Summary Appraisals of the Nation's 

Ground-Water ResourcesMid-Atlantic Region 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 813-1 

Summary Appraisals of the Nation's 

Ground-Water ResourcesMid-Atlantic Region 

By ALLEN SINNOTT and ELLIOTT M. CUSHING 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 813-I 

A discussion of ground water 

in relation to the total 

water resources of the region 

UNITED STATES GOVERNlVIENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON 1978 
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

H. William Menard, Director 

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data 

Sinnott, Allen, 1917-

Summary appraisals of the Nation's ground-water resources, Mid-Atlantic region. 

(Geological Survey professional paper; 813-I) 

Bibliography: p. 

Supt. of Docs. no.: I 19.16 :813-I 

1. Water, Underground-Middle Atlantic States. 2. Water-supply-Middle Atlantic States. I. Cushing, Elliott 

Morse, 1914- joint author. II. Title. III. Series: United States. Geological Survey. Professional paper; 

813-I. 

TD223.1.S56 333.9'1 04'097 4 76-608260 

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 

Washington, D.C. 20402 

Stock No. 024-001-03058-6 
CONTENTS 

Page Page 

Abstract ----------------------------------------- I1 Water-related problems in the Mid-Atlantic Region --- !19 

Introduction -------------------------------------- 1 Impact of economic development on management 

Physical, geographical, and economic setting ____ 1 of ground-water resources ------------------- 19 

Physiographic divisions ------------------------ 3 Acid mine drainage --------------------------- 20 

Occurrence and availability of ground water -------- 3 Saline ground water -------------------------- 20 

Coastal Plain -------------------------------- 5 Constraints on ground-water development and 

Piedmont province ---------------------------- 9 management ------------------------------ __ 21 

Blue Ridge province --------------------------- 9 Legal constraints ------------------------- 21 

Valley and Ridge province --------------------- 9 Ground-water studies and needs for additional 

Appalachian Plateaus province ---------------- 14 information in the Mid-Atlantic Region ---------- 21 

Adirondack province -------------------------- 14 Vermont ------------------------------------- 22 

New England province ------------------------ 14 

Availability of ground water to meet future needs ___ 15 

Water discharged from aquifers --------------- 15 

Massachusetts -------------------------------- 25 

New York ------------------------------------ 25 

Water in storage ----------------------------- 15 New Jersey ---------------------------------- 26 

Withdrawals and use ------------------------- 16 Pennsylvania --------------------------------- 27 

Chemical quality ----------------------------- 17 

Description of chemical quality ------------ 17 

Problems associated with ground-water 

quality--------------------------------- 18 

Maryland, Delaware, and District of Columbia __ 27 

West Virginia _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ __ __ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ 28 

Virginia ------------------------------------- 28 

Relation of ground-water to surface-water Conclusions _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 28 

resources ---------------------------------- 18 Selected references ------------------------------- 29 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

FIGURE 1. Map showing location of the Mid-Atlantic Region in the northeastern United States ----------------- 12 

2. Map of the Mid-Atlantic Region showing the five major component river basins. adjacent basins, and 

TABLE 

coastal reaches ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5 

3. Map showing the average annual precipitation in the Mid-Atlantic Region -------------------------- 6 

4. Map of the Mid-Atlantic Region showing the distribution of population ________________________ - _ _ _ _ 7 

5. Map of the Mid-Atlantic Region showing the major physiographic divisions ------------------------- 8 

6. Map of the Mid-Atlantic Region showing' the distribution of areas underlain by at least one aquifer capable of yielding supplies of at least 50 gallons per minute of ground water to most wells --------- 11 

7. Map of the Mid-Atlantic Region showing configuration of the buried surface of the basement complex 

seaward from the Fall Line ----------------------------------------------------------------- 12 

8. Diagrammatic cross-section showing movement of ground water in Coastal Plain deposits ---------- 13 

9. Map showing status of ground-water investigations in the Mid-Atlantic Region --------------------- 23 

10. Map showing areas on the Mid-Atlantic Region where additional ground-water information is needed__ 24 

TABLES 

1. Estimates of natural discharge of ground water from aquifers in the Mid-Atlantic Region -----------

2. Estimates of ground water in storage in hydrogeologic units of the Mid-Atlantic Region -------------

III 

Page 

!15 

16 
IV CONTENTS 

CONVERSION FACTORS 

Factors for converting English units to units of the International System ( SI) based on the metric system are given 

below. 

Multiplication English factors for obsystem units Symbols taining SI equiva- SI units Symbols 

lent units 

Length: 

inches (in) 25.4 millimeters (mm) 

feet (ft) .3048 meters (m) 

miles (mi) 1.609 kilometers (km) 

Area: 

acres .4047 hectares (ha) 

square miles (mi2 ) 2.590 square kilometers (km2 ) 

Volume: 

U.S. gallons (gal) 3.785 liters (L) 

acre-feet (acre-ft) 1,233.5 cubic meters (rna) 

cubic feet (ft3 ) .02832 cubic meters (rna) 

Slope: 

feet per mile (ft/mi) .189 meters per kilometer (m/km) 

Flow: 

U.S. gallons per minute (gal/min) .06309 liters per second (L/s) 

cubic feet per second (fta /s) .02832 cubic meters per second (ma/s) 

million gallons per day (million gal/d) 3,785 cubic meters per day (rna/d) 

billion gallons per day (billion gal/d) 3.785 cubic hectometers per day (hm3 /d) 
SUMMARY APPRAISALS OF THE NATION'S 

GROUND-WATER RESOURCESMID-ATLANTIC REGION 

By ALLEN SINNOTT and ELLIOTT M. CusHING 

ABSTRACT 

The Mid-Atlantic Region covers a total area of about 

108,000 square miles. It includes parts of Vermont, Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, West Virginia, and Virginia, the entire States of New Jersey and 

Delaware, and the District of Columbia. It encompasses the 

entire drainage basins (within the United States) of the 

Hudson, Delaware, Susquehanna, Potomac, and the James 

River and includes Long Island and the coastal drainage of 

New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia. 

Ground water in the region occurs in three broad types 

of geologic terrane: ( 1) unconsolidated deposits in the Coastal Plain seaward of the Fall Line; (2) hard, consolidated 

sedimentary rocks and crystalline igneous and metamorphic 

rocks in the remainder of the region; and ( 3) unconsolidated 

sand, gravel, and other deposits of glacial origin that overlie 

the older rocks extensively in the glaciated northern part 

of the region. 

Ground water is derived primarily from precipitation; it 

can be intercepted for use by pumping from wells before 

it reaches the streams or before it drains into coastal wetlands or the ocean. 

The natural discharge from the aquifers in the region is 

estimated to be at about 38.6 billion gallons per day; in addition, at least 140-350 trillion gallons is stored in the rocks. 

About 949 billion gallons of fresh ground water was 

withdrawn in 1970. This quantity represents about 9 percent of the total freshwater use of 10,220 billion gallons. 

Available ground-water reserves indicate that a considerable 

part of the additional supplies needed for the anticipated 

increase in economic activity in the region could be developed 

from ground water. 

INTRODUCTION 

This report describes the ground-water conditions 

in one of the 21 Water Resources Regions designated by the U.S. Water Resources Council 

(1970)-the Mid-Atlantic Region in northeastern 

United States (fig. 1). The purposes of the report 

are (1) to summarize the broad facts about the 

overall ground-water resources of the Mid-Atlantic 

Region, (2) to describe current development and 

management problems of important ground-water 

reservoirs in the region, ( 3) to discuss options for 

future ground-water development, and ( 4) to identify the additional ground-water information needed 

to provide a sound basis for better management of 

the region's water resources. 

The report is one of a series being published by 

the Geological Survey to document the Nation's 

ground-water resources, region by region, and to 

analyze the role of the resource in National water 

supply. 

PHYSICAL, GEOGRAPHICAL, AND ECONOMIC 

SETTING 

The Mid-Atlantic Region includes the entire 

drainage basins of five major streams in the heavily 

populated and industrial northeastern United States 

(fig. 2). These are the Hudson River, in New York, 

Vermont, and Massachusetts; the Delaware River, 

chiefly in New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey; the Susquehanna River, chiefly in Pennsylvania 

and New York; the Potomac River, in West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia; and 

the James River, chiefly in Virginia. Two smaller 

tidewater basins, those of the Rappahannock and 

York Rivers, lie between the Potomac and James 

Rivers in Virginia. The region as a whole extends 

from the international boundary with Canada southward nearly to Virginia's southern boundary. 

In:; addition to these five basins, the region includes also a small part of the St. Lawrence River 

drainage area in northeastern New York and northwestern Vermont, and lesser stream basins and 

coastal reaches from southeastern Virginia to New 

York, including all of Long Island. 

The Mid-Atlantic Region extends inland from the 

coast an average of about 200 mi, and it is nearly 

700 mi long. It covers an area of about 108,000 mi 2

, 

and encompasses all or parts of nine States and the 

District of Columbia. One of the largest-and certainly the most economically important-of the 

11 
12 SUMMARY APPRAISALS OF THE NATION'S GROUND-WATER RESOURCES 

________ ,& 

0 I I I 1~0 2~0 MILES 

tf--..., ---L.,,,---..,, L-....;1 b

1

0......l---'---21b0 _____ 301l O___,K ILOMETERS 

FIGURE 1.-The Mid-Atlantic Region includes much of the heavily populated and industrially developed northeastern United 

States. 
MID-ATLANTIC REGION 13 

world's estuaries, Chesapeake Bay, lies within the 

southeastern coastal part of the region. 

The Mid-Atlantic Region is generally humid, with 

four distinct seasons, characterized by frequent 

weather changes. The climate along the coast is 

generally less severe than inland, because the ocean 

is warmed near the southern part of the region by 

the northeastward-flowing currents of the Gulf 

Stream. 

Average annual temperatures range from about 

44o F (6.6° C) in northern Vermont to about 60° F 

(15.6° C) in southern Virginia. 

Precipitation is the ultimate source of virtually 

all the freshwater available for use in the MidAtlantic Region, although water stored in deeplying rocks may have been emplaced many thousands 

of years ago. The annual precipitation on the region 

averages about 40 inches but varies somewhat, depending on location. It is about 40 inches or more 

along the coast and over 50 inches in upstate New 

York, southern Vermont, and West Virginia. It is 

a little less than 36 inches in northern Vermont, 

south-central New York, two small areas in southcentral Pennsylvania, and near the Virginia-West 

Virginia boundary. (See fig. 3.) 

Although the Mid-Atlantic Region covers only 

about 3 percent of the land area of the United 

States, it contains about 19 percent of the national 

population-more than 38,500,000 people. The 

regional average population density is about 350 

people/mi 2, compared to about 54 people/mi 2 for 

the entire United States. Several large population 

centers are within irts boundaries, including three 

of the largest metropolitan areas of the country, 

New York City, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C. 

(See fig. 4.) 

The region generates nearly 22 percent of the 

national personal income, and its per-capita personal 

income is 15 percent above the national average. 

Thus, the Mid-Atlantic Region has a high level of 

economic development-the highest among the 

Water Resources Regions in the country. (See U.S. 

Water Resources Council, 1972, summary tables.) 

Despite this fact, however, there are economically 

depressed areas in the region with declining population, particularly the abandoned coal-mining districts in Pennsylvania and West Virginia. The present increasing demand for coal as a source of energy 

may reactivate many former coal-producing districts. 

PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS 

Several physiographic provinces, as defined by 

Fenneman and others (1946), lie within the MidAtlantic Region. (See fig. 5.) The most important 

of thes,e, from the standpoint of ground-water supplies, is the Coastal Plain province, which flanks 

the entire eastern part of the region along the Atlantic Ocean. The other major physiographic divisions include the Piedmont province, immediately 

west of the Coastal Plain; the narrow Blue Ridge 

province and its northeastern correlative, the Reading Prong of the New England province ; the Valley 

and Ridge province; and, in the west and northwest, 

the Appalachian Plateaus province. In addition, in 

the northernmost part of the region, there are the 

eastern part of the Adirondack province, the Champlain Valley, and the extreme western flank of the 

New England province. 

OCCURRENCE AND AVAILABILITY OF 

GROUND WATER 

The Mid-Atlantic Region is underlain by a wide 

variety of geologic formations that together control 

the storage, movement, and chemical quality of the 

ground water. The rocks range from the unconsolidated clays, sands, and gravels of the Coastal Plain 

and watercourses to much older rocks west and 

northwest of the Fall Line (fig. 6). These older 

rocks include consolidated sedimentary rocks and 

some ancient intrusive and volcanic rocks in the 

Piedmont Lowland; limestones, dolomites, sandstones, and shales of the Valley and Ridge province ; 

crystalline igneous and metamorphic rocks of the 

Piedmont Upland; and those of the Blue Ridge and 

the Adirondack provinces. Most of these older rocks 

are relatively impermeable, but yield small to moderate supplies of ground water from fractures or 

joints to depths of about 200 to 300 feet below the 

surface. 

The rocks of the region can be grouped into three 

general classes. These are ( 1) the unconsolidated 

deposits that underlie the Coasrtal Plain, (2) the 

crystalline igneous and metamorphic rocks and consolidated sedimentary rocks found in the remainder 

of the region, and ( 3) , surficial deposits of glacial 

origin, occurring widely in the northern part of the 

region. The glacial deposit of greatest importance 

with respect to ground water is stratified drift, 

much of which consists of sand and gravel that 

commonly occur in stream valleys forming what are 

called watercourse aquifers. 

The general hydrogeologic characteristics of the 

rocks in each of the principal physiographic prov-
14 SUMMARY APPRAISALS OF THE NATION'S GROUND-WATER RESOURCES 

0 100 200 300 KILOMETERS 
MID-ATLANTIC REGION 15 

inces of the Mid-Atlantic Region are described in 

the following pages. 

COASTAL PLAIN 

The Coastal Plain lies east of the Fall Line, and 

forms the southeastern part of the Mid-Atlantic 

Region. It extends from southern Virginia northeastward through Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, ~ew Jersey, and Long Island. (See fig. 6.) 

Topographically its surface is nearly flat or gently 

undulating, and altitudes range from sea level along 

the Atlantic coast to roughly 250 ft a•t the Fall Line. 

The Coastal Plain is underlain by unconsolidated 

deposits. The formations consist mostly of sand and 

clay with minor amounts of gravel, and locally some 

beds of "marl" or shell rock. These deposits begin 

as a featheredge along the Fall Line and dip gently 

southeastward in a thickening wedge that rests direotly on the underlying crystalline igneous and 

metamorphic rocks and other hard rocks that make 

up the basement complex-the seaward extension 

of the hard rocks of the adjacent Piedmont province. 

Configuration of the buried surface of the basement 

complex is shown in figure 7, from which it can be 

seen that the overlying deposits reach a maximum 

total thickness of more than 8,000 ft. 

Overall, the general geology of the Coastal Plain 

deposits appears to be simple. There, is, however, 

considerable complexity in many of its details. (See 

Brown and others, 1972, for a description of the 

structural and stratigraphic framework of the Atlantic Coastal Plain, and the relation of the tectonic 

and geologic history to present distribution of permeability.) The formations are areally extensive. 

In general, the shallow formations dip more gently 

than the deeper ones, and the seaward (southeastward) dip is on the order of 10 to 20 ft/mi. 

Surficial deposits of the Coastal Plain are largely 

permeable unconsolidated sand and gravel that is 

thickest on Long Island and in New Jersey, Delaware, and eastern Maryland (fig. 8). Large quantities of water can be· obtained from these deposits 

by wells generally less than 300 ft deep. Yields of 

individual wells may be as much as 2,000 gal/min 

where the greates.t thicknesses of coarse material 

are present. Elsewhere in eastern Maryland, and in 

eastern Virginia, the surficial deposits of the Coastal 

FIGURE 2.-The Mid-Atlantic Region comprises the entire 

drainage basins of five major rivers in the northeastern 

United States, including also smaller coastal river basins, 

and the United States part of the upper St. Lawrence 

River basin. It covers all of New Jersey and Delaware, 

parts of several other States, and the District of Columbia. 

Plain are thin and the yield of individual wells is 

small. 

Deeper artesian aquifers of the Coastal Plain are 

among the most productive in the Mid-Atlantic 

Region. The depth of wells may be as much as 1,300 

ft, and yields of more than 2 million gal/ d may be 

available from some wells. 

Beneath the ocean shoreline, and seaward at various distances, the downdip reaches of the artesian 

aquifers contain brackish water. (See Back, 1966.) 

Large quantities of ground water withdrawn from 

wells close to an interface between freshwater and 

brackish water may cause encroachment of brackish 

water into the freshwater part of the aquifer and 

eventually into wells. 

Near the Fall Line, where the Coastal Plain sediments thin out against the basement rocks that are 

exposed in the Piedmont Province, only small to 

moderate supplies generally are available. Most 

wells there will not yield more than a few hundred 

gallons per minute. Locally, as in the PhiladelphiaCamden area, somewhat larger yields have been obtained. 

A number of distinct stratigraphic units have 

been delineated in the Coastal Plain, ranging from 

about 10 in Virginia to more than 20 in New Jersey. 

Many of ~these formations are permeable and have 

been defined as aquifers. Most are of wide areal extent and those that are of particular economic importance as major sources of ground water have 

been investigated and described. Large rates of 

withdrawal from one aquifer commonly are reflected 

in others proximate to it because of vertical leakage 

through intervening less-permeable beds. Hydraulic 

continuity through the complex interbedding is characteristic of Coastal Plain sediments. Most of the 

aquifers are not separate and independent hydrologic units; rather, each is part of a complex hydrologic system, and this system may even include 

streams and lakes where the aquifers are at or near 

the land surface. 

Because the leaky nature of this complex system 

allows water to flow from one formation to another, 

it is generally not relevant to estimate quantities of 

ground water that are available from the individual 

aquifers. Rather, it is more meaningful to estimate 

the quantity available from the entire system. As 

will he shown later, for the Coastal Plain part of 

the region the minimum quantity of ground water 

that is being discharged under present hydrologic 

conditions is estimated to be a little more than 9 

billion gal/ d. 
16 SUMMARY APPRAISALS OF THE NATION'S GROUND-WATER RESOURCES 

0 I 1~0 2?0 MILES ~~~~~~--~~Li ~~~--~--~~~--------~~--

0 100 200 300 KILOMETERS 

EXPLANATION 

---44---

Line of equal average annual 

precipitation, in inches. Interval, 4 

inches 

············-·····-·j·······-··············· 

FIGURE 3.-Precipitation in the Mid-Atlantic Region averages about 40 inches and is the ultimate source of virtually all 

recharge of the aquifers. in the region. (Based on period 1931-60. Source: National Weather Service.) 
50' 

45' 

MID-ATLANTIC REGION 

80' 

URBAN POPULATION 

--""'"';;;;;;;;;;;:;;-;;..:----- --- - 15,000,000 

- --- 10,000,000 

-- 5,000,000 

--2,500,000 

-- 1,000,000 

--- - 500,000 

- - - --- 250,000 

---- ---- - 50,000 

Area of circl es is proportional 

to population, 1960 

4 Urban places over 50,000 

-:s. • - - 25,000-50,000 

c;, . -- 10,000-25,000 

0 

'Z. 

75' 70' 

Adapted from U.S. Bureau of the Census, Population distribution, urban and rural, in the United States: 1960, GE-50, no. I, 

Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1963, map 1:5,000,000 

RURAL POPULATION 

1,000-2,500 

--- 500 persons 

.. ~:· 

I 

I 

J 

SCALE 1:7,500,000 

,;., , :·.' .'·: 

' ··:· . , .. . : 

~~~~ ~~1~00~~~~~~=>.200 MilES 

100 200 300 KILOMETER S 

Albers Equal Area Projection 

17 

FIGURE 4.-The Mid-Atlantic Region includes large urban centers of population. (Map, from U.S. Geological Survey, 1970, 

National Atlas of the United States: p. 243.) 
18 SUMMARY APPRAISALS OF THE NATION'S GROUND-WATER RESOURCES 

FIGURE 5.-The major physiographic divisions of the Mid-Atlantic Region also define, in a general way, the principal geologic 

terranes. (After Fenneman and others, 1946.) 
MID-ATLANTIC REGION I9 

The surficial deposits of sand and gravel that underlie the southeastern part of the Region probably 

constitute the most potentially productive aquifer in 

the Coastal Plain (fig. 6). These surficial deposits, 

together with the updip parts of deeper aquifers, 

constitute a water-table aquifer that blankets about 

20,000 mi 2 on Long Island, N.Y., New Jersey, Delaware, eastern Maryland, and eastern Virginia. 

Large supplies of more than about 5 million gal/ d 

are obtainable from this water-table aquifer. Withdrawals of this magnitude from the deeper artesian 

aquifers would entail large drawdowns and pumping lifts, and possible dewatering of these aquifers. 

Large ground-water withdrawals from the surficial deposits should be located as far as possible 

from the ocean, consistent with other requirements, 

in order to minimize the threat of saline encroachment. The water-table aquifer in the surficial deposits also is vulnerable to surface pollutants. 

PIEDMONT PROVINCE 

The basement complex that lies beneath the wedge 

of Coastal Plain deposits crops out at the surface 

along the Fall Line, an imaginary line marking the 

western limit of the Coastal Plain. (See fig. 6.) The 

Piedmont province is a plateau of gently undulating 

hills and locally extensive lowlands lying between 

the Fall Line and the foot of the Blue Ridge in Virginia and Maryland and the Reading Prong of the 

New England province farther to the northeast. It 

averages about 50 mi in width, being narrowest in 

the northeast and widest southward in southern 

Virginia. 

The province is underlain by weathered crystalline 

metamorphic and igneous rocks, by consolidated 

sedimentary rocks and some intrusive and volcanic 

rocks, and by carbonate rocks. The Piedmont contains two subprovinces, the Piedmont Upland and 

the Triassic Lowland. The upland consists mostly of 

crystalline rocks, and the lowland consists of relatively soft shale and sandstone and hills or ridges 

of harder rocks, such as diabase, basalt, and argillite. 

Adequate quantities of ground water are available in the Piedmont province for domestic supply, 

light industry, and small municipalities. In the 

crystalline rock areas, the most dependable supplies 

of water are obtained by wells of moderate yield 

drilled into the lower part of the weathered zone 

and the upper part of the underlying fractured rock. 

Wells commonly yield up to about 15 gal/min per 

well, and some wells produce as much as 400 gal/ 

min. Yields from wells in the consolidated sedimentary rocks commonly are somewhat greater than 

those in the crystalline rocks. 

The quality of the ground water in the Piedmont 

is generally excellent, although in places it is high 

in iron or is hard where withdrawn from limestone 

aquifers or other sedimentary rocks containing calcareous materials. 

BLUE RIDGE PROVINCE 

Along the western flank of the Piedmont province 

in Virginia, Maryland, and southern Pennsylvania 

lies the narrow northeast-trending Blue Ridge province (fig. 5). Within the Mid-Atlantic Region the 

average width of this province is less than 10 mi. 

The rocks that underlie the Blue Ridge are metamorphosed sedimentary and igneous rocks very 

much like the crystalline rocks of the Piedmont. The 

Blue Ridge rocks, however, are more resistant to 

erosion and stand higher than the carbonate rocks 

to the northwest and the Piedmont rocks to the 

southeast. Because of their elevated position, they 

tend to be stripped of surficial weathered material 

and fractured rock, and drained of ground water 

(McGuinness, 1963). Expected well yields are less 

than 50 gal/min. Very little is known about the 

maximum water-yielding potential of the Blue 

Ridge rocks. Four wells drilled at Catoctin Mountain Park, Md., have yields that range up to 7 4 gal/ 

min and average 36 gal/min. Possibly 150 to 200 

gal/min could be pumped from the highest yielding 

well. These wells were drilled in metarhyolite and 

Catoctin Metabasalt and their depths range from 

120 to 247 feet. They were located in topographic 

depressions believed to represent fracture zones in 

the underlying bedrock (Nutter, 1973). The average yield of these wells is about four times better 

than the average yield of the domestic wells in the 

vicinity. Water from the Blue Ridge rocks generally 

is of good quality, containing low concentrations of 

dissolved solids. 

VALLEY AND RIDGE PROVINCE 

The Valley and Ridge province lies just west of 

the Blue Ridge and its northeastern counterparts 

from Virginia to southern New York. In addition, 

it extends northward as the Hudson-Champlain section to the Canadian boundary; in this northward 

extension it lies west of the New England province 

(fig. 5). The province is bounded on the west by 

the Appalachian Plateaus and Adirondack provinces. In its southern half it is 50 to 100 mi wide; 

in eastern Pennsylvania and New York it narrows 

to about 25 mi. 
IlO 

50° 

SUMMARY APPRAISALS OF THE NATION'S GROUND-WATER RESOURCES 

so· 75° 70° 

SCA LE 1:7,500,000 

]=E ~~I0 0~~~~200~~~=300 MILES 

100 200 300 400 KI LOMETERS 

Map from U.S. Geological Survey 

Un ited States National Atlas. 1970 
MID-ATLANTIC REGION 

EXPLANATION 

Colored patterns indicate areas underlain by one or 

more aquifers generally capable of yielding to a 

well at least 50 gallons per minute (or 3liters per 

second) of fresh water (generally less than 1000 

milligrams per liter of dissolved solids) 

D 

UNCONSOLIDATED AQUIFERS 

Watercourse: alluvial valley traversed by stream 

from which recharge can be induced 

Sand and gravel: in intermontane valleys; 

abandoned or buried allu'!ial valleys; alluvial 

terraces; sand dunes; Coastal Plain; glacial outwash and ice-contact deposits of glaciated regions 

CONSOLIDATED ROCK AQUIFERS 

CJ Sandstone: includes some unconsolidated sand 

CJ Carbonate rock: limestone and dolomite 

CJ Sandstone and carbonate rocks 

CJ Crystalline rocks, igneous and metamorphic 

Ruled pattern of any of these colors indicates that 

the corresponding aquifer underlies a productive 

sand and gravel aquifer as explained above 

WITHDRAWALS FROM WELLS 

• Represents withdrawal of 81,000 acre-feet or 100 

million cubic meters annually, equivalent to 72 

million gallons a day 

• Represents half of the quantity described for 

preceding symbol 

Ill 

FIGURE 6.-Many areas in the Mid-Atlantic Region are underlain by at least one aquifer capable of yielding supplies of at 

least 50 gallons per minute of ground water to most wells. (Map, from U.S. Geological Survey, 1970, National Atlas 

of the United States: p. 123.) 
112 SUMMARY APPRAISALS OF THE NATION'S GROUND-WATER RESOURCES 

LAKE: f RII 

( 

) 

I 

I 

f 

• l ~ n• .._ 

'! 

P}E 

/ 

~Pitts bun 

WEST 

.._ _________ _ 

LAKf 01'\i f ARU 

• 

I 1----,---L' ,, ----,_!__,, __[_ __ l...L~o------,- ------rr ---' 2?o MILES 

0 100 200 300 KI LOMETERS 

EXPLANATION 

--- 2000--

Structure contour on top of 

basement complex rocks 

beneath Coastal Plain 

sediments, in feet below 

sea level 

Boundary of region 

Fall Line 

FIGURE 7.-The buried surface of the basement complex slopes seaward from the Fall Line to depths greater than 8,000 ft 

below sea level. (Adapted from Maher, 1971, pl. 4.) 
MID-ATLANTIC REGION 113 

NW. SE. 

Water table 

Basement complex 

Note: Vertical scale greatly exaggerated, hence dip of aquifers and confining beds is more nearly horizontal. Paths 

of ground-water movement indicated by arrows, likewise are notto scale; vertical components of movement are 

greatly exaggerated (components of movement perpendicular to diagram are not indicated) 

FIGURE 8.-Seaward-dipping artesian aquifers of the Coastal Plain are covered by surficial deposits of water-bearing sand 

and gravel on Long Island, N.Y .. and in New Jersey, Delaware, eastern Maryland, and eastern Virginia. (Adapted from 

Parker and others, 1964, fig. 13.) 

The province is underlain by folded and faulted 

sandstones, limestones, dolomites, shales, and quartzites. The structural trend in its southern part is 

generally northeastward, changing to northward up 

the Hudson Valley. Differential erosion has resulted 

in resistant beds standing as ridges, with intervening alluvium-filled valleys. 

The chief sources of ground water in the Valley 

and Ridge province are permeable fractured sandstones and cavernous limestones. These are readily 

recharged from precipita~tion and stream infiltration. Much smaller quantities of ground water are 

available from the less permeable shales and siltstones. In all these rocks, secondary openings and 

fractures tighten with depth; hence, the shallow 

rocks, to depths of several hundred feet, are the 

most productive to wells. 

Dry wells are common in the areas underlain by 

limestone. Some of these may be attributed to the 

fact that the water table is extremely deep because 

of underground drainage through interconnecting 

solution cavities. Water can usually be obtained by 

deepening the well to reach the water table. Many 

dry wells in limestone are caused simply by failure 

of the wells to penetrate any water-bearing solution 

cavities or fractures. A copious supply might be 

found in another well-perhaps only a few feet 

away- that taps such openings. Thus, exploratory 

drilling is commonly required. 

In the Susquehanna River basin, well yields in 

the more mountainous part of the basin area average about 125 gal/min and may reach 700 to 1,000 

gal/min (Seaber and Hollyday, 1965; Seaber, 

1968). In the Great Valley section of the same 

basin, the predominant rocks, limestone and dolomite, are even more productive, and yields of wells 

may exceed 1,000 gal/min. 

In the Hudson-Champlain section, the valley-fill 

deposit in the Glens Falls, N.Y., area is a. productive aquifer (Giese and Hobba, 1970). Well yields 

average 67 gal/min but reach 400 gal/min. The bedrock, near Plattsburgh, N.Y., consists of sandstone 

and carbonate rocks. It is overlain by relatively impermeable glacial deposits and is in an artesian system. Well yields average about 15 gal/min from 

sandstone and 35 gal/min from carbonate bedrock. 

Some wells in the carbonate rocks produce as much 

as 200 gal/min. 

The chemical quality of the ground water in the 

Valley and Ridge province is closely related to the 

lithology. Water from sandstone is usually soft and 

generally low in dissolved solids. Water from carbonate rocks generally is hard and is contaminated 

locally by nitrate. Shales in the eastern panhandle 
I14 SUMMARY APPRAISALS OF THE NATION'S GROUND-WATER RESOURCES 

of West Virginia (Hobba and others, 1973) are reported to yield hard water containing excessive iron. 

In the broad, major downfolded (synclinal) basins, 

high chloride or sulfate content is common. Where 

coal beds occur, many wells yield acid water that 

may also contain high iron and sulfate. 

Many wells constructed in permeable weathered 

zones in carbonate-rock aquifers yield turbid water 

from the residual clay in solution channels and 

caverns. Hobba and others (1973) note that in the 

West Virginia panhandle, "lowering the water 

table removes support of clay plugs in the roofs of 

water-filled caverns in the bedrock, and the plugs 

may collapse to cause sink holes at the land surface." 

The chemical quality of ground water in the Hudson-Champlain section is generally excellent or 

good, although hardness and alkalinity are problems 

locally. 

APPALACHIAN PLATEAUS PROVINCE 

In the western part of the Mid-Atlantic Region, 

the Appalachian Plateaus province extends from 

north-central Pennsylvania into southern New York 

(fig. 5). A small area in the extreme northwestern 

part of the Potomac River basin in West Virginia 

and Maryland also lies in the province. 

The underlying bedrock consists of nearly horizontal beds of alternating sandstone, shale, some 

limestone, and seams of coal. 

In the Pennsylvania part of the province, the 

average yield per well may be about 200 gal/min. 

In New York, yields are significantly lower, averaging about 60 gal/min. The quality of water from 

the bedrock at depths of less than about 250 feet 

is generally good except near coal mines, where iron 

is locally troub1esome. Saline water commonly occurs at depths of only 300 to 500 feet (Becher, 

1970). 

The parts of the Appalachian Plateaus province 

that lie in the Mid-Atlantic Region in northern 

Pennsylvania and New York are glaciated. Outwash 

deposits from the meltwaters of Pleistocene continental glaciers are found in the lowlands. In addition, postglacial alluvial sands and gravels in the 

stream valleys form watercourse aquifers (Thomas, 

1952, p. 10). The glacial outwash deposits and the 

watercourse aquifers are the chief sources of dependable ground-water supplies in the glaciated 

part of the province. (See fig. 6.) Many wells in 

sand and gravel deposits yield moderate to large 

supplies of water-some more than 1,000 gal/min. 

Recharge from the streams can be induced by pumping wells drilled in the watercourse aquifers, but 

induced infiltration of stream water reduces streamflow. 

The quality of the ground water from the glacial 

deposits is generally good. However, it may be hard 

where the drift contains limestone pebbles, and iron 

is troublesome locally, particularly in New York. 

ADIRONDACK PROVINCE 

The eastern part of the Adirondack province lies 

within the Mid-Atlantic Region in northern upstate 

New York (See fig. 5.) It is just north of the 

Appalachian Plateaus province and west of the Hudson-Champlain section of the Valley and Ridge 

province. The province is a nearly circular uplift 

of ancient granite, gneiss, and other crystalline 

rocks surrounded by shale, sandstone, limestone, and 

dolomite. Valleys contain glacial outwash and alluvium. Many peaks exceed 4,000 ft in altitude; 

Mount Marcy, the highest mountain in New York, 

has an altitude of 5,344 ft. 

The popula:tion of the province is sparse, and the 

demand for water, accordingly, is small. Yields of 

wells are generally moderate, 15 to 35 gal/min; the 

water occurs mostly in fractures in both the crystalline rocks and the consolidated sedimentary rocks. 

Larger yields are obtained locally from solution 

openings developed along fractures in the carbonate 

rocks. Locally, substantial yields are available also 

in glacial outwash deposits in valleys. 

The quality of ground water is generally good, 

and that from the crystalline rocks is excellentless than 100 mg/L of dissolved solids. 

NEW ENGLAND PROVINCE 

In the Mid-Atlantic Region, the New England 

province is represented by the western part of 

Vermont, the extreme northwestern part of Massachusetts, and a narrow area extending southwestward across southern New York and northern New 

Jersey into eastern Pennsylvania as far as Reading. 

(See fig. 5.) This extension is known as the Reading 

Prong ; in New Jersey it is called the Highlands. 

The bedrock consists of ancient crystalline, 

igneous, and metamorphic rocks, some of which are 

carbonate rocks. Locally the carbonate rocks are 

faulted and contain solution openings, forming 

aquifers that may yield a few hundred gallons per 

minute. Similar yields may be obtained from deposits of stratified glacial drift in stream valleys 

(watercourse aquifers). 

Ground water of generally good quality can be 

developed from the various kinds of bedrock and 
MID-ATLANTIC REGION 115 

from the stratified drift. The carbonate bedrock, 

however, yields water that is moderately hard. 

AVAILABILITY OF GROUND WATER TO 

MEET FUTURE NEEDS 

C. L. McGuinness, in his comprehensive treatise 

on the "Role of ground water in the National water 

situation" (1963, p. 110-111) recounted the circumstances leading to the gradual increase in demand for ground water as a source of water supply during the early development of the country. 

Ground water in the Mid-Atlantic Region has assumed increasing importance through the years, 

following much the same pattern as that described 

by McGuinness for the country as a whole. 

Nationally, ground water has developed from a 

minor but important source of domestic supply to 

one that provides about 21 percent of the Nation's 

total water withdrawals from all sources in 1970 

(Murray and Reeves, 1972, table 17). In the MidAtlantic Region, however, ground-water withdrawals in 1970 amounted to only 9.3 percent of 

the total water withdrawals, attesting to the relatively minor role still played by ground water in 

this important region in the humid East where surface water is the major source of supplies. 

Many water-resources investigations and reports 

deal separately with ground water and surface 

water. Even though they are physically interrelated, 

ground water and surface water require different 

techniques of study, observation, and development. 

Ground water and the base flow, or dry-weather 

flow, of streams are two phases of a single resource. 

Base flow is ground water that is discharged continually from the ground-water reservoir. Overland 

runoff from precipitation greatly increases streamflow intermittently but flow then subsides during an 

ensuing period of dry weather. 

WATER DISCHARGED FROM AQUIFERS 

Many investigators of the water resources in 

areas within the Mid-Atlantic Region have made determinations of the percentage of total streamflow 

that is base flow, or ground-water discharge. (See, 

for example, Cushing and others, 1973; Nutter, 

1973 ; Franke and McClymonds, 1972 ; Trainer and 

Watkins, 1974; Johnston, 1971; Olmsted and Rely, 

1962; Rasmussen and Andreasen, 1959; Dingman 

and Ferguson, 1956; Dingman and others, 1954.) 

In the Coastal Plain province, base flow ranges from 

about 40 to 95 percent of streamflow, and in the 

part of the Mid-Atlantic Region underlain by consolidated rocks, from about 25 to 90 percent. 

Bue (1970) showed that the mean streamflow 

from the Mid-Atlantic Region to the Atlantic Ocean 

during 1931-60 was 128,900 ff:/s. Adding to this 

quantity the amount estimated to flow from the region into Canada, the mean streamflow from the 

region (area, 108,000 mi 2 ) is about 139,000 ff1/S, 

or about 90 billion gal/ d. 

Assuming, conservatively, that only 55 percent of 

the streamflow in the Coastal Plain part of the region is base flow, then the natural discharge from 

unconsolidated aquifers is computed to be about 9.2 

billion gal/d. Again, assuming that only 40 percent of the streamflow in the remainder of the region, underlain chiefly by hard consolidated rocks, 

is base flow, the discharge from the aquifers: there 

is about 29.4 billion gal/d. Thus, the average potential yield of ground water from the entire MidAtlantic Region under present hydrologic conditions 

is at least 38.6 billion gal/d. These estimates are 

summarized in table 1. 

TABLE !.-Estimates of natural discharge of ground water 

from aquifers in the Mid-Atlantic Region 

Coastal Plain part of region (mostly un- consolidated, or "soft," rocks) ------ Remaining part of region (mostly con- solidated, or "hard," 

rocks) ---------------

Totals for Mid- Atlantic Region_ 

Area 

(mi 2 ) 

20,000 

88,000 

108,000 

Portion of Streamflow streamflow 

(billion estimated gal/d) to be 

16.7 

73.5 

90.2 

base flow 

(percent) 

55 

40 

Estimated 

discharge of ground 

water 

from 

aquifers 

(billion 

gal/d) 

9.2 

29.4 

38.6 

It would be, of course, impractical to intercept all 

this water before it is discharged into streams. This 

estimated total, nevertheless, indicates the magnitude of the resource. For example, assuming an 

average daily consumption of 150 gallons of water 

per person, the estimated total available supply of 

38.6 billion gal/d of ground water, if developed for 

domestic use, would provide for about 257 million 

people-more than six times the population of the 

region in 1970. For the region at large, the potential 

supply is sufficient to provide for anticipated population growth for the foreseeable future. 

During extended periods of greater than average 

precipitation, more ground water would be available thaR the estimated 38.6 billion gal/ d. Conversely, during drought conditions, substantially less 

would be available. 

WATER IN STORAGE 

In addition to the quantity of ground water estimated above, at least another 140 to 350 trillion gal-
116 SUMMARY APPRAISALS OF THE NATION'S GROUND-WATER RESOURCES 

TABLE 2.-Estimates of ground water in storage in hydrogeologic units of the Mid-Atlantic Region 

Hydrogeologic Approximate 

unit area 

(mi 2 ) 

Coastal Plain province (sand, clay, minor 

gravel) ------------------------------ 20,000 

Piedmont, New England, and Adirondack 

provinces (crystalline igneous and metamorphic rocks) ---------------------- 29,800 

Blue Ridge province (crystalline rocks) 2,100 

Valley and Ridge province (sandstone and 

limestone) --------------------------- 28,700 

Champlain Valley (sandstone and limestone) ------------------------------- 2,700 

Appalachian Plateaus province (sandstone 

and shale, coal seams) ---------------- 24,700 

Totals --------------------------- 108,000 

Ions of water is estimated to be in storage in the 

major unconfined shallow aquifers of the region. As 

shown in table 2, this total is derived from estimates 

of the generally available drawdown (the difference 

between the static water level and maximum pumping levels) in the rocks in each of the major physiographic divisions of the region. In the manner developed by Rasmussen ( 1955) for Delaware, the 

areas of each division were multiplied by the estimated available drawdown, and by the storage coefficient (a decimal fraction representing the quantity of water per unit volume of the aquifer that 

can be withdrawn or replenished), and the results 

converted to trillions of gallons. 

In addition to the estimated quantity of water in 

storage in the major unconfined aquifers, substantial quantities also are stored in other units in the 

Mid-Atlantic Region. Among these are {1) artesian 

aquifers, chiefly in the Coastal Plain province; (2) 

certain glacial deposits, roughly in the northern 

half of the region that was covered by continental 

glaciers; (3) aquifers in watercourses-stream valleys containing glacial outwash sand and gravel, or 

alluvial deposits, in hydraulic continuity with 

streams, ( 4) sand and gravel deposits in former 

river valleys that were buried beneath by later glacial deposits. 

Except for the artesian aquifers beneath the 

Coastal Plain, it is difficult to make meaningful estimates of the quantities of ground water in these 

other deposits. It is particularly difficult for watercourse aquifers, which are quickly replenished by 

streams as ground water is withdrawn from the 

aquifer. However, a very conservative estimate of 

ground water stored in these various kinds of deposits would be at least another 20 trillion gallons, 

in addition to the 140 to 350 trillion gallons that 

Estimated Estimated 

Average Average storage 

productive available average available 

thickness drawdown storage (trillions 

(ft) (ft) coefficient of (dimensionless) gallons) 

250 150 0.1-0.2 63-125 

250 200 .001-.05 1.2-62 

200 150 .001-.02 .07-1.3 

250 200 .05-.1 60-120 

150 100 .05-.1 2.8-5.6 

200 150 .02-.05 15-39 

140-350 

(rounded) 

are estimated to be in storage in the major unconfined aquifers. 

A substantial part of the quantity that is in storage-perhaps at least 50 percent-would be potentially available as a res,erve supply during emergency periods, such as the northeast drought of the 

middle 1960's. However, only a small part of this 

potential reserve supply could be developed during 

a drought because of the lead time required for exploratory drilling, aquifer testing, drilling of production wells, and development of suitable distribution systems by which to transport the water to 

municipal or industrial centers where it is needed. 

Thus, to cope with possible emergencies, these reserve sources of ground water ideally could be explored and water-supply systems installed well in 

advance of critical demand for emergency supplies. 

WITHDRAWALS AND USE 

In 1970, the rate of withdrawals of freshwater 

from all sources in the Mid-Atlantic Region was 

28,000 million gal/d, of which 9.3 percent, or 2,600 

million gal/d, was ground water (Murray and 

Reeves, 1972, table 17). This is equivalent to a total 

volume of 10,220 billion gal from all sources during 

1970, of which 949 billion gal was from ground 

water. In terms of the regional population of 38,-

401,000 in 1970, the rate of use of freshwater was 

about 730 gal/ d per person in the region from all 

sources, and the rate of use for fresh ground water 

was about 68 gal/d per person (Murray and Reeves, 

1972, table 17). Thus, the present demand for 

water in the region is met primarily from surfacewater sources. The quantity of ground water that i's 

estimated to be available from the aquifers of the 

region indicates that substantial additional utilization of ground water is a valid management option. 
MID-ATLANTIC REGION 117 

Of the total freshwater withdrawn in the region 

from all sources in 1970, only 5 percent was consumed (lost to the atmosphere by evaporation or incorporated with manufactured products), and 95 

percent was returned to the streams or aquifers 

(Murray and Reeves, 1972, table 17.) 

Industrial use of ground water was only 1,100 

million gal/d, or about 4 percent of the total freshwater withdrawals. Thus, industry, which is the 

principal economic activity in the region, depends 

largely on surface-water supplies. These supplies are 

vulnerable to drought and pollution and their extensive land-use requirements may not be entirely 

compatible with the interests of environmental protection and conservation. Accordingly, future industrial growth may depend more and more on groundwater resources, particularly small or light industries whose requirements for process water may be 

small and which require water of good quality. 

CHEMICAL QUALITY 

DESCRIPTION OF CHEMICAL QUALITY 

The chemical quality of ground water in the MidAtlantic Region differs from place to place in accordance with the hydrologic history of the water 

and the nature of rock materials through which it 

flows. However, in most parts of the Mid-Atlantic 

Region freshwater of satisfactory chemical quality 

for virtually all uses occurs to depths of several 

hundred feet, and in some areas to a depth of a 

thousand feet or more. In overview, the Coastal 

Plain province contains a large, complex blanket of 

fresh ground water overlying a much greater volume of deep-lying brackish and saline ground water 

extending downdip (downslope) seaward. The 

boundary between the updip freshwater and the 

downdip saline water is mappable (Cushing and 

others, 1973). Freshwater, in the great mass of 

nonmarine formations constituting the oldest sedimentary rocks in the provinc~e, extends from several 

to more than 60 miles downdip from outcrop areas 

along the western side of the province. The quality 

of water in these deposits is generally soft and 

slightly acidic in the outcrop area, with local excessive amounts of iron, and total dissolved solids 

content on the order of 50 to 150 mg/L. Downdip 

and at greater depths below the land surface, in 

parts of the formation confined under younger deposits, the water is more mineralized, is commonly 

of the calcium bicarbonate type and slightly hard, 

with dissolved solids on the order of 300 to 500 

mg/L. As the boundary between fresh and saline 

ground water is approached, dissolved solids exceed 1,000 mg/L. 

A large mass of marine deposits rests on and 

crops out east of the nonmarine strata. These marine deposits contain fresh ground water with dissolved-solids content on the order of 100 to 250 mg/ 

L. Water from these deposits,.. too, contains excessive concentrations of iron locally, and owing to the 

abundance of calcium carbonate shells and other calcareous material, moderate to excessive hardness 

is encountered in places. The relationship with 

downdip saline ground water in these sediments is 

less well defined than for the nonmarine deposits. 

Water in the glacial, watercourse, and alluvial 

deposits is generally soft, containing less than 50 

mg/L up to 150 mg/L of dissolved solids, although 

in places concentrations may be as much as 400 

mg/L. Excessive hardness and high-iron concentrations occur in places. Saline water from tidal rivers, 

bays, and the Atlantic Ocean, where these waters 

border or contact low-lying deposits, may infiltrate 

the fresh ground water, either naturally or by induced landward movement owing to well pumpage. 

Peripheral to these saltwater bodies aquifers may 

contain water with dissolved-solids concentrations 

of 1,000 mg/L and much more. The quality of 

ground water in aquifers subject to freshwater 

recharge from rivers, lakes, or fresh reaches of 

estuaries may vary with the quality of the water 

infiltrating from these surface sources. 

Owing to the great variety of rock materials in 

the remaining provinces, west and north of the 

Coastal Plain, ground-water quality varies widely. 

Freshwater in the silicate-type rocks (most of the 

metamorphic crystalline rocks and quartzose sedimentary rocks) that form highland areas, mountains, and ridge areas is different from that in the 

calcareous carbonate rocks (primarily limestone and 

dolomite) that commonly underlie major regional 

lowland valleys. Although there are exceptions, 

ground water in the silicate-type rocks is generally 

soft with low dissolved solids, usually less than 

200 mg/L. Metamorphic crystalline rocks of the 

Blue Ridge province, for example, are not readily 

soluble to ground water, and water derived from 

wells or springs characteristically is very low in dissolved solids. In contrast, water in the calcareous 

rocks, such as in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, 

the Valley and Ridge Province, and the Taconic 

Province of New York and New England, is typically hard, with dissolved-solids content of 200 to 600 

mg/L. 
I18 SUMMARY APPRAISALS OF THE NATION'S GROUND-WATER RESOURCES 

Throughout much of the area of the Appalachian 

provinces underlain by sedimentary belts of rocks, 

the fresh ground water is underlain by salty ground 

water at depths of several hundred to several thousand feet. 

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH GROUND-WATER 

QUALITY 

Salty ground water presents some problems and 

some opportunities. Many aquifers throughout the 

Mid-Atlantic Region are partly filled with salty 

water. Although unsatisfactory as a source of water 

supply for most uses without desalination, under 

favorable hydrogeologic conditions these saline reservoirs may serve as storage media for liquid 

wastes, petroleum, or even artificially recharged 

freshwater where excess surface water is available 

for storage. 

Hard water is a problem and inconvenience, particularly in the regional valley areas of the Ap_: 

palachian provinces where hardness of the water is 

highest. Treatment (softening) units are available 

for municipal, domestic, and industrial use. 

Objectionable concentrations of iron are prevalent 

throughout the region. The problem is most pronounced in the shallow terrace and glacial deposits, 

and in Appalachian areas where mining of coal has 

affected ground-water quality. 

Other natural quality problems of lesser importance include hydrogen-sulfide gas, excessive concentrations of fluoride, and contamination by oil 

and by organically derived natural gases such as 

methane. 

Many quality-of-water problems are associated 

with man's activities. One prominent cause of 

ground-water quality deterioration is pumpip.g of 

wells near sources of contamination and inducing 

water of poor quality into the aquifer. For example, salty water moved landward in one of the 

principal aquifers on Long Island, and in a similar 

situation in Atlantic City, N.J., because large quantities of ground water were pumped near the freshwater-saltwater boundary. 

Pollution resulting from man's actions is a recognized source of degradation of ground-water quality. 

Nitrate concentrations exceeding 45 mg/L have 

been identified in water from wells affected by 

cesspools, septic tanks, and fertilized agricultural 

land. High concentrations of chloride have been 

identified in ground water affected by winter-road 

salting and near storage sites for road salt. 

Leachates from landfills and dumps have affected 

ground-water quality. Accidental or intentional disposal of industrial wastes may also influence 

ground-water quality detrimentally. 

The ground-water quality problems of the MidAtlantic Region are many, and these are only the 

major ones. Miller, DeLuca, and Tessier (1974) 

compiled records of hundreds of cases of groundwater contamination in the northeastern States, reporting that they represent only a very small percentage of those that actually exist. Ground-waterquality management is especially important in this 

region of intense industry and agriculture and heavy 

population density. 

RELATION OF GROUND-WATER TO 

SURFACE-WATER RESOURCES 

Ground water and the base flow of streams are 

two different phases of a single fluid resource. It 

follows, then, that pumping water from wells in 

some areas could effectively diminish the amount of 

water available from streams, especially during dry 

periods when the base flow of streams is sustained 

almost wholly by ground water. Normally, the withdrawal of water from the streams under present 

conditions does not noticeably affect the amount of 

water available in the aquifers of the Mid-Atlantic 

Region. In the Coastal Plain, pumping from these 

shallow aquifers reduces the quantity of ground 

water that is discharged directly into bays and the 

ocean in addition to reducing the base flow of 

streams. 

Development of the aquifers to their full potential would eventually reduce the base flow of streams 

to zero, and it would probably allow incursion of 

brackish water or seawater into the lower reaches 

of streams and into aquifers at places where they 

are in direct hydraulic continuity with tidal streams, 

bays, or the ocean. 

There are many places in the Mid-Atlantic Region where ground water and surface water could 

be developed conjunctively but there are as yet no 

large-scale conjunctive developments. Such development projects would involve balancing the use of 

ground-water and surface-water reservoirs according to availability and demand: surface water 

might, in times of surplus, be used to recharge the 

ground-water reservoir; conversely, ground water 

would be used to augment surface-reservoir supplies 

during low flows or during droughts. 

Permeable glacial outwash deposits occur in many 

places in the northern part of the region, particularly in upstate New York and northern Pennsylvania 

and New Jersey (fig. 5). Where these deposits are 

watercourses (Thomas, 1952, p. 10), water can be 
MID-ATLANTIC REGION I19 

pumped from them so as to induce recharge from 

the adjacent perennial stream. This might be regarded as a simple form of conjunctive use, in which 

water withdrawn from the ground-water body is 

derived from streamflow. 

Artificial recharge of aquifers by pumping surplus surface water into them in the winter has been 

practiced by certain industries in Newark, N.J., 

and this practice has helped to control saltwater encroachment (Thomas, 1951, p. 127). 

In southeastern Virginia, ground water from four 

wells drilled in Lower Cretaceous sands in the 

Coastal Plain is pumped directly into the Lake 

Prince reservoir of the City of Norfolk to augment 

the surface-water supplies during periods of low 

flow. 

WATER-RELATED PROBLEMS IN THE 

MID-ATLANTIC REGION 

IMPACT OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT ON 

MANAGEMENT OF GROUND-WATER RESOURCES 

One of the pervasive characteristics of the MidAtlantic Region is growth in economic activity (U.S. 

Water Resources Council, 1972, summary tables). 

Although it has attained a high average population 

density-more than 340/mi2-its population is still 

growing. This growth is probably in response to the 

continuing general increase in economic development. Industrial growth expands employment opportunities, increases per capita income, and intensifies commercial agriculture, which historically has 

tended to concentrate in regions and areas of comparative economic advantage (U.S. Water Resources 

Council, 1972, p. 19). Other factors, including availability of marketing and transportation facilities 

and excellent harbors, contribute to industrial 

growth and agricultural production. 

An increasing need for adequate water supplies 

attends the growth in economic activity. Water supplies have generally kept pace with the increasing 

demands through the years, but the severe northeast 

drought of the mid-1960's brought the realization 

that the margin of reserve surface-water supplies 

was not as comfortable as had been thought. Meetings were held in major cities, many articles and 

alarmist statements appeared in magazines and in 

the press, and the public soon became water conscious. Ground water quickly became a topic of interest, and there was much speculation as to its potential for increased development, not only as a 

dependable reserve supply in similar water emergencies but also as a full-fledged water source that 

should be accorded higher status in developmental 

planning. 

There are ample quantities of water, particularly ground water, in the Mid-Atlantic Region. Problems relate primarily to its development, management, and distribution. Industries that require large 

quantities of water would be best served in the 

Coastal Plain part of the region. In the hard-rock 

areas, the best locations are along major streams, 

in watercourse aquifers where ground water is effectively recharged because of the hydraulic continuity between a perennial stream and the sanrl 

and gravel of the valley-fill deposits. Of course, an 

industry could locate some distance from the source 

of supply and provide water through a system of 

pipelines and booster pumps. The cost of such an arrangement might be advantageous when compared 

to the cost of locating near the source of supply. 

Light industry, on the other hand, whose need for 

water is primarily for personnel rather than for 

process water, could locate almost anywhere in the 

Mid-Atlantic Region, consistent with other requirements. 

If economic activity continues to increase, as predicted by recent studies (U.S. Water Resources 

Council 1972, summary tables), more consideration 

will undoubtedly be given to water-supply alternatives. Among these, the increased use of ground 

water and the conjunctive use of ground water and 

surface water are of greatest potential. Conjunctive 

use of freshwater and saline water may ultimately 

prove to be entirely feasible, as desalination becomes 

less expensive through improved technology. Indeed, certain industries, such as the dye industry, 

may consider locating in places where saline water 

is available because of the need for it in process 

water. Use of brackish water, with minimal cost 

for mixing with locally available freshwater, may 

result in substantial savings in certain situations. 

Ground-water developments commonly entail little modification in existing land-use patterns, because the resource is obtained from beneath the surface by wel1s with surface pumping plants which, 

after construction, can be made inconspicuous by 

landscaping and other means. Therefore, most 

ground-water developments can be made with a 

minimum of adverse environmental impact. The 

coming decades may witness a greater preference 

for ground water than for surface water, simply 

because it is possible to develop ground water with 

less environmental damage. 

Large-scale ground-water developments, even in 

areas of proven abundance like the Coastal Plain, 
I20 SUMMARY APPRAISALS OF THE NATION'S GROUND-WATER RESOURCES 

may not always be possible without a considerable 

pipeline distribution system and booster pumping 

stations. During the northeast drought of the mid1960's, when surface-water resources were strained 

to the limit, such large-scale ground-water transmission systems were considered. One such plan involved development of ground water from the 

aquifers of the New Jersey Coastal Plain, where 

about 20 trillion gallons of water are estimated to 

be in storage, and conveying it by pipeline to industrial and population centers in the metropolitan 

complex in Newark and vicinity. This scheme and 

several others were discussed in the public press, 

in magazine articles, and at various meetings-not, 

of course, with the idea of immediate solution to 

the drought-related water shortage then prevalent, 

but rather to generate positive thinking toward provision for adequate water supplies and their satisfactory distribution in preparation for the next prolonged drought, whenever it might occur. Most of 

the enthusiasm and discussion of these proposals 

quickly subsided with the end of the drought in 

1967. Since then, there has been little, if any, public discussion or concern about large conjunctive or 

standby ground-water development projects. 

Continued increase in ground-water development 

may be expected in the region as the modest level of 

development to date can be increased many times. 

ACID MINE DRAIN AGE 

One of the difficult problems in regions where 

coal has been extensively mined is pollution of 

streams and ground water by acid mine drainage. 

In the Mid-Atlantic Region, there are many coalbearing areas in Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, 

and Pennsylvania. Water draining from the coal 

mines in these areas into streams has resulted in 

serious contamination. The general problem of 

stream and ground-water contamination by drainage of mines is well summed up by McGuinness 

(1963,p.727): 

The large population and heavy industralization have combined to produce large quantities of pollutants. Mines, chiefly 

coal mines, are one of the main sources. Coal and certain 

ores contain sulfur compounds which, when exposed to the 

air in mines and waste piles, become oxidized to form sulfuric 

acid. The acid contaminates both streams and ground water, 

and is generated in such large quantities that the problem 

is far from solved in spite of the intensity with which it 

has been attacked. 

Streams are affected more readily than ground 

water by drainage of water from mines, but a few 

good aquifers have been contaminated in the Susquehanna and Delaware River basins in Pennsylvania. 

In a recent study of acid waters draining from 

the underground coal mines of western Maryland, 

Holly day and McKenzie ( 1973) summarized some 

of the effects of acid mine drainage-the degradation of the water supply for recreational, industrial, 

and municipal uses; the increase in costs of treatment; more frequent replacement of treatment facilities ; the staining of porcelain fixtures and of 

laundered clothing; endangerment of aquatic life; 

and detrimental effects on engineering structures 

and navigational equipment. They suggest pursuing 

the hypothesis that neutralization of acid mine 

waters can take place by "using the natural underground environment in place of or in conjunction 

with mine-mouth water treatment plants." Thus, in 

appropriate hydrogeologic settings, convenient natural laboratories are available in which to test the 

hypothesis of natural neutralization of acid mine 

waters. 

SALINE GROUND WATER 

Until recent years, saline ground water has almost 

everywhere been regarded as a problem. Its encroachment was to be prevented so far as possible. 

Its elimination, once encroachment occurred, was 

almost impossible to achieve. Its usefulness was 

limited to a very few applications, such as cooling 

and certain cleaning or flushing operations in some 

industries. More recently, however, especially in 

the past 10 years, saline water and particularly 

saline ground water and saline aquifers have come 

to be looked upon as a potential resource that should 

be included for consideration by those concerned 

with large-scale water management. 

As mentioned previously, saline (sodium chloride) 

ground water o-ccurs in the downdip reaches of all 

the aquifers of the Coastal Plain. (See Back, 1966, 

p. A2, fig. 2 and pl. 1; Cushing and others, 1973, 

p. 9.) 

In their summary report on a comprehensive 

study of Long Island, Franke and McClymonds 

(1972, p. F 55) point out that within the next 25 

to 50 years the technology for economically converting saline water to freshwater may be greatly improved. Thus, it is important to consider saline 

ground water in the Mid-Atlantic Region as a potentially usable component of the total groundwater resources. 

Saline ground water may be considered from three 

points of view: (1) as a source of water, usable 

without treatment, by itself or in a blend with 

freshwater, (2) as a source of additional freshwater 
MID-ATLANTIC REGION I21 

by employment of one of several methods of desalting, and (3) as an occupant of aquifer space usable 

for storage of freshwater or wastes. 

Although the utility of untreated saline ground 

water is low, it is nevertheless an important resource in certain applications. One such application 

is the augmentation of freshwater supplies by mixing saline water with existing sources of supply 

during periods of peak demand. For example, 

Cederstrom (1957, p. 42) notes that during World 

War II a surface reservoir for the city of Newport 

News, on the lower York-James peninsula in Virginia, was successfully augmented with ground 

water containing 400 to more than 1,000 mg/L 

of chloride. 

Saline ground water is useful also for cooling and 

for many industrial washing purposes. Moreover, in 

certain industries (as for example dye manufacturing), the chloride concentration in process water is 

required to be higher than that desirable for general use, and the needed concentration can be adjusted by controlled dilution. 

Various methods for the conversion of saline 

water to suitable freshwater have been under study 

by the Federal Government for more than 20 years 

and, since 1958, on a relatively substantial scale. 

Desalting costs for seawater have been reduced 

gradually, and in 1973 were less than $1 per 1,000 

U.S. gallons under favorable conditions. Further 

conversion cost reduction would stimulate use of 

saline water more widely. Many aspects of the development and feasible utilization of saline ground 

water have been reviewed in detail. (See Kohout, 

1970.) 

CONSTRAINTS ON GROUND-WATER DEVELOPMENT 

AND MANAGEMENT 

Perhaps the most obvious constraint on the optimum development and management of ground-water 

resources is the lack of sufficient information upon 

which to base wise decisions. Needs for additional 

information in each of the States of the Mid-Atlantic 

Region are discussed in a later section of this report. 

LEGAL CONSTRAINTS 

Constraints imposed by law are complex and are 

among the various factors tending to inhibit larger 

scale ground-water developments. Early doctrines 

relating to the withdrawal and use of water are 

based primarily on English common law, which was 

gradually developed at a time when the population 

was widely scattered and water was far more 

abundant than the demand for it. Inevitably, with 

increasing population growth, industrialization, and 

urbanization, conflicts developed and some modifications were made. The need for modification is indeed genuine, as pointed out by Thomas (1951, p. 

243), who stated, "many established concepts are 

now known to be scientifically unsound and should 

be revised in the light of present knowledge." 

Of the States represented in the Mid-Atlantic 

Region, Vermont, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and 

Pennsylvania generally follow the "English common-law version of the riparian doctrine, which 

gives absolute ownership of ground water to the 

land owner" (Geraghty and others, 1973, pl. 34). 

The remaining States, New York, Maryland, Delaware, West Virginia, and Virginia, modify this 

doctrine, applying the American rule of reasonable 

use, which "restricts the land owner's rights in relation to others" (Geraghty and others, 1973, pl. 34). 

The present trend, however, appears to be in the direction of application of the American modification-the doctrine of reasonable use-for all the 

States in the Mid-Atlantic Region. 

In addition to these general doctrines, some States 

in the Mid-Atlantic Region have established more 

specific controls on ground-water use. For example, 

Virginia and Maryland have enacted laws governing 

the drilling of wells. Since the late 1950's, following 

a long period of gradually declining artesian pressure, Virginia has required owners of flowing wells 

to cap them, and records for commercial and industrial wells must be furnished to the State. New J ersey and Vermont require approval of anticipated 

withdrawals above specified limits. On Long Island, 

N.Y., ground water used for cooling purposes must 

be returned to the ground through recharge wells, 

provided it has not been contaminated. 

GROUND-WATER STUDIES AND NEEDS FOR 

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION IN THE MIDATLANTIC REGION 

There has been a general upward growth trend 

in the Mid-Atlantic Region, not only in population 

but in economic activity, manifested by industrial 

development, increasing urbanization, and increasing water requirements. More information will be 

needed regarding ,the occurrence and availability of 

additional ground-water supplies in the region, and 

the hydrologic effects of their developments, to facilitate efficient management of the total water resources. 

Systematic programs of ground-water investigations are being carried on largely by the Geological 
I22 SUMMARY APPRAISALS OF THE NATION'S GROUND-WATER RESOURCES 

Survey in cooperation with State or local agencies. 

The discussion that follows considers the existing 

coverage and future needs in each of the States in 

the Mid-Atlantic Region. 

Figure 9 shows the areas that have been studied 

by ground-warter investigations. 

Three categories of coverage are shown : 

1. Detailed quantitative studies, in which ground 

water has been treated as a dynamic fluid resource. These studies include analysis of the 

results of aquifer-performance tests or other 

analyses that provide hydraulic information 

that serve~s as a guide. for making predictions 

about the response of aquifers to changes in 

the pumping regimen that would result from 

possible additional developments. 

2. Detailed reconnaissance studies, in which most 

of the available ground-water inforn1ation has 

been collected, including quantitative data and 

interpretations that provide a basis for general understanding of the effects of possible 

future developments. 

3. General reconnaissance studies, in which a representative sampling of readily available information has been collected and interpreted 

and which can provide general guidance for 

water developments. 

Some areas in New York, New Jersey, and Virginia are not colored on figure 9. For these areas, 

formal reports have not been published, and no 

studies nearing completion are currently (1976) 

underway. However, Federal and State agencies 

have basic data on file for most of these areas. Specific inquiry may be made directly to the district 

office of the Geological Survey or to State agencies 

responsible for water studies for the appropriate 

State. 

The following two categories of ground-water information are needed as of 1976, in the areas indicated on figure 10: 

1. Detailed quantitative information, as previously 

defined. This level of ground-water information is indicated for areas where there is 

either an immediate need or a foreseeable 

need. The detailed information provided by investigations at this level allows immediate use 

for planning and development of major projects, such as municipal or industrial well 

fields, with only minimal additional study, if 

any. 

2. Detailed reconnaissance information, as previously de~fined. This level of information is indicated for areas where only moderate future 

developments are likely and where a moderate 

amount of detailed information would suffice 

for small developments. Such information 

would provide an adequate base for additional 

work prior to any large-scale developments 

that may materialize. 

VERMONT 

Largely because Vermont is a rural State with no 

large cities and only minimal industrial development, the total use of water from all sources is the 

smallest among the northeastern States, amounting 

to only 110 million gal/d in 1970 (Murray and 

Reeves, 1972, table 10). However, use of ground 

water ( 42 million gal/d) is proportionately the 

highest among these same States-38 percent of 

the total water used (Geraghty and others, 1973). 

Despite this fact, the need for additional groundwater information in Vermont is only moderately 

urgent, the chief demand being related primarily 

to tourism and recreation. 

In the part of western Vermont that lies within 

the Mid-Atlantic Region (fig. 9), ground-water favorability maps have been published for the several 

basins draining into Lake Champlain and the Hudson River valley (Hodges, 1966; 1967a, b, c, and 

d). These maps and accompanying texts are classified as general reconnaissance studies. 

In addition, Hodges and Butterfield (1972) have 

published a detailed study that defines the quantity 

and quality of the ground water in the sand and 

gravel aquifers of the Barre-Montpelier area, in 

the western upstream reaches of the Winooski River 

basin, which drains into Lake Champlain. This 

study appraises the potential ground-water sources 

to meet expanded needs of many of the towns in 

Washington County. A detailed reconnaissance study 

is nearing completion immediately north and northeast of the Barre-Montpelier area, also in the 

Winooski basin. 

Detailed reconnaissance ground-water information will be needed soon in the eastern parts of three 

basins-the Missisquoi, Lamoille, and Winooski-as 

a sequel to that which was provided by the work in 

the Barre-Montpelier area. The burgeoning recreation indus try in those areas in recent years, associated mainly with the excellent skiing country, 

justifies such information (A. L. Hodges, Jr., written commun., 1975). Likewise, ground-water information is generally inadequate for anticipated development in southwestern Vermont, from Rutland 

to the Massachusetts boundary. 
MID-ATLANTIC REGION 

0 190 290 MILES 

~1----,.__L' T"" l ----,...L bo___~_ _ ___~_ __ 2'bo-----3-,-b-o KI LOMETERS 

EXPLANATION 

D 

Detailed 

quantitative 

D 

Detailed 

reconnaissance 

D 

General 

reconnaissance 

(Data are--on file for most of the 

uncolored areas; see text) 

FIGURE 9.-Status of ground-water investigations in the Mid-Atlantic Region. 

!23 
124 SUMMARY APPRAISALS OF THE NATION'S GROUND-WATER RESOURCES 

0 1 ~0 270 MILES 

~~--~--~--~--L_ __ L_ __ , , ---------.,-- 6 100 200 300 KILOMETERS 

EXPLANATION 

D 

Detailed 

quantitative 

D 

Detailed 

reconnaissance 

FIGURE 10.-In certain areas in; the Mid-Atlantic Region, additional ground-water information is needed in order to assist 

water-resources development and management. 
MID-ATLANTIC REGION I25 

In the intervening region between Montpelier 

and Rutland, the need for water is believed now to 

be relatively stable. Adequate surface-water supplies have been developed from Lake Champlain, 

and additional supplies from this source should be 

adequate for the foreseeable future without recourse 

to ground-water sources, assuming that trends in 

economic activity continue at present raibes. 

MASSACHUSETTS 

Only a small part of northwestern Massachusetts 

lies within the Mid-Atlantic Region. The Hoosic 

River, whose basin contains 205 mi 2 upstream from 

the Massachusetts-Vermont State boundary, drains 

164 mi~ in Massachusetts, 39 mi 2 in Vermont, and 2 

mi 2 in New York. A tributary of the Hudson River, 

it flows through southwestern Vermont into New 

York. 

A detailed reconnaissance study of the Hoosic 

River basin was published recently as a hydrologic 

atlas (Hansen, Toler, and Gay, 1973). It is sufficiently detailed to provide adequate information on 

the hydrogeology of the principal ground-water 

reservoirs in the basin. These are glacial outwash 

deposits forming watercourse aquifers in deep bedrock valleys along the main stem of the river. In 

places these deposits are 300 ft thick. Test drilling is 

needed to determine the best locations for additional 

development along the favorable river reaches described in the atlas. 

The Hoosic River basin in northwestern Massachusetts is mostly rural in character and is likely 

to remain so for the near future. There are three 

principal communities-Adams, North Adams, and 

Williamstown. The study by Hansen, Toler, and Gay 

(1973) is believed adequate for needs of the nearterm future, as it provides sufficient information to 

furnish a guide for exploratory drilling for additional ground-water developments. 

NEW YORK 

More than 17,000 mP of New York lies within 

the Mid-Atlantic Region : part of the St. Lawrence 

Valley, nearly the entire Hudson River basin, and 

the northern parts of the Delaware and Susquehanna 

River basins. This area was glaciated during the 

ice age, and extensive outwash deposits occur in 

many of the larger valleys. The sand and gravel 

deposits in these valleys are the most widely used 

and promising sources of ground water in upstate 

New York. They are generally highly permeable and 

their hydraulic continuity with the perennial streams 

in the valleys allows ample replenishment for 

ground-water withdrawals from these deposits. 

Except: for parts of the upper Hudson River 

basin, the entire area of New York within the region 

has been adequately reviewed in reports prepared 

under the Federal-State cooperative programlargely reconnaissance studies (fig. 9). Also, a few 

quantitative studies of small areas have been completed. The most recent studies were made near 

Bing hampton (A. R. Randall, oral commun., 1975), 

and on Long Island (Kimmel and Braids, 1974). In 

addition, an important series of reports covering 

many aspects of the hydrology of Long Island has 

been published; these reports contain much quantitative information. (See especially McClymonds and 

Franke, 1972; Franke and McClymonds, 1972.) 

Many short reports have been prepared on small 

areas in New York by private consultants. For the 

most part, however, these are unpublished. Consultants also have prepared water-resources reports 

for all of the counties under a program with the New 

York Department of Health. Some of these reports 

describe reconnaissance ground-water investigations. 

Although much information on the ground-water 

resources of New York has been developed in several 

decades of cooperative study by the U.S. Geological 

Survey and State and County agencies, additional 

quantitative information on the hydrologic systems 

is needed as the economy and population of the State 

grow. The need exists for continued detailed groundwater studies on Long Island, because most of Long 

Island depends almost entirely on ground water to 

support a large and expanding population. Additional studies now under way and others proposed 

for the future include (1) a continuation and refinement of the present hydrologic data-collection activities, in particular more intensive water-quality 

study and monitoring in parts of Long Island; (2) 

more complete definition of the shape and areal extent of the several aquifers, particularly in eastern 

Suffolk County, which is rapidly being developed 

and where deep public-supply wells are being drilled; 

and (3) predictive modeling studies to aid management decisions. These and other needs are discussed 

in the summary report by Franke and McClymonds 

(1972, p. F55-56). 

In a ground-water investigation of Orange and 

Ulster Counties in lower upstate New York, Frimpter ( 1972, p. 7 4) suggests additional information 

may soon be needed for two important segments of a 

watercourse aquifer. One segment, northeast o.f Port 

Jervis, is in the valleys of the lower Neversink 

River and Basher Kill; the other segment is in the 
I26 SUMMARY APPRAISALS OF THE NATION'S GROUND-WATER RESOURCES 

Sandburg Creek valley near Ellenville. These segments are believed to be parts of a continuous sand 

and gravel body that lies beneath the present divide 

between the two drainages in intervening Sullivan 

County (M. H. Frimpter, oral commun., 1975). (See 

fig. 10.) More industry and housing developments 

are anticipated in these areas, and therefore increasing development of ground-water supplies is foreseen. Frimpter suggests that artificial recharge of 

ground water with excess surface-water supplies 

might aid optimum utilization of the water resources. 

Other small aquifers probably will need study 

within the next few years if present trends in economic activity continue. For example, aquifers in 

Westchester and Cortland Counties (fig. 10) are 

being considered for quantitative study. Cortland 

County has an extensive shallow watercouse aquifer 

system that is highly susceptible to pollution from 

suburban and agricultural wastes. 

Additional general ground-water investigations 

have been proposed in recent years for the lower 

Hudson River basin. Reconnaissance, in sufficient detail to provide adequate preliminary information for 

possible later detailed studies in local critical areas, 

is under consideration. 

NEW JERSEY 

New Jersey lies entirely within the Mid-Atlantic 

Region; its area is 7,836 mi 2 • About three-fifths of 

the State is part of the Atlantic Coastal Plain, where 

excellent aquifers store vast quantities of ground 

water. The hard rocks in the northern part of the 

State provide sources for small to moderate groundwater supplies; where stratified glacial drift is present, larger supplies might be developed locally. 

As shown in figure 9, ground-water studies have 

been made nearly everywhere in New Jersey, including both general and detailed reconnaissance studies. 

In the northern part of the State, where ground 

water is important but much less abundant than in 

the Coastal Plain, Somerset County and parts of 

Warren and Bergen Counties lack formal investigation. General reconnaissance coverage has been completed in Middlesex County, southwest of New York 

City, and in Atlantic County farther south in the 

Coastal Plain. Detailed reconnaissance studies have 

been made in the remainder of the State. 

Recently, quantitative studies were completed for 

two areas in northern New Jersey (Vecchioli and 

Nichols, 1966; Vecchioli and others, 1967). Another 

quantitative study, of the Ramapo River, also in 

northern New Jersey, was made by Vecchioli and 

Miller ( 1973). A digital model is nearing completion 

for the Englishtown aquifer in Monmouth and Ocean 

Counties in the Coastal Plain (W. D. Nichols, oral 

commun., 1975). A comprehensive investigation of 

the chemical character of ground water in the 

Englishtown Formation has been published (Seaber, 

1965). 

Much of the information collected during a comprehensive study of the Wharton Tract, in southern 

Camden and Burlington Counties and northwestern 

Atlantic Coutny, has been published (Rhodehamel, 

1973). In addition, detailed quantitative data from 

an extensive pumping test made in 1961 in the Wharton Tract are in the open files of the Geological 

Survey. 

New Jersey ranks high among the States in volume of ground-water withdrawals, and it has probably developed its ground-water reservoirs more 

completely than any other State in the humid eastern part of the country (Thomas, 1951, p. 127). A 

number of problems include the threat of saltwater 

encroachment, which results because of local concentration of pumping adjacent to saltwater bodies 

or near the freshwater-saltwater interface in 

aquifers. Management of these problems would involve changing the locations of pumping centers and 

obtaining detailed quantitative knowledge about the 

ground-water res.ervoirs. 

New Jersey lies along the axis of the BostonWashington transportation corridor. Increasing 

urbanization and industrial development is taking 

place, following roughly along Interstate Routes 95 

(the New Jersey Turnpike) and 295. There is, therefore, need for quantitative ground-water information along this corridor. For similar reasons, quantitative information is warranted in Monmouth 

and Ocean Counties, and in the coastal parts of Burlington, Atlantic, and Cape May Counties. Such information would augment and refine the basic preliminary work already accomplished in these areas 

and would assist in developing ways to minimize 

saltwater encroachment and other potential developmental problems. 

That part of the Pine Barrens in central New 

Jersey, between Camden and Atlantic City, also is 

an area of increasing economic activity and population growth resulting from the completion, in 1964, 

of the expressway between the two cities. Detailed 

quantitative knowledge of the ground water, including model analysis to predict the impacts of 

ground-water development, is warranted in anticipation of the planned development of the Wharton 

Tract as a major source of water supply for south-
MID-ATLANTIC REGION 127 

ern New Jersey. Such a study would facilitate the 

conjunctive development of ground water and surface water in the Tract. 

PENNSYLVANIA 

Pennsylvania has the largest area of the States 

within the Mid-Atlantic Region-over 20,000 mi 2 • 

About two-thirds of this area lies within the Susquehanna River basin, most of the remainder is in 

the Delaware River basin, and only a small part is 

in the Potomac River basin. (See fig. 2.) 

In the glaciated northern part of the State, alluvial and outwash deposits occur in most large valleys. These deposits also extend some distance south 

into the unglaciated area. As watercourses, they 

provide an abundant source of ground water because 

of their hydraulic continuity with the streams that 

occupy the valleys. Recharge from the stream channels can be induced when these deposits are developed for ground-water supplies. 

Elsewhere in the Pennsylvania part of the region, 

the older hard rocks yield small to moderate supplies of water. In the relatively small area of the 

Coastal Plain in the extreme southeastern part of 

the State, ~the unconsolidated sedimentary rocks include several productive aquifers (Greenman and 

others, 1961). 

Pennsylvania was covered by general reconaissance ground-water studies during the 1930's 

(Piper, 1933; Hall, 1934; Leggette, 1936; Lohman, 

1937, 1938, and 1939). Since then, the FederalState cooperative program has carried out more detailed investigations in those parts of the State that 

required refined coverage for various reasons. including industrial expansion and associated population growth. This cooperative program of groundwater investigations continues to be active, and the 

present status of ground-water coverage in terms 

of published reports and active studies nearing completion is indicated on figure 9. 

The general direction of effort in the continuing 

cooperative program is toward providing groundwater information at least at the level of detailed 

reconnaissance in those areas of the State where 

such information is required because of anticipated 

or potential expansion in economic activity. (See 

fig. 10). For the immediate future, the detailed reconnaissance level of ground-water information 

probably would fulfill the anticipated requirements 

adequately. 

Ground-water investigations in Pike and Wayne 

Counties, which lie within the upper Delaware River 

basin in Pennsylvania, are scheduled in the FederalState cooperative program. The information obtained from the proposed studies will be important 

in view of the anticipated acceleration of development in these areas for recreation. Recreational, 

tourist, industrial, and commercial activity has been 

enhanced by the Northeast Extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike, completed in 1957, and by the 

recently completed Interstate Highway 80 across 

Pennsylvania to New Jersey and New York City. 

The planned Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area will require water information presently 

only partially available. 

Saline ground water occurs naturally at depths 

of 300 to 500 ft in the Appalachian Plateaus province in Pennsylvania (fig. 6). (Becher, 1970). More 

comprehensive information is needed on the occurrence of saline water in this area, and elsewhere 

within the region in Pennsylvania. Such information would help define the depths to which potable 

freshwater occurs and also provide knowledge of the 

chemical nature and physical extent of the underlying saline water, which, despite its quality, has potential as a possible future resource. 

MARYLAND, DELAWARE, AND DISTRICT OF 

COLUMBIA 

In view of their close proximity and current joint 

Federal-State cooperative programs, the District of 

Columbia and the States of Maryland and Delaware 

may conveniently be considered together. Much of 

their combined area lies within the Chesapeake Bay 

region and the eastern part of the Potomac River 

basin ; the balance consists of coastal reaches in the 

Maryland Eastern Shore and southern Delaware, 

and minor pa~ts of the Susquehanna and Delaware 

River basins. 

Beginning in 1942, with a study of the Baltimore 

industrial area, reconnaissance studies of counties 

or groups of counties were made of the entire State 

of Maryland as part of the Federal-State cooperative ground-water program. These studies were 

completed in the early 1960's. Since then, detailed 

reconnaissance studies have· been made in the five 

Maryland counties east of Washington, between 

Baltimore and Virginia on the western shore and in 

Talbot and Dorchester Counties on the Maryland 

Eastern Shore. (See fig. 9.) Detailed quantitative 

ground-water studies have been published for the 

entire State of Delaware. (See Sundstrom and 

Pickett, 1968, 1969, 1970, and 1971.) A comprehensive reconnaissance investigation of the water resources of the Delmarva Peninsula, which includes 

the Eastern Shore parts of Virginia, Maryland, and 
I28 SUMMARY APPRAISALS OF THE NATION'S GROUND-WATER RESOURCES 

Delaware, was completed in 1973 (Cushing and 

others, 1973). 

Because of continued urbanization and industrial 

development, ground-water information is needed at 

the quantitative level in the area in north-central 

Maryland between Baltimore and the Pennsylvania 

boundary, which includes Howard, Carroll, Baltimore, and Harford Counties, and the city of Baltimore. It may be desirable to test the hypothesis put 

forth by Hollyday and McKenzie ( 1973) that natural 

neutralization of acid mine drainage waters take 

place in Maryland coal fields under suitable hydrogeologic conditions. 

Quantitative information on ground water is 

needed in the remainder of Sussex County in Delaware and the Eastern Shore counties of Maryland, 

as a followup of the detailed reconnaissance recently 

completed for the Delmarva Peninsula. Economic 

activity in both of these areas is increasing and is 

expected to continue, with the usual attendant increase in demand for water. 

WEST VIRGINIA 

The eastern panhandle of West Virginia lies 

within the Mid-Atlantic Region, in the western 

reaches of the Potomac River basin. A hydrologic 

map, sections, and text have been published (Hobba 

and others, 1973), and a comprehensive report is in 

preparation. This coverage is believed adequate for 

this area for the near future, except for local areas 

where more detailed information may be needed as 

economic activity develops along the Interstate 

Highway system. 

VIRGINIA 

More than 17,000 mi 2 of Virginia lies within the 

Mid-Atlantic Region. The Coastal Plain occupies 

somewhat less than one-third of that area. It is underlain by unconsolidated sediments containing the 

State's most productive aquifers. The balance of the 

State is underlain by crystalline igneous and metamorphic rocks, limestones, and other carbonate 

rocks, sandstones, and shales. 

Reconnaissance ground-water studies have been 

completed in the Virginia part of the region, except 

for most of the Piedmont province which has been 

investigated only in a few areas. (See fig. 9.) Virginia's paper industry is centered in the Franklin 

area, just south of the Mid-Atlantic Region, along 

the James River, in the southeastern corner of the 

State. It has been a major user of ground water 

since the early 1940's. This area has been the subject of quantitative studies (Sinnott, 1968; Brown 

and Cosner, 1974). The effect of the present (1975) 

rate of withdrawal, about 40 million gal/d, extends 

northward more than 25 mi to the York-James 

Peninsula in the southern part of the Mid-Atlantic 

Region. 

A systematic test-drilling program in the Coastal 

Plain would establish a basic network of factual 

data for regional subsurface correlations of the 

water-bearing formations. Samples of water for 

chemical analysis, from individual aquifers, collected 

while drilling test wells, and at selected wells drilled 

for municipal or industrial supplies, would yield a 

better understanding of the State's ground-water 

quality. 

Expansion of the present water-level observationwell network is desirable for determining the effects 

of pumping in individual aquifers near centers of 

major withdrawals. Also, water-quality monitoring 

at selected sites in the Coastal Plain should be expanded to detect changes in the position of the freshwater-saltwater interface in major aquifers. 

Reconnaissance information is needed for most of 

the Virginia Piedmont that lies within the region, 

in order to determine places most favorable for light 

industry. Although little or no process water is required for this kind of activity, small dependable 

supplies of water for personnel or other limited demands are generally available in the Piedmont. 

Moreover, the physical environment of the Piedmont 

counties will continue to attract light industry, especially in established and growing municipal centers, such as the Charlottesville area. 

Exploration for possible productive watercourses 

in the Virginia Piedmont might also be undertaken, 

as was done in 1950 in North Carolina (Mundorff, 

1950). 

CONCLUSIONS 

The rocks that constitute the ground-water reservoirs in the Mid-Atlantic Region can be grouped 

broadly into three general classes. These are ( 1) the 

unconsolidated sedimentary rocks that underlie the 

Coastal Plain ; ( 2) the igneous, metamorphic, and 

consolidated sedimentary rocks that underlie the 

Piedmont, Blue Ridge, Valley and Ridge, Appalachian Plateaus, Adirondack, and New England 

provinces; and (3) the unconsolidated glacial and 

alluvial deposits that overlie the consolidated rocks 

in the northern part of the region. Among these 

rocks, the most permeable have become the important aquifers in the region. 

Large volumes of water move through and are 

stored in the aquifers in the Mid-Atlantic Region, 
MID-ATLANTIC REGION 129 

and much of this water is available for use. Determinations of the base flow of streams in the region 

indicate that as much as 38.6 billion gal/d of ground 

water is being discharged into the ocean. In addition, 

another 140 to 350 trillion gallons of good-quality 

water is estimated to be in storage in the aquifers. 

Current problems of ground-water development 

and management in the region are primarily caused 

by pumping large amounts of ground water from 

fairly small areas and by poor ground-water quality. 

These problems are directly or indirectly related to 

the large and growing population and industrialization of the region, and to natural ground-waterquality problems that occur from place to place. 

Ground water with naturally occurring excessive 

amounts of troublesome constituents, such as chloride, iron, hydrogen sulfide, calcium, and magnesium, 

must be dealt with throughout the region. Local contamination of aquifers in the region is being caused 

by substances placed on the land or put into the 

ground accidentally or intentionally. Activities such 

as deep mining of coal and coal stripping have resulted in serious contamination. Many ground-water 

supplies in the region have been ruined by pumping 

wells too near natural or manmade sources of contamination and drawing water of poor quality into 

the wells. This is particularly true along the coastal 

part of the region where salt-water encroachment is 

a constant threat. 

If the economic activity of the Mid-Atlantic 

Region continues to grow as predicted, the need for 

water will increase also. There are several ways to 

meet this anticipated need in the region. Among 

these, greater use of ground water and the conjunctive use of ground water and surface water offer 

the highest potential. Ground water development can 

be increased :many times over the modest level of 

development to date. Large additional quantities of 

ground water could best be developed in the Coastal 

Plain part of the region. Elsewhere the largest 

amounts could be obtained from areally-extensive, 

permeable carbonate rocks and coarse-grained glacial and alluvial deposits, particularly watercourse 

aquifers along major streams. 

Future development should be based on the knowledge of past and present ground-water management problems in order to avoid the same' pitfalls. 

Large-scale ground-water developments should not 

be restricted to small areas and the major groundwater reservoirs should be protected as much as 

possible from contamination. The severe water 

shortages experienced during the Northeast drought 

of the middle 1960's suggest that substantial reserve supplies should be developed to meet the needs 

of such emergency periods. Perhaps 50 percent of 

the usable ground water stored in the aquifers of 

the region could be developed for reserve supplies. 

However, only a small part of the potential reserve 

could be utilized during a drought because of the 

lead time required for exploratory drilling, aquifer 

testing, drilling of production wells, and construction of sui1table distribution systems to transport 

the water to municipal or industrial centers. Thus, 

to cope with possible emergencies, these reserve 

sources of ground water ideally should be explored 

and water-supply systems installed well in advance 

of critical demand for alternate sources of supply. 

To ensure the wise development and management 

of the water resources of the Mid-Atlantic Region 

more information will be required about the occurrence, availability, and quality of ground water. Additional detailed reconnaissance data are essential 

in north-central and southwestern Vermont; eastcentral and southeastern New York; northeastern, 

central, and south-central Pennsylvania; central 

and northeastern Maryland; and east-central Virginia. Moreover, supplementary detailed quantitative information is desirable for the aquifers underlying the Coastal Plain in Long Island, New J ersey, Maryland, and Virginia; for some unconsolidated glacial and alluvial aquifers in Pennsylvania, 

New York, and New Jersey; and for some Piedmont 

and Valley and Ridge aquifers-particularly the 

carbonate-rock aquifers-in Virginia. 

Collection of the necessary knowledge about 

ground water, as discussed in this report, and the 

implementation of lines of development indicated 

by this knowledge, will contribute in a major way 

toward the full use and optimal management of 

ground water as an indispensable component of the 

total water resources of the Mid-Atlantic Region. 

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MID-ATLANTIC REGION 131 

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