List of U.S. Army Research Institute 

Research and Technical Publications

October 1, 2001 to September 30, 2002 

With Author and Subject Index 

U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences 

5001 Eisenhower Avenue, Alexandria, Virginia 22333-5600 

August 2003 

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. 
ii 
Foreword 

The means of dissemination of the results of ARI's research and 

development/studies and analysis program vary widely depending on the type of work, 

the subject matter, and the sponsor/proponent. Typically, major findings with immediate 

policy and procedural implications are briefed to sponsors and proponents in order to 

enable timely implementation. This is followed up with complete documentation in the 

form of research and technical publications such as the ones listed here. In many cases, 

these documents represent the actual item handed off to the sponsor/proponent; this is

particularly true of the Research Product category. In other cases, results are published in 

order to provide a complete record of the work done, and for future reference by

researchers doing work in the same or similar areas. 

This annotated list for FY02 provides an idea of both the depth and scope of the 

ARI research effort, and is a valuable resource for anyone interested in military

psychology from either a scientific or operational perspective. 

FRANKLIN L. MOSES ZITA M. SIMUTIS 

Acting Technical Director Director 

iii 
iv 
List of U.S. Army Research Institute 

Research and Technical Publications 

October 1, 2001 to September 30, 2002 

With Author and Subject Index 

Contents 

Page

Introduction.................................................................................................................................................vii 

Technical Reports ......................................................................................................................................... 1 

Research Reports .......................................................................................................................................... 7 

Research Products....................................................................................................................................... 15 

Special Reports........................................................................................................................................... 17 

Study Reports.............................................................................................................................................. 19 

Study Notes................................................................................................................................................. 23 

Research Notes............................................................................................................................................ 25 

Journal Articles, Books and Book Chapters for FY2001............................................................................ 39 

Conference Papers for FY2001................................................................................................................... 40 

Journal Articles, Books and Book Chapters for FY2002............................................................................ 43 

Conference Papers for FY2002................................................................................................................... 44 

 

Index of ARI Publications:

Author Index ................................................................................................................................................31 

Subject Index.............................................................................................................................................................35 

v 
vi 
List of U.S. Army Research Institute 

Research and Technical Publications 

October 1, 2001 to September 30, 2002 

With Author and Subject Index

Introduction 

The primary responsibility of the U.S. Army

Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social 

Sciences (ARI) is to maximize soldier 

effectiveness. ARI accomplishes its mission

through research and development in the 

acquisition, training, utilization, and retention of

Army personnel. ARI research and products affect 

every Army mission with a human performance 

component.

Research Note (RN). An interim or final report 

typically of limited interest outside of ARI. It is

filed with the Defense Technical Information

Center (DTIC) but is not printed. Research Notes 

usually fall into one of the following categories: 

An in-house report that is of limited

interest outside of ARI but is considered

worth submitting to DTIC to be part of

the Department of Defense (DoD) 

archive of technical documentation.

As convenient references for qualified 

agencies and individuals and sponsors, ARI 

publishes lists of its technical and research

publications. This issue of the publication list 

describes reports published during the period 

October 1, 2001, to September 30, 2002. It

contains the abstract of each publication and the 

bibliographic information needed to identify a 

publication. The abstracts have been written, as far 

as possible, to describe the principal research

findings in non-technical terms; however, technical

language is used to communicate efficiently the 

details of research analysis. Author and subject 

indexing provide access to individual reports and 

topics. 

An interim contract report that is of

limited interest outside of ARI but is

considered worth submitting to DTIC to

be part of the DoD archive of technical 

documentation.

A final contract report that is of limited

interest outside of ARI but must be 

submitted to DTIC in accordance with

Department of the Army regulations to

close a contract. 

ARI Publications Material related to a Research Report or 

 Technical Report (detailed tables, 

ARI publications are divided into separate, 

consecutively numbered categories appropriate to 

their intended audience and function. During fiscal 

year 2002, the following types of research and 

technical reports were issued by ARI: 

 graphs, charts, sample forms, and 

 sample training and testing materials) 

 published as a Research Note to 

 economize on printing and distribution.

vii 
viii 

Research Product (RP). A user-oriented report intended to aid Army personnel. Examples are handbooks, manuals, and guidebooks. 

Research Report (RR). A report of completed research intended primarily for dissemination to military managers. Research Reports may deal with 

policy-related issues but typically do not include specific policy recommendations. 

Special Report (S). A published report on a topic of 

special interest or in-house research intended primarily for dissemination to a select audience. 

Study Report (SR). A published report briefly 

documenting studies and analyses. 

Study Note (SN). A Study Note may contain or 

consist of technical text, computer code, diskettes or 

tapes with software, databases, codebooks or other 

documentation, raw data, data collection instruments, 

figures, tables, or any other products that do not 

concisely convey the import of a project but which 

must be archived for technical completeness. 

Technical Report (TR). A report of completed research intended primarily for dissemination to researchers. 

Research Reports and Technical Reports 

published by the U.S. Army Research Institute for the 

Behavioral and Social Sciences are intended for 

sponsors of research and development (R&D) tasks 

and for other research and military agencies. Any 

findings ready for implementation at the time of 

publication are presented in the last part of the 

Executive Summary. Upon completion of a major 

phase of the task, formal recommendations for 

official action normally are conveyed to appropriate 

military agencies by briefing or memorandum. 

ARI Distribution

 Initial distribution of these publications was 

made directly by ARI. Research Reports, Technical 

Reports, Study Reports, and Research Products were 

distributed primarily to operational and research 

facilities and their sponsors in DoD, to other 

interested Government agencies, and to DTIC; copies 

of some reports were also sent to the Library of 

Congress for distribution to libraries participating in 

the Documents Expediting Project. Research Notes 

and Study Notes were deposited with DTIC but were 

not published. 

 These publications are NOT available from 

ARI. DoD agencies and contractors can purchase 

paper copies or microfiche from: 

 Defense Logistics Agency 

Defense Technical Information Center 

8725 John J. Kingman Road, Suite 0944 

Ft. Belvoir, VA 22060-6218 

(703) 767-9030 or DSN 284-9030 

Other Government agencies and the general 

public can obtain unclassified reports from: 

 U.S. Department of Commerce 

National Technical Information Service 

5285 Port Royal Road 

Springfield, VA 22161 

(703) 487-4650 

NOTE: When requesting copies of these reports, use the DTIC accession number (AD - - - - - - -) appearing in 

parentheses following the date of publication of each citation.
Technical Reports 

1

TR 1121 

Question Generation as a Learning 

Multiplier in Distributed Learning 

Environments. Graesser, A.C., and 

Wisher, R.A. October 2001. (AD A399456) 

This report provides a rationale for question 

generation as a workable learning multiplier 

in distributed learning environments. The 

rationale was derived from a thorough 

review of recent research on questioning 

from multiple perspectives: psychology, 

cognitive science, computational linguistics, 

and information systems design. Based on 

this review, nine practices were identified 

for immediate use in both the conventional 

classroom and distributed learning settings. 

If employed properly, question generation 

strategies in distributed learning can 

increase a soldier’s depth of understanding 

about the workings of a complex system. 

The strategy is particularly useful for 

asynchronous distance learning, where the 

instructor is not necessarily available to 

answer questions promptly. 

TR 1122 

Evaluating an Approach to MOUT 

Decision Skills Training. Pliske, R.M., 

Militello, L.G., Phillips, J., and Battaglia, 

D.A. October 2001, (AD A399392)

An experimental training program was 

developed to improve the battlefield 

decision skills of platoon leaders during 

Military Operations in Urban Terrain 

(MOUT). The program was implemented in 

the form of a multimedia, train-the-trainer 

CD-ROM titled "IMproving Performance 

through Applied Cognitive Training" 

(IMPACT). This report describes an 

evaluation of the usability of IMPACT, 

including an exploration of methodological 

issues associated with evaluating the 

effectiveness of training programs to 

improve decision-making skills. The 

evaluation was conducted at the U.S. 

Military Academy with cadets and U.S. 

Army captains participating as students and 

instructors, respectively. Participants were 

randomly assigned to either IMPACT or 

traditional after-action review (AAR) 

conditions. Instructors conducted two 

training sessions with cadets using either 

IMPACT or traditional AAR methods. 

Cadets then participated in a final session 

where they were tested on their MOUT 

decision-making skill and knowledge. 

Although we found few statistically 

significant differences between cadets in the 

two conditions, instructors reported 

IMPACT to be a valuable and highly usable 

training tool. Furthermore, we were able to 

develop an objective test to measure 

decision quality, as well as a process that 

resulted in reliable ratings of decision 

quality from subject matter experts. 

TR 1123 

Analysis of Infantry Situation Awareness 

Training Requirements. Strater, L.D., 

Jones, D. and Endsley, M.R. November 

2001. (AD A399391) 

The application of emerging digital 

technologies promises to revolutionize 

information acquisition and distribution on 

the battlefield of the near future. With more 

rapid information flow, even minimally 

experienced officers will be pushed to achieve 

faster decision-action cycles, reducing the 

time to make and implement decisions. With 

this advent, officers will increasingly require 

robust abilities to rapidly develop and 

maintain high levels of situation awareness 

(SA) in the harsh, dynamic, and confusing 

environment of Infantry combat. To date, no 

training programs have been developed 

specifically for the purpose of enhancing SA 

in Infantry forces. This study focused on 
Technical Reports 

2

identifying areas of low and high SA, 

especially those areas where training can be 

employed to reduce deficits in SA among less 

experienced officers. A literature review was 

conducted to explore research into SA, with 

an emphasis on the Infantry domain. In 

addition, data from a prior study were 

examined to explore the relationships 

between SA and decision-making. Finally, 

trainers were surveyed to solicit their input on 

specific strengths and weaknesses in the SA 

of new platoon leaders. Results of the 

investigation include recommendations for 

training programs to improve SA in Infantry 

forces. 

TR 1124 

Intelligent Tutoring System for Teaching 

Battlefield Command Reasoning Skills -- 

Phase I Final Report 

Domeshek, E.A. March 2002. 

(AD A400494)

Report developed under a Small Business 

Innovation Research Program 2000.2 

contract for topic OSD00-CR02. The 

research reported here aimed at the design of 

a Socratic Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS) 

for high-level battlefield command 

reasoning skills. The ultimate goal of this 

research is to develop new ITS techniques 

and technology for teaching skills that 

cannot be taught as simple methods and 

procedures to be followed. Achieving 

expert levels of proficiency in high-level 

command reasoning skills—whether for 

battlefield commanders or for executives in 

industry—requires extensive practice, 

coaching, and feedback. Learners must be 

given a chance to drill on detailed and 

situation-specific knowledge, as well as 

high-level thinking habits and skills 

applicable across diverse situations. We 

studied exemplary command reasoning 

mentoring by observing tutoring sessions 

centered on Tactical Decision Games 

(TDGs). We analyzed those sessions to 

produce a first draft general model of 

tutoring actions. We also built a limited 

proof-of-concept prototype that exhibited 

many of the key behaviors identified. Taken 

together, the conduct and products of our 

Phase I work, along with our proven strong 

team of collaborators, position us well to 

carry through on the ambitious work plan 

outlined here for Phase II. 

TR 1125 

Automated Tutoring Environment for 

Command (ATEC): Using an Intelligent 

Tutor to Model Expert Mentor 

Interactions. Ryder, J.M., DePaul, J.L., 

Zachary, W.W., and Iordanov, V. March 

2002. (AD A400648)

This report developed under a Small 

Business Innovation Research Program 

2000.2 contract for topic OSD00-CR02. The 

report discusses the feasibility of developing 

an intelligent tutoring system (ITS) for the 

interactive training of thinking skills, such 

as battlefield command reasoning. This ITS 

will operate within the deliberate practice 

framework. An “Automated Tutoring 

Environment for Command” (ATEC) 

system was designed and a limited prototype 

was developed to automate the Think Like a 

Commander (TLAC) materials. The ATEC 

system is comprised of : (a) a dialog 

management capability from the AutoTutor 

system, (b) an instructional agent that 

replicates the knowledge and role of the 

human TLAC tutor, and (c) a web-based 

personalized interface that manages the 

interaction between instructional agent and 

trainee. The Phase I research effort reported 

here has defined the architecture for ATEC. 

This effort has also demonstrated a proof-ofconcept prototype, and has provided a 

detailed design for a full-scale Phase II 

system development by September 2003. 
Technical Reports 

TR 1126 

Analog Scales as Temperament Measures

in the Baseline Officer Longitudinal Data

Set (BOLDS). Milan, L. M. March 2002. 

(AD A400570) 

The Baseline Officer Longitudinal Data Set

(BOLDS) was developed jointly by the U.S. 

Army Research Institute for the Behavioral

and Social Sciences (ARI) and the U.S.

Military Academy (USMA) to enable

researchers to study the development of

leader performance over time. Currently, 

BOLDS consists of data accumulated on

USMA cadets from the Class of 1998. 

Because no personality inventories were 

administered to cadets, analog scales were 

developed to represent the scales of the 

Assessment of Background and Life 

Experiences (ABLE) and the NEO 

Personality Inventory (NEO-PI). This report 

examines these empirically derived analog

scales to ensure they measure within BOLDS

what they were intended to measure. Two 

replication exercises were performed: (1) 

rerunning analyses Evans (1997) ran when 

creating the analog scales and (2) comparing

results produced using the analog scales with 

those that emerged from actual ABLE scales. 

Results indicate the analogs perform in a 

manner consistent with previous analyses, 

suggesting they suffice as veridical 

temperament measures and may be used as 

such in future BOLDS analyses. 

TR 1127 

Measures Collected on the USMA Class of

1998 as Part of the Baseline Officer 

Longitudinal Data Set (BOLDS). Milan, 

L.M., Bourne, D.R., Zazanis, M.M., and 

Bartone, P.T. March 2002. (AD A400567) 

The Baseline Officer Longitudinal Data Set

(BOLDS) was developed jointly by the U.S. 

Army Research Institute for the Behavioral

and Social Sciences (ARI) and the US 

Military Academy (USMA) to enable

researchers to study the development of

leader performance over time. Currently, 

BOLDS consists of data accumulated on

USMA cadets from the Class of 1998. The 

measures in the database represent ten broad

dimensions relevant to leader development:

cognitive aptitude, complex problem-solving

skills, tacit knowledge of military leadership,

temperament, motivation, leadership style,

leadership performance, physical fitness,

cognitive-emotional identity development, 

and developmental experiences. This report 

identifies all of the measures included in

BOLDS and describes their psychometric 

properties. Such documentation is essential to

facilitate utilization of the database and to

inform future data collections, which are 

scheduled to track this officer cohort

throughout their military careers and to 

expand BOLDS to officers from other 

commissioning sources. 

TR 1128 

Development of Predictor and Criterion 

Measures for the NCO21 Research

Program. Knapp, D.J., Burnfield, J.L., 

Sager, C.E., Waugh, G.W., Campbell, J.P., 

Reeve, C.L. Campbell, R.C., White, L.A., 

and Heffner, T.S. June 2002. 

(AD A404458) 

The NCO21 research program was 

undertaken to help the U.S. Army plan for 

the impact of future demands on the 

noncommissioned officer (NCO) corps. The 

performance requirements and associated 

knowledge, skills, and aptitudes (KSAs) 

expected of future successful NCOs were 

used as a basis for developing tools that 

could be incorporated into an NCO 

performance management system geared to

21st-century job demands. This report 

documents the design and development of 

predictor and criterion measures that will be

used in a criterion-related validation data 

collection. 

3
Technical Reports 

The predictor measures include the Armed 

Services Vocational Aptitude Battery

(ASVAB), Assessment of Individual 

Motivation (AIM), and Biographical 

Information Questionnaire (BIQ), which are 

operational tests already used in the Army

for other purposes. A written Situational 

Judgment Test (SJT), the Experience and 

Activities Record (ExAct), Personnel File 

Form (PFF21), and a semi-structured 

interview were developed for this project. 

Two types of rating scale instruments were 

developed for gathering criterion data. The 

Observed Performance Rating Scales ask 

supervisors to rate soldiers on how well they

perform in their current jobs. The Expected 

Future Performance Rating Scales ask 

supervisors to predict how their soldiers

would perform in specific sets of conditions 

expected to be characteristic of future Army

requirements. 

TR 1129 

Virtual Environments for Dismounted

Soldier Simulation, Training, and Mission

Rehearsal: Results of the FY 2001 

Culminating Event. Knerr, B.W., 

Lampton, D.R., Crowell, H.P., III, 

Thomas, M. Comer, B.D., Grosse, J.R., 

Centric, J., Garfield, K.A, Martin, G.E., and

Washburn, D.A. June 2002. (AD A 403147) 

This report describes the activities and 

results of the third year culminating event 

(CE) of the “Virtual Environments for 

Dismounted Soldier Simulation, Training

and Mission Rehearsal” Science and 

Technology Objective (STO). This STO is 

being conducted jointly by the U.S. Army

Research Institute, the U.S. Army

Simulation, Training, and Instrumentation 

Command (STRICOM), and the U.S. Army

Research Laboratory. This four-year effort

(FY99-FY02) is focused on overcoming

critical technological challenges that 

currently prevent high fidelity dismounted 

soldier simulation. The objectives of the CE 

were to integrate and evaluate the

technologies developed during the year. The 

key technologies included: a Dismounted 

Infantry Virtual After Action Review (AAR) 

System; new behaviors and improved 

operator control for Dismounted Infantry

Semi-Automated Forces (DISAF); soldier

control of DISAF through Voice 

Recognition and Synthesis; enhancements to 

the soldier simulator, the Soldier

Visualization Station (SVS); an improved 

locomotion device, the Omni-Directional 

Treadmill (ODT); a dynamic terrain server; 

and a Mission Planning and Training Tool 

(MPTT). The CE provided a realistic and 

challenging test of the systems and 

capabilities under development. The results 

identified both accomplishments and areas 

in which improvements and corrections are 

required. 

TR 1130 

Assessing Decision-Making Skills in 

Virtual Environments. Gately, M.T., 

Watts, S.M., and Pleban, R.J. June 2002. 

(AD A405079) 

Members of small dismounted units will 

face growing responsibilities and increasing

challenges in combined arms combat and 

contingency operations on the battlefield of

the future. Many of these missions will take

place in urban settings. Training for military

operations on urbanized terrain is limited by

time, cost, and safety factors. Virtual 

environment technologies have the potential 

to provide the Army with a training

capability to meet these new demands. An 

automated training and after action review 

support tool (Virtual Soldier Skills Assessor 

– ViSSA) is described. The ViSSA system 

will allow trainers to effectively assess 

soldier and small unit leader tactical and 

decision-making skills in virtual urban 

environments. The system tracks missionrelated factors linked to soldier decisions, 

4
Technical Reports 

movements, fire, radio, traffic, and contact 

with virtual entities and trigger lines under 

an intricate web of overlays designed to 

capture and store these specific pieces of 

data during a training scenario. The system 

provides automated output displays for an 

effective after-a ction review following the 

virtual exercise. 

TR 1131 

Radio Communications and Situation

Awareness of Infantry Squads During

Urban Operations. Christ, R.E., and 

Evans, K.L. July 2002. (AD A405850) 

This research evaluated the frequency and 

content of squad radio communications, and 

reevaluated situation awareness (SA) data

collected by others. Both sets of data were 

collected using 14 Ranger squads executing

urban operations driven by scripted 

vignettes. The radio communications data 

highlighted factors that influence and 

determine the consequences of squad radio 

communications. These data were

differentially sensitive to communications 

about friendly and threat conditions as well 

as mission and visibility conditions. 

Important moderating factors for these 

results were differences found for 

downward- and upward-directed 

communications and conflicting

requirements for processing information 

under conditions of information overload. 

The reanalysis of the SA data yielded 

separate measures of SA for squad leaders 

and their subordinates, and for top-down and 

bottom-up sources of knowledge about 

battlefield conditions. The fine-grain 

reanalysis of SA data showed effects not 

previously reported and clarified some that

were. The data emphasize the need to 

consider echelon differences in estimating

the criticality of battlefield information, as 

well as the impact on SA of visibility and 

information overload conditions. Taken 

together, the results underscore the fact that 

reliable explanations of the relationship 

between squad radio usage and squad SA 

rely on detailed analyses of both factors. 

5
6
Research Reports 

RR 1778 

Computer Backgrounds of Soldiers in

Army Units: FY00. Fober, G.W., 

Bredthauer, J.L., and Dyer, J.L. October

2001. (AD A399393)

The ability of soldiers to exploit systems 

using computers and to learn software quickly

depends in part on their prior experience. 

Soldiers from four Army installations were 

given a survey that examined their 

experiences with computers, self- perceptions

of their skill, and an objective test of their

ability to identify Windows-based icons. The

officers and senior non-commissioned 

officers (NCOs) had the most computer 

expertise as measured by both subjective and 

objective measures. For enlisted and junior 

NCOs the picture was more diverse; almost

half the soldiers had limited skills. Owning a 

computer, frequency of using a computer, and

using a computer at work related highly with 

computer expertise. When specialists (rank

of E4) were examined separately, opportunity

to use computers as part of their job was 

related to computer expertise. The results

indicate a diverse population, including

soldiers with limited computer skills as well 

as those with programming skills. Those

individuals with limited skills would benefit 

from basic computer training prior to 

learning to operating one of the Army’s 

digital systems. 

RR 1779 

Prototype Automated Measures of

Command and Staff Performance. 

Holden, W.T. Jr. and Throne, M.H., and 

Sterling , B.S. November 2001. (AD 

A397634) 

The transition to the Objective Force is 

characterized by challenges, such as how the 

Army will train, maintain, and operate as an

information-age force. A key aspect of the 

Objective Force is command, control, 

communication, computers, and intelligence 

(C4

I) systems. One of the Army’s 

immediate needs is an approach for ensuring

that the capacity of digital information 

systems is fully exploited in combat units, 

especially among staffs. Staff members 

must acquire and maintain the skills required 

on the digital battlefield. Closely linked to 

training is the need for assessment for 

feedback and performance improvement, 

and support for design and development of 

training programs. Digital C4

I systems offer 

an exceptional opportunity for efficient and 

objective methods for staff performance 

measurement with their potent organic 

capabilities to collect, analyze, and portray

information automatically. This paper

describes an effort to develop prototype 

performance measure output and format that 

exemplify the potential of digital systems to 

provide that feedback. Topics covered 

include a rationale and definition of 

automated measures and how they relate to 

measuring skills that staffs and teams need

to possess to be successful. The 

methodology used to design and develop 

automated measures of staff performance is

discussed. Finally, representative results 

obtained from these automated prototype 

measures during U.S. Army concept

experimentation will be presented, along

with lessons learned during this research 

effort. 

RR 1780 

Assessing the Effectiveness of a Low-Cost 

Simulator for Instrument Training for

the TH-67 Helicopter. Stewart, J.E. II,

Barker, W.C., Weile, D.S., Bonham, J.W., 

and Johnson, D.M. December 2001 

(AD A397649)

The U.S. Army uses the 2B24 Synthetic 

Flight Training System (SFTS) for the 

Instrument Phase of Initial Entry Rotary Wing

(IERW) training. The SFTS is an instrument 

7
Research Reports 

simulator, mounted on a hydraulic motion 

platform, with no visual system. Its 

technology dates from the late 1960s. Its 

cockpit represents the UH-1, which has been 

replaced by the TH-67 training helicopter. 

The Army is concerned with the age, 

complexity and costs of the SFTS, at a time

when PC-based simulators, like the Frasca 

342 Primary Skills Trainer (PST) are 

available. The PST’s cockpit represents the 

TH-67 helicopter. It has a visual display, but 

no motion system. Thirty-eight IERW

students were assigned to experimental (PST)

or control (SFTS) groups. After 30 hr of

simulator training, both groups completed 20 

hr training in the TH-67. No students were 

eliminated or set back to later classes. Few 

significant differences in performance were 

noted, though SFTS trainees were more likely

to indicate that training in the simulator had 

hindered performance in the aircraft. The 

PST seemed inferior to the SFTS in trim

control. The research demonstrated that 

IERW students could learn instrument skills 

in a simpler, more economical simulator

without hydraulic controls or a motion 

system. 

RR 1781 

The Commander’s integrated training 

tool for the close combat tactical trainer –

3: Final prototype development. Flynn, 

M.R., Dannemiller, B., Bonnett, M., 

Grossman, J.R.,Forrest, D., Bonnett, M., 

Shadrick, S.B., and Mauzy, R.P. November 

2001. (AD A397748) 

This report describes the third in a series of 

projects to design and develop the 

Commander’s Integrated Training Tool 

(CITT) for the Close Combat Tactical

Trainer (CCTT), a system of armored 

vehicle manned-module simulators and 

workstations that allows units to train 

collective armor and infantry tasks at the

platoon through battalion task force level. 

The CITT provides unit commanders and 

other trainers with comprehensive 

information on CCTT and on structured 

training as well as the ability to produce 

exercise Training Support packages. 

Previous projects produced design for the 

objective CITT and prototype applications 

in desktop and web-based formats. The 

current project produced a fully-fieldable 

CITT including the embedded CCTT 

Exercise Initialization Tool. This version 

was expanded to include stability and 

support operations capabilities, use of CCTT 

enhancements, and increased flexibility of

file use to allow it to run on any computer 

with sufficient resources. Near-, mid-, and 

long-term implementation strategies and 

fielding plans were developed and are 

presented along with lessons learned and 

recommendations for future actions. 

RR 1782 

Training for Adaptability and Transfer

on Digital Systems. Schaab, B.B., and 

Dressel, J.D. November 2001. 

(AD A399409) 

Today’s soldiers are being trained to use

digital systems to enhance duty performance. 

This research compared training digital skills 

to entry-level, enlisted soldiers by the

conventional method to training by a

constructivist method. The constructivist 

method actively engages soldiers by using 

realistic vignettes as training tools to acquire

and integrate knowledge of the digital system 

and the military job. After seven days of

training, soldiers trained by both methods 

were asked to complete 1) a practical 

exercise requiring application of their 

training in an unfamiliar vignette and 2) the

current schoolhouse exam. No difference was 

found between the conventional training

methods and the constructivist method on the 

current schoolhouse exam. Soldiers trained

using the constructivist method were more

8
Research Reports 

successful in applying their training to solve

unfamiliar problems and reported lower

levels of workload. The constructivist 

training method was shown to improve 

soldiers’ adaptation and application of their

training to unfamiliar situations. 

RR 1784 

The Computer Background of Soldiers in

Infantry Courses: FY01. Singh, H., and 

Dyer, J.L. December 2001. (AD A399394) 

The research examined soldiers’ experiences 

with computers, self-perceptions of their 

computer skill, and their ability to identify

frequently-used, Windows-based icons. The 

report documents the results of the third and 

last year of Infantry School course surveys. 

The soldiers surveyed represented the

personnel structure of an Infantry rifle 

platoon. Computer ownership was high

among all soldiers. Computer experience

was gained in different ways, reflecting the

circumstances where computers were 

available to and used by the groups 

surveyed. Lieutenants and senior 

noncommissioned officers had the most 

computer expertise as shown by their icon 

scores. However, the lieutenants had a 

higher perception of their computer skill. 

For junior noncommissioned officers and 

privates, the picture was more diverse. A 

substantial portion of these two groups had 

limited computer skills, as reflected in their

icon scores and self-ratings. The results 

indicate that prior and special training on 

basic computer skills would be required for

many of these younger soldiers before

starting specialized training on a computerbased tactical system. Although only

Infantrymen were surveyed, the results 

should apply to other soldiers throughout the 

Army with similar educational and military

experience. 

RR 1783 

Working Memory and exploration in 

Training the Knowledge and Skills 

Required by Digital Systems. December 

2001. Dyer, J.L., and Salter, M.S. 

(AD A399507) 

Variations in computer-based training (CBT) 

procedures were compared in training the 

skills and knowledge required of a prototype 

map interface for the Land Warrior system. 

Soldiers from four Infantry courses 

participated, representing the chain of 

command within an Infantry platoon, from 

platoon leader to rifleman. Soldiers were 

first trained on codes that uniquely identified 

individuals and units on the map. Then 

soldiers learned how to use map functions 

such as pan, zoom, determine range, and 

find individuals and units. Lessons that 

contained a large volume of information 

before soldiers could apply that information 

and commit it to memory resulted in low 

scores on both the code and map exercises. 

Breaking up the content into smaller chunks 

of information tended to be more effective. 

Although soldiers who learned the map on 

their own via an exploratory condition had 

the lowest map performance, exploratory

learning may have potential as these soldiers 

spent relatively little time “exploring.” The

results demonstrate the importance of 

adapting to individual differences in the 

learning rate of soldiers. They also provide 

insights regarding how to design effective

and efficient CBT for digital systems. 

9
Research Reports 

RR 1785 

Making the Transition from Analog to

Digital Warfighting: Changes in Unit

Behavior and Knowledge. Dudley, M.G., 

Johnston , J.C., Jones, W.S., Strauss, C.P., 

and Meliza, L.L. December 2001. 

(AD A397575) 

This report documents an initial effort to 

investigate the transition from analog to 

digital operations at brigade level and 

below. We interviewed experienced digital 

warfighters—leaders and soldiers— to 

identify changes in unit behavior, 

knowledge, and attitudes resulting from 

experience with digital systems. Army

documents relating directly to digital 

operations were also reviewed. The 

research team’s subject matter experts 

analyzed the cumulative data to document 

insights and lessons learned. The findings 

revealed a systematic evolution of 

behaviors, knowledge, and attitudes 

accompanying the units’ transition to digital 

systems and operations. Initial resistance

and reluctance give way to confidence and 

trust in digital systems as leaders and 

soldiers acquire basic digital proficiency and 

then learn how to use the new technology to 

improve the warfighting process. Digital 

capabilities alter the way warfighters think 

and fight, and the operational changes find 

their way into procedural documents. As 

digitization progresses, leaders make bolder

decisions due to excellent battlefield 

visualization and improved situational 

understanding. Planning, preparation, and 

execution of combat missions benefit from 

digital advantages. In parallel, the training

environment evolves to support digital 

operations and readiness. The findings 

contribute to a knowledge base that will help 

facilitate the transition process in future

digitized units. The findings point towards 

measures that can be used to assess Army

and unit progress in making the transition to 

digital warfigthing.

RR 1786 

Situation Awareness in a Virtual 

Environment: Description of a Subjective 

Assessment Scale. Matthews, M.D., Beal, 

S.A., and Pleban, R.J. February 2002. 

(AD A399408) 

The Mission Awareness Rating Scale 

(MARS), a subjective situation awareness 

(SA) rating scale designed to assess SA

content and SA workload, was tested in a 

series of virtual environment exercises. 

Sixteen enlisted soldiers, working in teams of

four soldiers each, completed four urban 

combat missions in a virtual night 

environment designed to simulate the

experience of working with night vision

goggles - NVG (PVS-7Bs) and aiming lights. 

In each scenario, a different approach for 

simulating this NVG environment was used. 

After each scenario was completed, each 

soldier completed the MARS instrument. 

This yielded estimates of the SA level and 

workload involved in four dimensions of SA

– perception, understanding, projection, and 

knowing what decision to make. The results 

indicated that MARS significantly and 

robustly discriminated among the different 

approaches, and these SA estimates were 

congruent with general estimates of SA 

content and workload while operating at night 

in the real world, and with the soldier’s

subjective rankings of the four simulated 

NVG environments. While promising,

MARS must be validated against objective 

SA measures, both in the virtual environment 

and in the field environment. However, 

MARS seems to hold promise as a relatively

unobtrusive and effective SA measure. 

10
Research Reports 

RR 1787 As the Army transitions to modern digital 

command and control technology it faces a 

major challenge in designing web-delivered

training to support the acquisition, retention, 

and transfer of collective staff skills required 

to apply these advanced technology

capabilities to real-world tasks. This report 

identifies training program design features

based on principles of cognitive psychology

that can be incorporated into Virtual 

Learning Environment (VLE) collective 

training. A prototype Cognitive Training

Techniques Checklist was developed and 

applied in a review of U.S. Army Armor 

School Virtual Tactical Operational Center

(VTOC) collective training. From this 

review candidate training program design

features were identified that can support 

VLE training requirements. The 

examination of VTOC training also 

provided insights for Train-the-Trainer 

products, and a description of potential 

future C2 system operational capabilities 

and challenges. The research represents a 

logical extension and continuation of 

previous U. S. Army Research Institute for

the Behavioral and Social Sciences 

cognitive skills training, and distance

learning research conducted to assist the 

U.S. Army Armor School in assessing the 

individual self-paced phase of training for a 

new Armor Captains Career Course – 

Distance Learning (AC3 DL) offered 

primarily as web-based instruction. 

Utility of a Personal Computer Aviation 

Training Device for Flight Training. 

Johnson, D.M., and Stewart, J.E. II. 

February 2002. (AD A400580) 

Personal Computer Aviation Training

Devices (PCATDs) have recently been shown 

to support beginning flight training both in the 

private sector and the military. These positive

results are for fixed-wing aircraft only. The 

purpose of this research was to investigate 

which tasks from Initial Entry Rotary Wing

(IERW) training could be supported by a 

PCATD. A utility evaluation was performed. 

Sixteen aviators, representing both highly

experienced and student helicopter pilots, 

evaluated the ability of a commercial PCATD

to support IERW. Seventy-one tasks were 

selected from Primary and Instrument Flight

Training. Aviators performed each task one 

or more times in the PCATD before rating it 

on a four-point scale. Additional data were 

also collected. Results showed remarkable

agreement between the experienced aviators

and the students. The device was judged as 

best able to support Instrument Flight 

Training, especially tasks involving radio 

navigation. Tasks from Primary Flight 

Training, especially tasks requiring hovering, 

were judged as less well supported. The most

frequently stated positive comment was that

the device would be of value in supporting the

training of instrument procedures. The three 

most frequently cited criticisms of the device

concerned narrow field of view, poor visual 

cues to depth, and inability to hover. 

RR 1789 

Simulating Night Vision Goggle Effects in 

a Virtual Environment: A Preliminary 

Evaluation. Pleban, R.J., and Beal, S.A.

RR 1788 April 2002. (AD A402194) 

Collective Staff Training In A Virtual

Learning Environment. Sanders, W.R. 

March 2002. (AD A400495) 

This research examined the capabilities of

virtual environments to simulate night vision 

goggle (NVG) effects. Different solutions 

for simulating NVG images were assessed. 

Two conditions simulated NVGs but used 

11
Research Reports 

different software approaches. Two 

additional conditions simulated unaided

night environments that required soldiers to 

wear NVGs. Four-man infantry teams 

conducted urban operation missions under 

each condition. Objective assessments were 

obtained on the number of events correctly

detected and the average time required to 

detect an event. Subjective assessments of 

task difficulty and image fidelity were also 

made. No significant differences were 

found across night conditions for either 

event detection or time. Significant 

differences in task difficulty ratings

occurred for movement, visual detection, 

and maintaining situation awareness. In

general, tasks were more difficult to perform

while wearing the NVGs compared to 

simulated versions of NVG images. 

Soldiers also ranked the conditions 

involving actual NVGs as more realistic. 

The unique contribution of virtual 

environments for night operations training

may be at the entry level. However, specific 

image fidelity issues associated with the use 

of NVGs in simulated unaided night 

environments must be addressed if this 

approach is to be used as an effective 

training medium. 

RR 1790 

An Overview of Automaticity and

Implications for Training the Thinking 

Process. Holt, B.J., and Rainey, S.J. April 

2002. (AD A402420) 

This report examines the relationship 

between automaticity and thinking

processes. Issues pertaining to the 

development of automaticity within the

thinking process are discussed. A literature

review was conducted to examine how 

automaticity has be en developed in various 

tasks of all types (e.g., visual search to 

battlefield thinking). The results of this 

examination suggest that automaticity can 

be developed using consistent rules and 

extensive practice that vary depending on 

the type of task. The results also suggest 

that the more complex the task is the more

difficult it will be to train to automatic

performance. Principles are presented that

are used to guide the development of 

automaticity. Using these principles, along

with previous methodologies for developing

automaticity, this report discusses training

methods for developing automaticity in the 

thinking process. 

RR 1791 

Measuring Digital Proficiency: Assessment 

Approaches and Echelon Considerations. 

Dudley, M.G., Hill, R., Johnston, J.C., 

Jones, W.S., LeGare, M., Leibrecht, B.C., 

Longoria, K., and Meliza, L.L. June 

2002. (AD A405055)

Digitization threatens to overwhelm trainers

with observation requirements, making it 

crucial to identify aspects of unit 

performance likely to warrant the attention 

of trainers and others with a need to measure 

unit digital proficiency. This report 

encompasses two approaches used to target

high-payoff measurement objectives. First, 

the research team described differences 

between brigade and battalion echelons in 

terms of how digital systems are employed. 

This approach assumed that a high priority

for brigade exercises is to address brigadeunique aspects of digital proficiency. 

Second, the team described how units can 

use digital systems to gain two of the major

advertised benefits of digitization, reducing

fratricides and gaining greater control over

how and when contact is made with the 

enemy. In addition to describing unit 

actions that can be supported by effective 

use of digital systems (e.g., supporting unit 

transition from movement to maneuver), the

team considered whether it is better to 

12
Research Reports 

measure digital support of each action using

an all-or-none approach or a graded 

approach. This latter consideration provides 

input for efforts to define digital proficiency

levels. 

RR 1792 

Human-System Integration for Future

Command and Control: Identifying 

Research Issues and Approaches. 

Lickteig, C.W., Sanders, W.R., Shadrick, 

S.B., Lussier, J.W., Holt, B.J., and Rainey, 

S.J. July 2002. (AD A405044) 

The Army’s transformation to Future

Combat Systems (FCS) poses an 

unprecedented alliance of humans and 

machines, particularly for Command and 

Control (C2

). Creating a human-machine 

alliance that actually improves command 

and control is a severe challenge in humansystem integration for FCS. First, this report 

selectively identifies four overarching

research issues for command and control: 

Allocation, Autonomy, Authority, and 

Awareness. Second, two complementary

research approaches, mid-scale and smallscale transformation environments, for 

investigating human-system integration 

issues are described. An example of a midscale transformation environment from the

FCS C2

 program is provided with selected 

results from Experiment 1 on human-system 

integration. The value added by small-scale 

transformation environments, however, is 

needed to maintain a human-centric focus 

and provide two unique roles: a breeding

ground for innovation to larger

environments, and proving ground for issues 

from larger environments. An example of 

an emerging small-scale transformation 

environment directed at FCS concept

exploration and training is provided. The 

core technical, operational and human 

performance assets currently available for 

this small-scale transformation environment 

are described. The report’s intended 

audience includes any members of the user, 

researcher, and developer community who 

might benefit from, or provide benefit to, the 

Army’s ongoing FCS research program. 

RR 1793 

Command Group Training in the

Objective Force. Gossman, J.R., Burnside, 

B.L., Flynn, M.R., Dannemiller, B., and

Mauzy, R.P. July 2002. (AD A406176) 

As part of future force development, the 

U.S. Army has begun a transformation to an 

Objective Force capable of achieving fullspectrum dominance in all future conflicts. 

This transformation will require changes in 

training, particularly the training of teams. 

Objective Force teams will likely consist of

small groups of individuals (and probably

robots or intelligent agents) and will have 

new and modified performance requirements 

leading to unique training needs. Teams 

will conduct training continuously using

portable devices and training support 

capabilities embedded in their vehicles. 

Meeting these sorts of team training

requirements is likely to require new 

training tools and techniques. This project 

collected and analyzed information related 

to Objective Force Unit of Action command 

groups, and, based on the analyses, 

developed training requirements for and 

identified an approach to training teams that

fully supports training anytime, anywhere 

using operational equipment. A discussion 

of future research and development issues is 

also provided. The results of this project 

can benefit those involved in further 

definition and development of the training

requirements, particularly team training

requirements, for the transformation to the

Objective Force. 

13
Research Reports 

RR 1795 

Assessing Situation Awareness in Field 

Training Exercises. Matthews, M.D., and 

Beal, S.A. September 2002. 

(AD A408560) 

The Mission Awareness Rating Scale 

(MARS) and the Situation Awareness 

Behavioral Rating Scale (SABARS) are 

metrics designed to assess situation 

awareness (SA) among infantry soldiers and 

their leaders. MARS is a subjective selfassessment device and SABARS involves 

expert observer-controllers evaluating a 

target soldier on SA-related behaviors. The 

purpose of the current study was to field test 

both metrics in a field training exercise. 

Eight cadet platoon leaders and eight cadet 

squad leaders participating in summer cadet 

field training at the U.S. Military Academy

completed the MARS instrument and 

received SABARS evaluations from 

observer-controllers following the completion 

of an assault mission. Results indicated that 

platoon leaders rated their SA higher than did

squad leaders on the MARS instrument and 

that higher-order SA was rated as more 

difficult than lower- order SA . SABARS

ratings did not differ as a function of leader 

position, but the global SABARS SA item 

was a strong predictor of ratings of individual 

performance. Finally, SABARS was rated by

the observer-controllers as easy to use and 

relevant to assessing SA in the field. Both

MARS and SABARS show promise of

applicability to assessing SA in field settings. 

14
Research Products 

RP 2002-01 Cancelled 

RP 2002-02 

Think Like A Commander: Captain’s 

Edition – Prototype 1.0. Shadrick, S.B., 

and Lussier, J.W. July 2002. 

(AD B282977) 

Think Like A Commander: Captain’s 

Edition – Prototype 1.0 was implemented in 

the Armor Captain’s Career Course at Fort 

Knox, KY in January 2002. This CD-ROM 

contains the installation program needed to 

use the Think Like A Commander (TLAC) 

software application. Think Like A 

Commander was developed to support the 

Adaptive Thinking Training Methodology

and is grounded in sound learning practices 

designed to support the use of deliberate 

practice principles. The aim of TLAC is to 

maximize the development of commanding

officers thinking skills, teaching officers 

“how to think” instead of “what to think.” 

This will enable the officer to make sound 

decisions when the situation deviates from 

the expected and the ability to think 

adaptively is required, particularly when 

limited time is available to make a decision 

and when under extreme pressure and/or 

stress. 

 15 
 16 
Special Reports 

S50 Cancelled 

S48 

Women in the Army: An annotated

Bibliography. Simutis, Z.M., Harris, B.C., 

and Gantz, M.M. May 2002. 

S51 

What We Know About AWOL and 

Desertion: A Review of the Professional 

Literature for Policy makers and

Commanders. Ramsberger, P.F. and Bell, 

D.B. August 2002. (AD A407801) 

(AD A402416) 

This report provides an overview of 

research, studies, and analyses performed by

the U.S. Army Research Institute on the

utilization and training of women in the

Army. As numbers and roles of women 

have expanded since the All Volunteer 

Force began in the early ‘70s, a number of 

research projects have been completed to 

address both the utilization and integration 

of women in Army units and the training of 

women, particularly in the Initial Entry

Training program for combat support and 

combat service support soldiers. The report 

also provides an annotated bibliography of 

research and studies conducted during the 

1990s on a wide variety of issues related to 

women in he Army. 

Enlisted desertion rates in the U.S. Army

have been increasing in recent years. A 

study has been undertaken to examine this 

issue to shed light on why soldiers desert

and what can be done to intervene and 

lessen its occurrence. As a first step, the 

literature on desertion was reviewed and 

summarized. The topics covered in this 

report include how desertion is defined and 

handled currently, how deserters differ from 

other soldiers, the reasons for desertion 

found in previous research, the 

consequences of desertion, steps that can be 

taken to prevent this outcome, and what 

needs to be learned to assist Army decision 

makers and commanders as they seek to deal 

with this problem. S49 

Distance Learning: The Soldier’s 

Perspective. Wisher, R.A., Sabol, M.A., 

Moses, F.L., and Ramsberger, P.F. May

2002. (AD A407336) 

S52 

Selection for Leadership: Transforming 

NCO Promotion. Campbell, R.C. and 

Knapp, D.J. August 2002. (AD A407790) The primary purpose of this report is to 

examine distance learning (DL) from the 

perspective of the soldier. A summary of

the history of DL describes its applications 

in the Army and plans for additional uses. 

Findings from research and comments from 

surveys are examined to reveal how well

soldiers accept DL as an effective teaching

method within different types of training

courses (e.g., small unit training versus 

individual professional development). The 

strengths and weaknesses of DL are 

discussed, leading to a list of

recommendations to help trainers produce 

effective DL courses. 

The NCO21 research program was 

undertaken to help the U.S. Army plan for 

the impact of future demands on the 

noncommissioned officer (NCO) corps. The 

performance requirements and associated 

knowledge, skills, and aptitudes (KSAs) 

expected of future successful NCOs were 

used as a basis for developing tools that 

could be incorporated into an NCO 

performance management system geared to

21st- century job demands. This report 

provides a user-oriented overview of the 

“NCO21” project and the tools that it has 

produced.

17 
 

18 
Study Reports 

SR 2002-01 Assess the level of DLIFLC linguist 

Development of a personal computer- attrition. 

based enlisted personnel allocation system

(PC-EPAS). Greenston, P.M., Mower, D., 

Walker, S.W., Lightfoot, M.A., Diaz, T.E., 

McWhite, P.B., and Rudnik, R.A. October 

2001. (AD A399441) 

Analyze the causes and patterns of 

attrition. 

Recommend ways to improve the

rate of attrition. 

This report is the proceedings of the 

workshop. It provides documentation of 

papers and briefings presented to workshop 

participants, along with recommendations 

for reducing attrition that were generated by

the participants. 

This report summarizes the development of 

the PC-Based Enlisted Personnel Allocation 

System (EPAS) through completion of the 

Functional Description phase (circa 1998). 

EPAS is a software system designed to 

introduce person-job-match optimization 

into REQUEST, the Army’s training

reservation system. This report reflects the 

results of research conducted and sponsored 

by the U.S. Army Research Institute over

the 1993 – 1998 period. This work 

established the feasibility of using

sophisticated optimization procedures to 

improve classification efficiency, as well as 

the additional classification gains made

possible by utilizing measures of soldier

performance as assignment composites in

the classification process. The production 

version of EPAS, designed as an 

enhancement to and subsystem of 

REQUEST, will be transparent to Army

applicant and career counselor. Evaluation 

field-testing is scheduled for FY 2002 – 

2003. 

SR2002-03 

Proposed new Army aptitude area 

composites: A summary of research

results. Greenston, P.M. (January 2002). 

(AD A398686) 

The Army currently employs nine Aptitude 

Area (AA) composites to classify new 

recruits; they are derived from the Armed 

Services Vocational Aptitude Battery

(ASVAB) subtests in a manner that makes 

them easy to calculate but inefficient for 

classification. At the end of 2001 the Office 

of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) will 

eliminate the two timed subtests in the

ASVAB . This will reduce the

classification efficiency of the existing

Army composites and necessitate

redefinition of the existing composites. In

their place the Army is considering for 

adoption new composites that have been 

developed by ARI based on a job 

performance criterion. ARI has developed a 

set of 17 operational classification-efficient

job families and corresponding composites 

that would be used for administrative, 

counseling, and school proponent purposes. 

The new structure strongly resembles the 

existing structure, in effect being a further 

shredding of existing families. The new 

composites / job families are undergoing

further testing and evaluation, and will be 

considered for implementation in the 2004 - 

2005 period. In the meantime ARI has 

SR 2002-02 

Workshop on language student attrition. 

Whelan, B.E. December 2001. 

(AD A399533) 

Seventy individuals from Government 

agencies (military and civilian), academia, 

and contractor organizations attended all or 

parts of a Workshop on Student Attrition

held at the Defense Language Institute

Foreign Language Center (DLIFLC) in 

Monterey, CA 22-24 August 2001. The 

goals of the workshop were to: 

19 
Study Reports 

developed an interim set of composites that

retain the existing nine operational job 

families but are also based on defensible job 

performance data. These will be

implemented January 2002 while planning

for the new 17 Army Aptitude Area 

composites goes forward.

SR 2002-04 

Managing Force XXI Change: Insights 

and Lessons Learned in the Army’s First

Digital Division. Leibrecht, B.C., Johnston, 

J.C., Black. B.A., and Quinkert, K.A. 

March 2002. (AD A400644) 

This report is the result of a study that

explored techniques for capturing and 

sharing tacit knowledge gained during Force 

XXI transition. The primary goal was to 

facilitate passing of hard-won information 

from one leader to the next. The study team 

elicited knowledge in structured interviews 

with senior leaders in the Army’s First 

Digital Division (FDD). They converted the 

knowledge into problem-focused chunks, 

then derived practical guidelines for 

facilitating change. The team designed and 

developed a preliminary, computer-based

Leader’s Tool to help the target audience 

define and solve change-management

problems. They then populated the tool with 

the project’s knowledge products. The 

report discusses the team’s lessons learned 

for capturing and organizing sharable 

knowledge and for creating automated tools 

to support the management of change. It

also illustrates the FDD leaders’ insights and 

lessons learned regarding the transition 

process and the impact of Force XXI

capabilities. Recommendations for

leveraging and extending the project’s 

methodology and the Leader’s Tool 

technology are offered. 

 

 

SR 2002-05 

Individual and Collective Training in 

Live, Virtual and Constructive

Environments – Training Concepts for

Virtual Environments. Sticha, P.J., 

Campbell, R.C., and Knerr., C.M.. April 

2002. (AD A402313) 

The goals of this research are (a) to develop 

a method for evaluating the capabilities of 

virtual simulation to represent the tasks and 

missions within a military application 

domain, (b) to demonstrate the methods in 

two domains, and (c) to propose ways to 

integrate the method with existing doctrine. 

Initial activities surveyed existing training

systems and reviewed the capabilities of key

virtual environment technologies. From this 

survey, we identified capabilities most likely

to impede successful development of virtual 

environment training systems. A review of

existing methods of evaluating or predicting

training effectiveness identified several 

candidates for incorporation into the method 

produced in this project. Based on the 

results of this review, we developed a 

method for Specifying Training

Requirements in Virtual Environments 

(STRIVE), combining features from two 

existing methods. The STRIVE 

methodology assesses the capability of 

virtual environment technology to support 

task performance based on subject matter 

expert judgments of selected cues and 

responses needed to perform task activities. 

A demonstration of the model was 

developed using Microsoft Access97. The 

STRIVE methodology can be used during

the concept exploration and definition phase 

of virtual environment training system 

design and can support the development of 

the Operational Requirements Document 

(ORD). 

20 
Study Reports 

21 

SR 2002-06 

The Multi-Skilled Soldier Concept: 

Considerations for Army Implementation 

Nelsen, J.T. II and Akman, A. April 2002. 

(AD A402901) 

The purpose of this study was to analyze the 

meaning and implications of the Multi-Skilled 

Soldier (MSS) Concept and to assess the 

considerations for Army-wide 

implementation in order to provide a basis to 

make decisions whether or not to proceed 

with realization of the MSS Concept and, if 

so, how. The specific objectives were to 

analyze the Concept and its implications 

generally for the Army and specifically for 

the Objective Force, to develop a Blueprint 

for use in defining and assessing potential 

MSS implementation and sustainment courses 

of action, to devise a Roadmap outlining 

major actions required for MSS 

implementation by 2008, to craft a Study Plan 

of research and analysis projects, including 

behavioral research, necessary to support 

MSS implementation and sustainment, and to 

make pertinent conclusions and 

recommendations. This study relied heavily 

on non-attribution interviews conducted from 

August 2001 through January 2002 with those 

involved in developing the concepts for the 

Objective Force and in fielding the initial 

Interim Brigade Combat Teams (IBCTs). 

This report serves as a departure point for 

further research and development work 

relating to crafting and assessing 

implementation and sustainment courses of 

action, as well as supporting personnel and 

training designs and associated best practices. 

SR 2002-07 

Training on the Web: Identifying and 

authenticating learners. Curnow. C.K., 

Freeman, M.W., Wisher, R.A., and 

Belanich, J. June 2002. (AD A405005)

Soldiers who receive training in the 

workplace, at their residences, or at other 

sites outside the traditional classroom 

increasingly rely upon asynchronous 

distributed learning systems. This 

accentuates the need to identify various 

forms of training compromise, such as 

obtaining questions beforehand or enlisting 

a proxy for test taking in non-proctored, 

web-based learning environments. A oneday workshop, summarized in this report, 

was conducted to identify practical solutions 

to training compromise on the Web or 

military intranets. Experts from 

government, academia, and industry 

generated solutions in the areas of test 

security, biometrics (including fingerprint 

identification, face recognition, iris 

scanning, and hand writing recognition), 

legal issues, public key infrastructure, 

instructional design, and test design. 

Following the workshop, an Army advisory 

group prioritized the solutions into a final 

list of recommendations, included here as a 

starting point for addressing and preventing 

training compromise. 

SR 2002-08 

Training Model for Contingency 

Operations. Smith, M.L., Holden, W.T. Jr., 

Starry, H.M. July 2002. (AD A408556) 

This report documents the process and the 

products of a study examining training and 

training support for units involved in 

deployments for contingency operations. 

The purpose of this study was to assist U.S. 

Army leaders and training resource 

managers to better train units, staffs, leaders 

and soldiers based on the realities and 

challenges of the 21st century operational 

environment. It was completed in support of 

a specific request made by the U.S. Army 

Training and Doctrine Command 

(TRADOC) for assistance in providing 

training support to Army ground forces 
Study Reports 

preparing for, participating in, or returning

from contingency operations. The study

began by surveying the existing body of

knowledge concerning U.S. military

contingency operations and military

deployments conducted in the 1990s. The 

survey’s purpose was to identify and codify

full spectrum training and training resource

requirements for units participating in 

contingency operations. The survey’s 

findings were then used to develop an 

improved training model and associated 

templates, and to recommend changes in 

current training policies and procedures. 

The eight principal recommendations 

address training strategies, training

documentation, resourcing, decisionmaking, and training management. 

22 
Study Notes 

SN 2002-01 

Update of U.S. Army Research Institute’s

Officer Personnel. Young, W.Y. June

2002. (AD A403182) 

This document describes the procedures 

performed to add 1999 and 2000 personnel 

data to the Longitudinal and Core data sets 

of the Officer Longitudinal Research Data

Base (OLRDB) and the Core Data Set of the 

Officer Standardized Educational Testing

Data Base (OSETDB). These data sets, 

which were designed for research purposes, 

contain historical and current data on U. S. 

Army Officer personnel. The OLRDB

contains career history data primarily from 

the 1979 through 2000 Officer Master Files 

(OMF) and the Separation Officer Master 

Files (SOMF). A secondary data source was 

included to record early separations due to 

incentive programs. These data were

captured from the Voluntary Separation 

Incentive/Special Separation Benefit

(VSI/SSB) file. The OSETDB contains 

academic measures for officer personnel 

commissioned between 1980 and 1990 in 

the form of standardized scores. The testing

data consists of the Scholastic Aptitude Test 

(SAT) from the Educational Testing Service

and the American College Test (ACT) from 

the American College Testing Program for

the academic years 1973 through 1985.

 

SN 2002-02 

Investigations Related to the

Implementation of the Assessment of

Individual Motivation (AIM). Knapp, 

D.J., Waters, B.K., and Heggestad, E.D. 

(Eds). July 2002. (AD B282977) 

The Assessment of Individual Motivation 

(AIM) test was developed by the U.S. Army

Research Institute for the Behavioral and 

Social Sciences (ARI) to assess work-related 

temperament characteristics. In February

2000, the Army implemented AIM as a new 

market-expansion enlistment screening tool 

under the “GED Plus” program. Under this 

program, non-high school diploma graduates 

who might otherwise be ineligible for

military service can enlist if they score

sufficiently high on the AIM and meet other 

program requirements. This project is

addressing several operational issues 

pertaining to AIM’s ongoing use in the GED 

Plus program. Post-implementation

investigations have included (a) a preliminary

examination of the operational AIM’s

validity against attrition under the GED Plus 

program, (b) the scaling of AIM alternate 

forms, (c) an examination of variables that

might be used to supplement AIM in the 

prediction of first-term attrition, (d) fairness 

analyses, and (e) efforts to develop improved 

ways to score the AIM.

23 
24 
Research Notes 

This study aimed to explore (1) the 

relationship between soldier performance

during routine service and performance in

combat; (2) the differential efficiency of 

selection scores in predicting routine vs. 

combat performance; and (3) the construct

structure portraying combat soldier 

performance. Four groups of Israeli 

Defense Force soldiers were subjects in the

study; they were evaluated by ratings

obtained by their direct commander, as well 

as hard data measures. Ratings of peacetime

and combat performance showed significant

moderate correlations. The ratings represent 

a meaningful construct structure and are 

efficient in predicting combat performance. 

Factor analysis yielded two factors each 

representing combat soldier performance in 

battle and performance during routine

service, and three factors representing noncombat soldier performance. The predictive

and constructive validity they show make 

the questionnaires employed in this study

both efficient predictors and useful 

evaluation procedures of soldier 

performance in combat. These results have

direct implications to unit command and unit 

management during routine service and to 

attitudes which commanders would strive to 

impart in their soldiers. 

RN 2002-01 

Learning to Suppress Competing 

Information: Do the Skills Transfer? 

Gernbacher, M.A. July 2001. (AD 

A395942) 

This report discusses the laboratory research 

on the cognitive mechanism of suppression. 

The goal of this study is to identify the

cognitive processes and mechanisms that

underlie language comprehension and 

comprehension in general. 

RN 2002-02 

Recruitment to the All-Volunteer Force. 

Harries-Jenkins, G. December 2001. 

(AD A397593) 

Western military establishments which have

decided to shift from conscription (the draft)

to volunteerism as the basis of recruitment 

to their armed forces, commonly face very

considerable challenges. The economic

dimensions of the latter are critical, but the

social, political and cultural issues

associated with the change of recruitment 

policy cannot be overlooked. From the 

analysis of these dimensions and issues, we 

can begin to establish a model of good 

practice which is both a refinement of 

traditional approaches and an acceptance of 

more radical alternatives. Such a model 

reflects a five-step strategy; the alteration of

goals and objectives; substitution between

personnel; privatization and civilianization; 

internationalization, and changes to 

conditions of recruitment and service

(ASPIC). 

RN 2002-04 

Exploring the Nature and Acquisition of 

Tacit Knowledge for Military Leadership. 

Antonakis, J., Hedlund, J., Pretz, J.E., and 

Sternberg, R.J. January 2002. 

(AD A400486) 

In this report we first introduce traditional 

notions of leadership and their limitations, 

and the importance of tacit knowledge for 

military leadership. We then present 

Sternberg’s (1985, 1988, 1997) triarchic 

theory of intelligence and the role of

practical intelligence and tacit knowledge in 

successful leadership. Next, we examine inRN 2002-03 

The Characterization and Prediction of

Soldier Performance During Routine 

Service and in Combat. Dover, S.H. 

January 2002. (AD A399051) 

25
Research Notes 

depth the nature of tacit knowledge, how it 

is defined and measured, how it 

differentiates experts from novices, and how 

it is bounded. Furthermore, we present a 

model of practical intelligence and tacit 

knowledge acquisition, and demonstrate 

how tacit knowledge may be acquired 

experientially and vicariously. Based on the 

literature reviewed, we draw hypotheses that

we test empirically. We then present the 

results of our findings and discuss their 

theoretical and practical implications. Last, 

we relate our findings to the purpose of this 

report, and to the research questions we 

sought to answer. 

RN 2002-06 

Intelligent Dialog Tutor and 

Conversational Agents. Sams, M., Murray,

W.R., DeSmedt, W.H., Loritz, D. January

2002. (AD A399439) 

The report describes research done to 

develop a prototype of an easy to use 

authoring system for an intelligent, 

computer-based trainer. It focuses on 

simulated agents who are capable of mixedinitiative dialog with the user through a

natural language interface. Trainees 

converse as they would in normal English 

discourse asking questions, giving answers, 

and making comments. The simulated agent 

generates appropriate responses within any

defined domain. The resulting tutor

provides individualized instruction based on 

trained performance. The system is fully

authorable and conversational agents are 

easily created for new scenarios. 

Technologies used include: natural language 

processing, semantic analysis, discourse 

management, agent control architectures, 

and distributed object-oriented software. 

RN 2002-05 

Contract for Manpower and Personnel

Research and Studies II (COMPRS-II)

Annual Report – Year Three. Human 

Resources Research Organization. January

2002. (AD A398756) 

This report documents and summarizes the 

activities of the first 3 years of a 5-year (1

base year and 4 option years) project to 

provide the U.S. Army Research Institute for

the Behavioral and Social Sciences (ARI)

non-personal, short- and medium-term 

scientific and technical support services in 

the solution of problems related to 

manpower and personnel. The program is 

referred to as the Contract for Manpower

and Personnel Research and Studies II

(COMPRS-II). The Human Resources 

Research Organization's primary

responsibilities are to administer COMPRSII for ARI under firm fixed-priced contracts 

by managing three inter-related tasks: (a)

managing the COMPRS program in 

accordance with established operating

procedures; (b) receiving and processing

individual Statements of Tasks from ARI;

and (c) managing, reporting progress on, and 

documenting the completion of delivery

orders. 

RN 2002-07 

Development and Application of An 

Automated Data Analyzer. Connelly,

E.M. March 2002. (AD A400503) 

In order to seek and test determinants of unit 

effectiveness, the ADA was developed 

based on the idea that search and analysis of 

large amounts of data can be automated if 

variables can be converted into a standard 

form. In addition, the methodology permits 

an analyst to identify, in a first iteration, 

large sets of variables and associated 

parameters he/she thinks may be relevant to 

an issue, and assist in their refinement, 

combination, and elimination in later 

iterations. The ADA does this by providing

a concise visual presentation of the 

relationships among a large number of 

26
Research Notes 

A two-year Phase II SBIR effort for the U.S.

Army Research Institute (ARI) had as its 

goals the identification of factors that

contribute to advanced team decision 

making and performance, and the 

development of a theory-based model of 

advanced teams. The assessment instrument

is one of the products of this research. 

Volume II is the handoff and instructional 

package. A summary report of the project 

has been published as ARI Research Note 

2002-10. 

variables. This facilitates identification of

variables and combinations of variables, in 

complex data sets, that are related to mission 

outcomes and to each other. 

Project results show that ADA analysis can 

be used to extract effectiveness information 

from the ARI National Training Center 

(NTC) data base for analyst review and 

automated data analysis. The method allows 

considerable flexibility allowing the analyst 

to adjust, modify, and create new analyses 

with some case and flexibility. Use of

analysis specification files allows automatic

documentation and the repeated use of

analyses. Complex analyses can be 

gradually built to assess company/team and 

task force (TF) performance. 

RN 2002-10 

A Model of Advanced Team Decision 

Making and Performance: Summary 

Report. Thordsen, M.L., Kyne, M.M., and 

Klein, G. March 2002. (AD A400497) 

RN 2002-08 

Teamwork Assessment Scales for C2 

Functions for Battalions and Brigades. 

Kyne, M.M., Militello, L.G., Thordsen, 

M.L., and Klein, G. March 2002. 

A two-year Phase II SBIR effort for the U.S.

Army Research Institute (ARI) is described. 

The goal of the effort was to identify factors 

that contribute to advanced team decision 

making and performance to develop a 

theory-based model of advanced teams. 

This work produced four products: a review

of current team literature, a model of

Advanced Team Decision Making (ATDM 

2.0), a field test and evaluation of an 

assessment instrument based on the ATDM 

2.0 model, and a package of materials 

compiled to demonstrate that the model and 

assessment tool could be “handed off” to 

and applied by domain personnel. These 

four products are briefly described. Some 

issues concerning application of the model 

are discussed and future directions are 

outlined. 

(AD A400488) 

This report offers an extensive review of

various team literatures, including research

from the areas of command and control and 

industrial/organizational psychology. A 

complete set of references is included. 

Leading models of team performance are 

identified, and, along with their assessment 

tools, they are analyzed for similarities in 

concepts, dimensions, behaviors, and 

behavioral anchors. Based on this analysis, 

a comprehensive model of advanced team 

performance (ATP) has been generated and 

an assessment tool is being developed. 

Plans for field testing are outlined. 

RN 2002-11 

Developing Effective Military Leaders:

Facilitating the Acquisition of 

Experience-Based, Tacit Knowledge. 

Cianciolo, A.T., Antonakis, J., and 

Sternberg , R.J. September 2001. 

RN 2002-09 

A Model-Based Team Decision-Making 

and Performance Assessment Instrument:

Development and Evaluation. Volumes I 

and II. Kyne, M.M., Thordsen, M.L., and 

Kaempf, G. (AD A400614) (AD A400491) 

27
Research Notes 

The objective of this project is to explore 

methods for facilitating the acquisition of 

tacit (i.e., experience-based) knowledge by

military leaders. We are investigating the

cognitive information processes through 

which individuals who gain relatively more

from their experiences acquire information 

from stimuli and events in their

environment. As tacit knowledge is a critical 

component of practical intelligence, we 

expect to show that facilitating the

acquisition of tacit knowledge will, in turn, 

improve practical problem solving.

Improved practical problem solving has 

obvious implications for improved 

leadership in the complex, rapidly changing

environment in which military leaders must 

work. 

RN 2002-12 

Modeling Human Performance: Effects of

Personal Traits and Transitory States. 

Witmer, B.G., and Jerome, C. June 2002. 

(ADA 405062) 

In a recently published report, Gillis, Hursh, 

Guest, Sweetman, & Ehrlich (2000) reported 

the development of a Human Performance 

Model (HPM) for representing realistic

behavior by Computer Generated Forces 

(CGF) Command Entities (CEs). The model 

as described by Gillis et al. (2000) includes 

the effects of experience, stress, sleep, and 

circadian rhythm on the decision-making

performance of CEs, but does not 

completely describe some other variables 

(e.g., the effects of intelligence,

aggressiveness, and personality type) 

represented in the implemented version of 

the model. This report supplements the

Gillis et al. (2000) report by fully

documenting the implemented HPM to 

include the effects of these additional

variables. This documentation includes flow 

charts that show how each variable is 

calculated and how the model components 

relate to each other. Separate model flow 

charts are provided for positive, negative,

and neutral personality types, along with the 

equations for computing all model variables. 

Model deficiencies are identified and 

improvements are suggested, including

better representation of emotions, and 

inclusion of attention, situational awareness, 

learning, and leader goals and expectations. 

Finally, a conceptual model showing how 

these parameters interrelate is presented. 

RN 2002-13 Cancelled

RN 2002-14 Number not used 

RN 2002-15 

Bradley M2A3/M3A3 Embedded 

Training System (BETS): Initial User

Assessment. Rich, K.L.B., and Salter, M.S. 

August 2002. (AD A408288) 

This report documents a limited user test of

the prototype Bradley Embedded Training

System (BETS). The BETS is designed to be 

an on-vehicle system, using vehicle hardware 

and software, and the same training device 

software as the already fielded BATS, 

Bradley Advanced Training System. Nineteen 

M2A3 Bradley-qualified soldiers performed

two gunnery exercises using the BETS and 

reported their initial impressions about the

device and its potential usage. Preliminary

results indicated that user satisfaction was 

high, and potential good. Further research is

necessary to determine BETS use in training

and operational environments. 

RN 2002-16

Department of the Army Research and 

Development Organization of the Year 

Excellence Award. U.S. Army Research 

Institute for the Behavioral and Social

Sciences. August 2002. (AD B282039) 

28
Research Notes 

As an Army laboratory under the Assistant 

Secretary of the Army for Acquisition, 

Logistics, and Technology (ASA-ALT), the 

U.S. Army Research Institute for the

Behavioral and Social Sciences (ARI)

submitted their major accomplishments for

Fiscal Year 2001 to be considered for a 

Research and Development Organization of 

the Year Award. The arched nomination 

package provides information about ARI,

the major technical accomplishments and 

the business accomplishments for FY01. 

Major technical accomplishments included 

developing a training strategy that optimized

the use of simulators and live aircraft that

has the potential to improve rotary wing

aviator training, reduce costs, and improve 

safety; the major business accomplishment

adapted the Activity Based Costing (ABC)

model to meet the requirements of an R&D 

organization, collected data across the 

organization, and used he data and analysis 

from ABC to improve internal resource

management. 

RN 2002-17

U.S. Army Research Institute FY 2001

Government Performance and Results Act 

Performance. U.S. Army Research Institute

for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. June 

2002. (AD B282014) 

The FY 2001 Performance Report has been 

prepared by the United States Research

Institute for the Behavioral and Social

Sciences (ARI) in response to the 

Government Performance and Results Act 

(GPRA) of 1993, Public Law 103-62. It is 

ARI’s sixth annual GPRA performance 

report, providing feedback to ARI employees, 

managers, and the public as to how well ARI

met the goals set forth in its FY 2001 

Performance Plan. The performance data are 

also being used to reassess programs, 

establish FY 2002 goals, and continuously

improve organizational practices related to

performance planning and accountability.

RN 2002-18

Carnegie Hall: An Intelligent Tutor for

Command-Reasoning Practice Based on 

Latent Semantic Analysis. Lochbaum,

K.E., and Streeter, L.A. September 2002. 

(AD A406129) 

Report developed under a Small Business 

Innovation Research Program 99.2 contract 

for topic OSD00-CR02. Scenario-based 

training techniques, e.g., U.S. Army

Research Institute for the Behavioral and 

Social Sciences’ (ARI’s) “Think Like a 

Commander,” exercise command cognitive

readiness skills. These techniques currently

depend on discussion with live mentors. 

Phase I demonstrated that such scenarios 

could be taught using a web-based 

interactive facilitator/mentor. The webbased facilitator asks questions relevant to 

one scenario, and students write short text

responses. Using Latent Semantic Analysis’ 

(LSA) understanding of natural language, 

the intelligent mentor/facilitator analyzes the

essay’s content and determines the student’s 

weak areas for further questioning. The 

LSA-based prototype was constructed 

rapidly and greatly benefited from 

automatically training the system on a large 

amount of military text. It did not require

the handcrafted knowledge models and rulebases of conventional intelligent tutors.

29
30 
Index of ARI Publications 

Abbreviations 

RN Research Note SN Study Note 

RP Research Product SR Study Report

RR Research Report TR Technical Report 

S Special Report

Author Index 

Akman, A. SR 2002-06 Diaz, T.E. SR 2002-01 

Antonakis, J. RN 2002-04, RN 2002-11 Domeshek, E.A. TR 1124 

Army Research Institute RN 2002-16 Dover, S.H. RN 2002-03

 RN 2002-17 Dressel, J.D. RR 1782 

Barker, W.C. RR 1780 Dudley, M.G. RR 1785 RR 1790 

Bartone, P.T. TR 1127 Dyer, J.L. RR 1778, RR 1783 

Battaglia, D.A. TR 1122 RR 1784 

Beal, S.A. RR 1786, RR 1789, RR 1795 

Belanich, J. SR 2002-07 Endsley. M.R. TR 1123

Bell, D.B. S 51 Evans, K.L. TR 1131 

Black, B.A. SR 2002-04

Bobham, J.W. RR 1780 Flynn, M.R. RR 1781, RR 1793 

Bonnett, M. RR 1781 Fober, G.W. RR1778 

Bourne, D. R. TR 1127 Forrest, D. RR 1781 

Bredthauer, J.L. RR 1778 Freeman, M.W. SR 2002-07 

Burnfield, J.L. TR 1128

Burnside, B.L. RR 1793 Gantz, M. M. S 48 

Garfield, K.A. TR 1129 

Campbell, J.P. TR 1128 Gately, M.T. TR 1130 

Campbell, R.C. S 52, SR 2002-05, TR 1128 Gernbacher, M.A. RN 2002-01 

Centric, J. TR 1129 Graesser, A.C. TR 1121 

Christ, R.E. TR 1131 Greenston, P.M. SR 2002-01, SR 2002-03 

Cianciolo, A.T. RN 2002-11 Grosse, J.R. TR 1129 

Comer, B.D. TR 1129 Grossman, J.R. RR 1781, RR 1793 

Connelly, E.M. RN 2002-07 

Crowell, H.P. III TR 1129 Harries-Jenkins, G. RN 2002-02 

Curnow, C.K. SR 2002-07 Harris, B.C. S 48 

Hedlund, J. RN 2002-04 

Dannemiller, B. RR 1781, RR 1793 Heffner, T.S. TR 1128 

DePaul, J.L. TR 1125 Heggestad, E.D. SN 2002-02 

DeSmedt, W.H. RN 2002-06 Hill, R. RR 1791 

31
Holden, W.T. Jr. RR 1779, SR 2002-08 Pleban, R.J. RR 1786, RR 1789, TR 1130 

Holt, B.J. RR 1790, RR 1792 Pliske, R.M. TR 1122 

Human Resources Research Pretz, J.E. RN 2002-04 

 Organization RN 2002-05 

Quinkert, K.A. SR 2002-04 

Iordanov, V. TR 1125 

Rainey, S.J. RR 1790, RR 1792 

Jerome, C. RN 2002-12 Ramsberger, P.F. S 49, S 51 

Johnson, D.M. RR 1780, RR 1787 Reeve, C.L. TR 1128 

Johnston, J.C. RR 1785, RR 1791 Rich, K.L.B. RN 2002-15

 SR 2002-04 Riedel, S.L. RR 1777 

Jones, D. TR 1123 Ryder, J.M. TR 1125 

Jones, W.S. RR 1785, RR 1791 

Rudnick, R.A. SR 2002-01 

Kaempf, G. RN 2002-09 Sabol, M.A. S 49 

Klein, G. RN 2002-08, RN 2002-10 Sager, C.E. TR 1128 

Knapp, D. J. SN2002-02, S 52, TR 1128 Salter, M.S. RN 2002-15, RR 1783 

Knerr, B.W. TR 1129 Sanders, W.R. RR 1788, RR 1792 

Knerr, C.M. SR 2002-05 Schaab, B.B. RR 1782 

Kyne, M. M. RN 2002-08, RN 2002-09 Shadrick, S.B. RP 2002-02, RR 1781 

 RN 2002-10 RR 1792 

Simutis, Z.M. S 48 

Lampton, D.R. TR 1129 Singh, H. RR 1784 

Leibrecht, B.C. RR 1791, SR 2002-04 Smith, M.L. SR 2002-08

LeGare, M. RR 1791 Starry, H.M. SR 2002-08 

Lickteig, C.W. RR 1792 Sterling, B.S. RR 1779 

Lightfoot, M.A. SR 2002-01 Sternberg, R.J. RN 2002-04, RN 2002-11 

Lochbaum, K.E. RN 2002-18 Sticha, P.J. SR 2002-05 

Longoria, K. RR 1791 Strater, L.D. TR 1123 

Loritz, D. RN 2002-06 Strauss, C.P. RR 1785 

Lussier, J.W. RP 2002-02 RR 1792 Streeter, L.A. RN 2002-18 

Stewart, J.E. II RR 1780, RR 1787 

Martin, G.E. TR 1129 

Matthews, M.D. RR 1786, RR 1795 Thomas, M. TR 1129 

Mauzy, R.P. RR 1781, RR 1793 Thordsen, M.L. RN 2002-08, RN 2002-09 

McGonigle, T. RR 1777 RN 2002-10 

McWhite, P.B. SR 2002-01 Throne, M.H. RR 1778 

Meliza, L.L. RR 1785, RR 1791 

Milan, L.M. TR 1126, TR 1127 Walker, S.W. SR 2002-01 

Militello, L.G. RN 2002-08, TR 1122 Washburn, D.A. TR 1129 

Morath, R.A. RR1777 Waters, B.K. SN 2002-02

Moses, F.L. S 49 Watts, S. M. TR 1130 

Mower, D. SR 2002-01 Waugh, G.W. TR 1128 

Murray, W.R. RN 2002-06 Weile, D.S. RR 1780 

Nelson, J.T. II SR 2002-06 Whelan, B.E. SR 2002-02 

Phillips, J. TR 1122 White, L.A. TR 1128 

32
Wisher, R.A. S 49, SR 2002-07 

 TR 1121 

Witmer, B.G. RN 2002-12 

Young, W.Y. SN 2002-01 

Zachary, W.W. TR 1125

Zazanis, M. M. TR 1127

33
34
Subject Index 

Adaptability and Transfer on Digital Systems RR 1782, RR 1783 

All-Volunteer Force RN 2002-02 

Army Aptitude Area Composites SR 2002-03 

Army’s First Digital Division (FDD) Sr 2002-04 

Assessment of Individual Motivation (AIM) SN 2002-02 

Automated Data Analyzer RN 2002-07 

Automated Measures of Command and Staff Performance RR 1779 

Automated Tutoring Environment for Command (ATEC) TR 1125 

Automaticity and Thinking Process RR 1790 

AWOL S 51 

BOLDS TR 1126, TR 1127 

Bradley Embedded Training System (BETS) RN 2002-15 

Close Combat Tactical Trainer RR 1781 

Command Group Training in the Objective Force RR 1793 

COMPRS RN 2002-05 

Computer Backgrounds of Soldiers RR 1778, RR 1784 

Computer-Based Training (CBT) Variations RR 1783 

Digital Warfighting RR 1785, RR 1791, SR 2002-04 

Distance Learning S 49 

Distributed Learning Environments TR 1121 

Government Performance and Results Act RN 2002-17 

Human Performance Model RN 2002-12 

Human-System Integration RR 1792 

Intelligent Dialog Tutor RN 2002-06 

Intelligent Tutor for Command-Reasoning Practice RN 2002-18 

Intelligent Tutor for Teaching Battlefield Command-Reasoning TR 1124 

Language Student Attrition SR 2002-02 

Measuring Digital Proficiency RR 1791 

MOUT Decision Skills Training TR 1122 

Multi-Skilled Soldier Concept SR 2002-06 

NCO21 Research Program TR 1128 

Night Vision Goggle Effects RR 1789 

OLRDB and OSETDB SN 2002-01 

PC-EPAS SR 2002-01 

Personal Computer Aviation Training Device RR 1787 

Radio Communications and Situation Awareness TR 1131 

Research and Development Organization of the Year Award RN 2002-16 

Simulator Training for the TH-67 Helicopter RR 1780 

Situation Awareness TR 1123, RR 1795 

Soldier Performance RN 2002-03 

Subjective Assessment Scale RR 1786 

Suppression RN 2002-01 

Tacit Knowledge RN 2002-04, RN 2002-11 

35
Subject Index 

Teamwork Assessment Scales RN 2002-08 

Team Decision Making RN 2002-09, RN 2002-10

Think Like A Commander RP 2002-02 

Training Critical Thinking Skills for Battle Command RR 1777 

Training Model for Contingency Operations SR 2002-08 

Training on the Web SR 2002-07 

Transforming NCO Promotion S 52 

Virtual Learning Environments RR 1786, RR1788, RR 1789, SR 2002-05, 

 TR 1129, TR 1130 

Women in the Army S 48 

36
List of ARI Refereed Journal Articles 

Books and Book Chapters 

FY2001-FY2002 

 Conference Papers 

FY2001-FY2002

37
38
FY 2001 Journal Articles 

Hagman, J. D. (2001, September-October). An easy way to cut the cost of live-fire 

gunnery evaluation: A second look. Armor, 23-24.

Hayes, P.B., Schaab. B., & Moses, F.L. (2001, January-February). A way to train digitally 

 proficient soldiers. Army AL& T, 18-19. 

Finley, D. L. (2001, March-April). Handling degraded communications. Military Review, 

71(2), 33-37. 

Lampton, D. R. & Parsons, J. B. (2001). The Fully Immersive Team Training (FITT) research 

system: Design and implementation. PRESENCE: Teleoperators and Virtual 

 Environments, 10(2), 129-141. 

Sabol, M.A. & Wisher, R.A. (2001). Retention and reacquisition of military skills. Military 

Operations Research, 6(1), 59-80. 

Siebold, G.L. (2001). Core issues and theory in military sociology. Journal of Political and 

Military Sociology, 29(1) Summer, 140-159. 

Zazanis, M.M., Zaccaro, S.J., & Kilcullen, R.N. (2001). Identifying motivation and interpersonal 

performance using peer evaluations. Military Psychology, 13, 73-88 

FY 2001 Books and Book Chapters 

Fallesen, J. J. & Pounds, J. P. (2001). Identifying and Testing a Naturalistic Approach for 

Cognitive Skill Training. In E. Salas and G. A.Klein (Eds.) Linking Expertise and 

Naturalistic Decision Making. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 

 Olson, D. M., White, L. A., Rumsey, M. G., & Borman, W. C. (2001). Environmental context 

effects on performance and the prediction of performance. In J. P. Campbell & D. J. 

 Knapp (Eds.), Exploring the limits of personnel selection and Classification (pp. 507- 

521). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. 

Walker, C. B., & Rumsey, M. G. (2001). Application of findings: ASVAB, new aptitude tests, 

and personnel classification. In J. P. Campbell & D. J. Knapp (Eds.) Exploring the limits 

of personnel selection and classification (pp. 559-574). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. 

 

White, L.A., Young, M.C., & Rumsey, M.G. (2001). Assessment of background and life 

experiences (ABLE) implementation issues and related research. In J.P. Campbell & D.J. 

 Knapp (Eds.) Exploring the limits: Performance improvement through personnel 

selection and classification (pp. 526-558). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 

 

39
FY 2001 Conference Papers 

Allen, R., & Singer, M.J. (2001, August). Presence in Altered Environments: Changing 

Parameters & Changing Presence. Paper presented at the Human Computer Interaction 

International 2001 Conference, New Orleans, LA. 

Barnett, J. S. & Holmquist, J. (2001). Human sergeants, robot soldiers: Soldier-machine 

integration issues with semi-autonomous systems. Proceedings of the 

Interservice/Industry Training, Simulation, and Education Conference (I/ITSEC), 

Arlington, VA: National Training Systems Association. 

Carpenter, T.D., Zazanis, M.M., & Kilcullen, R.N. (2001, April). The Importance of Motivation for 

Socially Skilled Behavior. Poster session presented at the annual meeting of the Society for 

Industrial and Organizational Psychology, San Diego. 

Commarford, P., Singer, M. J., & Kring, J. (2001, August). Presence in Distributed Virtual 

 Environments. Paper Presented at the Human Computer Interaction International 2001 

Conference, New Orleans, LA. 

 

Fallesen, J. J. (2001, January). The role of self-insight in developing reflective learners. Paper 

presented at the Anton Myrer Leadership Symposium "Developing Thinking Skills in 

Strategic Leaders." Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, PA. 

Katz, L. C. (2001, July). Army Crew Resource Management Training Enhancement. Paper 

presented at the 5th Annual Air Force Reserve Command Crew Resource Management 

conference, Scott AFB, Belleville, IL. 

Mills, L.J. (2001, August). A meta-analysis of hardiness, stress, and health. Paper presented at 

the 2001 annual convention of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco, 

CA. 

Rumsey, M. G., Ford, L. A., Campbell, R. C., Campbell, J. P., Knapp, D. J., & Walker, C. B. 

(2001, September). Officer selection in the 21st century. RTO Meeting Proceedings 55. 

Neuilly-sur-Seine, Cedex, France: North Atlantic Treaty Organization Research and 

Technology Organization. 

Siebold, G.L. & Benton, M.H. (2001, August). The postmodern thesis versus organizational 

evolution: Future directions for military sociology. Paper presented at the 96th Annual 

Meeting of the American Sociological Association, Anaheim, CA. 

Steinberg, A.G., & Smith, P.E. (2001, August). Social support as it relates to stress in Army 

units. Paper presented at the 2001 annual convention of the American Psychological 

Association, San Francisco, CA. 

40
White, L.A., & Young, M.C. (2001, April). Validation of a faking-resistant measure of 

temperament constructs. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for 

Industrial/Organizational Psychology, San Diego, CA. 

White, L.A., Borman, W.C., & Bowles, S. (2001, August). New tools for selecting high 

potential Army recruiters. Paper presented at the 2001 annual convention of the 

American Psychological Association, San Francisco, CA. 

White, L.A., Gregory, E.L., Kilcullen, R.N., Galloway, E., & Nedegaard, R. (2001, August). 

New maturity assessment tools for U.S. Army correctional specialists. Paper presented at 

the 2001 annual convention of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco, 

CA. 

Zazanis, M.M., Carpenter, T.D., & Kilcullen, R.N. (2001, April). Disappearing validities: 

Behind the mask of higher order performance dimensions. Paper presented at the annual 

meeting of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, San Diego. 

 

FY 2001 Poster Presentations 

Bredthauer, J. & Dyer, J. L. (2001, May). The effectiveness of computer-based training on the 

use of a digital map display. Poster session presented at the 27th Annual Convention of 

the Association for Behavior Analysis, New Orleans, LA. 

Singer, M. (2001, June). Training and Reduced Side Effects in Virtual Environments. Poster 

presented at the American Psychological Society annual convention, Toronto, CA. 

Young, M.C., White, L.A., & Heggestad, E.D. (2001, August). Faking resistance of the Army’s 

new non-cognitive assessment measure. Poster session presented at the 2001 annual 

convention of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco, CA. 

 

FY 2002 Journal Articles 

Bartone, P.T., Snook, S.A., & Tremble, T.R. (2002). Cognitive and personality predictors of 

leader performance in West Point cadets. Military Psychology, 14 (4), 321-338. 

 

Graham, S.E. & Dyer, J.L. (2002). Objective force warrior: New ways to train. Army AL&T, 

8-9.

 

Orvis, K. L., Wisher, R. A., Bonk, C. J., & Olson, T. M. (2002). Communication patterns during 

synchronous web-based military training in problem solving. Computers in Human

Behavior, 18, 783-795. 

 

41
Rumsey, M. G. (2002). Selection and assessment systems to support personnel transformation. 

Army AL&T, PB-70-02-4, 16-18. 

 

Steinberg, A. G., Peterson, M. P., & Fisher, S. F. (2002, July-August). How Army Research 

Institute surveys support Army transformation, Army AL&T. 

Stewart, J. E., Dohme, J. & Nullmeyer, R. (2002). U.S. Army Initial Entry Rotary Wing 

Transfer of Training Research. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 12(4) 

359-375. 

Witmer, B. G., Sadowski, W. J., Jr., & Finkelstein, N. (2002). VE-based training strategies for 

 acquiring configuration knowledge. PRESENCE: Teleoperators and Virtual 

Environments, 11(1), 1-18. 

FY 2002 Books and Book Chapters 

 Boldovici, J. A.,Bessemer, D. W., & Bolton, A. E. (2002). The elements of training evaluation. 

Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. 

Burgoon, J.K, Conito, J.A., Ramirez, Jr., A., Dunbar, N.E., Kam, K., & Fischer, J. (2002). 

Testing the interactivity principle: Effects of mediation, propinquity, and verbal and 

nonverbal modalities in interpersonal interaction. Journal of Communication, 52 (3), 

657-677. 

Knerr, B. W., Breaux, R., Goldberg, S. L., and Thurman, R.A. (2002). National Defense. In 

 K.M. Stanney (Ed.), Handbook of Virtual Environments: Design, Implementation, and 

 Applications (pp. 857-872). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 

Lampton, D. R., Bliss, J. P., & Morris, C. S. (2002). Human Performance Measurement in 

Virtual Environments. In K.M. Stanney (Ed.), Handbook of Virtual Environments: 

Design, Implementation, and Applications (pp. 701-720). Mahwah, New Jersey: 

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 

Segal, M.W., & Bourg, C. (2002). Professional leadership an diversity in the Army. In L.J. 

Matthews (Ed.), The future of the army profession (505-520). New York: McGraw-Hill. 

Segal, D.R., & Kestnbaum, M. (2002). Professional closure in the military labor market: A 

critique of pure cohesion. In L.J. Matthews (Ed.), The future of the army profession 

(441-458). New York: McGraw-Hill. 

42
FY 2002 Conference Papers 

Barnett, J. S. (2002, March). Human factors considerations in product support. Paper presented 

at the Industry, Engineering, and Management Systems conference, Cocoa Beach, FL. 

Barnett, J. S. & Meliza, L. L. (2001, November). Defining digital proficiency measurement 

targets for U.S. Army units. Paper presented at the Interservice/Industry Training, 

Simulation, and Education Conference (I/ITSEC), Arlington, VA. 

Belanich, J., Orvis, K.L., & Wisher, R.A. (2002, April). Group question writing and learning 

outcomes: Evaluation of a collaborative question generation online learning program. 

Paper presented at the E-Learning conference and expo, Washington, DC. 

Belanich, J., Orvis, K.L., & Wisher, R.A. (2002, March). Web-based learning exercise for army 

training: Online collaborative learning. Paper presented at the American Psychological 

Association Midyear Symposium: Contemporary and emerging issues in human factors, 

engineering and military psychology, Fort Belvoir, VA. 

Benton, M.H., & Siebold, G.L. (2002, April). Prediction of foreign language training success. 

Paper presented at the 65th annual meeting of the Southern Sociological Society,

Baltimore, MD. 

 

Brady, E.J. (2002, May). The Multi-Skilled Soldier Concept Study. Paper presented at the 11th 

ROK-U.S. Defense Analysis Seminar, Seoul, Korea. 

Campbell, J.P., Ford, L.A., & Campbell, R.C. (2002, April). Job analysis in support of a future 

promotion system. In D.J. Knapp (Chair), Understanding and predicting performance in 

future jobs. Symposium presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Industrial and 

Organizational Psychology, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

Christ, R. E. (2002). Training challenges in automating human cognitive processes: Implications 

for the light infantry warrior. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics 

Society 46th annual meeting, 2022-2024. 

Curnow, C.K., & Belanich, J. (2002, August). Identifying and authenticating online learners. 

Paper presented at the fourth annual conference on DoD Civilian Education and 

Professional Development, Fort Belvoir, VA. 

Dyer, J. L., & Salter, R. (2001, November). Digital skill training: Information demands 

and learning by exploration. Paper presented at the Interservice/Industry Training 

Simulation and Education Conference, Orlando, FL. 

43
Graham, S. E. (2001, October). Situation Awareness Challenges for the Army’s Objective 

Force. Proceedings of the 45th Annual Meeting of the Human Factors and Ergonomics, 

Minneapolis, MN. 

Heffner, T.S., & Gade, P.A. (2002, April). Commitment to nested collectives in special 

operations forces. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Industrial and 

Organizational Psychology, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. 

 

Heffner, T.S., & Porr, W.B. (2002, August). Using scenario responses for scoring situational 

judgment tests. Paper presented at the 2002 annual convention of the American 

Psychological Association, Chicago, Il. 

 

Hess, K.P., Entin, E.E., & Miller, P. (2002, April). Simulation testbed for the evaluation of 

Performance (STEP): Innovative Criteria. In T.S. Heffner & D.J. Knapp (Chairs), U.S. 

Army non-commissioned officer of the future: Building a leadership assessment tool. 

Symposium conducted at the annualmeeting of the International Military Testing

 Association Conference, Ottawa, Canada. 

Holmquist, J.P. & Barnett, J. S. (2002, April). International High School Space Settlement 

Design Competition: How SECME is preparing me for a space age education. Paper 

presented at the 39th Space Congress, Cape Canaveral, FL. 

Katz, L.C. (2002, September). Aircrew Coordination Training Enhancement Program Update. 

Paper presented at The Virginia Army National Guard Safety Stand Down, Richmond, 

VA. 

Katz, L.C. (2002, September). The 7 Habits of Highly Effective Aviators. Paper presented at the 

Aviation Safety Stand Down, Fort Rucker, AL, September 2002. 

Kilcullen, R., Goodwin, J., Chen, G., Wisecarver, M., & Sanders, M. (2002). Identifying agile 

and versatile officers to serve in the Objective Force. Paper presented at the Army 

Science Conference, Orlando. 

Knapp, D.J., & Reeve, C.L. (2002, April). NCO 21 research program overview. In D.J. Knapp 

 (Chair), Understanding and predicting performance in future jobs. Symposium 

presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Industrial and Organizational 

Psychology, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

 

Lampton, D. R., Knerr, B. W., Martin, G. A., & Washburn, D. A., & Cope, D. ( 2002, July). 

Trends in ten years of immersive virtual environment research. Paper presented at the 

IMAGE conference, Scottsdale, AZ. 

 

Mackin, P., Hogan, P., & Greenston, P. (2002, June). SRB retention model estimation and 

analysis. Paper presented at the 70th Military Operations Research Society, Ft. 

Leavenworth, KS. 

44
 Mackin, P., Hogan, P., & Greenston, P. (2002, July). SRB retention model estimation and 

Analysis. Paper presented at the Western Economics Association meetings, Seattle, WA. 

Milan, L. (2002, May). U.S. Army internet surveys. Paper presented at the Annual Conference 

of the American Association for Public Opinion Research, St. Pete Beach, FL. 

Pleban, R. J. (2001, November). Training and Assessing Platoon Leader Decision-Making 

Skills in a Virtual Environment. Paper presented at the Interservice/ Industry Training

Simulation and Education Conference(I/ITSEC), Orlando, FL. 

Pliske, R. M., Militello, L. G., Phillips, J., & Battaglia, D. A. (2001, October). Evaluating a 

decision skills training approach for the U.S. Army. Proceedings of the Human Factors 

and Ergonomics Society 45th Annual Meeting, Minneapolis, MN. 

Rumsey, M.G. ((2002, May). Enlisted promotion tools for a transformed Army. Paper presented 

at the 11th ROK-U.S. Defense Analysis Seminar, Seoul, Korea. 

Sager, C.E., Putka, D.J., & Burnfield, J.L. (2002, April). Validating predictors of current and 

future job performance. In D.J. Knapp (Chair), Understanding and predicting 

performance in future jobs. Symposium presented at the annual meeting of the Society 

for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. 

Siebold, G. L. (2002, August). Research themes for military sociology. Paper presented at the 

97th Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Association, Chicago, IL. 

Steinberg, A. G. & Nourizadeh, S. M. (2002, August). Superior, peer, and subordinate 

mentoring in the U.S. Army. Paper presented at the 2002 annual convention of the 

American Psychological Association, Chicago, IL. 

 Sterling, B. (2002, June). Use of a Warfighter In-the-Loop Simulation Environment to Improve 

Command and Control of Future Forces. Paper presented at the 69th MORSS 

 conference, Annapolis, MD. 

Throne, M. (2001, November). Prototype Automated Performance Measures for Future Battle 

 Staff. Paper presented at the Interservice/Industry Training, Simulation and Education 

Conference (I/ITSEC), Orlando, FL. 

Waugh, G.W. (2002, April). Developing a situational judgment test. In D.J. Knapp (Chair), 

Understanding and predicting performance in future jobs. Symposium conducted at the 

annual meeting of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Toronto, 

 Ontario, Canada. 

Wisher, R.A., & Simutis, Z.M. (2002, May). Research and evaluation on distance learning. 

Paper presented at the 11th ROK-U.S. Defense Analysis Seminar, Seoul, Korea. 

45
46

Wisher, R.A., Curnow, C.K., & Belanich, J. (2002, August). Verifying the learner in distance 

Learning. Paper presented at the 18th Annual Conference on Distance Teaching and 

Learning, Madison, WI. 

 

. 

FY 2002 Poster Sessions 

Holmquist, J. & Barnett, J. S. (2001, October). Digitally enhanced situation awareness: An aid 

to military decision-making. Poster presented at the 45th annual meeting of the Human 

Factors and Ergonomics Society, Minneapolis, MN.