Geographical Analysis of Fenwick Island, Maryland, a Middle Atlantic Coast Barrier Island 

-,- I T T I r 

r 

I -. l 

' j - - + 

1 

""1 __j 

t j 

0 

1-

t 

T I 

' ··-~ 

Geological Survey Professional Paper 1177- A 

Geographical Analysis of Fenwick Island, Maryland, a Middle Atlantic Coast Barrier Island 

by Robert Dolan, Harry Lins, and John Stewart 

• Geological Survey Professional Paper 1177-A • United States Government Printing Office 1980 • 
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

H. William Menard, Director 

Library of Congress catalog-card No. 79-600212 

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 

Washington, D.C. 20402 
Contents 

Foreword 

Introduction-the coastal zone 

Barrier islands 

Dynamic nature of barrier islands 

Barrier island processes 

Storms 

Waves 

Sea level 

Barrier island forms 

Geological history of Fenwick Island 

History and development of Fenwick Island 

Recent land use patterns and trends 

2 

3 

4 

6 

8 

9 

10 

12 

Erosion and storm surge penetration on Fenwick Island 16 

Erosion 

Storm surge penetration 

Engineering works 

Erosion control 

Ocean City Inlet 

Hazards on barrier islands 

Federal flood insurance program 

Summary 

References and acknowledgments 

18 

20 

22 

23 

24 

Foreword 

When the Geological Survey published Professional Paper 

950, Nature to be Commanded . .. , it attempted to broaden the audience for earth-science information to include 

land use planners, managers, and developers. The response 

to that publication has been so overwhelming that 

Nature. . . has gone into a second printing. In keeping 

with its commitment to demonstrate and promote the 

applications of earth-science information to sound environmental planning and decisionmaking, the Geological Survey 

is offering this report, Professional Paper 1177 -A, which 

analyzes the processes and hazards associated with coastal 

barrier islands. This is the first of several publications that 

follow the style begun with Nature to be Commanded .. . 

It is important to realize that the hazards associated with 

natural processes and urban development are .found all 

along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. This publication focuses 

on Fenwick Island, Maryland, where the city of Ocean City is located. This urbanized island was selected because it is 

representative of many developed barrier islands and provides, therefore, a generally applicable example. 

We believe that this book , and those that follow , will 

have a significant and positive effect on coastal planning. 

The documentation of natural process rates and 

recent 

land use provides planners and developers with key information for guiding future development to those areas 

of least hazard and for evaluating alternative hazard mitigation techniques. 

H. William Menard 

Director 
Introduction -the coastal zone 

2 

by Robert Dolan 1, Harry Lins 2, and John Stewart3 

The coastal zone is narrow in extent but of major importance to the people of the United States. We use coastal 

lands and waters for recreation, industrial and commercial 

activities, waste disposal, and food production . More than 

half the Nation's people now live within the coastal zone. 

Most of these people live in the large urban centers, but in 

recent years much of the population growth has been in 

areas associated with the expanding tourist industry. In 

1978, more than half of all Americans vacationed on the 

coast, and the number has been growing rapidly. There are 

many reasons for this, but clearly, coastal areas offer many 

recreational activities ranging from swimming, sailing, and 

sport fishing to wildlife observation or simply walking 

along the water's edge (Commission on Marine Science, 

Engineering, and Resources, 1969). 

Although living at the edge of the ocean can be a fascinating and relaxing experience, those who choose to live 

close to a large, dynamic body of water assume certain 

risks. Storm-driven waves, which build over hundreds of 

miles of ocean surface, can reach heights of 50 feet or more 

in the open sea, and hurricane wind speeds can exceed 200 

miles per hour. Many scientists in government and research 

programs are deeply concerned about the threat of a severe 

hurricane. In a recent address, Richard A. Frank, Administrator of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration said, "A hurricane will kill hundreds, if not thousands of Americans, and cause billions of dollars of property damage sometime soon. I do not know precisely when 

or where, but it will happen ." (Frank, 1979). 

The Atlantic barrier islands are among the most unstable 

of the coastal lands utilized by man . Beaches and dunes are 

1 U.S. Geological Survey and Department of Environmental Sciences, 

University of Virginia, Charlottesville , Virginia 2 U.S. Geological Survey,Reston, Virginia 

Fig.l Ocean Oty,Maryland, 1977. 

temporary in location and form. The dynamic nature of 

these islands is linked to their aesthetic appeal and recreational potential. Unfortunately , development of these areas 

has taken place more rapidly than our understanding of 

barrier-island dynamics. Homes and commercial facilities 

are being constructed very close to the sea, and like the 

natural landscape , they too are unstable at times. Each yea r 

the wide range of landscape changes caused by natural 

processes takes its toll in human resources with costs 

measurable in millions of dollars. 

Sometimes the changes on the barrier islands are catastrophic. During a " northeaster" storm in March 1962 , 

damage to property along the mid-Atlantic coast amounted 

to more than $500 million, and 32 lives were lost (U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers, 1963). This devastation was soon 

forgotten , however, and rapid development along the coast 

has continued into the 1970's. Today , formerly small 

villages have become urban centers for large summer populations. Since 1962 , the year-round population on the 

Atlantic barrier islands has more than tripled, and investments are up tenfold. The reason for this rapid development is clear. People living by or visiting the coast want to 

be near the water's edge, and, knowingly or unknowingly, 

they assume a degree of risk to be there (Burton and 

Kates, 1965). 

The purpose of this document is to summarize the current information on barrier-island dynamics and to describe 

some of the hazards associated with living on barrier 

islands. Fenwick Island is emphasized , but the characteristics outlined are indicative of other barrier islands on the 

Atlantic and Gulf coasts. 

3 Department of Geography, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 
Barrier islands 

2 

/ 

I 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ __ Cape Henlopen 

" Fenwick Island 

-Ocean City 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

- Assateague Island 

Fig. 2 Barrier islands occur along the A tlantic coast from New Delaware-Mary land coast. 

England to Florida. Fenwick Island is a narrow strip of sand on the 

Barrier islands, which occur from Maine to Texas, are the 

primary terrestrial/marine interface along the Atlantic and 

Gulf coasts. They are among the most rapidly changing 

landscapes utilized by man. The range of physical changes 

that occur include those associated with tides, storms, 

responses to long-period trends in climate and sea level , as 

well as those associated with man's use of the land . Storms 

are especially important in changing the landscape. During 

storms, private property is often destroyed, communication 

and transportation facilities are disrupted , and lives may be 

lost. Despite these obvious hazards, with few exceptions development on barrier islands has been based on the concept 

that the landscape is stable or at least that it can be engineered to remain stable. 

To marine scientists, managers, and coastal engineers, 

the shoreline on barrier islands has long been recognized as 

an element of a highly dynamic natural system. During the 

past several decades, there has been a net trend toward 

coastal recession (erosion) along the Atlantic coast. This 

trend has been attributed to a recent rise in sea level (Hicks 

and Crosby, 1975), a reduction in new sediments (Wolman , 

197 1), human alterations of coastal morphology (Dolan, 

1972), and changes in storm frequency and magnitude 

(Hayden, 1975). 

Barrier islands are the product of a graduaily rising sea 

level, ample quantities of sand supplied to the coast, and 

waves large enough to move the sand. A continually changing relationship between storms, waves, and moving sediments produces islands that are unstable . They are unstable 

because the constant movement of the sand by waves and 

currents affects the shape of the islands, and the rising sea 

level results in shoreline retreat. Even though they are unstable, the estuaries and sounds that lie inland from barrier 

islands are among the richest and most productive ecosystems known, providing nurseries, shelter, and food for 

many species of fish, shellfish , and wildlife. 

Because of these important characteristics, a number of 

barrier islands have been prese rved in their undeveloped 

state . Nine of the most outstandingly scenic and natural 

islands or island groups have been set aside as national seashores by the U.S. Congress to be administered by the 

National Park Service, and many others are preserved as 

national wildlife refuges. Most of the coastal States have 

placed one or more barrier islands under protection as parks 

or wildlife refuges. 

Although some barrier islands were se ttled during the 

colonial period , and others were used as sources of building 

materials or as coastal defense sites, Atlantic coast barrier 

islands did not come under development pressure until the 

1900's. Recently , however, changing economic and social 

conditions have made development of the islands appear 

more economically feasible and desirable. Many people 

now have enough personal resources to acquire second 

homes, and their leisure time has also increased. Nevertheless, time has not changed the natural processes and hazards 

associated with the development of barrier islands. The 

dangers from hurricanes and severe northeasters are as 

great at the present time , and may be even greater, considering the larger number of people who now live on some 

islands. 

Since 1900, 129 hurricanes have crossed our Atlantic 

and Gulf coasts. Fifty-three of these have been classified by 

the National Weather Service as "major" hurricanes, with 

peak winds in excess of 110 miles per hour and storm 

surges greater than 8 feet. The impact of some of these 

storms has been extreme. The two deadliest in this century 

killed over 6,000 people at Galveston, Texas, in 1900, and 

1,800 people at Lake Okeechobee , Florida, in 1928 . The 

two costliest storms were Hurricane Agnes, which caused 

$2 .1 billion in damage in the Northeastern United States in 

1972, and Hurricane Camille , which caused $1.4 billion in 

damage in 1969 in Mississippi and Louisiana. 

3 
Dynamic nature of barrier islands 

3 

4 

The dominant processes responsible for natural changes on 

barrier islands are shown in the figure, and the table gives 

the normal period of landscape response to these processes. 

An overriding factor for all of the landscape elements responding on a daily basis is the occurrence of extreme 

events which may cause catastrophic land alteration. In 

marshes, in estuaries, and on the beaches, a major oil spill 

or a dump of toxic pollutants can be considered an extreme 

event. With regard to natural processes, however, the term 

Ocean Beach 

f Tides and 

waves 

Winds 

Urban 

Storm surge l and overwash 

I Storm 

surge 

\ 

Tides 

Fig. 3 Distribution of physical processes associated with land use 

and land cover zones. 

extreme event is generally used to indicate a storm of such 

magnitude that on a yearly basis it has a low expectation of 

recurrence. 

An assessment of landscape vulnerability in terms of the 

frequency and magnitude of natural stress or the fragile 

nature of a particular land use class is presented in the 

table . Vulnerability of the classes indicates how susceptible 

unprotected structures or natural features would be to 

natural stresses from storms. 

Estuary I bay Marsh Crops I Mixed forests I 

Storm surge 

tides and waves 

pastureland ancient dunes 
Table 1 Dominant coastal processes associated with various land 

use and land cover types. 

Code 

10 

21 

31 

35 

43 

53 

54 

55 

61 

62 

72 

731 

732 

750 

U.S.G.S. 

land classification 

Urban 

Grass and pasture lands 

Vegetated sand f lats 

V egetated dune syste ms 

Forests 

Reservoirs 

Estuaries and bays 

Fresh-water ponds 

Marshes 

Mudflats 

Beaches 

Dunes: unvegetated 

Sand flats : unvegetated 

Spoil banks 

Processes and periods 

of response 

Episodic; storm surge 

Surface runoff; slow trends 

Eolian ; overwash; dail y ; 

extreme events 

Eolian; wave erosion 

(frontal) ; daily; 

ex treme events 

Surface runoff; slow trends 

Siltation ; slow trends 

Tidal currents ; daily 

Rainfall ru noff; deily 

Biological ; tidal overwash ; 

slow trends ; extreme 

even t s; dai ly 

Tidal; daily 

Waves ; tides; storm waves; 

surge; daily (seasonally); 

extreme events 

Eolian; daily 

Eolian overwash ; daily 

Tidal; surface runoff; daily 

Vulnerability high 

Moderate 

Low 

Events causing 

alterations 

Construct ion; 

storm damage 

Storm deposition of 

sand ; denudation 

Storm erosion of dune 

mass ; denudation 

Denudation 

Si ltation 

Pollution; alteration 

of f low patterns 

Si ltation; saltwater 

intrusion 

Overwash; deposition 

of sand, man-made ; 

land f ill res triction of 

water flux 

Current erosion; 

revegetation 

Storm-caused erosion; 

sea-level trend 

Vegetation 

Overwash deposi t ion; 

revegetati on 

Revegetation ; erosion 

Vulnerability 

Moderate 

Low 

Moderate 

Low 

Low 

High 

Moderate 

Moderate 

H igh 

Moderate 

Moderate 

natural changes occur frequently representing 

ris k for development 

danger from flood or surge 

natural change low 

5 
Barrier island processes 

The physical boundary between land and sea is in constant 

motion . On sandy coasts, each variation in the level of the 

sea alters the position of the boundary. Beach materials are 

always being carried offshore , onshore, and in the direction 

of the prevailing longshore currents. In this way, sandy 

coasts are constantly adjusting to different tide, wave , sediment supply , and current conditions. 

Recently, the amount of sand leaving the mid-Atlantic 

coast, in general, has exceeded that being carried in. Periodic phases of erosion and deposition are being superimposed 

on a long-term trend of rising sea level, which submerges 

the beach, causes shoreline recession, and forces the barrier 

islands ever closer to the mainland . 

In cross section, Fenwick Island is an assemblage of sedimentary layers, each made up of particle sizes reflective of 

their source and the processes responsible for their movement. The overwhelming bulk of the barrier island substrate 

consists of medium-sized quartz sand grains with a small 

percentage of heavy minerals and shell fragments. This 

beach material is carried and deposited by two dominant 

processes: by storm overwash and by currents flowing 

alongshore and through inlets. Interbedded within the 

layers of beach material are units of well-sorted finer 

grained sands and silts that are transported by wind or by 

hydraulic processes. The configuration of the island, both 

in cross section and plan view, is the result of both the 

along-the-coast and across-the-coast transport of sand. 

These processes remain active today. 

Storms 

Hurricanes and winter extratropical storms (northeasters) have been the principal causes of changes on the 

mid-Atlantic barrier islands since the islands formed. 

Change is brought about by the movement of sands from 

waves driven by strong winds. Both hurricanes and northeasters generate waves by the action of winds moving across 

6 

the surface of the sea. The height of the waves produced is 4 

a function of the speed of the wind, the distance over the 

water which the wind blows (fetch), and the length of time 

that the wind blows across the sea surface. 

Hurricanes are especially destructive when they hit a 

coast. The sea may rise more than 20 feet along a 50 mile 

stretch of the coastline (Mather and others, 1967). Records 

going back to the 17th century show that , although numerous storms have passed nearby , between 1693 and 1970 

only three hurricanes (winds in excess of 75 miles per hour) 

have hit Fenwick Island. Comparative studies indicate that 

Fenwick and Assateague Islands and the 100 miles of coast 

to the north are less frequently hit by hurricanes than any 

other area on the U.S. Atlantic coast. Hurricanes occur 

most commonly in early September, but the season begins 

in early August and runs through October (Frank, 1974). 

Unlike hurricanes, which form over the warm tropical 

waters of the Caribbean and North Atlantic, extratropical 

storms or winter northeasters develop along the weather 

fronts of the midlatitudes which separate cold dry polar 

air from warm moist tropical air. Each year between 30 and 

40 such storms generate surge and waves at least 5 feet 

above normal. The most damaging storm to Fenwick Island 

in recent history was an extratropical storm that occurred 

in March 1962, and has become known as the Ash Wednesday Storm (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1963). 

The geomorphological effects of storm waves on barrier 

islands are frequently short lived. After a storm, for example, the beach immediately begins rebuilding to its prestorm condition. During the winter of 1977-78, however, a 

series of 28 northeaster storms resulted in severe erosion of 

Fenwick Island's coastline. By the time weather conditions 

improved long enough for natural beach rebuilding to take 

effect, so much sand had been removed from the nearshore area that complete natural rebuilding did not occur 

(Planning and Zoning Commission, 1978). 

Fig. 4 Expected return interval in years of storms producing given 

wave heights offshore of Fenwick Island. 

Waves 

"' ~ 

"' 

1000 

~ 100 c 

E 

i3 10 Ql 

cr: 

1 

5 1 0 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 

Deep-water wave height (feet) 

The normal deep-water wave height immediately off. 

shore from Fenwick Island averages 3 to 5 feet. The cumulative effect of high tide, spring tide, storm surge , and 

storm winds, however, can produce a wave of up to 30 feet. 

It is this kind of wave that overwashes the foredune line 

and floods the bayside of the barrier island. The most 

severe example of this activity in recent history occurred 

during the March 1962 Ash Wednesday storm (U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers, 1963). 

Statistics used to describe the storm and wave conditions 

at Ocean City are presented in graph form . The stormreturn interval graph represents the frequency of occurrence of a storm which produces a given maximum wave 

height based on data from 1948 to 1974. For example, a 

storm which produces a maximum deep-water wave height 
5 

Fig. 5 Monthly distribution of storms producing deep water waves 

in excess of 5 feet. 

3.0 

-;; 2.5 c 

0 

~ 

~ 

2.0 c.. "' 

§ 

£ 

(/) 1.5 

0 

ci 

z 1.0 

"' Ol 

~ 

"' > 

<{ .5 

0 

July A s 0 N D F M A M June 

Months 

of 25 feet offshore from Ocean City can be expected to 

occur every 25 years (Thompson , 1977). 

The histogram of monthly distribution of storms represents the average number of storms per month that produce 

deep-water waves at least 5 feet high, based on 12 years of 

wave data from 1960 to 1972. It is evident from this plot 

that the stormiest months are in the winter from December 

through March. 

Sea level 

Sea level is always undergoing change, and during the 

present period of sea level rise the barrier islands are slowly 

moving towards the mainland (Kraft, 1978). Erosion along 

the Atlantic coast is a manifestation of this change. The 

barrier-island adjustment to variations in sea level occurs as 

gradual steps through tides, storm waves, and storm surge. 

6 

Fig. 6 Cumulative effect of coastal processes on sea level. 

r Storm 

waves 

-.; + Daily tide > .!!? 

~ 

+Spring/ ~ 

neap "' tide ~ 

+Storm c 

c surge 0 

·;:; 

+Sea-level "' .:! 

rise u 

-" u. 

l = Resultant 

water level 

Another change in the level of the sea is caused by the 

constantly varying gravitational attractions associated with 

the Moon , Earth , and Sun. The astronomical tides along the 

mid-Atlantic coast are semidiurnal (1 2 hours and 25 minutes apart) and have an average range of 3 feet. The highest 

spring tides occur twice each month when the Earth, Moon , 

and Sun are aligned and result in an increase in tidal range 

of approximately 20 percent. Tidal action alone is of 

little significance in terms of longshore sediment transport. 

As storm surge and high waves are superimposed, however, 

the daily elevation and depression of the water level becomes important. 

The tides affect man most adversely when coastal flooding occurs. Not all high tides cause flooding, nor do all 

coastal storms. Under certain circumstances, however, 

where uncommonly high tides, called perigean spring tides, 

7 

Fig. 7 Sea level variations occur over a wide range of time intervals. 

Daily 

• Yearly 

Millennia 

coincide with strong onshore winds, the barrier islands 

will be flooded . The catastrophic Ash Wednesday storm of 

March 1962 along the mid-Atlantic coast is an example 

(Wood , 1978). 

If sea level remained constant, and if only the waves and 

currents are considered in assessing shoreline erosion, the 

critical factor would be the amount and characteristics of 

the sediment (sand) available to the beach. A sandy beach 

can remain stable only if it receives sand at the same rate 

that waves and currents are removing sand. If there is a 

surplus of sand , the shoreline will advance seaward; if there 

is a deficiency , the coastline retreats landward . Coastal recession occurs, therefore, either when sediment is removed 

more rapidly than natural or manmade sources resupply the 

system, or when the level of the sea rises or the level of the 

land subsides. 

7 
Barrier island forms 

8 

8 

Fig. 8 Assateague Island was completely overwashed during the Ash 

Wednesday storm (northeaster) of March 1962 . 

Continuous changes in sea level, wave action, storm surge, 

and sediment supply lead to rapid changes in barrier island 

configuration. Three classes of sand movement are responsible for most of the geomorphological forms of barrier 

islands. These are sand movement along the shore, across 

the shore, and eolian or wind-blown movement in various 

directions. 

1. Movement along the shore: Waves approaching the 

coast at an angle set up sand-transporting processes 

along the coast termed " longshore currents." The 

direction and strength of the currents depend on 

wave heights and wave directions. Over the course of 

a year, however, there is usually a net flow of water 

and sediment in one direction. In the case of Fenwick 

Island , this direction is to the south. 

Atlantic coast barrier-island shorelines are seldom 

long and straight, when viewed in plan, but rather 

are sinuous in form. Some of the along-the -shore 

variation is in the form of organized crescentic patterns ranging in size from beach cusps (30-300 feet) 

to very large shoreline arcs (1-200 miles). The smaller 

features appear, disappear, and may migrate along the 

shoreline; the larger ones establish the pattern for 

along-the-shore processes, including the distribution 

of erosion and storm surge (Dolan and others, 1977). 

2. Movement across the shore: During storms, waves 

and tides may combine to elevate water levels so high 

that the beach is breached and water and sediment 

move across the island. This process is called overwashing. Beach sediment may also be transported offshore by surf-zone processes and deposited or transported by longshore currents to other sections of the 

coast. Inlets and overwash provide a means for the 

Fig. 9 Inlet cut through Assateague Island during the Ash Wednesday storm 

of March I962 . 

movement of sediment from the beach zone to the 

baysides of the barrier islands. 

Inlets form when storm surge and high waves drive 

water across the barrier islands to the lower water 

levels of the sounds. As the seawater moves across the 

island, usually in areas of lower topography , channels 

(inlets) form and may erode to depths that permit a 

reverse flow (sound to sea) at low tide. Most inlets 

are temporary features of elevated water levels and 

last but a few days. The geological and ecological 

significance of inlet formation is considerable. The 

process results in the movement of great quantities 

of saline water and sediment from the ocean sides of 

the islands to the sound sides. The water contains 

nutrients and organisms, and the sediment forms 

shoals that provide new substrates for marsh grasses. 

Soon after the inlets close, shoal areas become incorporated into the island substrate. Inlet formation 

and closure is, therefore, one of the fundamental 

sediment transfer processes that move material from 

the ocean sides of the barrier islands to the fringing 

sound sides. 

3. Movement by wind: Sands on the beach face, sand 

flats, and dunes can be transported across and along 

the islands by strong winds. All of the mid-Atlantic 

coast barrier islands have dunes of various sizes landward of the beaches. Most of the dune sand is transported across the beach face , the backshore , and then 

deposited within the overwash flats and vegetated 

zones. The wind speed necessary to initiate sand 

movement is in the 15 to 25 miles per hour range , 

depending on the sand grain size . Most of the dunes 

on Fenwick Island are low (less than 7 feet) in 

height and small in area. 
10 

11 

Geological history of Fenwick Island 

c "'- "' Q) .... Q) ~ Q) 

a.-

0 ~= Q) 

- > Q) Q) 

.nL"' 

.... Q) 

a."' 

Q) 

0 

0 

150 

300 

450 

35,000 B.P. 12,000 B.P. Today 

12 

Fig. 10 Map of the United States showing relative position of the 

shoreline 12, 000 y ears ago. 

Fig. 11 Sea level variation over the past 35,000 y ears. 

Many lines of evidence have established that sea level has 

oscillated several times during the past half million years. 

During the warmer interglacial periods, continental glaciers 

melted , and the shorelines of the ocean basins retreated inland across the continental shelves. During the cooler 

glacial periods, water was withdrawn from the seas and 

stored in the form of glacial ice, and the shorelines advanced seaward. The process involved great quantities of 

seawater, enough to lower the level of the sea over 400 feet. 

The last era of major water withdrawal, the Wisconsin 

glacial period , began about 35,000 years ago and ended 

about 12,000 years ago . As the Wisconsin came to an end , 

sea level was approximately 350 feet lower than it is today , 

and the shoreline of Maryland and Delaware was about 

I 00 miles east of Ocean City. 

With the change from the glacial to the interglacial 

period about 12,000 years ago, the sea started to rise and 

continued to rise for about 8,000 years. li reached to within several feet of the present level approximately 4,000 

years ago (Kraft, 1971). · 

As the level of the sea rose and the shore zone of the 

Atlantic coast moved across the Continental Shelf, a large 

mass of sand was moved landward along with the shoreline 

12,000 years ago 

Fig. 12 Sea level changes and coastal configurations over the past 

12,000 years. 

in the form of a broad beach deposit. Additional sediment, 

in deltas and terraces in the vicinity of the large river 

mouths, was reworked by wave actions, and the sediment 

was moved along the coast . 

Once sea level stabilized about 4,000 years ago, waves, 

currents, and winds, working together on the sand surpluses, formed the barrier islands of the Atlantic coast. 

As long as the inshore zone contained a surplus of sediment, the barrier islands built seaward until an ·equilibrium 

was established. Equilibrium in the case of barrier islands 

is a function of wave energy , sea level , and the amount of 

sediment to be moved. 

Based upon evidence and radiocarbon dates, the period 

of progradation , or island growth, continued to about 

2,000 years ago. At that time , the barrier islands were much 

wider, perhaps as much as a mile or so, and although sea 

level has remained fairly stable, a rise of 5 feet or more has 

occurred since then (Kraft, 1971). 

The slow upward adjustment of sea level has resulted in 

the progressive recession of the shorelines and enlargement 

of the bays and sounds. The rise in sea level between 1900 

and 1974 has been very rapid , totaling almost 1 foot (Hicks 

and Crosby, 1975). 

The present 

9 
History and development 

of Fenwick Island 

10 

The first known explorer to visit the Maryland seashore was 13 

the Italian, Giovanni da Verrazano, who sailed into Chincoteague Bay under a French charter issued by King Francis I 

in 1524 . The British writer and explorer, Henry Norwood, 

was shipwrecked on Fenwick Island in 1649. In the early 

Colonial years, the principal use of the Maryland barrier 

island was as pasture for livestock. Properties on the barrier 

island did not prosper, though, and after a short succession 

of owners most of the area became vacant because of the 

limited arable soil and limited freshwater for domestic 14 

animals. Some animals were, however, able to survive the 

rigors of the environment. After ownership and tax payments ceased, public grazing became common (Truitt and 

Les Calette, 1964). 

The livestock activities on the barrier island did not encourage settlement, although salvaging cargoes from shipwrecks encouraged a limited number of settlers. Starting 

with squatters, small communities developed very slowly. 

The market in the 1830's for local oysters, clams, diamondback terrapin, and waterfowl encouraged further settlement 

on Pope Island , Green Run , and North Beach. Development 

of Fenwick Island and Ocean City started in the 1870's 

(Truitt and Les Calette, 1964). 

Ocean City has been a recreational area for over a hun- 15 

dred years. In 1872 several Worcester County people and 

some Baltimore businessmen joined to form the Sinepuxent 

Beach Corporation to promote a resort at what was to become Ocean City. In fact , the original name for Ocean City 

was Sinepuxent Beach. The corporation proceeded to build 

the Atlantic Hotel, a large structure for its time, which was 

opened in 1875. The opening of the hotel, and the extension of the railroad from Berlin, Maryland, to the shore 

directly across from Ocean City in 1872 marked the beginning of the community as an important coastal resort. The 

railroad was extended across Sinepuxent Bay in 1878 

(Truitt and Les Calette, 1964). 

Fig. 13 During the late 1800's most visitors reached Ocean City by 

train. Resort facilities were limited. 

Fig. 14 By 1920 the boardwalk was developed fronted by a primitive sea wall. Several large hotels were constructed just inland from 

the beach. 

Fig. 15 Today the trend continues, with development still danger· 

ously close to the water's edge. 
16 

Fig. 16 Extent of urban or built-up development on Fenwick 

Island , 1901-72. 

Ocean City remained a small resort community , however, until after World War II. The five maps on this page 

show a 70-year period of the growth of Ocean City into a 

major seaside resort. 

Starting from the small town center on the southern end 

of the present island, development in Ocean City has progressed northward toward the Delaware State line. Development along the bayside portion of the island has been curtailed by the establishment of a bulkhead line in 1965 and 

by the Wetlands Act of 1972. Most of the developable land 

in Ocean City is, therefore, limited to the existing vacant 

lands located in the northern part of the city . 

The permanent residential population of Ocean City has 

always been relatively small . According to a 1975 estimate, 

the permanent population was 4,000 (Planning and Zoning 

Commission, 1978). As recently as 1960, the official population was only 983. The permanent residential population 

figures do not, however, accurately reflect the impact of 

urban development on the island. Recent estimates indicate 

that the peak weekend summer visitor population exceeds 

200,000 . Since 1970 , many new condominiums and apartment buildings have been constructed to accommodate the 

summer population surges. Of 26 ,663 potential housing 

units for Ocean City in 1974 , over 75 percent included 

hotel, motel, apartment and condominium units. Only 

1 ,400 units (less than 7 percent) were single family dwellings, and these housed most of the permanent population 

(Planning and Zoning Commission , 1978). 

Ocean City has been hit by three major storms this century : the 1902 hurricane , the "great" hurricane of 1933, 

and the winter Ash Wednesday northeast storm of 1962 . 

In 1902, the Congress Hall Hotel was badly damaged, even 

though the center of the storm was well out to sea. The 

winds during the 1933 hurricane were estimated at 100 

miles per hour, and waves 20 feet high . The most significant 

impact of the storm was the opening of Ocean City Inlet. 

Although this inlet very likely would have closed naturally 

within a year, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has maintained the inlet since 1933 in order to provide boat access 

to the bay. While maintenance of Ocean City Inlet has 

benefits, serious erosion problems have resulted on Assateague Island to the south of the inlet (Dean and Perlin, 

1977). 

The greatest storm damage in the history of Ocean City 

was caused by the Ash Wednesday northeast storm of 

March 1962. Water covered much of Fenwick Island for 

two days at depths of up to eight feet. Total damage to 

Ocean City was estimated at $7 .5 million. Although 150 

businesses and over 50 homes and apartments were damaged or destroyed, rebuilding commenced almost immediately after the storm (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 

1963). 

11 
Recent land use patterns and trends 

12 

Agricultural 

Forestland • 

Wetland 

Barren land 

Urban and 

built up 

Fig. 17 Land use and land cover of Fenwick Island and adjacent 

land areas. 

... v( .. :;: ; 

' L 

~~ :: :!} :::::: : ............. ...... . ..... . ... ..... .. . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . .. .... ···"···,;_:_;_:J:: : 

I 

L 

- - < 
Fig. 18 Recent development along the shorefront of Ocean City. 

In recent years, increased urbanization has dominated the 

Fenwick Island landscape. For example, between 1950 and 

1972 the area of urban land more than doubled, increasing 

more than 1,000 acres. Most of this increase occurred at the 

expense of wetland, which decreased by 950 acres during 

the same period (Lins, 1979). 

Although the primary reasons for this rapid development 

was the aesthetic and recreational appeal of the area, much 

of this development was influenced by the transportation 

system. The most significant transportation factor was the 

Chesapeake Bay Bridge, connecting Sandy Point (on the 

western shore) with Kent Island (on the eastern shore), 

which opened in 1952. Before the opening of this bridge, 

the trip to Fenwick Island from Baltimore or Washington, 

via a ferry, took 3 to 4 hours. After the bridge opened, the 

travel time was reduced to 2.5 hours, which made the drive 

to Fenwick Island more appealing to more people. Also, as 

the population became more affluent, more money was 

Fig. 19 The dashed line on this 1978 photo approximates the ~tomt surge 

penetration distance during the Ash Wednesday storm of March 1962 . 

available for recreation and investment. This condition 

fostered the acceleration of second home and condominium development during the 1960's and 1970's. 

Recent development of the Atlantic coast barrier islands 

has been inversely related to the hazards characteristic of 

the shoreline. The most intense developments have been 

located close to the sea, while more stable areas on many 

islands have remained undeveloped. This inversion stems 

from man's desire to be near the water's edge, even when 

this location introduces a degree of risk. The waterfront 

development in Ocean City is indicative of this trend. Most 

of the larger buildings shown on the photograph have been 

constructed since 1970. The mobile home parks are also 

mostly post-I 970. Together, these developments represent 

a capital expenditure in excess of $1 00 million (Planning 

and Zoning Commission, 1978). Most of this land is within 

the storm-surge penetration zone of the March 1962 

northeast stqrm. 

13 
20 

Fig. 20 This aerial photo was taken on March 15, 1962, one 

week following the Great Atlantic Storm of March 7. The lightly 

14 

colored areas are sand deposits that were washed over Fenwick 

Island during the March 7 storm surge. Some buildings were dam· 

aged by flood waters. Many were destroyed by the storm surge. 
15 
21 

Erosion and storm surge penetration 

on Fenwick Island 

16 

....-- ---Erosion Accretion ----4 

> j 

\ 

---- ---------- feet I year 15 0 - 1 5 - 30 1 5 0 30 15 0 -1 5 

Mean Standard Mean+ Standard 

Deviation Deviation 

Fig . 21 These data strips permit rapid visual assessment of shoreline stability along Fenwick Island. Serious erosion problems start 

The entire Atlantic coast is one of the Nation's most dynamic environments. Extratropical and tropical storms 

generate waves and surge that frequently alter the coast. 

During the past several decades, there has been a net trend 

toward coastline recession (erosion) (Dolan and others, 

1979). This trend has been attributed to a recent rise in sea 

level, a reduction in the amount of new sediment reaching 

the coast, human alterations of the coast, and long-term 

changes in storm frequencies and magnitudes. Changes 

along Fenwick Island are typical for the Atlantic coast. The 

average rate of recession is about two feet per year for the 

period 1938 to 1974 (Dolan and others, 1979). 

Erosion 

Coastal erosion and deposition are functions of three 

Atlantic Ocean . 

4 miles north of Ocean City Inlet and continue on to the MarylandDelaware border. 

interrelated factors: (1) the amount and kind of sediment 

within a coastal area, (2) the power of the erosional forces, 

and (3) the stability of sea level. The shoreline recedes 

when the forces of erosion exceed the amount of sediment 

supplied to the system. The greater the deficiency of sand, 

or the higher the wave forces, the more rapid the rate of 

erosion. Any of the three factors (energy, sediment, or sea 

level) can vary through time and change the balance. Beach 

erosion is, however, a natural process and becomes a problem only when man's structures are placed in the path of 

shoreline recession . 

Changes in the shoreline at any point can be measured 

from a sequence of aerial photographs and expressed in 

terms of average rate of change and the variation of the 

averages over the time span of the photographs. The sum of 

n 30-year projected shoreline 

l::::::::J 30-year projected storm 

surge line 
Fig. 22 Predicted location of the shoreline and storm surge penetration line for 30 years in the future. 

these two measures is a good indication of the vulnerability 

or stability of the barrier island. The maps presented here 

allow visual assessment of shoreline stability. 

Storm surge penetration 

Hurricanes and severe winter storms are responsible for 

frequent and sometimes dramatic landscape modification 

along the Atlantic coast. In addition to the physical and 

ecological changes, private land holdings are destroyed, 

communication and transportation facilities are disrupted, 

and the loss of life is not uncommon. 

During periods of extreme storm activity (high waves 

and/or storm surge) low-lying coastal areas may be flooded 

and overwashed by seawater. The overwash is a bore of 

highly turbulent, sediment-laden water which moves across 

vi vi 

"" -'= ;:.. cr; CD rthe beach and penetrates inland to more stable portions of 

the islands. As this bore moves inland, its velocity is reduced so that at some point it can no longer transport 

sediments. Thus a zone of sediment deposition is produced 

between the beach and the line of inland penetration of the 

bore. The overwash process occurs about once every year 

or two on the undeveloped (natural state) barrier islands of 

the mid-Atlantic region. The larger the storm, the greater 

the volume of water that overtops the beach and the 

greater the distance of penetration. 

Overwashing has been described by Godfrey and Godfrey (1973) as a "constructive" process on natural barrier 

islands in that it results in deposition of sediment; however, 

overwashing can also be described as a "destructive" process in that it represents a major threat to developed propci) 

-'= ;;: 

(J) 

erty. During the March 1962 northeaster, the bore of overwash was so large in places that more than $500 million of 

property was destroyed between Cape Hatteras and Cape 

Cod (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1963). 

These illustrations show the predicted width of the 

storm surge penetration zone for 30 years into the future. 

Although the risk of ocean front flooding and storm surge 

damage decreases inland from the seashore, the shoreline 

is not a fixed feature of the coast. Recession and accretion 

occur throughout the year as the beach responds to waves, 

tides, and sea level changes, so the distance, and therefore 

the hazard, changes through time . The 30-year storm surge 

penetration zone presented here has been adjusted according to the past trends of the shoreline erosion (Dolan and 

others, 1977). , 

,/ 

0 Y, 1 mile ' e-----3 e----3 F-=3 E"F'3 e--3 

17 
Engineering works 

Alteration of the sediment transport processes on barrier '3 

islands, in an effort to provide a more stable landscape , has 

a profound effect on the geological and ecological processes. For example, by inhibiting ove rwash and concentrating wind-blown sands in the form of artificially created 

dunes, man alters overwash channels, changes vegeta tion 

communities, and interferes with landward migration of the 

islands. Also, by inhibiting longshore currents by constructing groins, the shoreline on the upcurrent side of a groin 

accretes while that on the downcurrent side erodes. Finally, 

by constructing roads, parking lots, and campgrounds, 

sediment processes are altered, freshwate r runoff is 

changed, different types of plant communities develop, 

and animal habitats are altered. 

Erosion control 

As indicated earlier, the barrier islands recede when 

forces of erosion exceed the amount of sediment supplied 

to the beach. The greater the deficiency of sediment or the 

higher the wave forces (energy), the more rapid the rate of 

erosion. Any of the three factors - wave energy, sediment, 

or sea level - can vary and change the balance between erosion or deposition. Along the mid-Atlantic coast, wave 

energy ranges from modest to high , the sediment supply is 

mostly deficient, and sea level continues to rise. Unfortunately , all of these are factors that contribute to shoreline erosion . 

Shoreline protection measures can be summarized under 

three categories. Protection designed to: (1) inhibit direct 

attack by waves, such as seawalls, bulkheads, and revetments; (2) inhibit currents that transport sand , such as 

groins and jetties; and (3) artificially nourish beaches. 

Seawalls. A seawall is designed to absorb and reflect 

wave energy as well as elevate the land area behind the seawall above the high-water line . However, seawalls, bulk18 

heads, and revetments do not prevent the loss of sand from 

in front of the structure. In fact, seawalls commonly accelerate the loss of sand as the wall deflects the wave forces 

downward into the beach deposit. Seawalls have not been 

used in erosion control on Fenwick Island. 

Groins. Groins are obstructions placed in the path of 

the longshore currents for the purpose of trapping littoral 

drift. These structures work only when (1) littoral drift sediment is of a significant volume ; (2) the material is at least 

sand size; and (3) the land down the beach from the groin 

is considered expendable. The reason for the latter is that 

Fig. 23 Jetties at Ocean City Inlet. 

groins trap sand, and the sand gained at one place must be 

lost to another. Beach replenishment is commonly nee ded 

to fill or refill the groin compartments as the sands are lost. 

Beach nourishment. For more than a century , coastal 

structures, including jetties, groins, and seawalls, have been 

built in the inshore zone in an effort to trap sand and protect beaches. ln general, these structures collectively have 

aggravated problems rather than resulted in solutions. 

Artificial beach nourishment, on the other hand , has long 

been considered the most desirable method of protection 

because : 
24 

Fig. 24 Groin field along Fenwick Island. 

1. Placement of sand on a beach does not alter the suita- 5 

bility of the system for recreation ; 

2. Nourishment cannot adversely affect areas beyond 

the problem area ; and 

3 . If the design fails, the results of the "engineering" are 

soon dissipated. 

Perhaps the major disadvantage to artificial nourishment 

is that great quantities of sand of suitable quality (type and 

size) often are not readily available . In the past , sands were 

dredged from sounds and bays or transported from inland 

Fig. 25 Use of bulldozers is a unique form of shoreline engineering. 

sources. With the re cent concern about estuarine ecology, 

and because sediments in the bays behind barrier islands are 

generally too fine to be effective as beach nourishment , 

estuarine and bay sources are now less desirable. The only 

fut ure prospect for large quantities of sand for nourishment 

purposes appears to be offshore sources and materials 

dredged from the coastal inlets. In fact, the U.S . Army 

Corps of Engineers has developed a shoreline protection 

plan for Fenwick Island that calls for a large initial nourishment project from an offshore source area, followed by 

annual re-nourishment of 100 ,000 to 200,000 yards3 

(Planning and Zoning Commission, 1978). 

Ocean City has attempted to rebuild its beaches by artifically bulldozing sand from the inshore zone onto the 

beach face and berm. The idea of moving sand from the 

submerged inshore zone to the subaer:ial part of the beach 

may seem an attractive solution to beach erosion. The 

fundamental problem in pursuing this method is that the 

inshore-beach face profile is always in a quasi-equilibrium 

state, as a result of wave and tidal action . A change in one 

section of the profile leads to an immediate adjustment in 

other sections of the profile. The excavations in the inshore 

zone made by bulldozers at Ocean City immediately begin 

to fill in with sands transported by wave action from the 

beach face and the near-shore zone. 

Ocean City Inlet 

During fair-weather conditions at Fenwick Island, 

especially in the summer, there is a slow persistent movement of sand to the north in response to prevailing southeast waves. During storms predominantly in the winter 

months, northe ast waves prevail, and the longshore current 

is southward. Thus, on an annual basis, a quasi-equilibrium 

is established between northward drift and southward 

drift , with a net movement of approximately 20,000 yards3 

of sand to the south (Dean and Pe rlin, 1977). Any engineering structure placed within the stream of the longshore 

currents will tend to disturb this system. For example, the 

installation of jetties at the Ocean City Inlet in the 1930's 

has resulted in a large triangular beach at the south end of 

Fenwick Island because of a combination of a net southerly 

longshore current and the jetty on the north shore of the 

inlet. Furthermore, entrapment of sediment by the jetty 

has hastened the erosion of the northern end of Assateague 

Island. 
Hazards on barrier islands 

Two of the most important issues to consider in barrier 26 

island planning and management are the hazards associated 

with erosion and storm surge. Wi th continuation of the current trend in long-term sea level rise and the frequent impact of storm waves and surges, barrier islands move toward 

the mainland . The rate of movement for Fenwick Island 

over the last four decades has averaged about 2 feet a year. 

There is nothing to indicate that the natural processes 

which have been forcing the barrier islands toward the 

mainland for many decades will change in the near future. 

On the basis of 20 to 40 years of shore line-change data 

along the entire island, we can attempt to forecast what 

Fenwick Island may look like in another 25 years if historical trends continue. 

This table shows the rates of shoreline erosion for Fenwick Island for the period 1940 to 1980. It can be seen 

from these data that the shoreline 4 miles north of the 

Ocean City jetties has built out into the sea as sand was 

trapped by the jetties. For the next 8 miles, the shoreline 

has receded (eroded) landward at rates averaging about 

2 .0 feet per year. 

The complex patterns of barrier island dynamics pre -

clude simple rule-of-thumb management guidelines. Charts 

and maps showing vulnerability to extreme storms, the 

persistent rise in sea level , and projections of island conditions into the future are among the most essential information needs (Vesper, 1964). These data should be continuously updated through a systema tic monitoring program 

that includes both remote se nsin g and fieldwork. Only 

through this method can changes in nature's long-term 

trends in environmental dynamics be iden tified and appropriate management decisions be implemented . 

Change in the shoreline at any point (landward or seaward) can be measured in terms of mean rate of change 

(long-te rm trend) and standard deviation of rate of change 

(periodic fluct uation). The sum of these two measures is 

20 

Fig. 26 The distances between these buildings and the shoreline 

leaves little room for natural processes during storms. 
Table 2 Rates of shoreline change for Fenwick Island-1940 

to 1980. 

one of the best indications of the hazards and vulnerability 

or stability of the shoreline . The graphs on pages 16 and 17 

are designed for visual assessment of shoreline stability 

along the coast of Fenwick Island. More important than 

the absolute magnitudes of erosion is the capacity to 

compare relative magnitudes of erosion from point to 

point and area to area. The figures on pages 16 and 1 7 

present means and stardard deviations of shoreline rate of 

change for selected areas on Fenwick Island. These illustrations show that the rate of change is highly variable. 

Development on Fenwick Island should take into consideration the hazards associated with erosion and storm 

surge . Funds spent for beach restoration and flood insurance should be spent so as not to encourage development in 

areas prone to flooding and erosion damage . Additional 

studies are underway to provide a thorough assessment of 

the erosion problem and possible shoreline protection 

measures. This will enable local land use managers to develop a coastal zone plan for eastern Worcester County 

which will provide for the protection of landowners and 

the long-term economic well-being of the community. 

Average rate of Total change since 

change per year 1940 (in feet) 

(in feet) (- means erosion) 

Unit 1 + 6.0 + 240 

Unit 2 + 1.2 + 50 

Unit 3 - 2.9 145 

Unit 4 - 1.6 80 

2 3 4 5 6 

Fig. 27 During severe storms, such as the Ash Wednesday storm of 

March 1962, these low areas are flooded and commonly subjected 

to storm surge and overwash. 

In an attempt to control development in the most hazardous areas, the Maryland State Legislature created the 

Beach Erosion Control District (BECD) in July 1975. The 

BECD includes a building limit line which more or less coincides with the west crest of the existing natural dune line 

on Assateague and Fenwick Islands. Land clearing , construction activity, or the construction or placement of permanent structures within the BECD is prohibited. The 

exact limits of the BECD building limit line have been delineated on a series of 1:1 ,400-scale official plat maps 

(Planning and Zoning Commission, 1978). 

In order to help reduce the problem of coastal erosion at 

Ocean City, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has developed several preliminary alternative shoreline protection 

plans for different frequencies and magnitudes of storm 

occurrence . The most comprehensive alternative is called 

the Hurricane Protection and Beach Restoration Plan . This 

plan calls for the sand to be transported to Ocean City 

from an offshore shoal, construction of artificial dunes 

where feasible , and the construction of a bulkhead in the 

boardwalk area. The plan also calls for an annual beach 

27 ~I> 

.~~,-0 c,'ll-

"' 

~~ ,_0 ~'+)- ~ c,'ll- c," <:-1> I 

"'"' i c,"' 

(Reprinted from U.S . Anny Corps of Engineers, 1963.) 

replenishment program of 100,000 to 200,000 yards3 of 

sand to replace anticipated seasonal erosion deficiencies. 

The size of the offshore shoal east-southeast of Ocean City 

Inlet is 7 million yards3 . The cost estimate for this project 

is $8 to $22 million. As local and Congressional approval 

as well as environmental impact assessments are required , 

it is likely to be a number of years before the project could 

be implemented (Planning and Zoning Commission , 1978). 

The most recent study (1979) of possible solutions to control erosion recommends installation of groins. 

In addition to the problem of erosion, flooding of the 

coastal areas and barrier islands may occur during a storm 

as a result of the storm surge. As storm surges develop, because of a lowering of the barometric pressure (especially 

during a hurricane), the slope or gradient of the local drainage basin is reduced , thereby slowing the seaward movement of the runoff. If a large amount of rain occurs during 

the storm , extensive areas may be flooded by freshwater 

immediately landward of the overwash line. Development 

in the back-bay area should also take into account such 

conditions. 
Federal flood insu·rance program 

The National Flood Insurance Program, administered by 28 !IIIF.:'<r.lll!ll., 

the Federal Insurance Administration (FIA) provides some 

assistance in reducing the potential property losses on 

barrier islands. The program's stated purposes are : 

"To . . . encourage State and local governments to 

make appropriate land use adjustment to constrict 

the development of land which is exposed to flood 

damage and minimize damage caused by flood 

losses ... [and] . . . to ... guide the development of 

proposed future construction , where practicable , 

away from locations which are threatened by flood 

hazards" (U.S . Department of Commerce, 1975). 

Although FIA structural requirements have tended to induce developers to construct buildings in such a way as to 

reduce their susceptibi!ity to flood damage , these require -

ments do not cover all the hazards involved . For example , 

wave height and run-up, which considerably increase 

stormwater elevations and potential damage , are not included. Further, the requirements are more design-oriented 

than location-oriented. Therefore , buildings can be designed 

to meet the structural requirements but still be located in 

hazardous areas. 

22 

Fig. 28 Losses along the Atlantic coast barrier islands during the Ash 

Wednesday storm of March 1962 reached $250 million . Photograph courtesy of Accock Brown. 
Summary 

Barrier islands are exciting places to visit and on which to 

live. They are, however, unforgiving at times. Nature provides many clear indications of land areas that could be 

endangered by natural processes. Development of these 

areas should be preceded by an identification of the 

hazards, and assessment of the risks, and an estimate of the 

costs and effectiveness of possible mitigation measures. 

Coastal resorts that allow development near the water's 

edge soon become dependent on engineering works. 

In attempts to stabilize and protect property on the 

shoreline along the mid-Atlantic barrier islands, tens of 

millions of dollars of private and public funds have been 

invested over the past two decades. Unfortunately, there 

appear to be few effective methods available to stop erosion 

and minimize flood hazards. This condition has been recognized in tidewater Maryland for over 30 years. In a report 

issued by the Maryland State Board of Natural Resources 

in the 1940's, a plea was made to coastal communities and 

developers to exercise care in the planning and construction 

of building on or near the shoreline (State of Maryland, 

1949). The report even suggested that the cost of protecting waterfront property from erosion should be paid entirely by the property owners. 

Gilbert White of the University of Colorado recently 

stated that "the most rapidly growing site for catastrophic 

events in the United States is the Gulf and Atlantic Coast 

of the country. There one finds rates of growth within the 

50- and 100-year flood frequency zones that are four, five, 

and ten times as great as in adjoining areas, and it is these 

areas that someday, perhaps next year, perhaps not for a 

hundred years, depending on the random occurrence, will 

be the sites of enlarged catastrophies" (White, 1975). 

Despite the bleak overtones associated with these forecasts and experiences, positive alternatives are available to 

coastal planners and developers. Data on erosion and 

storm-surge penetration rates and land use, such as those 

contained in this report, can provide a strong basis for 

guiding future development away from the more hazardous 

areas and into locations of greater relative safety. Similarly, 

these data can be used effectively to evaluate various hazard 

mitigation techniques, and to choose those which offer the 

most protection with the fewest negative impacts. 

23 
References and acknowledgments 

Burton, Ian, and Kates, R.W., 1965, The floodplain and 

the seashore, comparative analysis of hazard-zone occupance: Geographical Review, v. 54, pp. 367-85. 

Commission on Marine Science, Engineering and Resources, 1969, Our nation and the sea, a plan for national 

action, Report of the Commission: U.S. Government 

Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 

Dean, R.G., and Perlin, M., 1977, Coastal engineering 

study of Ocean City Inlet, Maryland: Coastal Sediments 

1977, American Society of Civil Engineers, pp. 520-42. 

Dolan, Robert, 1972, Barrier dune system along the 

outer banks of North Carolina: a reappraisal: Science, 

V. 176, pp. 286-88. 

Dolan, Robert, Hayden, B.P., Heywood, J.E., 1977, 

Atlas of environmental dynamics Assateague Island national 

seashore: Natural Resources Report No. 11, National Park 

Serivce and National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 40 p. 

1978, Analysis of coastal erosion and storm 

surge hazards: Coastal Engineering, v. 2, pp. 41-53. 

Dolan, Robert, Hayden, Bruce, Heywood, Jeffrey, and 

Vincent, Linwood, 1977, Shoreline forms and shoreline dynamics: Science, v. 197, pp. 49-51 . 

Dolan, Robert, Hayden, B.P., Rea, C.C., and Heywood, 

J .E., 1979, Shoreline erosion along the middle-Atlantic 

coast: Geology, (under review). 

Frank, N., 1974, Hard facts about hurricanes: National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department 

of Commerce. 

Frank, R.A., 1979, Living with coastal storms: seeking 

an accommodation: National Conference on Hurricanes 

and Coastal Storms, Orlando, Fla., May 29, 18 p. 

Godfrey, P.J.,and Godfrey, M.M., 1973, Comparison of 

24 

ecological and geomorphic interactions between altered and 

unaltered barrier island systems in North Carolina, in 

Coates, D.R., (ed.), Coastal Geomorphology: State University of New York, Binghamton, pp. 239-58. 

Hayden, B.P., 1975, Storm waves at Cape Hatteras, 

North Carolina: recent secular variations: Science, v. 190, 

pp. 981-83. 

Hebert, P.J., and Taylor, Glenn, 1979, Everything you 

always wanted to know about hurricanes: Weatherwise, 

v. 32, no. 2, pp. 60-67. 

Hicks, S.D., and Crosby, J.E., 1975, An average longperiod sea-level series for the United States: National 

Ocean Survey NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS15, p.6. 

Kraft, J.C., 1971, A guide to the geology of Delaware's 

coastal environments: College of Marine Studies, University of Delaware, 220 pp. 

1978, Coastal stratigraphic sequences: in 

Davis, R.A., (ed.), Coastal sedimentary environments: New 

York, Springer-Verlag, pp. 361-84. 

Lins, H.F ., 1979, Patterns and trends of land use and 

land cover on Atlantic and Gulf coast barrier islands: U.S. 

Geological Survey Professional Paper 1156, [in press] . 

Mather, J.R., Field, R.T., and Yoshioka, Gary, 1967, 

Storm damage hazard along the east coast of the United 

States: Journal of Applied Meteorology, v. 6, no. 1, pp. 

20-30. 

Planning and Zoning Commission, 1978, Comprehensive 

plan of Ocean City: Revised Edition, Planning and Zoning 

Commission for the Town of Ocean City, Maryland. 

State of Maryland, 1949, Shore erosion in tidewater 

Maryland: Board of Natural Resources, Department of 

Geology, Mines, and Water Resources, Bulletin 6, 141 p. 

Thompson, E.F., 1977, Wave climate at selected locations along U.S. coasts: TR 77-1, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research, Fort Belvoir, Va., 

364 p. 

Truitt, D.V., and Les Calette, M.G., 1964, Worcester 

county -Maryland's Arcadia: Worcester County Historical 

Society. 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1963, Operation fivehigh: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Philadelphia District. 

U.S. Department of Commerce, 1975, National flood insurance program: Federal Insurance Administration, Federal Register, v. 40, no. 59. 

Vesper, W .H., 1964, A pictorial history of selected structures along the New Jersey coasts: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Miscellaneous 

Paper 5-64, NTIS A0226653. 

White, G.F. (ed.), 1975, Natural hazards: New York, 

Oxford University Press, 288 p. 

Wolman, G.M., 1971, The nation's rivers: Science, 

v. 175,pp.905-18. 

Wood, F.J., 1978, The strategic role of perigean spring 

tides in nautical history and North American coastal flooding: U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, Washington, D.C., 538 p. 

Acknowledgments 

We thank Paul Komar for reviewing an early draft of the 

manuscript. Much of the data summarized in this paper was 

collected during investigations at the University of Virginia 

under contract with the Office of Naval Research. 

U S GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1980 0-308-657