), 215.

4. Hunter Liggett, Ten Years Ago in France (New York: Dodd, Mead,

1928), 84.

5. Dr. Robin Higham and Dr. Mark P. Parillo, “Management Margin:

Essential for Victory,” Aerospace Power Journal 16, no. 1 (Spring 2002):

22, http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj02/spr02/

spr02.pdf.

6. Maj David W. Coffman, Operational Art and the Human Dimension of

Warfare in the 21st Century (Newport, RI [or R.I.]: Naval War College,

1911), 17.

7. Edward M. Coffman, War to End All Wars, 220.

8. Higham and Parillo, “Management Margin,” 23.

The abbreviation ibid. (ibidem, “in the same place”) refers to a single

work cited in the note immediately preceding. Never use ibid. if more

than one work is cited in the preceding note. Do not italicize this

abbreviation in your notes. Do not use op. cit. (opere citato, “in the

work cited”) or loc. cit. (loco citato, “in the place cited”). Instead, use

a shortened form of the citation. You may use ibid. within the note to

indicate successive references to the same work.

7. Richard G. Davis, Carl A. Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

(Washington, DC [or D.C.]: Office of Air Force History, 1993), 331.

8. Ibid., 301.

9. Gen Richard B. Myers, “A Word from the Chairman: Shift to a Global

Perspective,” Air and Space Power Journal 17, no. 3 (Fall 2003): 5, http://

130

5.0 DOCUMENTATION
www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj03/fal03/fal03. pdf. “By

shifting our view from a regional to a global perspective, we will better

comprehend and respond to America’s security needs in the twenty-first

century” (ibid., 8).

You may use idem (“the same”) rather than repeating the author’s

name in subsequent references in one note to works by the same

author. However, since the term is used so rarely, it might be better simply to repeat the author’s last name.

10. Col Dennis M. Drew, “Inventing a Doctrine Process,” Airpower

Journal 9, no. 4 (Winter 1995): 43, http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/

airchronicles/ apj/drew.pdf; and idem [or Drew], “Educating Air Force

Officers,” Airpower Journal 11, no. 2 (Summer 1997): 38, http://www

.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/ airchronicles/apj/sum97/drew.pdf.

You may use a shortened form the first time a work is cited in a chapter’s endnotes if a full citation for that work has appeared in the notes

to a previous chapter. If the notes are far apart, you may use a crossreference to help the reader locate the full reference (Chicago, 16.43).

11. Liggett, Ten Years Ago in France, 90 (see chap. 2, n. 2).

Always use Arabic figures for volume numbers even when they

appear as Roman numerals in the book or journal itself.

Examples of full and shortened references:

3. Franz Schurman, Imperial China: The Decline of the Last Dynasty and

the Origins of Modern China (New York: Vintage Books, 1967), 206–8.

4. John K. Fairbank, “The People’s Middle Kingdom,” Foreign Affairs

58 (1964): 943–68.

5. Capt Gerald G. O’Rourke, “Our Peaceful Navy,” US Naval Institute

Proceedings, April 1989, 79–83.

6. Franz Schurman, Japan Today (New York: Vintage Books, 1970),

97–100.

7. Schurman, Imperial China, 174. [Shortened form of note 3 with different page number.]

8. Ibid., 176. [All information the same as in the preceding note except

page number.]

9. Carl von Clausewitz, On War, ed. and trans. Michael Howard and Peter

Paret (Princeton, NJ [or N.J.]: Princeton University Press, 1976), 25.

10. James N. Stevens, The Foundations of Communist China, 2 vols.

(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1969), 1:150.

11. Ibid., 2:96. [All information the same as in the preceding note except

volume number and page number.]

12. Ibid., 147. [The same volume number as in the preceding note.]

13. Ibid. [The same page number as in the preceding note.]

131

5.0 DOCUMENTATION
In a work whose bibliography contains all of the material referred

to in the notes, the notes may be presented in a concise format—even

first citations—since the reader can refer to the bibliography for full

details. In a work without a bibliography or whose bibliography does

not contain all of the material referred to in the notes, first citations

should contain full details (Chicago, 16.3). For the benefit of the

reader, you may wish to include a brief explanatory statement preceding the first set of notes.

Bibliographic entry:

Reynolds, Col Richard T. Heart of the Storm: The Genesis of the Air Campaign

against Iraq. Maxwell AFB, AL (or Ala.): Air University Press, 1995.

First note citation in a work with full bibliography:

Notes

(All notes appear in shortened form. For full details, see the appropriate entry

in the bibliography.)

1. Reynolds, Heart of the Storm, 55.

First note citation in a work without full bibliography:

Notes

1. Col Richard T. Reynolds, Heart of the Storm: The Genesis of the

Air Campaign against Iraq (Maxwell AFB, AL [or Ala.]: Air University

Press, 1995), 55.

An interview with a person who prefers to remain anonymous or

whose name the author does not wish to reveal may be cited in whatever form is appropriate in context. The absence of a name should be

explained (e.g., “All interviews were conducted in confidentiality, and

the names of interviewees are withheld by mutual agreement”)

(Chicago, 17.206).

10. Interview with health care worker, 10 August 1999.

See appendix A of this guide or the 15th edition of The Chicago

Manual of Style for citations of public documents and unpublished

materials.

5.2 bibliography. A bibliography is a list of books, articles, and other

works used in preparing a manuscript. It immediately precedes the

index and may be arranged alphabetically or divided into the kinds of

materials used (books, theses and papers, government publications,

periodicals, etc.). It may include only selected titles that may or may

not be annotated.

132

5.0 DOCUMENTATION
An alphabetical list is the most common type of bibliography.

Arrange all sources alphabetically by the last names of the authors, in

a single list. When no author is given, use the first word of the title

(other than an article, a coordinating conjunction, or a preposition) as

the key word for alphabetizing. If a publication issued by an organization carries no author’s name, use the name of the organization as

the author, even if the organization is also the publisher.

In a lengthy bibliography, you may divide the references into kinds

of sources (books, articles, newspapers, depositories, or collections).

Whatever the arrangement, do not list any source more than once.

You may annotate the bibliography to direct the reader to other

works or to briefly explain the contents, relevance, or value of specific

sections of the book.

Invert the names of authors (i.e., last name first) and separate the

various components of information with periods. The following are

examples of citations in bibliographic format:

AFDD 1. Air Force Basic Doctrine, 17 November 2003. 

AFPD 36-4. Air Force Civilian Training, Education, and Development, 12

February 2004. 

Clausewitz, Carl von. On War. Edited and translated by Michael Howard and

Peter Paret. Princeton, NJ (or N.J.): Princeton University Press, 1976. 

Cressey, George B. China’s Geographic Foundations: A Survey of the Land

and Its People. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1934. 

Cuskey, Walter R., Arnold William Klein, and William Krasner. Drug-Trip

Abroad: American Drug-Refugees in Amsterdam and London. Philadelphia:

University of Pennsylvania Press, 1972. 

Drew, Col Dennis M. “Joint Operations: The World Looks Different from

10,000 Feet.” Airpower Journal 2, no. 3 (Fall 1988): 4–16. http://www

.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj88/drew.html. [provide beginning and ending page numbers for journal articles]

Fairbank, John K. “The People’s Middle Kingdom.” Foreign Affairs 58 (June

1964): 943–68.

Hall, Col Brian K. “Air Expeditionary Access: The African Connection.”

Air and Space Power Journal 17, no. 3 (Fall 2003): 47–56. http://

www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj03/fal03/fal03.pdf

(accessed 16 October 2003).

Schurman, Franz. China Today. New York: Vintage Books, 1970. 

———. [use a three-em dash to indicate same author as in the immediately

preceding entry] Imperial China: The Decline of the Last Dynasty and the

Origins of Modern China. New York: Vintage Books, 1967. 

Spencer, Scott. “Childhood’s End.” Harper’s, May 1979, 16–19. 

Stevenson, Adlai E., III. The Citizen and His Government. Austin, TX (or

Tex.): University of Texas Press, 1984.

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5.0 DOCUMENTATION
See appendix B and page 181 of this guide, as well as the 15th edition of The Chicago Manual of Style for more examples and specific

rules for developing a bibliography.

5.3 quotations. Certain rules apply when you quote directly from the

work of other writers. You should credit your source by identifying it

in an endnote. If you quote at length from a copyrighted work, you

should obtain written permission from the holder of the copyright (see

also appendix C of this guide). Although in a direct quotation the

wording, spelling, capitalization, and internal punctuation of the original should be reproduced exactly, the following changes are generally

permissible to make the passage fit into the syntax and typography of

the surrounding text:

1. Single quotation marks may be changed to double, and double to

single.

2. The initial letter may be changed to a capital or a lowercase letter.

3. The final period may be omitted or changed to a comma as required,

and punctuation may be omitted where ellipsis points are used.

4. Original notes and note reference marks may be omitted unless omission would affect the meaning of the quotation. If an original note is

included, the quotation should be set off as a block quotation, with

the note in smaller type at the end, or the note may be summarized in

the accompanying text. Authors may, on the other hand, add note references of their own within quotations.

5. Obvious typographic errors may be corrected silently (without

comment or sic) unless the passage quoted is from an older work

or a manuscript source where idiosyncrasies of spelling are generally preserved. If spelling and punctuation are modernized or

altered for clarity, readers must be so informed in a note, in a preface, or elsewhere. (Chicago, 11.8)

You may incorporate quotations in the text as a part of a sentence

and enclose them in quotation marks or set them off from the text as

a block quotation (see 5.4). If the quoted matter is eight or more lines

or more than 100 words, you should usually set it off from the text.

Integrate short quotations into the text. When you use a quotation

as part of a sentence, lowercase the initial letter and omit or change the

end punctuation (if appropriate), even though the original is a complete sentence beginning with a capital letter. When the quotation is

not dependent on the rest of the sentence, capitalize the initial letter (a

comma rather than a colon is often used after said, replied, asked, and

similar verbs). If a quotation that is only part of a sentence in the origi134

5.0 DOCUMENTATION
nal forms a complete sentence as quoted, you may change a lowercase

letter to a capital.

Colonel Green emphasized that “the military plays an important role in

the political arena.”7

Colonel Green said, “The military plays an important role in the political

arena.”7

Colonel Green made the following statement: “Military [power] plays an

important role in the political arena.”7

5.4 block quotations. Use a block quotation for passages easily set apart

from the text, eight or more typed lines, 100 words or more, or exceeding one paragraph. Indent from both sides and single-space. Do not

use quotation marks to enclose the block quotation, and do not indent

its paragraphs. Use double quotation marks to enclose a direct quotation within a block quotation. Skip a line between paragraphs. The

block quotation should reflect the paragraphing of the original. 

In volume one of AFM 1-1, Basic Aerospace Doctrine of the United States Air

Force (March 1992), Gen Merrill A. McPeak remarks,

The guidance this manual provides will be valuable to those in

field units and to those in headquarters, to those in operations and

to those in support areas, to those who understand air and space

power and to those who are just learning. In short, this manual will

be valuable to the entire force.

I expect every airman and, in particular, every noncommissioned and

commissioned officer to read, study, and understand volume I and to

become fully conversant with volume II. The contents of these two

volumes are at the heart of the profession of arms for airmen.1

Unless you introduce a block quotation with thus, as follows, or

other wording that requires a colon, you may precede the quotation

with a period, although a colon is acceptable. Select either style, and

use it consistently (Chicago, 11.22).

This assumes that the costs of undertaking the first part of the conflict are

“sunk” once the decision for armed intervention is made. One conflict scenario

in particular illustrates this point.

Regime change is forced during the course of the initial conflict.

Additional marginal losses occur in both the military and civilian

populations. Postconflict losses are minimal but still happen due to

incidents that arise during nation-building efforts. The costs of nation

building are significant, but the total expense is likely to be less than

that of the other scenarios.22

135

5.0 DOCUMENTATION
5.5 credit line. Identify the source of an illustration (see 1.33) with a credit

line. Place it at the end of the caption/legend (see 1.18), in parentheses or

in different type (or both), introduced by reprinted from or adapted from,

depending upon whether you have copied the illustration or modified it,

respectively:

Figure 3. Competitive effects on general and administrative costs.

(Adapted from Maj Paul G. Hough, “Financial Management for the New

World Order,” Airpower Journal 6, no. 3 [Fall 1992]: 51.)

A photographer’s name occasionally appears in small type parallel to

the bottom side of a photograph. For material that the author has

obtained free and without restrictions, the word “courtesy” may appear

in the credit line (Chicago, 12.42, 12.46):

Photograph courtesy of Col Mike Schrieve

Mayor Lunsford at the groundbreaking ceremony for the industrial plant,

September 2002. Courtesy of Cathi Fredericks.

Photographs from Air Force or other government sources do not

require a credit line although you may include one if you wish (e.g.,

USAF photo). If all photos derive from a single source, you may omit

individual credit lines and simply include an appropriate statement on

the disclaimer page (e.g., The photographs in this book are from US

Air Force sources.).

Unless fair use applies [see appendix C], an illustration reproduced from a published work under copyright requires permission

(Chicago, 12.47):

Reproduced by permission from T. R. Fehrenbach, This Kind of War

(Washington, DC [or D.C.]: Brassey’s, 2000), facing 237.

If you reproduce a table from another source, identify it below the

body of the table, introduced by the word Source(s) (often in italics

and followed by a colon). Since the word source lacks specificity, consider using reprinted from or adapted from, depending upon whether

you have copied the table or modified it, respectively. Do not identify

the source by placing a note number after either the table number or

the table title and then including an endnote in the list of chapter notes.

A note applying to the table as a whole follows any source note, is

unnumbered, and is introduced by the word Note and a colon (often in

italics) (Chicago, 13.46).

136

5.0 DOCUMENTATION
Reprinted from Department of the Air Force, Air Force Performance in

Desert Storm (Washington, DC [or D.C.]: Government Printing Office,

April 1991); and author’s collation of published data.

Note: These figures represent the most reliable information currently

available.

See also appendix C.

5.6 plagiarism. If you use someone else’s writing as if it were your own,

you have committed plagiarism. This serious offense not only can lead

to a lawsuit but also can bring about severe professional repercussions

for the plagiarist. If you use another person’s wording or if you put

another person’s idea into your own words, you should identify the

borrowed passage and credit the author in a note.

Strategy [is] the art of distributing and applying military means to fulfill

the ends of policy.

—B. H. Liddell Hart, Strategy

If you use Liddell Hart’s definition of strategy in your text with the

intention of leading readers to believe that it is your own, you are

guilty of plagiarism. Using another writer’s exact wording is permissible only if you identify the passage in your text by enclosing it in

quotation marks and including an endnote:

Perhaps strategy is more properly defined as “the art of distributing and

applying military means to fulfill the ends of policy.”2

You should then credit your source by including a proper citation in

your list of notes:

2. B. H. Liddell Hart, Strategy, rev. ed. (New York: Frederick

Praeger, Inc., 1954), 335.

Similarly, you should identify and credit others’ writing that you

put in your own words (paraphrase). Paraphrasing, however, is not

simply a matter of changing or rearranging a few words here and

there; you must recast the passage:

unacceptable paraphrase:

Strategy is the art of applying and distributing military means to achieve

the objectives of policy.2

137

5.0 DOCUMENTATION
acceptable paraphrase:

B. H. Liddell Hart envisioned a country’s military as an instrument for

carrying out national policy. The purpose of strategy, then, is deciding

how to use the military toward this end.2

Ideally, you should introduce your paraphrase so that the reader has

no question about where your own commentary ends and where your

paraphrase begins, as is the case in the example above (i.e., mentioning the author’s name marks the beginning of the paraphrase, and the

endnote number shows where it ends). See also quotations (5.3) and

appendix C.

138

5.0 DOCUMENTATION
APPENDIX A

Note Citations

Examples of several categories of notes appear below. For other examples, see the 15th edition of The Chicago Manual of Style. Place notes at the

end of each chapter—not at the bottom of the page or at the end of the book.

For subsequent references, use ibid. or a shortened form of the note. Use

ibid. to refer to the note immediately preceding (do not use ibid. if that note

contains more than one citation). You may use ibid. within the note to indicate

successive references to the same work (Chicago, 16.48).

7. Richard G. Davis, Carl A. Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

(Washington, DC [or D.C.]: Office of Air Force History, 1993), 331.

8. Ibid., 301.

9. Gen Richard B. Myers, “A Word from the Chairman: Shift to a

Global Perspective,” Air and Space Power Journal 17, no. 3 (Fall 2003):

5, http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj03/fal03/

fal03.pdf. “By shifting our view from a regional to a global perspective,

we will better comprehend and respond to America’s security needs in

the twenty-first century” (ibid., 8).

For subsequent references to a source, use only the last name of the author

followed by a shortened form of the title (if the full title is more than four

words long), omitting an initial “A” or “The” (Chicago, 16.42), a comma,

and the page number of the reference. If the notes include works by authors

with the same last name, use the full name or initials in subsequent references to differentiate between them (Chicago, 16.44).

3. Edward M. Coffman, The War to End All Wars: The American

Military Experience in World War I (Madison, WI [or Wis. or Wisc.]:

University of Wisconsin Press, 1986), 215.

4. Hunter Liggett, Ten Years Ago in France (New York: Dodd, Mead,

1928), 84.

5. Dr. Robin Higham and Dr. Mark P. Parillo, “Management Margin:

Essential for Victory,” Aerospace Power Journal 16, no. 1 (Spring 2002):

22, http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj02/spr02/

spr02.pdf.

6. Maj David W. Coffman, Operational Art and the Human Dimension of

Warfare in the 21st Century (Newport, RI [or R.I.]: Naval War College,

1911), 17.

7. Edward M. Coffman, War to End All Wars, 220.

8. Higham and Parillo, “Management Margin,” 23.

In a work whose bibliography contains all of the material referred to in

the notes, the notes may be presented in a concise format—even first citations—since the reader can refer to the bibliography for full details. In a

work without a bibliography or whose bibliography does not contain all of

the material referred to in the notes, first citations should contain full details

141
(Chicago, 16.3). For the benefit of the reader, you may wish to include a

brief explanatory statement preceding the first set of notes.

Bibliographic entry:

Reynolds, Col Richard T. Heart of the Storm: The Genesis of the Air Campaign

against Iraq. Maxwell AFB, AL (or Ala.): Air University Press, 1995.

First note citation in a work with full bibliography:

Notes

(All notes appear in shortened form. For full details, see the appropriate entry

in the bibliography.)

1. Reynolds, Heart of the Storm, 55.

First note citation in a work without full bibliography:

Notes

1. Col Richard T. Reynolds, Heart of the Storm: The Genesis of the Air

Campaign against Iraq (Maxwell AFB, AL [or Ala.]: Air University Press,

1995), 55.

You may use a shortened form the first time a work is cited in a chapter’s

endnotes if a full citation for that work has appeared in the notes to a previous chapter. If the notes are far apart, you may use a cross-reference to

help the reader locate the full reference (Chicago, 16.43).

11. Liggett, Ten Years Ago in France, 90 (see chap. 2, n. 2).

Books

One author

1. Gen William C. Westmoreland, A Soldier Reports (Garden City, NY

[or N.Y.]: Doubleday & Co., 1976), 112, 195–96. [Reproduce the author’s

name as it appears on the title page.]

Two authors

2. John W. Masland and Laurence I. Radway, Soldiers and Scholars:

Military Education and National Policy (Princeton, NJ [or N.J.]: Princeton

University Press, 1957), 117–21. [List the authors’ names in the order in

which they appear on the title page.]

142

APPENDIX A
Three authors

3. Robert Strausz-Hupe, William R. Kintner, and Stefan T. Possony, A

Forward Strategy for America (New York: Harper & Bros., 1961), 117. [List

the authors’ names in the order in which they appear on the title page.]

More than three authors

4. Gerald Pomper et al., The Election of 1976 (New York: McKay, 1977),

61. [Give the name of the author listed first on the title page followed by “et

al.” or “and others.”]

5. Pomper et al., Election of 1976, 60. [shortened form]

No author given

6. Soviet Military Power (Washington, DC [or D.C.]: Government Printing

Office, 1983), 13–18. [Do not use Anonymous or Anon.]

Editor, compiler, or translator

7. Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States Air Force,

1907–1957 (Princeton, NJ [or N.J.]: D. Van Nostrand, 1957), 7. [Use the

name of the editor, compiler, or translator in place of the author when no

author’s name appears on the title page.]

8. Goldberg, History of the United States Air Force, 10. [shortened form;

omit the abbreviation for editor]

9. J. P. Mayer, Alexis de Tocqueville: Democracy in America, trans. George

Lawrence (New York: Doubleday & Co., 1969), 648. [When the author’s

name appears on the title page, place the name of the editor, compiler, or translator after the title, preceded by ed. [edited by], comp. [compiled by], or trans.

[translated by].]

10. Carl von Clausewitz, On War, ed. and trans. Michael Howard and

Peter Paret (Princeton, NJ [or N.J.]: Princeton University Press, 1976),

145–47.

11. Marshal Foch, The Principles of War, trans. Hilaire Belloc (London:

Chapman & Hall, Ltd., 1918), 7, 18–19.

Multivolume works and series

12. Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Cate, eds., The Army Air Forces

in World War II, vol. 2, Europe: Torch to Pointblank, August 1942 to December

1943 (1949; new imprint, Washington, DC [or D.C.]: Office of Air Force

History, 1983), 288–95. [One volume in the series.]

143

NOTE CITATIONS
13. Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Cate, eds., The Army Air Forces

in World War II, 7 vols. (1948–1958; new imprint, Washington, DC [or D.C.]:

Office of Air Force History, 1983). [Entire series.]

14. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 4, The Hinge of

Fate (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1948), 521.

15. Warren A. Trest, Military Unity and National Policy: Some Past

Effects and Future Implications, CADRE Paper Special Series: The Future

of the Air Force, no. AU-ARI-CPSS-91-7 (Maxwell AFB, AL [or Ala.]: Air

University Press, December 1991), 12.

Association or institution as author

16. Gates Commission, The Report of the President’s Commission on an

All-Volunteer Armed Force (Washington, DC [or D.C.]: Government Printing

Office, 1970), 3–9.

17. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Work in America

(Cambridge, MA [or Mass.]: MIT Press, 1973), 104–6.

Work of one author in a work edited by another

18. Col John A. Warden III, “Air Theory for the Twenty-first Century,” in

Challenge and Response: Anticipating US Military Security Concerns, ed. Dr.

Karl P. Magyar et al. (Maxwell AFB, AL [or Ala.]: Air University Press,

August 1994), 320–21. [If you are citing the entire chapter or contribution,

include inclusive page numbers.]

19. Warden, “Air Theory,” 325. [shortened form]

20. Dr. Lewis B. Ware, “Regional Study 1: Conflict and Confrontation in

the Post-Cold-War Middle East,” in Challenge and Response, 49. [When you

cite a different chapter/contribution in the same book as previously cited,

include a shortened citation for that book.]

21. Capt John T. Folmar, “Desert Storm Chapstick,” in From the Line in

the Sand: Accounts of USAF Company Grade Officers in Support of Desert

Shield/Desert Storm, ed. Capt Michael P. Vriesenga (Maxwell AFB, AL [or

Ala.]: Air University Press, March 1994), 19–20.

Edition

22. John N. Hazard, The Soviet System of Government, 5th ed. (Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1980), 23–25.

23. Norbert Weiner, The Human Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and

Society, 2d [or 2nd] ed. rev. (Garden City, NY [or N.Y.]: Doubleday, 1951),

68–71.

24. Weiner, Human Use of Human Beings, 74. [shortened form]

144

APPENDIX A
Reprint editions

25. Neil Harris, The Artist in American Society: The Formative Years,

1790–1860 (1966; repr., Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 43–44.

26. Giulio Douhet, The Command of the Air, trans. Dino Ferrari (1942; new

imprint, Washington, DC [or D.C.]: Office of Air Force History, 1983), 67.

Periodicals

Volume number not shown

27. “Congress Sends Nixon a Message,” Newsweek, 19 November 1973,

39.

28. TSgt Jim Katzaman, “Basics of Bombing,” Airman, June 1986, 8–12.

29. “Unions Are Alien to Our Defense System,” The Retired Officer,

May 1976, 25.

30. “Currents in the News,” U.S. News and World Report, 11 February

1980, 5.

31. Jay Finegan, “Struggling with Inflation,” Times Magazine (supplement to Air Force Times), 1 September 1980, 4.

Volume number shown

32. Col Richard F. Rosser, “American Civil-Military Relations in the

1980s,” Naval War College Review 24, no. 10 (June 1972): 14–15.

33. Donald S. Zagoria, “China’s Quiet Revolution,” Foreign Affairs 62,

no. 4 (Spring 1984): 879–904.

34. Philip Handler, “The American University Today,” American

Scientist 64, no. 3 (May–June 1976): 254–57.

35. Franklin D. Margiotta, “A Military Elite in Transition: Air Force

Leaders in the 1980s,” Armed Forces and Society 2, no. 2 (Winter 1976):

155–84.

36. Margiotta, “Military Elite in Transition,” 176. [shortened form]

Newspaper Items

Editorial

37. Editorial, Atlanta Constitution, 19 June 1986. [Omit the initial the

from titles of English language newspapers.]

News story

38. S. Fred Singer, “What Is Happening to World Oil?” Wall Street

Journal, 10 March 1982.

145

NOTE CITATIONS
39. William Robbins, “Big Wheels: The Rotary Club at 75,” New York

Times, Sunday, 17 February 1980, sec. 3.

40. Lt Gen Murphy A. Cheaney, “Military’s Quality Medical Care for a

Healthy Army,” Washington Times, 16 December 1985, final edition.

Encyclopedia/Dictionary Articles

41. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th ed., s.v. “canning, commercial.” [Cite

the item, preceded by s.v. (sub verbo, “under the word”).]

42. Dictionary of American Biography, s.v. “Wadsworth, Jeremiah.”

Historical Studies

43. Robert T. Finney, History of the Air Corps Tactical School, 1920–1940,

USAF Historical Study 100 (Maxwell AFB, AL [or Ala.]: USAF Historical

Division, Air University, 1955), 35–38.

44. R. Earl McClendon, Autonomy of the Air Arm (Maxwell AFB, AL [or

Ala.]: Documentary Research Division, Air University, 1954), 16–21.

45. Chase C. Mooney and Martha E. Layman, Organization of Military

Aeronautics, 1907–1935, Army Air Forces Historical Study 25 (Washington,

DC [or D.C.]: Army Air Forces Historical Division, 1944), 29–32.

46. Herman S. Wolk, USAF Plans and Policies: Logistics and Base Construction in Southeast Asia, 1967 (Washington, DC [or D.C.]: Office of Air

Force History, 1968), 36–39.

47. Thomas H. Greer, The Development of Air Doctrine in the Army Air

Arm, 1917–1941, USAF Historical Study 89 (Maxwell AFB, AL [or Ala.]:

USAF Historical Division, Air University, 1955), 9–10.

Staff Studies

48. Evaluation Division, Air University, Analyzing the USAF Publications

System for Producing Manuals, staff study, 13 July 1948.

49. Col Herbert V. Staudenmaier, CONUS Aeromedical Evacuation Study,

staff study, 31 March 1983.

50. Col Charles G. Williamson, chief, Status of Operations Division,

Directorate of Bombardment, Headquarters Army Air Forces, to Directorate

of Bombardment, Headquarters Army Air Forces, Status of Operations

Report, staff study, 3 March 1943.

51. Williamson, Status of Operations Report. [shortened form]

146

APPENDIX A
Unit and Staff Office Histories

52. History, Deputy Chief of Staff for Plans and Programs, Directorate of

Plans, Headquarters USAF, July–December 1958, 114, 163–64.

53. History, Research Studies Institute, July–December 1959, 1.

54. History of the Office of the Inspector General USAF, Directorate of

Special Investigations, 1 January–30 June 1963, 45–47.

55. History, Tactical Air Command, 1 July–31 December 1953,

193–94.

Reports

Published

56. Department of Commerce, Management of Internet Names and

Addresses, US Government White Paper (Washington, DC [or D.C.]:

Department of Commerce, June 1998), 2.

57. United States Department of State, The China White Paper, August

1949 (Stanford CA [or Calif.]: Stanford University Press, [1967]), 7.

58. John Erickson, The Soviet Military, Soviet Policy, and Soviet Politics,

USSI Report 73-3 (Washington, DC [or D.C.]: United States Strategic Institute,

1973), 5.

59. Richard V. L. Cooper, Military Manpower and the All-Volunteer

Force, RAND Report R-1450-ARPA (Santa Monica, CA [or Calif.]: RAND,

September 1977), 86–94.

60. Comptroller General of the United States, Report to the Congress:

Student Attrition at the Five Federal Service Academies (Washington, DC

[or D.C.]: General Accounting Office, 1976), 16–23.

61. Nancy Guinn, Identification of Service Irritants, AFHRL-TR-75-52

(Brooks AFB, TX [or Tex.]: Air Force Systems Command, 1973).

62. James E. Dougherty and Diane K. Pfaltzgraff, Eurocommunism and

the Atlantic Alliance, special report (Cambridge, MA [or Mass.]: Institute

for Foreign Policy Analysis, 1977), 6.

63. Department of Defense, Annual Report of the Secretary of Defense

and the Annual Reports of the Secretary of the Army, Secretary of the Navy,

and Secretary of the Air Force, July 1, 1958 to June 30, 1959 (Washington,

DC [or D.C.]: Government Printing Office, 1960), 44.

64. Maj Mark A. Cochran, Unit-Level Automation for Air Force

Contingency Operations in Low-Intensity Conflict, Research Report no.

AU-ARI-91-4 (Maxwell AFB, AL [or Ala.]: Air University Press, June

1992), 21.

147

NOTE CITATIONS
Unpublished

65. Maj John B. Hungerford Jr., “Organization for Military Space: A

Historical Perspective,” Research Report no. 82-1235 (Maxwell AFB, AL

[or Ala.]: Air Command and Staff College, 1982), 9–19.

66. Report of Air Corps Board, “Revision of Field Service Regulations,”

study no. 45, 15 November 1983, 2.

67. Report of the General Headquarters Air Force (Provisional) 1933, ca.

20 July 1933.

Unpublished Papers

68. Richard K. Betts, “Soldiers, Statesmen, and Resort to Force:

American Military Influence in Crisis Decisions, 1945–1976” (PhD diss.,

Harvard University, 1975), 78–86.

69. Betts, “Soldiers, Statesmen, and Resort to Force,” 80. [shortened form]

70. Dorothy Ross, “The Irish-Catholic Immigrant, 1880–1900: A Study

in Social Mobility” (master’s thesis, Columbia University, n.d.), 142–55.

71. P. Thomas, “Utilization of Enlisted Women in the Military” (paper

presented at the RAND Conference on Defense Manpower, Santa Monica,

CA [or Calif.], February 1976), 8.

72. Thomas, “Utilization of Enlisted Women,” 7. [shortened form]

73. Deborah D. Lucki and Richard W. Pollay, “Content Analyses of

Advertising: A Review of the Literature” (working paper, History of Advertising Archives, Faculty of Commerce, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, 1980).

Manuscript Collections

Full identification of most unpublished material usually requires giving

the title and date of the item, series title (if applicable), name of the collection, and name of the depository. Except for placing the cited item first (in a

note), there is no general agreement on the sequence of the remaining elements in the citation. Whatever sequence is adopted, however, should be

used consistently (Chicago, 17.222).

74. James Oglethorpe to the Trustees, letter, 13 January 1733, Phillipps

Collection of Egmont Manuscripts, 14200:13, University of Georgia Library.

(Chicago, 17.223)

75. Alvin Johnson, memorandum, 1937, file 36, Horace Kallen Papers,

YIVO Institute, New York. (Chicago, 17.223)

76. George Creel to Colonel House, letter, 25 September 1918, Edward

M. House Papers, Yale University Library. (Chicago, 17.230)

148

APPENDIX A
77. Undated correspondence between French Strother and Edward Lowry,

container 1-G/961 600, Herbert Hoover Presidential Library, West Branch, IA

[or Iowa]. (Chicago, 17.230)

78. Joseph Purcell, “A Map of the Southern Indian District of North

America” [ca. 1772], MS 228, Ayer Collection, Newberry Library, Chicago.

(Chicago, 17.230)

79. Joseph Dinkel, description of Louis Agassiz written at the request of

Elizabeth Cary Agassiz, Agassiz Papers, Houghton Library, Harvard

University. (Chicago, 17.231)

Legal Citations

The examples of legal citations included here assume inclusion in a nonlegal work and, therefore, have been adapted to the style of documentation

presented in this appendix. Thus, the format for citations of legal books/treatises and articles in periodicals is the same as that shown in the appropriate

sections of this appendix. For citations styled for inclusion in legal works,

see the 15th edition of The Chicago Manual of Style, 17.275.

80. AT&T Corporation v. Iowa Utilities, in United States Supreme Court

Reports, vol. 525 (1999), 366.

81. Old Chief v. United States, in Supreme Court Reporter, vol. 117

(1997), 644.

82. United States v. Dennis, in Federal Reporter, vol. 183 (2d [or 2nd]

US Circuit Court of Appeals, 1950), 201.

83. Brown v. Board of Education, in Federal Supplement, vol. 98 (US

District Court, Kansas, 1951), 797.

84. Lugosi [plaintiff] v. Universal [defendant], in California Reports, 3d

[or 3rd] series, vol. 25 (California Supreme Court, 1976), 813 [page].

85. Daniels v. Weigum, in California Appellate Reports, 2d [or 2nd]

series, vol. 194 (California Court of Appeals, 1961), 620.

86. United States v. Dennis, 202. [shortened form]

Public Documents

When you use an endnote citing congressional hearings and other public

documents, include the following information:

1. Author (name of house, committee, and subcommittee if any)

2. Title of document

3. Number of Congress and session number

4. Date of publication (year)

5. Part and number of report or document, if applicable

6. Page number(s)

149

NOTE CITATIONS
Sometimes you may need to include additional information. Take all information from the title page of the document.

Bills, reports, and miscellaneous documents

87. House, A Bill to Require Passenger-Carrying Motor Vehicles Purchased

for Use by the Federal Government to Meet Certain Safety Standards, 86th

Cong., 1st sess., 1959, HR 1341, 1–4.

88. House, Organization and Management of Missile Programs, Eleventh

Report by the Committee on Government Operations, 86th Cong., 1st sess.,

1959, HR 1121, 154–56.

89. House, Organization and Management, 155. [shortened form]

90. House Committee on Education and Labor, White House Conference

on Aging: Report to Accompany S. J. Res. 117, 90th Cong., 2d [or 2nd] sess.,

1 May 1968, 5.

91. Senate, Report of the Federal Trade Commission on Utility

Corporations, 70th Cong., 1st sess., 1935, S. Doc. 92, pt. 71A.

92. House, United States Defense Policies in 1958, 86th Cong., 1st sess.,

1959, H. Doc. 227, 114.

93. HR Rep. 871, 78th Cong., 1st sess., 1943, 49.

94. Senate, Documents on the International Aspects of the Exploration

and Use of Outer Space, 1954–1962, 88th Cong., 1st sess., 1963, S. Doc. 18,

55–56.

95. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Foreign

Policy, 86th Cong., 2d [or 2nd] sess., 1960, Committee Print, 1:729.

96. House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Central America, 1981: Report

to the Committee on Foreign Affairs, prepared by Hon. Gerry E. Studds, 97th

Cong., 1st sess., 1981, Committee Print, 31.

97. House Committee, Central America, 1981, 30. [shortened form]

98. Department of State, American Foreign Policy, Current Documents,

1958 (Washington, DC [or D.C.]: Government Printing Office, 1962), 1413.

Hearings

99. Senate, Study of Air Power: Hearings before the Subcommittee on the

Air Force of the Committee on Armed Services, 84th Cong., 2d [or 2nd] sess.,

1956, 52.

100. Senate, Study of Air Power, 1727. [shortened form]

101. Senate, Investigation of Governmental Organization for Space

Activities: Hearings before the Subcommittee on Governmental Activities of the

Committee on Aeronautical and Space Science, 86th Cong., 1st sess., 1959,

379–80.

150

APPENDIX A
102. House, Department of Defense Appropriations for 1954: Hearings

before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, 83d [or 83rd]

Cong., 1st sess., 1953, 317.

103. House, DOD Appropriations for 1954, 289–91. [shortened form]

104. House, Inquiry into Operations of the United States Air Services:

Hearings before the Select Committee on Inquiry into Operations of the

United States Air Services, 69th Cong., 2d [or 2nd] sess., 1925, pt. 4:2269–70.

Congressional bills and resolutions

Known as public laws or statutes, bills and resolutions first appear in the

Congressional Record, then in United States Statutes at Large, often in the

United States Code Annotated, and finally in the United States Code.

105. Food Security Act of 1985, HR 2100, 99th Cong., 1st sess., Congressional Record 131 (8 October 1985): H8461.

106. HR 11818, 89th Cong., 1st sess., 1956, sec. 301(a).

107. S. Res. 218, 83d [or 83rd] Cong., 2d [or 2nd] sess., 1954.

108. Atomic Energy Act of 1946, Public Law 585, 79th Cong., 2d [or

2nd] sess. (1 August 1946), 12, 19.

109. Atomic Energy Act of 1946, US Statutes at Large 60 (1947): 767,

774. [Citations to the statutes are to volume, year, and page number.]

110. Declaratory Judgment Act, US Code, vol. 28, secs. 2201–2 (1952).

[Citations to the code are always to section number, not page.]

111. Declaratory Judgment Act, secs. 2201–2. [shortened form]

Executive department documents

112. Department of Defense, Profile of American Youth: 1980 Administration of the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (Washington, DC [or

D.C.]: Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense [Manpower, Reserve Affairs

and Logistics], March 1982), 19.

113. Department of Defense, Profile of American Youth, 23. [shortened

form]

114. Department of Defense, Official Guard and Reserve Manpower

Strengths and Statistics, Fiscal Year 1985 Summary (Washington, DC [or

D.C.]: Assistant Secretary of Defense [Reserve Affairs], n.d.), 8.

115. Department of Defense, Official Guard and Reserve, 16. [shortened

form]

Presidential proclamations, executive orders, other documents

116. President, Proclamation, “Supplemental Quota on Imports of LongStaple Cotton,” Federal Register 15, no. 196 (10 October 1950): 127, microfiche.

151

NOTE CITATIONS
117. Executive Order 9877, Functions of the Armed Services, 26 July

1947.

118. EO 9877, Functions of the Armed Services. [shortened form]

119. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Dwight D.

Eisenhower, 1957 (Washington, DC [or D.C.]: Government Printing Office,

1958), 796.

120. Public Papers: Eisenhower, 274–90. [shortened form]

121. Statement of the president, 26 January 1968, in Weekly Compilation

of Presidential Documents 4, no. 4 (29 January 1968): 133.

122. UN General Assembly Resolution 1721 (XVI), “International

Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space,” 20 December 1961. 

Classified Sources

Mark classified documents with the classification of the title (immediately following the title) and with the overall classification of the document

(at the end of the publication data). If you take unclassified information from

a classified source, put a statement to that effect after the overall classification marking.

123. TAF SON 302-81, Statement of Operational Need for Night Attack

Capabilities (U), 2 November 1982. (Secret)

124. Assistant Chief of Staff, Intelligence, “Linebacker II: 18–29

December 72” (U), supporting document III-K1. (Top Secret) Information

extracted is unclassified.

125. Robert L. Faloon, Strategic Air Defense in Nuclear War (U)

(Maxwell AFB, AL [or Ala.]: Air University Press, 1983), 37. (Secret)

Information extracted is unclassified.

Declassified Sources

126. Central Intelligence Agency, National Intelligence Estimate

Number 11-5-57 (Washington, DC [or D.C.]: Central Intelligence Agency,

1957), 62. Document is now declassified.

Letters, E-Mails, and Indorsements

127. Maj W. G. Kilner, executive, Office of Chief of Air Service, to commandant, Air Service Tactical School, letter, 12 April 1925.

127a. Kilner to commandant, letter. [shortened form]

128. Lt Col C. C. Culver to chief of Air Corps, letter, 9 June 1928; 1st

ind., Maj L. W. McIntosh, executive, Office of the Chief of Air Corps, to

commandant, Air Corps Tactical School, 1 September 1928.

152

APPENDIX A
129. The Adjutant General to commanding generals, all corps areas et

al., letter, 31 December 1934.

130. Capt Harry A. Johnson, Command and General Staff School, to

chief, Air Corps, letter, 18 January 1935; 2d [or 2nd] ind., Lt Col H. A. Pratt,

chief, Air Corps, Materiel Division, to chief, Air Corps, 16 February 1935;

3d [or 3rd] ind., Col A. G. Fisher, president, Air Corps Board, to chief, Air

Corps, 15 July 1945.

130a. Maj John Smith, chief, Office of Public Affairs, Maxwell AFB,

AL, to the author, e-mail, 20 November 2005.

130b. Smith to the author, e-mail. [shortened form]

Memorandums

Regular memorandum

131. Lt Col G. W. Bundy, War Plans Division, War Department General

Staff, to Lt Col Clayton J. Bissell, War Plans Division, memorandum, 18

July 1941.

132. Col William W. Momyer, deputy commandant for evaluation, Air

War College, to Maj Gen John DeF. Barker, deputy commanding general,

Air University, memorandum, 17 September 1952.

133. Momyer to Barker, memorandum. [shortened form]

Draft memorandum

134. Chief, Air Corps, to chief of staff, Army, draft memorandum, 28

March 1938.

Memorandum of understanding

135. Secretary of the Army to secretary of the Air Force, memorandum

of understanding, 2 October 1951.

Memorandum for record

136. Gen Nathan F. Twining, vice-chief of staff, US Air Force, memorandum for record, 17 November 1950.

Messages

137. Message, TST-587, Joint Chiefs of Staff, to commanding general,

Strategic Air Command, 13 April 1949.

138. Message, AFCVC-51413, US Air Force to commanding general,

Far East Air Forces, 14 August 1950.

139. Message, 281415Z OCT 90, US Air Force to commanding general,

Far East Air Forces, 28 October 1990.

153

NOTE CITATIONS
Manuals, Instructions,

Directives, and Other Publications

140. Air Force Doctrine Document (AFDD) 1, Air Force Basic Doctrine,

17 November 2003, 3.

141. AFDD 1, Air Force Basic Doctrine, 5. [shortened form]

142. War Department, Field Service Regulations, United States Army

(Washington, DC [or D.C.]: Government Printing Office, 1924), 11, 21–24.

143. War Department Training Regulation (WDTR) 440-15, Employment

of the Air Forces of the Army, 15 October 1935.

144. WDTR 440-15, Employment of the Air Forces. [shortened form]

145. Air Force Instruction (AFI) 90-901, Operational Risk Management,

1 April 2000.

146. Air Force Pamphlet (AFPAM) 36-106, Supervisor’s Records, 20

December 1993.

147. AFDD 2-5.3, Psychological Operations, 27 August 1999.

148. DOD Directive (DODD) 5015.2, DOD Records Management

Program, 6 March 2000.

149. Air Force Manual (AFMAN) 36-505, Skill Coding, 1 August 1996.

150. Maj Gary Ambrose, Staff Summary Sheet, Memorandum of

Agreement on USAF Air Refueling Support for Navy Operations, 13

December 1985.

151. Air Force Policy Letter for Commanders: Supplement, February 1970,

2–6.

Source Cited/Quoted in Another Source

152. Quoted in George E. Lowe, The Age of Deterrence (Boston: Little,

Brown & Co., 1964), 232.

153. Quoted in Lowe, Age of Deterrence, 234. [shortened form]

154. Quoted in Samuel P. Huntington, “Democracy Fights a Limited

War: Korea, 1950–1953,” in Major Crises in American History: Documentary

Problems, ed. Merrill F. Peterson and Leonard W. Levy (New York: Harcourt,

Brace and World, 1962), 2:481.

155. Letter of Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara to Cong. Robert

Miller, 3 November 1961, in House, Sundry Legislation Affecting the Naval

and Military Establishment, 1963: Hearings before the Committee on Armed

Services, 88th Cong., 1st sess., 1963, 2729–30.

156. Statement of Lt Gen Paul Gorman, director for plans and policy,

Organization of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, in Senate, Department of Defense

Authorization for Appropriations for Fiscal Year 1982: Hearings before the

Subcommittee on Sea Power and Force Projection of the Committee on Armed

Services, 97th Cong., 1st sess., 1981, pt. 4:89.

154

APPENDIX A
157. Statement of F. Trubee Davison in “U.S. President’s Air Policy

Commission,” unclassified testimony before the President’s Air Policy

Commission (Washington, DC [or D.C.]: 1 December 1947, mimeographed),

6:2644–49.

158. Davison, “U.S. President’s Air Policy Commission,” 6:2648. [shortened form]

Diaries, Minutes, Chronologies,

Summaries, Digests, Notes, and So Forth

159. Diary of Fleet Adm William D. Leahy, 8 February 1946, William D.

Leahy Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC [or

D.C.].

160. Minutes of the War Department Board of Ordnance and Fortification,

24 October 1905, quoted in Jones Aviation Chronology, 1900–1906, 61.

161. Minutes of monthly meetings of Army Air Forces Board, 2 January

1945.

162. Minutes of the Patch Sword II Conference conducted at Headquarters

AFSC, Andrews AFB, MD [or Md.], October 1981, 26.

163. Chronology, Astronautics and Aeronautics (NASA, 1966), 252, 305,

373.

164. Air Staff Summary Sheet, Lt Col Andrew C. Barbee, Policy and

Plans Group, Report of Air Force Support of National Aeronautics and Space

Administration, 20 March 1967.

165. Daily Staff Digest, Headquarters USAF, 13 November 1967.

166. Notes, Fifth Air Force Planning Conference, 12 December 1951.

167. Briefing, 6127th Air Terminal Group, subject: Air Terminal

Detachments in Korea, 1 March 1951.

168. Brig Gen Mervin E. Gross, chief, Requirements Division, Aviation

Section, Signal Corps, Office of the Chief of Research, Army Air Forces,

record and routing (R&R) sheet, subject: Centralization of Certain LiteratureProducing Functions at Orlando, FL [or Fla.], 27 November 1944.

169. Gross, R&R sheet. [shortened form]

170. FM 90-14, “Rear Battle,” final draft, 19 November 1984, i.

Lectures and Addresses

171. Maj Gen Mason M. Patrick, “The Army Air Service” (lecture, Army

War College, Carlisle Barracks, PA [or Pa.], 9 November 1925).

172. Patrick, “Army Air Service.” [shortened form]

173. Gen Curtis E. LeMay, chief of staff, US Air Force (address, Air Force

Association Convention, Philadelphia, PA [or Pa.], 21 September 1961).

155

NOTE CITATIONS
174. Gen Earle G. Wheeler (graduation address, Industrial College of the

Armed Forces, Washington, DC [or D.C.], 11 June 1963).

175. Sir Robert Saundby, “British Air Doctrine” (lecture, Air War

College, Maxwell AFB, AL [or Ala.], 10 November 1953).

Interviews

176. Jerry Gibson (MCI Communications Corp.), interview by the author,

7 March 1983.

177. Gerald Sorbet (vice president, Fred’s Frozen Foods, Bismarck, ND

[or N. Dak.]), in discussion with the author, 21 October 2003.

178. Richard Voit, Warren Brasselle, and Kerry Deimer, interview by the

author during visit to MCI Communications Corp., Southern Region,

Atlanta, GA [or Ga.], 22 April 1983.

179. Maj Gen C. E. McKnight Jr. (US Army Communications Command,

Fort Huachuca, AZ [or Ariz.]), interview by the author, 24 February 1983.

180. McKnight, interview. [shortened form]

181. Sorbet, discussion. [shortened form]

182. Lt Col Jerry A. Singleton, interview by Dr. James C. Hasdorff, 30

October 1992, transcript, 24, US Air Force Academy Library, Colorado

Springs, CO [or Colo.].

183. McGeorge Bundy, interview by Robert MacNeil, MacNeil/Lehrer

NewsHour, PBS, 7 February 1990.

184. Interview with colonel from Air Combat Command, 7 February

2004. (unattributed interview)

Video Recordings

185. Morris Massey, What You Are Is, CBS-Fox Video, 30 min., 1983,

videocassette.

186. Louis J. Mihalyi, Landscapes of Zambia, Central Africa (Santa

Barbara, CA [or Calif.]: Visual Education, 1975), slides.

Translation Services

187. Sergey Agafonov, “Japan in Russia’s Financial Market: Bank of Tokyo

to Open in Moscow,” Izvestiya, 9 June 1992, 7, in FBIS [Foreign Broadcast

Information Service] Report: Central Eurasia, FBIS-USR-92-079, 29 June

1992, 4.

156

APPENDIX A
188. A. Boldinyuk, “The Karelian Issue: Does It Exist, and If So, in What

Form?” Pravda, 11 June 1992, 3, in FBIS-USR-92-079, 2. [subsequent reference to same FBIS issue]

189. Robert Minasov, “Gosznak Is Not Equal to the Task,” Rossiyskaya

Gazeta, 18 June 1992, 1, in FBIS-USR-92-080, 1 July 1992, 6. [subsequent

reference to different FBIS issue but same coverage (i.e., Central Eurasia)]

190. “Opposition Parties Oppose Election Postponement,” Korea Times,

25 June 1992, 2, in FBIS Daily Report: East Asia, FBIS-EAS-92-123, 25

June 1992, 23.

Electronic Publications

Electronic books

When citing electronic books available online, include as much of the

information as can be determined that would also apply to printed books

(author, title, volume, publisher, and so forth). Include the URL as part of

the citation. You need not include the date accessed unless the material is

particularly time-sensitive.

191. Col Richard T. Reynolds, Heart of the Storm: The Genesis of the Air

Campaign against Iraq (Maxwell AFB, AL [or Ala.]: Air University Press,

1995), 19, http://aupress.maxwell.af.mil/Books/b-55/heartstm.pdf.

192. J. Sirosh, R. Miikkulainen, and J. A. Bednar, “Self-Organization of

Orientation Maps, Lateral Connections, and Dynamic Fields in the Primary

Visual Cortex,” in Lateral Interactions in the Cortex: Structure and Function,

ed. J. Sirosh, R. Miikkulainen, and Y. Choe (Austin, TX [or Tex.]: UTCS

Neural Networks Research Group, 1996), http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/nn/

web-pubs/htmlbook96/ (accessed 27 August 2001). (Chicago, 17.143)

If you think it might be helpful to readers, you may indicate that a work

is also available in forms other than the printed one:

193. Philip B. Kurland and Ralph Lerner, eds., The Founders’ Constitution

(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), also available online at http://

press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/ and as a CD-ROM. (Chicago, 17.144)

Identify the format of non-Internet sources:

194. Thomas H. Davenport and John C. Beck, The Attention Economy:

Understanding the New Currency of Business (Harvard Business School

Press, 2001), TK3 Reader e-book. (Chicago, 17.145)

195. R. J. Hicks, Nuclear Medicine, from the Center of Our Universe

(Victoria, Austl.: ICE T Multimedia, 1996), CD-ROM. (Chicago, 17.145)

157

NOTE CITATIONS
Electronic journals

When citing electronic journals available online, include as much of the

information as can be determined that would also apply to the printed version

(author, title of article, volume, issue number, date, and so forth). Include the

URL as part of the citation. You need not include the date accessed unless the

material is particularly time-sensitive. Include specific page numbers if available; if not, add a descriptive locator (such as “The Consequences of Fear” in

note 196 below) if you think it would be helpful to readers.

196. Gen Richard B. Myers, “A Word from the Chairman: Shift to a Global

Perspective,” Air and Space Power Journal 17, no. 3 (Fall 2003): 5, http://www

.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj03/fal03/fal03.pdf.

197. Mark Warr and Christopher G. Ellison, “Rethinking Social Reactions

to Crime: Personal and Altruistic Fear in Family Households,” American

Journal of Sociology 106, no. 3 (2000), under “The Consequences of Fear,”

http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJS/journal/issues/v106n3/050125.html.

(Chicago, 17.181)

Online magazines

When citing online magazines, include as much of the information as can

be determined that would also apply to the printed version (author, title of

article, date, and so forth). Include the URL as part of the citation. You need

not include the date accessed unless the material is particularly time-sensitive.

Include specific page numbers if available.

198. Jessica Reaves, “A Weighty Issue: Ever-Fatter Kids,” interview with

James Rosen, Time, 14 March 2001, http://www.time.com/time/nation/

article/0,8599,102443,00.html. (Chicago, 17.187)

199. Lawrence Osborne, “Poison Pen,” review of The Collaborator: The

Trial and Execution of Robert Brasillach, by Alice Kaplan, Salon, 29 March

2000, http://www.salon.com/books/it/2000/03/29/kaplan/index.html (accessed

10 July 2001). (Chicago, 17.187)

Online newspapers, news services, and other news sites

When citing online newspapers or news articles posted by news services,

include as much of the information as can be determined that would also

apply to the printed version (author, title of article, date, and so forth). Include

the URL as part of the citation. You need not include the date accessed unless

the material is particularly time-sensitive.

200. Alison Mitchell and Frank Bruni, “Scars Still Raw, Bush Clashes with

McCain,” New York Times, 25 March 2001, http://www.nytimes.com/2001/

03/25/politics/25MCCA.html (accessed 2 January 2002). (Chicago, 17.198)

158

APPENDIX A
201. Richard Stenger, “Tiny Human-Borne Monitoring Device Sparks

Privacy Fears,” CNN.com, 20 December 1999, http://www.cnn.com/1999/

TECH/ptech/12/20/implant.device/. (Chicago, 17.198)

If a URL has become invalid before publication of the work in which it is

cited or if the article comes from an online source for a fee, include only the

address of the “home page” (note that such URLs end with a slash, as do

other directory-level URLs) (Chicago, 17.198).

202. Reuters, “Russian Blasts Kill 21, Injure More Than 140,” Yahoo!

News, 24 March 2001, http://dailynews.yahoo.com/. (Chicago, 17.198)

Electronic mailing lists

To cite material from an electronic mailing list that has been archived

online, include the name of the list, date of the individual posting, and the

URL. You need not include the date accessed unless the material is particularly time-sensitive. (Chicago, 17.236)

203. John Powell, e-mail to Grapevine mailing list, 23 April 1998, http://

www.electriceditors.net/grapevine/issues/83.txt. (Chicago, 17.236)

Site content

For original content from online sources other than periodicals, include

as much of the following as can be determined: author of the content, title

of the page, title or owner of the site, and URL. (Chicago, 17.237)

204. Evanston Public Library Board of Trustees, “Evanston Public

Library Strategic Plan, 2000–2010: A Decade of Outreach,” Evanston Public

Library, http://www.epl.org/library/strategic-plan-oo.html (accessed 18 July

2002). (Chicago, 17.237)

If there is no author, you may substitute the owner of the site (Chicago,

17.237):

205. Federation of American Scientists, “Resolution Comparison: Reading

License Plates and Headlines,” http://www.fas.org/irp/imint/resolve5.htm.

(Chicago, 17.237)

Since very informal sites, such as personal home pages and fan sites, may

have no titles, you may use descriptive phrases (Chicago, 17.237):

206. Camp Taconic Alumni, 1955 photo gallery, http://www.taconicalumni

.org/1955.html. (Chicago, 17.237)

207. Pete Townshend’s official Web site, “Biography,” http://www

.petetownshend.co.uk/petet_bio.html. (Chicago, 17.237)

159

NOTE CITATIONS
If a site ceases to exist before publication of the work in which it is cited,

say so parenthetically at the end of the citation, separated from the access

date, if any, by a semicolon (Chicago, 17.237):

208. Pete Townshend’s official Web site, “Biography,” http://www

.petetownshend.co.uk/petet_bio.html (accessed 15 December 2001; site now

discontinued). (Chicago, 17.237)

Reference works online

When citing online versions of encyclopedias and dictionaries, follow the

format for the printed versions (see above) and always include an access

date in addition to the URL. Sometimes it may be appropriate to include the

author of an entry (Chicago, 17.239).

209. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, s.v. “Sibelius, Jean,” http://search

.eb.com/bol/topic?eu=69347&sctn=1 (accessed 3 January 2002). (Chicago,

17.239)

210. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, s.v. “Sibelius,

Jean” (by James Hepokoski), http://www.grovemusic.com/ (accessed 3 January

2002). (Chicago, 17.239)

Online multimedia

When citing online multimedia, include such information as the name of

the composer, writer, performer, or person responsible for the content; the

title, in italics; the name of the recording company or publisher; the identifying number of the recording; the URL; and the type of medium. You need

not include the date accessed unless the material is particularly time-sensitive

(Chicago, 17.266, 17.270).

211. A. E. Weed, At the Foot of the Flatiron (American Mutoscope and

Biograph Co., 1903), 2 min., 19 sec.; 35 mm; from Library of Congress, The

Life of a City: Early Films of New York, 1898–1906, MPEG, http://

lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/papr/nychome.html (accessed 14 August 2001).

(Chicago, 17.270)

In the following note, the audiovisual material is associated with a specific article in an electronic journal (Chicago, 17.270):

212. Naraya no. 2, “Ghost Dancing Music” (MP3 audio file), Richard W.

Stoffle, Lawrence Loendorf, Diane E. Austin, David B. Halmo, and Angelita

Bulletts, “Ghost Dancing the Grand Canyon,” Current Anthropology 41, no. 1

(2000), http://www. journals.uchicago.edu/CA/journal/issues/v41n1/001001/

001001.html. (Chicago, 17.270)

160

APPENDIX A
CD-ROM or DVD-ROM

Citations to works issued on CD-ROM are similar to those for printed

works. You may omit place of publication and date unless they are relevant

(Chicago, 17.271).

213. Complete National Geographic: 110 Years of National Geographic

Magazine, CD-ROM, Mindscape, 2000. (Chicago, 17.271)

214. Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed., CD-ROM, version 2.0, Oxford

University Press. (Chicago, 17.271)

Public documents online

When citing online public documents, follow the format for printed materials (see above), adding a URL and, if necessary, an access date (Chicago,

17.356).

215. Illinois Constitution, art. 2, sec. 2, http://www.legis.state.il.us/

commission/lrb/conmain.htm. (Chicago, 17.356)

216. US Census Bureau, “Health Insurance Coverage Status and Type of

Coverage by Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin, 1987 to 1999,” Health

Insurance Historical Table 1, 2000, http://www.census.gov/hhes/hlthins/

historic/hihistt.html. (Chicago, 17.356)

217. L. A. Adamic and B. A. Huberman, “The Nature of Markets in the

World Wide Web,” working paper (Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, 1999),

http://www.parc.xerox.com/istl/groups/iea/www/webmarkets.html

(accessed 1 March 2001). (Chicago, 17.356)

161

NOTE CITATIONS

APPENDIX B

Bibliographic Entries

Examples of several categories of bibliographic citations appear below.

For other examples, see the entry bibliography (5.2) and page 181 in this guide,

as well as the 15th edition of The Chicago Manual of Style.

Books

One author

Westmoreland, Gen William C. A Soldier Reports. Garden City, NY [or N.Y.]:

Doubleday & Co., 1976.

Two authors

Masland, John W., and Laurence I. Radway. Soldiers and Scholars: Military

Education and National Policy. Princeton, NJ [or N.J.]: Princeton

University Press, 1957.

Three authors

Strausz-Hupe, Robert, William R. Kintner, and Stefan T. Possony. A Forward

Strategy for America. New York: Harper & Bros., 1961.

More than three authors

Pomper, Gerald, William G. Mayer, Marjorie Randon Hershey, and Kathleen

A. Frankovic. The Election of 1976. New York: McKay, 1977. [For four

to 10 authors or editors, include all names.]

No author given

Soviet Military Power. Washington, DC [or D.C.]: Government Printing Office,

1983.

Editor, compiler, or translator

Clausewitz, Carl von. On War. Edited and translated by Michael Howard and

Peter Paret. Princeton, NJ [or N.J.]: Princeton University Press, 1976.

Goldberg, Alfred, ed. A History of the United States Air Force, 1907–1957.

Princeton, NJ [or N.J.]: D. Van Nostrand, 1957.

Mayer, J. P. Alexis de Tocqueville: Democracy in America. Translated by

George Lawrence. New York: Doubleday & Co., 1969.

165
Multivolume works and series

Craven, Wesley Frank, and James Lea Cate, eds. The Army Air Forces in

World War II. 7 vols. 1948–1958. New imprint, Washington, D.C.: Office

of Air Force History, 1983.

———. The Army Air Forces in World War II. Vol. 2, Europe: Torch to

Pointblank, August 1942 to December 1943. 1949. New imprint,

Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force History, 1983.

Trest, Warren A. Military Unity and National Policy: Some Past Effects and

Future Implications. CADRE Paper Special Series: The Future of the

Air Force, no. AU-ARI-CPSS-91-7. Maxwell AFB, AL [or Ala.]: Air

University Press, December 1991.

Association or institution as author

Gates Commission. The Report of the President’s Commission on an AllVolunteer Armed Force. Washington, DC [or D.C.]: Government Printing

Office, 1970.

Work of one author in a work edited by another

Warden, Col John A., III. “Air Theory for the Twenty-first Century.” In

Challenge and Response: Anticipating US Military Security Concerns,

edited by Dr. Karl P. Magyar, Lt Col Maris McCrabb, Lt Col Albert U.

Mitchum Jr., and Dr. Lewis B. Ware, 351–75. Maxwell AFB, AL [or

Ala.]: Air University Press, August 1994.

Edition

Hazard,John N. The Soviet System of Government. 5th ed. Chicago: University

of Chicago Press, 1980.

Reprint editions

Harris, Neil. The Artist in American Society: The Formative Years, 1790–1860.

1966. Reprint, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.

Periodicals

Volume number not shown

“Congress Sends Nixon a Message.” Newsweek, 19 November 1973, 39.

166

APPENDIX B
Volume number shown

Rosser, Col Richard F. “American Civil-Military Relations in the 1980s.”

Naval War College Review 24, no. 10 (June 1972): [first and last page

numbers of article (e.g., 14–20)].

Newspaper Items

Newspapers are more commonly cited in notes or parenthetical references

than in bibliographies (Chicago, 17.191). However, if you wish to include

a bibliographic entry, use the following format:

Konz, Antoinette. “District Results Released.” Montgomery Advertiser, 11

August 2005.

Encyclopedia Articles

Well-known reference books are usually not listed in bibliographies.

Historical Studies

Finney, Robert T. History of the Air Corps Tactical School, 1920–1940. USAF

Historical Study 100. Maxwell AFB, AL [or Ala.]: USAF Historical

Division, Air University, 1955.

Staff Studies

Evaluation Division, Air University. To Analyze the USAF Publications System

for Producing Manuals. Staff study, 13 July 1948.

Staudenmaier, Col Herbert V. CONUS Aeromedical Evacuation Study. Staff

study, 31 March 1983.

Unit and Staff Office Histories

History. Deputy Chief of Staff for Plans and Programs, Directorate of Plans,

Headquarters USAF, July–December 1958.

History. Tactical Air Command, 1 July–31 December 1953.

Reports

Published

Erickson, John. The Soviet Military, Soviet Policy, and Soviet Politics. USSI

Report 73-3. Washington, DC [or D.C.]: United States Strategic Institute,

1973.

Management of Internet Names and Addresses. US Government White Paper.

Washington, DC [or D.C.]: Department of Commerce, June 1998.

167

BIBLIOGRAPHIC ENTRIES
Unpublished

Hungerford, Maj John B., Jr. “Organization for Military Space: A Historical

Perspective.” Research Report no. 82-1235. Maxwell AFB, AL [or

Ala.]: Air Command and Staff College, 1982.

Unpublished Papers

Betts, Richard K. “Soldiers, Statesmen, and Resort to Force: American Military

Influence in Crisis Decisions, 1945–1976.” PhD diss., Harvard University, 1975.

Ross, Dorothy. “The Irish-Catholic Immigrant, 1880–1900: A Study in

Social Mobility.” Master’s thesis, Columbia University, n.d.

Thomas, P. “Utilization of Enlisted Women in the Military.” Paper presented

at the RAND Conference on Defense Manpower. Santa Monica, CA

[or Calif.], February 1976.

Manuscript Collections

Dinkel, Joseph. Description of Louis Agassiz written at the request of Elizabeth

Cary Agassiz. Agassiz Papers. Houghton Library, Harvard University.

Egmont Manuscripts. Phillipps Collection. University of Georgia Library.

[Specific items are not included in a bibliography unless only one item

from a collection is cited.]

House, Edward M. Papers. Yale University Library.

Johnson, Alvin. Memorandum, 1937. File 36. Horace Kallen Papers. YIVO

Institute, New York.

Legal Citations

AT&T Corporation v. Iowa Utilities. In United States Supreme Court Reports.

Vol. 525, 1999.

Lugosi v. Universal. In California Reports. 3d [or 3rd] series. Vol. 25.

California Supreme Court, 1976.

Public Documents

Bills, reports, and miscellaneous documents

US House. A Bill to Require Passenger-Carrying Motor Vehicles Purchased

for Use by the Federal Government to Meet Certain Safety Standards.

86th Cong., 1st sess., 1959. H. R. 1341.

168

APPENDIX B
US Senate. Documents on the International Aspects of the Exploration and Use

of Outer Space, 1954–1962. 88th Cong., 1st sess., 1963. S. Doc. 18.

US Senate. Report of the Federal Trade Commission on Utility Corporations.

70th Cong., 1st sess., 1935. S. Doc. 92.

Hearings

US Senate. Study of Air Power: Hearings before the Subcommittee on the

Air Force of the Committee on Armed Services. 84th Cong., 2d [or 2nd]

sess., 1956.

Congressional bills and resolutions

Atomic Energy Act of 1946. Public Law 585. 79th Cong., 2d [or 2nd] sess.,

1 August 1946.

Atomic Energy Act of 1946. US Statutes at Large 60 (1947): 755–75.

Declaratory Judgment Act. US Code. Vol. 28, secs. 2201–2 (1952).

US House. Food Security Act of 1985. 99th Cong., 1st sess., H. R. 2100.

Congressional Record, 131, no. 132, daily ed. (8 October 1985):

H8461–66.

Executive department documents

US Department of Defense. Profile of American Youth: 1980 Administration

of the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery. Washington, DC [or

D.C.]: Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (Manpower, Reserve

Affairs and Logistics), March 1982.

Presidential proclamations, executive orders, other documents

Eisenhower, Dwight D. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States:

Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1957. Washington, DC [or D.C.]: Government

Printing Office, 1958.

Executive Order 9877. Functions of the Armed Services, 26 July 1947.

President. Proclamation. “Supplemental Quota on Imports of Long-Staple

Cotton.” Federal Register 15, no. 196 (10 October 1950): 127. Microfiche.

Classified Sources

Assistant Chief of Staff, Intelligence. “Linebacker II: 18–29 December 72”

(U). Supporting document III-K1. (Top Secret) Information extracted

is unclassified.

169

BIBLIOGRAPHIC ENTRIES
Faloon, Robert L. Strategic Air Defense in Nuclear War (U). Maxwell AFB,

AL [or Ala.]: Air University Press, 1983. (Secret) Information extracted

is unclassified.

TAF SON 302-81. Statement of Operational Need for Night Attack Capabilities

(U), 2 November 1982. (Secret)

Declassified Sources

Central Intelligence Agency. National Intelligence Estimate Number 11-5-57.

Washington, DC [or D.C.]: Central Intelligence Agency, 1957. Document

is now declassified.

Letters, E-Mails, and Indorsements

Culver, Lt Col C. C. To chief of Air Corps. Letter, 9 June 1928. 1st ind. Maj

L. W. McIntosh, executive, Office of the Chief of Air Corps. To commandant, Air Corps Tactical School, 1 September 1928.

Kilner, Maj W. G., executive, Office of Chief of Air Service. To commandant, Air Service Tactical School. Letter, 12 April 1925.

Smith, Maj John, chief, Office of Public Affairs, Maxwell AFB, AL. To the

author. E-mail, 20 November 2005.

Memorandums

Regular memorandum

Bundy, Lt Col G. W. War Plans Division, War Department General Staff. To Lt

Col Clayton J. Bissell, War Plans Division. Memorandum, 18 July 1941.

Draft memorandum

Chief, Air Corps. To chief of staff, Army. Draft memorandum, 28 March

1938.

Memorandum of understanding

Secretary of the Army. To secretary of the Air Force. Memorandum of understanding, 2 October 1951.

Memorandum for record

Twining, Gen Nathan F., vice-chief of staff, US Air Force. Memorandum for

record, 17 November 1950.

170

APPENDIX B
Messages

Message. 281415Z OCT 90. US Air Force. To commanding general, Far East

Air Forces, 28 October 1990.

Manuals, Instructions, Directives,

and Other Publications

Air Force Doctrine Document (AFDD) 1. Air Force Basic Doctrine, 17

November 2003.

Air Force Instruction (AFI) 90-901. Operational Risk Management, 1 April

2000.

Air Force Manual (AFMAN) 36-505. Skill Coding, 1 August 1996.

Air Force Pamphlet (AFPAM) 36-106. Supervisor’s Records, 20 December

1993.

Department of Defense (DOD) Directive 5015.2. DOD Records Management

Program, 6 March 2000.

Sources Cited/Quoted in Another Source

McNamara, Robert, secretary of defense. To Cong. Robert Miller. Letter, 3

November 1961. In US House. Sundry Legislation Affecting the Naval

and Military Establishment, 1963: Hearings before the Committee on

Armed Services. 88th Cong., 1st sess., 1963.

Diaries, Minutes, Chronologies,

Summaries, Digests, Notes, and So Forth

Barbee, Lt Col Andrew C., Policy and Plans Group. Air Staff Summary Sheet.

Report of Air Force Support of National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 20 March 1967.

Briefing. 6127th Air Terminal Group. Subject: Air Terminal Detachments in

Korea, 1 March 1951.

Chronology. Astronautics and Aeronautics (NASA, 1966).

Daily Staff Digest. Headquarters USAF, 13 November 1967.

Field Manual (FM) 90-14. “Rear Battle.” Final draft, 19 November 1984.

Gross, Brig Gen Mervin E., chief, Requirements Division, Aviation Section,

Signal Corps, Office of the Chief of Research, Army Air Forces. Record

and Routing (R&R) sheet. Subject: Centralization of Certain LiteratureProducing Functions at Orlando, FL [or Fla.], 27 November 1944.

171

BIBLIOGRAPHIC ENTRIES
Leahy, Fleet Adm William D. Diary. William D. Leahy Papers. Manuscript

Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC [or D.C.].

Minutes. War Department Board of Ordnance and Fortification, 24 October

1905. In Jones Aviation Chronology, 1900–1906.

Notes. Fifth Air Force Planning Conference, 12 December 1951.

Lectures and Addresses

LeMay, Gen Curtis E., chief of staff, US Air Force. Address. Air Force

Association Convention, Philadelphia, PA [or Pa.], 21 September 1961.

Patrick, Maj Gen Mason M. “The Army Air Service.” Lecture. Army War

College, Carlisle Barracks, PA [or Pa.], 9 November 1925.

Wheeler, Gen Earle G. Graduation address. Industrial College of the Armed

Forces, Washington, DC [or D.C.], 11 June 1963.

Interviews

It is not necessary to include interviews in a bibliography. You may wish to

include a transcript of an interview, however.

Video Recordings

Massey, Morris. What You Are Is. CBS-Fox Video. 30 min., 1983. Videocassette.

Mihalyi, Louis J. Landscapes of Zambia, Central Africa. Santa Barbara, CA

[or Calif.]: Visual Education, 1975. Slides.

Translation Services

Agafonov, Sergey. “Japan in Russia’s Financial Market: Bank of Tokyo to

Open in Moscow.” Izvestiya, 9 June 1992. In FBIS [Foreign Broadcast

Information Service] Report: Central Eurasia. FBIS-USR-92-079, 29

June 1992.

Electronic Publications

Electronic books

Davenport, Thomas H., and John C. Beck. The Attention Economy: Understanding the New Currency of Business. Harvard Business School

Press, 2001. TK3 Reader e-book.

172

APPENDIX B
Hicks, R. J. Nuclear Medicine, from the Center of Our Universe. Victoria,

Austl.: ICE T Multimedia, 1996. CD-ROM.

Sirosh, J., R. Miikkulainen, and J. A. Bednar. “Self-Organization of Orientation

Maps, Lateral Connections, and Dynamic Fields in the Primary Visual

Cortex.” In Lateral Interactions in the Cortex: Structure and Function,

ed. J. Sirosh, R. Miikkulainen, and Y. Choe. Austin, TX [or Tex.]: UTCS

Neural Networks Research Group, 1996. http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/

nn/web-pubs/htmlbook96/ (accessed 27 August 2001).

Electronic journals

Myers, Gen Richard B. “A Word from the Chairman: Shift to a Global Perspective.” Air and Space Power Journal 17, no. 3 (Fall 2003): 5–10.

http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj03/fal03/fal03

.pdf (accessed 29 September 2003).

Online magazines

Reaves, Jessica. “A Weighty Issue: Ever-Fatter Kids.” Interview with

James Rosen. Time, 14 March 2001. http://www.time.com/time/

nation/article/0,8599,102443,00.html.

Online newspapers, news services, and other news sites

Mitchell, Alison, and Frank Bruni. “Scars Still Raw, Bush Clashes with

McCain.” New York Times, 25 March 2001. http://www.nytimes.com/

2001/03/25/politics/25MCCA.html (accessed 2 January 2002).

Reuters. “Russian Blasts Kill 21, Injure More Than 140.” Yahoo! News, 24

March 2001. http://dailynews.yahoo.com/.

Stenger, Richard. “Tiny Human-Borne Monitoring Device Sparks Privacy

Fears.” CNN.com, 20 December 1999. http://www.cnn.com/1999/TECH/

ptech/12/20/implant.device/.

Electronic mailing lists 

Powell, John. E-mail to Grapevine mailing list, 23 April 1998. http://www

.electriceditors.net/grapevine/issues/83.txt.

Site content

Evanston Public Library Board of Trustees. “Evanston Public Library Strategic

Plan, 2000–2010: A Decade of Outreach.” Evanston Public Library.

http://www.epl.org/library/strategic-plan-oo.html (accessed 18 July

2002).

Federation of American Scientists. “Resolution Comparison: Reading License

Plates and Headlines.” http://www.fas.org/irp/imint/resolve5.htm.

173

BIBLIOGRAPHIC ENTRIES
Pete Townshend’s official Web site. “Biography.” http: //www.petetownshend

.co.uk/petet_bio.html.

Online multimedia

Weed, A. E. At the Foot of the Flatiron. American Mutoscope and Biograph

Co., 1903; 2 min., 19 sec.; 35 mm. From Library of Congress, The Life of

a City: Early Films of New York, 1898–1906. MPEG. http:// lcweb2.loc

.gov/ammem/papr/nychome.html (accessed 14 August 2001).

CD-ROM or DVD-ROM

Complete National Geographic: 110 Years of National Geographic Magazine.

CD-ROM. Mindscape, 2000.

Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. CD-ROM, version 2.0. Oxford University

Press.

Public documents online

Adamic, L. A., and B. A. Huberman. “The Nature of Markets in the World

Wide Web.” Working paper. Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, 1999.

http://www.parc.xerox.com/istl/groups/iea/www/webmarkets.html

(accessed 1 March 2001).

Illinois Constitution, art. 2, sec. 2. http://www.legis.state.il.us/commission/lrb/

conmain.htm.

US Census Bureau. “Health Insurance Coverage Status and Type of Coverage

by Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin, 1987 to 1999.” Health Insurance

Historical Table 1, 2000. http://www.census.gov/hhes/hlthins/historic/

hihistt.html.

174

APPENDIX B
APPENDIX C

Copyright

An “original work of authorship” is protected by the copyright laws of the

United States, regardless of whether the work is published and whether it is

registered with the United States Copyright Office (a department of the

Library of Congress). “Works of authorship” include written manuscripts

and other literary works, as well as original graphic or pictorial material, visual

art, audiovisual works, motion pictures, and sound recordings. The owner of

a copyright has exclusive rights of reproduction, adaptation, publication,

performance, and display of the work (if the work is to be published, he or

she may transfer some or all of these rights to the publisher by formal

agreement). For that reason, if you intend to use another person’s work (e.g.,

text, graphs, tables, photographs, paintings, film clips, music clips, etc.) in a

work of your own, you must obtain written permission from the copyright

owner, whether individual or publisher. Two important exceptions to this

principle follow.

First, you need not obtain permission if the work is in the public domain.

Such works are considered public property and may be used by anybody. A

work of the United States government (defined as a work prepared by an

officer or employee of the United States government as part of that person’s

official duties) is in the public domain, as is a work whose copyright has

expired. Effective January 1, 1978, the Copyright Act of 1976 provided that

duration of a copyright is the life of the author plus 70 years. In the case of

a “work made for hire,” the law regards the employer or other controlling

party as the “author” and provides a term of 95 years from the date of publication or 120 years from the date of creation, whichever is shorter, for the

duration of copyright. When the author is unknown or has published under

a pseudonym, the same length of time applies as for a work made for hire

(95 years from the date of publication or 120 years from the date of creation).

If, after publication, the author’s name is revealed and recorded with the

Copyright Office, the “life plus 70” principle takes over (unless the work

was made for hire). For unpublished works under the old copyright law (prior

to 1978), their copyright extends at least to December 31, 2002. If they were

published before that date, protection lasts until December 31, 2047, giving

them a term of 70 years from the date the new law went into effect and longer

if the authors’lives extended beyond 1977. Works published before December

31, 1922, are in the public domain. Works published from 1923 through

1963 are still protected if their copyright was renewed in the 28th year after

first publication. The renewal term for these works is now 67 years rather

than 28, but if no initial registration or renewal was properly filed, they are

in the public domain. Works published from 1964 through 1977 are protected for 95 years from first publication. If you have any doubts about the

currency of a work’s copyright, check with the Copyright Office (Chicago,

4.9, 4.22–.26).

177
Second, you need not obtain permission if you use material in accordance

with the doctrine of fair use. This doctrine allows you to use another person’s work for purposes of criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching,

scholarship, or research. For example, you may quote passages of copyrighted

material for purposes of critical analysis and review or for purposes of supporting your own work. You may also reproduce copyrighted pictorial material for critical purposes (e.g., use of a photograph to facilitate commentary

on techniques of photographic composition). In determining whether a use

is fair, the doctrine considers the following four factors:

1. The purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a

commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes. Commercial

use generally is presumed to be unfair. On the other hand, nonprofit educational use is not deemed automatically to be fair, but it is more likely to

be so treated, particularly if a public benefit results from the use.

2. The nature of the copyrighted work. The use of creative works, as

opposed to informational ones, is less likely to be deemed fair use.

Fictional works are afforded more protection than factual ones.

3. The amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the

copyrighted work as a whole. The doctrine of fair use does not specify

a particular number of words, lines, graphs, and so forth, that you may

use without permission. A rule of reasonableness applies, both quantitatively and qualitatively. Generally speaking, you cannot reproduce a

work in its entirety—a poem, an essay, a song, or an individually copyrighted article in a journal or magazine—without obtaining permission. Nor can you use the “heart of the work” (i.e., the key or essential

material) without obtaining permission.

4. The effect of the use upon the potential market for, or value of, the copyrighted work. While all of the factors must be considered in determining

the applicability of the fair-use doctrine, this fourth and final factor is the

single most important element of the analysis. Commercial use is presumptively harmful to the future value of the work used. Noncommercial

use, however, requires a meaningful (and demonstrable) likelihood of

future harm before the use is considered unfair.

Whether or not you obtain permission from the copyright owner to use

part of a work, you should always credit the author and the source of the borrowed material (see also plagiarism [5.6]). Merely acknowledging the source

does not substitute for obtaining permission if circumstances so dictate. If

you do obtain permission, you should identify your source, followed by a

statement such as “Reprinted by permission of the publisher.” An illustration

should be accompanied by a note such as “Courtesy of the Metropolitan

Museum of Art.”

178

APPENDIX C
The rapid expansion of electronic communications and the growth of the

Internet have given rise to complex legal issues that are as yet unresolved.

Pending legislation and ongoing litigation will no doubt have an effect on

how copyright laws are applied online. In the meantime, you would do well

to assume that the same principles of copyright protection that apply to traditional written and pictorial material also apply to materials found online.

That is, you should obtain permission to use any text, photographs, artwork,

and so forth that you find online unless that material is in the public domain

or you reproduce it in accordance with the doctrine of fair use (and you

should credit your source in any case). Likewise, you should apply the same

principles that apply to materials you use in your printed writings to any

materials you want to use in electronic or multimedia creations, such as CDROM or DVD-ROM.

179

COPYRIGHT

Bibliography

Air War College. Handbook on Research and Writing. Maxwell AFB, AL [or

Ala.]: Air University, 1982.

AU-12. Plain English, Please! Prepared by John Smith and Maj John R.

Grellman Jr. Maxwell AFB, AL [or Ala.]: Air University, 1982.

The Chicago Manual of Style. 15th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago

Press, 2003.

Copperud, Roy H. American Usage and Style: The Consensus. New York:

Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1980.

Ebbitt, Wilma R., and David R. Ebbitt. Index to English. 8th ed. Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 1990.

Evans, Bergen, and Cornelia Evans. A Dictionary of Contemporary

American Usage. New York: Random House, 1957.

Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. New York:

Modern Language Association of America, 1999.

Heflin, Woodford Agee, ed. The United States Air Force Dictionary.

Maxwell AFB, AL [or Ala.]: Air University Press, 1956.

The Merriam-Webster Dictionary of English Usage. Springfield, MA [or

Mass.]: Merriam-Webster, Inc., 1989.

Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. 11th ed. Springfield, MA [or

Mass.]: Merriam-Webster, Inc., 2003.

Siegal, Allan M. The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage. New York:

Times Books, 1999.

Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and

Dissertations. 6th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.

United States Government Printing Office: Style Manual. Washington, DC

[or D.C.]: Government Printing Office, 1984.

Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language,

Unabridged. Springfield, MA [or Mass.]: G. & C. Merriam Co., 1981.

181

AAA (antiaircraft artillery), 2.1

AAM (air-to-air missile), 2.2

a/an, 1.1

AB (air base), 2.3

abbreviations, 2.0

ABCCC (airborne battlefield command and

control center), 2.4

ABM (antiballistic missile), 2.5

above, 1.2

academic courses, 4.1, 4.1.1

academic degrees and titles, 2.6

ACC (Air Combat Command), 2.7

ACSC (Air Command and Staff College), 2.8

active Air Force, 4.1.2

active duty, 4.1.3

active voice, 3.1.1

acts, 4.1.4

AD (anno Domini), 2.9, 4.1.5

administration, 4.1.6

ADVON (advanced echelon), 2.10

AEF (air and space expeditionary force), 2.11

AEG (air expeditionary group), 2.12

aerospace, 1.3

AETC (Air Education and Training Command), 2.13

AETF (air and space expeditionary task

force), 2.14

AEW (airborne early warning; air expeditionary wing), 2.15

AFB (Air Force base), 2.16

AFCC (Air Force component commander),

2.17

AFCERT (Air Force computer emergency

response team), 2.18

AFDC (Air Force Doctrine Center), 2.19

AFDD (Air Force doctrine document), 2.20

AFFOR (Air Force forces), 2.21

AFHRA (Air Force Historical Research

Agency), 2.22

AFI (Air Force instruction), 2.23

AFIADL (Air Force Institute for Advanced

Distributed Learning), 2.24

AFIT (Air Force Institute of Technology),

2.25

AFLC (Air Force Logistics Command), 2.26

AFMAN (Air Force manual), 2.27

AFMC (Air Force Materiel Command), 2.28

AFOATS (Air Force Officer Accession and

Training Schools), 2.29

AFOSI (Air Force Office of Special Investigations), 2.30

AFPAM (Air Force pamphlet), 2.31

AFPD (Air Force policy directive), 2.32

AFRC (Air Force Reserve Command), 2.33

African-American, 4.2.1

Afro-American, 4.2.2

AFROTC (Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps), 2.34

AFSOC (Air Force Special Operations

Command), 2.35

AFSPC (Air Force Space Command), 2.36

AFTTP (Air Force tactics, techniques, and

procedures), 2.37

AF/XO (Deputy Chief of Staff for Plans

and Operations, USAF), 2.38

AF/XOI (Air Force Director of Intelligence,

Surveillance, and Reconnaissance), 2.39

agency, 4.1.7

AI (air interdiction), 2.40

AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome), 2.41

aiming point, 4.2.3

air base, 4.1.8, 4.2.4

air chief marshal, 4.2.5

aircraft, 1.4, 3.1.2, 4.4.1

aircrew, 4.2.6

airdrop (n.), 4.2.7

air-drop (v.), 4.2.8

air-droppable (adj.), 4.2.9

airfield, 4.2.10

air force, 1.5, 4.1.9

Air Force, 1.60

Air Force base, 4.1.10

air force (numbered), 4.3.1

Air Force One, 4.1.11

Air Force–wide, 1.6

airframe, 4.2.11

airhead, 4.2.12

airland, 4.2.13

AirLand Battle, 4.1.12, 4.2.14

183

Index
air lane, 4.2.15

airlift, 4.2.16

Airman, Airmen, 4.1.13, 4.2.17

air marshal, 4.2.18

air-minded, 4.2.19

air-mindedness, 4.2.20

airmobile, 4.2.21

airpower, 4.2.22

airspace, 4.2.23

air and space, 1.7

airspeed, 4.2.24

Air Staff, 4.1.14

air strike, 4.2.25

airstrip, 4.2.26

air vice-marshal, 4.2.27

airworthiness, 4.2.28

airworthy, 4.2.29

ALCM (air launched cruise missile), 2.42

allied, 4.1.15

allies, 4.1.15

al-Qaeda, 4.2.30

a.m. (ante meridiem [before noon]), 2.43,

4.1.16

AMC (Air Mobility Command), 2.44

amendments, 4.1.4, 4.1.17

ampersand (&), 2.45

AMRAAM (advanced medium-range air-toair missile), 2.46

and/or, 1.8

ANG (Air National Guard), 2.47

anti-, 4.2.31

AO (area of operations), 2.48

AOC (air and space operations center), 2.49

AOR (area of responsibility), 2.50

apostrophe, 3.2.1

appendix, 4.1.18

ARM (antiradiation missile), 2.51

armed forces, 4.1.19

arms control (n.), 1.9

arms-control (adj.), 1.10

Army, 1.61

army, 4.1.20

ARNG (Army National Guard), 2.52

art, 1.11

article (part of a document), 4.1.21

artwork, 1.11

ASAP (as soon as possible), 2.53

ASAT (antisatellite weapon), 2.54

ASBC (Air and Space Basic Course), 2.55

associate’s degree, 4.1.22

ATACMS (Army Tactical Missile System),

2.56

ATAF (Allied Tactical Air Force [NATO]),

2.57

ATO (air tasking order), 2.58

AU (Air University), 2.59

AUL (Air University Library), 2.60

AWACS (Airborne Warning and Control

System), 2.61

AWC (Air War College), 2.62

AWOL (absent without leave), 2.63

Ba’ath Party, 4.2.32

bachelor’s degree, 4.1.23

back matter, 1.12

base, 2.64

battalion, 4.1.24

battle, 4.1.25

battlefield, 4.2.33

Battlefield Airman/Airmen, 4.1.25.1

battlefront, 4.2.34

battleground, 4.2.35

battle line, 4.2.36

battlespace, 4.2.37

BC (before Christ), 2.65, 4.1.26

BCE (before the common era), 2.66

BDA (battle damage assessment), 2.67

beddown (n.), 4.2.38

bed down (v.), 4.2.39

below, 1.13

Berlin airlift, 4.1.27

Berlin Wall, 4.1.28

biannual, 1.14

bibliography, 5.2

biennial, 1.14

bills (congressional), 4.1.4, 4.1.29

bimonthly, 1.15

bin Laden, Osama, 4.2.40

biplane, 4.2.41

biweekly, 1.16

black (people), 1.17, 4.1.30

block quotations, 5.4

BMD (ballistic missile defense), 2.68

BMDO (Ballistic Missile Defense Organization), 2.69

board, 4.1.31

184

INDEX
Bosnian crisis, 4.1.32

BRAC (base realignment and closure), 2.70

brackets, 3.2.2

Brookings Institution, 4.2.42

building names, 4.1.33

buildup (n.), 4.2.43

build up (v.), 4.2.44

bullets, 3.2.3

bureau, 4.1.34

BVR (beyond visual range), 2.71

by-product, 4.2.45

C2 or C2 (command and control), 2.72

C3 or C3 (command, control, and communications), 2.73

C3I or C3I (command, control, communications, and intelligence), 2.74

C4 or C4 (command, control, communications, and computers), 2.75

C4I or C4I (command, control, communications, computers, and intelligence), 2.76

CADRE (College of Aerospace Doctrine,

Research and Education), 2.77

CALCM (conventional air-launched cruise

missile), 2.78

caliber (of weapons), 4.3.2

call sign (n.), 4.2.46

CAOC (combat [or combined] air operations center), 2.79

CAP (Civil Air Patrol; combat air patrol; crisis action planning), 2.80

capitalization, 4.1

caption, 1.18

CAS (close air support), 2.81

CBU (cluster bomb unit), 2.82

CBW (chemical and biological warfare), 2.83

CCAF (Community College of the Air

Force), 2.84

CE (of the common era), 2.85

cease-fire, 4.2.47

centuries and decades, 4.3.3

CEPME (College for Enlisted Professional

Military Education), 2.86

CFACC (combined force air component

commander), 2.87

chapter, 2.88

chapter (numbers), 4.3.4

chief of staff, 4.1.35

choke point, 4.2.48

CHOP (change of operational control), 2.89

CIA (Central Intelligence Agency), 2.90

CINC (commander in chief), 2.91

CIS (Commonwealth of Independent

States), 2.92

citizen-soldier, 4.2.49

civil service, 4.1.36

CJCS (chairman of the Joint Chiefs of

Staff), 2.93

click, 1.19

CNA (computer network attack), 2.94

CNO (chief of naval operations), 2.95

CO (commanding officer), 2.96

coalition forces, 4.1.37

COC (combat operations center), 2.97

code name (n.), 4.2.50

code-name (v.), 4.2.51

COG (center of gravity), 2.98

cold war or Cold War, 4.1.38

colon, 3.2.4

COMAFFOR (commander, Air Force

forces), 2.99

comma, 3.2.5

committee, 4.1.39

communism, 4.1.40

communist, 4.1.41

Communist bloc, 4.1.42

Communist Party, 4.1.43

compound words, 4.2.52

COMPUSEC (computer security), 2.100

COMSAT (communications satellite), 2.101

Congress, 4.1.44

congressional, 4.1.45

congressional committees and subcommittees, 4.1.46

congressman, 4.1.47

congresswoman, 4.1.47

CONOPS (concept of operations), 2.102

constitutional amendments, 4.1.48

CONUS (continental United States), 2.103

copilot, 4.2.53

copyright, 1.20

Corps, the, 1.62

cost-effective, 4.2.54

cost-effectiveness, 4.2.55

counter-, 4.2.56

countries, 4.2.57

185

INDEX
courses, academic, 4.1, 4.1.1

court-martial (n., v.), 3.1.3, 4.2.58

courts-martial (n., plural), 3.1.3, 4.2.58

coworker, 4.2.59

CRAF (civil reserve air fleet), 2.104

credit line, 5.5

crew member, 4.2.60

cross-train (v.), 4.2.61

CSAF (chief of staff, United States Air

Force), 2.105

CSAR (combat search and rescue), 2.106

Cuban missile crisis, 4.1.50

currency, 4.3.5

CV (aircraft carrier; carrier), 2.107

CW (chemical warfare), 2.108

cyberspace, 4.2.62

dangling modifier, 3.1.4

DARPA (Defense Advanced Research

Projects Agency), 2.109

dash, 3.2.6

data, 3.1.5

database, 4.2.63

data link (n.), 4.2.64

data-link (v., adj.), 4.2.65

dates, 1.21, 4.3.6

daytime, 4.2.66

DC or D.C. (District of Columbia), 2.110

D-day (n., adj.), 4.2.67

DEA (Drug Enforcement Administration),

2.111

decades, 4.3.7

decision maker, 4.2.68

decision making (n.), 4.2.69

decision-making (adj.), 4.2.70

de-emphasize, 4.2.71

DEFCON (defense readiness condition),

2.112

democracy, 4.1.51

Democrat(s) (member[s] of the party),

4.1.51

Democratic Party, 4.1.51

department, 4.1.52

DET (detachment), 2.113

DFAS (Defense Finance and Accounting

Service), 2.114

DHS (Department of Homeland Security),

2.115

DIA (Defense Intelligence Agency), 2.116

directions, 4.1.53

director, directorate, 4.1.54

direct quotations, 1.22

display dots, 4.5

dive-bomb (v.), 4.2.72

dive-bomber, 4.2.73

DMPI (designated [or desired] mean point

of impact), 2.117

DMSP (Defense Meteorological Satellite

Program), 2.118

DMZ (demilitarized zone), 2.119

doctorate, 4.1.55

doctrine documents, 2.120, 4.4.2

DOD (Department of Defense), 2.121

DODD (Department of Defense directive),

2.122

DODI (Department of Defense instruction),

2.123

DODM (Department of Defense manual),

2.124

DODR (Department of Defense regulation),

2.125

dollars, 4.3.8

dot-com, 1.23

downsize (v.), 4.2.74

Dr. (doctor), 2.126

drawdown (n.), 4.2.75

draw down (v.), 4.2.76

DRU (direct reporting unit), 2.127

DSN (Defense Switched Network), 2.128

EAF (expeditionary air and space forces),

2.129

earth, 4.1.56

Earth satellites, 4.3.9, 4.4.3

Earth station, 4.1.57

East Berlin, 1.24

East Germany, 1.24

EBO (effects-based operations), 2.130

e.g. (for example), 2.131

ELINT (electronic intelligence), 2.132

ellipses, 3.2.7

e-mail (n., sing. and pl.), 4.1.58, 4.2.77

e-mail (v.), 4.1.59, 4.2.78

e-mailer (n.), 4.1.60, 4.2.79

emphasis, 4.4.4

empire, 4.1.61

186

INDEX
endgame, 4.2.80

endnotes, 4.2.81

end state (n.), 4.2.82

end-state (adj.), 4.2.83

en masse, 4.2.84

en route (adv., adj.), 4.2.85

ensure, 4.2.86

entitle, 1.25

EO (executive order), 2.133

epigraph, 1.26, 4.4.5

et al. (and others), 2.134

etc. (and so forth), 2.135

EU (European Union), 2.136

EW (early warning; electronic warfare),

2.137

exercises, 4.1.62

FAC (forward air controller), 2.138

fact finder, 4.2.87

fact-finding, 4.2.88

fait accompli, 4.2.89

FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation),

2.139

FBIS (Foreign Broadcast Information Service), 2.140

FEBA (forward edge of the battle area),

2.141

federal, 4.1.63

federal government, 4.1.63, 4.1.73

feedback, 4.2.90

FEMA (Federal Emergency Management

Agency), 2.142

field marshal, 4.2.91

field test (n.), 4.2.92

field-test (v.), 4.2.93

fighter-bomber, 4.2.94

fighter pilot, 4.2.95

figures, 1.27, 1.33, 4.3.10

firearm, 4.2.96

firebomb (n., v.), 4.2.97

firepower, 4.2.98

first, 3.1.6

firsthand (adj., adv.), 4.2.99

firstly, 3.1.6

first person, 3.1.7

First World War, 1.72

flight crew, 4.2.100

flight line (n.), 4.2.101

flight-line (adj.), 4.2.102

flight path, 4.2.103

flight suit, 4.2.104

flight-test (v.), 4.2.105

FLIR (forward-looking infrared), 2.143

floor leader, 4.1.64

FLOT (forward line of own troops), 2.144

FM (field manual [Army]), 2.145

FOA (field operating agency), 2.146

FOIA (Freedom of Information Act), 2.147

followership, 4.2.106

follow-on (n.), 4.2.107

follow-up (n.), 4.2.108

follow up (v.), 4.2.109

footnote, 4.2.110

foreign military services, 4.1.65

foreign terms, 4.4.6

foreword, 1.28, 4.2.111

forms (titles of), 4.4.7

fort, 4.1.66

FOUO (for official use only), 2.148

FP (force protection), 2.149

FPCON (force protection condition), 2.150

fractions, 4.3.11

FRAG (fragmentation code), 2.151

free world or Free World, 4.1.67

frequencies, 2.152, 2.335

frontline (adj.), 4.2.113

front line (n.), 4.2.112

front matter, 1.29

FS (fighter squadron), 2.153

FSCL (fire support coordination line), 2.154

führer or fuehrer, 4.1.68, 4.2.114

full time (n.), 4.2.115

full-time (adj., adv.), 4.2.116

FW (fighter wing), 2.155

FY (fiscal year), 2.156

Gadhafi, Mu‘ammar, 4.2.117

GAO (Government Accountability Office),

2.157

GBU (guided bomb unit), 2.158

GCA (ground controlled approach), 2.159

GCI (ground control intercept), 2.160

general (military rank), 2.161, 4.1.69

Geneva convention(s), 4.1.70

GEO (geosynchronous Earth orbit), 2.162

geo-, 4.2.118

187

INDEX
g-force, 2.163, 4.1.71, 4.2.119

GHz (gigahertz), 2.164

GLCM (ground launched cruise missile),

2.165

global war on terrorism (GWOT), 4.1.72

glossary, 1.30

GMT (Greenwich Mean Time), 2.166

GO (general order), 2.167

government, 4.1.73

GPS (global positioning system), 2.168

Great War, 1.72

group, 4.1.74

GSA (General Services Administration),

2.169

G suit, 2.170, 4.1.75, 4.2.120

Gulf War, 4.1.76

GWOT (global war on terrorism), 2.170.1

half-, 4.2.121

half century, 4.2.122

HARM (high-speed antiradiation missile),

2.171

he, 3.1.8

headings, 1.31

headquarters, 4.1.77

HF (high frequency), 2.172

H hour (specific time an operation or exercise

begins), 2.173

high-, 4.2.123

highway, 4.1.78

highway (numbered), 4.3.12

him, 3.1.8

his, 3.1.8

HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), 2.174

HMMWV (high mobility multipurpose

wheeled vehicle), 2.175

HMW (health, morale, and welfare), 2.176

Ho Chi Minh Trail, 4.1.79

home page, 4.2.124

house (Congress), 4.1.80

HRO (humanitarian relief organizations),

2.177

HUD (head-up display), 2.178

HUMINT (human intelligence), 2.179

HUMRO (humanitarian relief operation),

2.180

hundreds, 4.3.13

Hussein, Saddam, 4.2.125

hyphenated compound words, 3.2.8

Hz (hertz), 2.181

I, 3.1.11

IA (information attack or information assurance), 2.182

IADS (Integrated Air Defense System), 2.183

ibid. (in the same place), 2.184

ICBM (intercontinental ballistic missile),

2.185

idem (the same), 1.32

i.e. (that is), 2.186

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics

Engineers), 2.187

IFF (identification, friend or foe), 2.188

IG (inspector general), 2.189

ill-, 4.2.126

illustrations, 1.33

IMA (individual mobilization augmentee),

2.190

IMINT (imagery intelligence), 2.191

important, 3.1.9

importantly, 3.1.9

inbrief (v.), 4.2.127

inbriefing (n., v.), 4.2.128

in-depth (adj.), 4.2.130

in depth (adv.), 4.2.129

index, 1.34

INFOCON (information operations condition), 2.192

information age, 4.1.81

INFOSEC (information security), 2.193

in-process (v.), 4.2.131

INS (inertial navigation system), 2.194

instructions, 2.120, 4.4.2

insure, 4.2.132

INTELSAT (International Telecommunications Satellite Organization), 2.195

inter-, 4.2.133

international date line, 4.1.82

Internet, 4.1.83

Internet address, 1.35

in-theater (adj., adv.), 4.2.134

IO (information operations), 2.196

I/O (input/output), 2.197

IOS (International Officer School), 2.198

IR (infrared), 2.199

iron curtain, 4.1.84

188

INDEX
ISR (intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance), 2.200

it, 3.1.10

italics, 4.4

IW (information warfare), 2.201

I&W (indications and warning), 2.202

J-1 (manpower and personnel directorate of

a joint staff), 2.203

J-2 (intelligence directorate of a joint staff),

2.204

J-3 (operations directorate of a joint staff),

2.205

J-4 (logistics directorate of a joint staff),

2.206

J-5 (plans directorate of a joint staff), 2.207

J-6 (command, control, communications,

and computer systems directorate of a

joint staff), 2.208

J-7 (Operational Plans and Joint Force

Development, Joint Staff), 2.209

J-8 (Director for Force Structure, Resource,

and Assessment, Joint Staff), 2.210

JAG (judge advocate general), 2.211

JAOC (joint air [and space] operations center), 2.212

JAOP (joint air [and space] operations plan),

2.213

JASSM (Joint Air-to-Surface Standoff

Missile), 2.214

JCS (Joint Chiefs of Staff), 2.215

JDAM (Joint Direct Attack Munition),

2.216

jeep, 4.1.85

JFACC (joint force air [and space] component commander), 2.217

JFC (joint force commander), 2.218

JFLCC (joint force land component commander), 2.219

JFMCC (joint force maritime component

commander), 2.220

JFSOCC (joint force special operations component commander), 2.221

JOC (joint operations center), 2.222

joint doctrine, 4.1.86

Joint Staff, 4.1.87

journals, 4.1.88, 4.4.9

JP (joint publication), 2.223

Jr., 2.224

JSOW (joint standoff weapon), 2.225

JSTARS (Joint Surveillance Target Attack

Radar System), 2.226

JTF (joint task force), 2.227

judicial branch, 4.1.89

-keeper, 4.2.135

kg (kilogram), 2.228

kHz (kilohertz), 2.229

KIA (killed in action), 2.230

km (kilometer), 2.231

Korean conflict, 4.1.90

Korean War, 4.1.91

landmass, 4.2.136

land power, 4.2.137

LANDSAT (land satellite), 2.232

LANTIRN (low-altitude navigation and targeting infrared for night), 2.233

latitude, 1.36, 2.234

laws, 4.1.4, 4.1.92

legal cases, 4.4.10

legend, 1.18

legislative bodies, 4.1.93

legislative branch, 4.1.93

LEO (low Earth orbit), 2.235

LF (low frequency), 2.236

LGB (laser-guided bomb), 2.237

LGM (laser-guided missile), 2.238

LGW (laser-guided weapon), 2.239

LIC (low intensity conflict), 2.240

LIMFAC (limiting factor), 2.241

lists, 1.37

LOC (line of communications), 2.242

localities, 4.1.94

loc. cit. (loco citato), 2.243

log-in (n.), 4.2.139

log in (v.), 4.2.138

logistic or logistical, 4.2.140

logistics (n.), 3.1.12

log-off (n.), 4.2.142

log off (v.), 4.2.141

log-on (n.), 4.2.144

log on (v.), 4.2.143

longitude, 1.36, 2.234

long term (n.), 4.2.145

long-term (adj.), 4.2.146

189

INDEX
longtime (adj.), 4.2.147

LORAN (long-range aid to navigation), 2.24

Luftwaffe, 4.4.11

MAAP (master air attack plan), 2.245

MAAS (master of airpower art and science

[degree, School of Advanced Air and

Space Studies]), 2.245.1

Mach 2 (etc.), 4.3.14

magazines, 4.4.12

MAGTF (Marine air-ground task force),

2.246

MAJCOM (major command [USAF]),

2.247

man-, 4.2.148

man-hour(s), 4.2.149

MANPADS (man-portable air defense system), 2.248

manuals, 2.120, 4.4.2

marine, 4.1.95

Marine Corps, 1.62, 4.1.95

Marine(s), 4.1.95

Marshall Plan, 4.1.96

master’s degree, 4.1.97

material, 4.2.150

matériel (or materiel), 4.2.150

MAW (Marine aircraft wing), 2.249

measurements, 4.3.15

medals, 4.1.98

MEDEVAC (medical evacuation), 2.250

media, 3.1.13

MEO (medium Earth orbit), 2.251

Messrs., 2.252

MET (mission essential task), 2.253

MHz (megahertz), 2.254

MIA (missing in action), 2.255

microcomputer, 4.2.151

mid-, 4.2.152

Middle Ages, 4.1.99

MiG(s), 2.256, 4.1.100

military abbreviations, 2.257

military establishment, 4.1.101

military-industrial complex, 4.1.102

military terms, 4.1.103

military time, 4.3.16

military titles and offices, 2.258, 4.1.104

military units, 4.3.17

militia, militias, 4.2.153

Miloˇsevic ́, Slobodan, 4.2.154

mind-set (n.), 4.2.155

minelayer (n.), 4.2.156

mine laying (n.), 4.2.157

mine-laying (adj.), 4.2.158

minesweeper (n.), 4.2.159

minesweeping (n., v.), 4.2.160

MIRV (multiple independently targeted reentry vehicle), 2.259

MISREP (mission report), 2.260

missileman, 4.2.161

MITRE Corp. (Massachusetts Institute of

Technology Research Corporation), 2.261

Mme, 2.269

Mmes, 2.252

MMOAS (master of military operational art

and science [degree, Air Command and

Staff College]), 2.261.1

MOA (memorandum of agreement), 2.262

MOE (measure of effectiveness), 2.263

money, 4.3.18

months of the year, 2.264

moon, 4.1.105

MOOTW (military operations other than

war), 2.265

MOS (military occupational specialty),

2.266

mottoes, 1.38, 4.1.106

MOU (memorandum of understanding),

2.267

mph (miles per hour), 2.268

Mr., 2.269

MRE (meal, ready to eat), 2.270

Mrs., 2.269

Ms., 2.269

MSS (master of strategic studies [degree,

Air War College]), 2.270.1

MTW (major theater war), 2.271

multi-, 4.2.162

must-read (n.), 4.2.163

NAF (nonappropriated funds; numbered air

force), 2.272

NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), 2.273

nation-state, 4.2.164

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization),

2.274

190

INDEX
naval forces, 4.1.107

naval station, 4.1.108

NAVSAT (navigation satellite), 2.275

Navy, 1.63, 4.1.109

NBC (nuclear, biological, and chemical),

2.276

NCA (National Command Authorities),

2.277

NCO (noncombat operations; noncommissioned officer), 2.278

NCOIC (noncommissioned officer in

charge), 2.279

NDU (National Defense University), 2.280

NEA (northeast Asia), 2.281

near real time (n.), 4.2.165

near-real-time (adj.), 4.2.166

near term (n.), 4.2.167

near-term (adj.), 4.2.168

Negro, 1.39

Negroes, 1.39

NEO (noncombat evacuation operation),

2.282

network-centric (adj.), 4.2.168.1

newspapers, 4.4.14

NGA (National Geospatial-Intelligence

Agency), 2.283

NGB (National Guard Bureau), 2.284

NGO (nongovernmental organization),

2.285

nicknames, 1.40

nighttime, 4.2.169

NIPRNET (Nonsecure Internet Protocol

Router Network), 2.286

nm (nautical mile), 2.287

no., 2.288

NOFORN (not releasable to foreign nationals), 2.289

non-, 4.2.170

none, 3.1.14

NORAD (North American Aerospace Defense Command), 2.290

NOTAM (notice to Airmen), 2.291

notes, 5.1

NRO (National Reconnaissance Office),

2.292

NSA (National Security Agency), 2.293

NSC (National Security Council), 2.294

nuclear triad, 4.1.110

numbered air force, 4.3.19

numbers, 4.3

NVG (night vision goggle), 2.295

OCA (offensive counterair), 2.296

OCI (offensive counterinformation), 2.297

OCS (offensive counterspace), 2.298

officials, government, 4.1.111

off-line (adj., adv.), 4.2.171

off-load (v.), 4.2.172

OJT (on-the-job training), 2.299

OL (operating location), 2.300

O&M (operation and maintenance), 2.301

OMB (Office of Management and Budget),

2.302

omissions, 3.2.9

onboard (adj.), 4.2.173

on board (adv.), 4.2.174

ongoing (adj.), 4.2.175

online (adj., adv.), 4.2.176

onload (v.), 4.2.177

on-station (adj.), 4.2.178

on station (adv.), 4.2.179

OODA (observe, orient, decide, act), 2.303

op. cit. (opere citato), 2.304

OPCON (operational control), 2.305

operations, names of, 4.1.112

OPLAN (operation plan), 2.306

OPM (Office of Personnel Management),

2.307

OPORD (operation order), 2.308

OPR (office of primary responsibility),

2.309

OPTEMPO (operating tempo), 2.310

organizations, 4.1.113

OSD (Office of the Secretary of Defense),

2.311

OT&E (operational test and evaluation),

2.312

OTS (Officer Training School), 2.313

outbrief (v.), 4.2.180

outbriefing (n., v.), 4.2.181

out-process (v.), 4.2.182

over-, 4.2.183

PA (Public Affairs), 2.314

PACAF (Pacific Air Forces), 2.315

pacts, 4.1.149

191

INDEX
page numbers, 2.316

pamphlets, 2.120, 4.4.2

panzer, 4.1.114

parentheses, 3.2.10

part-time (adj., adv.), 4.2.184

part-timer (n.), 4.2.185 

party (political), 4.1.115

passive voice, 3.1.15

PAWS (phased array warning system),

2.317

PCS (permanent change of station), 2.318

peacekeeper, 4.2.186

peacekeeping, 4.2.187

peacemaker, 4.2.188

peacemaking, 4.2.189

peacetime, 4.2.190

per annum, 4.2.191

per capita, 4.2.192

percent, 1.41, 4.3.20

period, 3.2.11

periodicals, 4.4.16

Persian Gulf War, 4.1.116

PGM (precision-guided munitions), 2.319

Philippines, 4.2.193

PIREP (pilot report), 2.320

PKO (peacekeeping operations), 2.321

plagiarism, 5.6

plans, 4.1.117, 4.1.149

p.m. (post meridiem [after noon]), 2.322,

4.1.118

PME (professional military education),

2.323

POC (point of contact), 2.324

POL (petroleum, oil, and lubricants), 2.315

policy directives, 2.120, 4.4.2

policy maker (n.), 4.2.194

policy making (n.), 4.2.195

policy-making (adj.), 4.2.196

POM (program objective memorandum),

2.326

possessive, 3.2.12

post-, 4.2.197

POW (prisoner of war), 2.327

PPBS (Planning, Programming, and Budgeting System), 2.318

pre-, 4.2.198

preliminaries, 1.42

president, 4.1.119

Prime BEEF (Prime Base Engineer Emergency Force), 2.329

pro-, 4.2.199

proactive (adj.), 4.2.200

proactively (adv.), 4.2.201

problem solver (n.), 4.2.202

problem solving (n.), 4.2.203

problem-solving (adj.), 4.2.204

profanity, 1.43

proofreaders’ marks, 1.44

PSYOP (psychological operations), 2.330

PSYWAR (psychological warfare), 2.331

pub (publication), 2.332

quantities, 4.3.21

question mark, 3.2.13

quotation marks, 3.2.14

quotations, 5.3

RAF (Royal Air Force [United Kingdom]),

2.333

RAND or RAND Corporation, 4.1.120

rank, 2.258

rates of speed, 2.335

RCS (radar cross section), 2.336

R&D (research and development), 2.337

RDA (research, development, and acquisition), 2.338

RDT&E (research, development, test, and

evaluation), 2.339

re-, 4.2.205

real time (n.), 4.2.206

real-time (adj.), 4.2.207

real-world (adj.), 4.2.208

RECCE (reconnaissance), 2.340

RECON (reconnaissance), 2.341

RED HORSE (Rapid Engineers Deployable

Heavy Operations Repair Squadron, Engineers), 2.342

regiment, 4.1.121

regions, 4.1.94

regions of the world, 4.1.122

regular, 4.1.123

Republican Party, 4.1.124

Republican(s), 4.1.124

Reserve(s), 4.1.125

retired military personnel, 1.45

risk taking (n.), 4.2.209

192

INDEX
risk-taking (adj.), 4.2.210

RMA (revolution in military affairs), 2.343

road map (n.), 4.2.211

ROE (rules of engagement), 2.344

ROK (Republic of Korea), 2.345

ROTC (Reserve Officer Training Corps),

2.346

RPV (remotely piloted vehicle), 2.347

RRF (rapid reaction force), 2.348

running heads, 1.46

Russia, Russian, 1.47

SAASS (School of Advanced Air and Space

Studies), 2.349

SACEUR (Supreme Allied Command,

Europe), 2.350

SACLANT (Supreme Allied Command,

Atlantic), 2.351

SAF (secretary of the Air Force), 2.352

Saint, 2.353

SAM (surface-to-air missile), 2.354

SAOC (sector air operations center), 2.355

SAR (search and rescue; synthetic aperture

radar), 2.356

SATCOM (satellite communications), 2.357

satellites, 4.3.22

SBIRS (space-based infrared system), 2.358

SBR (space-based radar), 2.359

SBSS (space-based space surveillance),

2.360

SDI (Strategic Defense Initiative), 2.361

SEA (Southeast Asia), 2.362

SEAD (suppression of enemy air defenses),

2.363

SEAL (sea-air-land team), 2.364

sea-lane, 4.2.212

sealift (n., v.), 4.2.213

sea power, 4.2.214

seasons, 4.1.126

Second World War, 1.73

security classification, 4.1.127

see, see also, 4.4.18

self-, 4.2.215

semi-, 4.2.216

semiannual, 1.48, 4.2.217

semicolon, 3.2.15

Senate, 4.1.128

senator, 4.1.129

series of items, 3.2.16

service, 4.1.130

sexist language, 1.49

SHAPE (Supreme Headquarters Allied

Powers, Europe), 2.365

Shiite, 4.2.218

ships, names of, 4.4.19

short-range, 4.2.219

short term (n.), 4.2.220

short-term (adj.), 4.2.221

show of force, 4.1.131

sic (so; thus; in this manner), 1.50, 4.4.20

SIGINT (signals intelligence), 2.366

Signal Corps, 4.1.132

SIOP (Single Integrated Operational Plan),

2.367

SIPRNET (Secret Internet Protocol Router

Network), 2.368

SITREP (situation report), 2.369

SJA (staff judge advocate), 2.370

SLAM (standoff land attack missile), 2.371

SLAR (side-looking airborne radar), 2.372

slash, 3.2.17

SLBM (submarine-launched ballistic missile), 2.373

SLCM (sea-launched cruise missile), 2.374

SLOC (sea line of communications), 2.375

Smithsonian Institution, 4.1.133

SO (special order), 2.376

SOC (special operations command;

Squadron Officer College), 2.377

so-called, 1.51

socialism, 4.1.134

socialist (advocate of socialism), 4.1.134

Socialist (member of the party), 4.1.134

Socialist Party, 4.1.134

SOF (special operations forces), 2.378

SOP (standing [or standard] operating procedure), 2.379

SORTS (Status of Resources and Training

System), 2.380

SOS (Squadron Officer School), 2.381

South, 4.1.135

Soviet(s), 1.52

Soviet Union, 1.52

SP (security police), 2.382

space-, 4.2.222

spacecraft, 4.4.21

193

INDEX
space lift (n.), 4.2.223

space-lift (v., adj.), 4.2.224

space power, 4.2.225

space programs, 4.1.136

space shuttle, 4.1.137

Speaker, the (of the House), 4.1.138

spelling and word formation, 4.2

Spetsnaz, 4.1.139, 4.4.22

SPINS (special instructions), 2.383

Sputnik, 4.1.140

squadron, 4.1.141

Sr., 2.384

SROE (standing rules of engagement),

2.385

SSA (space situational awareness), 2.386

SSBN (fleet ballistic missile submarine),

2.387

SSM (surface-to-surface missile), 2.388

SSN (attack submarine, nuclear), 2.389

standby (n., adj., adv.), 4.1.142, 4.2.226

stand by (v.), 4.2.227

standoff (n.), 4.2.228

stand off (v.), 4.2.229

state of the art (n.), 4.2.230

state-of-the-art (adj.), 4.2.231

state names, 2.390

stealth bomber, 4.1.143

stealth technology, 4.1.143

STO (space tasking order), 2.391

STOL (short takeoff and landing), 2.392

STOVL (short takeoff and vertical landing

aircraft), 2.393

sub-, 4.2.232

subheadings, 1.53

subtitle, 1.54

sun, 4.1.144

superpower, 4.2.233

Supreme Court (of the United States),

4.1.145

SWA (Southwest Asia), 2.394

tables, 1.55

TACAIR (tactical air), 2.395

TACP (tactical air control party), 2.396

TAF (tactical air force), 2.397

takeoff (n.), 4.2.234

take off (v.), 4.2.235

takeover (n.), 4.2.236

take over (v.), 4.2.237

TAW (tactical airlift wing), 2.398

TBM (tactical/theater ballistic missile),

2.399

TDY (temporary duty), 2.400

T&E (test and evaluation), 2.401

temperature, 4.3.23

TEMPEST (telecommunications electronics

material protected from emanating spurious transmissions; transient electromagnetic pulse emanation standard), 2.402

TERCOM (terrain contour matching), 2.403

test-fly (v.), 4.2.238

that, 3.1.16, 3.1.17

the, 1.56

theater or theatre, 4.1.146, 4.2.239

there are, 3.1.18

there is, 3.1.18

third-, 4.2.240

third world or Third World, 4.1.147

this, 3.1.19

time, 4.3.24

title, 1.25

titles of persons and offices, 2.404

titles of works, 4.1.148

TLAM (Tomahawk land-attack missile),

2.405

TMD (theater missile defense), 2.406

TO (technical order), 2.407

TOF (time of flight), 2.408

TOT (time on target), 2.409

TOW (tube launched, optically tracked,

wire guided), 2.410

TPFDD (time-phased force and deployment

data), 2.411

TPFDL (time-phased force and deployment

list), 2.412

trademarks, 1.57

TRADOC (US Army Training and Doctrine

Command), 2.413

trans-, 4.2.241

treaties, 4.1.149

tri-, 4.2.242

TRS (tactical reconnaissance squadron),

2.414

Truman, Harry S., 1.58

TTP (tactics, techniques, and procedures),

2.415

194

INDEX
UAV (unmanned aerial vehicle), 2.416

U-boat, 4.2.243

UCMJ (Uniform Code of Military Justice),

2.417

UCP (Unified Command Plan), 2.418

UHF (ultrahigh frequency), 2.419

UK (United Kingdom), 2.420

ultra-, 4.2.244

UMD (unit manning document), 2.421

un-, 4.2.245

UN (United Nations), 2.422

under-, 4.2.246

underway (adj.), 4.2.247

under way (adv.), 4.2.248

UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund),

2.423

United States, 1.59

United States Air Force, 1.60

United States Army, 1.61

United States Marine Corps, 1.62

United States Navy, 1.63

units of measure, 4.3.25

UNPROFOR (United Nations protection

force), 2.424

upon, 1.64

URL (uniform [or universal] resource locator), 2.425

US (United States), 2.426

US Air Force, 1.60

US Army, 1.61

US government, 4.1.73

US Marine Corps, 1.62

US Navy, 1.63

USA (United States Army), 1.61, 2.427

USAF (United States Air Force), 1.60,

2.428

USAFE (United States Air Forces in

Europe), 2.429

USAFR (United States Air Force Reserve),

2.430

USC (United States Code), 2.431

USCENTAF (United States Central Command Air Forces), 2.432

USCENTCOM (United States Central Command), 2.433

USCG (United States Coast Guard), 2.434

USEUCOM (United States European Command), 2.435

USJFCOM (United States Joint Forces Command), 2.436

USMC (United States Marine Corps), 1.62,

2.437

USN (United States Navy), 1.63, 2.438

USSBS (United States Strategic Bombing

Survey), 2.439

USSOCOM (United States Special Operations Command), 2.440

USSOUTHAF (United States Air Force,

Southern Command), 2.441

USSOUTHCOM (United States Southern

Command), 2.442

USSPACECOM (United States Space Command), 2.443

USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics),

2.444

USSR, 1.52

USSTRATCOM (United States Strategic

Command), 2.445

USTRANSCOM (United States Transportation Command), 2.446

USW (undersea warfare), 2.447

UTC (unit type code), 2.448

v. (versus), 2.449

VFR (visual flight rules), 2.450

VHF (very high frequency), 2.451

vice, 1.65

vice-, 4.2.249

vice versa, 4.2.250

Vietcong, 4.2.251

Vietminh, 4.2.252

Vietnamese (n., sing. and pl.; adj.),

3.1.20

Vietnam War, 4.1.150

viz., 2.452

VLF (very low frequency), 2.453

V/STOL (vertical and/or short takeoff and

landing aircraft), 2.454

VTOL (vertical takeoff and landing), 2.455

walk-, 4.2.253

war-, 4.2.254

war, the, 1.72, 1.73

war fighter (n.), 4.2.255

war fighting (n.), 4.2.256

war-fighting (adj.), 4.2.257

195

INDEX
war game (n.), 4.2.259

war-game (v.), 4.2.258

war gamer (n.), 4.2.260

war gaming (n.), 4.2.261

war-gaming (adj.), 4.2.262

warhead, 4.2.263

war making (n.), 4.2.264

war-making (adj.), 4.2.265

WARNORD (warning order), 2.456

warplane, 4.2.266

wars, 4.1.151

Warsaw Pact, 4.1.152

Warsaw Pact nations, 4.1.152

warship, 4.2.267

wartime, 4.2.268

Washington, DC (or D.C.), 2.457

wavelength(s), 4.2.269

we, 3.1.11

weapon system(s), 1.66

weapons system(s), 1.66

Web, 4.1.153

Web address, 1.67

Web site (n.), 4.1.153

Web-site (adj.), 4.1.153

weights and measurements, 4.3.26

well-, 4.2.270

weltanschauung, 4.2.271

West Berlin, 1.68

West(ern), 4.1.154

western front (World War I), 4.1.155

Western Hemisphere, 4.1.156

West Germany, 1.68

what, 3.1.17

whether, 3.1.21

which, 3.1.16, 3.1.17, 3.1.22

while, 1.69

white paper, 4.1.157

white (people), 1.70, 4.1.158

who, 3.1.17

WIA (wounded in action), 2.458

wide-, 4.2.272

-wide, 4.2.273

wing, 4.1.159

wingspan, 4.2.274

wiretap (n., v.), 4.2.275

wiretapper (n.), 4.2.276

WMD (weapons of mass destruction), 2.459

word division, 1.71

words as words, 4.4.23

work-, 4.2.277

work-around (n.), 4.2.278

work around (v.), 4.2.279

workforce, 4.2.280

work hour(s), 4.2.281

workload, 4.2.282

work order, 4.1.160

world war, 1.72, 1.73

World War I (or 1), 1.72

World War II (or 2), 1.73

worldview, 4.2.283 

worldwide, 4.2.284

Wright brothers, 4.1.161

WRSK (war readiness/reserve spares kit),

2.460

WWW (World Wide Web), 2.461

Xerox, 1.74, 4.1, 4.1.162 

XO (executive officer), 2.462

year, 4.3.27

year-, 4.2.285

year (punctuation with), 3.2.18

zero, zeros (also zeroes), 1.75, 4.2.286,

4.3.28

zero hour (n.), 4.2.287

zero-sum (adj.), 4.2.288

zip (n.), 1.76, 2.463

zip code (n.), 1.76, 2.463, 3.2.19, 4.1.163

zip-code (v.), 1.76, 2.443

ZIP (zone improvement plan) code, 1.76,

2.463, 3.2.19, 4.1.163

ZULU (time zone indicator for Universal

Time or Greenwich Mean Time), 2.464

196

INDEX
Part 2

Air University Press Author Guide

About Us

Air University (AU) Press, a division of AU’s Fairchild Library at Maxwell

AFB, Alabama, publishes school-selected student papers, faculty research

efforts, textbooks, and curriculum-related materials, as well as the Air University Catalog and other administrative documents that directly support AU’s program of professional military education (PME). The series of school-sponsored

papers we support include Air War College’s Maxwell Papers, Air Command

and Staff College’s Wright Flyers, theses by students at the School of Advanced

Air and Space Studies (SAASS), and the College of Aerospace Doctrine,

Research and Education’s (CADRE) Papers. AU Press itself sponsors the

Fairchild Papers, selected essays having research value to the Air Force. Under

the guidance of the AU Publication Review Board, at the instruction of higherlevel headquarters, and in cooperation with Air Force agencies, we also publish

monographs, books, and other research and educational materials, as well as

the English, Spanish, Portuguese, Arabic, and French (forthcoming) editions of

Air and Space Power Journal, the professional flagship journal of the Air

Force.

Over the years, we have compiled a significant body of literature on how

best to employ airpower. For information about these publications, used by airpower scholars and students throughout the world, please see our catalog, Air

University Press Publications; to obtain copies, visit our bookstore at 131 West

Shumacher Avenue, Maxwell AFB, AL 36112-6615 (telephone 334-953-2773,

DSN 493-2773, or fax 334-953-6862) or browse our Web site: http://aupress

.maxwell.af.mil. Our publications are also available from the US Government

Printing Office (visit GPO’s online bookstore at http://bookstore.gpo.gov).

Payment

If you are a government employee who has written a manuscript as part of

your job; has used government time, equipment, supplies, or facilities to do so;

or has composed a study based on knowledge gained through official duties,

then government laws and regulations prohibit you from accepting payment for

your work. In some cases, however, sponsoring agencies may commission

manuscripts for publication by AU Press. In any case, we do not pay for the

manuscripts we publish. If appropriate, payment is negotiated between an

author and the sponsoring agency. You should also be aware that since AU

Press is a government agency, its publications are not copyrighted but are in

the public domain.

199
Classified Material

As a rule, AU Press does not process or publish classified material. If you

(the author or the office of primary responsibility [OPR]) believe that your

project merits an exception to this rule, please notify our director as early in the

development process as possible. If a waiver is granted, you are responsible for

providing downgrading/declassification instructions and for properly marking

the entire manuscript (pages, paragraphs, endnotes, and illustrations in both the

paper and disk copies) for compliance with security regulations. We will mark

the published product in accordance with your or the security and policy review

authority’s instructions. The OPR is responsible for retaining record copies of

the printed materials and arranging for their downgrading/declassification after

the classification expires or as sensitive information is cleared for public

release.

Security and Policy Review

The publications that we intend to release to the public must undergo security clearance and policy review by the public affairs (PA) office here at

Maxwell to ensure that they contain no classified information and do not misrepresent current Air Force policy. We request this review as soon as your

manuscript is approved for publication. We cannot edit or otherwise process

your work until we receive clearance from the PA officer at Maxwell. If you

wish, you may have your manuscript cleared by your local PA office.

Obviously, you should make sure that your manuscript contains no classified

or sensitive information (e.g., inspector-general reports or other documents

marked “For Official Use Only” [FOUO], Social Security numbers, etc.). If

you cite unclassified material from a classified document, indicate that fact in

an endnote, along with the overall classification of the document (e.g., [Secret]

Information extracted is unclassified). Be advised that your manuscript may

have to go through security review at either the Air Force or DOD level to certify that the extracted material is indeed unclassified.

Production Schedule

A number of variables affect our publication process (fig. 1). These include

its length and quality, your availability to work with the editor, the workload

and priorities of the press team assigned to your project, and the competence

of the contract company selected to do the printing. Our experience suggests

200

ABOUT US
that the following schedule represents a reasonable estimate of the amount of

time we require to publish your study:

• book - nine to 12 months

• Fairchild Paper - six months

• CADRE Paper - three months

• SAASS Thesis - three months

• Wright Flyer Paper - three months

• Walker Paper - three months

• Maxwell Paper - six to eight weeks

201

ABOUT US

Author submits

completed manuscrip (MS)

Press forms

publication eam

Team establishes timeline

and milestones

Team edits MS prepares

illustrations/cover and

coordinate changes

Design Branch typesets

ranscript S ervices Branch

prepares requisition and 

elease for printing

Defense Automated Printing

Service/Government

Printing O fice a ranges

contract printing

Press makes initial

distribution

Sponsored by

–AU Publication Review Board

–AU school/agency

Team includes

content editor, copy editor,

printing pecialist, illustrator,

publishing assistant,

and author

Figure 1. General work flow

Our Authors

AU Press seeks manuscripts from both military and civilian writers on such

topics as

• airpower and space power doctrine and strategy,

• the nature and future of airpower’s role in warfare and peace,

• the history of airpower and space power,

• case studies of the employment of airpower and space power at all

levels of conflict,

• aircraft and weapons systems,

• space applications, and 

• biographies of airpower and space power personalities, pioneers,

theorists, leaders, and commanders.

Our typical authors include students whose PME school selects his or her paper

for publication as part of the series sponsored by that school (e.g., Lt Col

Todd G. Kemper, USMC, Aviation Urban Operations: Are We Training Like

We Fight? Maxwell Paper no. 33 [2004]). We also publish books written by

students or staff members, designed for use by multiple Air Force agencies—

whether in PME curricula or major-command training programs—and designated AU-numbered texts (e.g., Maj David Beens et al., AU-2, Guidelines

for Command: A Handbook on the Leadership of People for Air Force

Commanders and Supervisors [2003]). Furthermore, individuals who submit a

manuscript to the AU Publication Review Board can obtain approval to have

it published by AU Press (e.g., Capt Matthew K. Rodman, A War of Their Own:

Bombs over the Southwest Pacific [2005]). The press also publishes special

studies at the behest of higher headquarters, such as Air Force 2025 (1996).

As a prospective author, you should find the information contained in this

guide useful as you go about assembling and submitting your manuscript to

us for publication. If you have no sponsor at Air University and wish to have

your study considered by the Publication Review Board, please send a printed

copy of the manuscript, along with a cover letter that identifies your probable

audience, describes your project’s value to the Air Force, and tells us about

your background and expertise, to the Deputy Director, Air University Press,

AUL/LP, 131 West Shumacher Avenue, Maxwell AFB, Alabama 36112-

6615. If we accept your manuscript for publication, we will send you a publishing agreement (see appendix A) to read, sign, and return to us. This document specifies, among other things, the obligations of both you and the Air

Force as they pertain to the publication of your work.

203

Submitting Material

After we have accepted your study for publication and you have signed

and returned the publishing agreement, we ask that you assemble your manuscript for final submission. Specifically, we require a printed, properly formatted copy of the entire manuscript; electronic files of the manuscript on

disk or CD; all necessary permissions; properly formatted illustrations (electronic files of illustrations should be on a separate disk or CD); signatures

and date of birth; and a distribution list. If you have questions, stylistic or

otherwise, as you prepare your manuscript, please contact us; consult part one

of this publication, Air University Style Guide for Writers and Editors; or

refer to The Chicago Manual of Style (15th edition).

Formatting Your Manuscript

• Submit one unbound, single-sided or double-sided, double-spaced copy

of the complete manuscript on 8.5" x 11" paper in 12-point font (we prefer

Bookman Old Style). Front matter, notes, and back matter should be double

spaced as well. 

• Number the pages consecutively throughout, from the first page of the

front matter to the last page of the back matter. 

• Place notes at the end of each chapter. They should be double spaced

and in the same size font as the rest of the manuscript. 

• Make sure that your hierarchy of subheadings is consistent (see AU

Style Guide, 1.53). Do not use numbered subheadings. 

• Check all quotations against the original sources and extract needed

documentation for endnotes and bibliography as required.

• Provide translations or paraphrases of passages in foreign languages in

parentheses following the passage or in brackets if the passage is a block

quotation.

• Number your illustrations and tables consecutively throughout the manuscript (e.g., Figure 1, Figure 2, etc.; Table 1, Table 2, etc.). Indicate the placement of each illustration or table by including its number and caption in the

text (e.g., following the paragraph in which you refer to the illustration or

table). Include a credit line, if applicable. Insert a copy of the illustration or

table on the page following that citation (include the number of the illustration or table on the copy). For example,

205
Figure 9. Cutaway view of the B-25G. (Reprinted from North

American Aviation, “Train Dispatcher,” Saturday Evening Post, 4

November 1944, 107.)

Table 2. Bomb strikes during the Battle of the Bismarck Sea

[credit line, placed below table] Reprinted from Air Evaluation Board,

Southwest Pacific Area, “Battle of the Bismarck Sea and Development

of Masthead Attacks,” 1 July 1945, 47, Air Force Historical Research

Agency, Maxwell AFB, AL.

• Include a list of illustrations and list of tables as part of the table of contents.

• If possible, submit an alphabetized list of key terms that we can use to

prepare an index.

Assemble your manuscript in the following order:

• title page

• dedication (optional)

• table of contents (except Wright Flyer Papers and Maxwell Papers)

• foreword (optional; required for Walker Papers)

• about the author (except Wright Flyer Papers)

• abstract (required for Walker Papers)

• preface (optional for Walker Papers)

• acknowledgments (optional)

• introduction (optional)

• text

• appendixes (optional)

• glossary/list of abbreviations (optional but strongly encouraged in manuscripts that make extensive use of abbreviations/acronyms)

• bibliography (except SAAS theses and Maxwell Papers)

• list of key terms for index (books; sometimes Fairchild Papers and

CADRE Papers)

Electronic Files

• Along with your printed copy, submit electronic files of your manuscript

on floppy disk, zip disk, or CD in a format compatible with Microsoft

Windows (e.g., Word, WordPerfect). The electronic files should match the

printout exactly.

206

SUBMITTING MATERIAL
• Label each disk with your name, title of your work, the contents of the

disk, and the level of classification, if applicable.

• Do not use special fonts or combinations of fonts and type sizes, special color coding or spacing, templates, embedded styles for the table of contents or index, or similar desktop-publishing features.

• Create a separate file for each part of the front matter (e.g., contents,

foreword, preface, etc.), each chapter, and each part of the back matter (e.g.,

appendixes, glossary/list of abbreviations, bibliography, etc.).

• Do not embed illustrations or tables in the text files. Instead, include

them as separate electronic files (see also “Formatting Your Illustrations,”

below). Embedded endnotes are encouraged.

• Do not use your word processor’s automatic bulleting/numbering feature.

Permissions

• According to the terms of your publishing agreement with us, you guarantee that your work is original. Therefore, if you do use copyrighted written, graphic, or pictorial material, you must obtain written permissions from

the rights holders and submit copies to us, along with instructions from the

rights holders concerning credit lines and publication limitations. You are

also responsible for the payment of any necessary fees to the rights holders.

After we begin editing your manuscript, if we think you need to obtain additional permissions, we will contact you as soon as possible.

• You do not need to obtain permission if the material you use is in the

public domain or if you comply with the doctrine of fair use. For further

information on such material, see part one of this publication, Air University

Style Guide for Writers and Editors, appendix C.

• In the case of material developed for school coursework, the OPR in the

using organization is responsible for reviewing permissions and ensuring

that the use of the copyrighted material adheres to any limitations or requests

indicated by the rights holder (see Air Force Instruction [AFI] 33-360, vol.

1, Air Force Content Management Program—Publications, 30 January

2004; and AFI 51-303, Intellectual Property—Patents, Patent-Related

Matters, Trademarks and Copyrights, 1 September 1998).

• Provide AU Press with copies of permissions and, if applicable, AF

Form 9, Request for Purchase, along with DD Form 1155, Order for

Supplies or Services.

• Because obtaining permissions can take a long time, begin requesting

them early in the process of preparing your manuscript.

207

SUBMITTING MATERIAL
Formatting Your Illustrations

• Submit original, hard-copy illustrations such as photos, maps, or figures (line drawings). Please send us a current photo of you for inclusion in

the “About the Author” section and for placement on the back cover of your

book. More than one pose is permissible. The photo for “About the Author”

should be black and white; the one for the back cover can be color. We will

return all original illustrations to you after we have processed them.

• If you scan your own images, please do so in accordance with our resolution requirements (see appendix B) and submit them as separate electronic

files. We discourage the use of PowerPoint files.

• Our artists design and create attractive covers for our publications.

Although we reserve the right to make final artistic decisions about the cover

of your book, if you have ideas about artwork, our illustrators will be happy

to work with you to bring them to fruition. Please send us your notes and/or

sketches and contact the chief of our Design Branch at 334-953-2774 or

DSN 493-2774.

Signatures and Date of Birth

• Provide your signature as well as that of the person who writes your

foreword (if included) in black ink, each on a separate sheet of white bond

paper. Our printing specialists will transfer them to the signature blocks at

the end of the preface and foreword of your manuscript.

• Provide us your birth year; the Library of Congress includes it as part

of the cataloging-in-publication (CIP) information for your book.

Distribution List

• You may submit a list of names and addresses of people to whom we

will send a copy of your book. We will provide you up to 50 copies of your

book free of charge—25 for you and 25 for the individuals on your list. We

will make additional copies available on a case-by-case basis.

Please send all materials, including a filled-out copy of the author’s

checklist (appendix C) to the

Deputy Director

Air University Press, AUL/LP

131 West Shumacher Avenue

Maxwell AFB, Alabama 36112-6615

208

SUBMITTING MATERIAL
APPENDIX A

Publishing Agreement

Publishing Agreement

This is a formal agreement between the United States Air Force (termed

“Air Force” hereafter) and ____ (termed the “Writer” hereafter) to publish

_____ [publication type] (termed the “Work” hereafter) and titled _____.

The Writer agrees to abide by the terms and conditions set forth below. The

agreement is effective as of _____.

1. Engagement and Relationships: The Air Force agrees to publish, and

the Writer licenses the Air Force to publish, the Work under the terms and

conditions set forth in this agreement. 

2. Compensation: The Writer will receive no monetary compensation of

any kind from the Air Force. 

3. License: In exchange for publication and distribution of the Work at no

cost to the Writer, the Writer grants the Air Force a permanent, nonexclusive,

nontransferable, royalty-free license to publish and distribute the Work, in

whole or in part, to Department of Defense (DOD) personnel, both military

and civilian, in whatever quantities and at whatever times the Air Force

determines is necessary for the education of DOD personnel. The Air Force

agrees that it shall not distribute the Work to any person not affiliated with

the DOD.

4. Retention of Copyright: Nothing in this agreement shall be interpreted

to transfer the Writer’s ownership of the Work to the Air Force. The Writer

shall retain all rights to the Work not transferred to the Air Force under this

agreement. The Air Force agrees to include language in any volume or other

media containing the Work stating that the Writer retains ownership of the

Work and all rights granted under 17 U.S.C. §106, except those rights which

have been granted to the Air Force under this agreement. 

5. Format: The Air Force may, without limitation, publish the Work in hard

copy and in electronic or any other media format and in any language. 

6. Publication Costs: The Air Force will pay full costs for the publication

of the Work for distribution to Air Force personnel, including the initial run

of the Work and any reprints or additional runs the Air Force, in its sole discretion, elects to produce.

7. Development of the Work: The Air Force reserves the right to edit or

otherwise modify the Work as the Air Force deems appropriate. As part of

its normal preparation for publication, the Air Force will typically (1) perform substantive and copy edits of the manuscript along with other quality211
control measures to conform to Air University (AU) Press standards and

style; (2) design front and back covers; (3) create or further develop graphics to support the narrative content of the Work; (4) schedule reprints of the

Work; and (5) distribute the Work to addresses on its standard distributions

list. Check all of the following that apply:

The Air Force will perform a substantive edit of the Work.

The Air Force will perform a copy edit of the Work.

The Air Force will design a cover for the Work.

The Air Force will create graphics for the Work.

The Air Force will prepare the Work for printing; complete a DD Form 282,

Printing Requisition/Order; and then return the prepress package to the Writer. 

The Air Force will not distribute the Work.

8. Obligations: The Writer agrees to coordinate with the Air Force by

responding promptly to inquiries or requests for materials within 10 working

days after the Air Force makes a request but no longer than 20 working days

unless extenuating circumstances, deployment, or other unforeseeable circumstances warrant an extension to 30 working days. The Air Force will have no

obligation to publish the Work when the Writer does not respond to inquiries

or requests within 90 working days or when DOD, Air Education and Training

Command, Air Force, or AU policy or command decisions preclude publication.

9. Delivery and Acceptance of the Work: The Writer agrees to deliver to the

Air University Press the complete and final manuscript for the Work no later

than _____. The Writer shall deliver the original Work inclusive of illustrations,

charts, graphs, and any other material satisfactorily to the Air University Press

in a double-spaced hard copy, along with a diskette/CD in Microsoft Word, and

in accordance with guidelines in the Air University Style and Author Guide. If

the Writer fails to deliver a complete or satisfactory manuscript by the date

above, the Air Force will have the right, at its discretion, to extend the date of

publication or to terminate this agreement. For reprint editions of previously

published works by other publishers, the Writer (or Editor) may deliver or the

Air Force will obtain the latest printing of a publication from which to produce

the reprint edition. The Air Force will also address and secure any copyright

releases required from previous publishers to allow reprinting of the Work by

the Air Force.

212

APPENDIX A
10. Writer Affirmations: The Writer affirms that the Work will be original,

will not infringe upon any copyright protections, and will not contain plagiarized text or graphics, specifically as indicated by checking each of the

following statements:

The content of the Work is accurate, based on sound research practices,

and constitutes a complete manuscript with all front matter, narrative text,

graphics, and back matter included at submission—with the exception of an

index, which the Air Force will create in the final production stage and for

which the author may be requested to provide a seed list. 

Should the Air Force determine during preliminary review or after acceptance for publication that the Work contains material of which the Writer is

not the writer or proprietor, the Writer agrees to obtain permission to reproduce such material at no expense to the Air Force and to provide copies of

the permission(s) to the Air Force within the time periods specified in paragraph 8 above. 

The Work contains no recipe, formula, or instruction that if applied could

cause readers personal harm or injury.

The Work in no way infringes on the right of privacy of any person or

entity, including organizations, institutions, copyright holders, or others, as

a result of plagiarism, libel, slander, or any other misuse of material included

in the original Work.

The Work does not contain profane language or quotations containing

profane language.

The Work contains no classified or restricted information.

11. Academic Freedom: The Air Force encourages and defends the rights

of both students and faculty in accordance with Air University Instruction

(AUI) 36-2308, Academic Freedom. The Air Force advocates the right of the

Writer to exercise full freedom of literary investigation and expression. Only

the adherence to security classification limits the Writer’s freedom to

expound upon subject matter of the Work, as long as the Writer maintains

accuracy and respects the proprietary rights of others. Further, the Air Force

endorses all established practices of academic freedom as stated in the AU

Faculty Handbook and AUI 36-2308. The Air Force will not publish profanity

but will revise or otherwise rework the narrative to indicate the use of expletives in quotations. Air University Public Affairs is the security and policy

review authority for all information and material concerning military matters

available for release. 

213

PUBLISHING AGREEMENT
12. Writer’s Name and Likeness: The Writer agrees that the Air Force shall

have the right to use the Writer’s name, likeness, and biographical materials

concerning him/her in the original Work, in revised or derivative editions, or

in Air Force advertisements or promotional materials.

13. Writer’s Copies: Upon publication of the first printing of the Work, the

Air Force shall provide the Writer—without cost—up to 50 copies of the Work.

The Air Force will send the Writer up to 25 personal copies of the Work at

an address the Writer specifies to the distribution clerk and up to 25 copies

to addressees on a mailing list the Writer provides to the Air Force. Additional

copies will be provided on a case-by-case basis at the deputy’s or director’s

discretion.

Entire Agreement: This document constitutes the Agreement between the

parties and supersedes any other promises, conditions, understandings, or

terms, whether oral or written. Any addenda to this Agreement must be modified in writing and signed by the Writer (or a representative of the Writer)

and parties at the Air Force. 

For the Air Force by

_______________________ _______________________

Writer’s Signature (Date) Chief, Editorial Branch (Date)

Air University Press

_______________________

Deputy Director (Date)

Air University Press

_______________________

Director (Date)

Air University Press

214

APPENDIX A
Definitions of Terms

Back Matter—Elements following the main text of a book. In order, they

include appendix(es), chronology (if not in front matter), abbreviations (if not

in front matter), glossary, bibliography, list of contributors, and index(es).

Copy Edit—A process concerned with the mechanics of written communication. It refers to consistency in capitalization, spelling, hyphenation, numbers,

documentation, formatting of the document in accordance with the press’s

house standards, and so forth. It also encompasses attention to grammar,

syntax, and basic usage. 

Cover Design—The process of preparing illustrative material or decorative

patterns for reproduction on the outer binding of a book, accomplished by

Air University Press illustrators in consultation with the book’s author. 

Create—To bring into existence something new by means of imaginative

skill or other action, as in the production of original graphics or textual material (e.g., an index).

Distribution List—A roster of names and addresses of individuals and institutions to whom Air University Press sends it publications. The term refers to

both the press’s standard list of recipients as well as a custom list provided

by the author.

Front Matter—Elements preceding the main text of a book. In order, they

include the title page, copyright page, dedication, epigraph, table of contents,

list of illustrations, list of tables, foreword, about the author [Air University

Press publications], preface, acknowledgments (if not part of preface), introduction (if not part of text), abbreviations (if not part of back matter), and

chronology (if not in back matter).

Graphics—Products of pictorial art, such as paintings, drawings, and so forth,

used especially for illustrating or decorating printed matter.

Narrative—The written representation of an event, a story, or an account.

Plagiarism—Entails appropriating the literary composition of other people,

parts or passages of their writings, or the ideas or language of the same, and

using them as one’s own. Copying verbatim without quotation marks with

the intent to claim that material as one’s own constitutes plagiarism, as does

the intentional use, without credit, of a source’s sentence structure and style

with only minor changes.

215

PUBLISHING AGREEMENT
Prepare/Develop—To make ready for use, put together in a certain form,

create, or produce, especially as related to the preparation/development of a

publication.

Substantive Edit—A process concerned with the organization and presentation of content. It includes rephrasing to eliminate ambiguity, reorganizing

or tightening, simplifying, recasting, and so forth.

216

APPENDIX A
APPENDIX B

Submitting Images for Publication

Please submit original images such as photos, maps, or figures (line drawings). We will return them to you. Note that .gif and .jpg files are not normally

acceptable for printing due to their low resolution. If any problems arise as

you prepare images for submission, please contact us.

If you wish to scan your own images, please keep the following principles

in mind. In order that the file contain enough data to reproduce accurately, you

should use high-end black-and-white/color calibrated scanning equipment.

Scan all images (color and grayscale) at a resolution between 266 and 300

pixels per inch, based on an input-to-output (I/O) size ratio of one to one. For

example, a three-by-five-inch original photograph to be printed at three-byfive inches (I/O ratio of one to one) should be scanned at 266 to 300 pixels

per inch. The same size photo to be printed at six-by-ten inches (I/O ratio of

one to two) should be scanned at 532 to 600 pixels per inch. All other enlargements and reductions are similarly proportional. Save your images either as

uncompressed TIFF (tagged image file format), native PhotoShop file format

(.psd), or EPS (encapsulated postscript) files.

Do not import images into another document such as Microsoft Word for

submission. Submit images as individual files only. You may create a directory or folder with subdirectories to organize your images.

Please note that images scanned at lower resolutions and then forced or

pushed to a higher resolution to meet printing standards become blurry. This

happens, for example, if you change an image at 150 pixels per inch to 300

pixels per inch in your image-editing program. Instead, you should rescan

the image at the target resolution of 300 pixels per inch. Although you can

reduce digital images to a desired resolution, you should never try to increase

them to a higher resolution to meet printing standards.

Scan all line art as bitmap images with a resolution of between 1,200 and

2,540 pixels per inch, based on an I/O ratio of one to one. Enlargements and

reductions are similarly proportional. Save the images either as uncompressed

TIFF, native PhotoShop file format, or EPS files.

If you have any questions or need assistance, please call Air University

Press’s Design Branch at 334-953-2774 or DSN 493-2774.

219

APPENDIX C

Author’s Checklist

Air University Press

Author’s Checklist

Title

Author 

Date 

Text (use either a check mark or an “NA” [not applicable] for each item, as

appropriate)

___One printed copy of the manuscript.

___Manuscript pages numbered consecutively and double-spaced throughout.

___Notes double-spaced and grouped at the end of each chapter.

___Text reflects placement of illustrations and tables.

___My signature for preface.

___Signature of person who wrote foreword.

___My date of birth for CIP data.

___List of key terms for index.

___Properly labeled disk(s) or CD(s) that exactly match the hard copy of the

manuscript.

___Copyright permissions for textual passages, illustrations, tables, photos,

and other graphics; sources properly acknowledged in manuscript.

___My distribution list.

Illustrations (use either a check mark or an “NA” [not applicable] for each

item, as appropriate)

___Original prints, transparencies, and/or camera-ready copies of illustrations, graphs, maps, and so forth. Copy of each illustration placed after page

on which it is to appear in printed manuscript.

___Properly labeled disk of illustrations (separate from the manuscript

disk).

___Permissions for illustrations; sources properly acknowledged in manuscript.

___Double-spaced caption list of illustrations and tables included in table of

contents.

223

AU-1

Air University Style and Author Guide

Air University Press Team

Chief Editor

Marvin Bassett

Copy Editor

Sherry Terrell

Book Design and Cover Art

L. Susan Fair

Composition and

Prepress Production

Vivian D. O’Neal

Print Preparation

Joan Hickey

Distribution

Diane Clark