NASA/TM--97-206319

Ultra-Capacitor Energy Storage in a

Large Hybrid Electric Bus

L.A. Viterna

Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

Prepared for the

14th International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exposition

sponsored by the Electric Vehicle Association of America

Orlando, Florida, December 11-17, 1997

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration

Lewis Research Center

December 1997

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Ultra-Capacitor Energy Storage

In a Large Hybrid Electric Bus

L. A. Viterna, Ph.D.

NASA Lewis Research Center

21000 Brookpark Rd.

Cleveland, Ohio 44135

E-mail: viterna @ lerc.nasa.gov

Abstract

The power requirements for inner city transit buses are characterized by power peaks about

an order of magnitude larger than the average power usage of the vehicle. For these

vehicles, hybrid power trains can offer significantly improved fuel economy and exhaust

emissions. A critical design challenge, however, has been developing the energy storage and

power management system to respond to these rapid power variations. Most hybrid vehicles

today use chemical energy storage batteries to supplement the power from the fuel burning

generator unit. Chemical storage batteries however, present several difficulties in power

management and control. These difficulties include (1) inadequate life, (2) limited current

delivery as well as absorption during regenerative braking, (3) inaccurate measurement of

state of charge, and (4) stored energy safety issues. Recent advances in ultra-capacitor

technology create an opportunity to address these concerns.

The NASA Lewis Research Center, in cooperation with industry and academia, has

developed an advanced hybrid electric transit bus using ultra-capacitors as the primary

energy storage system. At over 15000-kg gross weight, this is the largest vehicle of its kind

ever built using this advanced energy storage technology. Results of analyses show that the

vehicle will match the performance of an equivalent conventionally powered vehicle over

typical inner city drive cycles. This paper describes the overall power system architecture,

the evolution of the control strategy, and analysis of power flow and vehicle performance.

NASA/TM--97-206319 1
Introduction

New environmental emission standards are a challenge and an opportunity for industry and

governments who manufacture and operate urban transit vehicles. In addition, reduced

federal support for regional transit authorities has heightened the need for buses with

increased fuel economy and reduced operating costs.

A bus incorporating a natural gas engine with an electric drive train and energy storage has

the potential to offer large reductions in emissions and fuel consumption for urban transit

buses. NASA Lewis in cooperation with government and industry in Ohio is developing a

transit bus using this hybrid power technology approach.

Discussion

Hybrid Electric Vehicle Concept

In recent years an evolution in power electronics technology has offered the possibility of

revolutionary drive trains for passenger vehicles. Electric motors using efficient solid state

power devices offer infinitely variable power and speed control. Several of the motors

currently being offered by industry have very high power densities and can be controlled to

also act as generators. When coupled with onboard energy storage systems such as chemical

batteries, capacitors, or flywheels, this new drive train offers several advantages including:

• Elimination of multiple-gear transmissions

• Elimination of fluid coupling losses

• Near constant speed and load to the engine

• Recovery of energy during braking

• Reduced drive train and brake maintenance

Electrical power trains with energy storage uncouple the short-term power requirements of

the vehicle from the load seen by the engine. An engine in such a power train can operate at

its highest efficiency design point. In addition, the size of the engine can be reduced

significantly in some vehicles and drive cycles to the long-term average value of power.

Energy storage provides the short term power supplement needed during acceleration and for

going up a grade. This reduced engine size, higher efficiency, and constant speed yields

significantly improved emissions, fuel economy, and life for the engine.

Project Objectives and Team Approach

The project objectives are to design, build, and demonstrate a hybrid electric transit bus. A

cooperative of several organizations including industrial companies, federal and local

government agencies, and academia are supporting this as a joint venture. The members of

the group are providing components, systems, test facilities, and operational support to the

project.

The governmental bodies believe that this effort will make a significant contribution to

addressing the national and state interests to reduce emissions in urban areas. They also

believe it will reduce fossil fuel consumption and operating costs for the mass transit

systems. In addition, this is an excellent opportunity to capitalize on, and transfer

technology from the aerospace and military industries to a commercial venture.

The industry partners objective is to develop advanced transit buses and drive train products

that can address the needs of the transit bus market with respect to emissions and operating

cost. The vehicle must be competitive, in terms of initial capital cost as well as operating

costs, with current low emission urban transit buses.

NASA/TM--97-206319 2
Keyfactorsindefiningtheoverallprojectapproachavebeentheselectionof theindustry

teamandthedecisionto concentrateonthepowerplantanddrivetrainsystem.Marketand

technologyleadersinthetransitbus,engine,andelectricmotorindustrieswerechosento

jointhiscooperativeventureto insurethataviablecommercial productionandmarketing

capabilitywouldbeavailableattheendof theproject.Companieswhocouldactinavertical

OEM/suppliermarketweresoughtratherthancompetingOEMsorcomponentsuppliersto

facilitatefuturemanufacturingagreements. In addition,costsharingwasrequiredfor

industrymembersto actasfull partners.A descriptionof thepartnersandtheirrolesfollow.

In additiontoinitiatingtheproject,theNASALewisResearchCenterprovidesoverall

projectcoordinationandtechnicalexpertiseinsystemmodeling,aswellaskeycomponent

selection.Inaddition,NASAisresponsiblefor developingtheoverallvehiclepowercontrol

systemincludingenergystoragecharge/dischargecircuitryandcontrolalgorithm

development. In general,off-the-shelfcomponentshavebeenintegratedintothepower

management system.Key technology in this area developed by NASA will be disseminated

for use and manufacturing by industry.

The Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority (GCRTA) is a large urban transit agency

operating over 700 buses in the city of Cleveland and is a good representative of the

potential customer. It is located near the other partners and has aggressively introduced new

low emissions technology. In addition it has developed the infrastructure to support

alternative fuels, especially, natural gas. The GCRTA provided the initial vehicle and is

supporting the vehicle testing.

Bowling Green State University (BGSU), College of Technology, is a leader in the

development of electric vehicle drive trains. BGSU and the Lincoln Electric Motor Division

developed the electric traction and auxiliary motors. BGSU also engineered and assembled

the major drive train components onto the rear engine cradle of the bus.

Howard University (Washington, DC) is responsible for developing advanced energy

management algorithms using neural network technologies. This may offer more efficient

operation of the buses by adjusting the state of the energy system based on recognition of

variable route conditions. These algorithms will be incorporated in the future.

Flxible has historically been the dominant producer of 40-ft transit buses. This duty class of

urban transit buses is the mainstay of the industry. Though the 40-ft Flxible bus is currently

out of production, Flxible supported this project with vehicle engineering and integration.

Because Flxible is not producing buses, other vehicle manufacturers are being sought for

possible interest manufacturing or retrofitting buses to hybrid configuration.

Teledyne Ryan Aeronautical (TRA) is one of the largest producers of small gas turbines. In

addition, TRA's unique low cost manufacturing capability, almost entirely based on casting

techniques, was seen as critical to insure the final system would be cost competitive. This

technology is a result of competing in the "disposable" cruise missile engine market where

large military contracts are extremely cost competitive. Although the initial vehicle uses a

reciprocating engine, future plans for the project include the use of a Teledyne gas turbine

generator unit. The gas turbine offers many advantages over those competing reciprocating

engines including the following:

• Low emissions

• Multiple fuels capability

• Smooth and quiet operation

• Compact size and low weight

• Low parts count and high reliability

NASA/TM--97-206319 3
The emphasis of the program is on the power train because these systems offer the most

effective means to improve emissions and fuel consumption. It is expected that power train

products will result from this effort which can be used by other U.S. bus manufacturers also.

Finally, it is the intent that where possible, the components developed be applicable for use

in automobiles. This will result in lower cost to the bus industry through the greater mass

production of the automobile industry

Vehicle and Power Train Components and Configuration

The hybrid electric transit bus is configured as a series hybrid as shown in Figure 1. In a

series hybrid, all power developed by the power plant is converted to electrical power. The

combination of electrical power from the engine-generator and the energy storage system

power the single centrally located variable speed electric motor that is attached to the rear

differential/axle. All power requirements of the bus are obtained from the energy storage

system and the engine-generator including lighting, heating, air conditioning, pneumatics,

and other vehicle subsystems.

The energy storage system uses a set of thirty super capacitors to store electrical energy. The

total capacitor bank is capable of storing 1600 kJ (about 20 Farads at 400 V). The capacitor

bank weighs about 2100 lbs. This state-of-the-art technology not only has much longer life

than conventional batteries, but it also provides exceptional capability to recover energy that

would otherwise be lost during braking. This is the largest vehicle ever built using super

capacitor energy storage.

Power end Control Diagram

I=H "cl Indu(:_ion

" Motor

Regermmttva

Bmtdng

L

Figure 1 - Series Hybrid Schematic

NASA/TM--97-206319 4
Theelectrictractionmotoris afour-quadrant vectorcontrolledACinductionmotor.

Inductionmotorsofferhighreliabilityandvectorcontrollersallowforindependent and

efficientcontrolof torqueoverawidespeedrange.Withitslightweightalloyframeandthe

BGSUdesignedoil cooling,theLincolnElectricmotorachieves200HPwhileweighing

only350lbs.A separateauxiliarymotordrivesthemajorsubsystemloadssuchasair

conditioning,andairandhydraulicpumps.

Thepowermanagement anddatasystemconsistsof amicroprocessor-based Programmable

LogicController(PLC)controller,aportablecomputerfor dataacquisition,anda

communicationbus.ThePLCcontrollerprovidessequencingfor system/subsystemstartup

andshutdownaswellascontrolof thestateof dischargeof theenergystoragesystem.The

stateoftheenergystoragemustbeoptimizedtoallowforfull recoveryofenergyduring

brakingwhilealsoprovidingadequatevehicleperformance. Finally,thevehiclemust

respondto operatoracceleratorandbrakecontrolsassimilarlyaspossibletotheresponseof

aconventionalvehicle.

Thechoiceof theenergystoragesystemanditsassociatedelectricalcharacteristicsstrongly

influencesthedesignof thevehiclecontrolstrategy.Theultracapacitorsystemhasseveral

characteristicsthataresignificantlydifferentfromthoseof conventional chemicalstorage

batteries.

Firstthestateof chargeof capacitorscanbedeterminedverypreciselyfromthemeasured

capacitorvoltage.Thisisasignificantadvantageoverchemicalbatteriesinwhichthe

relationshipbetweenvoltageandstateof chargeisnon-linear.Chemicalbatteriesalso

exhibithysteresisof theirvoltage,current,stateof chargecharacteristics.Batteryenergy

storagesystemsrequireamuchmoresophisticatedstateof chargecontrolsystem.

Aseconddifferencebetweenbatteriesandcapacitorsisthatbatteriesmustbecurrent(and/or

cellvoltage),limitedespeciallywhenbeingcharged.Thisis evenmoreimportantasthe

batteryachievesfull charge.Nearfull chargeleadacidandmanyotherchemicalbatteries

areunableto accepthighcurrentswithoutdamagetotheirplates.Topreventlossof battery

life,additionalhardwareandsoftwareisneededwhichagainaddscomplexityofthecharge

controlsystem.Capacitors,ontheotherhand,haveveryhighcurrentcapabilitiesand

efficiency,approachtheirvoltagelimit moreslowly,anddonotexperiencedamagewhile

acceptingcurrentbelowfull charge.

A finaldifferencebetweenbatteriesandcapacitorsisthatbatterieshaveamuchlarger

energycapacity.Althoughthecapacitor-basednergystoragesystemisverylargein this

vehicle,muchof itsenergyisusedduringasingletransientof sustainedacceleration. Figure

2showstheresultsof ananalysisof powersystemresponseasthebusrepeatedlyaccelerates

anddecelerates. Thisparticularanalysislimitedtheregenerativecurrento assesstheability

ofthepowermanagement systemtomaintainadequatestateof charge.Notehowthe

capacitorvoltagedecreasesasthevehicleacceleratesandthecorrespondinghighcurrent

peaks.

Overall,theuseof capacitorenergystoragereducedthecomplexityof thepower

management controllersignificantly.Initialoperationof thevehiclewill usecapacitor

voltageasfeedbackto controlthepowersetpointof theenginegeneratorset.Thesetpoint

will beupdatedeveryfewseconds.Development of afuzzylogicbasedcontrolsystemis

alsounderwaywhichwill includevehiclevelocityandratesof changeinelectricalstateto

betteranticipatefuturepowerdemand.

NASA/TM--97-206319 5
10

g.

0 ,

_ _ _i  ̧ _ • _

Velocity

it_ ......... _ !i _i_::_'_i ii,_i_ ............... _ ...........

===:v=  ̧ __ =:.:

o .,5,0 '_oo 150 20,0 2.50 300 350 400

Ttme, _cl_

Capacitor Voltage

350

30_

200

150

400

C.O

0

.........................................

!

2C_,J _50 3_J<.1 _E_O 4CA'_

Time, m_.ms

I

40O

o

!

Capacitor Current

..................

N

T_me_seconds

Figure 2 - Expected Capacitor System Behavior

Systems Performance and Emissions

System model development and analyses were key to selecting the design configuration and

the power system components. A computer program, HEVA, (an acronym for _Hybrid

Electric V_ehicle Analysis) was developed at NASA Lewis and was the primary system

performance analysis modeling tool. HEVA is written in the C computer language and is

presently implemented on a personal computer. HEVA's present capability includes power

flow analysis, energy storage state-of-charge, and fuel economy estimates for a hybrid

vehicle operating over a defined transient driving cycle. Power loss models for aerodynamic

drag, rolling resistance, road inclination, vehicle acceleration, and component inefficiencies

are included as well as a power recovery model for regenerative braking.

Initial system studies have used the drive cycle velocity profile defined in the Department of

Transportation's Transit Bus "White Book" specifications of reference 1. This drive cycle

consists of three phases to be repeated in sequence: (1) a central business district phase of 2

miles with 7 stops per mile and top speed of 20 mph, (2) an arterial route phase of 2 miles

with 2 stops per mile and a top speed of 40 mph, and (3) a commuter phase of 4 miles with 1

stop and a maximum speed of 55 mph.

NASA/TM--97-206319 6
A studywasmadeusingHEVAtofirstdeterminehowtheenergyisusedover this drive

cycle. As shown in Figure 3, the largest (48%) use of the energy is in acceleration of the bus,

with smaller and approximately equal energy used for each of the following: (1)

aerodynamic drag, 18%; (2) tire rolling resistance, 17%; and (3) drive train losses, 17%.

An important conclusion to be drawn is that there is a great potential to recover energy that

was used for acceleration for these heavy transit buses in urban drive cycles. Drive train

losses are also significant and result primarily from slippage losses in the automatic

transmissions. This occurs primarily during acceleration (high torque) below the lockup

speed of about 30 mph. Since the transit bus spends much of its time under these conditions,

there is significant potential for improving efficiency during acceleration. The remaining

energy losses in tire rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag are important but will not be

addressed as part of this effort.

The peak power requirement during the drive cycle is important with respect to sizing of the

traction motor. For this study, the peak power is approximately 250 hp and occurs during

acceleration in the commuter phase of the drive cycle. The current Otto and Diesel bus

engines are sized for this value. In the hybrid, the electric traction motor must also be sized

relative to this value to provide the required acceleration. Electric motors are generally

thermally limited, however, and the 200-hp motor is expected to be adequate.

The average power requirement over the drive cycle is important with respect to sizing the

engine generator. Results of this study yielded an average power requirement of about 47 hp

to meet the drive cycle requirements. However, additional power requirements result from

subsystem loads. Department of Transportation studies measured subsystem power

requirements for a Flxible 40-ft transit bus. This data shows the average power required for

the air conditioning, air compressor power steering pump, and the alternator total 26 hp.

Thus the total average power for the vehicle is 73 hp or about 54 kW for the White Book

design cycle. Additional analyses based on drive cycle data taken by NASA on the Cleveland

RTA Inner City Loop yields lower power requirements than the White Book cycle presented

here and well within the power capability of the engine generator unit.

n Acceleration

I Aero. Drag

O Roll. Resist.

[] Drive Train Losses

Figure 3 - Vehicle Energy Usage

NASA/TM--97-206319 7
The expected fuel economy of the hybrid bus compared to today' s buses is shown in Figure

4, as predicted by HEVA. Two drive cycles were analyzed. The first represents city driving

using measured velocity versus time data as input to HEVA from operation on the Cleveland

RTA inner city loop. The Cleveland RTA Inner City Loop is one of the most severe for fuel

consumption because approximately half of the time the engine is at idle and operating at its

lowest efficiency. The other driving cycle is based on data measured on an arterial-driving

route. This analysis provides the bases for the goal of doubling the fuel economy for the

hybrid compared to today's buses.

The gas turbine being developed for testing in 1998 offers a significant advantage with

respect to exhaust emissions over reciprocating engines. Its continuous combustion process

and high airflow rates results in low hydrocarbon (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), and

particulate production even without exhaust catalytic converters. Nitric oxides (NO)

production, though relatively low for gas turbines, is dependent on the resident time at high

temperature and the efficiency of the fuel injectors in prevaporizing liquid jet fuel. The

Teledyne Model 204 gas turbine to be used here has two characteristics that will contribute

to low NOx production. First, it operates at a relatively low turbine inlet temperature of

about 1800F. Second, because the intended fuel is natural gas, it exits the fuel injector as

gas, yielding better air and fuel mixing and thus offering the benefits of prevaporized

combustors.

The expected emissions for the turboelectric bus, normalized with respect to the 1998

EPA/CARB standards for transit buses, are shown in the lower part of Figure 4. While

conventional Diesel engines are having difficulty achieving the 1998 standards, the

turboelectric hybrid is expected to reduce emissions by about a factor of 10.

6

Fuel 4

Economy,

mpg 2

City Arterial

Driving Driving

Emission l_S-] Hybrid

Levels 1 A

(Relative to 1.0

1998 Heavy

Vehicle _'i

Standards) .L.

NO= CO HC Particulates

Today's

Diesel

Figure 4 - Predicted Fuel Economy and Emissions

NASA/TM--97-206319 8
E. Project Status and Future Plans

Assembly of the prototype vehicle was completed in October 1997. For initial testing, a

reciprocating engine powered electric generator is being used until the turbogenerator is

available. This power plant is essentially the same power output as the turbogenerator that

will be used in 1998.

Results from the early vehicle testing were not available at the time of this writing, but

should be by the time this paper is presented. Planned testing includes vehicle acceleration,

braking and handling, and reliability. Track testing is expected to continue throughout the

first quarter of calendar year 1998 at the Transportation Research Center in East Liberty,

Ohio.

It is expected that the initial vehicle will then be tested under city driving conditions in

Cleveland. Plans for further demonstrations of similar vehicles at other locations are

currently being developed.

III. CONCLUSIONS

A government and industry cooperative is using advanced power technology in a city transit

bus that will offer double the fuel economy, and emissions, one tenth of government

standards. A unique aspect of the vehicle's design is its use of "super" capacitors for recovery

of energy during braking. Future plans include use of a gas turbine powered generator in the

second half of 1998.

Acknowledgments

I would like to acknowledge all the members of the Ohio Hybrid Bus team who have been

key to the success of this effort, along with their associated organizations:

Bowling Green State University

Flxible Bus

Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority

Howard University

Lincoln Electric Motor Division

NASA Lewis Research Center

Ohio Department of Development

Teledyne Ryan Aeronautical

References

1. Department of Transportation, "Baseline Advanced Design Transit Coach Specifications," 1978.

NASA/TM--97-206319 9
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4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Ultra-Capacitor Energy Storage in a Large Hybrid Electric Bus

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L.A. Viterna

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National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Lewis Research Center

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11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

Prepared for the 14th International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exposition sponsored by the Electric Vehicle Association of America, Orlando, Florida, December 11-17, 1997. Responsible person, L.A. Viterna, organization code 6920,

(216) 433-5398.

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13. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 worda)

The power requirements for inner city transit buses are characterized by power peaks about an order of magnitude larger

than the average power usage of the vehicle. For these vehicles, hybrid power trains can offer significantly improved fuel

economy and exhaust emissions. A critical design challenge, however, has been developing the energy storage and power

management system to respond to these rapid power variations. Most hybrid vehicles today use chemical energy storage

batteries to supplement the power from the fuel burning generator unit. Chemical storage batteries however, present several

difficulties in power management and control. These difficulties include (1) inadequate life, (2) limited current delivery as

well as absorption during regenerative braking, (3) inaccurate measurement of state of charge, and (4) stored energy safety

issues. Recent advances in ultra-capacitor technology create an opportunity to address these concerns. The NASA Lewis

Research Center, in cooperation with industry and academia, has developed an advanced hybrid electric transit bus using

ultra-capacitors as the primary energy storage system. At over 15000-kg gross weight, this is the largest vehicle of its kind

ever built using this advanced energy storage technology. Results of analyses show that the vehicle will match the performance of an equivalent conventionally powered vehicle over typical inner city drive cycles. This paper describes the overall

power system architecture, the evolution of the control strategy, and analysis of power flow and vehicle performance.

14. SUBJECT TERMS

Hybrid electric vehicles; Transportation; Power systems

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