h Research Note 85-52 /

BASIC SKILLS RESOURCE CENTER

In

(D A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ON LEARNING STRATEGIES

IN THE ACQUISITION OF ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE: o THE POTENTIAL FOR RESEARCH APPLICATIONS

. (.0 J. Michael O'Malley

" Rocco P. Russo

, <Anna Uhl Chamot

I InterAmerica Research Associates, Inc.

for

Contracting Officer's Representative

Richard P. Kern

Instructional Technology Systems Training Area

Zita H. Simutis, Chief

TRAINING RESEARCH LABORATORY

Harold F. O'Neil, Jr., Director

u-J

LA- _U.S. Army

Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

C= May 1985

Approved for public release: distribution unlimited.

" ,, : ."." c. ,," . ,": ' , . .", s,. .:, L ", . . ' . "..: .; " . . . . .; , .. : : ..''- ;
U. S. ARMY RESEARCH INSTITUTE

FOR THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

A Field Operating Agency under the Jurisdiction of the

Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel

L. NEALE COSBY

EDGAR M.JOHNSON Colonel, IN

Technical Director Commander

This report, a submitted by the contractor. has been cleared for release to Defense Technical Infor motion Center

* (DTICI to comply wvith regulatory requirements. It has been given no primary distribution other than to DTIC

and will be available only through OTIC or other reference services such as the National Technical Information

Service NTIS). The views. opinions, and/or findings contained in this report are those of the uthorls) andI

should not be construed as an official Cepaitment of the Army position. policy, or decision, unless so designated by other official documentation.
* *,Ii ...f~. * . h , -. . . . .

REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE READ INSTRUCTIONS BEFORE COMPLETING FORM

I. REPORT NUMBER 1. GOVT ACCESSION NO. 1. RECIPIENT'S CATALOG NUMBER

%" ARI Research Note 85-52 At/&0 .,3, 

4 Ting (ad oae) S. TYPE OF REPORT A PERIOD COVERED

BASIC SKILLS RESOURCE CENTER. A Review of the Lit- Interim Report

erature on the Acquisition of English as a Second Feb. 1982-Sept. 1984

Language: The Potential for Research Applications 6. PERFORMING ORG. REPORT NUMGER

7. AUTNOR( ) S. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMIER(a)

O'Malley, J.M.; Russo, R.P.; Chamot, A.U. MDA 903-82-C-0169

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS 10. PROGRAM ELEMENT. PROJECT. TASK

InterAmerica Research Associates, Inc. AREA & WORK UNiT NUMBER

1555 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 508 2Q162722A791

* Rossly, Va. 22209

" 11. CONTROLLING OFFICE NAME AND ADDRESS 1. REPORT DATE

U.S. Army Research Institute in the Behavioral and May 1985

Social Sciences, 5001 Eisenhower Avenue, is. NUMIER OF PAGES

Alexandria, Virginia 22333-5600 50

14. MONITORING AGENCY NAME A ADDRESS(IS dinet., bar Contrelling Office) IS. SECURITY CLASS. (.1 Ihe NW* etm

Unclassified

iIS. DECL ASSI FICATION/DOWNGRADING SCH EDULE

1I. DISTRIOUTION STATEMENT (of thle Reprd)

Approved for public release, distribution unlimited.

* I?. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (of Cho abeioct mter" In bilek 0. II differnt *a Rpe)

IS. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

Zita M.-S4mutis, technical monitor for the project

Richard P. Kern, "contracting officer's representative

19. KEY WORDS (Ca inue on reverse side II naocoaomy and Identify by block number)

Learning Strategies

English As A Second Language

Second Language Acquisition

Basic Skills

20L ANSTIACT (CI.a IAUis rmevere 0l0if noeeimnY Mi Idrenti'f by block numiber)

This review of the literature on the acquisition of English as a second language

was the initial step in the identification of learning strategies in the field.

It concentrates on cognitive strategies rather than interpersonal communication

or affective learning strategies.

A variety of related terms are defined in the review, and a classification

scheme is presented to provide a framework for the discussion of the literature.

The concluding section highlights research considerations for potential learning

strategies. _

DD FOM 1473 EDITION oF I NOV S5 IS OBSOLETE_

*SECUITY C IAgl ONO P~ ErI (Whomi Dara Entered)

. .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .

S.t. . . . . . . . C .. .* . . .

' ' tl,,,n~dI-.. "-.. . . '' . .-.- .P . '., . .t...s .% : -•• %" .%%%*... ' -%.. . •.. ,
FOREWORD

1 The Instructional Technology Systems Technical Area of the U.S. Army Research

Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences directs research in learning I strategies applications with a special focus on educational technology and links

to military education and training. These research and developemnt efforts are

aimed at the overall improvement Of the Army's Basic Skills Education Program.

The literature review described in this report was the initial step undertaken

* in the identification of learning strategies related to the acquisition

of English as a second language. A variety of terms are defined and-a classi- Ification scheme is presented to pr ovide a framework for the discussion of

cognitive language learning strategies as contrasted with interpersonal

* communication or affective strategies. Overall, this effort provides direction

to research considerations for learning strategies investigations relevant

to the Army's English as a second language programs.

4-I- INSPIVMD

Mri
* EXECUTIVE SUMMfARY

A Review of the Literature on Learning Strategies in The Acquisition of

English as a Second Language: The Potential for Research Applications

>InterAmerica Research Associates, Inc., has developed and operated the

Basic Skills Resource Center (BSRC) under contract with the U.S. Army

Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (ARI). The BSRC

project has two interfacing components: the design, implementation and

operation of an information service; and the implementation and monitoring

of an appliled research agenda related to the study of learning strategies.

This report describes the initial phase of one of the f ive studies

undertaken through the BSRC research component. The study was designed to

K provide information on applications of learning strategies for English as a

second language (ESL) students in the military.

This review of the literature was undertaken as an initial step in the

identification of ESL learning strategies. Identification of learning

strategies is of particular importance to ESL because of the difficulty

students confront in gaining second language proficiency necessary to meet

the language demands in education and training situations. Learning

strategies for second language learners concentrate on what the students

can do to become more effective language learners and what students can do

* to profit from available instruction. \

These influencing factors served to focus the literature review on

cognitive learning strategies as contrasted with *interpersonal

commwunication or affective learning strategies. Owing to the recency of

V
learning strategies research In the second language acquisition f ield, a

variety -of terms associated with learning strategies are defined and a

classification scheme derived from an analysis of the literature review is

presented. This scheme provides a framework for reviewing learning

strategies derived from research on text processing and second language

learning. Within the text processing and language acquisition areas, two

broad categories of learning strategies are discussed. These strategy

categories, "manipulative" and "Metacognitive", are defined in terms of the

degree of learner control. The discussion of second language acquisition

strategies concentrates largely on learning to speak and understand a new

language.

Overall, the empirical studies associated with learning strategies in text

processing indicate that extension of these strategies to second language

acquisition should be considered and might demonstrate similar effects on

learning and retention. Empirical studies of second language acquisition

learning strategies have focused on describing learning strategies rather

than on identifying variables which contribute to the success of the

strategies. There is a need for controlled investigations of learning

strategies used in text processing in order to explore the effects on

student learning and retention in second language acquisition. In

conclusion, the review highlights strategies that are judged to have the

most potential for investigation in ESL training settings.

* Vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS

,age

-, Statement of the Problem 3

Oefinition of Terms 5

- Learning Strategy 6

- Teaching Strategy 7

- Communication Strategies a

- Learner Characteristics 9

Zlassificacion of Learning Strategies 9

Learning Strategies in Text Processing 13

- Manipulative Strategies 13

- Metacognitive Strategies 15

- Discussion I

Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition Ic

- Manipulative Strategies 2C

- M.eacogni:ie Strategies 2

D iscussion 3C

-onClIus ions 3 1

Vii

. .... .. _. .. **,::.,., ,* , .... .. ._.. ;..* . , ,. . ,,... .. , . :.". ,.-...-... . .. ,.-,. .
A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ON

LEARNING STRATEGIES IN

THE ACQUISITION OF ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE:

THE POTENTIAL FOR RESEARCH APPLICATIONS

In recent years second language researchers have attempted to identify

learning strategies that facilitate the acquisition of another

language. This body of research has focused on investigating the

conditions under which instructional materials may be organized or

manipulated for effective learning. The research has been conducted

-

I in hopes of delineating procedures that are readily adaptable to

classroom practice, easily used by teachers and students, and

sufficiently powerful to maintain an impact outside controlled

laboratory settings. Depending upon one's perspective, the success of

*. these efforts can be viewed either as negligible or as impressive

enough to warrant serious attention.

At least three factors suggest that the accomplishments are modest.

First, there is little indication that learning strategies described

in the research literature have been adopted in second language

classroom practice (Asher, 1977; Gary and Gary, 1981). Second, much

of the evidence for learning strategies in second language acquisition

is based on practitioner intuition of unknown generality rather tnan

on basic or applied research n classrooms 'e.g., Taylor, 198i2. And

third, most experimental research with learning strategies In second

Koo

I
language learning has been devoted to the keyword method (e.g.,

Atkinson, 1975; Levin, 1981), a mnemonic technique that has been

limited largely to vocabulary acquisition. This limited focus has

left the more pervasive concerns in language acquisition such as

syntax and sociolinguistic competence largely uninvestigated.

In contrast, there are indications that significant progress has been

made in research on learning strategies derived from recent work in

cognitive psychology as well as in second language acquisition. Among

cognitive researchers, individuals such as Dansereau (1982) and

Wittrock (1982) have identified learning strategies for text

processing that have potential for application to second language

instruction. Comprehension of text and of spoken language entail

similar processes (Kintsch and van Oijk, 1979; Sticht, 1975a; Sticht

and James, 1973) and may be expected to respond to comparable

instructional manipulations.

Among researchers in second language acquisition, Taylor (1981) and

Ventriglia (1982) have discussed learning strategies for acquiring

laniguage structures on which additional research is clearly needed.

To add 'o tnis potential, teaching strategies with strong promise for

contributing to learning strategies in second language acquisition

have been demonstrated in a number of studies, exemplified most

successfully by the Total Physical Response method (Asher, 1977) and

the delayed oral prcduction approach (Nord, 1980; Postovsky, 1974).

2
!V °o The potential for future investigations to contribute to a firmer

understanding of learning strategies in second language acquisition

should be evident despite the shortcomings of prior research. In this

review, we develop a structure for discussing research in text

processing as well as second language learning on the expectation that

studies in reading will contribute learning strategies that may be

useful in second language acquisition. We focus specifically on

studies of secondary school students and young adults that have

potential application to learners of English as a second language.

Statement of the Problem

Identification of learning strategies is of particular imoortance in

teaching English as a Second Language (ESL) to adolescents and adults

in the United States. There is limited time available for older

learners to acquire language skills that will allow them to

participate fully in the education or training needed to prepare them

to become productive members of our general society. There is also

limited opportunity for these individuals to advance beyond unskilled

positions if they lack skills in English and the ability to

communicate competently with other persons.

English language skills acquired by students in education or training

programs must be used later as tools to learn subject matter content

or specific training tasks. These skills must support complex

learning moreso than social communicative skills acquired in natural

interactive contexts (Krashen, 1980; Saville-Troike, 19821, and tney
serve as a foundation on which reading skills are later established

(Sticht, 1975b). Cummins (1980; 1982) characterizes these types of

language skills according to function. The language of social

communication, which is highly dependent on interpersonal contexts, is

referred to as basic interpersonal communicative skills (BICS). The

highly decontextualized language used for academic instructional

purposes has been termed cognitive/academic language proficiency

(CALP).

Decontextualized language is believed to be related to an individual's

underlying cognitive/academic proficiency, which, in the case of older

second language learners, has been developed through the medium of the

first language. Decontextualized skills rely heavily on literacy, for

it is through reading and writing that the more advanced learner

acquires and demonstrates understanding of new information. However,

oral skills also need to be developed in decontextualized performance,

for a student must have academic listening skills in order to

understand lectures, explanations, and directions, and must also have

speaking skills adequate to answer questions, describe processes, and

expl3in reasons related to the content being studied. The salience of

decontextualized skills in educational settings has been affirmed by

Saville-Troike (1982) through naturalistic observation of Englisn as a

Second Language 'ESL) students in grades 2 through 6. In training

settings, extensive Nork by Sticht and his colleagues has highli g

n t ed

the importance of language use in performing concrete as well as

reading tasks in military programs (Sticht, 1975a; 1975b; Sticht and

James, 1973; Sticht, Beck, Hauke, Kleiman, and James, 194).

4

• p

% * %.. . - .. ..
The importance of decontextualized language in education and training

situations has led us to focus this review on cognitive learning

strategies as contrasted with interpersonal communication or affective

learning strategies. We begin by defining a variety of terms

associated with learning strategies, including items not covered in

the literature review, but often confused with issues on which we will

focus the discussion. A classification scheme derived from our

analysis of the literature serves to structure the remainder of the

review. Within this framework, we first consider learning strategies

derived from research on text processing, followed by a discussion of

learning strategies presented in the literature on second language

a rarning. The discussion of second language acquisition concentrates

largely on learning to speak and understand a new language. Within

tie reading and second language acquisition areas, we discuss two

broad categories of learning strategies defined in terms of the degree

of learner control, "manipulative" and "metacognitive" strategies. In

the concluding section of the review, we highlight strategies having

the most potential for investigation in the settings of interest to us

and identify research issues that can be addressed.

Definition of Terms

A numoer of definitions are required to clarify the scope of this

literature review and to indicate the specific operations being

discussed. A wide range of cognitive and learning operations has been

designated as "strategies," and definitions provided for these

.... .:* ..' . .. ~. . . . ,.. ** .. ". .. . *. .. . . . . . . . . .- .',,
operations often have been inconsistent. In formulating definitions

used here, we have drawn upon the work of others specifically in the

literature emerging out of second language acquisition and analysis of

* textual materials in cognitive psychology. We first identify the

* major concept on which we focus the review, learning strategies, and

then define three additional terms, teaching strategies, communication

* strategies and learner characteristics, to clarify areas we will not

highlight in the literature discussed.

Learning Strategy. A learning strategy can be defined as any set of

operations or steps performed by a learner that will facilitate the

* acquisition, storage, retrieval, or use of information (Dansereau,

*1982; Rigney, 1978). Learning strategies are intended for independent

use by learners but may be used initially under the direction of a

teacher. The strategy may apply to processing prose textual materials

* or to speaking and understanding involved in second language

*acquisition. The strategy may have direct impact on the way in which

the learner organizes or treats materials during the learning task,

* but may also impact on what learners do independently of specific

materials or learning tasks. Strategies may be used to process main

ideas For comprehension, or they may be used to acquire facts as in1

memorization. Some examples identified in the literature include:

a Learner Attention and Motivation -- Dansereau s

D (1982) motivational approaches serve as one

example, including planning, concentration,

monitoring, and cooperative training.

0 Textual Materials -- selected strategies include

those focusing on comprehension such as Wittrock's

(1982) generative learning, Dansereau's ('1982)

Zr A
primary learning strategies, and Jones' (1980)

strategies for use with mastery learning. They

also include those focusing on details or facts

required in memorization, as with Levin's (1981)

use of mnemonics.

o Second Language Acquisition -- learning strategies

that may be used to develop linguistic and

sociolinguistic competence include mnemonics

(Levin, 1981), transfer (Corder, 1981; Ventriglia,

1982), and self-monitoring strategies (Krashen,

1980).

*Teaching Strategy. A teaching strategy is any set of operations or

* steps performed by a teacher that will Facilitate the learner's

acquisition, storage, or use of information. The student may or may

*not participate overtly in the teaching strategy. Teaching strategies

are not intended for independent use by learners although some

learners may use the strategies in the absence of a teacher either

alone or in the company of other learners. Teaching strategies wvill

be discussed in this review only if they have the potential to be

adopted as a strategy for learners to use independently of teachers.

Numerous teaching strategies have been discussed in the literature on

instruction that are not pertinent to this review (e.g., Brophy, 1979;

Good, 1979; Rosenshine, 1979) because the principles derived are not

* intended for use by students.

* As with learning strategies, teaching strategies may be used in prose

* processing or language instruction, they may impact on the material or

* on the learner, and they may be used to process main ideas or to

acquire Factual details. Selected examples in the literature on orose

processing and second language acquisition include taaching strategies

* that Focus on:
0 Learner Attention and Motivation -motivational

strategies by McCombs (1982) serve as one example.

These include skill training materials which focus

on t he de v elo pm e nt of s t rat e g ies Fo r

self-management, personal responsibility, and

positive self-control.

0 Textual Materials -- Jones and Smart's (1982)

strategies serve as a prime example in which

organization and emphasis in the prose material

are under the direction of the teacher or, in this

case, the curriculum designer.

o Language Acquisition -- representative teaching

strategies include presentation of *syntactic

groupings or repeated oral presentations of

complete passages as suggested by Taylor (1980),

and the delay of oral production suggested by Nord

(1980) and others (e.g., Asher, 1982).

Communication Strategies. These strategies derive largely from

observations of natural speech of second language learners. A

* communication strategy is an attempt to negotiate an agreement on

* meaning between two or more persons under conditions when the speaker

* desires to communicate but believes the linguistic or sociolingustic

* structure required to communicate meaning is either unavailable or not

*shared with the listener (Corder, 1981; Tarone, 1981). In the process

* of negotiating the meaning, the speaker may use word or phrase

* modifications or substitutions, approximations, mimicry, or even total

avoidance of communication on the topic. Although it is possible that

these communication strategies may lead to learning, it is not the

principal purpose of the strategy to Facilitate learning but to

*facilitate communication of meaning or intent. Accordingly, because

* their Focus is not on learning, these communication strategies are not

covered in our review.
Learner Characteristics. Learner characteristics appear to be

* instrumental in promoting learning based on data produced in

correlational studies. Such characteristics are of incidental

* interest in our review unless learners can be trained to adopt them as

*strategies. The characteristics of interest here typically would be

considered acquired characteristics as contrasted with inherent

characteristics of persons, because these characteristics are often

promoted as traits to be emulated by less efficient learners.

Examples specifically in the second language acquisition literature

are Fillmore's sociability, or preference for play, situations

requiring language production; and flexibility, or a straigh t- forward

approach to problem-solving (Cathcart, Strong, and Fillmore, 1980;

* Fillmore, 1976).

Classification of Learning Strategies

A classification scheme will prove useful in establishing an overview

of learning strategies and their applications to text processing and

- . second language acquisition. Such a scheme will be most useful if it

*is able to differentiate learning strategies in which materials are

manipulated for presentation to students, from those in which students

K apply specific techniques to the materials or are helped to become

aware of variables that enhance learning. A classification strategy

that serves this purpose will conveniently subsume as a manipulative

approach those teaching strategies that can be used independently by

students. A classification scheme developed by Ford (11982) to

describe learning strategies in text processing is useful for
X.V % S i :. 

. . .. . . _ . _ . . . . 

describing learning strategies in second language learning. Ford

proposed two broad categories of learning strategies (which, to

illustrate our point about inconsistencies in use of terms, he

*. referred to as "teaching strategies"):

a Manipulative Approaches -- manipulating the way in

which information is presented to influence the

individual's learning processes, such as varying

the presentation of information, the sequencing,

the use of inserted questions, and the use of

advance organizers.

0 Metaconitive AProaches -- teaching the

individual specific techniques to apply, or

helping the person to become more generally aware

of factors that influence learning, including

- specific retrieval strategies, in which the

process used to encode information is used as

a retrieval requirement, as in networking,

- elaboration strategies, in which a person

adapts information and relates it to other

concepts in memory, as with mnemonics, and

- transformations, where the individual

actively integrates new information with

existing knowledge by following instructions

to read for meaning rather than for facts and

details.

Ford also describes more general self-awareness metacognitive

techniques in which students are made more generally aware of learning

processes, particularly in complex learning tasks. These include

teaching the person general principles of how to evaluate their status

with regard to the basic components involved in learning.

A relatively simple adaptation of Ford's classification scheme is

presented in Table i, showing the two types of learning strategies

Ford suggests, and two types of activities relevant to our interests

10

p , . . ' m , m m : - - . ' ". ' .. ; " " - - -.'- ." -." ...' ' - °° "- ."" " .''"
TABLE I

Classification of Learning Strategies

Activity Learning Strategies

Manipulative Metacognitive

Text processing Advance organizers Elaboration (mnemonics)

Characteristics of text Retrieval strategies (networking)

Transformations (generative

strategies)

Self-management (relaxation,

planning, and concentration,

Oral language Advance organizers NoLe-Laking

acquisition

Groupings Elaboration

Delayed production Transfer

Use of imperatives Recombination

Requiring overt responses

Self-monitoring

Cloze procedures Introspective/retrospective

strateg ies

Cooperative strategies

* .-

. . . . . .

-. B ..
-- text processing and second language acquisition. In the cells of

*. this schema are specific learning strategies identified in the

literature. From inspection of the cells of the classification

scheme, it is evident that a comprehensive range of learning

strategies fits comfortably within the classification scheme. We have

added to Ford's cell entries for text processing by dividing

manipulative strategies into advance organizers and characteristics of

the text. We have also grouped Wittrock's generative approach to

reading (Wittrock, 1974; 1982), which Ford neglected to discuss at

all, under metacognitive transformational approaches. We have

selected a representative range if learning strategies in second

language acquisition and extended Ford's scheme to cover this new area

after having divided the strategies into manipulative and

*metacognitive strategies based on an analysis of their procedures.

In the sections which follow, this classification scheme will be used

to organize the discussion of research associated with the various

learning strategies. We analyze selected learning strategies that

previously have only been applied in text processing, and a number of

* learning strategies used in second language acquisition. Our

*objective is to identify strategies that can be used independently by

learners to analyze and organize instructional materials with a

resultant increment in second language learning. Thus, we are

interested in manipulative strategies that can be adapted as

metacognitive strategies, and in reading strategies that can be

adapted for second language acquisition.

12

-'---'-- --'-- ""-" .'-.".....-..--.-"'-.".-'......-.-.........-.....-"."-..-"-......-.-...-."-..-.--.-".-."-....-.-.-.-.".. !1 l il i l'l i i Il II I . I IIl l % iI i -. . .I * P )

lilili . ~ l I I 4 - il - l l il '- *. - -* .- . *
Learning Strategies in Text Processing

The majority of empirical work on learning strategies has been

-conducted on native language text processing. The research derives

* from the emphasis in cognitive psychology on memory processes and

learning, and from the focus on procedures designed to facilitate

*acquisition and storage of information. This tradition of research is

empirical in nature and Frequently contains experimental comparisons

of individual learning strategies with control conditions. Further,

the tradition is pragmatic and assumes that student performance can be

improved. Studies are therefore designed, on the one hand, to test

models of text processing or learning, and on the other hand, to

determine the most effective ways to maximize learning for any given

materials or learner. In the discussion that follows, we identify a

number of learning strategies used in text processing, differentiating

* them into manipulative strategies and metacognitive strategias, as

* illustrated in Table 1.

*Manipulative Strategies. The application of manipulative strategies

* to text processing results in modifications of text organization or

style that are designed to enhance learning and retention. The

student is expected to respond to these cues by following the

organization and emphasis given to selected aspects of the material.s,

thereby focusing the student's attention on items considered important

*for Future retention and application. In addition to acting as

attention- Focusing devices, some of these strategies link prior

* knowledge to new information presented in the text. Consid~zable

success has been Found in using a number of these strategies.

13

* . .. . . . . . . . . . . .
The characteristics of text have been shown to influence comprehension

and retention in a variety of studies. These characteristics are

generally supposed to focus student attention on important points in

the narrative and thereby enhance retention. Studies demonstrating

the success of these strategies-have concerned hierarchical

organization of a passage (Tenerbaum, 1977), provision of a structural

outline of a passage (Glynn and DiVesta, 1977), insertion of paragraph

headings into written text (Doctorow, Wittrock, and Marks, 1973), and

embedding definitions of unfamiliar words into a text (Wittrock,

Marks, and Doctorow, 1975). Additional characteristics that have been

shown to influence comprehension and retention are pre- and

postquestions (Boyd, 1973; Boker, 1974; Sagaria and DiVesta, 1978),

reader-formulated questions (Ross and Killey, 1977), and specification

of goals and objectives (Duchastel, 1979; Duell, 1974; Kaplan and

Simmons, 1974; Royer, 1977).

A series of studies concerned with advance organizers was prompted by

Ausubel's (1960; 1968) suggestion that prior knowledge of ensuing text

will enable the reader to subsume new information under existing

categories of meaning. The studies have yielded mixed results and

have been subject to methodological criticism due to Failure to

control for important extraneous variables (Faw and Wailer, 1976).

However, additional work in this area has led to the conclusion that

advance organizers improve learning at higher levels of abstraction

''layer, 1979), while failing to improve retention of factual

information (Barnes and Clawson, 1979). This is consistent with the

logic of the approach, which emphasizes organizing principles and

interrelationships.

14

4

,. . . .*. . ., . .

i .. - - , - . , " . .- . .. . . -. . ., , -. -, .. • . .. - . . , . -. . . . . - , - . . . . . , -. - . - ., . - . - . . . . . - . - . . . - -. -.---- . . -. .- , ,
Metacognitive Strategies. Students using metacognitive strategies

apply specific techniques to learning tasks that enable them to retain

facts or general information. Alternatively, they may analyze the

conditions that influence their learning or retention and manipulate

these conditions to improve learning. At least four metacognitive

strategies have been identified in the literature on text processing:

elaboration, retrieval strategies, transformations, and

self-management.

The use of elaboration is involved when individuals adapt new

information as a means of linking it to associations already contained

in memory. For example, a person may modify new information to

integrate it with easily recalled picture associations or certain well

known phrases. Most of the research conducted in this area has been

concerned with first language vocabulary acquisition in the course of

text processing in which mnemonic strategies are used to develop

required associations. Levin and his colleagues (e.g., Levin, 1981;

Pressley, Levin, and Delaney, 1982) define mnemonic techniques as

involving a physical transformation of materials that enhances their

learning and retention. The technique on which most of their work has

been conducted is the keyword method, a two-stage Process in which the

student Forms a stable association between the new word and a

"keyword" (a more familiar word that is acoustically similar to tne

new word), and then forms an association between the keyword and the

definition of the word to be learned. There ace variants of tne

approach For second language acquisition, as will be discussed below,

15

S " ; - , .. "" " "" " "" " " - " " " , - . -
LV

- and for varying content (Levin, Kessler, Miller and Bartell, 1981;

Levin, McCormick, and Dretzke, 1981; Levin, Shriberg, Miller,

," McCormick, and Levin, 1979), age of students (Delaney, 1978), and size

*[ of instructional groupings (Pressley, Levin, Digden, Bryant, McGivern,

and Ray, 1982). Throughout this research, Levin and his co-workers

have been able to demonstrate that the technique, when administered

individually to students, produces memory facilitation in comparison

to such strategies as simple repetition, contextual analysis, sentence

construction (Levin and Pressley, in press), imagery construction,

synonym construction, and copying (Pressley, Levin, Kuiper, Bryant,

and Michener, 1981). However, they have been unable as yet to extend

the technique except on a limited basis to use with large groups of

the usual classroom size. Further, considerably more work is needed

before confidence can be expressed in the transfer of mnemonic

techniques to new tasks (Griffith, 1980; einstein, 1978).

Students use retrieval strategies in metacognition when they apply

specific techniques that enable them to gain access to information

previously stored in memory. Relatively little work has been

conducted in training students to use conscious retrieval strategies

except for work with children using materials that are unrelated to

academic topics (Dansereau, 1978). In a retrieval strategy proposea

by Dansereau, students use a "network analysis" in which they analyze

text materials into concepts and relationships between concepts. W hen

asked to retrieve information, students plan out the structure their

answer will take using concepts and relationships to represent the

information called for. The retrieval strategy is to search -,emory

16

f - U U U.U.. .
.7

* looking for concepts and relationships in the stored information tnat

i match the information desired for the answer. Dansereau has developed

*- a comprehensive set of strategies of which the retrieval strategy is

" only one route to increasing learning and retention (Dansereau, 1979;

Dansereau, 1982; Dansereau, Actkinson, Long, and McDonald, 1974;

Dansereau, Long, McDonald, and Actkinson, 1975; Dansereau, Long,

* McDonald, Actkinson, Ellis, Collins, Williams, and Evans, 1975). Some

of the other components of Dansereau's approach will be discussed

below.

- A third metacognitive learning strategy is to conduct transformations

" of textual material through actively integrating new information witll

* existing knowledge. Although Ford (1982) noted that these rpproaches

are not consistently successful, he failed to acknowledge tne

extensive work in this area performed by Wittrock and his colleagues.

-j Wittrock (1974) has identified a model of "generative" learning 4hicn

states that reading comprehension occurs when readers actively build

. relationships between the text and their knowledge and experiences,

• and among the different parts of the text. According to tnis model,

teachers can facilitate reading comprehension by inducing readers t

attend to tI-e text, to relate their knowledge and experiences to it,

and to build associations, abstractions, and inferences from .

Readers may also do this independently of a teacher. The associations

and relations can be generated through verbal representations > .e.

text-relevant summary sentences, headings, inferences, main ideas,

critical comments and evaluations) and can be constructed tnrougn

imaginal representations (i.e., pictures, images, graohs,

17

[............... *.*.**. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. illustrations, diagrams, and drawings). Numerous research studies

have supported this model of generative learning (Bull and Wittrock,

1973; Doctorow, Wittrock, and Marks, 1978; Wittrock, Marks, and

Doctorow, 1975). Other transformations of textual material that have

been shown to influence learning are note-taking (Peper and Mayer,

1978), construction of a paragraph about sentences that have been read

by the learner (Paris, Lindauer, and Cox, 1977), and drawing simoe

pictures of the meanings of words (Bull and dittrock, 1973).

A final metacognitive strategy that has been shown to influence

learning is self-control through relaxation, planning, and

concentration. For example, Dansereau diFferentiates learning

* strategies into primary learning strategies and support strategies.

", The primary set includes strategies for acquiring and storing

information (comprehension-retention), and strategies for outputting

and using stored information (retrieval-utilization). Support

strategies concern self-control and include a focus on goal setting

and scheduling, concentration management, and monitoring and

diagnosing the progress of learning. The overall intent is to assist

learners in developing improved acquisition and in providing learners

4ith in-depth training on a broad spectrum of strategies.

Discussion. The variety of empirical support for both manipulative

and metacogn ive strategies in text processing indicates tnat

extension of these strategies to second language acquisiticn should be

considered. The parallel between comprehension processes in reading

and in second language learning might have similar effects on learn:ng

>3
- and retention. For example, manipulations of the organization of oral

text to reveal internal emphases and structure would be expected to

improve student learning and retention. Further, training students to

become acquainted with approaches for elaborating and transforming

orally presented information, among other metacognitive strategies,

should provide them with the techniques to retain both vocabulary and

principles being presented. As will be seen, some of the learning

strategies used in text processing have already been adopted in second

language acquisition, while others used in second language acquisition

are totally unique to that area.

Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition

iW The foundation of learning strategy research established by cognitive

psychologists in text processing has not been matched by researcn in

second language acquisition. Whereas cognitive psychologists have

focused tneir research efforts on instruction using experimental

techniques, second language acquisition researchers have largely

focused on natural language learning in school or non-school settirgs

using non-experimental research techniques. CFten tnese

non-experimental techniques are used to derive suggestions for

Ins:ruct;on out these tend to be based on incomolete evidence.

Firther, researchers in second language acquisition have debated "-e

utilitv of teaching settings as an approorlate context wnere language

should oe learned 'e.g., Krashen, 1990: Schumann. 19 0 , anc made

tnereby assumed a somewhat pessimistic stance concerning the octentlal

success of second language teaching.

. . .. ... . . . .

. -
Despite these differences in orientation and approach, both cognitive

* and second language researchers view learners as generative and

instrumental in acting upon the learning materials, rather than as

*passive recipients of information. This common focus is essential for

* a discussion of learning strategies to proceed, since many learning

strategies purport to provide learners with a varied repertoire of

- activities that can be applied independently depending on the type of

*materials, the learning task, and the objectives for learning. In the

* following sections, we discuss a variety of learning strategies for

* second language acquisition under the broad parameters of manipulative

and metacognitive learning strategies.

Manipulative Strategies. The use of manipulative strategies in second

* language acquisition determines the organization, sequencing, or

substance of information presented to students. The student's

experience with the new language is determined by these strategies,

which are under control of a teacher. Often the types and timing of

responses the student is expected to make are determined by the

*strategy as well. The literature on second language acquisition is

* replete with variations of manipulative learning strategies, derived

la r gel1y o ut of practi tioner experience. These include

* repetition/imitation, memo rizat ion/recall , delayed oral production,

* dloze procedures, and advance organizers.

* Teacher -directed repetition/imitation tasks have been the mainstay of

*audiolingual methodology. In these techniques, the student repeats

vocalizations Following a model in order to develop second language

20
proficiency through conditioning and habit formation (Chastain, 1971).

However, recent methodological approaches have rejected reliance on

teacher-directed repetition drills because they have not been

successful in developing communicative competence (Asher, 1979;

Curran, 1976; Galyean, 1977; Gattegno, 1972; Terrell, 1981).

Spontaneous learner-generated repetition/imitation learning

strategies, nevertheless, have been reported in natural learning

environments (Fillmore, 1980; Hakuta, 1975). Learners apparently

repeat basic sentences with minor variations either as monologues or

in play situations as a way of internalizing a language structure they

wish to learn.

Elicited imitation tasks have been used in both first and second

language acquisition (Dale, 1976; Naiman, 1974). Sentences to be

imitated must be longer than a sequence that can be held in short term

memory in order for this technique to elicit language samples that

reflect a learner's current level of proficiency (Eisenstein, Bailey,

and Madden, 1982; Slobin and Welsh, 1973). The learner must process

the meaning of the sentence in order to be able to repeat it. The

repetition then becomes a reformulation rather than an exact

imitation, and this reformulation will be based on and limited to the

grammatical rules known by the individual.

The use of memorization/recall is a simple strategy that underlies

much of the factual information that people learn. The strategy

relies upon rote memory and can be initiated either by the learner or

by the teacher. Some syntactic structures may be learned as memori ed

21

• - - . ° . . . • . - '. S..- ° . - .. S 

...... . . . .-. * . ,' ...
%7

. chunks and applied to appropriate situations. The strategy is often

relied upon even when it is inappropriate due to lack of familiarity

. with more sophisticated strategies.

Delayed oral production is an initial silent period during which

learners listen intensively to the new language before attempting

|- speech (Krashen, 1980). Experimental studies have indicated that

initial emphasis on listening comprehension and delay of speaking

contributes positively to later speaking fluency (Nord, 1980;

Postovsky, 1974). Gary and Gary (1981) proposed a restructuring of

second language curricula using a comprehension-based language model

that would provide initial second language instruction in listening

and reading comprehension for an extended period, followed by the

introduction of writing, and finally speaking.

..

Elements of this strategy have been developed by Asher into a fully

articulated instruction approach, the Total Physical Response method

(Asher, 1969a; 1969b; 1972; 1977; Asher and Garcia, 1969; Asher,

Kusodo, and De La Torre, 1974; Asher and Price, 1967). Delayed

production is only one component of the entire method, which includes

at least two additional features. First, as the name "total physical

response" implies, students respond overtly while learning to

understand relatively simple but complete sentences spoken by tne

teacher. Following extensive practice to minimize errors during

larning, these sentences may be combined and thus become more

complicated in later stages of learning. Second, sentences to which

students respond must be imperative (pick up the ruler) rather than

22

p ,. . .. . " ' ." _ ." '', ,,, " , ..". , ," . . . . ' .1. . ." .." .i.7. .'.'." . ." ..". ..
declarative (this is a ruler), thereby assuring physical involvement

at achstage of learning. Asher reasons thet the physical

involvement of learners in language acquisition parallels the way in

which the first language is acquired. Furthermore, physical response

involves the right brain in learning, thereby entering learned

materials into long-term memory more readily. Delayed production is

involved because students are never pressured to speak, but develop

the desire for language production naturally. Asher cites numerous

studies demonstrating the effectiveness of the strategy in producing

second language acquisition with both children and adults.

The Natural Approach (Terrell, 1980) also employs instructional

techniques that delay oral production and simulate the natural

acquisition process of language. An initial silent period in which

listening comprehension is developed through a combination of physical

responses and modified teacher speech is followed by the eventual

emergence of student speech. The teacher accepts all attempts by the

learners to communicate, even if these are expressed incorrectly or in

the first language.

Cloze procedures have been used by teachers on both written and oral

texts to provide students with practice in prediction and inference

*skills (Streiff, 1981). A dloze exercise omits selected words

throughout a passage, and students are required to insert either the K exact missing word or one that i3 appropriate semanticall\ and

grammatically. Tewords omitted can be selected to rpenta range

of grammatical skills and comprehension requirements. Cloza tasks are

23
believed to demand integrative language learning strategies, since

* students must bring to the task all that they have learned about the

second language i n s tr uc tu r e, lexicon, morphology, and

pronunciation/spelling (Aitken, 1977).

Advance organizers have been used in second language acquisition

- following their adoption from use in text processing (Chastain, 1976).

* Taylor (1981) has described the use of advance organizers throughout

* five stages in developing listening comprehension in acquiring English

*as a second language. In the first stage, beginners can be taught to

listen For intonational qualities of English sentences and to perceive

phonological contrasts (see also Chamot, 1977). At the next stage,

*even though students have only partial understanding of spoken

* language, they are encouraged to tolerate the ambiguity and to

construct as much meaning as possible from the information they are

able to comprehend. In the third stage, students learn chunking

*strategies (see also Ventriglia, 1982) so that they can hold

recognized syntactic structures in short term memory while trying to

*determine the remainder of the message. At the fourth stage, students

* preview the entire passage one or more times prior to being provided

with other advance information such as vocabulary lists. By the fifthi

stage, students only need to be provided topic-relatad vocabulary V appropriate to new contexts in which previously learned passages are

presented. Brown (1978) also suggests that students can learn to use

previous knowledge and experience to pradict what is most likely to be

said.

24
Metacognitive Strategies. In contrast to manipulative strategies,

where the student has no control over the organization or sequencing

of instruction, metacognitive strategies provide the student with

either specific or general techniques that can be applied with a

variety of materials. The student can use these strategies

independently of a teacher, and assumes an analytic and controlling

position over the learning setting. The specific strategies that have

been discussed of this type are note-taking, elaboration, transfer,

recombination, self-monitoring, introspective/retrospective

strategies, and cooperative strategies.

Note-taking is a common strategy in secondary and college classrooms

for remembering information presented orally. Generally note-taking

is considered a learner-generated strategy, and learners have

traditionally developed their own individual note-taking styles of

abbreviated language. Research studies on note-taking indicate that

oral information is recalled better when it is written down in some

form (Howe, 1970; Weiland and Kingbury, 1979). Instruction on

specific note-taking techniques is rare, but has recently been

developed with ESL instruction materials (Dunkel and Pialorsi, 1982;

Yorkey, Barrutia, Chamot et al., in press).

One of the few learning strategies on which empirical studies have

been conducted in second language acquisition is elaboration. These

studies have concentrated on ,mnemonics as with text processing and

have been represented most thoroughly by. studies of the "keyword"

method lAtkinson, 1975; Atkinson and Raugh, 1975; Delaney, 1973;

25

"- ° " . • •I ' '.* . * " . .. -... ,. . ". .. - + * . • + . .•. o. .- o• • . .,. , . .+ .. , ._. .•
Pressley, Levin, and Delaney, 1982; Raugh and Atkinson, 1975). In

second language acquisition, this strategy involves forming a mental

image associating the meaning of the unfamiliar vocabulary word to a

familiar keyword homophone. The mental image may be either a

meaningful phrase or a picture that serves to form the connection.

Examples of a keyword mnemonic association for a Spanish speaker

learning English as a second language would be the following:

o To learn the meaning of the English word pan, a

Spanish word that looks and sounds the same but

has an unrelated meaning could be used as an

interactive visual cue to trigger the correct

English meaning. A picture of a load of bread

(pan = bread in Spanish) standing upright in a pan

would help a student remember the meaning of the

English word.

o To learn the English word library, which has a

different meaning than its Spanish cognate

libreria (bookstore), a meaningful sentence could

be constructed to provide a mnemonic cue to the

English meaning. En esta libreria no se venden

libros (In this library, i.e. bookstore, books are

not sold).

Most successful demonstrations of the keyword method have been

-. confined t.o individual presentation of the treatment condition.

However, one of the few successful demonstrations of the keyword

method with small groups and classroom-size groups was with second

language acquisition (Levin, Pressley, McCormick, Miller, and

* Schriberg, 1979).

* The application of transfer strategies can assist learners in

- acquiring new information through searching For common elements in the

first and the second language. In learning theory, transfer is tne

|,%

|.%7

I.'. 26

c * 
use of previously acquired concepts and schema to aid the integration

of new concepts into existing or related conceptual frameworks. While

audiolingual second language teaching was more commonly practiced,

* transfer was termed interference, and was seen as a negative influence

from the first language that should be eradicated through the

imposition and practice of new language habits (Chastain, 1976).

- Recent second language investigators have preferred to stress the

positive aspects of transfer from the known language to the language

being learned. Thus, Corder (1981) sees transfer as a resource

* expansion strategy, and Ventriglia (1982) describes it as a bridging

strategy that can be facilitated by the teacher through the use of

concrete and meaningful representations to accompany the presentation

of second language items related to what the learner already knows in

* the first language.

*Recombination is the process by which the learner puts together

* familiar elements of a language in producing novel sentences to

express meaning. Termed variously as a process of creating

* (Ventriglia, 1982) or of creative construction (Dulay and Burt, 1975'),

* this universal approach to both first and second language 1iarning

D implies the Formulation and application of linguistic rules that

generate non-memorized, meaningful strings of language. The language

learner is constantly forming hypotheses about how the new language

w~orks, trying them out, comparing the result with models provided by

* adult or native speakers, and modifying production to resemble the

* model as closely as the person's level of proficiency permits.

2 7

* *...... . . . . .
. Self-monitoring is a student-generated strategy that acts as a

* correcting device on language output (Krashen, 1980). The strategy

typically is used to analyze language production during writing, and

is used primarily to adjust verb tenses or other grammatical features

of language to coincide with known practice. The types of adjustments

made in language production tend to be based more on classroom

* learning rather than informal exposure to the language. This type of

conscious adjustment is uncommon in oral language production because

the resultant delays in speaking interfere with communication more

"* than the grammatical errors. As a learning strategy generated by

students, self-monitoring apparently is of limited usefulness in

second language acquisition. But neither is teacher correction of

grammatical usage particularly effective (Krashen, 1980). However,

teacher-generated monitoring techniques can be applied to written

production through teaching of editing and proofreading skills.

in the use of introspective/retrospective learning strategies,

students are encouraged to reflect upon the process of language

* learning as they are acquiring a second language. This strategy has

. been deployed in a number of ways. Students in one investigation were

asked to think aloud while performing a language task in order for the

-. teacher to determine the learning strategies that were being used

(Hosenfeld, 1973). In an alternative approach, students were

requested to keep journals or language diaries to produce

introspective information about learner strategies, cognitive style,

and affective facto:s. A number of researchers in linguistics and

language acquisition have. kept personal diaries of their second

28

. . . .. . . . .
7

language learning experiences as a way of identifying their own

learning strategies (Bailey, 1980; Rivers, 1981; Schumann, 1980;

Schumann and Schumann, 1977). Teacher/researcher-generated language

learning journals have been kept as an introspective record of a

child's linguistic experiences and learning strategies in an immersion

experience (Chamot and Chamot, 1983). Further, dialogue journals as

written personal communication between teacher and individual students

have provided insight into learning processes and strategies

(Gutstein, Kreeft, and Meloni, 1982; Staton, Shuy, and Kreeft, 1982).

Various types of cooperative learning strategies have been found

successful in developing second language proficiency. By listening as

a group and then pooling information understood, students were able to

reconstruct most of a listening passage previously not understood by

individual students (Telatnik, 1979). Paired and group work is a

feature of instructional materials designed to develop communicative

competence (Mellgren and Walker, 1980; Walker, 1983; Yorkey et al., in

press). Small group task-oriented communication activities are

effective ways to practice speaking skills (Chamot, 1979). Peer

prompting, in which a less proficient learner works witn a more

proficient one, has been suggested as a strategy for promoting

language growth (Ventriglia, 1982). In one study conducted by

Fillmore (1976), Spanish speaking children were paired with proficient

English speakers so that they could learn naturally from peer models.

A /ariant of the cooperative learning approach is community language

learning (Curran, 1976), a humanistic second language teaching method

tnat uses counseling psychology techniques. The focus is on snared,

2-
task-oriented activities in which the teacher acts as facilitator,

translating from the First to the second language when necessary.

Discussion. The second language acquisition literature has been richi

* with learning strategies intended to improve the ability of students

*to acquire and retrieve language components and structures. Some of

- these strategies have parallels in learning strategies explored in

* text processing, such as advance organizers, mnemonics, and

transformations. The fact that these strategies have been supported

empirically in text processing does not necessarily mean that similar

Findings would result From studies in second language acquisition.

*But opportunities for further exploration are evident. Ot he r

* strategies deal more with oral language phenomena and are unique to

second language acquisition, such as delayed oral production, use of

imperatives, and cooperative learning. Although a Few of these

* strategies have been supported by controlled research, in general

there has been little effort to conduct research in which variables

-associated with the success of these strategies are explored. What is

* interesting about two particular strategies on which controlled

~ research has been conducted -- mnemonics and delayed oral production

-is that they have been targeted on altogether different skills:

-vocabulary and general communicative skills. The two strategies

* therefore would be highly complementary if explored together in a

- controlled setting.

30

* * *.*~. %.. . . . . * j
. Conclusions

Throughout this review, we have been concerned with identifying

research needs for investigations of learning strategies in second

language acquisition. In order to develop a broad understanding of

learning strategies in second language learning, we have surveyed the

use of learning strategies in text processing on the expectation that

the similarity of receptive processes in comprehending sooken and

written language would make some of the strategies found to be useful

for reading useful in learning a new language. In conducting the

review, we applied a framework initially established for reading

materials to the literature in second language acquisition. Within

this framework, we explored the use of manipulative strategies to

-i identify possible approaches that could be used as a metacognitive

strategy by students.

The different traditions of conducting inquiry in reading and in

language learning have apparently produced altogether different types

of support for the use of learning strategies. Whereas support for

learning strategy applications in reading is drawn from controlled

experimental studies in cognitive psychology, support for using

learning strategies in the second language learning literature is

based on practitioner judgment or personal experiences in uncontrolled

studies, with two notable exceptions, studies of mnemonics and of

delayed oral production. nne reflection of the difference In

traditions is that cognitive psychologists assume a positivist stance

with regard to the potential of instruction to generate gains in

31

S-

............................................. m . - - -.... -,"....... "."--"." . -... # €
* laarning, whereas theorists in second language acquisition are

* pessimistic concerning the potential for classroom practices to impact

* on language acquisition except in a superficial way.

A series of learning strategies was identified that should prove

*useful in second language acquisition. Some of these strategies have

* been used both in text processing and in second language learning,

*while others have been used in only one of these areas. Some of those

used in reading alone have potential for use in learning a second

*language. Many of the strategies are designed for students to use

* independently and call on higher level cognitive skills, while others

- are embedded in the w.ay in which prose passages are presented.

Two of the more interesting strategies with a base of empirical

support are mnemonic strategies and delayed oral production.

Mnemonics call upon metacognitive approaches to analyze learning

* requirements and develop linkages between new information and stored

memories. Research on mnemonic techniques has been conducted in both

*reading and second language acquisition. The techniques have been

used successfully with varying types of materials and students and

recently have been extended beyond vocabulary learning to more general

* comprehension tasks Using a variant of a networking analysis. The

* strategy nevertheless has proven difficult to use with large or even

* small groups except in one circumstance involving se-cond language

*acquisition, and has yet to be shown to transfer to new tasks. T 11us.

by no means have all of the problems in applying tne strat-eqx t.

second language acquisition been resolved.

32
A delayed oral production strategy of considerable interest is the

* Total Physical Response (TPR) approach, which heretofore has been used

*only as a man-ipulative strategy. This strategy has an empirical base

* of support exclusively in the second language learning area. The

focus of the strategy has been on teaching appropriate overt responses

* to imperative language forms, with oral production delayed until

students express readiness to participate. The TPR approach is

complex, however, and may be difficult to replicate except by

-following specific materials and teaching procedures. Further, by

* following the prescribed teaching procedures, a desired shift from

manipulative to metacognitive strategies would never be realized.

What may be more useful than a replication of prior work is the

possibility of isolating components of the strategy on which

controlled studies can more easily be performed, such as the use of

imperative language forms accompanied by overt responsnes. Another

* possibility is to combine in a single study the mnemonic strategies,

which emphasize vocabulary acquisition, and the imperative language

forms, which emphasize complete grammatical structures tnat convey

Ltask instructions. This series of studies could continue with a test

in which students trained to understand a specific task Performance ..n

a second language are subsequently requested to communicate

instruct ions For performing the task to another learner in that

*language. The studies could conclude with a test of the transfer of

the strategies to new tasks.

33

~.~2 2.- 2..A .A 2 ~. .. *
The attention given to these two strategies does not suggest that

further inquiry into other topics or other learning strategies will

not be fruitful. At least two additional topics are evident. First,

the parallel identified between learning strategies used both in

reading and second language learning reveals the generality of some of

these strategies across different kinds of tasks, and indicates that

analyses of transfer from use of the strategies in second language

acquisition to their use in reading will be of interest. A number of

studies has documented the feasibility of this line of inquiry and has

indicated that training of critical listening skills will transfer to

reading comprehension for similar kinds of skills and knowledge

(Sticht et al., 1974). A second additional topic for consideration is

"- to extend to second language acquisition the theoretical modeling

already begun by cognitive psychologists interested in reading and

learning strategies. For example, Flavell and Wellman (1977) have

provided a theoretical model of memory that includes both learning

strategies and metacognition among other factors that influence

.. probable learning performance. Adaptation of this or other models in

.- studies of learning strategies in second language acquisition should

advance our understanding of the variables involved in learning and

extend our capability to apply our findings to instruction.

34
77 7 .1 7-

REFERENCES

Aitken, K.C. Using cloze procedure as an overall language

proficiency test. TESOL Quarterly, November 1977, 59-67.

Asher, J. 3. The Total Physical Response approach to second language

learning. The Modern Language Journal, 1969a, 53(1), 3-17.

Asher, 3. J. The Total Physical Response technique of learning.

The Journal of Special Education, 1969b, 3(3), 253-262.

Asher, J. J. Children's first language as a model for second

language learning. The Modern Language Journal, 1972, 56(3),

133-139.

Asher, J. J. Children learning another language: A developmental

hypothesis. Child Development, 1977, 48, 1040-1048.

Asher, 3. 3. Learning another language through actions: The

complete teacher's guidebook. Los Gatos, CA: Skyoak

* Productions, 1979.

Asher, J. J. The Total Physical Response: Theory and practice.

In H. Winitz (Ed.), Native language and foreign language

acquisition. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (Volume -:1 379). New York, NY: New York Academy of Sciences, 1981.

.. Asher, 3. 3. Learning another language through actions: The

complete teacher's guidebook, Second Edition. Los Gatos, CA: Sky

Oaks Productions, 1982.

Asher, 3. 3., and Garcia, R. The optimal age to learn a foreign

language. The Modern Language Journal, 1969, 53(5), 334-341.

Asher, J. J., Kusudo, J. A., and De La Torre, R. Learning a second

language through commands: The second field test. Modern

Language Journal, 1974, 58(1-2), 24-32.

Asher, J. 3., and Price, B. S. The learning strategy of the Total

Physical Response: Some age differences. Child Development,

1967, 38(4), 1219-1227.

Atkinson, R. C. Mnemotechnics in second-language learning.

American Psychologist, 1975, 30, 821-828.

- Atkinson, R. C., and Raugh, M. R. An application of the mnemonic

keyword method to the acquisition of Russian vocabulary. Journal

of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 1975,

104, 126-133.

Ausubel, 0. P. The use of advance organizers in the learning and

retention of meaningful verbal material. Journal of Educational

Psychology, 1960, 51, 267-272.

35

7. ' . . ,

°oA
Ausubel, D. P., and Fitzgerald, D. Organizer, general background,

and antecedent learning variables in sequential verbal learning.

Journal of Educational Psychology, 1962, 53, 243-249.

Ausubel, D. P. Educational psychology: A cognitive view.

New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1968.

Bailey, K. M. An introspective analysis of an individual's language

learning experience. In R. C. Scarcella and S. D. Krashen

(Eds.), Research in second language acquisition. Rowley, MA: I Newbury House, 1980.

Barnes, B. R., and Clawson, E. U. Do advance organizers facilitate

learning? Recommendations for further research based on an

analysis of 32 studies. Review of Educational Research, 1975,

45, 637-659.

Boker, 3. R. Immediate and delayed retention effects of

interspersing questions in written instructional passages.

Journal of Educational Psychology, 1974, 66, 96-98.

Boyd, W. M. Repeating questions in prose learning. Journal of

Educational Psychology, 1973, 64, 31-38.

Brophy, J. E. Teacher behavior and its effects. Journal of

Teacher Education, 1979, 71(6), 733-750.

Brown, G. Understanding spoken language. TESOL Quarterly,

December 1978, 271-283.

. Bull, B. L., and Wittrock, M. C. Imagery in the learning of verbal

definitions. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 1973,

43, 289-293.

Cathcart, R. W., Strong, H. A., and Fillmore, L. W. The

social and linguistic behavior of good language learners. In C.

A. Yorio, K. Perkins, and J. Schachter (Eds.), On TESOL 79: The

learner in focus. Washington, DC: TESOL, 1979.

Chamot, A. U. Listening skills in the elementary ESL class. In

H. D. Brown, C. A. Yorio and R. H. Crymes (Eds.), On TESOL

'77-Teaching and learning English as a second language: Trends

in research and practice. Washington, DC: TESOL, 1977.

* Chamot, A. U. ESL speaking skills in the elementary bilingual

Pclassroom. In C. A. Yorio, K. Perkins, and J. Schachter (Eds.),

On TESOL '79 - - The learner in focus. Washington, DC: TESOL,

1979.

Chamot, A. U. Applications of second lancuage acquisition research

to the bilingual lassroom. Focus B. Rosslyn, VA: National

Clearinghouse for Cilingual Education, 1981.

Chamot, A. U., and Chamot, G.A. Journal of a ten year old second

language learner. In R. V. Padilla (Ed.), Theory, technology,

and public policy in bilingual education; 1982 NABE conference

36
proceedings. Rosslyn, VA: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual

Education, 1983.

Chastain, K. Developing second-language skills: Theory to practice,

Second Edition. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally College, 1976.

*. Corder, S. P. Error analysis and interlanguage. Oxford, England:

Oxford University Press, 1981.

Cummins, 3. The construct of language proficiency in bilingual

education. In 3. E. Alatis (Ed.), Current issues in bilingual

education. Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and

Linguistics 1980. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press,

1980.

Cummins, 3. Tests, achievement, and bilingual students. Focus 9.

Rosslyn, VA: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education,

1982.

- Curran, C. A. Counseling-learning in second languages. Apple

*. River, IL: Apple River Press, 1976.

Dale, P. S. Language development: Structure and function.

New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1976.

Dansereau, D. F. Learning strategy research. Unpublished

manuscript, Texas Christian University, 1982.

Dansereau, D. F. The development of a learning strategies

curriculum. In H. F. O'Neil (Ed.), Learning strategies. New

York: Academic Press, 1978.

Dansereau, D. F., Actkinson, T. R., Long, G. L., and McDonald, B.

Learning strategies: A review and synthesis of the current

literature (AFHRL-TR-74-70, Contract F41609-74-C-0013). Lowry

Air Force Base, Colorado, 1974. (AD-AO07722).

Dansereau, D. F., Long, G. L., McDonald, B., and Actkinson, T. R.

Learning strategy inventory development and assessment

(AFHRL-TR-74-40, Contract F41609-74-C-0013). Brooks Air Force

Base, Texas, 1975a.

Dansereau, 0. F., Long, G. L., McDonald, B., Actkinson, T. R.,

Ellis, A. M., Collins, K. W., Williams, S., and Evans, S. H.

Effective learning strategy training program: Development and

assessment (AFHRL-TR-75-41, Contract F41609-74-C-0013). Lowry

Air Force Base, Colorado, 1975b. (AD-A014722)

Delaney, H. 0. Interaction of individual differences with visual and

verbal elaboration instructions. Journal of Educational

Psychology, 1978, 70, 306-318.

Doctorow, M. 3., Wittrock, H. C., and Marks, C. B. Generative

processes in reading comprehension. Journal of Educational

Psychology, 1973, 70, 109-118.

37

I ,.,.." *. .' *._... .. ,... ........ ................... .. .. .*. . .. .
Duchastel, P. Learning objectives and the organization of prose.

Journal of Educational Psychology, 1979, 71, 100-106.

Duell, O..K. Effect of type of objective, level of test questions,

and the judged importance of tested materials upon posttest

performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1974, 66,

225-232.

Dulay, H. C., and Burt, M. K. Creative construction in second

language learning and teaching. In M. K. Burt and H. C. Dulay

(Eds.), New directions in second-language learning and teaching.

Washington, DC: TESOL, 1975.

Dunkel, P., and Pialorsi, F. Advanced listening comprehension:

Developing aural and note-taking skills. Rowley, MA: Newbury

House, 1982.

Eisenstein, M., Bailey, N., and Madden, C. It takes two:

Contrasting tasks and contrasting structures. TESOL Quarterly,

1982, 16(3), 381-393.

Faw, H. W., and Waller, T. G. Mathemagenic behaviors and

efficiency from learning from prose materials: Review, critique,

and recommendations. Review of Educational Research, 1976, 46,

691-720.

Fillmore, L. W. The second time around: Cognitive and social

strategies in second language acquisition. Ph.D. dissertation.

Stanford University, 1976.

Fillmore, L. W. Learning a second language: Chinese children

in the American classroom. In J. E. Alatis (Ed.), Roundtable on

language and linguistics: Current issues in bilingual education.

Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 1980.

Flavell, J. H., and Wellman, H. M. Metamemory. In

R. V. Kail and J. W. Hagen (Eds.), Perspectives on the

development of memory and cognition. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence

Erlbaum, 1977.

Ford, N. Recent approaches to the study and teaching of

'effective learning' in higher education. Review of Educational

Research, 1981, 51(3), 345-377.

Galyean, B. A confluent design for language teaching. TESOL

Quarterly II, No. 2, 1977, 143-156.

Gary, J. 0. and Gary, N. Comprehension-based language instruction:

Theory. In H. Winitz (Ed.), Native language and foreign language

acquisition, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, (Vol.

379). New York, NY: New York Academy of Sciences, 1981.

Gattegno, C. Teaching foreign languages in scnools: The

silent way. New York, NY: Educational Solutions, 1972.

38

-. -. . .".%.... . . .. .% . .. .- , -
7-. - -.

Glynn, S. M., and Di Vesta, F. J. Outline and hierarchial

organization as aids for study and retrieval. Journal of

Educational Psychology, 1977, 69, 89-95.

Good, T. L. Teacher effectiveness in the elementary

school. Journal of Teacher Education, 1979, 30(2)), 52-64.

Griffith, D. A review of the literature on memory

enhancement: The potential and relevance of mnemotechnics for

military training. Technical Report No. 436. Army Research

Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, Fort Hood,

1980.

Gutstein, S.H., Kreeft, 3., and Meloni, C. Experiencing "real

English": Writing a dialogue journal. Paper presented at

WATESOL Convention,. George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, 1982.

Guttman, 3., Levin, 3. R., and Pressley, M. Pictures, partial

pictures, and young children's oral prose learning.- Journal of

Educational Psychology, 1977, 69, 473-480.

Hakuta, K. Becoming bilingual at age 5: The story of

Uguisu. 8. A. honors thesis, Harvard University, Department of

Psychology and Social Relations, 1975.

Hosenfeld, C. Learning about learning: Discovering our students'

strategies. Paper presented at ACTFL Convention, 1974.

Howe, M. 3. A. Using students' notes to examine the role of the

individual learner in acquiring meaninCful subject matter.

Journal of Educational Research, 1970, 64, 61-63.

Jones, B. F. Embedding structural information and strategy

instructions within mastery learning units. Paper presented at

the annual meeting of the International Reading Association, St.

Louis, May 1980.

Jones, B. F., and Smart, D. Embedding learning strategies in

well-marked texts for military occupational specialists training

materials. Proposal submitted to the U.S. Army Research

Institute for Behavioral and Social Sciences through InterAmerica

Research Associates, Basic Skills Resource Center, May 1982.

Kane, J. H., and Anderson, R. C. Depth of processing and

interference effects in the learning and remembering of

sentences. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1978, 70,

626-635.

Kaplan, R., and Simmons, F. G. Effects of instructional objectives

used as orienting stimuli or as summary/review upon prose

learning. journal of Educational Pjychology, 1974, 66, 614-622.

Kintsch, W., and van Dijk, T. A. Tow3rd a model of comprehension

and production. Psychological Review, 1978, 85(5), 363-394.

39

% . . 7"-'" ."". . -.- . .. .. , ...-.. .. ...... '"- "-....
Krashen, S. The input hypothesis. In J. E. Alatis (Ed.), Current

issues in bilingual education. Georgetown University Round Table

on Languages and Linguistics. Washington, DC: Georgetown

University Press, 1980.

Krashen, S. The monitor model for second language acquisition.

In R. C. Gingras (Ed.), Second language acquisition and foreign

language teaching. Washington, DC: Center for Applied

Linguistics, 1978.

Kunihira, S., and Asher, 3. 3. The strategy of the Total Physical

Response: An application to learning Japanese. International

Review of Applied Linguistics, 1965, 3() 7-289.

K Levin, J. R. Inducing comprehension in poor readers: A test of a.

recent model. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1973, 65,

19-24.

Levin, J. R. The mnemonic '80s: Keywords in the classroom.

Educational Psychologist, 1981, 16(2), 65-82.

Levin, J. R., Kessler, 3., Miller, G. E., and Bartell, N. P. More

on how (and how not) to remember the States and their capitals.

Working Paper No. 306. Madison, WI: Wisconsin Rese-arch and

Development Center for Individualized Schooling, University of

Wisconsin, 1981.

Levin, 3. R., McCormick, C. B., and Dretzke, B. 3. Investigation

of a combined mnemonic strategy For teaching the order of U.S.

Presidents. Working Paper No. 307. Madison, WI: Wisconsin

Research and Development Center for Individualized Schooling,

-: University of Wisconsin, 1981.

* Levin, 3. R., and Pressley, M. Understanding mnemonic imagery

effects: A dozen "obvious" outcomes. Educational Technology, in

press.

* Levin, 3. R., Pressley, M., McCormick, C. B., Miller, G. E., and

Shriberg, L. K. Assessing the classroom potential of the keyword

method. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1979, 71, 583-594.

Levin, 3. R., Shriberg, L. K., Miller, G. E., McCormick, C. B.,

and Levin, 8. 8. The keyword method as applied to elementary

school children's social studies content. Working Paper No. 265.

Madison, WI: Wisconsin Research and Development Center for

Individualized Schooling, 1979.

Mayer, R. E. Advance organizers that compensate for the organization

of text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1978, 70, 880-886.

Mayer, R. E. Can advance organizers influence meaningful learning?

Review of Educational Research, 1979, 49, 371-383.

McCombs, B. L. Enhancements to motivational skill training for

military technical training students. Proposal submitted to the

U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social

40
. > > /- : 7 . ., A.. . A -'. . . - . - .5 . . -; - ., . , . . . . . . ,.m ;

Sciences through InterAmerica Research Associates, Basic Skills

Resource Center, May 1982.

Mellgren, L., and Walker, M. New horizons in English, Second

Edition. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1980.

Naiman, N. The use of elicited imitation in second language

acquisition research. Working Papers in Bilingualism, March

1974.

Nord, 3. R. Developing listening fluency before speaking: An

alternative paradigm. System 8, 1980, 1, 1-22.

Paris, S. G., Lindauer, B. K., and Cox, G. L. The development of

inferential comprehension. Child Development, 1977, 48,

1728-1733.

*Peper, R. 3., and Mayer, R. E. Note taking as a generative activity.

Journal of Educational Psychology, 1978, 70, 514-522.

Postovsky, V.A. Effects of delay in oral practice at the beginning

of second language learning. Modern Language Journal, 1974, 5e

229-239.

Pressley, G. M. Mental imagery helps eight-year-olds rememberwhat

they read. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1976, 68,

355-359.

Pressley, M., Levin, 3. R., and Delaney, H. 0. The mnemonic

keyword method. Review of Educational Research, 1982, 52(l),

61-91.

Pressley, M., Levin, J. R., Digdon, N., Bryant, S. L., McGivern,

J. E., and Ray, K. Re-examining the "limitations" of the

mnemonic keyword method. Working Paper No. 329. Madison, WI:

Wisconsin Center for Education Research, University of Wisconsin,

1982.

Pressley, M., Levin, 3. R., Kuiper, N. A., Bryant, S. L., and

Michener, S. Mnemonic versus nonmnemonic vocabulary-learning

strategies: Putting "depth" to rest. Working Paper No. 312.

Madison, WI: Wisconsin Research and Development Center for

Individualized Schooling, University of Wisconsin, 1981.

Pressley, M., Samuel, 3., Hershey, M. M., Bishop, S. L., and

Dickinson, D. Use of mnemonic techniques to teach young children

foreign language vocabulary. Contemporary Educational

Psychology, 1981, 6, 110-116. .1

Raugh, M. R., and Atkinson, R. C. A mnemonic method for lea-ning a

second-language vocabulary. Journal of Educational Psychology,

1975, 67, 1-16.

41

"°Z
Raugh, M. R., Schupbach, R. 0., and Atkinson, R. C. Teaching a large

Russian language vocabulary by the mnemonic keyword method.

Instructional Science, 1977, 6, 199-221.

Rickards,' 3. p., and August, G. J. Generative underlining

strategies in prose recall. Journal of Educational Psychology,

1975, 67, 860-865.

Rigney, J. W. Learning strategies: A theoretical perspective.

In H. F. O'Neil (Ed.), Learning strategies. New York: Academic

Press, 1978.

Rivers, W. M. Learning a sixth l.anguage: An adult learner's daily

diary, Appendix B. In W. M. Rivers (Ed.), Teachinq

forein-lanjuaje skills, Second Edition. Chicago, IL:

University of Chicago Press, 1981.

Rosenshine, B. V. Content, time, and direct instruction.

In P. L. Peterson and H. 3. Walberg (Eds.), Research on teaching:

Concepts, findings, and implications. Berkeley, CA: McCutchan,

1979, 28-56.

Ross, H. S., and Killey, 3. C. The effects of questioning on

retention. Child Development, 1977, 48, 312-314.

* Royer, P. N. Effects of specificity and position of written

instructional objectives on learning from lecture. Journal of

Educational Psychology, 1977, 69, 40-45.

Ruch, M. D., and Levin, 3. R. Pictorial organization versus verbal

repetition of children's prose: Evidence for proceting

differences. AV Communication Review, 1977, 25, 269-280.

Sagaria, S. D., and Di Vesta, F. 3. Learner expectations induced by

adjunct questions and the retrieval of intentional and incidental

information. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1978, 70,

280-288.

Saville-Troike, M., McClure, E., and Fritz, M. Communicative tactics

in children's second language acquisition. Paper presented at

the University of Wisconsin symposium on Universals on Second

Language Acquisition, Milwaukee, March 1982.

Schumann, F. M. Diary of a language learner: A further analysis.

In R. C. Scarcella and S. D. Krashen (Eds.), Research in second

language acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1980.

Shumann, F. M., and Schumann, 3. H. Diary of a language learner: An

introspective study of second language learning. In H. D. Brown,

C. A. Yorio, and R. H. Crymes (Eds.), On TESOL '77 teaching and

learning English as a second language: Trends in research and

practice. Washington, DC: TESOL, 1977.

42
Slobin, C. I. and Welsh, C. A. Elicited imitation as a research

tool.in developmental psycholinguistics. In C. Ferguson and D.

I. Slobin (Eds.), Studies in child language development. New

York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1973.

Staton, 3., Shuy, R., and Kreeft, 3. Analysis of dialogue journal

writing as a communicative event. Final Report to the National

. Institute of Education, 1982.

Sticht, T. G. The acquisition of literacy by children and adults.

Prepared for the Second Delaware Symposium on Curriculum,

r. Instruction, and Learning: The Acquisition of Reading.

University of Delaware, 1975a.

Sticht, T. G. (Ed.), Reading and working: A functional literacy

anthology. Alexandria, VA: HUMRO, 1975b.

Sticht, T. G., Beck, L. 3., Hauke, R. N., Kleiman, G. M., and

James, 3. H. Auding and reading: A developmen'tal model.

Alexandria, VA: HUMRO, 1974.

Sticht, T. G., and James, 3. H. Listening to language and

looking at language. In S. Wanat, H. Singer, and M. Kling

(Eds.), Extracting meaning from written language. International

Reading Association, 1973.

Streiff, V. Cloze in the classroom, with notes on needed research.

Bilingual Education Paper Series, May 3. Los Angeles, CA:

Evaluation, Dissemination, and Assessment Center, California

State University, 1981.

* Tarone, E. Some thoughts on the notion of communication

strategy. TESOL Quarterly, 1981, 15(3), 285-295.

Taylor, H. M. Learning to listen to English. TESOL Quarterly,

1981, 15(1), 41-50.

." Telatnik, M. A. Developing a culture/communication course

with videotapes on cultural misunderstandings: An update. Paper

presented at Colorado TESOL Convention, Denver, 1979.

Tenenbaum, A. B. Task-dependent effects of organization and context

upon comprehension of prose. Journal of Educational Psychology,

1977, 69, 528-536.

Terrell, T. 0. The natural approach in bilingual education.

In Office of Bilingual Education, California State Department of

Education, Schooling and language minority students: A

theoretical framework. Los Angeles, CA: Evaluation,

Dissemination, and Assessment Center, California State

University, Los Angeles, 1981.

Ventriglia, L. Conversations of Miguel and Maria: How children

learn a second language. Reading, 14A: Addison-Wesley, 1982.

43

~ -* .*~'**a* . ... .,. .. *,.* * -- . .
Walker, M. Yes! English for children; Young English Series,

New Edition. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1983.

Weiland, A., and Kingsbury, S. J. Immediate and delayed recall of

lecture" material as a function of notetaking. Journal of

Educational Research, 1979, 72(4), 228-230.

Weinstein, C. E. Elaboration skills as a learning strategy.

In H. F. O'Neil (Ed.), Learning strategies. New York: Academic

Press, 1978.

Wittrock, M. C. Learning as a generative process. Educational

Psychologist, 1974, 1, 87-95.

Wittrock, M. C. Generative reading comprehension. Unpublished

manuscript, University of California at Los Angeles, 1982.

Wittrock, M. C., and Carter, J. Generative processing or

hierarchically organized words. American Journal of Psychology,

1975, 88, 489-501.

Wittrock, M. C., Marks, C. B., and Doctorow, M. J. Reading as a

generative process. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1975, 67,

484-489.

Wolff, P., and Levin, J. R. The role of overt activity in

children's imagery production.. Child Development, 1972, 43,

537-547.

Yorkey, R. C., Barrutia, R., Chamot, A. U., et al. English for

international communication, New Edition. Boston, MA: Heinle

and Heinle (in press).

44

",...- ' .% , - ,':% * " %" " .:."-. -."-, .~."." , -''- .'.''."_."_. . .'. ""•"' . . .""" . . -. -" .. ."-' '',' " " .' - ' "-