of Deep-Well Waste Disposal 

in

G E O L O GI Q A IL S 6 fe V E ¥ P R O f&$ 11 ON A L * A P E R 1

Prepared in cdQp&K$iwn wMi tfie 

Mem Ybrk State
Potential Effects

of Deep-Well Waste Disposal

in Western New York

By ROGER M. WALLER, JOHN T. TURK, 

and ROBERT J. DINGMAN

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1053

Prepared in cooperation with the 

New York State Geological Survey

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1978
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

H. William Menard, Director

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Waller, Roger M.

Potential effects of deep-well waste disposal in western New York.

(Geological Survey professional paper; 1053)

Bibliography: p. __

Supt. of Docs, no.: I 19.16:1053.

1. Waste disposal in the ground New York (State) Lackawanna. 2. Steel Pickling Waste disposal. I.

Turk, John T., joint author. II. Dingman, Robert James, 1921- joint author. III. New York (State).

Geological Survey. IV. Title. V. Series: United States. Geological Survey. Professional paper; 1053. 

QE75.P9 no. 1053 [TD761] 628.5'4 77-608160

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, D.C. 20402

Stock Number 024-001-03094-2
CONTENTS

Page

Abbreviations and conversion factors ___________ v

Abstract ___________________________— 1

Introduction ___________________________ 1

Previous studies ______________________ 2

Purpose and scope ____________________ 2

Hydrogeologic conditions ___________________ 3

Geology ___________________________ 3

Stratigraphy and lithology ____________ 4

Structure _______________________ 4

Seismicity ______________________ 5

Petroleum and natural-gas resources ______ 6

Subsurface hydrology ___________________ 6

Saline water _____________________ 6

Occurrence and characteristics _______ 6

Hydraulics ___________________ 7

Freshwater aquifers ________________ 8

Unconsolidated rock ______________ 8

Bedrock ____________________ 9

Confining beds ____________________ 9

Deep-well injection potential ________________ 9

General principles ____________________ 9

Existing injection wells _________________ 9

Brine disposal _____________________ 9

Acidic-waste disposal ________________ 9

FMC Corporation well ____________ 10

Hooker Chemical and Plastics

Corporation well ______________ 10

Bethlehem Steel Corporation well ______ 10

Effects of injection test at Lackawanna site _______ 10

Hydrologic conditions of disposal unit _________ 10

Geologic conditions of disposal unit __________ 10

Page 

Effects of injection test at Lackawanna site—Continued

Chemical effects by laboratory experiments ———— 13

Calculations ___——_———————————— 16

Discussion ____—————————————————— 17

Summary _____—______—————————— 18

Digital-model analysis —___—-—————————— 18

Model characteristics and boundaries ____—— 19

Transmissivity and storage coefficients ————— 19 

Correction of field-test data and

comparison with model results _——————— 21

Prediction of effects of injection _——————— 22

Hydraulic fracturing _________—_———___— 25

Effects on injection operations ___———_——— 30

Leaky confining bed ___———__———————— 31

Effects of potential injection at other sites ___— 31

Geologic limits _______-_—_———_—— 31

Model simulation ___________—————_— 32

Monitoring disposal operations ________—_—_—— 32

Purpose ___—__________________—— 32 

Comparison of actual with predicted

hydraulic effects ______________________ 32

Movement of wastes ________________ 32

Leakage of system __________________ 33

Well _______________________ 33

Formation ____________________ 33

Permeability changes ________________ 33

Modification of model __________________ 33

Summary of disposal-well test procedures ________ 33

Conclusions ___________________________ 34

Selected references _—____________—___— 38

ILLUSTRATIONS

Page 

FIGURE 1. Map showing location of study area _________________________________________ 2

2. Map showing bedrock geology and well locations __________________________________ 5

3. Generalized geologic section through western New York ______________________________ 6

4. Map showing pressure head and dissolved-solids concentration of Cambrian brine _____________ 7

5. Map showing thickness of Cambrian unit underlying Knox unconformity, and grid overlay for hydraulic

model ________________________.____________________________________ 12

6. Schematic diagram of the viscosity effect during injection of freshwater __________________ 21 

7-8. Graphs showing predicted head buildup in well 101, Bethlehem Steel Corporation, Lackawanna, N.Y.:

7. At 72,000 gal/d injection rate ___.____________________________________ 23

8. At 93,600 gal/d injection rate ___.____________________________________ 24 

9-11. Maps showing predicted areal head buildup at 72,000 gal/d injection rate:

9. After 396 days ______________.____________________________________ 25

10. After 2.4 years ____________._______________________.____________ 26

11. After 10.8 years ____________.____________________________________ 27

III
IV CONTENTS

Page 

FIGURES 12-13. Graphs showing:

12. Relation of wellhead pressure to time in various stages of well 101 injection test________ 28

13. Relation of bottom-hole pressure to time in various stages of well 101 injection test ____ 29

14. Bottom-hole pressure versus injection rate in well 101 _______________________ 30 

15-18. Hydraulic conductivity versus accumulated flow:

15. Sample 73NY10 (dolomite) _____.____________________________________ 35

16. Sample 73NY13 (sandstone) ____.____________________________________ 36

17. Sample 73NY14 (dolomite) ____.____________________________________ 37

18. Sample 73NY30 (sandstone) ____.____________________________________ -38

TABLES

Page 

TABLE 1. Data on wells in Cambrian formations _________________________________________ 3

2. Chemical analyses of Cambrian brines in western New York and Canada ______________________ 11

3. Selected laboratory determinations on core samples from the Lackawanna well 101 _______________ 14

4. Hydraulic conductivity of cores from the Potsdam Sandstone, Lackawanna well 101 ______________ 15

5. Chemical analyses of pickling liquor from the Bethlehem Steel Corporation plant, Lackawanna, N.Y. ———— 16
CONTENTS

ABBREVIATIONS AND CONVERSION FACTORS

[Factors for converting Engrlish units to International System (SI) units and abbreviations of units]

English units

inches (in)

feet (ft)

miles (mi)

square miles (mia )

gallons (gal)

million gallons (Mgal)

cubic feet (ft8)

feet per day (ft/d)

gallons per minute (gal/min or gpm)

gallons per day (gal/d)

million gallons per day (Mgal/d)

millidarcy-feet (mD-ft)

darcy (D)

pounds per square inch (lb/in2 )

pounds per cubic inch (lb/ins)

Multiply by

Length

25.4

2.54

.3048

1.609

Area

2.590

Volume

3.785

3.785 XlO'8

3,785

.02832

Flow

0.3048

.06309

3.785

.04381

Mass

0.07031

.01602

SI units

millimeters (mm)

centimeters (cm)

meters (m)

kilometers (km)

square kilometers (kma )

liters (L)

cubic meters (ms)

cubic meters (m8 )

cubic meters (ms)

meters per day (m/d)

liters per second (L/s)

liters per day (L/d)

cubic meters per second (ms/s)

kilograms per square centimeter (kg/cma )

grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm8 )

hours (h) 

minutes (min) 

seconds (s)

degrees Fahrenheit (°F) 

degrees Celsius (°C)

cubic feet per day per square foot (ft/d)

cubic feet per day per foot (ft2/d)

feet per mile (ft/mi)

centistokes

atmosphere (atm)

Time

Temperature 

(°F-32)5/9 

9/5 °C+32

Hydraulic conductivity 

0.305

Transmissivity 

0.0929

Gradient 

0.1894

Viscosity

i,ooo,oooxio-8

Pressure

degrees Celsius (°C) 

degrees Fahrenheit (°F)

meters per day (m/d)

square meters per day (ma/d)

meters per kilometer (m/km)

square meters per second (ms/s)

POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF DEEP-WELL WASTE DISPOSAL

IN WESTERN NEW YORK

By ROGER M. WALLER, JOHN T. TURK, and ROBERT J. DINGMAN

ABSTRACT

A deep waste-disposal well was drilled at Lackawanna, 

N.Y., for proposed disposal of a highly acidic, iron-rich waste 

solution (waste pickle liquor) from a steel mill into a dolomitic sandstone. This report evaluates the hydraulic, seismic, 

and geochemical aspects and the feasibility of such disposal. 

Hydraulic reactions under field pressure and field temperatures were simulated by mathematical models, and chemical 

reactions by laboratory models. The mathematical results are 

compared with 1968 freshwater injection-test data obtained 

from State records.

During the middle stages of the 1968 injection of freshwater into the injection zone that contains high-density brine, 

the rock probably was hydraulically fractured in the immediate vicinity of the well bore. The permeability of the Cambrian sandstone and dolomite sequence is attributed mainly 

to natural fractures in the strata. Transmissivity of the entire 457-foot sequence is 13 feet squared per day. Calculations indicate that the proposed rate of injection (72,000 

gallons per day) of waste pickle liquor into a total of 42 

feet of "effective" permeable sections of the rocks would 

exceed a wellhead pressure of about 580 pounds per square 

inch, causing the rocks to be hydraulically fractured. Fractures at the well depth would probably be vertical and might 

extend into the confining beds of dense carbonate rock. On 

the basis of an average storage coefficient (fluid expansion 

only) estimated to be 5.87X10'6 for the "effective" unit and 

an injection rate of 72,000 gallons per day, the measurable 

cone of influence would extend about 22 miles after injection 

for 1 year.

The sandstone and fractured dolomite rocks of the disposal unit would theoretically accept the waste pickle liquor. 

Within a year, however, at an injection rate of 50 gallons 

per minute, the wellhead pressure would be about 600 

pounds per square inch. Chemical reactions between acidic 

wastes and brine-saturated, unfractured dolomite would 

create precipitates that would drastically reduce the already 

low permeability of the unfractured part of the dolomite. 

Fractures in the dolomite would probably not become plugged 

by chemical precipitates, however. Nondolomitic sandstone 

permeability may not be affected. In general, the fractured 

dolomite and the sandstone parts of the sequence would 

probably maintain their present permeability so that the 

effective injection rate could be sustained. Generation of

carbon dioxide may be a problem in that excessive pressures 

could develop.

The digital model, constructed with assumed values of 

hydrologic and geologic characteristics, can be used for 

qualitative predictions on a regional scale, but hydrologic 

and geologic data for an individual site would be required 

before reasonable predictions could be made of the effects 

of waste injection at any particular site.

Field tests under operating conditions are needed to insure 

reliable predictions of long-term effects of injecting industrial wastes in any part of the region. In addition, all oiland gas-test or production wells and deep water wells within the affected radius of injection should be monitored to 

detect possible upward migration of brine.

INTRODUCTION

Waste disposal into lakes and streams has become 

a critical problem in many places. International 

agreements on use of boundary waters have been 

designed to prevent further pollution of the Great 

Lakes. Also, the Finger Lakes in western New York 

have begun to accumulate wastes. Because streams 

in western New York have a greatly reduced flow 

in summer, discharge of waste to streams during 

the summer causes vast deterioration in stream 

quality. Subsurface disposal is being used for the 

disposal of some wastes that otherwise would be 

discharged into streams, but underground water 

resources are susceptible to pollution also. One of 

the first considerations in deep-well disposal is that 

underground space is almost always filled with native brine at depth and with freshwater at shallower 

depths. The brine must be displaced in order to 

emplace additional liquid and the freshwater must 

be protected.

The State of New York has received requests from 

industries for permission to dispose of liquid industrial wastes into the subsurface by means of deep 

wells. The New York State Geological Survey is re-
POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF DEEP-WELL WASTE DISPOSAL IN WESTERN NEW YORK

sponsible for evaluating the geologic and hydrologic aspects of specific deep-well injection sites in 

New York.

PREVIOUS STUDIES

The possibilities of subsurface disposal in New 

York were studied in 1963 by McCann, Privrosky, 

'Stead, and Wilson (1968) and in 1967 in less detail 

by Kreidler (1968). The method, experience, problems, and implications of disposal were noted by 

Piper (1969) and were the subject of symposiums 

in 1971 (Cook, 1972) and 1973 (Braunstein, 1973). 

A discussion of deep-well disposal by Mokha (1974) 

covers many aspects of the current situation. A technical paper on hydraulics of deep-well waste disposal 

was recently published (van Everdingen, 1974). The 

possibility of creating seismic effects has been considered—increased fluid pressures in incipient fault 

fractures have caused earthquakes (Evans, 1966; 

Pakiser and others, 1969; Sykes and others, 1972). 

Two annotated bibliographies have been compiled in 

preparation for investigations of techniques and 

problems of deep-well disposal (Rima and others, 

1971; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1972).

PURPOSE AND SCOPE

The purpose of this study by the U.S. Geological 

Survey in cooperation with the New York State Geological Survey was to evaluate the hydrologic 

aspects of disposal of industrial liquid wastes in deep

wells. Of immediate concern was the planned disposal of acidic steel-pickling wastes (commonly 

called waste pickle liquor, or pickling liquor) from 

an iron- and steel-processing plant in Lackawanna, 

N.Y. Of long-range concern was the feasibility of 

this type of waste disposal anywhere in New York 

west of Cayuga County (fig. 1).

The study involved two formations beneath the 

Knox unconformity—the Cambrian Potsdam Sandstone and Theresa Formation—which McCann, 

Privrosky, Stead, and Wilson (1968) considered to 

be the best potential disposal rocks. Objectives included determination of (1) the feasibility of injecting acidic iron-bearing wastes into the dolomite and 

sandstone, based on an understanding of chemical 

reactions between the wastes and the formation 

rock and native fluid, (2) a prediction of the pressure buildup in the disposal formation, (3) the potential of hydraulic fracturing, and (4) the feasibility of using additional disposal wells elsewhere in 

the receiving system.

Determination of the hydrologic feasibility of 

deep-well injection involved two main efforts. Injection of acidic steel-pickling liquor into rock cores 

under simulated field conditions was done by the 

U.S. Geological Survey laboratory in Denver, Colo. 

A computer-oriented mathematical model of the disposal formation simulated the response of the formation fluid pressure to stress around the injection 

well. Two models were designed—one to determine

LAKE ONTARIO

Study 

area

INDEX MAP OF NEW YORK s

CANADA

! GENESEE *!_-_.

"~~"——! r^ ONTARIO .'

WYOMING J

"i--T

^, \

'sENEC/

)——————rI

I———' -1 I

jWatkins Glen' 

j SCHUYLER

S \ \ '

CHAUTAUQUA \ CATTARAUGUS ALLEGANY STEUBEN -•

; ! ! ICHEMUNG^

! i !

U , 90J ..——..——..——^————.._.._ ! . l..——H——- .1 PENNSYLVANIA^ NEW YORK ,i ___,_L

25

50 MILES

75 KILOMETERS

FIGURE 1.—Location of study area.
HYDROGEOLOGIC CONDITIONS

TABLE 1.—Data on wells in Cambrian formations

[Data from New York State Geological Survey; altitudes and depths in feet]

Well Formation

Reported brine

No.

Canada

7S __ .. 

8 ___ ..

8W__ ..

9

9H __ ..

United States 

58 ___ ..

59 ___ ..

61 __ ..

CO

64 ___ ..

65__ _ ..

66_ __..

67- __ ..

71 ____ ..

79

70

74_ _ __..

75 _ _ ..

76_ _ ..

77E __ .. 

78 _ _ ..

7Q

80__ __..

81 ____ ..

82__ __..

83__ _ ..

84 _ __..

85_ _ __..

88 _ __..

89 ____ ..

92 _ _ ..

94

94ET_

96

100 _ _..

101— __..

103_ _ __..

104__ _ ,.

Name

Smith 1

Welland

Erco 2

Haldimand

McClurg _ .

Johnson __ .

Wilson _ _ .

Veith __ Werner _ .

Fisher

Page _

Cox

Tyler

Naylor

Klotzbach

Brundage

Emil Camp

Kelly _

Domay

Cook

Thaxter

Stevens

Herman

Nowak

Malone

Woolston

Morrison

Searles _

Ellis ET-1

Harrington

LaScala

Bethlehem

FMC Corp

Hooker _

Altitude 1

305

613

617

589

599

599

. _ 1,001

795

312

.__ 1,483

1,573

1,608

1,504

1,508

1,166

713

668

870

727

664?

658

634

625

504

382

325

362

436

372

335

354

1,332

2,294

1,773

._ 1,413 4 592

4549

4 582

Total 

depth *

2,313 

3,197 

4,104 

3,569 

4,693

6,385 

5,644 

4,839 

2,185 

7,144 

7,182 

5,722? 

5,718 

6,237 

5,620 

4,000 

3,410 

3,962 

3,560 

3,030 

3,044 

3,152 

2,983 

2,664 

2,450 

2,259 

2,325 

2,567 

2,345 

2,760 

2,225 

6,528 

11,683 

7,692 

5,911 

4,310 

3,189 

3,060

Altitude 3

Name 2

Po 

Po 

Th-Po 

Po LF-Th-Po

LF-Th-Po 

Po 

Po 

Th 

LF-Th-Po 

LF-Th-Po 

Th 

Th 

Th-Po 

Th-Po 

Th-Po 

Th-Po 

Th-Po 

Th-Po 

Th? 

Po 

Th-Po 

Th 

Th-Po 

Th 

Po 

Th 

Po 

Po 

Th 

Po 

Th-Po 

LF-Th-Po 

LF-Th-Po 

Th 

Th-Po 

Th 

Th-Po

Top

1,887 

2,437 

2,989 

2,636 

3,491

4,929 

3,879 

3,448 

1,851 

4,712 

4,687 

5,568 

4,019 

3,689 

3,684 

2,807 

2,489 

2,683 

2,593 

2,063? 

2,222 

2,331 

2,213 

2,100 

1,998 

1,823 

1,900 

1,999 

1,882 

1,825 

1,823 

4,289 

6,955 

4,985 

4,437 

3,202 

2,111 

2,254

Base

2,265 

3,215 

4,072 

3,555 

4,670

5,560

4,740 

1,858

5~790 

4,209 

3,813

2~987 

2,833

3,020 

3,105 

2,346 

2,137 

2,062 

2,197 

1,946

1,946 

1,840 

2,208 

6,460 

8,765

4,251 

2,765 

3,026

Depth 1

2,233 

3,064 

3,798 

3,239 

4,058

5,650 

5,150 

4,690

6,375 

6,375 

5,646 

5,420 

5,206

3,722 

3,284

2,972 

2,965

2,604

2,120 

2~518

2,225 

5,681 

9,800 

6,836 

5,910 

3,818 

3,130 

2,848

Static 

level *

809 

1,200

"800 

+26?

3,290

1,540

3,436 

3~459

2~609 

100? 

125?

~~35? 

0?

0?

27?

1,225 

9~266

380

~

Yield 

(gal/min)

~lT6

— —

7 

21

~575

~2~~

24

.3

Slight

Large

Large

~"e

6

2

Temperature ( 8 C)

27~5

29 

34~~

___

—

40" 

31? 

27

* From derrick floor, approximately 15 ft above leveled land surface.

* LF, Little Falls Dolomite; Th, Theresa Formation; Po, Potsdam Sandstone. 

3 Below sea level.

* From land surface.

the pressure buildup in the vicinity of the injection 

well, and the other to determine the regional effects 

of pressure buildup in the formation.

Geologic information for western New York was 

compiled by the New York State Geological Survey. 

Data were available on deep gas, oil, and salt wells 

that penetrated the proposed disposal zones (Kreidler and others, 1972). Data on drilling, testing, and 

completion of the principal disposal well by American Industrial Disposal Systems, Inc. (AIDS, Inc., 

1968) and on two other disposal wells were available 

in the State Geological Survey files. Pertinent data 

on Cambrian wells are presented in table 1, and the 

well locations are shown in figure 4. Interpretation of

the geology of the disposal formations is based on 

work by McCann, Privrosky, Stead, and Wilson 

(1968), Kreidler (1968), and Rickard (1973).

HYDROGEOLOGIC CONDITIONS 

GEOLOGY

Geologic conditions in the study area are summarized from McCann, Privrosky, Stead, and Wilson 

(1968) and Kreidler (1968). Western New York lies 

in the north end of the Appalachian Synclinorium. 

The geologic setting consists of a series of gently 

dipping sedimentary formations overlying the basement complex. The sedimentary-rock surface is man-
POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF DEEP-WELL WASTE DISPOSAL IN WESTERN NEW YORK

tied by glacial deposits. The outcrop pattern of the 

major bedrock units is shown in figure 2. A generalized geologic column, using New York State 

Geological Survey nomenclature with U.S. Geological 

Survey variances, for western New York follows:

System Formation or group

U.S. Geological 

Survey designation

Pennsylvania!! .Pottsville Group ___(Pottsville Formation) 

Mississippian _Pocono Group ____.(Knapp Formation)

Devonian ___A sequence of shale ___________——— 

sand and limestone 

units.

Silurian————Bertie Limestone __.(Bertie Limestone of

Salina Group)

Salina Group _________________. 

Lockport Group ___.(Lockport Dolomite) 

Clinton Group ____________________________

Medina Group ____(Albion Group)

Ordovician _Queenstown Shale ______________________

Oswego Sandstone _________.______

Lorraine Shale __________________________

Trenton Group __________________________

Utica Shale ____.(overlies Trenton

Group) 

Black River Group ______________________

Beekmantown Group ____________________

Cambrian ———Little Falls Dolomite ____________. 

Theresa Formation (=Galway Formation) 

Potsdam Sandstone _____________.

Precambrian —Crystalline rocks _______________.

STRATIGRAPHY AND LITHOLOGY

The sequence of sedimentary rocks overlies the 

crystalline Precambrian rocks. The lowermost sedimentary rocks are part of the Cambrian System. 

The Potsdam Sandstone has an average thickness 

of 100 ft and is composed of fine to medium 

quartzitic and dolomitic sand. The Potsdam lies 

unconformably on the Precambrian and grades upward into the Theresa Formation (Galway Formation of Fisher and Hanson, 1951) of interbedded 

dolomite and sandstone. The Theresa is as thick as 

1,500 ft. The Potsdam Sandstone is differentiated 

from the basal part of the Theresa sandstone by a 

higher feldspar content. Overlying the Theresa in 

the southern half of the region is the Little Falls 

Dolomite. The relatively dense Little Falls contains 

much quartz sand and is as much as 950 ft thick. The 

above-named formations, particularly the Potsdam 

and the Theresa, are of immediate concern to this 

study.

Ordovician rocks, nearly 2,000 ft thick, overlie the

Cambrian System and, with the exception of the 

lowermost unit—Beekmantown Group—lie above an 

erosional surface called the Knox unconformity. 

From the lowermost units, they are the Beekmantown Group (largely shales), Black River Group and 

Trenton Group (both carbonates), Lorraine Shale, 

Oswego Sandstone, and the Queenstown Shale, the 

oldest rock exposed in the area. The Knox unconformity is considered a significant horizon that controls oil and gas accumulation and the hydrodynamics of the underlying Cambrian rocks and the 

Beekmantown Group.

The Silurian System overlies the Ordovician and 

consists, from oldest to youngest, of the following 

groups: Medina Group (name abandoned and designated Albion Group by U.S. Geological Survey), 

Clinton Group, Lockport Group (designated Lockport Dolomite by U.S. Geological Survey), Salina 

Group, and Bertie Limestone (included in Salina 

Group by U.S. Geological Survey). The units consist 

of sandstone, carbonates, and shales.

Devonian rocks make up the surficial bedrock in 

more than half the area of this study. The system 

largely consists of major groups of carbonates and 

shales near the bottom and then a succession of 

numerous shale, sand, and limestone units.

Mississippian and Pennsylvania rocks occur in isolated patches on hilltops in the extreme south part 

of western New York.

Glacial drift mantles most of the area in varying 

thickness. In most areas the drift is less than 25 ft 

thick, but in bedrock valleys it may be several hundred feet. In general, the drift is composed of finegrained lacustrine sediments in the northern third 

of the area, with till capping most of the highlands, 

and sand and gravel outwash in the valley floors. 

Modern streams have reworked the drift and deposited alluvium adjacent to the streams.

STRUCTURE

The sedimentary rocks above the Knox unconformity dip gently to the south at about 20 ft/mi 

in the west to 60 ft/mi in the east. The Cambrian 

units dip on the average 100 ft/mi to the south. 

Most of the units thicken to the south also. A generalized north-south section (fig. 3) illustrates the 

structural relationship of the rocks. Thickness of 

the section approaches 20,000 ft at the New YorkPennsylvania border. The Beekmantown Group is 

present only in this area, south of section A-A'.

The sedimentary sequence has a gentle undulating 

structure. A fault system, the Clarendon-Linden, oc-
HYDROGEOLOGIC CONDITIONS

curs in the north-central part of the region (fig. 2) 

as high-angle thrust faults associated with a northtrending anticline. Large anticlines are common 

near f;he surface in the southern part of the area 

but apparently do not extend into the deeper formations.

SEISMICITY

Earthquakes of minor to intermediate intensity 

have occurred in western New York (Coffman and 

von Hake, 1973); those of greatest intensity have 

been in the Attica area. Seismic areas of moderate

to major risk have been delineated for the region 

(Coffman and von Hake, 1973, p. 1). In general, the 

area of major risk parallels the northeast trend of 

Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. Of immediate interest 

to this study are the earthquakes apparently induced from a water-injection system of salt-mining 

activities southeast of Attica (fig. 1) near the 

Clarendon-Linden fault (Sykes and others, 1972). 

Waste disposal by deep-well injection is of concern 

in this area because of the potential for inducing 

earthquakes.

.»72 ;.59

71 67

LMNGSTON .r 

WYOMING I \

42°-

Base from U.S. Geological Survey 

New York state base map, 1:500,000

Geology from Me Cann and others (1968)

50 MILES

I I I I I I I

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

Devonian System 

Silurian System 

Ordovician System

.96

A'

Well and number

Line of section 

Contact

Clarendon-Linden faultLi, upthrown side; 

D, downthrown side

FIGURE 2.—Bedrock geology for part of western New York and Canada and location of wells used in study.
POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF DEEP-WELL WASTE DISPOSAL IN WESTERN NEW YORK

A'

Cattaraugus Creek

Bethlehem Steel Corp. 

well 101 at Lackawanna

Lake Ontario 

\

Cambrian-Potsdam Sandstone

5000

FEET METERS 

r 2000

-500

- 1000

SEA 

LEVEL

- 1000

-2000

-3000

-4000

5000

SEA 

LEVEL

-500

-1000

-1500

0 10 20 30 40 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 3.—Generalized geologic section through western New York. Line of section shown in figure 2.

PETROLEUM AND NATURAL-GAS RESOURCES

The basal part of the Potsdam Sandstone has produced natural gas 12 mi west of Buffalo in Canada, 

and the Potsdam pinchout beneath the Lake Ontario shoreline probably contains gas (W. L. Kreidler, oral commun., 1974). Natural gas is produced 

from the Theresa Formation in Wyoming County.

Methane is produced in minor amounts from the 

Utica Shale. Many gas fields in western New York 

are producing from Silurian Medina rocks. Devonian 

formations yield gas and oil in the southern part 

of the study area.

SUBSURFACE HYDROLOGY

Water, gas, or oil occupies most voids below the 

water table, permeability permitting. Freshwater 

occurs near the surface, but, in general, the dissolved-solids concentration of ground water increases with depth. Deep formations usually contain

brine. The U.S. Geological Survey classifies the 

salinity of water as follows:

Type of water

Concentration 

(mg/L)

Fresh __________ 0- 1,000 

Slightly saline ___ 1,000- 3,000 

Moderately saline _ 3,000-10,000 

Very saline ______ 10,000-35,000 

Brine __________ 35,000 and above

Of principal concern in this study are native fluids 

in prospective disposal formation of the Cambrian 

System and freshwater in the overlying near-surface 

rocks that constitute usable aquifers.

SALINE WATER

OCCURRENCE AND CHARACTERISTICS

Occurrence of water in the Cambrian System in 

western New York is .not well documented. Occurrences are reported in logs of some oil and gas 

tests, mostly in sandstone; these logs are on file
HYDROGEOLOGIC CONDITIONS

42°-

Base from U.S. Geological Survey 

New York state base map, 1:500,000

Hydrology by R. M. Waller, 1974

0

h

0

1 M '

"'' 1

10

10

1 1

20

20

1

1

30

1

40

30 

1

1

50

1

60

40 

|

1

70

50 

I

1

80

MILES 

KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

94ETt

-6906, 

335,000

Well and number

gji—y0p number shows water-level in feet 

above < + ) or be|ow ( _) sea |eveL Bottom 

number shows concentration of dissolved 

solids in milligrams per liter

—300,000— Contour of dissolved-solids concentration in 

milligrams per liter—Interval 50,000 milligrams per liter

x x x x Aquifer boundary

FIGURE 4.—Pressure head and dissolved-solids concentration of Cambrian brine in western New York.

with the New York State Geological Survey. Logs 

of the few injection wells in the study area contain 

the most accurate information on occurrence of 

water in the Cambrian.

In general, dissolved-solids concentration of water 

in the Cambrian unit ranges from 213,000 to 335,000 

mg/L (table 2). Water temperatures of as much as 

40 °C are on record. Sodium chloride-type water is 

dominant in the Cambrian. Chloride concentration 

ranges from about 62,000 to 192,000 mg/L.

Data to show the areal variance in the dissolvedsolids concentration of the brine are inadequate, but,

in general, the dissolved-solids concentration of 

Cambrian brine increases from north to south 

(downdip) and with depth below land surface (fig. 

4) in the study area.

HYDRAULICS

Fluid movement in rocks depends on intrinsic permeability (k). Interconnected pore spaces or fractures provide for movement if a gradient or pressure differential exists. Permeability data for the 

Cambrian rocks are sparse. Drill-stem tests, coring 

and laboratory determinations, or pumping tests are
8 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF DEEP-WELL WASTE DISPOSAL IN WESTERN NEW YORK

means of obtaining information on permeability, or 

hydraulic conductivity, which involves intrinsic permeability and type of fluid. Hydraulic conductivity is 

defined by Lohman (1972, p. 4) as follows: "If a 

porous medium is isotropic and the fluid is homogenous, the hydraulic conductivity of the medium 

is the volume of water at the existing kinematic 

viscosity that will move in unit time under a unit 

hydraulic gradient through a unit area measured 

at right angles to the direction of flow."

Permeability of the Cambrian rocks undoubtedly 

varies considerably in areal as well as vertical extent. Few data are available on permeability because 

drill-stem tests of deep exploration holes are not 

made unless gas or oil is indicated. Rates of inflow 

of brine give a measure of permeability, but only 

qualitatively.

The authors attempted to relate permeability, as 

known from three laboratory studies and two injection tests, to lithology, but the meager data seem 

to indicate contradictory relationships. An intuitive 

interpretation is that greater permeability results 

from fractured dolomite than from primary porosity 

of sandstone (or dolomite), but laboratory determinations are, of necessity, made on unfractured cores. 

In general, as the percentage of sandstone in the 

section increases, permeability increases. Injection 

tests determine the gross permeability of the exposed section and would include fracture permeability.

Average hydraulic conductivity of the formations 

exposed to the uncased parts of a well can be determined from injection tests. Data on "flow-capacity" 

were available for two injection-test wells, including 

well 101 (fig. 4) at Lackawanna, N.Y., the one of 

concern in this report. Flow capacity was apparently 

the term used for permeability multiplied by the 

effective porous zone, and is equated herein to transmissivity (T), which is defined as the rate at which 

water is transmitted through a unit width of a formation. Transmissivity is the product of the field, or 

average, hydraulic conductivity (K) times the saturated thickness at the prevailing viscosity and temperature of the water.

Well 101 had a flow capacity that converts to an 

average hydraulic conductivity of about 26X10-3 

ft/d for the Cambrian Potsdam-Theresa unit. Similarly, the calculated hydraulic conductivity of the 

Cambrian rocks at well 104 (fig. 4) is 7X10-3 ft/d.

Laboratory determination of hydraulic conductivities of cores taken at well 101 ranged (table 4) 

from 0 to 23X10-3 ft/d. The hydraulic conductivity 

of most cores was less than 2X10-3 ft/d. Comparison 

of these hydraulic conductivities with flow-capacity

data from two injection tests indicates that fracture 

permeability is dominant in the Cambrian System. 

Because regional permeability data were lacking, hydraulic conductivity of the Cambrian rocks was assumed to be comparable with "that of cores from 

well 101 and was used in a subsequent analysis. 

Actual test data at proposed injection sites will be 

needed to reappraise hydraulic effects.

The amount of fluid in storage in rocks depends 

on porosity. Some of the regional well data indicate 

high porosities, but most of the Cambrian unit probably has a low porosity. Additional storage within 

a confined aquifer is available from expansion of 

the aquifer or compression of the formation fluid. 

The volume of fluid that can be released or taken 

into storage per unit area of a formation per unit 

change in the component of head normal to that surface is called the storage coefficient (S). Specific 

storage, or storage coefficient per foot of aquifer 

thickness, is similarly defined, but for a unit volume 

of formation rather than for a unit surface area. 

Because of the apparent "tightness" of the Cambrian System, a specific storage of 1.3 X10-8 was used 

in the studies reported in this paper. An analysis 

of this figure is given in the section, "Transmissivity 

and Storage Coefficient."

Hydrostatic pressure of the Cambrian rocks is 

rarely recorded in New York State. Scattered reported data on unstabilized water levels were not 

reliable enough to allow construction of a potentiometric map of the brine pressure head. The reported levels are included in table 1 and figure 4. 

The pressure head of Bethlehem Steel Corp. well 101 

may be the only true static level of the brine. Direction of natural fluid movement in the Cambrian was 

not determined because data were lacking.

Clifford (1973, figs. 1 and 5), in a study of the 

hydrodynamics of the Cambrian Mount Simon 

Sandstone west of the study area (equivalent to the 

Potsdam Sandstone of New York), indicates a reverse pressure gradient in relation to the slope of 

the underlying Precambrian surface. If this condition extends into New York (the Bethlehem Steel 

Corp. well pressure level "fits" the extension), the 

potentiometric surface in western New York probably slopes northwestward. A gradient of the potentiometric surface does not necessarily imply movement of the brine. Among other factors, regional 

density differences of the brine may prevent flow 

downgradient.

FRESHWATER AQUIFERS

UNCONSOLIDATED ROCK

Freshwater occurs at shallow depth in almost all
DEEP-WELL INJECTION POTENTIAL

imconsolidated deposits (glacial drift and alluvium) 

in the region. Domestic and municipal water supplies 

are obtained from aquifers in major stream valleys. 

Recharge to the aquifers is principally from precipitation. Some recharge comes from deeper circulation 

of ground water that seeps upward into shallow 

aquifers and into streams from bedrock aquifers.

BEDROCK

Some parts of the bedrock formations have 

void spaces—formed by fractures, bedding planes, 

or solution channels—which allow water to move. 

Generally, these openings are most numerous 

in the upper 200 ft of the rock. Such rocks constitute 

aquifers and provide water to wells and springs and 

supply base flow of streams. In some areas, the 

water is highly mineralized from contact with rocks 

that readily dissolve or from long contact with rocks 

during deep circulation. Recharge to rock aquifers is 

usually by water infiltrating from the overlying unconsolidated material.

CONFINING BEDS

A formation that restricts fluid movement is 

called a confining bed. In subsurface disposal, a confining bed is needed to restrict vertical movement of 

wastes. Ideal confining beds are thick, tight shales.

The Cambrian formations considered for disposal 

in this study lie beneath the limestone of the Ordovician Black River and Trenton Groups; the erosional Knox unconformity separates the Ordovician, 

except the Beekmantown Group, and the Cambrian 

rocks (fig. 3). The limestones, which are generally 

thick (nearly 800 ft), massive, and nearly void of 

permeable zones, have been considered good confining beds for deep-well disposal with the possible 

exception of disposal of acidic wastes. The Knox unconformity is indicated as a permeable zone in some 

well records. Because the unconformity is an erosional surface, it overlies rocks that have been 

weathered and whose permeabilty is probably 

greater than that of the original rock.

DEEP-WELL INJECTION POTENTIAL

GENERAL PRINCIPLES

Disposal of wastes to the subsurface requires an 

injection well constructed of material resistant to 

corrosion and capable of withstanding high injection 

pressures. In addition, type and character of the 

rock and the native fluid of the disposal zone are of 

vital importance to chemical-reaction and fluidtransmission characteristics within the receiving 

formation.

Permeabilty of the formation and viscosity of injection fluid largely determine the pressure needed 

to inject the wastes and displace the native fluid. If 

the permeability is great enough, low pressure or 

even gravity flow may handle the required amount 

of waste. Or, permeability at required disposal 

depths may be so low that wastes have to be pumped 

under pressure, especially where the receiving formation does not have adequate transmissivity. 

Chemical reactions can precipitate solids or form 

gases that plug voids and thus reduce permeability.

EXISTING INJECTION WELLS

In early 1974, only one deep waste-disposal well 

other than those involved in oil and gas operations 

was known to be operating in western New York. 

This was a brine-disposal well for a salt company 

near Watkins Glen on Seneca Lake. Other wells have 

been completed or are nearing completion for disposing of industrial wastes or brine from salt mining. Some have never been put into operation because of State permit denial or industrial changes. 

In general, State law requires that industrial wastes 

be disposed of at depths greater than that required 

for waste brine.

BRINE DISPOSAL

Brine disposal in New York is generally associated 

with salt mining. Antipollution laws are gradually 

forcing mining companies to stop surface disposal 

of highly mineralized water. Salt processing involves small amounts of highly mineralized waste 

water. The salt-producing companies are permitted 

to inject mineralized waste water into the first subsurface saline-water zone having a confining bed. 

Depths of about 1,000 ft are required in the Seneca 

Lake area.

Salt is mined by both excavation and solution 

methods in the east and central parts of the study 

area. At present, only the eastern mining is involved 

with deep-well waste disposal. One additional well 

began operation and two additional disposal wells 

approached completion during 1974. The disposal 

formations are Devonian limestone and dolomite 

confined by a thick sequence of shale.

ACIDIC-WASTE DISPOSAL

Three wells have been drilled in western New York 

specifically for proposed disposal of industrial 

wastes. Data in the files of the New York State 

Geological Survey indicate that the wells were 

initially tested by injecting freshwater to determine 

well response and formation characteristics. The 

data included probable flow rates and pressures expected for injection of the waste fluid. Aquifer characteristics identified from these data in 1973-74
10 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF DEEP-WELL WASTE DISPOSAL IN WESTERN NEW YORK

were used in this report to evaluate the region's 

potential for disposal of liquid industrial wastes.

FMC CORPORATION WELL

The FMC Corp. at Middleport, N.Y., drilled a well 

(103, fig. 4) in 1968 to dispose of wastes containing 

pesticides. The well was drilled to 3,189 ft into Precambrian rocks and was cased and cemented to 

2,655 ft. Water was found at 3,130 ft, but the head 

was not reported. The 534 ft of open hole in the well 

is exposed to Cambrian sandstone and dolomite beds 

and produces a brine having a dissolved-solids concentration of 213,000 mg/L (table 2).

An injection test on the FMC well, after acidizing, 

involved injection of freshwater at rates of as high 

as 336 gal/min and maximum wellhead pressure of 

2,300 Ib/in 2 . The receiving rocks were probably 

hydraulically fractured at this injection pressure. 

The contractor who injected the freshwater estimated that the completed well would accept water 

at 40 gal/min and a wellhead pressure of 1,000 

Ib/in 2 . No data on the length of test, buildup of 

pressure, or stabilized pressures were available in 

the State files. Permission to use the well for waste 

disposal was denied by the State.

HOOKER CHEMICAL AND PLASTICS CORPORATION WELL

Hooker Chemical and Plastics Corp., Niagara 

Falls, N.Y., drilled a disposal well in 1968 to dispose 

of hydrochloric acid wastes. The well (104, fig. 4) 

was drilled into Precambrian rock to a depth of 

3,063 ft and was cased to 2,829 ft. Cambrian rocks 

consisting of dense oolitic dolomite and sandstone are 

exposed in the 207 ft of open hole. Water was found 

in the disposal zone at 2,848 ft. In a test, the formation yielded 2 gal/min of brine having a dissolvedsolids concentration of more than 270,000 mg/L 

(table 2). The low pH (3.1) possibly indicates that 

acid from well treatment may not have been flushed 

from the formation. A temperature log run after 

the test showed a formation-water temperature of 

27°C.

In a test on well 104, 1.9 Mgal of city water was 

injected into the well in 10 days. A maximum injection rate of 500 gal/min produced a wellhead pressure of 1,650 Ib/in2 . This well, just as FMC well 103, 

was probably hydraulically fractured by the high 

injection pressures. An analysis of test data by the 

testing firm indicated that the receiving formations 

had a flow capacity of 600 mD-ft, and conclusions 

by the firm indicated that fractures were the most 

permeable parts of the formations. (A darcy is the

flow, in milliliters per second, through each square 

centimeter, of a fluid of 0.01-poise viscosity under 

a pressure of 1 atm.)

BETHLEHEM STEEL CORPORATION WELL

American Industrial Disposal Systems (AIDS, 

Inc.) drilled and tested a disposal well for Bethlehem 

Steel Corp. at Lackawanna, N.Y., in 1968. The well 

(101, fig. 4) was drilled to 4,310 ft into Precambrian 

rocks and was cased to 3,783 ft. Open hole in the 

Theresa Formation, Potsdam Sandstone, and Precambrian units totals 527 ft. Brine was found in the 

Theresa Formation at 3,818 ft. The brine head after 

completion of drilling was 380 ft below land surface. 

Two analyses of the brine are included in table 2. 

Bottom-hole temperature was 40°C in 1968. After 

the well was acidized, more than 1 Mgal of freshwater was injected at various rates during a 10-day 

period. The proposed disposal of waste pickle liquor 

into well 101 is the basis for the study described 

here. Details of the formation at the well, the injection test, and probable effects if the well is put into 

operation are discussed in sections that follow.

EFFECTS OF INJECTION TEST AT 

LACKAWANNA SITE

HYDROLOGIC CONDITIONS OF DISPOSAL UNIT

Brine in the Cambrian rocks (well 101, table 2) 

has a reported dissolved-solids concentration of 

about 300,000 mg/L. A static level of 380 ft below 

land surface was reported at the time of the injection test. The high dissolved-solids content of the 

brine indicates that brine movement is probably 

very slow under natural conditions.

GEOLOGIC CONDITIONS OF DISPOSAL UNIT

The geologic section beneath the Lackawanna disposal site is shown as Bethlehem Steel well 101 in 

figure 3. The Theresa Formation, consising mainly 

of dolomite with sandstone layers, occurs at depths 

of 3,794 to 4,131 ft. Potsdam Sandstone lies below 

the Theresa to 4,251 ft, and then Precambrian is 

present to the bottom of the well at 4,310 ft. The 

well is cased and cemented to 3,783 ft, apparently 11 

ft above the Theresa contact. The remainder of the 

well, 527 ft of open hole, can transmit injected fluid.

A map showing thickness of Cambrian formations 

beneath the Knox unconformity in western New 

York was made from data in Rickard (1973). Thicknesses were taken from this map to construct a 

hydraulic model of the geologic sequence (fig. 5). 

The map shows a wedge-shaped unit of Cambrian
EFFECTS OF INJECTION TEST AT LACKAWANNA SITE 11

TABLE 2.—Chemical analyses of Cambrian brines in western New York and Canada

[Analyses by several laboratories; copies obtained from New York State Geological Survey. Chemical constituents, dissolved-solids concentration, and hardness for samples from wells 78, 8, 9H, and 94ET are in milligrams per liter; those for remaining samples, in parts per 

million, not equivalent at density greater than freshwater]

Well number and date of sample collection

Western New York

Characteristic 

or constituent

Specific conductance 

("mho/cm at 25 U C) ____ .

Resistivity (ohmmeters at 20°-21°C)

Silica (SiO2 ) ___ __ ____.

Iron (Fe) —— _ — —

Sodium (Na) _ __ ——— j

Bicarbonate (HCOs) — ______ 

Sulfate (SO*) _

Chloride (Cl) ____ — ——

Dissolved-solids

pH ———————— _______

Specific gravity 

(15.6°/15.6°C)

Well 67 

(1969)

3.5

29,550

3.880

60,150

3 

156,600

250,550

83,500 

5.1

1.21

Well 94ET 

(10-4-72)

229,000

28 

2.5 

.21 

36,000 

5,100 

78,000 

8,200 

307

200,000

335,000 

110,907 

6.0

1 Well 101 

(1968)

30,827 

4,640 

84,200 

3,030 

14.5 

*57 

192,300

321,722 

84,676 

7.0

2 Well 101 

(1968)

"2.1

31,713 

3,965

80,400 

3,148

*43 

185,450

302,080 

85,770 

4.5 

40

1.22

Well 103 

(1968)

27,600 

100 

69,960

20 

136 

118,000

213,000

10.5 

1.15

Well 104 

(1968)

~9.3

72,490 

14,486 

9,840 

892 

0 

*500 

61,820

270,450 

241,670 

3.1 

27

Well 7S 

(1963)

8 71,640 

0.7 

3 102,200

* 15,130 

a 164,240

s 261,300 

1.22

Canada

Well 8 

(8-11-55)

--

~

* 154,447 

S247,800

27.5 

"1.21

Well 9H 

(7-19-70)

0.197 

8 Trace 

3,320 

10,200

37

412 

22,600

40,900

"7.6 

33.9

1.03

1 Sample depth 3,818 ft.

» Sample depth 4,300 ft.

•Calculated by U.S. Geological Survey.

4 Sulfite (SOs). 620°/20°C.

rocks (pre-Knox unconformity) thickening southward from its northern limit near Lake Ontario. 

Near the south edge of the model limit, thickness of 

the unit is more than 2,000 ft. The top of the unit 

is an erosional unconformity that transects the underlying geologic formations.

The three geologic formations (Little Falls, 

Theresa, and Potsdam) in the sequence (disposal 

unit) within the model limits consist of sandstone, 

dolomite, and shale units. The lowermost part of the 

sequence is the Potsdam Sandstone, which rests unconformably on Precambrian rocks. Generally, the 

Potsdam is a quartzitic and dolomitic sandstone with 

dolomite stringers. The upper part of the unit is 

absent in the north, where the Potsdam wedges out.

Above the Potsdam is the Theresa Formation. The 

Theresa consists primarily of dolomite and interbedded sandstone and shale. In places, the basal 

sandstone beds are differentiated from the underlying Potsdam Sandstone by the lack of feldspar. The 

Theresa wedges out to the north.

The Little Falls Dolomite overlies the Theresa in 

the extreme south part of the model area.

Permeability, or hydraulic conductivity, of the individual sandstone and dolomite beds differs greatly. 

Primary porosity and permeability occur principally 

in the sandstone and to a lesser degree in the 

dolomite. Fracture and joint systems provide secondary permeability in some zones. Some zones of the 

dolomite have vuggy permeability.

Porosity and permeability determinations of Cambrian cores from well 101 were made available 

through the New York State Geological Survey. Porosity generally ranged from 1 to 13 percent and, in 

the sandstone cores, was usually highest. The greatest horizontal hydraulic conductivity (K) reported 

was about 9 X10-3 ft/d for a core of Potsdam Sandstone. Of 105 determinations in a 342-ft interval, K 

averaged 1.5 X10-3 f t/d. Hydraulic conductivity of 73 

cores of the Theresa Formation averaged 0.8 XlO-3 

ft/d, whereas that of 32 cores of the Potsdam Sandstone averaged about 3 x 10-3 ft/d.

As part of this study, splits of the cores from well 

101 were made available to the U.S. Geological Survey, which used ' simulated brine to determine hydraulic conductivity of five of the Potsdam Sandstone cores (table 4). For horizontal flow, K ranged 

from 21.6XlO-3 ft/d to 4.3XlO-5 ft/d. For vertical 

flow, K was generally lower by one order of magnitude.

The injection test on well 101 provided data that 

can be used to interpret the average K of the rocks 

penetrated in the open borehole. Flow capacity of 

4,736 mD-ft was based on "pressure fall-off data following the injection test at 400 gpm," the fifth stage 

of the injection test (AIDS, Inc., 1968). This flow 

capacity, or transmissivity (T), is a measure of the 

rate of flow through the 527-f t thickness of the open 

hole. Average permeability (K), calculated by dividing T by thickness, is about 9 mD. Conversion of 9
12 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF DEEP-WELL WASTE DISPOSAL IN WESTERN NEW YORK

42°-

Base from U.S. Geological Survey 

New York state base map, 1:500,000

Geology from Rickard (1973)

40 50 MILES 

I

i""i i i i i i i r

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 KILOMETERS

Finite difference grid

EXPLANATION 

/ / / / Aquifer boundary —— 2000 —— Line of equal thickness of Cambrian unit— 

Dashed where approximately located. Interval 100 and 500 feet (30.5 and 152.5 

meters)

FIGURE 5.—Thickness of Cambrian unit underlying Knox unconformity, and grid overlay for hydraulic model.

mD to hydraulic conductivity units gives 26X10-3 

ft/d, about comparable to the highest laboratory determination of hydraulic conductivity of cores from 

the Potsdam (2.4XlO-3 ft/d) (sample 73NY34, 

table 4).

AIDS, Inc. (1968), however, determined from temperature logging that most of the flow occurred in 

four zones that contained principally fracture porosity rather than intergranular porosity. The zones, 

totaling 42 ft, were as follows:

Interval (ft)

3,795-3,807 _

3,820-3,833

4,066-4,074

4,113-4,122

Thickness (ft)

12

13

8

9

Formation

Theresa

Theresa

Theresa

Potsdam

Rock type

dolomite.

dolomite.

dolomite.

sandstone.

Thus, an "effective" permeability, based on only 42 

ft of rock, is 110 mD or 320XlO-3 ft/d.

The use of a K value based on a selected "effective" zone rather than on the entire exposed section
EFFECTS OF INJECTION TEST AT LACKA WANNA SITE 13

is necessary in analysis of the hydraulic-conductivity 

changes that occur when the injected fluid differs 

from that of the receiving formation. As stated earlier, an injectant will displace the formation fluid 

and cause a change in the apparent permeability 

because of differing fluid-viscosity values (chemical 

effects are discussed later) and thus will affect the 

pressure head developed in the disposal well. The 

extent of the injectant movement depends on the 

"effective" zone—the thinner the zone, the farther 

a given quantity of injectant moves and the greater 

the extent of K change will be.

Of concern in evaluating K of the disposal unit 

are the occurrence and the degree of hydraulic 

fracturing caused by high injection pressures. Hydraulic fracturing increases the K in the immediate 

vicinity of the borehole, or, in hydraulic terms, increases the effective diameter of the1 well, which 

affects the pressure in the injection well. Regional 

pressure effects would not be affected by hydraulic 

fracturing. The theory of hydraulic fracturing and 

the probabilities of fracturing the formation in the 

Lackawanna well are discussed in the section "Hydraulic Fracturing."

Another vital aspect in predicting the hydraulic 

effects of waste disposal involves the chemical effects 

on formation permeability. Bethlehem Steel Corp. 

reported to the New York State Health Department 

(C. R. Symons, written commun., April 16, 1969) 

their appraisal of chemical effects:

Effect of Injected Waste Pickle Liquor on Disposal 

Formation

The disposal formation is composed principally of dolomite and sandstone. Sandstone will not react with hydrochloric acid. Dolomite will react to form soluble chlorides of 

calcium and magnesium and, at atmospheric pressure, carbon dioxide will be liberated. However, since the reservoir 

pressure at Lackawanna is known to be over 130 atmospheres, we expect that the carbon dioxide will remain in 

solution.

Tests were made in the laboratory in which core plugs of 

dolomite and of sandstone taken from the formation were 

immersed in synthetic hydrochloric acid waste pickle liquor 

at atmospheric pressure and at ambient temperature. Prior 

to immersion in WPL half of the samples were immersed 

in connate water from the well for 24 hours.

The sandstone samples did not react with the WPL. The 

dolomite samples reacted with the WPL as expected. The reaction with the dry sample (#1) was instantaneous; the 

reaction with the sample which had been immersed in connate water (#2) began two minutes after immersion in 

WPL.

After 95 minutes immersion in WPL, sample #1 had lost 

7.23% of its original weight and #2 had lost 6.64%. Less 

than 4% of this weight loss was found as insoluble matter;

the remaining 96% was either soluble in the WPL or was 

evolved as carbon dioxide gas.

Tests of this type do not simulate what actually will occur 

underground when WPL is being injected. For example, we 

have assumed that the zones of the formation which accept 

water during injection tests are saturated with connate 

water. Therefore, reaction between injected WPL and dolomite underground may be inhibited to some extent.

We interpret these results as evidence that there should be 

no adverse effects caused by injecting HC1-WPL into permeable dolomite formations. That is, we do not expect precipitates to form which will plug the well face and cause an 

increase in injection pressure.

Further evidence that injected HC1-WPL may improve 

formation permeability is found in the fact that oil and 

gas well service companies have used HC1 to improve permeability of dolomite and limestone formations for many 

years.

In summary, we believe the results of these laboratory 

tests show that there should be no adverse effects on the 

disposal formation from the injection of HC1-WPL.

Because of the high total iron concentration 

(181,000 mg/L, sample 1, table 5) of the waste 

pickle liquor and its potential for precipitation within the pore spaces under field conditions, deep-well 

injection of the liquor was simulated in the laboratory. The U.S. Geological Survey designed an apparatus to simulate field conditions for use in laboratory experiments.

The U.S. Bureau of Mines (Bayazeed and Donaldson, 1973) conducted similar experiments, but without high pressures, with cores from the Mount Simon 

Sandstone (correlative with the Potsdam Sandstone) 

from Indiana. Bayazeed and Donaldson (1973, p. 30) 

concluded "that after a long period of storage [in 

the formation] most of the acid [HC1] in the WPL 

[waste pickle liquor] will be neutralized and the iron 

irreversibly adsorbed by the geologic formation." 

They also noted (p. 22), "A slight decline in permeability is observed, but for practical purposes it 

is negligible." Small loss of permeability noted in the 

Bethlehem Steel Corp. tests on sandstone cores 

seems substantiated, but reaction with dolomite 

cores under field conditions was still in doubt.

CHEMICAL EFFECTS BY LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS

As far as was known, the planned injection of 

highly acidic waste with an extremely high iron 

concentration (181,000 mg/L) into carbonate rocks 

at a depth of 4,000 ft and at pressures that approached or exceeded theoretical hydraulic fracturing 

pressures was to be the first of its kind. Several 

possible reactions between rock and injected fluid 

were considered. One possibility was that the reaction between acid waste and carbonate rock would 

dissolve enough rock to develop large chambers and
14 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF DEEP-WELL WASTE DISPOSAL IN WESTERN NEW YORK

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EFFECTS OF INJECTION TEST AT LACKAWANNA SITE 15

TABLE 4.—Hydraulic conductivity of cores from the Potsdam Sandstone, Lackawanna well 101

[Analyses by U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, Colo.]

Sample 

No.

73NY10 ______

13 _ _

14 ______

16 _ __ _

21 __ ___

30 ______

31 __ _

34 _ __ _

36 _

Depth

(ft)

_ __ 3,819.8

__ 3,827.1

___ -_3,830.3

_ __3,928.3

_____ 3,944.8

_____ 4,103.4

_ __ 4,130.1

__ 4,140.1

___ 4,148.0

Rock 

type 1 

(table 3)

dol

ss 

dol

ss 

ss

ss 

qtzte

ss

Nominal Hydraulic conductivity at 40°-C (m/d)

Confining jjore Hydraulic Simulated brine

(lb/in 2 ) (lb/in 2) (cm/cm) Horizontal

4,130 1,635 118 6.6X10'2

__ __ 3.4X10-8

_ __ _ _ __ 3.9 XlO-5

4 IXlO'5

__ _ 1.2X10-*

4,475 1,794 20.2 3.8X1Q-3 

4,425 1,785 *555 __

__ __ 1.3X10'5

Vertical

i.oxio-s

6.6X10-" 

5.6X10-"

Pickling

Horizontal

25.6X10-* 

34.6XlO-fl

22.4><10-s 

S1.4X10-S

liquor

Vertical

23.0X10-7 

S5.7X10-8

26.3X10-* 

S3.1X10-7

•1.3 XlO-8 

34.2X10'7

21.2X10-2 

32.7X10-S

1 dol, dolomite; ss, sandstone; qtzte, quartzite.

2 At beginning of test.

s At end of test.

4 For horizontal core with pickling liquor.

that the greatly increased porosity would accommodate the injected material. A second possibility 

was that, as the waste was neutralized by the carbonate rock, an iron hydroxide gel would be formed 

and the rock interstices would be completely plugged. 

Another possibility was that, during injection, early 

solution of the carbonate grains would be followed 

by deposition of an iron carbonate coating on the 

grains and crystals, which would reduce the rate of 

solution and would cause a large reduction in transmissivity. Reaction between hydrochloric acid and 

carbonate rock produces carbon dioxide. Thus, injection of the acid waste might start a reaction that 

would produce increasing pressures even if injection 

were terminated.

Because of the various theories on the probable 

effect of injection of acid waste into the carbonate 

rock, a series of laboratory experiments was undertaken to simulate conditions that would approach 

the physical environment at the injection zone 4,000 

ft below land surface. The experiments were done 

at the U.S. Geological Survey laboratory at Denver, 

Colo., by Francis S. Riley. The experiments involved 

the development of equipment to permit duplication 

of down-the-hole pressures and temperatures. In 

addition to the problems of working with pressures 

of more than 2,000 lb/in2 , the highly acidic character of the pickling liquor was of concern.

The core of the injection section of the Bethlehem 

Steel Corp. well 101 was examined, and 30 samples

of the core were prepared by William Rogers of the 

New York State Geological Survey for testing in the 

Denver laboratory. Testing of the core samples 

began in October 1972. Several physical and hydrologic characteristics were determined for each of the 

samples. Dolomite content was determined by C02 

evolution; calcite content was determined by X-ray 

diffraction; specific gravity was measured; total 

porosity was determined; and effective porosity was 

measured by the mercury-injection process. The 

laboratory determinations are presented in table 3. 

Hydraulic-conductivity determinations of the cores 

are shown in table 4. Some of the graphs of hydraulic-conductivity changes of the cores with volume of fluid injection are included as figures 15-18. 

Movement of native brine and pickling liquor 

through unfractured sections of the target strata 

was studied in the laboratory. Techniques and results of the laboratory injections under simulated 

field conditions are reported elsewhere (Ragone, 

Riley, and Dingman, 1978). Although the laboratory 

tests did not identify all phase transformations in 

the reaction of the pickling liquor with the target 

rock types, several pertinent facts were documented 

(figs. 15-18):

1. Passage of simulated native brine through 

target-rock cores did not plug pores.

2. Passage of pickling liquor into target-rock 

cores plugged dolomitic samples but had no 

obvious effect on noncarbonate sandstones.
16 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF DEEP-WELL WASTE DISPOSAL IN WESTERN NEW YORK

TABLE 5.—Chemical amlyses of samples of pickling liquor 

from Bethlehem, Steel plant at Lackawanna, N.Y.

[Analyses by U.S. Geological Survey, Albany, N.Y. ; all values in 

milligrams per liter unless otherwise indicated]

Characteristic or 

constituent

Sample 1

(collected 7-8-70)

Sample 2 

(collected 12-5-72)

Iron (Fe), unflltered sample :

Total ___________ 181,000 180,000 

Ferrous ________, _ 160,000 

Iron (Fe), filtered through 

0.45-micron filter:

Total ___________. — 170,000 

Ferrous ________. — 150,000 

Iron (Fe), centrifuged sample :

Ferrous ________. ~ 180,000 

Total __________. — 160,000 

Manganese (Mn) ______ 820 

Silica (SiOa) _______ 90 

Calcium (Ca) _______ 7.0 

Magnesium (Mg) ______ 4.0 

Sodium (Na) ________ 1.7 

Potassium (K) ______ .7 

Bicarbonate (HCOs) ___ 0 0 

Carbonate (COa) _____ 0 0 

Sulfate (SO*) _______ 792 

Chloride (Cl) ________ 224,000 

Fluoride (F) _______ 2.0 

Normality _________ — „ 4.56 

Acidity, as CaCOs _____ n -- 22f'9^ 

Acidity, as H+ _______ L080 4,600 

Carbonate alkalinity, as

CaCOa ___________ 0 0 

Bicarbonate alkalinity, as

CaCOa ___________ 0 0 

Total alkalinity, as CaCOa 0 

Carbon dioxide ______ 0 

Color (platinum-cobalt) _ 800 

Specific conductance (lab.) 123,000 /^mho/cm

at25°C

Density (at 20°C) _____ 1.33 g/mL 

Specific gravity (at 25°C) — 1.2182 

Viscosity (at 105°F) ___ — 1.4023 centipoises Dissolved solids (at 180°C) 261,000 

Dissolved solids (sum) __. 407,000 

Hardness (noncarbonate) . 34 

Hardness (total) _____. 34 

Methylene blue active

substances (MBAS) __ 

Nitrite (NOs) _______. 7.5 

PH (lab.) ___________. 15 

Cadmium (Cd) _______ ° 0 

Chromium (Cr), dissolved . — 810/*g/L 

Cobalt (Co) ________. ~~ 81,000/^g/L 

Copper (Cu) _____ __. ~ 220,000/.g/L 

Lead (Pb) __ __ _~_ 14,000 ng/L 

Lithium (Li) ________ 2,600 *g/L 

Nickel (Ni) ____ __ " 0 

Oil-grease __________ _~ 250,000/^g/L 

Silver (Ag) __________ _~ 3.0 "g/L 

Strontium (Sr) _______ _ 300/*g/L 

Zinc (Zn) __________ __ 3,600 ^g/L

3. Passage of concentrated hydrochloric acid 

(simulated pickling liquor minus iron) did 

not plug dolomite.

4. Neutralization of the acidic pickling liquor by 

dolomite under simulated field temperature 

and pressure did not produce an observable 

gas phase.

To explain the observations in the laboratory 

tests, several calculations are presented to typify the 

probable reactions between the acidic waste and the 

target formations. Thermodynamically rigorous calculations are virtually impossible for solutions as 

concentrated as the pickling liquor used in the laboratory experiments. Chemical analysis of the extremely acid pickling liquor is presented in table 5. 

Because reliable activity-coefficient and ion-complexing data are lacking for this system, all calculations 

are based on the assumptions that (1) activity coefficients are equal to unity and (2) ion-complexing 

does not occur. These approximations negate any 

quantitative use of the calculations but still allow 

many useful qualitative predictions to be made.

CALCULATIONS

Initial reaction in the injection tests should be 

reaction of the hydrochloric acid with the dolomite 

component of the receiving rock. The reaction can 

be written:

[CaMg(C03 ) 2 ] + 4[H+] + 4[Cr]

= [Ca+2 ] + [Mg+2 ] + 4[Cr] + 2[H2C03 ], (1)

with the subsequent partitioning of the carbon 

dioxide between the aqueous and gaseous phases 

being approximated by

PC02 = 101 - 5 .[H2C03 ]. (2)

The brackets used above denote activity of the 

species (assumed equal to the molal concentration), 

and PCo2 denotes atmospheres of the carbon dioxide 

produced in reaction 1.

The Iog10 of the equilibrium constant for reaction 

1 is calculated to be 13.7 at 25°C and 1 atm of pressure on the basis of values from Garrels and Christ 

(1965) for the free energy of formation of the reactants and products of reaction 1. A useful simplification of reaction 1 is to consider the case where 

approximately 80 percent of the acid has been neutralized, and [Ca+2 ] = [Mg+2] = [CaMg(C03 ) 2 ] = 1. 

The pH of the solution would still be less than 1, 

and further neutralization would result in only minor 

changes in the concentration of the calcium and 

magnesium and no change in the activity of the dolomite. Under these conditions,

log[H2C03 ] - 6.8 - 2pH, (3)

and the pressure of the carbon dioxide in equilibrium with the system is 10< 1-5 > X iO<6- 8-2PH). Thus, at a 

pH of 1, the pressure of the carbon dioxide necessary to maintain equilibrium would be 10*1 - 5 ) X 

10(4-8) = 106 - 3 atm, which is more than 14,000 times 

greater than the observed hydrostatic head of 137 

atm. For a hydrostatic pressure of 137 atm, the 

dolomite would be in equilibrium with reacted 

pickling liquor at a pH of approximately 3.1. At 

higher pH, the pressure of the carbon dioxide would 

be less than the hydrostatic head and, thus, would 

be incapable of causing a blowout of pickling liquor
EFFECTS OF INJECTION TEST AT LACKAWANNA SITE 17

if pumping pressure were not maintained. Under 

natural conditions, any separate carbon dioxide 

phase would be a gas, but a comparatively dense 

one% with a density of approximately 0.027 lb/in2 .

Density differences could cause a separation of any 

carbon dioxide gas phase from the other reaction 

products, leading to the reaction shown by

[CaMg(C03 ) 2 ] +2[H2C03 ]

= [Ca+2 ] +JMg+2 ] +4[HCO-3 ]. (4)

The hydrochloric acid analog of reaction 4 would 

also take place between the dolomite and pickling 

liquor after the pH of "the pickling liquor had increased to a sufficiently high value.

Laboratory studies did not define any discrete 

mineral-phase reaction product, but plugging of the 

dolomitic cores was probably due to the formation 

of either ferrous carbonate or ferrous hydroxide; 

the corresponding ferric possibilities are not considered because of the dominance of the ferrous iron 

in the pickling liquor and the exclusion of oxidants 

from the laboratory and injection-well systems. The 

relative stabilities of the two minerals, siderite 

and crystalline Fe(OH) 2 , can be evaluated from

[Fe(OH) 2 ] + [H2C03 ] - [FeC03 ] + 2[H2 0]. (5)

At 25°C and 1 atm of pressure, the Iog10 of the 

equilibrium constant for equation 5 is 7.24, which 

yields an equilibrium H2C03 concentration of 10-7 -24 . 

At higher concentrations of H2C03 , the hydroxide 

phase disappears and more siderite forms. Equation 

3 shows that equation 5 should be in favor of the 

siderite phase at pH's as much as 7.

An additional mineral stability relationship of importance to this study, the relation between dolomite and .siderite, is shown by

[CaMg(C03 ) 2 ] + 2[Fe+2 ]

= 2[FeC03 ] + [Ca+2 ] + [Mg+2 ]. (6)

The equilibrium constant for equation 6 at 25°C 

and 1 atm of pressure is 41, which indicates that in 

a system containing excess dolomite virtually all the 

dissolved iron will exchange with the dolomite to 

form siderite. Although siderite occupies only 91 

percent of the space occupied by an equivalent 

amount of dolomite, the negative volume change on 

reaction does not control the available volume for 

the products because the system is not a closed 

system.

DISCUSSION

The probable effects of pickling-liquor injection 

into the dolomitic rock strata are of four main

types: (1) physical alteration of the rock matrix, 

(2) chemical alteration of the pickling liquor, (3) 

displacement of the formation brine, and (4) possible leakage through the confining bed of partially 

reacted pickling liquor and reaction products.

Physical alteration of the rock matrix will depend 

on the lithology and the mineralogy of the rock, and 

on the hydraulic pressures attained during injection. 

The pickling liquor will penetrate the more permeable strata and any existing fractures in the less 

reactive nondolomitic strata and through fractures 

connecting with nondolomitic strata. Obstruction of 

pores by iron precipitates in dolomitic strata should 

limit the propagation of pickling-liquor fronts either 

to dolomite zones in contact with relatively nonreactive rocks such as quartzites or to fractures. 

Any creation of rock fractures, or propagation of 

existing fractures, resulting from excessive injection 

pressures would facilitate the transport of pickling 

liquor to fresh, reactive sites in the dolomitic rock. 

Pickling-liquor transport would become increasingly 

dependent on nonreactive strata and newly propagated fractures as injection continued and as the 

dolomitic walls of the original fractures became 

plugged.

Pores in the dolomitic rock are probably plugged 

by siderite [Fe(C03 )]. Although the problem of detecting small differences between large numbers 

precludes the possibility of demonstrating a loss of 

iron in the laboratory system, injection of iron-free 

hydrochloric acid does not result in pore plugging. 

Additionally, filtration of the pickling liquor before 

injection into the test cores suggests that only precipitates formed by reaction products are responsible 

for pore plugging. A likely sequence of events in the 

formation of siderite is the reaction of hydrogen 

ions from the pickling liquor with the dolomite, reaction of the resultant carbon dioxide with dolomite 

until the pH has risen to some critical value, and 

then precipitation of siderite at the same rate that 

the dolomite neutralizes the resulting acidity. The 

acid promotes the substitution of siderite for dolomite by transporting carbon dioxide from the dolomite crystal to the interstitial solution. Without 

the acid as a catalyst in the reaction between dolomite and iron, the siderite would probably form a 

compact crystal armor on the dolomite surface by 

lattice substitution of ferrous ion for calcium and 

magnesium ions. In such a case, the negative volume change of the reaction would probably preclude 

a decrease in permeability of the rock. The rate of 

reaction is much faster with the acid intermediate 

than without it. This results in the formation of
18 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF DEEP-WELL WASTE DISPOSAL IN WESTERN NEW YORK

small crystallites, not the smooth amoring of lattice substitution. The crystallites could plug the 

rock by flocculating or otherwise jamming together, 

or by recrystallization to form larger interstitial 

crystals.

Equations 1, 4, and 6 describe the reactions most 

likely to explain the neutralization of the pickling 

liquor by the dolomitic rocks. The major changes in 

the neutralization involve: (1) replacement of dissolved iron and hydrogen ion (acidity) with calcium 

and magnesium from the dolomite, (2) precipitation 

of siderite in amounts equivalent to the dolomite 

dissolved by the acid, (3) eventual replacement of 

dolomite by any residual dissolved iron, and (4) 

generation of carbon dioxide, which may be used to 

precipitate dissolved iron and to regenerate hydrogen ions or may separate from the pickling-liquor 

zone and react with dolomite to form a calcium and 

magnesium bicarbonate solution.

Waste pickle liquor injected into the formation 

displaces the interstitial brine. Because the dolomite 

ahead of the pickling-liquor front is not plugged by 

reaction products, formation brine is freer to move 

through a wider variety of rock types than the 

pickling liquor. Fractures probably play an important role in brine transport and may serve as the 

origin for fracture propagation caused by excessive 

hydraulic pressure transmitted by the formation 

brine.

Perhaps the most perplexing and potentially dangerous problem in the proposed injection is the fate 

of carbon dioxide liberated by neutralization of the 

pickling liquor; in particular, the question of pressure (possibly up to 14,000 times hydrostatic) 

caused by generation of carbon dioxide. (See equations 1 and 2.) The pressure is determined by a 

variety of factors; for example, rate of reaction of 

hydrogen ion and dolomite, rate of reaction of ferrous ion and carbon dioxide, rate of reaction of 

carbon dioxide and dolomite, permeability of the 

rock, net volume changes with the reactions taking 

place, and the ability of the rock strata to relieve 

pressure differentials by expanding or fracturing. 

Thus, pressure calculations for this system depend 

on kinetics rather than equilibria. Equilibrium calculations of pressure for this system can yield only 

approximations of the maximum pressures theoretically attainable from reaction; that is, the pressures resulting if the system does not release the 

carbon dioxide. If the pickling liquor is injected 

slowly enough to allow the pH to stay above 3 (approximated earlier in this paper), then the pressure 

resulting from carbon dioxide evolution will not exceed the present hydrostatic head and, thus, will 

not add to pressures causing the migration of the 

pickling liquor or brine. Unfortunately, evaluation 

of the actual kinetic constraints necessary to maintain a pH above 3 cannot be reliably determined in 

the laboratory.

If partially reacted carbon dioxide-charged 

pickling liquor should experience a sudden drop in 

confining pressure, the liquid could effervesce. Fracturing of the overlying rock by increased hydraulic 

pressure could cause the effervescent liquid to 

migrate until the pressure was relieved by reaction, 

expansion, or venting.

SUMMARY

Laboratory and calculated data (table 4 and 

figs. 15-18) indicate that the waste pickle liquor 

can be neutralized by injection into dolomitic rock 

of the Theresa Formation but that several problems 

will result. Dissolved iron in the pickling liquor will 

precipitate, probably as microcrystalline siderite, 

within the dolomitic strata. Reaction of the dissolved 

iron and acidity of the pickling liquor will be highly 

dependent on fresh reaction surfaces in the dolomite. 

Because of plugging and the need for fresh reaction 

surfaces, most of the pickling liquor will probably 

move through nearly inert strata and (or) through 

fractures; reaction will be greatest at dolomitic 

boundaries.

Pressure caused by carbon dioxide evolution may 

be a major problem if rate of injection proceeds too 

rapidly; however, this problem can best be evaluated 

by an injection test.

Long-term effects of injecting waste pickle liquor 

into the Theresa Formation should be a mixed 

siderite-dolomite solid phase in contact with a dense 

calcium and magnesium chloride and bicarbonate 

brine. The net effect is that effective coupling of the 

borehole to the formation may be decreased. But 

the "effective" permeable zone (fractured dolomite 

and nondolomitic sandstone) would probably be only 

slightly affected by plugging. Therefore, plugging 

of the disposal unit by precipitated chemical reaction products would not be considered a major factor 

in pressure buildup at the well.

DIGITAL-MODEL ANALYSIS

Of interest are the required injection pressures at 

the wellhead and the changes in brine level that injection may cause throughout the formation. A 

digital model of the disposal formation was developed to determine this information.
EFFECTS OF INJECTION TEST AT LACKAWANNA SITE 19

MODEL CHARACTERISTICS AND BOUNDARIES

The modeling technique described by Prickett and 

Lonnquist (1971) was used to build the digital 

model. In this approach, finite-difference equations 

are used to approximate the differential equations 

of fluid flow through the porous system. Solution of 

these equations by a digital computer gives the 

buildup of brine head, as a function of time, at the 

injection well or elsewhere in the formation.

Normally, digital models of the type just described 

are used only if extensive data on transmissivity 

and storage coefficient throughout the problem area 

are available. In the present study, such data were 

not available. Determinations of permeability were 

available only at wells 101 and 104 (fig. 4). However, computations made with a model, even using 

assumed values for hydraulic factors, are generally 

superior to computations made using the same data 

in an analytical solution to the flow equation because 

a model can more satisfactorily account for the 

geometry of the system and boundaries than the 

analytical solution can. For this reason the model 

was used in computations even though the data were 

restricted. Verification of the model in any true 

sense was not possible, and results, accordingly, are 

open to question.

The model used in this study is a two-dimensional 

areal representation of the formation. A rectangular 

grid is superposed on a map of the formation (fig. 

5); the grid intersections form a set of nodes, or 

discrete points, at which values of head are to be 

calculated. The formation may be regarded as being 

subdivided into rectangular blocks surrounding each 

node. A value of transmissivity (estimated hydraulic 

conductivity multiplied by formation thickness) 

is specified for each boundary between adjacent 

blocks; a value of storage coefficient is specified 

for the area within each block. A series of discrete steps represents time change. The object 

of the analysis is to calculate an average head within each block for each time step. A system of algebraic equations that approximates Darcy's law expresses the flow between adjacent blocks in terms 

of the head differences between those blocks. Accumulation of water in storage within a given block 

is expressed in terms of the head change between 

time steps within that block by an approximate form 

of the storage equation. Simultaneous numerical 

solution of this system of equations yields the required value of head for each block in each time step.

Boundaries of the model are along the outer edges 

of the grid in figure 5. All boundaries were treated 

as impermeable barriers—that is, lines along which

no flow could enter or leave the formation. The 

northern boundary coincides with the edge of the 

formation as it pinches out to the north. The other 

boundaries have no counterpart in the real system; 

however, the mesh spacing is extended progressively 

in the other three directions. These artificial boundaries are distant from the proposed disposal site, and 

their effect on the calculations is minimal.

The model is based on the assumption that flow is 

horizontal, whereas the dip of the formation implies 

that flow will generally involve some vertical movement if it is confined within the unit. However, the 

generally small vertical components generated by 

the formation dip would probably not cause significant error. The model is also based on the assumption that the formation is saturated with a fluid 

of uniform density and viscosity—that is, the entire 

formation is saturated with brine identical to that 

in the vicinity of well 101, and the injected waste is 

identical in viscosity to this brine. The model results 

were corrected for the viscosity differences between 

formation brine and injected waste; no corrections 

were made for the effects of density variation on the 

flow pattern. Head values calculated by the model 

represent elevations, above datum, to which brine 

equivalent to that at well 101 would rise in piezometers or observation wells tapping the formation 

at each node.

Each head calculated by the model represents an 

average value for the block of formation surrounding 

the node. The node spacing in the center of the mesh 

is approximately 19,000 ft; thus, the head computed 

by the model for the node representing a well is an 

average for an area of nearly 13 mi2 . Computations 

for the center node, injection well 101, therefore do 

not represent the head within the injection well. A 

method of correction suggested by Prickett and 

Lonnquist (1971, p. 61) was used to calculate head 

within the injection well on the basis of the average 

head determined for the node block. This correction 

is discussed in more detail in the section, "Correction 

of Field-Test Data and Comparison with Model Results."

TRANSMISSIVITY AND STORAGE COEFFICIENTS

As noted in the section "Geologic Conditions of 

Disposal Unit," flow capacity testing of well 101 by 

AIDS, Inc., in 1968 indicated an intrinsic permeability of 110 mD through 42 ft of the formation. From 

figure 5, 42 ft represents roughly 10 percent of the 

thickness of the Cambrian disposal unit in the 

vicinity of well 101. Two of the assumptions used 

in designing the digital model were that (1) the
20 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF DEEP-WELL WASTE DISPOSAL IN WESTERN NEW YORK

permeable zones within the disposal unit constitute 

10 percent of the thickness of the unit everywhere 

throughout the modeled area, and (2) the average 

intrinsic permeability of these zones is 110 mD 

throughout the area. This intrinsic permeability can 

be converted to a hydraulic conductivity of 0.32 ft/d 

for brine of the density and viscosity of that at well 

101. This hydraulic conductivity was likewise considered constant throughout the area in designing 

the model—no attempt was made to adjust for brine 

variation. The transmissivity to brine at each node 

in the model was obtained by multiplying 10 percent 

of the thickness of the disposal unit at each location 

(fig. 5) by the hydraulic conductivity, 0.32 ft/d. 

Thus, the transmissivity at the well site was 13.44 

ft2 Id.

Testing by AIDS, Inc. (1968), involved analysis of 

"pressure fall-off data following the injection tests 

at 400 gpm * * * ." The injection test in question 

was done in stages (see fig. 12) of 25, 50, 100, 300, 

and 400 gal/min. As will be explained in the section 

"Hydraulic Fracturing," the formation was probably 

hydraulically fractured by the pressure developed 

during the 100- to 400-gal/min injection rates. 

Therefore, one might expect that the permeability 

value derived from the AIDS test would be high and 

would indicate artificial fracturing close to the well. 

To check this possibility, the first stage of the injection test was simulated. Rate of injection was 25 

gal/min, and, presumably, hydraulic fracturing did 

not occur or was minimal. This simulation and its 

comparison with the injection-test results are discussed in greater detail in the section "Correction 

of Field-Test Data and Comparison with Model Results." The results indicated that the permeability 

reported by AIDS, Inc., was low. Two possible reasons for the differing permeabilities are that (a) 

errors were involved in the original permeability determination, and (b) the hydraulic fractures were 

held open by the injection pressure and closed almost 

immediately when that pressure was released. Although the permeability seemed low, adjustment of 

model permeabilities to obtain better agreement with 

the test results was not attempted. Increasing the 

permeability did not seem warranted because the 

only other available field-test result, at well 104, 

was lower than the figure used in the model, as were 

all the core-permeability determinations for well 

101. In addition, use of a low value in the model to 

insure conservative results seemed appropriate.

No field determinations of storage coefficient were 

made for the disposal unit. Jacob (1950, p. 334) gives 

an analysis of storage coefficient in terms of porosity,

thickness, and compressibility of the formation, and 

the weight, density, and compressibility of the formation fluid. Jacob's expression for storage coefficient,

where 6 is formation porosity, b is formation thickness, 80 is fluid density, ft is fluid compressibility, and 

a is formation compressibility. Specific storage 

(Ss ), or storage coefficient, per foot of formation 

thickness therefore would be

Use of conservative values of storage coefficient, 

which would give maximum resultant head increases, 

was considered desirable for the simulation test. For 

this reason, only 10 percent of the formation, corresponding to the 42 ft of permeable interval at well 

101, was considered porous enough to contribute to 

the storage coefficient; and the formation was considered incompressible — that is, a was assumed to be 

zero. With these modifications, the formula for specific storage of the formation becomes

£ -|- = 0.10800/8.

Assuming 0 is 8 percent, £ is 2.2 X 10~8 ft2 /lb, and 

So is 75 lb/ft3 ,

Ss -1.3xlO-8/ft.

The storage coefficient for each node of the model 

was calculated by multiplying thickness of the disposal unit in each node block times specific storage 

of the formation. The resulting values, which generally range from 10~6 to 10~5 , are low when compared with storage coefficients in typical freshwater 

aquifers. However, low values should be expected at 

the great depths and overburden pressures considered.

The purpose of the simulation was to estimate the 

injection pressures that might be required at the 

disposal well, as well as the increases in brine head 

throughout the formation, which could cause abandoned oil wells to flow or to leak brine upward into 

freshwater aquifers. For both purposes, maximum 

head buildup is of interest, so that a conservative 

value of storage is appropriate.

Variations in formation thickness are considered 

in the preceding methods of estimating transmissivity and storage coefficient, but variations in all 

other parameters are ignored. Moreover, simulating 

the variation in thickness may itself be unwarranted, as porosity and permeability are to a large 

extent secondary and can be expected to cut across 

formation boundaries. For these reasons, the model
EFFECTS OF INJECTION TEST AT LACKAWANNA SITE 21

must be considered no more than a first approximation to conditions in the formation, and model result^ must similarly be considered approximate.

CORRECTION OF FIELD-TEST DATA AND 

COMPARISON WITH MODEL RESULTS

The question of whether the permeability reported 

by AIDS, Inc., for well 101 in 1968 represented true 

formation conditions or hydraulic fracturing was investigated by simulating the first phase of the AIDS 

test. Discharge during this phase was 25 gal/min, 

and, presumably, hydraulic fracturing did not occur 

at this rate. The model can simulate only the injection of fluid having a viscosity identical with that of 

of the formation fluid. Freshwater of viscosity substantially different from that of the formation brine 

was injected in the AIDS test. The model calculates 

results as head, in feet, of brine above the static 

brine level, whereas data in the test were recorded 

as pressure, in pounds per square inch, at the wellhead. Therefore, test data were converted to feet of 

brine above static brine level before any other adjustments or corrections were made.

Viscosity effect is illustrated in figure 6. Viscosity 

of the injected freshwater is lower than that of the 

formation brine, and, hence, the hydraulic conductivity of the formation to the injected water will be 

higher than its conductivity to the brine. If the injected water is assumed to move outward on a radial 

pattern without dispersion and to remain within the 

42-ft permeable section, a continuously expanding 

cylindrical zone of freshwater is established around

/

Potentiometric 

surface

/

Fresh- •' 

water •

Land surface

Brine head with 

injection of brine

Water level, corrected to

head in feet of brine, with 

\ injection of freshwater

Freshwater •X'XBririe! 1

FIGURE 6.—Schematic diagram of the viscosity effect during 

injection of freshwater.

the well. Radial head gradients within this zone are 

less than those that would be observed if the zone 

were saturated with formation brine (fig. 6); therefore, head buildup in the injection well will be less 

than that shown in figure 6. A single continuous interval of flow is shown in figure 6, whereas the permeable zones at well 101 seem to fall into several 

separate zones; however, if the rates of movement 

are roughly equal in the various horizons and the 

head gradients are similar, the effect will be virtually the same as if a single zone were present.

An approximate method of correction suggested 

by G. D. Bennett (written commun., 1974) was used 

to adjust heads for the viscosity effect. In this 

method, the radius of the cylindrical interface between freshwater and brine for a series of selected 

times is calculated using volume injected up to each 

given time, thickness of the injection zone, and 

porosity. The Thiem equation for steady-state radial 

flow is used to determine the hydraulic conductivity 

between the well radius and the interface radius, for 

each selected time, using both the hydraulic conductivity to brine and that to freshwater. Thus, two 

head changes between the interface and the well 

radius are calculated for each selected time; one 

corrsponds to injection of brine, and one to injection of freshwater. The difference between these two 

head changes constitutes the correction for head 

buildup. This correction was tabulated as a function of time and was added to the head buildup recorded during the 25-gaJ/min injection test to obtain 

the head buildups that would have been recorded if 

formation brine had been injected.

Validity of the viscosity correction is questionable 

because the freshwater was undoubtedly warmed as 

it was piped downward to, and as it flowed outward 

through, the formation. The freshwater was assumed 

to have a temperature of 20°C at land surface. At 

this temperature, the freshwater viscosity is 1.01 

centistokes. The formation temperature at well 101 

is reported to be 40°C (AIDS, Inc., 1968), and the 

viscosity of the formation brine at this temperature 

is 1.15 centistokes. If the injected freshwater were 

completely warmed to 40°C, its viscosity would be 

0.66 centistoke. The hydraulic conductivity to the 

cooler freshwater is substantially lower than that 

to the warmer freshwater. Thus, if the injected 

water is assumed to be completely warmed as it is 

piped downward so that it enters the formation at a 

temperature of 40°C, a viscosity correction should 

be made. On the other hand, if the injected water 

is assumed to maintain its original temperature 

throughout the operation, its viscosity is close to
22 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF DEEP-WELL WASTE DISPOSAL IN WESTERN NEW YORK

that of the formation brine, and the viscosity correction would not be as great as that for the warmer 

water. Because the degree of warming of the injected water was unknown, viscosity corrections 

were calculated for the two extreme cases—no 

warming so that the injected water remained at 

20°C, and complete warming so that the injected 

water entered the formation at 40°C. On the basis 

of the flow rate in the 7-in well casing at 25 gal/min, 

the time of first entry of freshwater into the formation was estimated to be 430 min after the start of 

injection.

The equivalent brine-head buildup in well 101 for 

the two temperature extremes was calculated using 

data from the freshwater-injection test by AIDS, 

Inc. An equivalent brine-head buildup of 408 ft is 

calculated if the freshwater is assumed to have been 

a constant 20°C at all points within the interface 

throughout the first phase of the test. A brine-head 

buildup of 484 ft is calculated if the temperature of 

the freshwater is assumed to have increased to 

40 °C before the water entered the formation. The 

actual brine-head increase after 1,200 min would 

presumably lie between these two values and is 

probably close to 484 ft because there was ample 

opportunity for warming of the injected water during the operation.

The model simulates input or withdrawal of formation brine at formation temperature. Thus, the 

model results, after application of the correction for 

discharging-well effects (Prickett and Lonnquist, 

1971) may be compared with the corrected headbuildup curves derived from the AIDS test. The 

method of correction accounts for differences between the loss of head generated in radial flow to a 

well and that generated in flow through the sides 

of a rectangular block surrounding a model node. 

It does not account for differences between the 

model and the formation in the pattern in which 

water is accumulated in storage around the injection well. If the node spacing represents a few hundred feet, the pattern of storage accumulation in the 

model is similar to that in the formation, even at 

early times in the injection history. If the node 

spacing is very large, however, storage accumulation in the model early in the simulation will be concentrated in the single node representing the location of the injection well. This accumulation of 

storage is evenly distributed over the entire node 

block rather than in the spreading radial pattern 

observed around the injection well. Because the 

correction proposed by Prickett and Lonnquist does 

not account for this difference, discrepancies between the corrected model results and the field 

results can be expected early in the test. As the 

simulation continues, the area of storage accumulation in the model spreads to surrounding nodes 

and assumes a radial character that more closely 

approximates conditions in the formation. Thus, the 

corrected model heads and the field results tend to 

approach each other with time.

The head buildup indicated by the model after 

1,200 min of brine injection at 25 gal/min and 40°C 

is 535 ft. This is somewhat higher than either of the 

adjusted field test values given previously and suggests that the hydraulic conductivity of the model 

is too low and should be increased by 10 to 30 percent. However, the pattern of head increase with 

time for the node representing the site of well 101 

suggests that the variation in head buildup relates 

to differences in the pattern of storage accumulation 

between the model and the formation and affects 

the results of the model. The adjusted test data and 

the model results approach each other near the end 

of the 25-gal/min phase. Closer agreement would 

probably have been achieved if this phase had lasted 

longer than 1,200 min. Because of this possibility as 

well as the uncertainties associated with viscosity 

corrections and the lower permeability determined 

at well 104, the authors decided not to increase 

model hydraulic conductivity.

Data for the higher rates of injection were not 

processed for comparison with model results. The 

uncertainties in the adjustments become progressively greater at the higher rates and, together with 

the uncertainties associated with hydraulic fracturing, would cause the adjusted data to be too questionable for use.

PREDICTION OF EFFECTS OF INJECTION

Effects of injection were predicted in a simulated 

continuous injection at an average rate of 50 gal/ 

min over a period of several years. The planned disposal operation was to involve injection of waste 

pickle liquor at 150 gal/min for 8 to 10 h/d (W. E. 

Loveridge, New York State Dept. Environmental 

Conserv., oral commun., 1973). Continuous injection 

at the average daily rate was used in the simulation to avoid computing difficulties. The waste pickle 

liquor was assumed to enter and move outward 

within a section 42 ft in thickness.

Results of the predictive run are summarized in 

figures 7-10. Figure 7 shows the head increase in the 

disposal well as a function of time. Two scales are 

shown: one indicating head of brine as feet above 

static level, and the other showing waste pickle
EFFECTS OF INJECTION TEST AT LACKAWANNA SITE 23

3000

2500

2000

1500

o

t 1000

500

I——I I I I I I

Theoretical hydraulic fracturing 

pressure for waste pickling 

liquor (583 Ib/in2)

—— Wellhead

I I I I I I I I

T—I I I I I I

I I I I I J I I

1——I—I I I 111

I I I I I

-1250

-1000

S

750 §3

-500

-250

— 0

Z DC

W DC 

I- LU 

(/] 0_

0.1 1 10 100

TIME, IN YEARS 

FIGURE 7.—Predicted head buildup in the Lackawanna well (101) at 72,000 gal/d injection rate.

liquor pressure at the wellhead, in pounds per square 

inch. The lower curve shows the head buildup corresponding to the injection of formation brine. This 

curve was obtained by adding the discharging well 

correction of Prickett and Lonnquist (1971, p. 61) 

to the brine head buildup indicated by the model for 

the node containing well 101. The upper curve represents the head buildup corresponding to the injection of waste pickle liquor. This curve was obtained 

by adding a viscosity correction to the data of the 

lower curve. The authors assumed that the waste 

pickle liquor would be injected at 20°C and would 

retain this temperature as it moved outward through 

the formation. The viscosity of the injected fluid was 

thus assumed to be 2.22 centistokes and to remain 

at this value throughout the period of injection. The 

viscosity correction was made in the same way as 

was described previously for the adjustment of test 

data, except that here the viscosity of the injected 

fluid is higher than that of the formation brine. 

Thus, the resultant heads exceed those that would 

be recorded for the injection of brine. The equivalent

wellhead pressure, for waste pickle liquor only, is 

shown on the right scale of figure 7.

The viscosity correction of figure 7 may be slightly 

excessive because the waste pickle liquor would tend 

to warm toward formation temperature as it moves 

outward and its viscosity would decrease accordingly. However, the decrease would probably be small 

because most of the excess head buildup due to the 

viscosity difference is very close to the injection 

well, where, after "a long period of disposal, the 

temperature should approach that of the incoming 

waste.

The theoretical hydraulic fracturing pressure at 

the wellhead for waste pickle liquor (583 lb/in2 ) for 

the disposal unit is indicated in figure 7. During 

waste pickle liquor injection at a uniform rate of 

50 gal/min, this pressure would be reached after 

approximately 100 days of operation. However, if 

the liquor were injected intermittently at 150 gal/ 

min, the hydraulic fracture pressure would be attained during each daily cycle of operation and, on 

the basis of results of freshwater injection at rates
24 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF DEEP-WELL WASTE DISPOSAL IN WESTERN NEW YORK

1200

100 1000 10,000

TIME, IN DAYS

FIGURE 8.—Predicted head buildup in the Lackawanna well (101) at 93,600 gal/d injection rate (modified

from AIDS, Inc., 1968, fig. 2).

higher than 150 gal/min, hydraulic fracturing would 

occur. (See section, "Hydraulic Fracturing.") The 

head increase in the well during injection under conditions of repeated hydraulic fracturing is difficult 

to predict; however, the average head during any 

24-hour period, including both injection and recovery, might still approximately follow the trend indicated in figure 7.

AIDS, Inc. (1968), predicted the injection pressures shown in figure 8. The pressure increases that 

they predicted for brine are considerably higher 

than those predicted in the model analysis, even 

when allowance was made for the higher injection 

rate (65 gal/min), which they assumed would be 

used. Figure 8 is discussed further in the next 

section.

Figures 9-11 show head buildup for varying 

periods of time. The head indicated for the injection 

well on each map includes the correction for the 

higher viscosity of waste pickle liquor but no adjustment for the effects of hydraulic fracturing. The 

head contours within the formation in figures 9-11 

would not be affected by hydraulic fracturing. The 

contours shown in figures 9-11 are of interest in 

that they indicate the potential for upward leakage 

of formation brine through abandoned oil and gas 

wells. In figure 11, which represents 10.8 years of

injection, the head buildup is sufficient to cause 

brine heads in such abandoned wells to reach land 

surface within a radius of about 4 mi of the injection well and, perhaps, to contaminate freshwater 

aquifers and surface-water bodies within this radius. 

Freshwater aquifers beyond the 4-mi radius might 

also be contaminated wherever the increased brine 

head is sufficient to cause upward flow into them 

through the abandoned wells.

The results indicated in figures 9-11 depend on 

the values of hydraulic conductivity and storage 

coefficient used in the model. Because of the uncertainty of these values, the results must be treated 

as approximate. The model predicts head increases 

in the disposal unit but does not have the resolution 

to predict directions and rates of movement of 

waste pickle liquor. In the modeling analysis, a 

simple radial pattern of movement away from the 

well was assumed for the liquor. This should be approximately true close to the well. Ultimately, however, the flow pattern would be influenced by distribution of the permeability and by regional movement of the brine, if such movement exists. Kazmann (1974) notes that an injectant of higher density than that of the receiving fluid should move to 

the base of the formation and will generally move 

downdip.
EFFECTS OF INJECTION TEST AT LACKAWANNA SITE 25

80° 79° 78°

43°

42°

STEUBEN

_NEW_YORK _ PENNSYLVANIA "———l——

Base from U.S. Geological Survey 

New York state base map, 1:500,000

EXPLANATION 

/ / / / Aquifer boundary ——100—— Line of equal brine-level rise

3 

i I I "''I

] 10

10

1 1

20

20 

1

1

30

1

40

30 

1

1

50

40

1

60

1

70

5C

1

80

1553

50 MILES

80 KILOMETERS

Potentiometric level, corrected for waste 

pickling liquor, in injection well 101

FIGURE 9.—Predicted areal head buildup, in feet of brine above static brine level, after 396 days injection at 72,000 gal/d.

HYDRAULIC FRACTURING

The mechanics of hydraulic fracturing were discussed by Hubbert and Willis (1972) in a revised 

version of their 1957 publication on the orientation 

of induced fractures. Hydraulic fracturing in rocks 

penetrated by a wellbore can be induced by injection 

pressures. The injection pressure required to induce 

fracturing depends on the character of the rock and 

the state of the stress underground. Hubbert and 

Willis concluded (1972, p. 257) that

1. The state of stress underground * * * depends upon tectonic conditions * * * .2. Hydraulically induced fractures 

should be formed approximately perpendicular to the least 

principal stress * * * . 3. Ruptured or breakdown pressures

are affected by * * * preexisting regional stresses, by the 

hole geometry including any preexisting fissures, and by the 

penetrating quality of the fluid. 4. Minimum injection pressures depend solely upon the magnitude of the least principal regional stress and are not affected by the hole geometry 

or the penetrating quality of the fluid. In tectonically relaxed 

areas, the fractures should be vertical and should be formed 

with injection pressures less than the total overburden pressure. In tectonically compressed areas, provided the deformation is not too great, the fractures should be horizontal and 

should require injection pressures equal to, or greater than, 

the total overburden pressures.

The freshwater injection test involved a maximum 

wellhead pressure of 1,180 lb/in2 during the 400- 

gal/min rate of injection. In the analysis of the 

injection test AIDS, Inc. (1968), stated:
26 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF DEEP-WELL WASTE DISPOSAL IN WESTERN NEW YORK

43'

42°

STEUBEN

-———~___L___ _ NEW .YQRK _ j PENNSYLVANIA "" "~~~ "

Base from U.S. Geological Survey 

New York state base map, 1:500,000

EXPLANATION 

/ / / / Aquifer boundary ——0.1——Line of equal brine-level rise

0

0 10

10

1 1

20

20 

1

1

30

1

40

30

1

1 

50

1

60

40 

I

1

70

50 

I

1

80

MILES 

KILOMETERS

1613

• Potentiometric level, corrected for waste 

pickling liquor, in injection well 101

FIGURE 10.—Predicted areal head buildup, in feet of brine above static brine level, after 2.4 years injection at 72,000 gal/d.

During the sequences of pumping tests, a slight hysteresis 

in the injection pressures occurred when the injection rates 

were decreased. The reason for the slightly lower injection 

pressures which resulted on the decreasing rate cycle is 

attributable to the presence of a negative skin effect around 

the well bore. This negative skin effect was caused by an 

improvement in permeability around the well bore resulting 

from the highest injection rate.

As noted earlier, the disposal unit was probably 

hydraulically fractured during the test. The "negative skin effect" probably is the fracturing effect. 

The probable fracturing creates a special problem 

in the verification and predictive capabilities of the

mathematical model. The two critical questions are 

(1) at what wellhead pressure was the disposal unit 

fractured, and (2) does fracturing cause a localized 

permanent increase in permeability? For example, 

did the fractures remain open adjacent to the borehole after injection stopped? Oil-field-fracturing 

methods use propping agents (sand or other 

spherical particles) to keep the fractures propped 

open.

Because of the possibility of hydraulic fracturing 

while injecting freshwater at the injection well, the 

authors attempted to determine (1) at what injection pressure fracturing occurred, (2) the increase
EFFECTS OF INJECTION TEST AT LACKAWANNA SITE 27

80° 79° 78°

43'

42°

PENNSYLVANIA"

Base from U.S. Geological Survey 

New York state base map, 1:500,000

50 MILES 

I

1 I I \ I 1 I

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

1725 Potentiometric level, corrected for waste 

pickling liquor, in injection well 101

/ / / / Aquifer boundary ———— Line of equal brine-level rise 

FIGURE 11.—Predicted areal head buildup, in feet of brine above static brine level, after 10.8 years injection at 72,000 gal/d.

in permeability or effective well diameter that resulted, and (3) whether the increase in effective 

well diameter persisted. AIDS, Inc. (1968), claimed 

an increased permeability when injection pressure 

at the wellhead reached about 1,090 lb/in2 . AIDS 

attributed the increase to a "negative skin effect," 

which is an alteration in permeability of the borehole wall caused by drilling and completion operations. Whether or not this effect is caused by hydraulic fracturing is not clear.

To evaluate the freshwater injection-test data, 

wellhead pressures reported by AIDS, Inc. (1968), 

were plotted against time for the first five injection 

stages (fig. 12). The injection stages were run with

brief shutdowns (of l^to 4 h) between stages. The 

fourth injection stage (300 gal/min) could not be 

maintained because of pump inadequacies, so its 

curve is useless for any further analysis. The fifth 

stage was run with a higher capacity pump than the 

other stages. No explanation is given for the steady 

pressure-rate curve after about 200 min.

From the same data, bottom-hole pressures, corrected for the injection of freshwater into the disposal unit, were calculated and plotted against time 

on a semilog graph (fig. 13). After about 230 min 

of the first stage, the brine in the casing had been 

displaced by the freshwater. It is assumed that the 

borehole remained full of freshwater during subse-
28 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF DEEP-WELL WASTE DISPOSAL IN WESTERN NEW YORK

1200

1100

1000

900

g 800

700

600

oc

V)

<n

£ 500

Q.

400

300

200

100

10

I III Till

300 gal/min- 

*

Stage 5 

w

Stage 4

(Injection rate could 

not be maintained)

Stage 3

Stage 2

Stage 1

I I I I I I I I

•400 gal/min

-100 gal/min

-Theoretical hydraulic 

fracturing pressure

"50 gal/min

-25 gal/min

— 2600

— 2400

— 2200

— 2000

— 1800

— 1600

-1400

•1200 u_ 

O

1000 - 

Q

-800

-600

— 400

— 200

100 1000 2000

TIME, IN MINUTES

FIGURE 12.—Relation of wellhead pressure to time in various stages of well 101 injection test.
EFFECTS OF INJECTION TEST AT LACKAWANNA SITE 29

2900

-200

I I I I I I

Freshwater displacing brine in well 

during stage 1

1700

10 100

TIME, IN MINUTES

1000

FIGURE 13.—Relation of bottom-hole pressure to time in various stages of well 101 injection test.

quent noninjection periods. The semilog plots should 

be straight-line curves for a "normal" hydraulic 

response. In figure 13, all the plots are fairly 

straight. The plot of the first stage (25 gal/min) 

resulted in a smooth curve in figure 13, as compared 

with the first-stage plot of wellhead pressure in 

figure 12. The 100-gal/min plot shows a prominent 

"break" in the slope at about the 2,600-lb/in2 

bottom-hole pressure level. The observed wellhead 

pressure was about 950 lb/in2 at this time (fig. 12).

One method of estimating whether hydraulic 

fracturing has occurred during injection is to plot 

injection pressure against injection rate, as has been 

done in figure 14. Injection pressure is bottom-hole 

pressure minus formation-brine pressure at 3,795 

ft, the first intake zone. Intersection of the curves 

shows that fracturing probably occurred in the 950- 

to 1,000-lb/in2 range of wellhead pressure, or during 

the third injection stage (100 gal/min), or later. No 

breakdown pressure is obvious during stage 3 (fig. 

12), which suggests that existing fractures were 

opened rather than new fractures formed.

The most likely instantaneous shut-in pressure

(lower horizontal curve projected back to zero injection rate in fig. 14) is estimated to be 920 lb/in2. 

This pressure is the sum of the effective earth 

stress normal to the fracture plane and the cohesive forces at the fracture tip (Sun and Mongan, 

1974). If the cohesive forces can be neglected and 

vertical joints are assumed to be opened, then 920 

lb/in2 is equivalent to the effective earth stress in 

the horizontal direction.

Hubbert and Willis (1972) present a means of 

estimating the minimum bottom-hole fracture pressure of rocks in a tectonically relaxed geologic environment. The Lackawanna area is considered herein 

to be in such an environment, on the basis of the injection-test data, even though the Clarendon-Linden 

thrust fault indicates a tectonically compressed area. 

Hubbert and Willis state (1972, p. 251) that "under 

conditions of incipient normal faulting, the least 

principal stress, 0-4, will be horizontal and will have 

a value of approximately one-third the effective 

overburden pressure, o-z"; therefore,

aA = (SZ -P)/S,
30 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF DEEP-WELL WASTE DISPOSAL IN WESTERN NEW YORK

INJECTION RATE, IN LITERS PER SECOND

I I I

Area of probable hydraulic fracturing

Pressure after injection 

A 200 minutes

• 400 minutes

• 1000 minutes

100 200 300

INJECTION RATE, IN GALLONS PER MINUTE 

FIGURE 14.—Bottom-hole pressure versus injection rate in well 101.

400

where Sz is the total vertical stress, and P is the 

fluid pressure in the formation.

On the basis of a 0.0976-lb/in3 density of the rocks, 

the overburden pressure gradient at the Lackawanna 

site is estimated to be 1.17 (lb/in2 )/ft. Therefore, 

at the depth of the first permeable zone (3,795 ft), 

the overburden pressure, Sz, = 3,795 X 1.17 = 4,440 

lb/in2 . The formation fluid (density 0.0432 lb/in3 ) 

pressure under static-level conditions (380 ft) is 

P = (3,795 - 380) X [1.1969 X 0.4331 (ft/in2 )/ft] 

or 1,769 lb/in2 . Thus, the effective horizontal earth 

stress is

aA — (4,440 - 1,769)/3 or <TA = 890 lb/in2 ,

which is close to the estimated instantaneous shutin pressure of 920 lb/in2 obtained from figure 14.

The minimum hydraulic fracturing pressure, Pt, 

at 3,795 ft in the injection well, equal to the effective 

horizontal earth stress, VA, plus the formation fluid 

pressure, P, is

Pt = 890 + 1,769 = 2,659 lb/in2 .

If the injectant is freshwater, then the wellhead 

pressure (Whp) that will cause hydraulic fracturing, 

exclusive of pressure loss due to friction in the 

casing, is

Whp + [3,795 ft X 0.4331 (lb/in2 ) /ft]= 2,659 lb/in5

or

Whp = 1,015 lb/in2,

which is close to the estimated wellhead hydraulic 

fracturing pressure noted in figure 14. Heavier waste 

pickle liquor at 0.547 (lb/in2)/ft would have a wellhead fracturing pressure of 583 lb/in2 . Brine at 

0.514 (Ib/in2 )/ft would cause fracturing at 693 

lb/in2 wellhead pressure.

In summary, the disposal unit apparently was 

hydraulically fractured during the test, probably by 

about 950 lb/in2 injection pressure, but almost assuredly by 1,000 lb/in2 pressure, and, according to 

Hubbert and Willis (1972, p. 239), vertical fractures 

would occur under these pressure conditions. If the 

area is under tectonic compression, fracturing would 

have occurred only with injection pressures exceeding the overburden pressure, Sz, of 4,400 lb/in2 .

EFFECTS ON INJECTION OPERATIONS

Hydraulic fracturing is possibly of more importance in the operations of the injection well than in 

predictive effects. In rocks of low permeability, such 

as those in the Cambrian, hydraulic fracturing may
EFFECTS OF INJECTION TEST AT LACKAWANNA SITE 31

be the only feasible means of injecting fluids. On the 

negative side, the fracturing may cause leaks out of 

the disposal zone. In particular, fracturing may occur at undetermined places, and the ensuing movement of injectant is indeterminate. Months or years 

may go by without detection of the leak. Ultimately, 

the wastes may show up at the surface or in freshwater aquifers.

Existing joints or fractures may be extended by 

hydraulic fracturing. Hubbert and Willis (1972, p. 

249) state that under the proper applied pressure, a 

fracture once started can be extended provided 

the pressure "can be transmitted to the leading 

edge" of the fracture. They also state, "* * * in 

general, two types of possible down-the-hole pressure 

behavior need [occur] during fracturing treatment

* * *. In one case, the breakdown pressure might be 

substantially higher than the injection pressure

* * *. In the second case, there is no distinct pressure breakdown during the treatment, indicating 

that the pressure required to start the fracture is 

less than, or equal to, the injection pressure."

LEAKY CONFINING BED

In addition to the possibility of hydraulic fracturing while freshwater was injected, there also 

was, and is, the possibility of leakage through confining beds. Formations having extremely low permeability, either primary or secondary, can transmit 

fluids under induced pressure. A common occurrence 

in ground-water development is the transmittal of 

substantial quantities of water from one aquifer to 

another through semipermeable beds when either 

aquifer's pressure is reduced by pumping. Conversely, under injection conditions, ground water can 

move in the opposite direction through the semipermeable beds. The net effect on pressure levels is 

to reduce the rate of head decline or drawdown in 

the cone of influence during pumping and to reduce 

the rate of head buildup during recharge or injection.

In long-term operations, a leaky confining bed 

may be of more significance than hydraulic fracturing. It may be that both vertical and horizontal 

fracturing occur only in the receiving formation and 

that, relative to vertical fracturing, horizontal fracturing extends only a short distance. Thus, hydraulic fracturing generally may affect only the local 

movement of the injectant. A confining bed, however, may "leak" as far away as suitable pressure 

gradients occur.

Interpretation of test data for leaky confining 

beds requires data obtained in observation wells in

either the receiving or confining formation. In the 

former case, the water-pressure level would indicate 

whether the formation is responding to the expected 

conditions; for example, water levels less than the 

predicted increase imply water loss through leaky 

confining beds or fractures.

In addition to leaky confining beds, which commonly occur to some degree, lateral "boundary" 

conditions eventually control the injection rate and 

(or) head buildup. An aquifer system may pinch out 

laterally or change facies to less permeable rock or 

cemented faults, and thus reduce the limits of fluid 

movement. Conversely, an aquifer may thicken laterally or increase in permeability, such as in a highly 

permeable fault zone, and thus increase its capacity 

to transmit fluid.

EFFECTS OF POTENTIAL INJECTION AT OTHER SITES

GEOLOGIC LIMITS

Injection of wastes into the Cambrian unit in 

western New York would be controlled by the geologic characteristics. The unit varies in thickness, 

lithology, structure, and depth below land surface.

Figure 4 shows areal variations in thickness of the 

disposal unit. The unit thins to the north and is absent near the Lake Ontario shoreline. To the south, 

it thickens considerably and occurs at an increasingly deeper level (fig. 3).

Although the Potsdam Sandstone is primarily 

sandstone and the Theresa Formation is primarily 

dolomite, both formations contain sandstone and 

dolomite throughout much of the region. In some 

wells, in fact, the contact between the two units is 

difficult to determine from the lithology, which is 

gradational between the units. Fundamentally, the 

Potsdam is a basal arkosic sandstone that grades upward into alternating beds of dolomite and sandstone in the thickest parts of the unit. Where the 

dolomite beds dominate, transition to the Theresa 

is assumed. Sandstone beds of the Theresa are extensive in some localities, and an upper sand bed is 

fairly consistent in the region. The Theresa grades 

upward into the Little Falls Dolomite. In the northern part of the region, the upper beds of the Theresa, 

the Little Falls Dolomite, and the Beekmantown 

Group have been removed by erosion (fig. 3). The 

Little Falls and the overlying Beekmantown Group 

are primarily dolomite. Both units occur only in the 

southern part of the region.

Evidence of faulting within the Cambrian unit ,is 

known for only one area—the Clarendon-Linden 

fault zone (fig. 2). Minor faulting may occur elsewhere in the region in association with gentle folds.
32 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF DEEP-WELL WASTE DISPOSAL IN WESTERN NEW YORK

Movement along the Clarendon-Linden fault may 

have taken place in 1971 during nearby well-injection operations in north-central Wyoming County 

(Sykes and others, 1972). A maximum 1.5-magnitude (Richter scale) earthquake occurred among a 

"swarm" of seismic events recorded from a recently 

emplaced seismograph (one of eight in the Attica 

area) after initiation and development of fracturing 

in a new solution-mining operation well 0.9 mi from 

the nearest seismograph. The seismic events occurred at 700 to 1,700 lb/in2 injection pressures in 

the 3,200-ft well (J. B. Fletcher and others, written 

commun., 1977). The possibility of injection-induced 

earthquakes makes it very important to consider the 

relation of faulting to the environment of a proposed well-injection system.

The Cambrian disposal unit is everywhere overlain by carbonates of the Black River and Trenton 

Groups. The carbonates are considered to be dense 

and massive, which restricts vertical movement of 

fluids. However, carbonates are readily dissolved by 

acid. The Knox unconformity occurs below the confining layer (fig. 3), and the underlying zone is 

known in some areas to be quite porous and permeable. Hence, lateral migration at the contact of the 

confining layer is a likelihood and accounts for part 

of the permeability of the disposal unit.

MODEL SIMULATION

The model and method of analysis used herein can 

be used to simulate other proposed injection wells 

in western New York. A site selected at a nodal point 

(fig. 4) to represent the immediate surrounding area 

would simulate the proposed well. A nodal point at 

or close to a model boundary would not be usable, 

however. The injection rate and well characteristics 

would be simulated by the computer program, and 

the relation of pressure heads to length of injection 

time both at the well and in the surrounding area 

could be predicted. If the proposed well is near an 

existing or another proposed injection well, the 

effects of combined injection can also be simulated.

The assumed model values of permeability, transmissivity, and storage coefficient can readily be 

changed anywhere on the model. Where new data 

become available, or when observations of hydraulic 

effects become known, proper value adjustments can 

be made. As more data become available, the factor 

most likely to be changed in the model is permeability. Reliable data on permeability may be obtained 

from drill-stem or pumping tests on new test holes.

MONITORING DISPOSAL OPERATIONS

PURPOSE

As a result of a few experiences with well failures, 

leakage of waste, and rupture of rock, most States 

now require monitoring of disposal-well systems. 

Such monitoring generally includes effects within 

the well system and sometimes effects within the 

aquifer system. Effects within the well system are 

the easiest to monitor and provide the earliest indication of possible problems. Safe disposal of waste 

in injection wells depends largely on proper well 

design and construction based on adequate geologic 

and hydrologic information and upon proper operation and monitoring of the injection-well system.

COMPARISON OF ACTUAL WITH PREDICTED 

HYDRAULIC EFFECTS

Monitoring of a disposal-well system by pressure 

gages on the disposal well and observation well(s) 

open to the disposal formation is useful to determine 

whether predictions concerning pressure buildup in 

the aquifer system and the well itself are correct. 

Variations from predictions indicate (1) plugging of 

the face of the borehole, (2) a need for revising the 

estimated aquifer values, or (3) unexpected effects 

on the well system, which may forewarn of the potential hazards that may develop. For example, if 

pressure buildup in the well approaches a preset 

safety limit, the system can be shut down before 

mechanical failure occurs. Or, if the built-up pressure is much greater than predicted, the operation 

of a well or proposed additional wells in the area of 

influence may have to be curtailed to prevent fracturing in the confining layer.

MOVEMENT OF WASTES

Movement of wastes away from the disposal well 

is of great concern. Monitoring this movement is 

desirable, but the only way to determine movement 

is by use of observation wells. Such wells are potential avenues of waste or formation-fluid escape. 

Generally, more than one well is needed to determine 

the direction or movement because the disposal formation is rarely homogeneous and has a hydraulic 

gradient.

Monitoring for waste movement out of the disposal 

formation is uncommon. However, overlying freshwater aquifers may be monitored for quality 

changes that may be related to leakage around the 

casing or through the confining layer.

LEAKAGE OF SYSTEM

Liquid waste may leak from the well, from the 

disposal formation, or from both. Leakage from the
MONITORING DISPOSAL OPERATIONS 33

disposal unit is usually less easily detected than 

leakage from the well.

WELL

Tubing, casing, packer, or cement may fail, and 

have failed, in disposal-well systems. These failures are easily detected by monitoring the pressure 

in the well except when the leak is small and becomes progressively larger v coincident with formation-pressure buildup. Leakage results in a decrease 

in the pressure needed to inject a given quantity of 

waste. Carefully maintained recording gages can 

alert the operator to leaks from the well and thereby 

prevent escape of appreciable quantities of injectant. 

However, leakage in the well system is difficult to 

determine if the injection rate is uneven. Storage 

facilities to permit steady injection rates would be 

desirable to monitor variations in injection pressure. 

Sealing the bottom of the injection tubing periodically with a packer and pressure-testing the system 

will reveal leaks in the tubing. Continuous monitoring of the fluid pressure in the annular space between 

the tubing and the casing will also reveal leaks in 

the tubing. Leakage around or through the cement 

seal between the casing and the formation may require an observation well above the confining layer 

and very close to the injection well unless the leak is 

large. Cement bond logs may indicate failure of the 

casing cement.

FORMATION

Leakage from the disposal unit is difficult to 

detect in overlying formations by observation wells 

that are sampled periodically. Leakage and flow may 

occur in a concentrated zone and never intersect an 

observation well unless the observation well is 

pumped enough to establish a gradient toward it. A 

network of passive observation wells to detect all 

possible leakage directions would not be economically 

feasible. Detection of leakage in an observation well 

may occur weeks, months, or even years later unless 

the well is in the direct flow of the waste. However, 

one or a few observation wells in overlying freshwater aquifers are sometimes required.

PERMEABILITY CHANGES

A well-designed monitoring system may be useful 

in determining changes in borehole coupling to the 

injection zone. The formation adjacent to the borehole may be affected by hydraulic fracturing or by 

chemical reaction between the injectant and the formation or with the aquifer fluid. The change may be 

either an increase or a decrease in effective well

diameter by changes very close to the borehole. The 

change in formation permeability is very local and 

would not affect long-term pressure buildup. If permitted, fracturing of the receiving formation would 

result in short-term decreases in injection pressure 

for a constant rate of injection. If bottom hole pressure exceeds the critical pressure, records should 

indicate the level (s) at which fracturing may have 

taken place. Theoretically, such fractures close with 

reduced injection pressure and reopen when pressure 

is increased to the critical level.

Permanent decreases in pressure may be due 

either to fractures remaining open or to part of the 

rock dissolving. A steadily decreasing rate of pressure may indicate a constant rock-dissolving process, 

which increases effective well diameter. It also may 

be an indication of a leak in the casing or around 

the casing that is steadily increasing in size.

Direction of leakage is the prime purpose of monitoring. Accurate pressure-monitoring records and 

careful appraisal of them may alert the observer to 

changes that may indicate potential problems involving leakage or movement of wastes or formation 

fluid to places that will contaminate freshwater.

MODIFICATION OF MODEL

The model can be modified by changing the values 

originally estimated for the formation characteristics. Monitoring the pressure levels in an injection 

well and, ideally, in nearby observation wells being 

affected can aid materially in modifying the formation values used in the model. An increase in effective 

well diameter resulting from hydraulic fracturing or 

solution channels can be incorporated into the model 

to modify predictions. Likewise, if permeability data 

in confining beds are obtained, modifications to the 

model can be attempted by simulating a "leaky" 

confining-bed.

SUMMARY OF DISPOSAL-WELL TEST 

PROCEDURES

Injection wells require an initial test to determine 

aquifer characteristics and whether the formation 

is capable of receiving injectants at a desired rate 

and chemical content. Formation characteristics 

can be evaluated by either a pumping test or an injection test. Fluid characteristics are determined by 

analysis of samples. Both types of tests offer certain 

advantages and are necessary for data needs.

After drilling and well completion, a pumping test 

can furnish formation and fluid characteristics that 

may not be obtainable once injection has been done. 

For example, injection may involve hydraulic frac-
34 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF DEEP-WELL WASTE DISPOSAL IN WESTERN NEW YORK

turing and a fluid foreign to the formation fluid. The 

pumping test will provide data on the geologic and 

hydrologic characteristics of the formation for use 

in comparison with borehole-log analysis and in subsequent injection tests or injection operations. 

Where fracturing occurs with injection and changes 

the effective well diameter, the prefracturing permeability data obtained from a pumping test are 

invaluable. Pumping tests run after an injection test 

may not provide natural-formation data because 

injection of foreign fluid may alter conditions, 

change the character of the formation fluid for any 

subsequent withdrawal testing, and may cause irreversible formation changes.

Injection tests are seldom conducted with formation fluid or the proposed waste fluid. Hence, injection-test data are corrected to compensate for differences in fluid characteristics. Variations in temperature, viscosity, and density are critical physical 

characteristics affecting rate of injection. An ideal 

testing program would involve extraction of formation fluid for desired rates and periods, confined 

storage of the fluid, then reinjection of the fluid 

for desired rates and periods. Temperature differences may be the only variable to correct, although 

chemical changes in the formation fluid resulting 

from pressure and temperature changes may occur. 

Flowmeter surveys during either extraction or injection are valuable to determine permeable zones.

Injection tests involving fluids that differ in chemistry or temperature from the formation fluid will 

invariably result in chemical reactions in the fluid 

and possibly with the rock matrix. Laboratory tests 

simulating field temperatures and pressure conditions can be used to predict ultimate field reactions. 

Adverse chemical reactions are usually inhibited by 

injection of a neutral or immiscible fluid to create a 

buffer zone between the injectant and formation 

fluids or by pretreatment of the waste.

Chemical reactions that reduce entrance losses by 

increasing the permeability around the well bore 

are generally desirable. In some instances, attempts 

are made to reduce entrance losses by chemical reaction. All man-induced increases are local and generally confined to the immediate well-bore area. The 

reduced entrance loss lowers the rate of pressurehead buildup in the injection well, but its effect decreases with distance from the well.

A monitoring system is desirable for deep-well 

disposal of most industrial wastes. Most industries 

design a monitoring system for disposal wells that 

will provide warning of excessive pressures, well 

failure, or malfunction. Such warning may prevent

losing a disposal system. Ideally, a monitoring system is needed for public protection to detect contamination of freshwater supplies and other undesired migration of wastes or formation fluid. However, the feasibility and cost of an ideal system are 

major obstacles.

A monitoring system for public protection would 

involve a series of observation wells to monitor water 

quality in freshwater aquifers. In addition, at least 

one observation well penetrating the disposal formation would be constructed far enough away from the 

injection well to be beyond the expected radius of the 

injectant front. Such an observation well could provide data on head buildup in the system without 

creating an escape route for waste. Data on the head 

buildup in the system are needed to confirm predicted hydraulic effects.

Observations of pressure head in the disposal 

well and nearby observation wells after injection is 

discontinued are valuable, especially where a substantial pressure head was developed during injection. A capped disposal well under a wellhead pressure of several hundred pounds per square inch may 

require an appreciable length of time to return to 

preinjection pressure levels.

A reliable estimate of regional hydraulic interference between two or more injection wells is not possible with the available data. The low permeability 

and low porosity of the disposal formation can cause 

overlapping of head buildup between the wells. Injection rates on the order of tens of gallons per 

minute for several years may involve head buildups 

several miles distant. Thus, great distances between 

injection wells would seem to be necessary; two or 

more wells operating on one industrial site may be 

too close to one another.

CONCLUSIONS

An appraisal of the data for the Lackawanna deepwell disposal site (Bethlehem Steel Corp.) indicates 

that deep-well disposal of waste pickle liquor into 

sandstone or fractured dolomite is hydraulically 

feasible at low rates of injection. Injection rates of 

72,000 gal/d (50 gal/min) or less are required in 

order to prevent excessive head buildup in the well. 

At this rate, well-head pressure will probably exceed 600 lb/in2 within 1 year. Hydraulic fracturing 

will probably occur at less than 600 lb/in2 in about 

100 days. It is estimated that regional head buildup 

within a 4-mi radius would probably exceed the 

land surface after 10 years.

Chemical studies (figs. 15-18) indicate that the 

waste pickle liquor will react with the dolomite and
CONCLUSIONS 35

10 -5

QC 

LU 

Q_

CO

QC

10-6

U

Z> 

Q

§10

o

cr. 

Q

-7

ID'8

ACCUMULATED NUMBER OF PORE VOLUMES 

18.29 36.59 54.88 73.17 91.46 109.75 128.05 —I ———— I ——— I ——— I ——— I ——— I ——— I146.34

Sample: 73NY10 (dolomite) 

Fluid: Hydrochloric acjd.

Waste pickling liquor 

Flow direction: Vertical 

Pore volume: 1.63 cm3

•V

Hydrochloric acid

164.63 

——I——

182.93

M

«-Waste pickling liquor0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270

ACCUMULATED FLOW, IN CUBIC CENTIMETERS 

FIGURE 15.—Hydraulic conductivity versus acumulated flow: sample 73NY10 (dolomite).

300

rapidly reduce its permeability. Fracture and intergranular permeability of the sandstone would transmit the bulk of the waste with little impedance from 

chemical effects. The extent of generation of carbon 

dioxide could not be determined. The formation of 

carbon dioxide in situ would result in formation pressures exceeding those based on hydraulic factors 

and would be a significant factor. The potential for 

reduction in the overall formation permeability is 

indeterminate.

A short-term injection test with brine or waste 

pickle liquor under operating conditions appears 

mandatory in order to compare measured field pressures and calculated pressures; also, data on pressure buildup and chemical reaction should be obtained for predictive purposes.

Although little is known of the characteristics of 

the Potsdam Sandstone and Theresa Formation elsewhere in western New York, deep-well disposal under 

present field conditions may be physically feasible at 

very low injection rates in widely separated wells

in much of the region. The regional head buildup 

may limit such wells to a useful life of less than 10 

years. The least desirable areas would be along the 

northern boundary of the formations (fig. 4), where 

the formations and confining layer are thinner than 

they are near Lackawanna (fig. 3). To the south, 

the formations are thicker and deeper. Test drilling 

would be needed to delineate the characteristics of 

the formations for any new disposal site.

The model constructed for this regional study can 

be used to evaluate potential injection well sites. 

Initially, the proposed injection rate can be used to 

obtain an estimate of hydraulic effects. After test 

drilling and aquifer testing have produced the necessary formation data, revised values can be applied 

to the model to predict hydraulic effects. However, 

development of more sophisticated models incorporating fluid changes, hydrodynamic dispersion, and 

energy transport will be available and will make 

predictions more reliable.
36 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF DEEP-WELL WASTE DISPOSAL IN WESTERN NEW YORK

10

-3

ACCUMULATED NUMBER OF PORE VOLUMES 

1 23456 

J______I_____ I I I______I

10 -4

DC 

LLJ 

Q_

GO 

DC

Sample: 73NY13 (sandstone) 

Fluid: Waste pickling liquor 

Flow direction: Vertical 

Pore volume: 7.18 cm3

>

I— 

CJ 

D 

Q

Z

o

CJ 

CJ

DC 

Q

10-6

10 -7

0 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54

ACCUMULATED FLOW, IN CUBIC CENTIMETERS

FIGURE 16.—Hydraulic conductivity versus accumulated flow: sample 73NY13 (sandstone).

60
CONCLUSIONS 37

10-3

10-4

•*•-, Sample:73NY14 (dolomite) 

Fluid: Waste pickling liquor 

Flow direction: Horizontal 

Pore volume: Undetermined

10-5

10-6

10 15 20 

ACCUMULATED NUMBER OF PORE VOLUMES

25 30

FIGURE 17.—Hydraulic conductivity versus accumulated flow: sample 73NY14 (dolomite).
38 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF DEEP-WELL WASTE DISPOSAL IN WESTERN NEW YORK

10-5

ACCUMULATED NUMBER OF PORE VOLUMES 

4.1 8.1 12.2 16.2 20.3 -M————I——————I——————I——————H 24.3

DC 

LU 

Q_

CO 

DC 

LU

Brine -Waste pickling liquorO

-6

(J

D 

Q

§10-7

(J

DC

Q

Sample: 73NY30 (sandstone) 

Fluid: Simulated brine.

Waste pickling liquor 

Flow direction: Vertical 

Pore volume: 12.3 cm3

10-8

50 100 150 200 250

ACCUMULATED FLOW, IN CUBIC CENTIMETERS

FIGURE 18.—Hydraulic conductivity versus accumulated flow: sample 73NY30 (sandstone),

300

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J. E., 1968, Possibilities for disposal of industrial wastes 

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417-436.

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