This guide is designed to prepare you to deploy to culturally 

complex environments and achieve mission objectives. The 

fundamental information contained within will help you 

understand the cultural 

dimension of your 

assigned location and 

gain skills necessary for 

success. 

The guide consists of 2 

parts: 

Part 1 “Culture General” 

introduces the foundational knowledge you need to operate 

effectively in any global environment – Southeast Asia in 

particular (Photo: USAF and Indonesia legal planners discuss 

urban search and rescue during exercise Gema Bhakti). 

Part 2 “Culture Specific” describes the unique cultural features 

of Indonesian society. This section is designed to complement 

other pre-deployment training. It applies culture-general 

concepts to help increase 

your knowledge of your 

assigned deployment 

location (Photo: US and 

Indonesian soldiers cook 

snake meat during the 

Jungle Survival class).

For further information, 

visit the Air Force Culture 

and Language Center (AFCLC) website at http://culture.af.mil/

or contact AFCLC’s Region Team at AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the expressed permission 

of AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the US 

government, Wikimedia, and other sources as indicated.

About this Guide

Indonesian Culture Guide
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes 

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to adapt 

to our social and physical environments. A culture is the sum of 

all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that have 

meaning for a society. All human beings have culture, and 

individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs and 

values. 

Members of a culture also usually assign the same meanings to 

the symbols in that culture. A symbol is when one thing – an 

image, word, object, idea, or story – represents another thing. 

For example, the American flag is a physical and visual symbol 

of a core American value – freedom. At the same time, the story 

of George Washington 

admitting to having chopped 

down a cherry tree is also 

symbolic, representing the 

importance Americans place 

on personal honesty and 

leadership integrity. 

Force Multiplier

The military services have 

learned through experience the importance of understanding 

other cultures. Unlike the 20th-century bipolar world order that 

dominated US strategy for nearly half a century, today the US 

military is operating in what we classify as asymmetric or 

irregular conflict zones where the notion of cross-cultural 

interactions is on the leading edge of our engagement strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive feature 

in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on influencing 

constructive change through peaceful means where possible. 

We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local nationals to 

focus on developing stable political, social, and economic 

institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and traditions.

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

GENERAL

CULTURE 
Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively influence 

their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success. 

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry internally, 

but also by our behaviors and by the systems members of a 

culture create to organize their lives. These systems, such as 

political or educational institutions, help us to live in a manner

that is appropriate to our culture and encourages us to 

perpetuate that culture into the future. 

We can organize these behaviors and systems into categories – 

what the Air Force refers to as “cultural domains” – in order to 

better understand the primary values and characteristics of a 

society. A cross-culturally competent military member can use 

these domains – which include kinship, language and 

communication, and social and political systems among others

(see chart on next page) – as tools for understanding and 

adapting to any culture. For example, by understanding the ways 

different cultures define family or kinship, a deployed military 

member can more effectively 

interact with members of that 

culture. 

Social Behaviors Across 

Cultures 

While humankind shares basic 

behaviors, various groups enact 

or even group those behaviors

differently across cultural 

boundaries. For example, all societies obtain food for survival, 

although agrarian societies generally produce their own food for 

limited consumption using very basic techniques. 

Conversely, industrialized nations have more sophisticated 

market economies, producing foodstuffs for universal 

consumption. Likewise, all cultures value history and tradition, 

although they represent these concepts through a variety of 

unique forms of symbolism. While the dominant world religions 

share the belief in one God, their worship practices vary with

GENERAL

CULTURE 
their traditional historical development. Similarly, in many kinbased cultures where familial bonds are foundational to social 

identity, it is customary for family or friends to serve as 

godparents, while for other societies this practice is nearly nonexistent.

Worldview

One of our basic human 

behaviors is the tendency to 

classify others as similar or 

different according to our 

cultural standard. As depicted 

in the chart below, we can 

apply the 12 cultural domains 

to help us compare similarities 

and differences across 

cultures. We evaluate others’ behavior to determine if they are 

“people like me” or “people not like me.” Consequently, we 

assume that individuals falling into the “like me” category share 

our perspectives and values. 

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CULTURE 
This collective perspective forms our worldview – how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider your 

worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for our actions and a logical explanation 

of why we individually or collectively act in a certain manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system sets its universal standards of what 

is good and bad, defines right and wrong behavior, and assigns 

a value of meaningful or meaningless. Our beliefs form the 

fundamental values we hold to be true – regardless of whether 

there is physical evidence to support these ideas. Beliefs are a 

central facet of human culture. They are shared views about 

world order and how the universe was physically and socially 

constructed. 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, right or wrong depends on our deeplyheld beliefs we started developing early in life that have help 

shape our characters. Likewise, 

these values are ingrained in our 

personalities and shape our 

behavior patterns and our selfidentities. Because cultural beliefs 

are intensely held, they are difficult, 

though not impossible, to change. 

Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence 

certain behaviors and also serve to 

rationalize those behaviors. 

Therefore, knowledge of individual 

or group beliefs can be useful in 

comprehending or making sense of 

their activities. We will use the iceberg model for classifying 

culture to illustrate two levels of meaning, as depicted. Beliefs 

and values, portrayed by the deeper and greater level of the 

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CULTURE 
submerged iceberg, are seldom visible, but are indicated / hinted 

at / referenced by our behaviors and symbols (top level). It is 

important to recognize, though, that the parts of culture that are 

not visible (under the waterline) are informing and shaping what 

is being made visible (above the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews may present behaviors that 

are contrary to our own beliefs, particularly in many regions 

where US forces deploy. Your ability to suspend judgment in 

order to understand another perspective is essential to 

establishing relationships with your host-nation counterparts. 

The ability to withhold your opinion and strive to understand a 

culture from a member of that culture’s perspective is known as 

cultural relativism. It often involves taking an alternate

perspective when interpreting others’ behaviors and is critical to 

your ability to achieve mission success. 

As you travel throughout Southeast Asia, you will encounter 

cultural patterns of meaning that are common across the region. 

What follows is a general description of 12 cultural domains

which are used to frame those commonalities. 

1. History and Myth 

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of the 

past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can act

as a type of historical record, although it is usually a story which 

members of a culture use to explain community origins or 

important events that are not verifiable or which occurred prior 

to written language. 

Southeast Asia includes 5 

countries on the mainland

(Burma, Thailand, Laos, 

Cambodia, and Vietnam)

and 5 maritime countries in 

the North Pacific Ocean and 

the South China Sea 

(Malaysia, Singapore, 

Indonesia, the Philippines, 

CULTURAL DOMAINS

GENERAL

CULTURE 
and Brunei). As early as 150 BC, the scattered communities on 

the mainland traded with and paid tribute to the dominating 

kingdoms of China and India. China maintained a presence in 

Vietnam for over 1000 years, while’s India’s influence was felt 

mainly as its inhabitants spread Hinduism, Buddhism, and later 

Islam across the region. Southeast Asia’s most famous ancient 

empire, the Khmer, ruled for 4 centuries beginning around 800 

AD from its center at Angkor in Cambodia. Later, Thai kings 

expanded across the mainland, while a Hindu kingdom from 

India united the Indonesian archipelago.

China began to halt its expeditions to the region in mid-15th

century, just as European nations began sending theirs. The 

Portuguese were the first 

to conquer a Southeast 

Asian settlement in 1511, 

although their influence in 

the region was shortlived. Observing their 

success, the Dutch and

English moved into the 

area as well. The 

Europeans sought to 

acquire trade routes and territories, and from the 17th through 

the 19th centuries the Dutch worked to consolidate their power 

in today’s Indonesia, the Spanish their control of the Philippines,

the English their hold over Burma and Malaysia, and the French 

their control over Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. By the 

beginning of the 20th century, virtually all of Southeast Asia was

controlled by colonial powers; only Thailand remained 

independent. 

During World War II, Japan invaded and occupied portions of 

Malaysia, Burma, Thailand, and the Philippines. After the war, 

independence movements regained traction, and following 

years of struggle against the occupying Americans, the 

Philippines became the first country in Southeast Asia to gain its 

independence in 1946. Other countries endured years of 

instability and conflict on their way to independence. In Vietnam, 

communist rebels battled and defeated the French but then 

engaged the US in a controversial war. A civil war in Cambodia 

ended in the rise to power of the Khmer Rouge, during whose 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
reign in the late 1970s almost 2 million people died. A few years 

after the Dutch ceded power in Indonesia, a dictator took control 

in a coup and ruled for 32 years before resigning in 1998. 

Similarly, a military junta wielding absolute power has ruled 

Burma since 1962. Since the 1990s, Southeast Asia has largely 

enjoyed renewed stability. Both Thailand and Malaysia now 

have an affluent, educated middle class; Cambodia, Laos, and 

Vietnam are well on the road to recovery from decades of 

conflict; and even Burma has recently held elections and initiated 

reform to a civilian democracy.

2. Political and Social Relations 

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to 

others in their community. 

Differences in the physical 

environment affected the 

social and political structures 

that historically developed in 

Southeast Asia. Where people 

were nomadic or seminomadic, systems of 

government were less permanent and bureaucratic. In areas 

where populations were more settled, a reliable tax base allowed 

the development of more elaborate and permanent governing 

structures. These early states, though, often found it difficult to 

extend their authority into the remote highlands, where small 

tribal groups resided, and the islands, where some groups lived

permanently in water communities of small boats. 

Significant changes occurred in Southeast Asia around 2000 

years ago as peoples from China and India began to move into 

the region (see History and Myth). New leaders formed new 

empires and states, and spiritual beliefs and practices changed 

as religious leaders introduced new religious traditions (see 

Religion and Spirituality). 

Many colonial-era governments, fearing the threat that an 

educated class might hold, largely denied education and civil 

liberties to most Southeast Asians and discouraged political 

activities. Political participation swelled around the time of 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
independence, although many post-independence political 

structures in the region were dictatorial and repressive. While 

most countries are healing from their 20th century conflicts, 

many governments continue to reflect authoritarian elements. 

Elites across the region continue to seek to control access to the 

political system. They are typically from the country’s dominant 

class, which is often comprised of members of a particular ethnic 

group. 

Some countries, such as Vietnam and Cambodia, are somewhat 

ethnically homogenous, while others, such as the Philippines 

and Indonesia, are much more diverse. Many countries also 

have minority communities of ethnic Chinese and Indians. Socalled hill tribes, minority groups with distinct ethnic and linguistic 

identities, are found in Burma, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, and the 

Philippines.

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), formed 

in 1967, is a regional intergovernmental organization whose goal 

is to promote economic and political cooperation among its 

members, including the creation of a free trade community by 

2015. ASEAN priorities include fostering economic and 

diplomatic relations with India and China, which have been 

strained due to longtime territorial disputes in the region. The 

European Union has a strong relationship with the organization 

and has taken steps to deepen trade and business links. The 

US also has close political, 

security, and economic 

relations with most of the 

member states. 

The relationship between 

Japan and the countries of 

Southeast Asia has 

improved significantly since 

World War II, and Japan is a 

crucial economic and aid 

partner today. 

3. Religion and Spirituality 

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They also 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
create social unity by defining shared identity, offer individuals 

peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in a society. 

The earliest populations of Southeast Asia were animists, which 

means they believed that many different spirits inhabited 

elements in the natural environment, such as trees and rocks, or 

were represented in natural phenomena, such as thunder and 

lightning, or represented deceased ancestors. In many areas 

today, these traditional beliefs are still very important, and many 

Southeast Asians incorporate them in their practice of Hinduism, 

Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity.

Indian traders and priests first brought Hinduism to Southeast 

Asia in the 1st century AD, where it eventually became the 

dominant religion in several kingdoms. In the 14th century the 

influence of Hinduism began to wane as people turned to Islam. 

Today, although there remain only small communities of Hindus 

in Indonesia, the Hindu principles of absolutism and hierarchy 

remain significant in politics across the region. 

Indian merchants also brought Buddhism to Southeast Asia 

beginning in the 1st century AD where it became well 

established in Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Indonesia, 

and Malaysia. Later, Chinese immigrants introduced Buddhism 

to Vietnam and Singapore. Many Southeast Asian mainlanders 

are Buddhist today, although

their beliefs and practices 

may also include some 

animist and Hindu traditions. 

Chinese people spread the 

teachings of Confucius 

primarily in what is today 

Vietnam and Singapore. 

These teachings embody a 

complex belief system emphasizing stability, consensus, 

hierarchy, and authority that still influences ideas of social 

harmony across the region. 

Islam reached Southeast Asia beginning in the 10th century 

through Muslim traders from the Middle East, China, and India, 

with a large number of Southeast Asians converting to Islam 

beginning in the 14th century to escape the Hindu caste system. 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
The largest population of Muslims in the world, approximately 

234 million, lives in Indonesia today. Muslim minority 

communities in Thailand and the Philippines have historically 

suffered economic and political marginalization.

Christianity was introduced to the region by European colonizers 

beginning in the 16th century. Today, although parts of 

Indonesia have Christian communities, the Philippines is the 

only predominantly Christian country in Southeast Asia.

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong emotional 

bonds that influence them to treat each other like family 

members (often called “fictive 

kin”).

Family life is very important to 

Southeast Asians and 

relationships among family 

members are highly valued. 

As in the US, kinship is 

generally traced through both 

parents. Children are 

generally very respectful of their parents, and parents are 

devoted to their children, making economic or other sacrifices as 

a matter of course to ensure their well-being. 

Traditionally, close proximity of kin was a valuable resource in 

Southeast Asia’s agriculturally-based villages. Families were 

large and close-knit as individual members supported each other 

economically and socially and the rhythms of family and village 

life mirrored those of the agricultural cycle.

Family life in Southeast Asia has changed in recent decades as 

societies have become more economically and socially diverse 

due to industrialization and urbanization. Today, a much wider 

variety of occupations is open to both men and women, and the 

middle class is growing in cities across the region. Women have 

fewer children today than they did 3 decades ago, and many 

households in the cities no longer contain 3 or 4 generations of 

extended family but are mostly nuclear families.

GENERAL

CULTURE 
Many Southeast Asian countries that have large rural 

hinterlands, such as Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand, 

also have large metropolises, such as Jakarta, Manila, and 

Bangkok. In these sorts of countries, there is a sharp rural-urban 

divide in economic and educational opportunities that results in 

stark differences in rural and urban family life. In rural villages, 

extended families may remain intact whose activities revolve 

around agricultural production, while in urban centers the 

household is usually much smaller and family structures are 

much more diverse. 

Although arranged marriages are much less common today, 

most Southeast Asians depend on their family’s input when 

choosing a marriage partner. The ages of both the bride and 

groom have increased as young people postpone marriage to 

pursue economic and educational opportunities, and divorce 

rates have risen in recent decades. Of note, in Indonesia and 

Malaysia Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny, or have 

more than one wife, if they can afford to support them all. For 

these Southeast Asians, matrimony and divorce are under the 

jurisdiction of Islamic law.

5. Sex and Gender 

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive 

differences between males and females, 

while gender is a more flexible concept 

that refers to a culture’s categorizing of 

masculine and feminine behaviors, 

symbols, and social roles. 

Southeast Asia’s dominant philosophies 

and religions (Confucianism, Daoism, 

Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity) 

privilege the male’s role as provider and 

stress female subordination. Despite most countries’ 

commitment to gender equality, women across Southeast Asia 

may find participation in the business and political spheres 

difficult, and in some countries there is still a marked preference 

for sons over daughters.

Despite these challenges, there is widespread acceptance of 

women in the workplace, though women usually receive less pay 

than men. Industrialization has provided new opportunities for 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
women, and many Southeast Asian women continue to work 

beyond marriage and children. Hundreds of thousands of 

Southeast Asian women even relocate to other countries to work 

as nurses and domestic workers. 

Within the agricultural sector, women produce about 50% of food 

in the region and represent a significant share of the agricultural 

labor force. They are particularly involved in harvesting rice, tea 

production, and working on rubber and fruit plantations. Women 

generally have access to education and training, and in Thailand 

and the Philippines there are actually more post-secondary 

female graduates than males.

Opinion on sexual orientation and gender identity is most liberal 

in the Philippines, where homosexuality is legal and there have 

been attempts to pass anti-discrimination legislation to protect 

sexual minorities. But in many parts of Southeast Asia 

homosexuals suffer discrimination and stigmatization. Malaysia 

criminalizes homosexuality and cross-dressing, and in 

Indonesia transgender individuals are often the victims of 

violence and exploitation.

6. Language and Communication 

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural practice of sharing meaning in interaction, 

both verbally and non-verbally.

Southeast Asia is linguistically very diverse; of the approximately 

6000 languages spoken 

in the world today, about 

1000 of them are found in 

Southeast Asia. Many of 

the ancient indigenous 

languages that were 

present in the region have 

become extinct as a result 

of war, cultural and 

economic domination, 

and small population size.

The languages of mainland Southeast Asia belong to 3 groups:

Austro-Asiatic (such as Cambodian and Vietnamese), Tai (such 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
as Thai and Lao), and Tibeto-Burmese (including highland 

languages and Burmese). Languages that belong to these 3 

groups are also found in India and China. Conversely, most of 

the languages spoken on the islands of Southeast Asia belong 

to the Austronesian family, a group of languages originating from 

southern China and Taiwan.

The colonial powers that controlled Southeast Asia until the 20th 

century primarily promoted and used their own languages

including French, Dutch, English, and Spanish. Since 

independence, several states have named one local linguistic 

variety as the “standard,” such as Bahasa Indonesian and 

Bangkok Thai, and promoted its use over both European and 

other local languages. Recently, after years of aggressively 

promoting their national languages, many Southeast Asian 

countries have re-introduced English as a language of 

instruction in school 

and allowed ethnic 

Chinese and Indians 

to attend school in 

their own 

languages. 

Ancient Southeast 

Asians developed 

their own writing 

systems based on 

scripts from India 

and China. Today, Vietnamese, Malaysian, Indonesian, and 

Filipino, like English and most western European languages, use 

the Latin alphabet, while Burmese, Laotian, Thai, and 

Cambodian use writing systems derived from ancient Indian 

scripts. 

Southeast Asians are rarely confrontational or highly 

demonstrative and emotional in their communication. They 

value respect as a key component in maintaining social 

harmony, and conveying respect is a significant aspect of both 

verbal and non-verbal communication. For example, proper 

greetings, such as pressing the palms together and slightly 

bowing as is common in Thailand, are extremely important 

across Southeast Asia. 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
7. Learning and Knowledge 

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and health 

requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, behaviors, 

and symbols that have meaning to the community). This 

knowledge transfer may occur through structured, formalized 

systems such as schools or through informal learning by 

watching adults or peers. 

Throughout their history, the cultures of Southeast Asia have 

willingly borrowed and adapted ideas, practices, and institutions 

from beyond the region. This willingness is evident in the history 

of education. Prior to colonization, both Hindu and Muslim 

traders and migrants from India and beyond brought their own 

traditions of education to the region, and local Southeast Asian 

communities adopted these curricula and educational methods

to their needs. 

Later, during the colonial 

period, the European 

powers were largely 

uninterested in providing 

education to Southeast 

Asians because they 

viewed them principally as 

agricultural laborers. If the 

colonial powers did provide 

educational opportunities, they were largely confined to 

members of privileged groups. 

Still later, as populations across the region began to resist 

colonization, the lack of educational opportunities became a 

topic around which to rally. In many countries, local activists 

adopted western educational methods but also drew on local 

traditions to devise new educational opportunities through which 

they articulated their arguments for independence. 

Today, education in Southeast Asia is viewed as both a tool for 

developing the region and as a human right. Consequently, in

most countries education is open to every citizen regardless of 

race, ethnicity, religion, or socio-economic background. Rapidly 

growing populations challenge most national governments in 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
their goals of providing 12 years of basic education to all, often 

forcing a sacrifice in the quality of services. Students in both 

urban and rural areas often suffer from a lack of adequate 

classrooms, teachers, and good text books, although primary 

school enrollment averages an excellent 93% in the region.

8. Time and Space 

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that are 

not directly linked to physical survival. In most western cultures, 

people tend to be preoccupied with strict time management, 

devoting less effort to relationship-building. Conversely, in most 

Southeast Asian cultures establishing and maintaining 

relationships within the group can take precedence over 

accomplishing a task in the most efficient manner. 

Southeast Asians’ emphasis on the well-being of the group and 

maintaining social 

harmony often 

means people will 

deliberately avoid 

embarrassment of 

themselves and 

others, a strategy 

often referred to 

as “saving face.” 

Many Southeast 

Asians try to 

manage their time 

efficiently while still showing respect to their co-workers and 

maintaining “face.” 

Time is maximized by multi-tasking, and engagements usually 

start when scheduled. Networking is very important in Southeast 

Asia, and new contacts are often best made through a high 

status third party who knows both parties well. Only after the 

establishment of a good rapport can business negotiations 

proceed. 

Public and private spaces often overlap in a way that is 

unfamiliar to Americans. Shop owners may also live at their

place of business, so entering into a public space can also mean 

entry into an individual’s private space. Consequently,

customers and clients should always show proper respect. 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
9. Aesthetics and Recreation 

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Most of Southeast Asia’s forms of creative expression, 

such as art, architecture, dance, music, and theater, reflect the 

diversity of cultures and ethnicities of the region as well as the 

influence of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam. Ancient and 

elaborate Hindu temples and highly symbolic statues of Buddha 

are found in many countries. Similarly, across Malaysia, 

Indonesia, and the Philippines, Islamic art and architecture 

intermingle with 

examples of Hindu 

and local animist 

traditions.

Traditional classical 

dance and theater 

are enjoying a revival 

after some forms came close to extinction during the wars and 

conflicts of the 20th century. These traditions trace back to the 

ancient kingdoms of the region and often include dancers 

dressed in elaborate masks and costumes. Ancient forms of 

shadow-puppet theater, in which paper puppets are manipulated 

against a lighted backdrop, are also popular in several countries.

Combat sports of Asian and Western origins are popular in 

Southeast Asia today. With the end of the colonial-era ban on 

martial arts, indigenous forms such as Pentjak Silat and Bersilat

combined with other Asian forms to make up Muay Thai, Pencak

Silat and Kali, the main components of today’s Mixed Martial Art 

fighting. 

The Southeast Asian Games are an important regional sporting 

event. These biennial games bring together over 4,000 athletes 

for 11 days of competition in the Olympic sports and promote 

regional cooperation and understanding.

10. Sustenance and Health 

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures and economics. Theories of disease 

GENERAL

CULTURE 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness. 

As expected from Southeast Asia’s location on the water, more 

fish is consumed than any other form of animal protein. Rice, a 

grain that has been cultivated in the region for thousands of 

years, is the primary food staple. Everyday meals are typically 

simple, consisting of chopped pieces of meat and vegetables 

that are fried or steamed and served with rice, often 

accompanied by spicy chili condiments. Influences from India 

and China are obvious in popular dishes such as spicy curries 

and rice noodle soups. Members of Muslim communities in 

Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines typically do not eat pork

or drink alcohol. 

Malaria, HIV/AIDS, and the lack of clean drinking water are the 

main health concerns in Southeast Asia. With an estimated 15% 

of worldwide cases coming from the region, malaria is a major 

problem. The HIV/AIDS epidemic was delayed in reaching 

Southeast Asia but 

turned into a major cause 

of death throughout the 

1980s and 1990s. Since 

then, due to successful 

HIV prevention programs 

including those aimed at 

sex workers and their 

clients, transmission 

rates have steadily 

declined, and recent HIV/AIDS incidence rates have been 

similar to those of the US. Access to clean water has increased 

in most regions but in Cambodia and Laos half of the population 

still lacks access to clean drinking water. 

All countries are faced with the rise of non-communicable 

diseases among their aging populations, and most face the 

threat of emerging infectious diseases, such as the avian flu. 

The countries of Southeast Asia confront many challenges in 

providing health care for their growing populations. Rapid but 

unequal socioeconomic development has resulted in significant 

disparities in health and access to healthcare. Despite these 

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CULTURE 
challenges, most countries have experienced a continual 

increase in life expectancy since the 1950s.

11. Economics and Resources 

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and services. 

Most Southeast Asian communities practiced wet-rice and 

slash-and-burn agriculture for centuries before the arrival of 

Europeans in the 16th century. In addition, Southeast Asia’s 

geographical location between China and India as well as its 

position on navigable waterways which connect the West and 

Middle East with Asia and Australia made the area an important 

center of trade well before European presence. 

With European expansion into the area came the introduction of 

plantations and the mechanization of agriculture as well as the 

entry of the region into the global marketplace. Worldwide 

demand for rice increased dramatically in the 19th century, 

further changing the agricultural landscape of the region. Today, 

all 3 agriculture types – wet-rice, slash-and-burn, and plantation

– are still practiced in the region and all have caused serious 

ecological damage such as massive deforestation and an 

increase in the production of greenhouse gases. 

Beginning in the 20th century the region experienced a dramatic

industrialization process with growth rates exceeding even those 

of developed nations. 

Explosive growth in 

exports such as textiles, 

electronics, auto parts, and 

petroleum lead to doubledigit economic growth, 

greatly increasing local 

GDPs. Though roughly 1/3 

of the population currently 

lives below the poverty 

line, regional economies 

have grown and now supply both skilled and semi-skilled 

workers to other countries.

The 2008 global financial crisis caused damage to the 

economies of Southeast Asia. While the financial sector did not 

engage in high-risk lending practices, there was a severe drop 

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CULTURE 
in exports due to a global reduction in spending from which the 

countries are still recovering. 

12. Technology and Material 

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. After the colonial period, the countries of Southeast 

Asia have expanded at different rates and currently experience 

varied levels of economic development. Their places in the 

global market range from 

Singapore, which has the 

third-highest GDP worldwide, to Burma and 

Cambodia which are ranked 

among the poorest 

countries in the world. 

Prior to colonial rule, the 

region’s inhabitants were 

expert farmers, having adopted domesticated rice from India and 

China and developed complex rice-farming techniques, or 

mariners who traded across the region. European colonists 

brought additional skills in metalworking, agriculture, sailing, and 

navigation. The introduction of commercial agriculture, mining, 

and an export-based economy during the colonial period placed

Southeast Asia on its current technological path.

Southeast Asian nations are generally open to trade and 

investment, having transformed from inward-looking economies 

dominated by agriculture to outward-looking, market-oriented 

economies in just a few years. As China’s “backyard,” Southeast 

Asia is often seen as the site of economic competition between 

China and the US and between India and Japan. Despite 

lingering mistrust of China because of several unresolved 

maritime territorial disputes, some Southeast Asian nations 

welcome China’s investment in infrastructure, energy, 

agriculture, and mining. About 15% of Southeast Asia’s total 

trade is conducted with China. By comparison, about 12% of 

Southeast Asia’s trade is conducted with the US. 

Now that we have introduced general concepts that characterize

Southeast Asian society at large, we will focus on specific 

features of Indonesian society.

GENERAL

CULTURE 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Note: Modern Indonesia occupies most of the Malay 

Archipelago, the world’s largest island chain with over 17,000 

islands. Stretching some 3,200 mi east-to-west, Indonesia 

straddles the equator in the Indian and Pacific oceans. This 

vast territory consists of 7 regions: Sumatra; Java; Kalimantan

(on the island of Borneo); Sulawesi (formerly known as 

Celebes); the Maluku Islands (also known as the Moluccas); 

Papua (previously known as West New Guinea and Irian Jaya); 

and the Lesser Sunda Islands (including Bali, Timor, and Nusa 

Tenggara). The narrow Strait of Malacca separates Sumatra 

from Peninsular Malaysia. Indonesia’s capital, Jakarta, is 

located on the northwestern coast of Java. Of note, Java, Bali, 

and Madura (known as the “inner” islands) historically have 

been more populous and politically important than the other 

“outer” islands, which hold

fewer people but have a

greater wealth of natural 

resources.

Overview

Indonesia’s position on the 

major maritime trade routes 

between the Middle East, India, 

and China greatly influenced its 

historical trajectory. From ancient 

times, sailors, traders, explorers, and pilgrims from diverse 

cultures and religious traditions traveled through the region, 

with both indigenous and foreign powers struggling for control 

of strategic ports and seaways, rich agricultural regions, and 

the trade of exotic spices. Since its official establishment in 

1949, Indonesia has endured authoritarian leaders, regional 

insurrections, and ethnic and religious tensions to become an 

economically developing and politically stable nation devoted to 

“unity in diversity,” its motto.

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

1. HISTORY AND MYTH
HISTORY &

MYTH

Prehistory of Indonesia

Fossil finds (nicknamed “Java Man”) indicate that a human 

species called Homo erectus lived on Java as early as 1.7 

million years ago. Archaeological evidence suggests that 

regional inhabitants grouped in small communities and made

tools for hunting, fishing, and foraging activities as early as 

800,000 years ago. In 2003, scientists exploring the island of 

Flores discovered a fossil skeleton with several unique traits, 

such as a notably small stature and brain size, leading them to 

assign the fossils to a new 

species—Homo floresiensis. 

Nicknamed “hobbits” for their small 

size, these early residents likely 

lived between 100,000-60,000 

years ago, used stone tools, and 

hunted a variety of animals (Photo: 

Replica of a “hobbit” skull).

Around 50,000 years ago, the first 

modern humans arrived from other 

parts of Asia. These residents 

buried their dead and manufactured 

stone axes. Ochre-painted 

handprints and animal figures in the Maros-Pangkep caves in 

Sulawesi’s Bulusaraung Mountains are around 36,000 years 

old. By about 20,000 years ago, regional residents likely began 

to engage in agriculture. About 10,000 years later, longdistance seafaring, pottery-making, and metal-working skills 

spread throughout the region. Beginning around 4500 BC, a 

new group of humans entered the region from the area of 

present-day Taiwan by way of the Philippines. By 2500 BC, 

inhabitants were raising domesticated animals and utilizing 

advanced agricultural techniques such as wet-rice cultivation. 

Early History in the Archipelago

The early history of the archipelago is characterized by a 

variety of regional lifestyles. For example, communities of 

farmers flourished in inland Java, where rich volcanic soils and 

abundant water facilitated rice cultivation. Meanwhile, coastal 

island communities turned outward, developing trade 

relationships with other islands and inland villages. By contrast, 

residents in the drier regions of Borneo and Sulawesi tended to 
HISTORY &

MYTH

live in small, relatively isolated communities where they 

practiced “slash-and-burn” agriculture – the clearing of fields 

with fire, cultivating them for a few years, and then abandoning

them (see p. 6 of Economics and Resources). These early 

patterns contributed to the development of substantial cultural 

and linguistic diversity across the archipelago that remains

intact today (see p. 1-3 of Language and Communication). 

Soon, regional residents were venturing beyond the 

archipelago. In the 1st century AD, Roman historian Pliny the 

Elder noted that Indonesian outriggers had reached Africa’s 

east coast. A few decades later, Greek geographer Ptolemy 

collected information regarding Java and Sumatra assembled 

by Indian merchants, which suggested that contact between 

South Asia and the archipelago was not uncommon. 

By about the 5th century, the archipelago was used to transport 

maritime trade between China and India. Of note, 5th- and 6thcentury Chinese literature records the existence of Indonesian

products such as Sumatran tree resins. Local residents were 

employed as exporters, shipbuilders, navigators, and port 

authorities for the delivery of

goods between these great 

powers. Small kingdoms on 

Sumatra initially used their access 

to the Strait of Malacca, the main 

shipping route between the Indian 

Ocean and South China Sea, to 

control much of the archipelago’s 

maritime trade. 

This thriving trade brought new 

materials and technologies, such 

as Vietnamese kettle drums 

(pictured), from mainland Asia. It also brought new concepts of 

government and kingship, art, and religion – mostly Hinduism 

and Buddhism (see p. 7-8 of Religion and Spirituality) – 

resulting in the development of complex kingdoms and empires 

across Sumatra and Java. 

Kingdom of Srivijaya on Sumatra

In the 6th century, the Buddhist empire of Srivijaya expanded 

from the city of Palembang on Sumatra to eventually control 
HISTORY &

MYTH

the Straits of Malacca and Sunda, most of the islands of 

Sumatra and Java, parts of Borneo, and much of Peninsular 

Malaysia. The kingdom absorbed smaller ones as it grew 

wealthy between the 7th-11th centuries through trade in spices, 

silk, jewels, incense, and tropical woods with India, China, the 

Middle East, and various other kingdoms in the archipelago. 

Nevertheless, Srivijaya’s power began to wane as vassal ports 

refused to pay tribute. Beginning in the late 12th century, 

competing empires and pirates targeted Srivijaya’s riches and 

control of trade. Following a 1377 defeat by the Majapahit 

Empire (see below), Srivijaya finally fell around 1400. 

Javanese Kingdoms

Unlike the leaders of Srivijaya, ambitious rulers on Java sought 

to control territory for wet-rice cultivation but also traded as far 

as Cambodia, Vietnam, and the Philippines. Over the 

centuries, several great states rose and fell on Java, leaving 

impressive temples and monuments as testaments to their 

wealth and power. 

In 732, the ruler of the Hindu Sanjaya dynasty established the

Kingdom of Mataram, which flourished until the 10th century. In 

the late 700s, the Buddhist Sailendra dynasty took control of 

Mataram, and over subsequent decades, constructed the 

Borobudur compound, the world’s largest Buddhist temple. 

Located in the Kedu 

Valley in central Java, 

Borobudur combines 

Indonesian indigenous 

traditions of ancestor 

worship with Buddhist 

concepts of nirvana 

(see p. 7 of Religion 

and Spirituality). Later, 

the Hindu Sanjaya

dynasty regained 

control of Mataram

and constructed Prambanan, a massive Hindu temple complex 

near the city of Yogyakarta dedicated to the Hindu gods Vishnu

(the preserver), Shiva (the destroyer) and Brahma (the creator) 

(see p. 8 of Religion and Spirituality) (Photo: Borobudur temple 

in Central Java). 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Following a volcanic eruption around 1000 and several wars 

with the Srivijaya Empire, the Javanese seat of power moved

some 400 mi to the east. Various kingdoms rose and fell as 

Javanese influence expanded to Sumatra and Borneo. Most

kingdoms were neither fully Hindu nor Buddhist. Instead, they 

reflected a hybrid Hindu-Buddhist belief system in which the 

kingdom’s ruler was revered as godlike.

In the late 13th century, Javanese King Kertanagara sought to 

extend his divine power and authority to southern Sumatra. In 

response, Mongol leader Kublai Khan sent an envoy from his 

base in China in 1289, requesting that Kertanagara submit to 

his rule and pay tribute. Kertanagara refused, even maiming a 

member of the Mongol delegation. 

In response, Kublai Khan prepared an invasion fleet of around 

20,000 soldiers. By the time the Mongols arrived in 1292, 

Kertanagara had lost his throne in a local power struggle. 

Following several battles with the Javanese, the demoralized 

Mongols withdrew. While this expedition was the last of Kublai 

Khan’s reign, it marked the beginning of Indonesia’s most 

powerful empire, Majapahit.

The Majapahit Empire

After quelling numerous

rebellions, Majapahit’s rulers 

had firmly established their 

authority on Java by 1319. In 

subsequent decades, 

Majapahit extended its 

influence to Bali, Sumatra, and 

Borneo (Photo: Sculpture from 

the Majapahit Empire).

Indonesians typically consider 

the reign of Majapahit ruler

Hayam Wuruk (r. 1350-89) the 

most glorious period in Javanese history. A eulogy written in 

1365 called Nagarakertagama (see p. 7 of Aesthetics and 

Recreation) venerates Hayam Wuruk while providing detailed 

descriptions of his capital’s palaces, temples, and HinduBuddhist religious ceremonies. Today, Nagarakertagama is 

recognized as a masterpiece of Old Javanese literature.
HISTORY &

MYTH

At its height, Majapahit was the trading and cultural center of 

the archipelago. Besides profiting from rice production, the 

empire controlled sea routes throughout the archipelago, 

trading with or receiving tribute from most major islands. 

Nevertheless, the empire began to weaken in the 15th century. 

In 1527, the Javanese Muslim state of Demak conquered 

Majapahit (see “The Spread of Islam”). Thereafter, the HinduBuddhist Majapahit nobility largely retreated to neighboring 

Bali, where residents still retain these religious traditions today 

(see p. 8 of Religion and Spirituality).

Other “Outer” Islands

Meanwhile, the kingdoms of Java and Sumatra dominated the 

smaller kingdoms on other “outer” islands throughout the 

archipelago. Largely due to their isolation and small 

populations, some inland groups on these “outer” islands 

remained unaffected by Hindu, Buddhist, and later Islamic 

influence, instead maintaining their own indigenous belief 

systems (see p. 9 of Religion and Spirituality). 

These groups included ancestors of the Dayak communities

inhabiting the interior of Borneo, some occupants of 

southernmost Nusa Tenggara, and hundreds of ethnolinguistic 

groups within West New Guinea (Papua) (see p. 18-20 of 

The Elephant General

Although never a king, Gajah Mada (translated as the 

“Elephant General”) is remembered widely as the 

original Indonesian unifer who tried to unite the islands 

under Majapahit. Born a commoner, Gajah Mada

eventually acquired status, serving as Prime Minister 

from 1331-64. Upon taking office, he famously vowed 

to give up spice until successfully bringing the entire 

archipelago under Majapahit control. Perhaps due to 

this Sumpah Palapa (Spice Pledge), Majapahit’s 

influence stretched from Sumatra to Papua by the end 

of his tenure. Today, some Indonesians revere Gajah 

Mada as a national hero, although others resent him 

because, to them, he symbolizes Javanese 

dominance in the archipelago.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Political and Social Relations). During the 15th century, news

spread throughout Asia, the Middle East, and Europe that the

“outer” Maluku Islands were the only source (at that time) for

rare spices such as cloves and 

nutmeg, thus sparking colonial 

interests. As a result, these islands 

were sometimes referred to as the

“Spice Islands” (Illustration: Dayak girl 

in the early 20th century). 

The Spread of Islam

Although Arab Muslim merchants 

likely began visiting Indonesia as 

early as the 7th century, the influence 

of Islam grew substantially some 500 

years later when Muslim traders

began to expand their networks 

throughout the Strait of Malacca. Two 

small harbor kingdoms that formed in northern Sumatra in the 

mid-13th century were likely Indonesia’s first Muslim sultanates

(kingdoms). 

As Srivijaya’s influence began to decline on Sumatra, other 

actors, both foreign and domestic, jockeyed to fill the void. By 

the end of the 14th century, the Muslim sultanate of SamudraPasai on Sumatra flourished as a wealthy commercial center. 

Nevertheless, the focus of regional trade soon shifted. In the 

early 15th century, a Hindu-Buddhist prince exiled from 

Srivijaya established the Kingdom of Malacca (“Melaka” in 

Malaysia today) on Peninsular Malaysia’s southwest coast, just 

across from Sumatra. Due to its good harbor and strategic 

location, the Kingdom soon controlled the Strait of Malacca, a 

route used primarily for transporting spices, gold, tin, silks, 

porcelain, and tea. In the early 15th century, Malacca’s sultan 

(king) converted to Islam and declared his sultanate a Muslim 

state. Malacca soon became a hub for the spread of Islam 

throughout the region.

As Islam spread to Java, new harbor kingdoms emerged on the 

island’s northern coast. These sultanates thrived on trade 

relationships with the larger Muslim world, especially the export 

of rice to Malacca. Thus, commerce played a key role in the 
HISTORY &

MYTH

spread of Islam. Other rulers of kingdoms, such as those on 

Sulawesi, either converted for political reasons or after 

conquest by a Muslim state. Some peasants embraced Islam

for its less restrictive practices. Nevertheless, Hindu-Buddhist 

influence persisted, particularly the strict royal court and class 

system, in which the priyayi (aristocracy) ruled over rural 

peasants. Of the 3 “inner” islands (see p. 1 Note above), Islam 

did not spread to Bali.

Local Kingdoms Rise and Fall as Europeans Arrive

The 16th and 17th centuries were eventful. Islam spread as 

kingdoms and sultanates rose and fell. As Indonesians, 

Chinese, and Arabs continued to compete for control of trade, 

Europeans appeared, seeking wealth and access to the 

region’s rare spices. 

From its capital in present-day Banda Aceh, the Sumatran 

sultanate of Aceh became the region’s dominant power in the 

16th century. Despite its significant military might, which 

included support from the powerful Ottoman Empire based in 

modern-day Turkey, the sultanate failed to acquire territory 

beyond Sumatra. Nevertheless, it grew wealthy through the 

export of pepper, nutmeg, cloves, betel nuts, and later, tin

(Photo: Acehnese couple ca. 1880).

Meanwhile, Malacca’s reputation for 

lucrative trade spread to Europe. 

Spurred by potential profits and the 

chance to spread Christianity, the 

Portuguese reached Malacca in 

1509, conquering it in 1511. Local 

resistance effectively prevented the 

Portuguese from developing their 

desired trade monopoly, although 

they did establish trading bases on 

several Indonesian islands and 

introduced Roman Catholicism to 

the region (see p. 7 of Religion and Spirituality). For the 

remainder of the 16th century, the Portuguese, Aceh, and a 

sultanate in Peninsular Malaysia vied to control regional trade. 

As Malacca’s wealth and influence declined, Aceh became the 

region’s leading center of Islamic scholarship. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Dutch Establish the United East India Company 

Soon, the British, Spanish, and Dutch arrived, also seeking to 

exploit Indonesia’s resources and control trade. While Spain 

eventually withdrew north to colonize the Philippines, the 

British initially remained. In 1596, the Dutch reached the 

sultanate of Banten, western Java’s dominant power, after a 

14-month voyage. Over the next several years, Dutch ships 

competed with each other, local traders, and other Europeans, 

attacking settlements 

in search of spices in 

the archipelago 

(known to Europeans 

as the East Indies). 

To exclude other 

European competitors

and control the 

activities of 

indigenous traders,

the Dutch formed the United East India Company (Verenigde 

Oostindische Compagnie or VOC) in 1602. Under the control of 

the Dutch government, the VOC had the authority to negotiate 

treaties and wage war (Illustration: 17th-century painting of a 

VOC official and ships). 

In 1611, the VOC relocated its center of operations from hostile 

Banten to the city of Jayakarta. In 1619, a local sultan seeking 

to expand his own holdings allied with British forces to besiege 

Jayakarta. After VOC reinforcements arrived to break the 

siege, the Dutch demolished Jayakarta with fire, building a 

settlement named Batavia (present-day Jakarta) in its place. 

From their headquarters in Batavia, the Dutch gradually 

established trading posts throughout the archipelago, often as 

a consequence bloody battles and the deaths of thousands of 

Indonesians. At first, the VOC was a single power among 

many. By the end of the 17th century, the Dutch controlled the 

production of trading goods and acquired authority over trade 

routes. In 1641, the VOC ousted the Portuguese from Malacca 

and then confined the British to one small territory on Sumatra. 

Although the VOC preferred profits over territory, the VOC was 

soon drawn into local political disputes.
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Dutch and the Mataram Sultanate

At the turn of the 17th century, the Mataram sultanate (named 

for the ancient Hindu-Buddhist kingdom) became Java’s 

dominant force. In subsequent decades, its rulers acquired 

control of much of Java, Madura, and Borneo but were unable 

to dislodge the Dutch, 

who had gained control

of the seas. Over the 

course of several 

decades, the Dutch 

intervened in the 

sultanate’s internal 

affairs, supporting 

factions in wars of 

succession and quelling

rebellions. Each time, 

the Dutch gained territory as payment for their efforts, gradually 

acquiring control of most of Java. Of note, the Dutch similarly 

tried to intervene in local affairs on Sumatra, although largescale Dutch expansion on that island did not occur until the 

19th century. By 1670, Batavia’s population had swelled to 

130,000 (Illustration: Painting of Batavia in 1656).

Events on the Other Islands

Several sultanates competed for domination of Sulawesi 

beginning in the 16th century, including the Bugis, Temate, and 

Makassar sultanates. While the Dutch acquired direct control of 

the Makassar region in 1669, much of the rest of Sulawesi 

remained under indigenous rule until the Dutch campaigns of 

the 19th and early 20th centuries.

In the early 16th century, the sultanates of Tidore and Ternate 

in the Maluku Islands established alliances with the Spanish 

and Portuguese, respectively. These Europeans were ousted 

by 1575. The Dutch arrived by the beginning of the 17th

century, gaining control of Ternate in 1683. 

Many of the eastern Lesser Sunda Islands recognized the 

authority of Sulawesi’s Makassar sultanate until its conquest by 

the Dutch. While both the Portuguese and Dutch competed for 

control of the region, neither considered control a priority due to 

its limited commercial potential. By the mid-19th century, the 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Dutch claimed the Lesser Sunda Islands, except for 

Portuguese-controlled East Timor. The Dutch established 

indirect rule, whereby various indigenous kingdoms retained 

political control as they agreed to help the Dutch monopolize 

on the spice trade. 

In the “inner” island of Bali, the Hindu 

Gelgel court ruled until 1651, claiming 

descent from Majapahit. After Gelgel 

rule collapsed, several minor royal 

families competed for control of Bali until 

the mid-19th century (Illustration: 

Engraving of a Balinese slave in Batavia

in 1700). 

Several Muslim sultanates established 

themselves along Borneo’s coasts, 

driving tribal peoples further into the 

island’s interior. The most prominent of these sultanates was 

Banjarmasin, founded in the early 16th century in South 

Borneo. Although the VOC signed treaties with several of these 

states, many remained centers of resistance against European 

domination well into the 19th century.

By contrast, outside interest in the island of New Guinea was 

minimal during this period. Most communities were isolated 

from one another by thick forests, and no major indigenous 

states emerged. Various kingdoms from other islands engaged 

in limited trade with New Guinea, harvesting its natural 

resources or enslaving its people. The Europeans, for the most 

part, left an even lighter footprint, building just a few small 

settlements.

VOC Operations

In areas it directly controlled, the VOC adapted indigenous 

structures of power and authority for administrative purposes. 

For example, it used some Indonesian priyayi and Chinese 

migrants to collect taxes and products for export, only gradually 

turning this system into a formalized bureaucracy. Besides 

building trading posts, the VOC used violent methods including 

destroying human and plant populations in order to exert total 

control over certain spices like nutmeg and cloves. They also 

compelled residents to grow and sell crops at prices set by the 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Dutch. In the 18th century, the VOC faced a variety of 

challenges. For example, smugglers threatened the company’s 

monopoly, administrative costs grew as the VOC was forced to 

bear more governing responsibilities, and corruption among 

VOC officials reduced company profits. Consequently, the VOC 

accrued enormous debt. A global collapse in spice prices 

caused a regional economic slump that only worsened the 

VOC’s economic health. 

The French and British Interlude

When France conquered the Netherlands in 1795, it gained

control of Dutch territories in Indonesia. The Dutch government 

subsequently terminated the VOC in 1799, resulting in French

rule of the Dutch East Indies for the next decade. As part of the 

hostilities between France and Britain during the European 

Napoleonic Wars, a British East India Company force led by 

the governor-general of India invaded Java in 1811 and quickly 

defeated the French. The British then ruled the archipelago for 

the next 5 years. 

Led by Sir Thomas Stamford 

Raffles (who later founded 

Singapore), the British 

administration adopted some 

liberal reforms designed to end 

societal ills such as corruption 

and forced labor. In addition, the 

British began to treat the priyayi

as employees in a bureaucracy 

rather than autonomous 

indigenous royalty and were 

therefore unable to gain much

local support. Consequently, the 

British failed to implement comprehensive reforms to land 

tenure patterns, setting the foundation for new Dutch 

colonialism. At the conclusion of the war in Europe, Britain 

returned control of the region to the Dutch in 1816, which 

reorganized its holdings in the archipelago as the colony of the 

Dutch East Indies. Of note, Raffles rediscovered the buried 

ruins of Borobudur, and his fascination with Javanese culture 

led him to publish a history of the island in 1817 (Illustration: 

1817 painting of Raffles).
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Dutch East Indies in the 19th Century

As noted earlier, the Dutch colonial presence in Indonesia prior 

to the 19th century was less concerned about establishing a 

local bureaucratic system of government than securing profits 

from the spice trade. By contrast, the new Dutch goal of 

making the colony self-sufficient brought major societal 

changes such as alterations of trading patterns and native 

political structures.

Specifically, Dutch colonial society comprised 3 ranks: “inlanders” (natives); “foreign orientals” (mainly Chinese, but also 

Arabs and Indians); and Europeans. Two bureaucracies 

propped up the colony, one composed of European or creole (a 

person of mixed Indonesian and European descent) civil 

servants and another of Indonesian (typically priyayi) 

officeholders. To make the colony profitable, the Dutch

converted many traditional rice plantations into cash crop 

farms. 

The Java War and Other Disturbances: These major social 

changes, combined with ongoing disease outbreaks and 

widespread starvation, caused violence to erupt. Between 

1821-37, the Dutch joined an ongoing conflict known as the 

Padri War between Islamist reformers and traditional nobility in 

western Sumatra. Meanwhile on Java, Prince Diponegoro led

an uprising against the 

Dutch in 1825 known as the 

Java War. Relying on 

guerrilla tactics, the rebels 

challenged Dutch authority 

for 5 years, resulting in the 

deaths of some 8,000 

Dutch and more than 

200,000 Javanese, mostly 

as a result of disease and 

starvation. Sulawesi, Borneo, and Maluku also experienced 

violence during this period (Painting: An 1835 depiction of 

Diponegoro submitting to Dutch forces). 

The Culture or Cultivation System: In 1830, the Dutch 

devised a new system to control and profit from the 

archipelago’s resources. The so-called Culture or Cultivation 
HISTORY &

MYTH

System compelled Javanese villages to set aside some 20% of 

their land for the production of export crops, which they then 

passed to the government as land rent. Compulsive cultivation 

focused first on indigo and sugar and was later broadened to 

include coffee, tea, tobacco, and pepper. The system yielded 

significant profits as exports soared. Nevertheless, the system 

amplified social and economic inequalities in rural areas. While 

priyayi working in the Dutch administration typically benefitted 

from the system, peasants largely became victims of 

malnutrition and forced labor. Meanwhile, Chinese immigrants 

were restricted to tax collection, moneylending, and small 

trading. Finally, the system provided no avenue for 

technological development or economic improvement for the 

Javanese people (Illustration: A Javanese marketplace in 

1859).

The Liberal Policy: In 

the 1860s, observers 

generally condemned 

the Culture System for 

its humanitarian abuses, 

while also criticizing the 

lack of opportunity for 

private investment in the 

colony. In response, the Dutch introduced the “Agrarian Act” of 

1870, which allowed European investors to acquire Indonesian 

land under long-term lease. Under this policy, private 

investment shifted production to raw materials such as rubber, 

tin, and oil required by the European Industrial Revolution. 

Instead of Indonesians cultivating their own land, the system 

allowed the development of a company-owned plantation 

economy. Notably, most plantation development occurred on

Sumatra. Meanwhile, the population also boomed on Java

between 1800-1920 – the island’s population grew from 6 

million to over 40 million. 

Dutch Territorial Expansion

This 19th-century economic development was accompanied by 

Dutch territorial expansion. While the Dutch already controlled 

most of Java by the mid-18th century, over the 19th century, 

they gradually expanded their holdings on Sumatra and sought 

to extend and complete their hold over the entire archipelago. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

To this end, the colonial regime developed a professionally 

trained army. Although army leadership was predominantly 

European, most troops were in-landers. Expansion also 

brought more Dutch to the archipelago, whose presence 

underscored colonial social and ethnic divisions.

Some expansion was relatively bloodless. The British 

relinquished their small territory on Sumatra to the Dutch in 

1824. That same year, the 2 colonial powers agreed that the 

western 1/2 of the island of New Guinea (Papua today) would 

become part of the Dutch East Indies.

Other acquisitions involved conflict and loss of life. In the name 

of Rust en Orde (Peace and Order), the Dutch sought to 

conquer the kingdoms and sultanates of Sumatra, Sulawesi, 

Borneo, and the Lesser Sunda Islands and officially incorporate 

them into the colony. These conquests were marked by 

massive resistance and lingered for decades. For example, a 

Dutch campaign to defeat pirates operating in northern 

Sumatra ultimately became a declaration of war against Aceh 

in 1873. A long period of guerrilla warfare ended in 1908, when 

the Dutch finally asserted control over the island’s northern tip.

In 1906, a procession of Balinese aristocrats confronted Royal 

Dutch East Indies forces by refusing to halt when commanded. 

Instead, they proceeded to walk toward the Dutch troops, who 

responded by opening fire and killing about one thousand 

Balinese at point blank range. Avoiding 

surrender and choosing death in this 

way was called puputan (mass suicide). 

The Dutch then burned and ransacked 

the Balinese palace. After similar violent 

confrontations throughout the 

archipelago, the Dutch finally controlled

the territory that comprises present-day 

Indonesia by 1920 (Photo: Monument 

to the 1906 puputan in Denpasar, Bali). 

The Ethical Policy

The 30 years of the Liberal Policy did little to improve the living 

conditions for most Indonesians. Criticism grew around the 

idea that the Dutch had drained the East Indies of its resources 

without fair compensation and thus owed a “debt of honor” to 
HISTORY &

MYTH

its inhabitants. Consequently, the Dutch developed the Ethical 

Policy in 1901 to improve education and healthcare, while 

providing agricultural extension services at the village level. 

In reality, the effects were modest and confirmed the divide 

between the European large-scale commercial economy and 

Indonesian traditional subsistence wet-rice or slash-and-burn 

cultivation. While it failed to produce the desired class of civil 

servants loyal to the Netherlands, the Ethical Policy provided 

educational opportunities that helped to foster the emergence 

of an elite group of aristocrats who would become the leaders 

of Indonesia’s nationalist movement. 

The Emergence of Indonesian Nationalism

Beginning in 1908, an organized challenge to colonialism 

began to appear for the first time. The new class of educated 

elite founded a series of educational organizations, trade 

guilds, political parties, and religious organizations. Although 

differing in goals and tactics, these organizations were all 

broadly nationalistic. Boycotts, strikes, 

protests, and open revolts flared in the 

1910s-1920s, although mostly 

suppressed by the Dutch. 

In 1927, an engineer named Sukarno (or 

Soekarno in the Dutch spelling, pictured 

in 1949) founded one such organization, 

the Partai Nasional Indonesia (PNI – 

Indonesian Nationalist Party). A year 

later, several student organizations made 

the Sumpah Pemuda (Youth Pledge), 

vowing “One Homeland, One People, One Language” (see p. 1

of Language and Communication). With the slogan merdeka 

(freedom), the independence movement was born.

Momentum soon stalled, however, when the Dutch arrested 

and imprisoned Sukarno and other nationalist leaders. While 

the Dutch allowed some moderate parties to function, they 

tightly controlled most political expression. The WWII Japanese 

occupation actually hastened the emergence of an 

independent Indonesian nation-state by empowering 

indigenous leaders to throw off Dutch colonial rule as part of 

Japan’s anti-Western wartime rhetoric. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Occupation during World War II (WWII) 

A primary objective of Japan’s early WWII campaign was to 

seize Southeast Asian resources – namely Indonesia’s oil, 

rubber, and strategic naval locations – to support its 

expansionist goals. A Japanese fleet entered Indonesian 

waters in early 1942, where it encountered Dutch, Australian, 

and US warships. After several battles, the US and its allies 

were forced to withdraw. The Dutch surrendered the 

archipelago, beginning a 3 1/2-year Japanese occupation

(Photo: US sailors 

inspect damage to the 

USS Marblehead after a 

Japanese bombing in 

the Java Sea in 1942).

Initially, Indonesians

generally welcomed the 

incoming Japanese 

troops as a departure

from Dutch colonial rule. 

Indeed, the Japanese 

quickly rounded up Dutch administrators, eventually interning 

some 100,000 European civilians in concentration camps and 

80,000 Dutch, British, Australian, and US troops in prisoner-ofwar camps. Further, they banned all traces of Dutch influence 

in the occupied colony, including changing the name of the 

capital city from Batavia to Jakarta in tribute to the city the 

Dutch had destroyed in the 17th century. 

With most Dutch administrators interned, the Japanese needed 

Indonesians to take their places. As the priyayi and new urban 

middle class filled civil servant positions, both Indonesian 

nationalists and the Japanese occupiers came to believe that 

cooperation would further both of their interests. 

Consequently, the Japanese released political prisoners and 

created several new nationalist organizations. As head of the 

Japanese-sponsored organization Putera (Center of People’s 

Power), Sukarno became a well-known figure. In 1943, the 

Japanese also oversaw the creation of a volunteer Indonesian 

defense force, or Peta, that would become the core military 

force of the Indonesian revolution.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Despite these gains, numerous Indonesians suffered under 

Japanese occupation. Japan confiscated Indonesian rice to 

enhance its war efforts, causing widespread famine. It also

enforced a strict curfew, while eliminating dissent through the 

activities of a secret police force. Some Indonesians suffered 

arbitrary arrest, torture, and execution. While Sukarno’s 

collaboration furthered the nationalist cause and positioned him 

for post-war leadership, his responsibilities also included 

sustaining a forced-labor (romusha) program. As a result,

millions of Indonesians were relocated within the archipelago or 

elsewhere in Southeast Asia to work on Japanese military 

projects. Many died due to harsh treatment or starvation. 

Faced with the likelihood of defeat in WWII, Japan announced 

its intentions to prepare the archipelago for self-government in 

late 1944. Shortly before surrendering in August 1945, Japan

promised an immediate transfer of power to Sukarno and his 

colleague Mohammad Hatta. Before the transfer could occur, 

Japan surrendered on August 15. Two days later, Sukarno and

Hatta declared Indonesia’s independence. 

The War for Independence

Despite the declaration, independence took 4 years to achieve. 

Allied forces, mostly British Indian troops, arrived in September 

1945 to supervise the withdrawal of the Japanese and the 

release of foreign internees. Meanwhile, the Dutch considered 

Sukarno’s government illegitimate and pursued reinstatement 

of colonial rule. The British soon faced significant anti-Dutch 

sentiment that ultimately led to war.

The Pancasila

In a June 1945 speech, future President Sukarno 

introduced fundamental principles that he believed 

should form the basis of an independent Indonesia. 

These principles included the belief in one God, 

humanitarianism, nationalism, democracy, and social 

justice. Known as the Pancasila, these 5 principles 

became Indonesia’s national ideology under the 

subsequent President Suharto.
HISTORY &

MYTH

In November 1945, the revolution’s bloodiest battle occurred in 

Surabaya in eastern Java. Over the course of 3 weeks, heavy 

fighting between British and Indonesian troops resulted in the 

deaths of some 600 Europeans and up to 15,000 Indonesians. 

Dutch troops soon arrived in the archipelago, and the battle 

become a symbol of Indonesian resistance as the city of 

Yogyakarta became the revolutionary capital (Photo: 

Independence protesters near a Chinese-Indonesian solidarity 

poster in 1946).

Within a year, the 

British withdrew from

Indonesia. Following a 

failed treaty, the Dutch 

initiated a violent

“police action” that

compelled the United 

Nations (UN) to 

intervene and broker

another treaty. Enraged by the terms of the deal, communist 

separatists rebelled against the Sukarno government. The 

Dutch responded with a 2nd “police action,” crushing the revolt 

and capturing Sukarno and Hatta. 

Independence Achieved

Despite their success, the Dutch now faced significant 

international outrage and ongoing guerilla attacks. In January 

1949, the UN demanded that the Dutch recognize the Sukarno 

government. After negotiations, the Dutch finally recognized 

the sovereignty of the United States of Indonesia on December 

27, 1949. Within a year, this federal structure had been 

replaced by a unitary government, the Republic of Indonesia, 

with Jakarta as its capital and Sukarno its President. Of note, 

the Dutch retained the territory of West New Guinea.

The Early Years of the New Republic

The new country faced numerous challenges, particularly

societal divisions along religious, political, and ethnic lines; 

widespread poverty; an economy in ruin; and low education 

levels. Further, the government faced ongoing defiance to its 

authority, including an Islamist insurgency in Java and 

rebellions in Sumatra and Sulawesi.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Under a 1950 provisional constitution, Sukarno held little real 

power, particularly since there were some 170 political parties 

competing for influence. As a result of the 1955 elections, 

political power was distributed primarily among the secular 

nationalists of Sukarno’s PNI, 2 Muslim parties, and the Partai 

Komunis Indonesia (PKI – Indonesian Communist Party). As

conflict between the export-producing outer islands and Java 

intensified, military intervention increased. 

Sukarno’s Guided Democracy

Tiring of his figurehead role, Sukarno appealed to the patriotic 

fervor of his supporters. He then announced that Western-style 

democracy was unsuited to Indonesia, introducing instead a 

system of “guided democracy” theoretically based on principles 

of deliberation and compromise. 

Over the next 6 years, Sukarno sought to unify the country by 

promoting a sense of national identity, all the while increasing 

his authoritarianism and promoting an anti-Western and antiChinese stance. During his years in power, some 150,000 

Dutch and Chinese fled or were evicted from the country. 

Sukarno’s government also nationalized Dutch assets, 

restricted free expression and the right of assembly, censored 

Western media, arrested dissidents, and limited the activities of 

several political organizations. As other parties withered, the 

PKI thrived on a membership in the millions. The army grew 

alarmed as Sukarno protected the PKI from suppression, 

banned anti-PKI 

movements, and elevated 

PKI leaders to positions of 

power (Photo: Sukarno with 

Cuban leader Fidel Castro 

in 1960).

In 1962, Sukarno sent an 

invasion force to West New 

Guinea to seize control of 

the region from the Dutch. 

Although unsuccessful, the move compelled the UN to step in 

and require the Dutch to cede control of the region pending a 

referendum. Between 1963-6, Sukarno staged an undeclared 

act of war or konfrontasi (confrontation) against Malaysia in 
HISTORY &

MYTH

opposition to the merger of Malaya, Singapore, and British 

colonies of Borneo into a unified nation of Malaysia. Sukarno’s 

confrontation with various powers over the formation of 

Malaysia came to be supported by leaders in communist 

Moscow, who agreed with Sukarno’s attempt to overturn the 

Western colonial status-quo in favor of newly emerging powers. 

Sukarno’s Fall and the Rise of Suharto

In the early morning of October 1, 1965, several young army 

officers assassinated 6 of Indonesia’s senior generals and 

proclaimed a revolutionary council, subsequently known by the 

governing regime as GESTAPU, an acronym for Gerakan 

September Tiga Puluh (the September 30th Movement).

General Suharto (also spelled Soeharto), commander of the 

elite Army Strategic Reserve, assumed command of the army 

and suppressed the coup. Of note, General Suharto had also 

led the 1962 invasion of West New Guinea and the ongoing

konfrontasi against Malaysia. President Sukarno denied any 

connection to the coup leaders, as did the PKI. Nevertheless, 

the military believed the PKI was behind the attempt to seize 

power and unleashed a 

spree of bloody reprisals 

(Photo: General Suharto in 

1963).

To purge the country of the 

perceived PKI communist 

threat, the military spread 

anti-communist 

propaganda. Soon, army 

special forces, nationalist militias, and civilian mobs were 

engaging in the organized killing of communists and communist 

suspects. By the time the bloodshed ended in 1966, at least

500,000 people had been killed and another 1.5 million were 

imprisoned or sent to labor camps. 

In this chaos, the military forced Sukarno to delegate extensive 

powers to General Suharto, who then banned the PKI and 

dismantled many of Sukarno’s policies. In 1967, Sukarno was 

forced to resign, remaining under house arrest until his death in 

1970. In spring 1968, Suharto became President, an office he 

would hold for the next 30 years. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Suharto’s New Order 

Suharto promised stability through economic development 

under a program called the “New Order.” He ended Sukarno’s 

anti-Western policies, encouraged foreign investment, and

welcomed US aid. Successful reforms and global demand for 

Indonesia’s oil generated much-needed revenue, allowing 

investment in infrastructure, education, and healthcare (Photo: 

President Suharto greets US 

President Nixon in 1970).

Despite these improvements, 

Suharto’s authoritarian 

tendencies compelled him to

eliminate opposition parties 

and imprison political 

opponents. Political activity 

was closely monitored. The 

government-sponsored Party of the Functional Groups (Partai

Golongan Karya, or Golkar) won every general election 

between 1971-98, returning Suharto to the Presidency each 

time. Although Suharto’s hold on power was secure, his 

regime’s authority was not uncontested. 

Indonesia Formally Acquires West New Guinea: In 1969, a 

referendum in West New Guinea confirmed its residents’ desire 

to join Indonesia as the province of Irian Jaya (West Papua and 

Papua today), although critics charged the vote took place 

under coercion. In 1971, the Free Papua Organization (OPM) 

formed and has since conducted guerrilla resistance in the 

region (see p. 11, 15-16 of Political and Social Relations). 

Among other grievances, OPM members resent the Indonesian 

government’s exploitation of the region’s natural resources. 

Indonesia Invades East Timor: Settled by the Portuguese in 

the 16th century, East Timor (1/2 of the island of Timor) 

remained in Portuguese hands until 1974, when revolution 

forced Portugal to withdraw from its colony. In 1975, civil war 

broke out. Fearing a potential communist state as its neighbor, 

Indonesia invaded. In mid-1976, Indonesia declared East Timor 

an Indonesian province.

The Indonesian government made some investments in East 

Timor’s schools, healthcare system, and infrastructure. Still, 
HISTORY &

MYTH

many residents resented incorporation into Indonesia. Armed 

resistance continued for over 20 years, which the Indonesian

military answered with harsh tactics and human rights abuses. 

During the 1970s-80s, experts estimate some 200,000 East 

Timorese died from conflict, starvation, or disease. 

Unrest in Aceh: Granted a “special status” including the right 

to enact Islamic laws in 1959, Aceh’s tradition of resistance 

flared again in the 1970s following the discovery of large oil 

reserves. In 1976, the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) formed, 

and by 1977, began to conduct guerilla attacks, including one 

against US oil industry workers. GAM continued its activities 

intermittently for almost 30 years, often prompting response of 

Indonesian military offensives (see p. 11 of Political and Social 

Relations).

Discontent Grows: In addition to these regionally-based 

movements, opposition to Suharto arose elsewhere. Some 

devout Muslims rejected the secular nature of the Pancasila

ideology enshrined in the 1945 constitution (see text box on 

page 18 of this section), which Suharto emphasized to combat 

Islam and promote plurality in Indonesian society. Other critics 

focused on the regime’s rampant corruption, restrictions on free 

press and speech, dependence on Western capital, or

environmental devastation. 

Following riots in 1978, the 

government closed some 

media outlets and arrested 

student leaders (Photo: 

Former US Secretary of 

Defense William Cohen 

with President Suharto in 

1998).

By the late 1980s, Suharto’s government was thoroughly 

corrupt and mismanaged. Through privileges and unfair 

advantages, Suharto’s family and business partners controlled 

entire economic sectors, particularly the petroleum industry, 

banking, broadcasting, and advertising (see p. 3 of Economics 

and Resources). Suharto increasingly relied on violence to 

ensure his hold on power, removing perceived threats through 

assassination and using the Kopassus (special forces) to 
HISTORY &

MYTH

commit violence against student activists. Throughout the 

1990s, demonstrations against his regime continued.

Suharto’s Fall

A major financial crisis in mid-1997 caused the sudden 

devaluation of Thailand’s currency. The crisis soon spread 

across Asia, hitting Indonesia particularly hard, causing mass 

unemployment and food shortages (see p. 3 of Economics and 

Resources). Amidst widespread accusations of electoral fraud, 

Indonesians reelected Suharto in March 1998. 

In May, demonstrations swelled again. When security forces 

shot demonstrating students in Jakarta, angry crowds filled the

streets, looting and setting fires, often targeting Chinese-owned 

businesses (see p. 19-20 of Political and Social Relations and 

p. 3 of Economics and Resources). Riots continued for several 

Transmigrasi

Indonesia’s transmigrasi (transmigration program) 

has a long history. First instituted by the Dutch in 

the early 20th century, the program aimed to reduce 

poverty and overcrowding on Indonesia’s more 

densely-populated islands, such as Java, Bali, and 

Madura, by moving residents of those islands to 

other regions having fewer people, such as Papua, 

Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Sumatra. During their 

rule, the Dutch moved some 650,000 Javanese to 

Sumatra to work on plantations. Following 

independence, both Sukarno and Suharto continued 

the program. At its peak between 1984-89, around 

2.5 million people were resettled. 

Ultimately, the program failed to improve migrants’ 

lives. In fact, the arrival of new populations often 

caused tensions. Violence occasionally flared, 

resulting in deaths and causing many migrants to 

flee. Beginning in 2000, the government significantly 

reduced the scale of the program before abolishing 

it completely in 2015. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

days, resulting in the deaths of more than 1,000 people. On 

May 21, Suharto resigned from office, and his Vice President 

B.J. Habibie was sworn in as the new President. 

Reformasi

The end of the New Order triggered significant reform, or 

reformasi. Immediately upon taking office, Habibie freed 

political prisoners, lifted restrictions on the media, and curbed 

the military’s power. New laws 

allowed the creation of political 

parties, and civil servants were 

allowed to be members of a 

party other than Golkar (Photo: 

BJ Habibie at political rally in 

1997). 

In August 1999, Habibie 

supported a UN-sponsored 

popular referendum in Indonesia-occupied East Timor (also 

known as Timor-Leste). When some 80% of voters chose 

independence, Indonesian troops and local militias burned 

homes and businesses, forcing thousands to flee and 

prompting the involvement of UN peacekeeping troops. After 

East Timor achieved its independence in 

2002, over 200,000 refugees returned. 

In 1999, Indonesia held its first free 

election since 1955, which yielded a 

stalemate among parties. In the end, 

moderate Muslim leader Abdurrahman 

Wahid (known as Gus Dur) assumed the 

Presidency. Wahid continued some 

reform efforts, removing discriminatory 

laws against the Chinese, changing Irian 

Jaya’s name to Papua, and promoting

the removal of the ban on communism. 

These and other unpopular actions 

failed to unite the country and left him without allies. After 

Wahid was implicated in multiple financial scandals, a special 

session of parliament removed him from power in 2001.

Megawati Sukarnoputri, former President Sukarno’s daughter 

(pictured with former US President George W. Bush in 2001), 
HISTORY &

MYTH

replaced Wahid as President. Sukarnoputri oversaw economic 

growth, the transfer of power to local authorities, and a major

constitutional overhaul. Among other 

measures, the new constitution 

established human rights protections

and called for the direct election of the 

President and Vice President. 

Contemporary Indonesia

In 2004, Indonesia held its first direct 

presidential election. Campaigning on 

an anti-corruption and pro-education 

platform, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono 

(known as SBY, pictured above) 

defeated Sukarnoputri. SBY soon faced 

a major crisis when an earthquake off the coast of Sumatra 

triggered a tsunami that inundated the island’s west coast, 

particularly the province of Aceh (see p. 3 of Political and 

Social Relations). Subsequently, Aceh separatists and the 

government entered into a peace 

agreement that granted Aceh 

additional autonomy (see p. 1 of 

Religion and Spirituality). Voters 

acknowledged SBY’s economic and 

political actions and policies by 

reelecting him in 2009.

While Indonesia under SBY was 

generally prosperous and stable, his

2nd term was marked by corruption 

scandals. In 2014, Joko Widodo 

(known as Jokowi, pictured) became 

Indonesia’s 7th President. Notably, 

Jokowi is the first President elected without direct family or 

professional ties to the political and military elite. Since taking 

office, Jokowi has enjoyed popular support but also faces 

significant opposition (see p. 4-7 of Political and Social 

Relations). Of note, in 2017, an Islamist hardliner defeated 

Jakarta’s first Christian governor after accusing him of 

blasphemy against Islam (see p. 10 of Religion and 

Spirituality), thus underscoring the increasing power of Islamic 

conservatives in the country.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Myth 

In contrast to history, which is supposed to be an objective 

record of the past based on verifiable facts, myths embody a 

culture’s values and often explain the origins of humans and 

the natural world. Myths are important because they provide a 

sense of unique heritage and identity. 

Indonesia’s myths are representative of its great cultural and 

linguistic diversity. Each ethnic group typically has its own 

myths and legends that explain their origins and history. Many 

Indonesian myths reflect animist, Hindu, Buddhist, or Islamic 

traditions and themes (see p. 6-10 of Religion and Spirituality).

Several Indonesian stories explain how new religious traditions 

spread through the archipelago. For example, according to 

myth, Hinduism spread 

through the activities of 

revered Hindu sage Agastya. 

The author of several sacred 

Hindu texts, this mythic 

figure supposedly traveled to 

the archipelago, converting 

many local rulers (Photo: 

Statue of Agastya (left) found 

at Prambanan in Java). 

Similarly, other stories tell of 

the Wali Sanga, revered 

saints who spread Islam 

through the archipelago. 

Active on Java during the 

15th century, the saints were 

scholars who also performed miraculous feats, such as 

constructing a mosque in a single night. 

Finally, the Ratu Adil (Just King) is a messianic figure in 

Indonesian folklore. First mentioned in a set of prophecies by a 

12th-century Javanese king, the Ratu Adil will rise from humble 

beginnings to bring universal peace and justice. Throughout 

Indonesian history, various figures have claimed either to be 

the Ratu Adil or to be following his instructions, including the 

14th-century Majapahit Empire’s Gajah Mada, 19th-century 

Java War leader Diponegoro, and President Sukarno.
Official Name

Republic of Indonesia

Republik Indonesia

Political Borders

Malaysia: 1,169 mi

Papua New Guinea: 

512 mi

Timor Leste: 157 mi

Coastline: 33,999 mi

Capital

Jakarta

Demographics

Indonesia has a population of over 258 million, making it the 

world’s 4th most populous country after China, India, and the 

US. Indonesia’s population growth has slowed in recent 

decades, from 2.4% in 1980 to 0.9% in 2016, primarily due to 

decreased fertility rates (see p. 4 of Sex and Gender). 

Indonesia has concurrently undergone steady urbanization –

the urban proportion of the population has grown from 22% in 

1980 to 53% in 2015. The cities of Jakarta, Surabaya, 

Bandung, Medan, Semarang, and Makassar are the most 

populous urban areas. While just the 5th largest island, Java is 

the most densely populated, 

housing over 1/2 of the 

country’s population.

Flag

The Indonesian flag, officially 

known as Sang Saka Merah 

Putih (The Sacred Red and 

White), consists of 2 equal 

horizontal bands of red and white and derives from the banner 

of Java’s 13th-century Majapahit Empire (see p. 5-6 of History 

and Myth). The top red stripe represents courage and blood, 

while the bottom white stripe symbolizes purity and the human 

spirit. 

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Geography

Located in Southeast Asia, Indonesia occupies the world’s 

largest volcanic achipelago. With an estimated 13,000-17,000 

islands, roughly 6,700 of them inhabited, Indonesia extends for 

about 3,200 mi along the equator between the Indian Ocean in 

the West and the Pacific Ocean in the East. The Asian 

continent lies to the North and the Australian continent to the 

South. Combined, the islands’ total land area is 699,451 sq mi, 

making Indonesia about 

1/5 the size of the US 

and slightly larger than 

Sudan (Photo: Komodo 

National Park on 

Komodo Island).

Indonesia shares islands 

with 3 other countries. 

The Indonesian province 

of Kalimantan shares the 

island of Borneo with Malaysia, while Papua borders Papua 

New Guinea on the island of New Guinea. Finally, West Timor 

shares the island of Timor with independent Timor-Leste (East 

Timor). Sumatra’s northern coast borders the Strait of Malacca, 

which at just 1.7 mi wide at its narrowest point, provides the 

shortest route between the Pacific and Indian oceans. 

Indonesia’s strategic location on this and other important 

waterways shaped its history and development as a nation 

(see p. 1 of History and Myth). 

The towering Central Mountain range runs west-east along the 

archipelago, containing more than 400 volcanoes. Notably, 

Indonesia lies along the Ring of Fire, a volcanic- and 

earthquake-prone zone that circles the edges of Pacific Ocean 

and accounts for 75% of the world’s volcanoes. At 16,024 ft, 

Indonesia’s highest mountain is Mount Puncak Jaya, located 

on New Guinea. On most islands, rugged mountainous 

interiors sharply descend into lowlands and subtropical 

rainforests, which cover nearly 2/3 of Indonesia’s territory. 

Coral reefs and mangrove swamps run along the coasts. 

Borneo is home to the nation’s 2 longest rivers, the Kapuas 

and the Barito, which, like other Indonesian rivers, serve as 

important transportation links to inland rural areas.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Climate

Indonesia has a tropical climate that is generally hot and humid 

year-round. Although conditions vary by altitude, temperatures 

range between 72°F-84°F, with relative humidity of about 80% 

across the country. While highlands tend to be cooler, 

temperatures may rise to 97°F along the northern coasts during 

dry seasons. Dry air from the Australian desert in the South 

drives the dry season from June to September. Indonesia

receives heavy annual rainfall between November-March due 

to monsoons originating in the Indian Ocean. Rainfall tends to 

be heaviest along 

Sumatra’s western 

coast and in the 

mountains.

Natural Hazards

Indonesia is vulnerable 

to several types of 

natural hazards, 

including earthquakes, 

tsunamis, cyclones 

(tropical storms characterized by strong, spiraling winds), 

flooding, and landslides. In 2004, Indonesia suffered a 

devastating earthquake, causing a tsunami that killed over 

200,000 people and left over 1/2 million displaced, primarily in 

Aceh (pictured). Earthquakes in 2005, 2006, 2009, and 2016

killed and left homeless tens of thousands. 

Intensified by deforestation (see “Environmental Issues” 

below), frequent floods resulting from heavy monsoon rains

regularly damage infrastructure and cumulatively cause the 

most deaths of all natural hazards. Landslides are also a threat 

in mountainous regions. Notably, Indonesia has the world’s 

highest number of deaths from volcanic eruptions, the latest 

occurring in 2017. 

Environmental Issues

Decades of industrial expansion, commercial logging, 

agricultural activities, and residential development have 

resulted in extensive deforestation. Starting in the 1970s, the 

government encouraged urban dwellers to relocate to rural 

areas, significantly increasing the clearing of land through the 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
1990s. Notably, from 1990-2005, Indonesia lost 30% of its 

forest cover, resulting in habitat loss and threatening

Indonesia’s biodiversity.

Although the government has since established several 

national parks and wildlife sanctuaries to preserve the country’s 

forests, rural poverty compels many Indonesians to illegally cut 

and log timber or burn forests to clear land for farming. In fact, 

the widespread use of fire to clear land renders Indonesia one 

of the world’s top carbon emitters and results in serious 

pollution. Known as “the haze,” this air pollution creates 

significant health concerns and hampers relations with 

neighboring countries. Meanwhile, agricultural and industrial 

runoff pollutes Indonesian coasts and rivers with pesticides, 

chemical fertilizers, and 

heavy metals. Finally, 

large urban areas are 

subject to air pollution 

caused by motor vehicle, 

industrial, and wasteburning emissions. 

Government

Indonesia is a 

presidential democratic republic with a parliamentary 

government. The country divides into 31 provinces, 2 special

districts in central Java (the Special Capital Region of Jakarta 

and the Special Region of Yogyakarta), and the autonomous 

province of Aceh, each administered by elected officials and 

local governments. Developed in 1945, repealed following 

independence, and reinstated in 1959, Indonesia’s constitution 

has been amended several times, most recently in 2002. The 

constitution outlines Indonesia’s system of government and the 

fundamental rights of its citizens (Photo: Indonesian President 

Joko Widodo greets former US Secretary of State John Kerry). 

Executive Branch

The highest level of executive authority is vested in the 

President, who is the head-of-government, head-of-state, and 

commander-in-chief of the Indonesian Armed Forces. A Vice 

President (VP) and a 34-seat Cabinet, whose members are 

appointed by the President, support the President in 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
overseeing the nation’s day-to-day affairs and implementing 

domestic and foreign policy. Both the President and Vice 

President are directly elected by absolute majority popular vote 

to serve up to 2 consecutive 5-year terms. Of note, the 

President has historically been a member of the political party 

that holds the majority of seats in the Parliament or had a

prominent military background. Current President Joko Widodo 

(known as Jokowi) and VP Jusuf Kalla both took office in 2014. 

Legislative Branch

Indonesia’s legislature (pictured) is a 2-chamber People’s 

Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat or 

MPR) composed of the 560-seat House of Representatives

(Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat or DPR) and the 132-seat 

Regional Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Daerah

or DPD). DPR members are directly elected in multi-seat 

constituencies to serve 5-year terms, while DPD members are 

directly elected in multi-seat constituencies by proportional 

representation, also to 

serve 5-year terms. 

As the more powerful 

chamber, the DPR

retains all federal 

legislative control, 

including the power to 

amend the constitution, 

impeach the President, 

approve declarations of war, and appoint positions in 

government. By contrast, the DPD deals with regional issues 

and does not have the authority to initiate federal legislation. 

Judicial Branch

Indonesia adheres to a primarily secular, civil law system that 

is influenced by traditional, customary law (adat). 

Consequently, the system varies somewhat by region and 

among Indonesia’s many ethnic groups (see “Ethnic Groups” 

below). The judiciary’s highest court, the Supreme Court 

(Mahkamah Agung), consists of 51 judges divided into 8 

chambers. Judges are nominated by a Judicial Commission, 

approved by the Parliament, and appointed by the President to 

serve until retirement at age 65. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
The Constitutional Court (Mahkamah Konstitusi) consists of 9 

members who serve until retirement at age 70, nominated in 

groups of 3 by the President, Supreme Court, and Parliament. 

Other courts include High Courts of Appeal, a system of district 

courts, and religious courts adhering to sharia (Islamic) law 

that arbitrate family matters for Muslim communities. Notably, 

secular district courts must approve decisions made by 

corresponding sharia courts, except in the province of Aceh, 

which subscribes entirely to sharia law. Finally, military courts 

preside over matters 

pertaining to armed 

forces personnel.

Political Climate

Indonesia’s historically 

turbulent political 

climate (see p. 19-26

of History and Myth) is 

characterized by a multi-party system in which parties or 

coalitions of parties compete for power. Of note, political 

parties subscribe at least in part to Indonesia’s official national 

ideology of Pancasila (“5 principles”): nationalism, democracy, 

humanism, social justice, and belief in one God. Parties often 

base their political platforms on a combination of these

principles, which are intended to promote peace and harmony 

within Indonesia. Despite this unifying philosophy, political 

infighting is common. Parties and coalitions dissolve and 

reform often, resulting in frequent shifts in power (Photo: 

Former US President Obama and former Indonesian President 

Yudhoyono toast during a state dinner in Jakarta).

As of 2017, Indonesia’s DPR primarily consists of members 

from moderate, secular groups and conservative, Islamist 

parties. The DPR’s 3 nationalist secular parties include the 

Indonesian Democratic Party-Struggle (PDI-P), the Democratic 

Party (PD), and the Functional Group Party (Golkar). 

Meanwhile, DPR’s 4 Islamist parties include the United 

Development Party (PPP), National Awakening Party (PKB), 

National Mandate Party (PAN), and Prosperous Justice Party 

(PKS). Other parties with DPR seats are the People's 

Conscience Party (Hanura), Great Indonesia Movement Party 

(Gerindra), and NasDem. 

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A former governor of the capital city of Jakarta, current 

President Widodo is the nation’s first President not associated 

with the military or a powerful political family. Although he

entered office with little experience in foreign policy, national 

security, and broad economic policy, Widodo has enacted 

successful economic reforms, instituted anti-corruption 

campaigns, and promoted tolerant and inclusive social policies. 

A popular figure in Indonesian society, particularly among the 

poor, Widodo enjoys widespread public support but faces 

continued opposition from DPR members and societal elites 

who overwhelmingly supported his opponent, former General 

Prabowo Subianto, in the 2014 election. 

Despite Widodo’s successes, some analysts assert the 

President lacks a clear strategy to battle rising religious 

intolerance (see p. 10 of Religion and Spirituality), terrorism 

(see “Security Issues” below), and deteriorating human rights 

within Indonesia. In addition, corruption continues to permeate

all levels of government. 

While elections are 

generally free and fair, 

instances of voting fraud 

intermittently mar both 

Presidential and 

Parliamentary elections, 

most recently in 2014. 

Further, over the last 

several years, prominent 

government officials have been charged with corruption, while 

others are under investigation, notably the current Speaker of 

Parliament and members of Indonesia’s 2 most prominent 

parties, PDI-P and Golkar (Photo: US Navy personnel arrives 

in Jakarta).

Amid these challenges, Indonesians are generally optimistic 

about Widodo and democracy, considering the democratic 

process to be effective and an integral part of Indonesian 

national identity. Notably, Indonesia is the world’s 3rd largest 

democracy, after India and the US, conducting hundreds of 

regional and local elections per year. About 70% of 

Indonesians voted in the 2014 elections, representing one of 

the world’s largest exercises in democracy. 

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Defense

The Indonesian National Armed Forces (Tentara Nasional 

Indonesia or TNI) consist of ground, maritime, and air 

branches with a joint strength of 395,500 active duty and 

400,000 reserve personnel. The TNI is charged with defense of 

the country and ensuring domestic stability, with counterinsurgency and counter-terrorism dominating operations in 

recent years. Although the Army is currently the dominant 

armed force, Indonesia 

intends to substantially 

strengthen both Navy 

and Air Force branches 

by 2029. 

In addition, increased 

defense spending has 

enabled the construction 

of new forward bases 

along Indonesia’s periphery, particularly the South China Sea. 

Of note, some Indonesians are suspicious and distrustful of the 

military and police forces, accusing them of committing human 

rights abuses with relative impunity (Photo: Indonesian and US 

marines during bilateral exercises in 2013). 

Indonesian Army: The Indonesian Army consists of 300,400 

active duty personnel, divided into 13 area commands. The 

Army includes 70 maneuver battalions, brigades, and 

squadrons (including 

mechanized, light, and 

aviation); 29 combat 

support battalions, 

regiments, and units; and 

4 Combat Service 

Support battalions. In 

addition, the Army

includes a Special Forces Command, comprised of 3 special 

forces groups, as well as a Strategic Reserve Command, 

consisting of 2 command divisions, 8 maneuver battalions and 

brigades (including mechanized, light, and air maneuver), and 

7 combat support regiments and battalions (Photo: Indonesian 

Army personnel board the US hospital ship USNS Mercy as 

part of an annual disaster relief training exercise). 

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Both the Special Forces and Strategic Reserve Commands are 

better-trained and equipped than the rest of the Indonesian 

Army. 

Indonesian Navy: The 

Indonesian Navy is 

composed of 65,000

active-duty personnel, 

including 20,000 

Marines and 1,000 

Naval Aviation 

members. The Navy is 

organized into 2 fleets, East (Surabaya) and West (Jakarta), 

and is expanding into 3 commands, Riau (West), Papua (East), 

and Makassar (Central). It has 2 tactical submarines, 11 

principal surface combatants, 88 patrol and coastal 

combatants, 11 mine warfare and countermeasures vessels, 

81 amphibious vessels, ships, and landing craft, and 32 

logistics and support vessels (Photo: Indonesian Navy 

personnel salute the USS Momsen as it arrives in Jakarta). 

Indonesian Air Force: Consisting of 30,100 active-duty 

personnel, the Indonesian Air Force has 2 operational 

commands (East and West) organized into 2 fighter squadrons, 

4 fighter/ground attack squadrons, a ground attack squadron, 

maritime patrol squadron, 

tanker/transport squadron, 4 

transport squadrons, 3 training 

squadrons, and 2 transport 

helicopter squadrons. It is 

equipped with 97 combat 

capable aircraft and 31 

helicopters. 

Paramilitary: Indonesia’s 

Paramilitary consists of 

281,000 active-duty personnel 

organized into Customs, Marine Police, Police, and Coast and 

Seaward Defense Command branches (Photo: Indonesian 

sailors perform mass casualty training as part of a series of 

bilateral exercises held with the US to promote US-Indonesia 

military interoperability).

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Security Issues

Indonesia faces numerous security challenges such as piracy, 

terrorism, internal instability, and separatist movements, which 

occasionally escalate to violence. 

Maritime Insecurity: Indonesia’s numerous surrounding seas 

and waterways have long been plagued by terrorism, piracy, 

and warfare. For example, the strategically and economically 

vital Strait of Malacca ranked as the world’s most dangerous 

waterway in 2004, while piracy and clashes with terrorist 

groups are common in the northern Celebes Sea. Indonesia’s 

military, along with their counterparts in Malaysia, Singapore, 

and the US, recently implemented joint anti-piracy and antiterrorism measures to reduce the prevalence of violent 

incidents. Nevertheless, intermittent spates of violence 

continue to threaten regional stability. Finally, rising tensions in 

the South China Sea (see “Relations with China” below) 

present additional security concerns (Photo: Indonesian boys 

visits the USS Fort Worth 

during a stop in Jakarta in 

2014). 

Internal Instability: 

Across Indonesia, small 

farmers and indigenous 

communities are 

occasionally forced off 

their own individual and 

community lands by large international logging, fishing, mining, 

and palm oil companies or by government, commercial, and 

industrial developments. In some cases, police and 

government authorities are either complicit in the evictions or 

fail to enforce federal protective laws. Forced to relocate to 

temporary camps or to urban slums, displaced Indonesians 

often live in dire conditions. 

Although Indonesia has settled independence disputes with 

Aceh and Timor-Leste (see p. 25-26 of History and Myth), 

outbreaks of sectarian violence continue in the eastern 

province of Papua on the island of New Guinea. Violent 

clashes between Indonesian forces and armed separatists 

often result in casualties on both sides. Notably, Indonesian 

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forces often respond with equal severity to nonviolent proindependence demonstrators, prompting international 

observers to cite the overly harsh responses as human rights 

violations. 

Domestic Terrorism: Terrorism, usually fueled by religious 

extremism, is a rising concern across Indonesia. While several

Islamist terrorist groups currently operate within Indonesia, the 

most prominent is the Jemaah Islamiyah (Islamic Community

or JI), which developed in the 1970s and has since grown into 

a large, transnational organization. The JI has been linked to 

al-Qa’ida (a militant, broad-based Islamist group) and other 

terror groups in Malaysia and the Philippines. With the goal of 

creating a Southeast Asian Islamic state, the JI and its various 

splinter groups have carried out high profile terror attacks in 

Bali, Java, and other 

parts of Indonesia over 

the last 2 decades, 

leaving hundreds dead. 

High rates of poverty, 

poor rural living 

conditions, and rising 

unemployment leave 

many Indonesians 

increasingly vulnerable to recruitment by JI and other terrorist 

organizations. These terrorists often lure candidates with the 

promise of employment and education opportunities. As

Islamist extremism and tensions rise, Christians and other 

minorities are increasingly subjected to attacks, harassment, 

and intimidation by both radical Islamist groups and local police

authorities (see p. 10 of Religion and Spirituality) (Photo: An 

Indonesian Air Force jumpmaster inspects gear before an 

exercise). 

Foreign Relations 

Over the last decade, Indonesia has aspired to become a 

global and Southeast Asian regional leader, pursuing friendly

political relations and close economic ties with the West and

regional nations such as Australia, Timor-Leste, China, Japan, 

South Korea, Russia, and India. Recently, the need to address 

common security concerns, such as piracy, international crime, 

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and rising terrorism (see “Security Issues” above) has

facilitated cooperative political and military relations among 

some of the region’s nations, notably Malaysia, Singapore, 

Brunei, and the Philippines. 

As a moderate, Muslim-majority state, Indonesia strives to be a 

political, social, and economic model for the Islamic world. 

Indonesia actively participates in the Organization of Islamic 

Cooperation (OIC), the world’s largest pan-Islamic 

organization. The OIC’s 57-member nations seek to improve 

the image of Muslims, promote peaceful conflict resolution 

among member states, and counter rising Islamic extremism, 

among other goals. 

Indonesia is also a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic 

Cooperation (APEC), the G-20 group of nations, the World 

Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World 

Trade Organization (WTO). Indonesia is a large contributor to 

United Nations peacekeeping operations and regularly 

participates in multilateral and bilateral military exercises with 

regional and international allies, including the US, Singapore, 

and Australia. 

Relations with the 

US: US-Indonesia 

relations date to 1949, 

when the US became

one of the first nations 

to establish diplomatic 

relations with 

Indonesia following its independence (see p. 18-19 of History 

and Myth). While relations became somewhat strained during 

the Sukarno era (see p. 20-21 of History and Myth), the US 

considered Indonesia an ally in resisting the regional spread of 

communism during the 1960s-80s. Following the September 

11th terror attacks in the US, the 2 nations pursued closer 

political and security ties to reduce the strength and presence 

of al-Qa’ida and other Islamist terror groups in the region

(Photo: Indonesian soldiers demonstrate how to handle a 

venomous cobra during 2014 exercises with the US). 

Bilateral relations deepened considerably in 2010, when the 2 

nations entered into a Comprehensive Partnership (CP) to 

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RELATIONS
strengthen Indonesia’s democracy, civil society, and education

infrastructure. The CP also addresses climate, trade, domestic 

terrorism, and maritime security issues. In 2015, the 2 nations 

further strengthened ties with the US-Indonesia Strategic 

Partnership, which extends bilateral cooperation beyond 

domestic issues to address shared regional and global

strategic interests. These include security, peacekeeping, 

economic growth, health pandemics, and climate change. 

In addition, the US regularly provides funding to Indonesia for 

humanitarian and disaster relief efforts and works closely with 

Indonesia to combat domestic terrorism and disrupt terrorist

networks in Southeast Asia. As a result, the US and Indonesian

militaries regularly engage in bilateral military exercises, 

combined training, and military education exchanges. 

Relations with ASEAN: Indonesia is a founding member of 

the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN – made 

up of Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, the Philippines, 

Singapore, Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Burma, and Cambodia), 

created in 1967 to promote regional stability and development. 

As a dominant economic 

and political power,

Indonesia is increasingly 

the group’s de facto 

leader and a strong 

proponent of ASEAN’s

consensus-based model 

of regional coordination

(Photo: Former US Secretary of State Clinton poses with 

ASEAN leaders). 

Relations with Singapore: Indonesia and Singapore’s 

relationship is close but fragile. Although the 2 countries are 

economically interdependent and coordinate militarily against 

piracy and crime in the Malacca Strait, Singapore contests 

Indonesia’s economic claim to those waters. In addition, 

tensions intermittently flare amid perceptions of mistreatment of 

Malays in Singapore and ethnic Chinese in Indonesia. Finally, 

Indonesia’s ban on sea sand exports, a natural resource vital to

Singapore’s land reclamation projects undertaken to enlarge its 

limited territory, is another contentious issue. 

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Relations with Malaysia: Despite deep trade ties and 

common cultural and religious features, the Malaysian and 

Indonesian relationship is occasionally contentious. Maritime 

disputes over fishing and oil exploration rights, particularly in 

the Celebes Sea, periodically escalate into confrontations. In 

addition, porous borders allow illegal Indonesian migrant 

workers to travel to Malaysia, while refugees from other Muslim

majority nations flow 

through Malaysia to 

seek asylum in

Indonesia. 

This cross-border 

movement, as well as 

Malaysia’s treatment 

of undocumented

Indonesian migrant 

workers, causes 

tension. Finally, annual fires set by Indonesian farmers to clear 

land (see “Environmental Issues” above) (pictured) result in 

heavy regional air pollution, affecting Malaysians’ health and 

further straining relations. 

Relations with Timor-Leste (East Timor): Indonesia has a 

historically violent and contentious relationship with TimorLeste (see p. 22-23 of History and Myth). While the 2 nations 

formally established diplomatic relations in 2002, bilateral 

tensions remained high as both nations struggled to control 

illegal border crossings, curtail drug distribution networks, and 

deescalate violence along their borders. Relations warmed 

considerably in 2011, when Indonesia supported Timor-Leste’s 

application to ASEAN, which it hopes to achieve in 2017. As of 

2017, the shared border remains a source of dispute, and 

ongoing sectarian violence heightens tensions. 

Relations with Papua New Guinea (PNG): Following the 

establishment of PNG as a nation on the eastern half of the 

island of New Guinea in 1975, Indonesia negotiated multiple 

bilateral treaties to establish border arrangements, promote 

trade, and maintain peace, yet today relations remain tense. 

Along the extensive and porous border, the 2 nations struggle 

to control the illegal movement of drugs, human trafficking, and 

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RELATIONS
Papuan secessionists seeking autonomy from Indonesia’s 

central government. Conflicts along this border occasionally 

escalate to violence. As a result, thousands of Indonesian 

refugees have fled to PNG to live in temporary camps, often in 

poor conditions. Although recently the 2 nations have worked 

to improve diplomatic relations, tensions flared in 2014 after 

PNG troops allegedly seized and robbed an Indonesian fishing 

vessel, resulting in 5 Indonesian deaths. 

Relations with the Philippines: After nearly 20 years of 

negotiations to determine their maritime borders, Indonesia and 

the Philippines signed an agreement demarcating those

borders in 2014. As both countries are prominent members of 

ASEAN and regional leaders, Indonesia and the Philippines 

have promoted this agreement as a peaceful, diplomatic, and 

consensus-based example of a method to resolve disputes. 

Relations with China: Indonesia is a key player in the region’s 

diplomatic efforts to resolve territorial disputes in the South 

China Sea. It historically has taken a neutral position in 

negotiations between China and fellow ASEAN member 

nations, particularly Malaysia, the Phillipines, and Vietnam. 

Recently, however, tensions flared when China claimed 

territory that overlaps with Indonesian waters close to 

Indonesia’s resource-rich Natuna Islands. Since then, several 

clashes between Chinese and Indonesian fishing vessels in the 

area have resulted in some bilateral friction (Photo: Former US 

Defense Secretary Carter speaks with Chinese Army General 

Qi Jianguo during 

Indonesia’s 2013

International Defense 

Dialogue held in 

Jakarta to promote 

regional stability). 

Ethnic Groups

Indonesia is home to

over 300 distinct ethnic 

groups, broadly falling into 2 geographic groupings: Melanesian 

(eastern) and Austronesian (western). Indonesia’s largest 

ethnic groups include the Javanese, Sundanese, Madurese,

Betawi, Malay, Minangkabau, Batak, Buginese, and Chinese. 

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Although most ethnic groups concentrate in regional pockets, 

members commonly migrate across the country in search of 

employment and educational opportunities. 

Java’s Ethnic Groups: The primarily Muslim Javanese and 

Sundanese respectively comprise 40% and 12% of Indonesia’s 

population and are by far Indonesia’s largest ethnic groups. 

Traditionally living in small villages of fewer than 3,000 

residents, Javanese and Sundanese historically worked as rice 

or cash crop farmers, although today, some of them hold 

positions in local and federal governments. Notably, both 

groups are famed for their puppetry traditions (see p. 6 of 

Aesthetics and Recreation). About 3% of Indonesia’s 

population is Madurese. Originally from the neighboring island 

of Madura, there are Madurese living in east Java, primarily as 

cattle herders. Millions of Betawi, the descendants of the 

various residents of Dutch Batavia 

(see p. 9-10 of History and Myth), 

also form a distinct ethnic group on 

Java (Photo: Traditional 

Sundanese puppets).

Sumatra’s Ethnic Groups:

Sumatra’s major ethnic groups 

include Malays, Bataks,

Minangkabau, and Acehnese. The

primarily Muslim Malays comprise 

3% of the population and live in 

east Sumatra and coastal 

Kalimantan. Both the primarily 

Christian Bataks (about 4% of the population) and primarily 

Muslim Minangkabau (some 3% of the population) are related 

to the Malay ethnic group. Bataks live in north Sumatra, while 

the Minangkabau reside in west Sumatra, typically as 

merchants and shopkeepers.

The Acehnese comprise about 1% of the population. The first 

Indonesians to embrace Islam, the Acehnese are a product of 

intermarriage between Arabs, Chinese, Indians, Malays, and 

other ethnic groups. After a decades-long separatist struggle 

(see p. 23, 26 of History and Myth), Sumatra’s northern Aceh 

province has special autonomy (see p. 1 of Religion and 

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Spirituality). Of note, Aceh is often known as “the veranda of 

Mecca” for its predominantly conservative Muslim population.

Kalimantan’s Ethnic Groups: Although migrants from other 

islands have come to Kalimantan (see p. 24 of History and 

Myth and “Social Relations” below), Kalimantan’s interior is 

dominated by several indigenous 

groups collectively referred to as the 

Dayak. Comprising slightly over 1% 

of Indonesia’s population, Dayak

peoples were traditionally fierce 

warriors known for their headhunting 

practices, but today, they are 

primarily farmers. Although a majority 

of Dayak practice Christianity, some 

still practice Kaharingan, an 

indigenous blend of animism and 

ancestor worship (see p. 9 of 

Religion and Spirituality). In recent 

years, Dayak communities have 

clashed with Madurese migrants

(Photo: Young Dayaks in the early 20th century).

Sulawesi’s Ethnic Groups: Sulawesi is home to some 7% of 

Indonesia’s population, most prominently the Buginese, 

Makassarese, Minahasan, and Toraja ethnic groups. Both the 

Buginese and Makassarese are renowned Muslim seafarers, 

while the Christian Minahasans are coastal farmers. By 

contrast, the largely Christian Toraja traditionally live in 

Sulawesi’s mountains in largely self-sufficient farming villages. 

They are known for elaborate funeral practices (see p. 8 of 

Family and Kinship). 

Ethnic Groups of Maluku, Papua, and the Lesser Sunda 

Islands: Maluku’s largest ethnic groups include the Butonese, 

Ambonese, and Ceram, which together comprise less than 1%

of Indonesia’s population. The provinces of Papua and West 

Papua are home to hundreds of distinct ethnic groups and

various migrants from other islands (see p. 24 of History and 

Myth and “Social Relations” below). One well-known Papuan 

group is the Asmat, a society of hunter-gatherers that lives in 

small villages in the southern swamps of Papua.

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The Lesser Sunda Islands, notably Bali and Nusa Tenggara,

are also very diverse and home to over 50 ethnic groups. 

Constituting about 1% of Indonesia’s population, the Balinese 

are Bali’s dominant 

ethnic group. 

Balinese traditionally 

lived in walled 

compounds and 

practiced a blend of 

Hinduism and 

Buddhism predating 

Islam’s arrival to 

Indonesia (see p. 7 of History and Myth and p. 5-8 of Religion 

and Spirituality). Like Bali, Nusa Tenggara is home to many 

small ethnic groups (Photo: Balinese women at work in a field).

Chinese: Demographers estimate 3-4% of Indonesia’s 

population are ethnic Chinese. While they live throughout the 

archipelago, Chinese are concentrated primarily around cities 

in Java, eastern Sumatra, and western Kalimantan. Chinese 

Indonesians are divided culturally into Peranakan (ChineseIndonesians with partial Indonesian ancestry) and Totok (“fullblooded,” often direct immigrants from China). Unlike the 

Totok, the Peranakan typically speak Bahasa Indonesia (see p. 

1 of Language and Communication) as their native language, 

practice either Islam or Christianity, and feel more deeply 

connected to Indonesia than to China.

Social Relations

While social roles and family organization vary among

Indonesia’s numerous ethnic groups, the nuclear family is the 

basic social unit across most of Indonesia (see p. 1 of Family 

and Kinship). In some cases, as among the Weyewa in Nusa 

Tenggara, the clan takes priority over immediate family. Still 

others, like the Dayak, regard both the nuclear family and 

community as central. Notably, while most Indonesian societies

trace descent through the father (patriarchal), the Minangkabau 

trace descent through the mother (matrilineal), giving their

women more social status and the control of property (see p. 4

of Family and Kinship). Although some Indonesian ethnic 

groups possess a complex and stratified class system, the 

Minahasan subscribe to a more egalitarian (classless) system. 

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RELATIONS
Some divisions exist among Indonesia’s various ethnic groups, 

with tensions occasionally escalating to violence. For example, 

some residents of other islands resent Java’s historic political 

dominance, which at least in part fueled separatist campaigns 

in Aceh, Papua, and Timor (see p. 22-23 of History and Myth). 

Notably, the government’s transmigration program that moved 

residents of densely 

populated islands to less 

populated outer islands

(see p. 24 of History and 

Myth) often inflamed

tensions between migrants 

and local groups. For 

example, in 2001, Dayak 

community members killed 

hundreds of Madurese

migrants in Kalimantan, even reviving their traditional 

headhunting practices of beheading some individuals. Although 

the transmigration program has since been discontinued, 

tensions between indigenous populations and migrants in 

some areas remain high (Photo: US government officials open 

an exhibition of Papuan life).

Indonesia’s most pronounced social division lies between the 

Chinese and Indonesia’s other ethnic groups. Historically, the 

Chinese have been victims of discrimination and violence. In 

the late 20th century, President Suharto (see p. 21 of History 

and Myth) attempted to assimilate ethnic Chinese into 

Indonesian society by banning 

Chinese festivals, newspapers, 

and books. In 1998, rioters in 

Jakarta attacked Chinese 

businesses and individuals (see 

p. 24 of History and Myth). 

Although Indonesia has since 

enacted legislation to protect the 

Chinese community, some 

members still suffer 

discrimination. Further, some Indonesians still resent the 

Chinese due to their economic success and dominance in the 

business sector (Photo: Indonesian children enjoy the 

Barongsai or traditional Chinese Lion Dance).

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Overview 

According to the 2010 census, about 87% of Indonesia’s 

population is Muslim, 7% Protestant, 3% Roman Catholic, and 

1.5% Hindu. Another 1.3% follow Buddhism, Confucianism, 

traditional indigenous religions, or other Christian

denominations. This religious diversity is reflected in the variety 

of mosques, temples, shrines, and churches located 

throughout the country (Photo: Former US Secretary of State 

John Kerry signs a guest book at Jakarta’s Istiqlal Mosque with 

Grand Imam Ali Mustafa 

Ya'qub and other 

religious leaders). 

The constitution 

guarantees freedom of 

religion, allowing 

Indonesians to worship 

according to their

personal beliefs. 

Nevertheless, the constitution also restricts individuals from 

exercising these rights in a way that oversteps common moral 

boundaries, jeopardizes public order, or infringes on the 

religious rights of others. Notably, the legal code also includes 

strict blasphemy laws that criminalize public activities and 

statements that defame, insult, or spread hatred of any of the 6 

federally recognized religions, including Islam, Protestantism, 

Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. While 

not granted official status by the government, followers of 

unofficial groups retain the right to establish places of worship

and register marriages and births, among other rights.

Although nationally Indonesia adheres to a secular legal

system that promotes religious freedom in accordance with the 

constitution, some local governments across the archipelago 

have enacted legislation that severely limits religious freedom. 

Since a 2005 peace agreement that ended a separatist conflict 

(see p. 26 of History and Myth), Sumatra’s northern Aceh 

province implements a restrictive form of sharia (Islamic) law 

to regulate its citizens’ social and religious behavior.

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Despite such regional variance, Indonesia views itself as a 

model of a moderate, Muslim-majority state. The federal 

government supports religious diversity by allowing minority 

religious groups to practice their beliefs and publicly promotes 

religious freedom across the country. In addition to Muslim 

holidays, Indonesia observes Christian, Hindu, and Buddhist 

celebrations as national holidays (see p. 2 of Time and Space). 

Early Spiritual Landscape

Early inhabitants of Southeast Asia, including Indonesia,

typically practiced animism, the belief that a spirit or 

consciousness resides in all objects, both animate and 

inanimate. Within animist traditions, all natural objects – for

example, trees and animals – are sacred, and there exists a 

close connection between animists and their environment. 

Some local religious traditions in Indonesia also included 

volcano worship or recognized ancestral spirits who could help 

or hinder the living. Some of Indonesia’s indigenous groups 

continue to hold similar beliefs, often merging them with the 

ideologies of some of the 6 federally protected faiths.

Islam

Origins of Islam

Islam dates to the 

6th century when

Muhammad, whom 

Muslims consider 

God’s final Prophet, 

was born in Mecca

in what is today 

Saudi Arabia. 

Muslims believe that while Muhammad was meditating in the 

desert, the Archangel Gabriel visited him over a 23-year period, 

revealing the Qur’an, or “Holy Book,” to guide their everyday 

lives and shape their values (Photo: Late 7th-century Arabian 

Qur’an). 

Meaning of Islam

Islam is a way of life to its adherents. The term Islam literally 

means submission to the will of God, and a Muslim is “a person 

who submits to God.”

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Muslim Sects

Islam is divided into 2 sects: Sunni and Shi’a. Sunnis are 

distinguished by their belief that the leader (Caliph) of the 

Muslim community (Ummah) should be elected. Conversely, 

Shi’a Muslims believe the religious leader should be a direct 

descendant of the Prophet Muhammad.

Five Pillars of Islam 

There are 5 basic 

principles of the 

Islamic faith. 

• Profession of Faith 

(Shahada): “There 

is no god but God, 

and Muhammad is 

His Messenger.” 

• Prayer (Salat): Pray

5 times a day while facing the Ka’aba in Mecca, Saudi 

Arabia. The Ka’aba (pictured) is considered the center of the 

Muslim world and a unifying focal point for Islamic worship. 

• Charity (Zakat): Donate a percentage of one’s income to 

the poor or needy. 

• Fasting (Sawm): Abstain from food, drink, and sexual 

relations from sunrise to sunset during the holy month of 

Ramadan.

• Pilgrimage to Mecca (The Hajj): Perform the pilgrimage to 

Mecca once in a lifetime. 

Shared Perspectives

Many Islamic tenets parallel those of Judaism and Christianity. 

In fact, Muslims consider Christians and Jews “people of the 

Book,” referring to biblical scriptures, because they also believe 

in 1 God. 

Abraham: All 3 faiths trace their lineage to Abraham, known as 

Ibrahim in Islam. However, Christians and Jews trace their 

descent to Abraham, his wife Sarah, and their son Isaac; while 

Muslims trace theirs to Abraham and his Egyptian concubine, 

Hagar, and their son Ishmael.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Scriptures: Much of the content of the Qur’an is similar to 

teachings and stories found in the Christian Bible’s Old and 

New Testaments, and Muslims view Islam as a completion of 

previous revelations to Jewish and Christian prophets. 

However, Muslims believe Jews and Christians altered God’s 

word and that Muhammad received the true revelation of God. 

Jesus: The 3 religions differ significantly in their understanding 

of the role of Jesus. While Christians consider him the divine 

Messiah who fulfills Jewish Scriptures, Jews are still waiting for 

the Messiah to come. Muslims recognize Jesus as a prophet 

but do not acknowledge his divinity or the Christian Trinity. 

View of Death: Muslims believe that God determines the time 

of death and birth. While people grieve the loss of family 

members or friends, they do not view death itself as a negative 

event, as Muslims believe that a person who lived a good life 

goes on to live in Heaven. 

Concept of Jihad

The concept of jihad, or inner striving, is a fundamental 

element within Islam. Traditionally, it is the principled and moral 

pursuit of God’s command to lead a virtuous life. It should not 

be confused with the publicized violence often associated with

jihad. Most Muslims are strongly opposed to terrorism and 

consider it contrary to 

Islamic beliefs (Photo: 

The Grand Mosque of 

Bandung, West Java).

Ramadan

Ramadan is a month-long 

time for inner reflection, 

self-control, and focus on 

God. During this time, 

Muslims who are physically able are required to fast from dawn 

to sunset. Many Muslims believe that denying their hunger 

helps them learn self-control, appreciate the difficulties of the 

poor, and gain spiritual renewal – by fasting, a Muslim learns to 

appreciate the good in life. 

During Ramadan in some parts of Indonesia, authorities may 

fine or detain Muslims found eating or drinking on the street 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
during daylight hours. It is common for Indonesian Muslims to 

break their fast at sunset with a meal known as iftar. Ramadan 

is observed during the 9th month of the Islamic calendar (see 

p. 2 of Time and Space) and includes 2 holy days.

• Lailat al-Qadr: This “Night of Power” marks Muhammad’s 

receipt of the first verses of the Qur’an. 

• Eid al-Fitr: Lebaran or Idul Fitri in Indonesia, this 3-day 

“Festival of Fast-Breaking” celebrates Ramadan’s end.

Another important holiday is celebrated when the Hajj ends, 

about 70 days following the end of Ramadan.

• Eid al-Adha: Idul Adha or Lebaran Haji in Indonesia, this 

“Festival of Sacrifice” commemorates Abraham’s willingness 

to sacrifice his son, Ishmael (or Isaac, according to 

Christians), as proof of his loyalty to God. 

The Arrival and Spread of Islam in Indonesia 

Arab and Persian Muslims on their way to East Asia probably 

first brought Islam to the region not long after Islam’s founding 

in the 6th century. In the 13th century, South Asian Muslim 

merchants expanded trade throughout the Strait of Malacca, 

further spreading Islam (see p. 7 of History and Myth). The Sufi 

tradition, characterized by mysticism and ritualistic prayer, 

shaped early Islamic practices in some regions, particularly 

where Sufi beliefs

aligned closely with 

indigenous customs, 

allowing Islam to 

more easily integrate 

in local society

(Photo: The Great 

Mosque of Sumenep 

in Madura). 

As Islam spread 

across Indonesia, 2 broad socioeconomic levels each 

developed a distinct perspective on the religion. Composed 

primarily of rural farmers and villagers, abangan communities 

merged elements of animism and other indigenous beliefs into 

their practice of Islam. For example, common abangan rituals 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
incorporated ancestor worship and food offerings to appease 

evil spirits along with readings from the Qur’an. 

By contrast, the santri or putihan were historically merchants 

and urban dwellers who followed orthodox Islam and strictly 

excluded indigenous traditions from 

their Islamic practices. While these 

classifications largely no longer 

apply today, some Indonesians, 

primarily in Java, still distinguish 

themselves by these abangan or

santri categories (Photo: Former 

US President Obama and Michelle 

Obama visit the Istiqlal Mosque in 

Jakarta). 

Religion Today 

Islam

Indonesia is home to the world’s 

largest Muslim population, larger 

than the Muslim population of all the Arab and Middle Eastern

states combined. Most Indonesian Muslims, along with about 

15% of Muslims worldwide, are followers of the Shaf’i Madhab 

school of Sunni Islam, a generally tolerant school of thought. 

An estimated 1-3 million 

Indonesian Muslims are 

Shi’a, while 200,000-

400,000 are Sufi 

followers who adhere 

primarily to the Ahmediya 

sect. A very small 

percentage of Indonesian 

Muslims subscribe to an

extreme, ultra-orthodox, 

and fundamentalist version of Islam known as Wahhabism or 

Salafism. Numerous other Muslim groups with smaller 

followings are also active in Indonesia (Photo: Indonesian 

women gather to receive medical screenings conducted by the 

US Navy). 

Aside from different Islamic ideologies, another broad 

distinction within Indonesia’s contemporary Muslim community 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
lies between traditionalists and modernists. Traditionalists 

subscribe to Islamic teachings influenced by Sufi mysticism, 

often follow charismatic Islamic leaders, and have likely 

attended rural pesantren (Islamic boarding schools) (see p. 1, 

6 of Learning and Knowledge). By contrast, modernists tend to

reject Sufi mysticism, embrace modern concepts and learning, 

and promote moderate Islamic theologies alongside secular 

curricula in madrassas (Islamic day schools) (see p. 6 of 

Learning and Knowledge). 

Christianity

Christianity first gained Indonesian converts when the 

Portuguese and their Catholic missionaries arrived in the 

region in the early 16th century (see p. 8 of History and Myth). 

By the early 17th century, Dutch colonizers had expelled the 

Catholics, instead introducing Protestantism. Today, Christians 

comprise Indonesia’s 2nd largest religious group, around 10% 

of the population. The majority (70%) of Indonesia’s Christians 

are Protestant and reside in Central Maluku, North Maluku, 

North Sulawesi, and northern Papua. Meanwhile, Catholics live 

primarily in southern Papua, East Nusa Tenggara, and 

Southeast Maluku. 

Smaller populations 

of Christians also 

reside in West and 

Central Kalimantan 

and in Java’s urban 

areas. 

Buddhism

According to Buddhist 

beliefs, human suffering resulting from greed and the desire for 

worldly objects can be eliminated by following an unselfish, 

spiritual path. Buddhists’ ultimate goal is to achieve nirvana, a 

state of peace and unity with the universe. Buddhism does not 

focus on the worship of a god or gods but instead emphasizes 

ethical and moral instruction (Photo: Visitors attend Central 

Java’s sprawling Borobudur temple, the world’s largest 

Buddhist temple). 

South Asian traders introduced Buddhism to Indonesia in the 

first few centuries AD. An important center of Buddhist 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
learning, the Srivijaya Empire propagated Buddhist art, culture, 

and beliefs within the region from the 7th-14th centuries (see p. 

2-6 of History and Myth). Although Buddhism declined 

substantially as Islam gained significant influence starting in the 

13th century, Buddhist values continue to significantly influence 

contemporary Indonesian society. 

Many Buddhists are ethnic Chinese, primarily concentrated in 

Java, Bali, Lampung, the Riau Islands, West Kalimantan, and 

the capital city of Jakarta. Indonesian Buddhism encourages 

followers to be compassionate and to follow certain spiritual 

practices, including meditation and halus, the concept of 

politeness, a value also strongly associated with priyayi (see 

p. 8 of History and Myth). Similar to other major faiths in the 

country, Indonesian Buddhism often incorporates elements of 

indigenous religions. 

Hinduism

South Asian traders 

also introduced 

Hinduism in the first 

few centuries AD (see 

p. 3 of History and 

Myth). Based in 

ancient scriptures, 

Hindu worship 

focuses on a Supreme Being with many forms and natures, 

including Brahma (the creator), Shiva (the destroyer), and 

Vishnu (the preserver). While Hindu-Buddhist empires once 

controlled most of Sumatra and Java (see p. 3-6 of History and 

Myth), today Bali is Indonesia’s only island that remains 

predominantly (93%) Hindu. Smaller Hindu communities are 

found in the provinces of Central Java, East Java, and 

Lampung in Sumatra (Photo: Pura Bratan Hindu temple, Bali). 

Notably, local traditions and beliefs have significantly 

influenced and transformed Hinduism in Indonesia. For 

example, while traditional Hindu ideology stratifies society into 

strict socioeconomic groups, in Indonesia today, such social 

divisions are less pronounced. Further, Indonesian Hinduism 

emphasizes ancestral spirits rather than the traditional Hindu 

concepts of rebirth and reincarnation. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Confucianism

Most Indonesian followers of Confucianism focus less on the 

religion’s philosophical underpinnings and more on its 

teachings as a guide for living. Generally, these teachings

promote virtuous behavior and moral perfection. Before 

Indonesia formally recognized Confucianism as 1 of its 6 

official religions in 2006, most followers identified as Buddhist. 

Today, less than 1% of Indonesians are followers of 

Confucianism. Of these, some 95% are ethnic Chinese. 

Traditional Religions

Close to 20 million Indonesians, primarily in Java, Papua, and 

Kalimantan, practice 1 of 400 or more indigenous belief 

systems, collectively known as aliran kepercayaan. While 

there are many variations, traditional religions commonly 

incorporate aspects of animism, recognizing that spirits and 

spiritual powers reside in animals, objects, trees, mountains 

and other geographic places. Generally, followers of traditional 

religions hold a strong respect for the 

spirit world, engaging in rituals to 

honor spirits or carrying amulets to 

protect themselves from harm

caused by spirits (Photo: A Papuan 

woman with her child).

For example, some members of 

Kalimantan’s Dayak ethnic group 

(see p. 18-20 of Political and Social 

Relations) practice Kaharingan, a 

native religion that acknowledges 

such spirits. While the practice is 

now outlawed and rarely occurs, 

Dayak groups traditionally practiced 

headhunting – the act of removing an opponent’s head to 

prevent the spirit from reaching heaven, ensuring the victim’s 

total destruction. 

Even among Indonesians who primarily identify with an 

officially recognized religion, their beliefs and practices often 

fuse elements from several traditions. For example, although a 

Muslim, former President Suharto (see p. 21-24 of History and 

Myth) consulted traditional spiritual advisors and soothsayers. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Religion and the Law

While the Indonesian government strives to promote moderate 

Islam and marginalize religious extremism, residents of some 

parts of the country – particularly in Aceh, West Sumatra, 

Southern Sulawesi, and parts of Java – practice conservative 

forms of Islam. In some areas, local governments have 

introduced sharia law to regulate Muslim citizens’ religious and 

social behavior. In addition, some provinces have enacted 

restrictive legislation that prohibits the activities of minority 

religious groups, such as Islamic groups like the Shi’a and 

Ahmediya. Other regulations require all citizens, regardless of 

religious affiliation, to comply with certain practices, such as

abstaining from alcohol, giving Islamic alms, and closing 

businesses during Muslim religious holidays. Of note, Jakarta’s 

Christian governor was convicted of blasphemy and sentenced 

to 2 years of prison in 2017 following statements some 

interpreted as insulting to the Qur’an, a result widely seen as a 

setback for religious tolerance (see p. 26 of History and Myth).

Amid this heightened religiosity, militant Islamic groups seem to 

be gaining traction and establishing terror networks across 

Indonesia (see p. 11-12 of Political and Social Relations). 

Members regularly harass and intimidate members of minority 

faiths and carry out attacks on Sufi religious sites, Christian 

churches, and other places of worship. In 2015, Indonesia 

recorded 236 instances 

of religious violence, up 

from 177 in 2014.

In some instances, both 

national and local 

authorities fail to prevent 

acts of religious 

intolerance or address 

infractions of religious 

rights appropriately. In other cases, government officials 

themselves commit acts of intimidation, while police fail to 

investigate and prosecute religious crimes. For example, in 

2016, Kalimantan police forcefully evicted over 7,000 members 

of the Gafatar religious sect, which combines Islamic, Christian, 

and Jewish teachings (Photo: Indonesian paratroopers during 

bilateral training exercises with the US).

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Overview

Life in Indonesia traditionally centers on family and community, 

with the extended family acting as a mutual support network. In

recent decades, family structures have shifted somewhat as 

younger Indonesian started migrating to urban areas seeking 

education and employment. While residence patterns and 

family-related customs and traditions vary by religion and 

ethnic group, Indonesians generally are respectful of elders

and value social harmony. 

Residence

In rural areas, families typically live in individual homes near 

their extended kin (typically consists of aunts, uncles, cousins

and all their immediate family members all living nearby or in 

the same household), although some extended families occupy 

communal homes or compounds. Nuclear families (2 parents 

and their children) are more common in urban areas and

typically reside in multi-family apartment or condominium 

buildings. Members of extended families that do live in urban 

areas tend to reside near 

each other for mutual 

support and security.

Rural: Traditionally, the 

Indonesian home was 

the center for both social 

and indigenous religious

activities, used to 

connect inhabitants to 

each other and the spirit world (see p. 2, 9 of Religion and 

Spirituality). Indonesians customarily constructed the rumah 

tangga (family home) from readily-available materials such as 

wood, bamboo, grasses, rocks, and clay, designating separate 

structures for specific functions, such as cooking and bathing. 

These conventional homes typically sit on raised piers or stilts 

to protect them from flooding or to provide shelter for livestock 

below. Large porches or courtyards provide space for 

socializing (Photo: An Indonesian soldier removes his boots 

before entering a home).

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Traditional home styles exhibit significant variation across the 

archipelago. In some areas, size, quality of external decoration, 

and roofing style historically indicate the inhabitants’ social 

status. During the colonial era (see p. 8 of History and Myth), 

the Dutch constructed single-story, plastered houses with 

shuttered windows and steep, red-tiled roofs that are still 

common in Java. For the last several decades, the government 

has promoted the construction of simple single-story concrete 

homes with corrugated metal roofs, sometimes with a separate 

kitchen building. Despite this recent trend, traditional homes 

are still visible across the archipelago.

On Java, homes of the traditional elite typically include an open 

pavilion for hosting guests and performances (see p. 5-7 of 

Aesthetics and Recreation), as well as an open, rectangular 

passageway that connects the pavilion to the dalem ageng

(inside space) used as the family’s primary living quarters. 

By contrast, Balinese homes traditionally encompass several 

small buildings placed according to strict rules of orientation 

and location within a walled compound. The compound

typically contains a tall, arched, and carved or painted 

entranceway, at least 1 

bedroom with a front 

veranda, a kitchen, a 

bathroom, and a 

granary.

The Minangkabau of 

West Sumatra are 

known for their soaring

“saddleback” roofs with 

multiple gables covered 

with carved and painted wood panels. These rumah gadang

(great houses) historically have accommodated multiple 

generations in separate sections, with a large central room 

open to all. The traditional tongkonan (origin house) of the 

Toraja in Sulawesi is also well-known. This impressive 

structure provides a place for discussion of family matters such 

as marriage and inheritance. It also features an upturned

soaring roofline decorated at the building’s front with intricate 

carved and painted designs (Photo: A rumah gadang in 1910).

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Some members of Dayak communities in Kalimantan

traditionally live in longhouses, which are narrow, extended 

multi-family homes with a common roof and separate rooms for 

several families. A covered veranda along the front serves as a 

focal point for socializing, preparing meals, and exchanging

goods. Of note, some seafaring peoples of Sulawesi, such as

the Bugis, live for extended periods on their boats.

Urban: About 53% of Indonesians live in urban areas where 

middle and upper class Indonesians occupy apartments or 

condominiums, typically in high-rise buildings. Others live in 

freestanding homes constructed of brick and cement, grouped 

in densely populated village-like neighborhoods called 

kampungs. Traditionally, the Chinese lived and worked in 2-

story terraced houses where the family business occupied the 

front part of the house, with the living quarters in the back and 

upper story. Some

Indonesian urban areas 

still feature these socalled shop houses.

Rapid urbanization has 

caused severe housing

shortages in some cities. 

Experts predict some 

68% of Indonesia’s

population will live in 

urban areas by 2025. In several cities, hastily-built homes of

scrap materials designed to provide temporary shelter have 

become permanent housing for some. Others live in improvised 

shelters or are homeless, residing under bridges or in garbage 

dumps. Across Indonesia, some 52% of homes lack access to 

potable water, and other areas also lack sewage services. Of 

note, “Jabodetabek,” or Greater Jakarta – comprised of 

Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, and Bekasi – is a rapidly 

growing megacity currently home to over 30 million people 

(Photo: The Jakarta skyline).

Family Structure

Generally, Indonesians exhibit loyalty, obligation, and respect 

for their family members. While Indonesians historically had

large families, more recently, overall family size has reduced

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
through an effective government family planning campaign 

(see p. 4 of Sex and Gender). 

Elderly family members 

often serve as sources 

of advice for younger 

members. The oldest 

male is typically head of 

the household. While 

Indonesian society is 

generally patriarchal, 

meaning men hold most 

power and authority, some Indonesian groups exhibit other 

patterns of gender relations. For example, the Sumatran 

Minangkabau are matrilineal, whereby inheritance, property, 

and the family name (see p. 5 of Language and 

Communication) pass from mother to daughter (Photo: 

Indonesian schoolchildren receiving donated school supplies).

Polygyny: Legal for Indonesian Muslims, polygyny is the 

practice of a man having multiple wives simultaneously. In 

accordance with sharia (Islamic) law (see p. 6 of Political and 

Social Relations and p. 2 of Sex and Gender), Muslim men 

may have up to 4 wives.

Indonesian law stipulates that

multiple wives are permitted only 

if a man can provide evidence 

that his first wife is unable to 

fulfill her responsibilities, 

particularly child-bearing. In 

practice, less than 1% of men 

have polygynous marriages 

(Photo: Indonesian mother and 

child).

Children 

Indonesian children typically live 

with their parents at least until 

marriage. After marriage, the bride and groom may move into 

their own quarters or join the husband’s family, except among 

the matrilineal Minangkabau, where the groom moves into the 

wife’s house.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Birth: In general, infants typically remain in close contact with 

their mothers after birth. A new mother may carry her baby in a 

sling called a selendang for several years. The Javanese in 

particular provide intensive childcare, believing youth must be 

sheltered in everyday life. According to a Balinese custom, an 

infant’s feet should not touch the ground for the 105 days after 

birth. At the end of this period, Balinese hold a nyabutan

ceremony to give thanks and welcome the infant into the world. 

Indonesians on other islands hold similar ceremonies. As 

children approach school age, they typically help with 

household chores and care for younger siblings. 

Pregnancy Customs: In general, pregnant women are 

discouraged from touching sharp objects traditionally believed 

to harm the fetus. In Java, pregnant women often prepare a 

special fruit salad to sell in exchange for roof tiles. This act is 

intended to teach the child frugality. Further, Javanese believe 

the taste of the salad indicates the baby’s sex – sour for a boy 

and sweet for a girl. During her 7th month of pregnancy, the 

mother gathers with family and friends for the tujuh bulan

ceremony. This event consists of a ritual bath for the expectant 

mother, a community prayer for a 

safe delivery, and a celebratory 

meal (Photo: Parents with their 

newborn).

Circumcision: Indonesian Muslim 

boys typically undergo circumcision 

before the age of 12, signifying their 

passage into adulthood and 

membership in the Islamic 

community. While traditional healers 

once performed this ritual at large public events, a doctor 

typically performs the procedure today. Some Muslim girls 

experience circumcision, yet it is typically a less extreme form 

than practiced in many other nations (see p. 3-4 of Sex and 

Gender).

Dating and Marriage

Dating in the Western sense is relatively uncommon in 

Indonesia, although young adults in urban areas often socialize

in groups. In rural areas, a young man is expected first to visit a 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
young woman’s home and get to know the family. With the 

family’s approval, the couple may spend time together, usually 

conversing on the family porch.

After a period of contact, couples in both urban and rural areas 

seek approval for marriage from their families, followed by a 

celebration. Varying by ethnic group and region, engagement 

ceremonies typically 

involve the groom-to-be 

and his family bringing 

gifts and food to his future 

wife’s home. 

Generally, marriage 

serves as a milestone that 

signifies passage into 

adulthood. Most 

Indonesians expect to marry, especially since cohabitation is 

illegal. While Indonesian law does not forbid interfaith 

marriages, it stipulates that a marriage must be performed 

according to the religion shared by the bride and groom. 

Consequently, religious conversion by either party or marriage 

outside the country is required (Photo: A Christian wedding in 

Java). 

The legal minimum marriage age is 21, yet girls as young as 16 

and boys as early as 19 may marry with parental consent. 

According to the United Nations, some 25% of Indonesian girls 

marry before age 18, although the total number of child 

marriages has decreased in recent years. The courts may 

approve marriage at any age, and some 300,000 girls younger 

than 16 marry each year. By contrast, men tend to marry

around age 24.

Bridewealth: It is traditional in Muslim societies for a groom’s 

family to pay a bridewealth or mahr to the bride’s to signify the 

groom’s commitment and compensate for the loss of the 

bride’s presence and labor. A legal requirement for Islamic 

marriages, the mahr may consist of cash, gold, or livestock.

Weddings: While wedding customs vary by ethnic and 

religious affiliation, most Indonesian weddings consist of a 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
formal ceremony followed by a celebration. For example, some 

Javanese share a slametan (ceremonial meal, though not 

unique to weddings) before proceeding to the district religious 

leader who officiates the ceremony. At this event, the couple 

signs the marriage contract before several witnesses. The 

groom also gives the bridewealth to the bride’s family while 

presenting his bride with a mukena (a white drape women 

wear during prayers), a sajadah (prayer rug), tasbih (prayer 

beads), and a Qur’an (see p. 2, 4 of Religion and Spirituality).

Weddings (pawiwahan) on Bali are traditionally considered a 

way to harmonize the earthly and spiritual worlds. Ceremonies 

are typically elaborate and lengthy, including a procession 

between the bride’s and groom’s houses and a purification 

ritual involving several symbolic activities. The couple then 

recite their vows before a Hindu priest. To avoid the high costs 

of these ceremonies, some Balinese prefer to elope, although 

often with their families’ knowledge. 

Whatever the tradition, a large feast or reception typically 

follows the formal ceremony. These events also incorporate 

local customs. For example, 

Javanese couples typically step on 

an egg to represent the start of their 

new life together, while Chinese 

couples present their parents with a 

gift of tea. Attendees usually give

the new couple money wrapped in 

a red envelope (Photo: Traditional 

bridal costume in Aceh). 

Divorce: Indonesia’s divorce rate 

has increased significantly over the 

past several decades. Between 

2010-14, the number of divorces 

administered under the sharia

system (see p. 6 of Political and Social Relations) increased by 

50%, while 80% of all civil court cases in 2010 concerned 

divorce. In 2014, some 80% of divorces were initiated by 

women.

Experts trace the increase in divorce rates at least in part to 

judicial reforms, such as a 1974 law allowing women to petition 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
for divorce for the first time and a 1991 law limiting the 

husband’s basis for divorce. Despite these reforms, women still 

face challenges to attaining a divorce and receiving courtordered financial support, even in the case of abuse.

Death

Funeral customs also differ by religious affiliation and ethnicity. 

In line with Islamic tradition, Muslim Indonesians typically bury 

the deceased as soon as possible, usually within 24 hours. The 

deceased is bathed and clothed in a white shroud. After 

prayers, family members transport the deceased to a cemetery 

for burial. The deceased’s family and friends typically gather for 

3 days following the death, often praying and sharing meals. 

This tradition is repeated on the 7th, 40th, and 100th day after 

death, and then annually thereafter.

Christians and Buddhists across the archipelago host an opencasket reception following a death. Afterwards, Christians 

commonly conduct a burial while Buddhists prefer cremation. 

Balinese Hindus typically 

perform a well-known and 

elaborate 3-day cremation 

ceremony (ngaben). Family 

members wrap the deceased 

in a white shroud and place the 

body in a coffin. Mourners then 

transport the coffin in a 

procession to a 30-ft tall,

intricately-decorated tower that 

is subsequently burned. 

Among the predominantly

Christian Toraja of Sulawesi, 

families often delay funerals for months or even years, allowing 

them time to raise funds for the typically large event. A funeral 

usually includes the sacrifice of several water buffalo followed 

by a procession and several rituals to honor the deceased. 

Coffins typically are placed along a cliff and may be 

accompanied by a life-sized wooden statue of the deceased. In 

subsequent years, family members may occasionally open the 

coffin to replace the deceased’s clothing and visit with their 

loved one (Photo: A Torajan funeral ceremony in 1952).

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Overview

While Indonesia’s traditional values privileged men over 

women in most spheres, women historically had some 

autonomy over family finances. Women’s social status has 

improved in recent years with the achievement of gender parity 

in education and increased rates of female participation in 

politics. Although the Constitution grants men and women 

equal rights, the rise of conservative Islam in some regions

presents challenges to gender equity.

Gender Roles and Work

Domestic Labor: Traditionally, women performed most 

household tasks while also managing the family budget and 

caring for children. Even if they work outside the home, women

continue to perform most domestic chores and train their 

daughters accordingly. 

Labor Force: The percentage of women working outside the 

home has remained 

relatively steady over the 

last 3 decades. In 2014, 

about 51% of Indonesian

women were employed 

in the workforce, a higher

rate than in neighboring 

Malaysia (45%) and 

lower than in the US 

(56%). Women work in all sectors, including agriculture, 

manufacturing, and services, although women 

disproportionately work in informal jobs where they suffer 

irregular earnings and a lack of job protections (Photo: An 

entrepreneur makes wedding decorations).

Women in all sectors remain underrepresented in leadership 

positions and experience some discrimination in hiring and 

promotion. Further, some employers hire women as temporary 

workers, assuming they will leave the workforce eventually for 

family obligations such as motherhood. Similarly, more women 

5. SEX AND GENDER

SEX &

GENDER
Migrant Workers

In 2015, around 630,000 Indonesians, some 70% of 

them women, labored in the Middle East as migrant 

workers. Due to inequitable or lax labor and immigration 

practices, some workers have suffered abuse. In 2015, 

Indonesia banned domestic workers from 21 countries 

in the Middle East and North Africa due to their 

sustained mistreatment. Despite the ban, some

Indonesian women still travel abroad for work.

are completing their education (see p. 3 of Learning and 

Knowledge) but sometimes compelled to forego both 

employment and education due to lack of childcare services. 

Meanwhile, female entrepreneurs tend to lack access to credit 

and other resources required to build a business.

Gender and the Law

Civil law applies to all Indonesians, but for Muslims, family law 

falls under the jurisdiction of sharia (Islamic) courts (see p. 6 of 

Political and Social Relations). While 1991 legal reforms 

required consistency in the application of Islamic law to men 

and women in marriage and inheritance, in practice restrictive 

interpretations can limit women’s rights, particularly in Aceh 

province (see p. 6 of Political and Social Relations). For 

example, regulations in Aceh hinder women’s rights to initiate 

divorce, limit women’s freedom of movement by restricting 

unmarried men and women from socializing, and impose

conservative dress codes. Further, authorities sometimes fail to 

enforce judicial reforms supporting a woman’s right to child 

support following divorce (see p. 7-8 of Family and Kinship. As 

a signatory to international conventions on women’s rights, the 

government is developing policies aimed at ending

discrimination and violence against women. 

Gender and Politics

Having had a female President (see p. 24-25 of History and 

Myth), the Indonesian government continues to encourage 

women’s increased political participation through several 

initiatives. For example, in the 2009 elections, the government 

SEX &

GENDER
required that 30% of Parliamentary candidates be women. 

Consequently, some 17% of current Parliament members are 

female, significantly higher than the 2009 rate of 11% but 

comparable to 19% in the US Congress. In the current cabinet, 

women make up 23% of 

ministerial positions. 

Women’s participation at 

local levels is 

significantly lower. In 

2015, women held just

7.6% of regional and 

local leadership 

positions, and there are 

currently no female 

governors (Photo: Indonesian Foreign Minister Retno Marsudi

visits Washington in 2015).

Gender Based Violence (GBV)

While rape and domestic violence are criminal offenses, marital 

rape is not. Some women do not report crimes because of the 

notable failure of law enforcement of such cases and the social 

stigma victims of sexual violence face. If victims do come 

forward, indictment and prosecution of perpetrators is rare and 

punishments are sometimes lenient. Some judges even order

the victim to marry her assailant. According to the National

Commission of Violence Against Women, reports of domestic 

violence tripled between 2010-15. In 2016, the government 

began a national survey to study the full magnitude of the 

problem.

Same year, the rape and murder of a 14-year-old girl brought 

national attention to sexual violence against children. National 

outrage prompted President Widodo (see p. 26 of History and 

Myth) to impose harsher punishments – such as execution, 

chemical castration, or 20-year jail sentences – for those 

convicted of sexual abuse of children.

Female Circumcision

Between 2010-15, the government estimated that about 1/2 of 

Indonesian girls under age 14 had undergone female 

circumcision. In some societies, female circumcision is 

intended to modify the female sex organ as a means of

SEX &

GENDER
decreasing sexual desire and promote virginity. Consequently, 

it can be an invasive procedure that results in physical 

mutilation and severe health consequences. In contrast, 

reports suggest that the procedure in Indonesia is usually a 

symbolic prick or cut. In 2006, the government banned the 

procedure yet legalized it again in 2010 under pressure from 

Islamic groups. The law did stipulate that the procedure be 

performed in a noninvasive manner by 

a medical professional 

Sex and Procreation

Indonesians consider sexual intimacy a 

private matter and tend to avoid public 

displays of affection. Further, adultery

is illegal and punishable with a 9-month 

prison sentence. Primarily due to 

successful family planning programs, 

Indonesia’s birthrate has dropped from 

5 children per woman in 1970 to 2.5 in 

2014 (Photo: Indonesian girls).

Homosexuality: Recently, a movement against homosexuality

has gained momentum in Indonesia after years of relative 

tolerance. Though difficult to pinpoint, some observers suggest 

the backlash may be due to the increased activity and 

prominence of conservative religious groups. In 2015, Aceh 

province passed a law that punishes homosexual conduct with 

100 lashes.

Gender Categories

Some Indonesian ethnic groups have gender concepts other 

than “male” and “female.” For example, the Bugis of Sulawesi 

recognize 5 genders, including men, women, feminine men,

masculine women, and bissu, a combination of male and 

female said to communicate with the divine. 

Indonesia’s transgender warias (also called banci) live across 

the archipelago. Warias tend to become entertainers or work in 

the beauty industry. Notably, one of Indonesia’s most famous 

celebrities, Dorce Gamalama, is a waria. Despite some 

acceptance, transgender people face social stigma, familial 

expulsion, social discrimination and harassment, or are forced 

into prostitution. 

SEX &

GENDER
Language Overview

Indonesia’s official language is Bahasa Indonesia (“The 

Indonesian Language”), although some 700 other languages 

are also spoken in the archipelago. Since the 16th-century 

arrival of Europeans, some languages have become extinct.

Bahasa Indonesia

A member of the Austronesian language family, the Malay 

language probably originated in western Borneo and then 

evolved further on Sumatra. Between the 6th-16th centuries, 

traders from the Strait of Malacca spread a Malay dialect

across the archipelago (see p. 7 of History and Myth). Between 

the 17th-mid-20th centuries, the Dutch often used this dialect to 

manage their growing colony (see p. 9-19 of History and Myth).

Muslim and Christian missionaries spread Malay still further

when evangelizing their 

faiths (see p. 5, 7 of 

Religion and Spirituality). 

In 1928, independence 

activists named this

Malay dialect Bahasa 

Indonesia, declaring it

the language of the

planned nation of 

Indonesia (see p. 16 of History and Myth). Over the 

subsequent decades, scholars advocated the standardization 

of the language. In 1972, the Indonesian and Malaysian 

governments cooperatively created today’s spelling systems for

Bahasa Indonesia and Bahasa Malaysia (or Malay), the official 

language of Malaysia. Bahasa Indonesia and Bahasa Malaysia 

are generally mutually intelligible, differing in some spelling, 

grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary (Photo: US and 

Indonesian Navy bands play at a shopping mall in Surabaya). 

Today, some 17 million Indonesians, mainly concentrated 

around Jakarta, speak Bahasa Indonesia as a 1st language. 

Up to 180 million more use it as a 2nd language. Most major

government, educational, and media institutions formally use 

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Bahasa Indonesia. Although vocabulary and pronunciation may

differ between regions, most Indonesians consider the 

language a symbol of national unity.

While Bahasa Indonesia is sometimes written in an Arabic 

script called Jawi, the most common writing system is a Latin 

script known as Rumi. Bahasa Indonesia includes loanwords 

from Chinese, Dutch, English, Portuguese, and Sanskrit.

Other Indigenous Languages

Indonesia’s 700 other languages divide into 2 language groups, 

Austronesian and Papuan (or Melanesian). Austronesian 

languages are found primarily in the western part of the 

archipelago, while Papuan languages are spoken primarily in 

the East, concentrating in Papua. Of these languages, 13 each 

have over 1 million native speakers.

Austronesian: The vast majority of Indonesians speak 

Austronesian languages. Javanese, Sundanese, and 

Madurese are spoken most widely, with 83, 30, and 6.7 million 

speakers respectively. Other major Austronesian languages 

include Batak, Minangkabau, Buginese, Balinese, and 

Acehnese. 

The Javanese language is 

known for its particularly 

complex rules of social 

interaction. Like other 

Austronesian languages, 

Javanese speakers choose 

different levels or registers 

of speaking depending on 

the social context and 

courtesy required, thus 

defining the formality of the 

situation and revealing the speakers’ social status. Javanese 

has its own ancient writing system that developed following the 

introduction of a South Asian script in the 9th century. Today, 

writers generally use a Latin script introduced by the Dutch in 

the early 20th century (Illustration: 19th-century Javanese 

account of the Java War – see p. 13 of History and Myth).

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Papuan: Papuan languages are found primarily on Maluku, on 

some of the Lesser Sunda Islands, and in Papua. Despite 

Papua’s small population, the region is home to some 180 

ethnolinguistic groups speaking over 240 languages. Some

Papuan languages are in danger of extinction. 

Chinese

Some 2 million Indonesians speak Chinese variants such as 

Hokkien, Hakka, and Cantonese. While many outlets for 

teaching and writing Chinese were banned in the late 20th 

century (see p. 22-24 of History and Myth), after 1998 the

government repealed these restrictive laws. Though Totok 

Chinese are typically 

fluent and literate in 

Chinese, some

Peranakan Chinese 

are not (see p. 19 of 

Political and Social 

Relations). 

English

English is widely 

spoken in business, 

government, and the tourism industry. Because Indonesians 

generally consider proficiency in English a mark of high status, 

elite private schools often use English as the language of 

instruction (see p. 4-5 of Learning and Knowledge). By 

contrast, Indonesians in rural areas generally have no 

knowledge of the language (Photo: An Indonesian patient 

learns her first English words with a US Navy chaplain). 

Communication Overview

Effective communication in Indonesia requires not only 

knowledge of Bahasa Indonesia or other local languages but 

also the ability to interact effectively using language. This broad 

notion of competence includes paralanguage (rate of speech, 

volume, intonation), nonverbal communication (personal space, 

touch, gestures), and interaction management (conversation 

initiation, turn-taking, and termination). When used properly, 

these forms of communication help to ensure that statements 

are interpreted as the speaker intends. 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Communication Style

Communication patterns may vary significantly across the 

archipelago, yet most Indonesians place great value on respect 

during communications. Above all, Indonesians try to avoid 

feeling or causing others to feel malu (embarrassment or 

shame). 

Indonesians typically alter their communication patterns

depending on their conversation partner’s place in the social

hierarchy. Even so, Indonesians are often friendly with family, 

friends, and strangers alike. To avoid offense, Indonesians 

tend to refrain from directly mocking, criticizing, disagreeing, or 

otherwise responding negatively in a conversation. Notably, 

Bahasa Indonesia has several polite words and phrases that 

translate as “yes” yet imply uncertainty or disagreement. 

Some Indonesians avoid direct eye contact during 

conversations (see p. 4 of Time and Space). They are

generally more comfortable than Westerners with long

conversational pauses, some lasting as long as 15 seconds. 

While Javanese tend to speak rather softly, Batak tend to 

speak louder than 

Westerners typically do. 

Greetings

Greetings can vary 

across the archipelago, 

although Indonesians 

generally say Halo 

(hello). Muslims often 

greet one another by 

saying Selamat (peace) 

or Assalaam ‘alaikum 

(may peace be upon you), with the response Wa ‘alaikum 

assalaam (and upon you be peace). Following verbal 

greetings, Indonesians often shake right hands (see p. 4 of 

Time and Space). During the handshake, some people use 

both hands to clasp the other’s hand. After shaking hands, 

Indonesians tend to touch their hands to their heart. Instead of 

shaking hands to greet each other, Indonesian women typically

brush cheeks (Photo: US Secretary of Defense Mattis greets 

Indonesian Minister of Defense Ryamizard Ryacuduand). 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Greetings between men and women are often nonphysical, 

comprising a slight nod and a brief verbal exchange. In other 

cases, men and women may clasp their own hands together 

and with interlocked fingers touch the fingertips of the other 

person. While some women may extend their hands for a light 

handshake, foreign 

nationals should

generally wait for 

members of the 

opposite sex to 

initiate the greeting. 

Names

Indonesian naming 

conventions vary 

significantly. While 

Javanese traditionally have just a single name (such as 

Sukarno or Suharto), Balinese traditionally have up to 4 names 

that indicate their birth order and caste membership. By 

contrast, Bataks often adopt a clan name as a last name.

Among the Minangkabau, the mother’s family name is 

traditionally passed on to her children (see p. 4 of Family and 

Kinship) (Photo: US sailors and local community members 

pose after painting a school in Surabaya).

Today, Indonesians typically have 1, 2, or even 3 names, and 

some have adopted a family name. Indonesians sometimes list 

different names in various public records that also differ from 

nicknames used in daily life. For example, former Indonesian 

President Abdurrahman Wahid, widely known as Gus Dur, was 

born Abdurrahman Addakhil.

Forms of Address

Indonesians use distinct forms of address to demonstrate 

respect and the nature of the relationship. While hierarchical 

conventions are particularly prominent in Javanese, they are 

also used in Bahasa Indonesia. 

When speaking Bahasa Indonesia, Indonesians often address 

superiors or elders with ibu (mother) or bapak (father). These 

may be abbreviated to bu (Ms., Mrs., or ma’am) and pak (Mr.

or sir). Indonesians may alternatively use honorifics from other 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
languages. For example, the term Gus typically is used to 

address Eastern Javanese men. 

Conversational Topics 

Following greetings, Indonesians usually discuss the weather, 

their families, sports, food, or business. To further establish 

rapport, foreign nationals should explore common interests, 

such as soccer or badminton (see p. 4 of Aesthetics and 

Recreation). Indonesians sometimes ask personal questions 

concerning a person’s background, education, and family. Far 

from violating rules of politeness, Indonesians typically use 

such questions to gauge a stranger’s social position. 

Foreign nationals should avoid discussing potentially sensitive 

topics like Indonesia’s human rights record, religion, and 

politics. While locals may use humor, foreign nationals should 

exercise caution when 

making jokes to avoid 

misunderstandings. 

Gestures

Indonesians sometimes

use gestures to replace

or emphasize spoken 

words. For example, to 

beckon, Indonesians 

usually motion towards themselves with their right hand palm 

down and with the fingers flexed towards the ground. 

Indonesians consider it courteous to smile and nod even if they 

do not understand a conversation (Photo: US Marines instruct 

Indonesian aircraft rescue and firefighting personnel).

Indonesians generally consider it offensive to show the soles of 

feet to another person, place hands on another person’s head, 

in one’s pockets or on the hips. It is also considered rude to 

point at someone with a single finger rather all of them. 

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil for language training resources.

Click on the Resources tab on the upper toolbar then 

Language Resources. 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Words and Phrases

English Bahasa Indonesia

Hi / Hello Halo

Good morning (until 11am) Selamat pagi 

Good afternoon (11am-3pm) Selamat siang

Good evening (3-6pm) Selamat sore

My name is ____ Nama saya ___.

What is your name? Siapa nama anda?

How are you? Apa kabar?

Fine Baik

Where are you from? Dari mana?

Please Tolong

Thank you Terima kasih

You're welcome Terima kasih kembali

Yes / No Ya / Tidak

Goodbye Selamat tinggal

Good night Selamat malam / tidur

Do you speak English? 

Anda bisa bicara bahasa 

inggris?

I (don't) understand Saya (tidak) mengerti

Sorry Maaf

Excuse me Maaf / Permisi

Help! Tolong!

I want ___ Saya mau ___

What? Apa?

Where? Di manakah?

Who? Siapa?

How? Bagaimana?

How many / much? Berapa?

Congratulations Selamat.

What time is it? Jam berapa sekarang?

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy

• Total population aged 15 and older who can read and write: 

93.9% 

• Male: 96.3% 

• Female: 91.5% (2015 estimate)

Traditional Education

While approaches to education historically varied across the 

archipelago, most Indonesians traditionally used informal,

experience-based, and oral teaching methods to transmit 

values, skills, historical knowledge, and religious beliefs and 

practices to younger generations. 

Formal Education until the 20th Century

Between the 6th-14th centuries, royal courts on Sumatra and 

Java encouraged Hindu-Buddhist scholarship and literature

(see p. 3-6 of History and 

Myth and p. 7-8 of 

Aesthetics and Recreation). 

As Islam spread across

Indonesia between the 13th15th centuries (see p. 7 of 

History and Myth), scholars 

known as kyai founded 

pesantren (Islamic boarding

schools) to provide 

predominantly male students instruction in Arabic and the 

Qur’an (see p. 2, 4 of Religion and Spirituality). These schools 

were influential for centuries, often inspiring opposition to the 

Dutch during the colonial era (Photo: Female students of 

Pondok Pesantren in Surakarta. Today, both male and female 

students attend this boarding school). 

Formal Education in Colonial Indonesia

Between the 16th and the late 19th centuries, the Dutch

provided very few educational opportunities for Indonesians. 

Beginning in 1901, the Dutch Ethical Policy (see p. 15-16 of 

History and Myth) provided some funding for education, 

allowing the construction of various types of schools, primarily 

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
on Java. These included institutions to train native government 

officials, Dutch-language primary schools for the children of 

Indonesian elites, and local-language sekolah desa (village 

primary schools) for the wider Indonesian population. 

While the Dutch wanted to create a skilled native elite loyal to 

the colonial administration, they genarally feared mass

education would lead to rebellion. Consequently, opportunities 

remained limited. Even in 1930, less than 0.2% of the 

population had attended Dutch schools, while less than 3% had 

studied in sekolah desa. Just 7.5% of the population was 

literate.

The colonial administrators’ fears proved well-founded. 

Beginning around 1908, Dutch-educated Indonesians began

forming new organizations (see p. 16 of History and Myth) that 

also sought to extend educational opportunities. Within a few 

years, these students had established their own schools, which

further inspired nationalist resistance. A 1932 Dutch attempt to

restrict these schools was unsuccessful. By 1940, Indonesians 

funded and ran numerous private schools offering a modern, 

nationalist education. 

Education after Independence

Upon declaring independence in 1945, and even before 

achieving it in 1949 (see p. 18-19 of History and Myth),

Indonesia focused on educational development. These efforts 

were largely successful – by 1961, 47% of the population was 

literate. Between 1950-70, 

the number of higher 

educational institutions 

grew from 10 to around 

450.

Upon taking power in 

1968 (see p. 21 of History 

and Myth), Suharto

prioritized education as a 

means of producing loyal, skilled citizens. Consequently, his

regime built or repaired nearly 40,000 primary schools between 

1973-90. In 1978, schools began to teach courses in 

Pancasila, the national ideology (see p. 18 of History and Myth) 

(Photo: Children saluting while holding the Indonesian flag). 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Amidst ongoing school construction in the 1980s, the 

government struggled to find qualified teachers. Beginning with 

the 1997-98 financial crisis (see p. 24 of History and Myth), 

education budgets declined for several years. 

Modern Education System

Over the last 2 decades, Indonesia has invested substantial 

resources into its education system, typically spending at least 

20% of its budget on education, higher than the US average 

(13.1%) and comparable to Singapore (20.6%). Since 2015, it 

has realized 2 major goals: closing the gap in attendance at all 

levels between girls and boys and achieving universal primary 

education. Further, the gap in attendance between rural and 

urban areas has also reduced significantly. 

Despite these gains, challenges remain. Access to education 

remains uneven disproportionate across the archipelago. Rural 

schools, particularly outside Java and Madura, often lack

teachers, books, or basic supplies. Quality of instruction also 

remains a concern: around 20% of teachers do not hold the 

minimum qualifications required by the government, and some 

10% of students must repeat 1st grade because they do not 

attain the minimum standards. In a 2015 international 

assessment of educational attainment, Indonesia ranked 62nd

of 72 countries. Finally, due to poverty, some 2.7 million 

Indonesian children must work to support themselves and their

families, disrupting or ending their education (Photo: Members 

of the US Army National 

Guard distribute school 

supplies in Bogor, Java).

Historically, costs for 

incidental items, such as 

uniforms and textbooks, 

forced some poorer

families to withdraw their 

children from school. In 

part due to these 

obstacles, only 2/3 of Indonesian children completed 9 years of 

education in 2013. In an attempt to improve participation rates, 

President Joko Widodo (see p. 26 of History and Myth) 

introduced the “Indonesia Smart Card” in 2014. Provided 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
annually by the government, the pre-loaded card allows needy 

children to purchase supplementary school items such as 

supplies and uniforms. Eventually, the government hopes to 

distribute some 18 million such cards. 

The Indonesian education system consists of 12 years divided 

into primary, junior secondary, and senior secondary programs. 

As of 2013, all 12 years are mandatory. The primary language 

of instruction is Bahasa Indonesia (see p. 1-2 of Language and 

Communication), though local regional languages may be used 

in the first 3 years of primary school.

In 2014, the Ministry of Education designated 3 formal

categories of schools: national, joint cooperation (SPK), and 

foreign. Most Indonesians attend national schools, either public 

or private, which typically 

follow a standardized 

curriculum focusing on 

preparation for national 

examinations. Some 

Indonesians attend SPK

schools, which along with

international curriculum, 

provide instruction in 

Islam, Indonesian civics 

and history, and Bahasa 

Indonesia in preparation for the national examinations. Schools 

falling into the 3rd category, foreign education institutions, are 

reserved solely for non-Indonesian citizens (Photo: Indonesian 

schoolchildren try chlorine-treated water). 

While school hours and schedules vary, most national schools 

provide instruction Monday-Saturday. Aside from 1/2-days on 

Fridays, school hours typically run from 7am-1pm. Some

private and public schools currently have a 5-day school week, 

and the Education Ministry is considering implementing such a 

schedule nationwide. On average, classes have under 24 

students, similar to many other Asian countries. 

Pre-Primary: While pre-primary education is optional in 

Indonesia, its quality and access vary across the archipelago. 

Some communities and private providers offer childcare 

centers for 2-4-year-olds and kindergarten facilities for 4-6-

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
year-olds. These programs can be either secular or religiousbased. As of 2014, some 58% of children of the appropriate 

age attended pre-primary programs.

Primary: Indonesia’s primary education program consists of 6 

grades starting at age 6 or 7. In 2015, some 99% of Indonesian 

children of the appropriate age were enrolled in primary school. 

Much of the curriculum including religious education, language, 

civics, mathematics, natural sciences, social sciences, art, and 

physical education is national. Consequently, schools typically 

set aside time for “local content” relevant to the specific district 

or province. Students must pass an exam to move on to 

secondary school

(Photo: A US Navy

sailor talks with 

students in Jakarta).

Secondary: The junior 

secondary program 

consists of grades 7-9 

and senior secondary 

grades 10-12. After 

completing junior 

secondary, students must pass a national exam on subjects 

such as Bahasa Indonesia, English, mathematics, and science 

to continue to senior secondary school. Upon completing grade 

12 and passing an exam specific to their studies, students

receive a national certificate and become eligible to pursue 

higher education.

Some secondary schools offer general education, though after 

10th grade, students choose a focus on the natural sciences, 

social sciences, language, or religion. Other secondary schools 

offer specialized instruction and training for specific 

professions. Such institutions include technical and vocational 

schools, scientific schools, pre-professional schools, “inservice” schools for future civil servants, and religious schools. 

Post-Secondary Education

As of 2015, Indonesia was home to over 4,000 institutions of 

higher learning, including universities, academies and colleges, 

polytechnics, and specialized institutes. While 90% of these 

institutions are private, public institutions accounted for almost 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
40% of 6.9 million students that year. Compared with other 

countries in the region, relatively few Indonesians move on to 

post-secondary studies, resulting in a shortage of professional 

and managerial staff across all economic sectors. Although the

recent focus has been on improving the primary and secondary 

levels, President Widodo has also prioritized post-secondary 

education, linking it to other initiatives in research and 

technology. Notable post-secondary institutions include the 

University of Indonesia, Bandung Institute of Technology, and 

Gajah Mada University (see p. 6 of History and Myth). 

Two notable challenges plaguing higher education today

include widespread misallocation and misappropriation of funds 

and outdated methods of instruction. Similarly, overall 

education quality is poor, and graduates rarely meet labor 

market standards and requirements (Photo: Newly-certified 

midwives prepare to 

enter private practice

in Sulawesi). 

Religious Education

By law, public schools 

must offer religious 

instruction, and 

students cannot opt 

out. Students must

choose instruction in 1 

of Indonesia’s 6 officially-recognized religions (see p. 1 of 

Religion and Spirituality). Consequently, this policy results in 

discrimination against practitioners of unrecognized religions, 

like Indonesia’s traditional belief systems or certain Islamic 

sects (see p. 6-10 of Religion and Spirituality). Over the past 15 

years, some schools have adopted policies favoring Islam, 

such as requiring Qur’an recitation or imposing a certain dress 

code. Moreover, a 2013 curriculum change merging science 

and social studies lessons to allow more time for religious 

instruction has been controversial.

Some children attend state-run or private Islamic schools, such 

as pesantren and madrassas, day schools. Madrassas usually 

have the same grade structure as non-religious schools and 

often offer technical and vocational training.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Overview

Indonesians consider social harmony, consensus, respect, and 

trust fundamental to building strong personal and professional 

relationships. While public displays of affection are common 

among members of the same sex, social touching between 

unrelated Indonesians of the opposite sex is considered

inappropriate.

Time and Work 

Indonesia’s workweek 

runs from Monday-Friday

or Saturday, and 

business hours vary by 

establishment type. 

While public sector 

employees generally 

work from 8:00am-4:00pm, private businesses often open from 

9:00am-5:00pm. Some offices have reduced hours on Friday 

and consequently open on Saturday from 8:00am-noon or 

2:00pm. During Ramadan (see p. 3-5 of Religion and 

Spirituality), the workday is typically shorter (Photo: A market). 

Most banks open from 8:00am-3:00pm Monday-Thursday, with 

reduced hours on Friday and Saturday. Post offices typically 

open Monday-Friday from 8:00am-2:00pm. While some shops 

open from 9:00am-8:00pm, others stay open later. Some

stores are closed on Sundays. Some banks, post offices, and 

shops stay open later in urban centers than in rural areas. 

Although most businesses close on public holidays, some 

small vendors, large stores, and supermarkets in urban areas 

remain open.

Working Conditions: Indonesia’s legal workweek consists of 

40 hours with up to 14 hours overtime. Indonesians working in 

agriculture or informal sector jobs typically exceed the legal 

limit (see p. 3-4 of Economics and Resources). Although labor 

laws provide regulations to protect workers, the government 

often lacks enforcement capacity. As a result, forced labor, 

child labor (see p. 3 of Learning and Knowledge), and other 

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
abuses occur. Indonesians in the formal and public sectors 

receive paid public holidays and 12 days of annual paid leave.

Lunar Calendar: Indonesians use the Hijri (Islamic) calendar 

to track Muslim holidays. Since it is based on lunar phases, 

dates fall 11 days earlier each year in relation to the Western 

calendar. The Islamic calendar’s 12 months each have 30 days 

or fewer. Days begin at sunset on what the Western calendar 

would show as the previous day. For example, each new week 

begins at sunset on Saturday, and the Muslim holy day of 

Friday begins on Thursday evening.

Time Zone: Indonesia has 3 time zones: Western (WIB), 

Central (WITA), and Eastern Indonesian Time (WIT), which 

respectively are 7, 8, and 9 hours ahead of Greenwich Mean 

Time (GMT) and 12, 13, and 14 hours ahead of Eastern 

Standard Time (EST). Of note, Java and Sumatra follow WIB, 

and Indonesia does not observe daylight savings time.

National Holidays

• January 1: New Year’s Day

• January/February: Chinese New Year

• March/April: Nyepi (Hindu New Year and 

Balinese Day of Silence) 

• March/April: Good Friday and Easter Sunday

• April/May/June: Waisak Day (Buddha Day) 

• May/June: Ascension Day of Jesus Christ

• August 17: Independence Day

• December 25: Christmas Day

These holidays occur on variable dates according 

to the lunar calendar:

• Muharram: Islamic New Year

• Maulid Nabi: Birth of Prophet Muhammad

• Isra Mi’raj Nabi: The Ascension of Muhammad

• Lebaran / Idul Fitri: End of Ramadan

• Lebaran Haji / Idul Adha: Festival of Sacrifice

(see p. 3 of Aesthetics and Recreation) 

SPACE

TIME &
Time and Business

Business tends to move slower in Indonesia than in the US, 

primarily because Indonesians consider time flexible which 

means deadlines and appointments are more fluid than in the 

US. Accordingly, business meetings may not start on time or 

run late. Further, Indonesians typically prefer to build trust and 

personal relationships before doing business. Indonesians 

generally appreciate punctuality in business but consider 

arriving late to a meeting acceptable given prior notification. 

While most business discussions occur during scheduled office 

meetings, informal meetings in other locations or during meals 

are also common.

After initial greetings (see 

p. 4-5 of Language and 

Communication), 

Indonesians typically 

begin meetings by 

sharing tea or coffee and 

conversation about 

family. Some business 

partners use humor or

exchange gifts such as flowers and sweets to establish rapport. 

Indonesians value negotiation and prefer indirect forms of 

communication to gauge a business partner’s intentions

(Photo: A vendor in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, photo courtesy of 

CultureGrams, ProQuest). 

The Indonesian workplace is hierarchical, meaning deference 

to age, education, and experience are foremost. Senior officials 

and upper management tend to behave as evenhanded

parental figures. While managers usually chair meetings and 

make decisions, reaching consensus usually involves informal 

and consultative discussions with lower-level employees. 

Indonesian businessmen often use third-party arbiters to 

conduct informal negotiations prior to high-level meetings and 

deliver feedback and criticism in private to avoid conflict and

embarrassment. 

Personal Space

As in most societies, the use of personal space depends on the 

nature of the relationship. Indonesians tend to maintain about 

SPACE

TIME &
an arm’s length when conversing with strangers or people of 

the opposite sex and stand closer to family and friends. 

Touch: Close friends and relatives commonly touch one 

another during conversation. Friends of the same sex

sometimes hold hands in public, signaling their deep platonic 

friendship. The public display of affection between opposite 

sexes typically is considered inappropriate (see p. 4 of Sex and 

Gender), particularly if the individuals are unrelated. 

Indonesians use the right hand when eating, gesturing, passing 

and accepting items, and shaking hands because traditionally 

the left hand is used for personal hygiene and considered 

unclean. Indonesians also typically avoid touching another

person’s head, which is considered sacred. Foreign nationals 

should adhere to these customs to avoid offense. 

Eye Contact

Indonesians generally consider frequent and direct eye contact 

as suspicious or threatening. They usually maintain intermittent

eye contact during an initial meeting but less so in subsequent 

ones. Most Indonesians gaze downward when speaking with 

elders and superiors as a sign of respect.

Photographs 

Military or government offices, mosques, airports, and other 

similar locations typically prohibit photography. Foreign 

nationals should always acquire permission before taking an 

Indonesian’s photo. 

Driving 

Driving in Indonesia can 

be hazardous. Roads are 

often narrow and crowded 

with traffic, pedestrians, 

and animals. In 2015, 

Indonesia’s rate of trafficrelated deaths was 15.3 

per 100,000 people, higher than the US rate of 10.6. Traffic 

enforcement suffers from corruption, and officials sometimes 

accept bribes instead of issuing fines. Unlike Americans, 

Indonesians drive on the left side of the road (Photo: Family of 

5 on a motorbike in Bali). 

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

Indonesia’s traditional dress, recreation, music, and arts reflect 

its ethnic and religious diversity, centuries of foreign trade and 

occupation, agricultural traditions, and modern global trends. 

Dress and Appearance

Traditional: Indonesia’s 

traditional attire remains 

fashionable, mostly in 

rural areas. Some 

residents wear it in the 

workplace, others only at 

home following the 

workday. Specific styles 

and fabrics vary across 

the archipelago, reflecting local customs. Traditional dress is 

typically made of brightly-dyed cotton or silk and embroidered 

with vibrant colors. A particularly common style is batik, a 

fabric created by applying hot wax to cloth, then painting or

dyeing it before removing the wax to reveal intricate designs. 

While native to Java, batik is worn in other parts the region as 

well. Also popular, ikat is an older dyeing technique similar to 

tie-dye, a method of using pre-treated threads that do not 

absorb dye (Photo: US Ambassador Donovan takes a selfie

with Indonesians in traditional attire at Jakarta’s US). 

Both men and women traditionally wear a sarung, a long cloth 

sewn at the ends to form a step-in tube wrapped around their 

waists. Sarungs often consist of bright batik or checkered 

designs. With the sarung, women typically wear a long-sleeved

blouse or kebaya, an embroidered and fitted shirt made of silk, 

cotton, or nylon that extends either to the waist or knees and

often secured with a broach. Some women prefer a looser baju 

(tunic) over the sarung. While men in Java and Bali favor

sarungs, men from other islands tend to wear selimut – an ikat 

cloth wrapped around the body from the waist to the knees. 

Men typically wear a loose shirt or a shoulder cloth matching

the sarung or selimut. 

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Another traditional style is the kain, a 3-yd-long cloth similar to 

a sarung that both men and women wrap around the waist or 

entire body, forming different styles depending on location and 

level of formality. A kain is multifunctional, often used as a 

satchel or baby sling. Women typically wear a batik kain with a 

matching selendang (shawl) draped over one shoulder. 

Some Indonesians wear head coverings that reflect local 

customs or their religion. For example, Muslim women

sometimes wear a kerudung (headscarf) or the more 

conservative jilbab head covering. Men typically wear a peci

(a cylindrical velvet cap), also known as a kopiah in Aceh and

a songkok in Sulawesi. Other caps include the blangkon

made from folded Javanese batik fabric, and the iket, a 

Sundanese version. 

Modern: Some Indonesians, particularly youth and urban 

residents, wear clothing that reflects the latest Western fashion 

trends or a combination of traditional and Western styles. For 

example, a button-down shirt with batik patterns is particularly 

popular among urban 

men. Men also 

commonly wear denim 

jeans, slacks, or kneelength shorts with casual

t-shirts or long-sleeved 

shirts. Women typically

wear bright dresses or 

blouses with skirts that 

fall knee-length or 

longer. In business settings, Indonesians tend to wear 

Western-style suits or dresses and other conservative business 

attire (Photo: Indonesian President Widodo and Google’s CEO 

Pachai in batik shirts while touring “Googleplex” in California). 

Recreation and Leisure

Indonesians typically spend their free time with family and 

friends. Some Indonesians socialize at home over meals or 

coffee or while weaving or making traditional handicrafts. 

Outside the home, Indonesians typically frequent local markets, 

shops, cafes, and food stalls. Other common activities include 

watching TV, storytelling, dancing, fortune telling, karaoke, kite 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
flying, game playing, cockfighting (legal only in Bali), and 

gambling (illegal). Men often chew betel nut or smoke while 

socializing (see p. 6 of Sustenance and Health). 

On weekends and holidays, Indonesian families often visit local 

parks, beaches, or mountains. City residents typically visit the 

countryside or their hometown. Most Indonesians cannot afford 

extended vacations. Wealthy Indonesians may travel to local 

tourist sites such as Bali, Komodo Island, or Borobudur temple

(see p. 4 of History and Myth), or to international destinations.

Festivals: Every year, Indonesians hold hundreds of local and 

national festivals to celebrate holidays or cultural and seasonal 

events. The festivities surrounding Lebaran, also known as 

Idul Fitri, occur at the end of Ramadan (see p. 5 of Religion 

and Spirituality) and are the largest, typically lasting for a week 

or longer. Indonesians commonly buy new clothing, prepare 

lavish feasts, light firecrackers, and visit friends and family with

sweets and gifts. Other notable Islamic festivals include 

Lebaran Haji, also known as Idul Adha, when Indonesians 

sacrifice a lamb or goat and hold a feast, and Maulid Nabi, the 

birth of the Prophet 

Muhammad. 

Nyepi celebrates the Hindu 

New Year and Balinese Day 

of Silence. Held in March or 

April, Nyepi is believed to 

drive out evil spirits at night 

with fireworks and drums. 

The next day, participants

stay quietly indoors to convince the spirits that no one lives on 

the island. During waisak, Buddhists celebrate the birth, 

enlightenment, and death of the Buddha by gathering at the 

Borobudur temple in Java for a flower-filled prayer procession. 

Christian Indonesians typically celebrate Good Friday and 

Easter with large feasts and gatherings, often holding Easter 

egg hunts and reenactments of the crucifixion (Photo: Bali’s 

Nyepi celebration).

Other festivals celebrate national holidays like Independence 

Day and New Year’s Day or rejoice seasonal events, such as 

the monsoon or good harvests. The Bau Nyale Fishing Festival 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
in Lombok occurs every February or March to celebrate the 

season’s first catch of nyale fish. Other popular festivals 

include the Bali Arts Festival, the Galungan Hindu Festival in 

Bali, the International Jazz Festival of Jakarta, and the

Krakatoa Festival in Lampung – a memorial for the deadly 

Krakatoa volcanic eruption of 1883. Kartini Day festivities honor

Indonesia’s first women’s 

rights campaigner. 

Sports and Games

Sports: Indonesians enjoy 

a variety of traditional 

sports. Martial arts such as

pencak silat, an ancient 

form that developed on

Sumatra around the 7th century and features knives and sticks

are widely popular. Another is sisemba, a martial-art from

Sulawesi that prohibits the use of the hands. Similar to hacky 

sack, the game of sepak takraw involves 2 teams tossing a 

rattan-fiber ball over a net without using their hands (Photo: US 

servicemen play sepak takraw in Kupang).

The most popular sport is football (soccer). Played across the 

archipelago, Indonesia is home to hundreds of regional club 

teams. Futsal, a compact indoor form of soccer, is popular in 

cities. Other common sports include badminton, volleyball, 

tennis, basketball, and cycling. Home to world-champion 

badminton players, Indonesia won its first Olympic gold medal 

in badminton at the 1992 Barcelona games. At the 2016 Rio de 

Janeiro games, Indonesia triumphed again, winning the mixed 

doubles gold medal. Indonesians also consistently medal in 

weightlifting events. Though legal only in Bali, cockfighting is a 

popular spectator sport among men, especially in Kalimantan

and Bali. Residents of Madura and East Java enjoy bull racing. 

Games: Congklak is a popular 2-person board game in which 

players try to capture an opponent’s game pieces. Card 

games, checkers, and chess are other popular pastimes, along 

with building, flying, and sometimes fighting kites. While young 

boys typically play with marbles or handmade wooden spinning 

tops, girls prefer to jump rope, hopscotch, or play a game 

similar to jacks. 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Music

Traditional: Indonesia has a rich variety of traditional music, 

orally passed down through generations. Today, it is customary 

to perform folk music at puppet theater shows (see “Theater” 

below), weddings, festivals, and special occasions. Gamelan is 

a metallic percussion ensemble featuring gongs, xylophones,

drums, metallophones, kendang (2-headed drums), rebab (a 

bowed string instrument), and saron demung (similar to a 

xylophone). 

Dating back over a millennium, gamelan has a light, fluid sound

with regular rhythms. A complete gamelan group includes 2 

orchestras, typically with 10-40 performers. Female singers 

called pesinden and a male chorus known as gerong often 

accompany gamelan performances with songs and banter, 

particularly during puppet theater shows. Of note, no 2 

gamelans sound alike 

because each 

instrument is tuned 

specifically to fit the 

particular ensemble 

(Photo: A gamelan

performance in Bali). 

While other traditional 

music forms are also

percussion-based, some, such as kacapi and sampé, feature 

string instruments, flutes, zithers, and angklung, an instrument 

made from bamboo tubes within a bamboo frame. The guitar 

and other Western string instruments feature prominently in 

newer musical forms, such as keroncong, a genre popular 

during the colonial era (see p. 8-19 of History and Myth). 

Modern: Contemporary music in Indonesia typically fuses

various styles. Popular throughout the archipelago, dangdut is 

a synthesis of local, Malay, Arab, and Indian varieties. Rhoma 

Irama was a popular 1970s dangdut star and still known as the 

“King of Dangdut.” Today, Inul Daratista, Cita Citata and others 

are popular dangdut artists. In recent years, Indonesian pop 

music known as “Indo-pop” has gained a huge following within 

the country and throughout Asia. Indonesians also enjoy 

Western pop music, jazz, rock-and-roll, and other genres.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Theater

The most notable Indonesian art form is wayang (theater), 

which likely originated in Java before 900 AD and comprises

several varieties. Wayang kulit (shadow puppet theater) 

includes a dalang (narrator) who operates ornately carved and 

painted 2-dimensional leather puppets on buffalo bone handles

(pictured). The dalang manipulates the puppets before a 

lighted screen so that only their silhouettes appear. Meanwhile, 

the dalang employs various voices and literary devices to 

narrate the action, from poetry to coarse humor. In wayang 

golek, a puppeteer manipulates elaborate wooden rod puppets 

to tell Islamic stories 

known as menak, or 

adaptations of the Hindu 

epics Ramayana and 

Mahabharata. 

Wayang topeng, or 

wayang gedog, is 

another theatrical form in 

which human actors 

wear large painted 

masks to act out legends, myths, and historical events. In the 

Javanese form of wayang wong, actors typically reenact 

stories from Ramayana and Mahabharata, often accompanied 

by gamelan or other musical and dance performances. 

Wayang performances in Java and Sumatra typically last all

night, while those in Bali are usually shorter. During certain 

parts of the show, some audience members interact with the 

dalang or the actors, creating a boisterous atmosphere.

Dance

Traditional Indonesian dances demonstrate significant variety, 

from formal classical temple dances to informal energetic folk 

dances. In the Balinese legong, 3 young girls expressively 

move their arms, hands, heads, and eyes with a gamelan

accompaniment. The kecak (monkey dance) includes up to 

100 men sitting in a circle making synchronized sounds around 

1 or 2 dancing women. Other forms are gender-specific, such 

as the women’s serimpi on Java and pakarena on Sulawesi, 

and the men’s seudati in Aceh and kancet laki in eastern 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Kalimantan. Other dances such as the Balinese jangger

include women and men. 

Traditional dance and music are often central components of 

martial arts and theater performances. For example, randai is 

a Sumatran narrative performance in which a hero defeats a 

villain using pencak silat martial arts moves and circular dance 

motions, accompanied by instruments and clapping. Over time, 

dance traditions from Asia, Europe, and the Middle East have 

also influenced Indonesian dances. A modern dance called 

joget often accompanies the lively 

Indonesian, Indian, Malay, and Arab 

rhythms of dangdut music. Another 

traditional theatrical dance called 

sendratari has adopted movements 

and styles from contemporary Asian 

and Western dances (Photo: Woman 

performs the legong dance in Bali). 

Literature

Early Indonesian folklore and folk 

poetry were primarily orally 

transmitted as epics, performances, 

and court songs exploring a range of 

themes. Many of these oral traditions 

were influenced by South Asian literature beginning in the 8th

century, such as the Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. 

The 13th-century spread of Islam (see p. 7 of History and Myth) 

introduced the Arabic script and new literary and poetic styles, 

which began to meld with local traditions. For example, the

hikayat chronicles, stories of local heroes and royal 

adventures, were written in a Malay language with the Arabic 

script. Meanwhile, Javanese wrote romantic poetry called 

kakawin on leaves and wood strips. In the 14th century, 

literature in Old Javanese flourished. Notable works include the 

Nagarakretagama, a eulogy to the king of the Majapahit Empire 

(see p. 5-6 of History and Myth), and the Kakawin Sutasoma, a 

poem featuring Indonesia’s national motto, “Unity in Diversity.” 

Rising nationalist movements prompted the growth of native 

literature in the early 20th century. In 1933, the literary 

magazine Poedjangga Baroe (New Poet) began printing in 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Bahasa Indonesia (see p. 1 of Language and Communication). 

Japanese occupation during World War II sparked additional 

nationalist literary advances (see p. 17-19 of History and Myth). 

Pramoedya Ananta Toer is Indonesia’s most prolific author, 

producing novels, stories, poems, and political essays before 

his death in 2006. Imprisoned by the Dutch and then the 

Suharto regime (see p. 21-24 of History and Myth), Toer’s most 

famous work is the Buru Quartet, a tetralogy named for the 

prison where he was held. His works on Dutch and Japanese 

occupation, national movements, and political repression won 

him significant international acclaim. 

Since the end of the repressive Suharto regime in 1998, 

Indonesia’s literary scene has flourished. Prominent authors 

include Dewi Lestari, Andrea Hirata, Okky Madasari, Eka 

Kurniawan, and others who explore life under Suharto, modern 

challenges, rural life, love, and 

spirituality. While Toer’s works have 

been translated, most Indonesian 

works are not. For this reason,

Indonesian authors and poets often

remain unknown to readers outside 

the country. 

Arts and Handicrafts 

Indonesia has a rich tradition of arts 

and handicrafts, many of which were 

first created as practical tools, 

clothing, or weapons. Traditional 

handicrafts include woodcarvings,

masks, textiles, pottery, basketwork, metalwork, and jewelry. 

These works reflect remarkable variety, and most regions have 

their own local traditions. For example, the carved masks in 

Kalimantan feature highly stylized people, dragons, tigers, and 

other animals, while Javanese masks (pictured) often depict 

characters in theater productions. Similarly, batik fabric designs 

and wayang theater puppets vary in their detail and quality, 

depending on the artist and local traditions. Once considered a 

mystical weapon with magical properties, the keris (dagger) is 

a traditional weapon of self-defense and a well-known symbol 

of Indonesian culture. 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Sustenance Overview

Extensive and varied, Indonesia’s cuisine reveals the region’s 

history as an international trading center. While the Chinese 

introduced soy products and noodles, Portuguese traders

brought peanuts and sweet potatoes. Indian influence is 

evident in the widespread use of spices such as curry, 

coriander, cumin, and ginger. 

Dining Customs

Indonesians commonly eat 3 daily meals along with several 

snacks. To begin a meal, the host typically says silakan 

makan (please eat). At home, the eldest family member is 

served first followed by the remaining family members in order 

of age. The mother may wait to eat after her children are 

finished. 

Indonesians typically eat 

with their right hand, 

using their fingers and 

thumb to scoop food 

into their mouths. They 

clean their fingers 

before a meal in a small 

water bowl. Indonesians 

avoid eating with the left hand (see p. 4 of Time and Space). In 

urban areas, utensils are more common, although knives are 

rarely used since food is cut prior to being served. Chinese 

Indonesians sometimes eat with chopsticks (Photo: An 

Indonesian soldier and local community members grill fish 

during a bilateral training exercise with the US).

Diet

Cultivated for centuries (see p. 2-6 of History and Myth), rice is 

the staple of Indonesian cuisine. It is consumed for breakfast, 

lunch, and dinner and prepared in a variety of ways – fried, 

steamed, simmered with coconut milk, formed into patties 

(lontong), or flavored with spices. On the eastern islands, 

corn, cassava (a starchy tuberous root), and sweet potatoes 

may replace rice. 

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Indonesian cuisine typically incorporates spices such as cumin, 

lemongrass, ginger, 

tamarind, nutmeg and 

coriander. Sambal 

(pictured) – a chili paste 

made from oil, shallots, 

garlic, sugar, salt, and 

shrimp paste – and peanut 

sauces are also common 

seasonings. Common 

vegetables include

watercress, spinach, and 

carrots. Tropical fruits 

such as jackfruit, papaya, 

banana, and mango are used in both savory and sweet dishes. 

Some Indonesians adhere to certain dietary restrictions. For 

example, observant Muslims (see p. 6-8, 10 of Religion and 

Spirituality) consume neither pork nor alcohol. In addition, they 

observe rules of animal slaughter and meat preparation to 

ensure that food is halal, allowed by Islamic law. Hindu 

Indonesians (see p. 8 of Religion and Spirituality) generally

avoid beef, preferring chicken, mutton, and seafood. Other 

Hindus are vegetarians who acquire their protein through 

beans, soy, and dairy products. 

Popular Dishes and Meals

Indonesians often consume rice porridge with coffee or tea for 

breakfast. Lunch and dinner usually consist of rice, meat, and 

vegetables. Women typically prepare food around midday that 

is consumed for both lunch and dinner. 

While each region has its own traditional dishes, popular 

entrées across the archipelago include nasi goreng, fried rice 

prepared with spices such as galangal, turmeric, and ginger; 

nasi campur, a mound of white rice mixed with meat, seafood, 

and vegetables; satay, grilled and skewered chicken or beef 

served with peanut sauce; and bakso, a meatball soup. Wellknown regional dishes include rendang, a traditional western 

Sumatran dish of beef simmered in spices and coconut milk; 

and gado-gado, a Balinese dish of rice, vegetables, peanuts, 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
tofu or tempeh (fermented soybeans), and bean sprouts topped 

with peanut sauce (Photo: A satay dish).

Fresh fruit and es, 

crushed ice mixed with 

fruit and jelly, then 

topped with sweetened 

condensed milk, are

popular snacks and 

desserts. 

Beverages 

Indonesians typically 

drink water or other beverages after meals rather than during. 

Popular drinks include sweetened black or ginger tea, coffee, 

and icy fruit drinks such as avocado blended with sweetened, 

condensed milk and chocolate sauce. While Muslim 

Indonesians generally avoid alcohol, it is available in most 

cities and areas where tourists frequent. Besides locallybrewed Bintang beer, spirits include tuak (palm wine), arak

(rice wine), and Balinese brem (rice wine). In recent years, 

conservative Muslim groups have advocated legislation that 

would ban alcohol consumption throughout the country.

Eating Out

Eating out is a popular Indonesian pastime, and dining options 

vary widely. Of note, 

tipping is not generally 

expected, although highend restaurants may add 

a 21% charge called “plus 

plus” that includes tax 

and a service fee.

Kaki lima are street food 

vendors selling snacks or 

simple foods such as soup, fried noodles, fruit juices, or ice 

cream. By contrast, warungs are more permanent roadside 

food stalls that offer simple dining tables. Padang restaurants 

serve traditional foods from the Sumatran city of Padang that

are also popular throughout the archipelago (Photo: A 

restaurant in Kendari, Sulawesi).

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Health Overview

The Indonesian population’s health has improved significantly

over the last decades. Life expectancy increased from 49 years 

in 1960 to 72 years in 2016, slightly higher than the global 

average of 71 but lower than the average in neighboring 

Malaysia (75). Meanwhile, infant mortality (the proportion of 

infants who die 

before age 1) has 

dropped from 148 per 

1,000 live births in 

1960 to 23 in 2015, 

although this rate is 

still close to double 

the rate in Malaysia 

(12.9). Further, 

maternal mortality in Indonesia has fallen from 446 deaths per 

100,000 live births to 126, although it remains rather high 

compared to rates in Malaysia (29) and the US (21) (Photo: 

Indonesian nurses listen to a speaker on the hospital ship 

USNS Mercy).

Generally, healthcare delivery is challenging due to Indonesia’s 

large size and geographic diversity (see p. 2-4 of Political and 

Social Relations). Medical facilities are concentrated in urban 

areas, meaning rural residents must travel long distances to 

obtain services beyond primary care. 

Traditional Medicine

Traditional medicine consists of the knowledge, practices, and 

skills derived from a native population’s beliefs, experiences, 

and theories. Traditional methods remain popular in rural areas 

where Indonesians typically rely on dukun (traditional healers)

for medical services. While methods vary widely, common 

practices include mantras (chants), charms, massages, and 

herbal medicines. Indonesians expect dukun to cure a wide 

range of diseases, from heart disease to cancer among others. 

Consumed in liquid, paste, powder, or capsule form, jamu is a 

popular herbal remedy that typically includes turmeric, 

galangal, ginger, lemongrass, and tamarind. The tonic is used 

to cure a variety of ailments such as headache, fatigue, fever, 

infertility, and insomnia. It is sometimes used to treat diseases 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
such as cancer and heart disease. The government has 

recently begun a partnership program with dukun beranak, 

traditional birth attendants, to improve midwife services to rural 

women.

Modern Healthcare System

In 2014, Indonesia’s government established Jaminan 

Kesehatan Nasional (JKN), a national healthcare system that

requires citizens to pay a small premium based on income, with 

the poorest citizens receiving free care. Before the 

implementation of JKN, the wealthy bought private insurance, 

while the government provided basic coverage for the poorest 

Indonesians. Ineligible for government subsidies, middleincome Indonesians were denied coverage because they

lacked the funds to pay out of pocket for health services. JKN 

aims to close this gap and provide coverage to all citizens by 

2019. While the system has attracted new enrollees, who 

previously had no access to healthcare, it suffers a lack of 

funding for rising costs 

(Photo: US Sailor 

examining an Indonesian

child’s ear).

The government 

operates various types of 

medical facilities 

focusing on public and 

preventative health 

services. A key part of 

this strategy are puskesmas, health centers in rural areas that 

provide basic primary care, administer immunization programs, 

and offer family planning services. As of 2013, there were 

9,655 puskesmas throughout the country, although likely more 

in recent years.

Health Challenges

Indonesia faces a severe lack of trained medical professionals. 

In 2012, there were just 20 physicians per 100,000 people, 

lower than neighboring Malaysia’s rate of 128 and significantly 

lower than the US rate of 250. Rural areas especially lack 

trained personnel. Although the government requires medical 

school graduates to serve in rural areas for a year, it is difficult 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
to retain medical professionals in remote areas. Besides the 

lack of personnel, Indonesia also lacks sufficient medical 

facilities. 

As is common in many developing countries, the rate of 

noncommunicable diseases, such as cardiovascular and 

chronic respiratory diseases, cancer, and diabetes, has risen, 

now accounting for some 48% of deaths. Several habits 

contribute to this 

increase, 

including poor 

diet, lack of 

exercise, and 

smoking. In 2013, 

almost 64% of 

Indonesia men 

(and just 3% of 

women) smoked cigarettes daily, compared to 16% of 

American men. Some Indonesians chew betel nuts, which also 

negatively impact health. Consisting of an areca nut wrapped in 

betel pepper leaves, betel nuts produce a mild euphoria and 

stain the chewer’s mouth reddish-purple. Chewing betel nuts is 

linked to higher rates of oral cancers as well as other negative 

health outcomes (Photo: Indonesian first responders during a 

casualty drill).

Communicable diseases are responsible for some 8% of 

deaths each year. Tuberculosis is the 5th most common cause 

of death with over 1 million new cases each year, while dengue 

fever outbreaks occur annually. Indonesia is also especially 

vulnerable to infectious disease outbreaks due to its climate, 

biodiversity, and close human interaction with animals. For 

example, avian influenza infected 199 Indonesians between 

2005-16, causing 167 fatalities. 

HIV/AIDS: About 693,000 Indonesians, or 0.48% of the 

population, live with HIV/AIDS. This overall prevalence rate is 

low, with infections concentrated among drug users and sex 

workers. Papua’s 2 provinces are experiencing a low-level 

epidemic with a prevalence rate 5 times the national average, 

primarily due to high levels of infection among sex workers.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Overview

For centuries, most regional inhabitants subsisted as farmers, 

traders, or fishers. As early as 1000 BC, Indonesians served as 

guides, traders, and shipbuilders along maritime trade routes 

between India and China. While some Indonesians remained 

subsistence farmers or fishers, others grew rich from a growing 

network of trade routes across the archipelago primarily

dominated by Indians, Chinese, and Arabs. Beginning in the 

16th century, some Europeans established small trading posts

on Indonesian islands. Eventually, the Dutch East India 

Company took control, developing a vast and powerful trading 

empire based in Java (see p. 9 of History and Myth). 

In the early 19th century, the Dutch implemented the so-called

Cultivation System (see p. 13-14 of History and Myth), 

requiring 20% of farmland to be used for export crops, primarily 

sugarcane and coffee. Some Indonesians suffered forced labor 

conditions and immense 

economic hardship. 

In the late 19th century, 

the Dutch introduced 

the Liberal Policy to 

facilitate private 

enterprise in the 

archipelago (see p. 14

of History and Myth). 

Not only did Dutch firms 

increase the efficiency and production of sugar, coffee, 

tobacco, indigo, and tea plantations, they began to extract raw 

materials for industry, such as tin, oil, and rubber tapped from 

trees brought from South America. To get these products to 

market, the Dutch built roads, railways, and ports. Then, the

Japanese occupation during World War II (see p. 17-18 of 

History and Myth) brought severe economic hardships for 

many Indonesians (Photo: Rice farmers in Bali). 

Upon gaining independence in 1949 (see p. 19 of History and 

Myth), Indonesia assumed the Dutch colonial administration’s 

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
debts, even while Dutch companies maintained control of major 

institutions and businesses. Moreover, Indonesia’s economy 

was based almost entirely on commodity exports controlled by

large state-owned companies and plantations, small farms, and 

private companies, notably the British-Dutch oil firm Royal 

Dutch Shell. In subsequent years, the export of oil and gas

became increasingly vital to the Indonesian economy.

In the 1950s, President Sukarno implemented his “Guided 

Economy” policies that nationalized Dutch companies and 

created repressive conditions that forced some Dutch and 

Chinese to leave the country (see p. 20 of History and Myth). 

Mismanagement and corruption led to financial chaos. Foreign 

debt skyrocketed as central bank credit accounted for around

1/2 of all government 

spending (Photo: Women 

selling baskets in Sumatra 

around 1953).

In 1965, Royal Dutch Shell 

withdrew from Indonesia, 

and a year later the 

economy crashed. Inflation 

soared above 1,000% as

Indonesians lost substantial wealth. In the ensuing chaos, 

Major General Suharto took control as President, instituting a 

“New Order” of political and economic reforms (see p. 22-23 of 

History and Myth). 

Under Suharto, 5 California-educated Indonesian economists 

known as the “Berkeley Mafia” pursued economic reforms and 

liberalization with help from the International Monetary Fund 

(IMF). In addition to a balanced budget, the group sought a 

return to private sector development. By 1968, the new policies 

and political stability fostered economic growth. Nevertheless, 

concerns about foreign commercial dominance caused Suharto 

to increase business regulations and to replace imports with

subsidized Indonesian-made products. While GDP growth 

averaged 8% per year in the 1970s, a sharp drop in oil 

revenues caused the government to encourage renewed

private investment, amplified industrialization, and the export of 

manufactured goods.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
From 1981-96, capital market deregulation and private sector 

growth led to widespread investor confidence in Indonesia, with 

the economy growing on average 6% per year. Nevertheless, 

additional business regulations and corruption scandals 

involving companies run by Suharto’s family caused economic 

irregularities and popular discontent. In 1997, the Thai currency 

abruptly collapsed, triggering an Asian economic crisis that hit

Indonesia particularly hard. In addition to inflation peaking over 

75%, the stock 

market crashed, 

banks failed, and 

millions of people 

lost their jobs. 

Indonesia fared 

worse than every 

other country in 

Southeast Asia, 

with per capita GDP falling by over 14% in 1998. Subsequent 

riots, political instability, and discontent with the corruption and

economic dominance of the Suharto family’s companies 

caused Suharto to resign (see p. 23-24 of History and Myth) 

(Photo: 1998 protests and looting in Jakarta). 

In the years following the crisis, Indonesia’s government sought 

assistance from the IMF to implement structural reforms. 

Indonesia transferred some power from the federal to municipal 

governments and liberalized some areas of the economy while

limiting foreign ownership in others. By 2003, the financial 

sector had stabilized. The government continued to pursue 

reforms, such as limiting the budget deficit, reducing national 

debt, and containing inflation. Indonesia sought to entice 

foreign direct investment (FDI) with incentives such as special 

economic zones offering reduced taxes and regulations in 

Batam, Bintan, Karimun, and other less-developed areas. 

Indonesia withstood the global financial crisis of 2008-09 well, 

growing over 3% in 2009, while other economies in Southeast 

Asia contracted. Since then, Indonesia has reduced inflation, 

poverty, and unemployment. By 2014, Indonesia’s stock 

market was one of Asia’s best performing. The election of 

President Joko Widodo (see p. 26 of History and Myth), who 

campaigned as an anti-corruption reformist, increased 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
confidence in Indonesia’s economy, which grew on average 

over 4% per year from 2010-16. 

Nevertheless, Indonesia faces economic challenges. The rate 

of Indonesians living on $3 or less per day remains around 

30%. Over 20% of city residents live in slums, while rural

poverty is even higher. The public sector does not deliver 

adequate services, 50-60% of the workforce is employed in the 

informal sector, and youth unemployment is high. Moreover, 

corruption is widespread, laws are not always enforced, and 

overregulation makes it difficult to conduct business. Despite 

these and other issues, Indonesia is Southeast Asia’s largest 

economy and remains well-positioned to sustain positive 

growth, provided the government can implement additional 

reforms to reduce corruption and increase efficiency.

Services

Accounting for about 46% of GDP and 48% of employment, the 

services sector is the largest and fastest-growing segment of 

Indonesia’s economy. Significant services sub-sectors include

retail trade, public administration, transportation and storage, 

finance, communications, and tourism. About 70% of work in 

the services sector consists of informal employment.

Tourism: Indonesia’s tourism industry recently recovered from 

a decline in the early 21st century due to terrorist attacks on

Bali (see p. 12 of Political and Social Relations) and an avian 

flu outbreak. In 2015, Indonesia hosted almost 12 million 

tourists, primarily from Singapore, Malaysia, Australia, and 

China. While Bali 

is the destination 

for about 1/2 of all 

tourists, Jakarta 

and the Riau 

Islands are also 

popular. In 2014, 

tourism directly 

contributed to 

over 3% of GDP 

and 3.3 million jobs. Experts expect the sector to grow at an 

average annual rate of almost 5% during the next decade

(Photo: Bicycles on a white sand beach in Bali). 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Industry

As the 2nd largest component of the economy, the industrial 

sector accounts for about 40% of GDP and 13% of the labor 

force. Significant sub-sectors include manufacturing; oil, gas, 

coal, and mineral extraction and processing; and construction. 

Manufacturing: Accounting for over 18% of GDP, Indonesia’s 

diversified manufacturing sector has considerably aided recent 

economic growth. Significant sub-sectors include food and 

beverage processing, electronics, chemicals, paper and paper 

products, tobacco, pharmaceuticals, textiles, rubber and plastic 

products, transport equipment, metals, and motor vehicles. 

Oil and Gas: Indonesia currently has the world’s 29th largest 

oil and 13th largest natural gas reserves. Indonesia’s oil 

industry is one of the world’s oldest, as Dutch colonizers began 

to drill oil wells in the late 19th century. Although oil exports 

peaked at 1.7 million barrels per day (b/d) in 1977 and 

accounted for nearly 80% of export revenue in the early 1980s, 

declining investment, exploration, and productivity have since 

caused a drop in both output and exports. Pertamina, the stateowned oil and gas corporation, dominates the industry. In

2014, it amassed $71 billion in revenue and is the only 

Indonesian firm among

the world’s 500 largest 

corporations. Though 

declining in significance, 

oil and gas account for 

about 11% of GDP 

(Photo: Construction of a 

refinery in 1982).

In 2015, Indonesia 

produced about 786,000 

b/d and exported over 310,000 b/d. Due to declining production 

levels and rising demand, Indonesia is now a net oil importer. 

In the same year, Indonesia produced over 74 billion cubic 

meters (m3) of natural gas, exporting almost 32 billion m3. 

Indonesia is Southeast Asia’s largest natural gas exporter.

Mining and Coal: Indonesia is one of the world’s top gold and

tin producers, and also has significant reserves of nickel, iron, 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
copper, bauxite, granite, silver, and other minerals. American 

mining company Freeport-McMoRan owns the Grasberg 

copper and gold mine in Papua, the world’s largest gold and 

10th-largest copper mine. While the firm is Indonesia’s single 

largest private employer, it halted production in early 2017 due 

to disagreements with the government over recent regulations 

limiting raw mineral exports. 

Indonesia has the world’s 10th largest coal reserves and is the 

5th largest coal producer. Coal comprises nearly 12% of total 

exports, sent primarily to China, India, and Japan. While the 

mining industry accounts for nearly 5% of GDP, coal production 

and exports account for about 85% of total mining revenues. 

Construction: In recent years, Indonesia’s construction sector

has grown by an annual average of about 7% and accounted

for around 10% of GDP in 2016. Construction employs almost 

8 million Indonesians and will likely continue to fuel economic 

and employment 

growth throughout

the next decade.

Agriculture

The agricultural 

sector consists of 

farming, livestock,

fishing, and forestry

and is the smallest 

component of the 

Indonesian economy, accounting for around 14% of GDP and 

39% of the labor force. 

Farming and Livestock: About 31% of Indonesia’s land area 

is dedicated to cultivation. Although most farms are just over 1 

acre in size, large plantations cultivating cash crops for export 

are also common. Irrigated and often terraced sawah (wet rice 

fields) dominate agriculture in Java, Bali, and the highlands of 

Sumatra. Traditional ladang cultivation – the “slash-and-burn” 

technique of burning forests to use the land for a few years of 

cultivation – does not use irrigation and is often the standard 

practice on other islands with drier and less fertile soil (Photo: 

Terraced sawah on Bali). 

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RESOURCES
Indonesia ranks 1st in the world in the production of palm oil,

cloves, and nutmeg, 2nd for natural rubber, and 3rd for rice, 

coffee, and cocoa. Other major crops include corn, cassava (a 

starchy tuberous root), sugarcane, peanuts, soybeans, 

coconuts, tobacco, tea, and tropical spices. Poultry, cows, pigs, 

goats, and sheep are common livestock varieties.

Fishing: In 2012, Indonesia’s massive fishing industry 

consisted of over 600,000 primarily small seafaring vessels that 

harvested almost 9 million tons of tuna, mackerel, shrimp, carp, 

herring, sardines, grouper, and snapper and 6.5 million tons of 

seaweed. That year, over 6 million Indonesians worked in the

fishing industry, primarily as small-scale fishers. While most of 

the catch is consumed locally, Indonesia exported nearly $4 

billion of tuna and shrimp to Japan, Europe, China, and the US

in 2013. The fishing industry accounts for around 3% of GDP.

To reduce unlawful harvests and overfishing, since 2014 the

Indonesian Navy has destroyed hundreds of foreign boats 

found illegally fishing in Indonesian waters. 

Forestry: With over 1/2 of its territory covered by forests in 

2015, Indonesia has a highly-developed forestry industry. The 

government owns over 85% of forests and has placed over 

40% under protection. Nevertheless, current forestry practices 

are unsustainable. Legal harvests, slash-and-burn cultivation, 

and illegal logging 

have reduced total 

forest cover from 

over 65% in 1990 to 

50% today. Pulp and 

paper, plywood, 

timber, furniture, and 

other wood products 

account for over 3% 

of GDP. Commercial 

yields primarily 

include meranti, 

keruing, kapur, 

mersawa, eucalyptus, teak, and acacia (Photo: Firefighters 

attempt to contain a forest fire in Banjarbaru, Kalimantan).

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Currency 

Indonesia’s currency is the Rupiah (Rp or IDR), issued in 7 

banknote values (1,000; 2,000; 5,000; 10,000; 20,000; 50,000; 

100,000) and 4 coin values (100; 200; 500; 1,000). With 

fluctuations in exchange rates, $1 has been worth between 

Rp11,800-Rp13,500 in recent years. Although some larger 

businesses accept credit cards, smaller vendors typically

accept only cash in small denominations (Photo: A Rp20,000 

banknote). 

Foreign Trade

Indonesia’s exports, 

totaling $137 billion 

in 2016, primarily 

consist of mineral 

fuels, animal or 

vegetable fats (particularly palm oil), rubber, machinery, and 

mechanical appliance parts sold to Japan (12%), the US 

(11%), China (10%), Singapore (8%), India (8%), South Korea 

(5%), and Malaysia (5%). In the same year, Indonesia imported 

$122 billion of mineral fuels, boilers, machinery, mechanical 

parts, iron and steel, and foodstuffs from China (21%), 

Singapore (13%), Japan (9%), Malaysia (6%), South Korea 

(6%), Thailand (6%), 

and the US (5%).

Foreign Aid

Each year, Indonesia 

receives billions of 

dollars in foreign aid. 

In 2015, Indonesia’s

largest donors were 

Japan ($477 million), 

Germany ($379 

million), Australia ($372 million), France ($212 million), and the 

US ($196 million). In 2016, the US disbursed just $77 million to 

Indonesia, primarily for health, educational, environmental, and 

social services programs, as well as aid to support democracy, 

human rights, and good governance initiatives (Photo: Former 

US Secretary of State Kerry speaks with the Indonesian 

Minister of Marine Affairs and an NGO leader). 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

While Indonesia has well-developed physical infrastructure in 

some cities, rural areas and outer islands largely lack modern 

telecommunications and transport infrastructure. Indonesians 

generally enjoy free speech, although the government restricts

some media freedoms 

and Internet content. 

Transportation

While the number of 

Indonesian families using 

a privately-owned vehicle 

(POV) is growing, travel 

by bus, bemo (minibus), 

train, taxi, bicycle, and 

foot are more common. Auto and cycle rickshaws called bajaj 

and becak, and ojeks (motorbike taxis) provide popular taxi 

services. Ride-hailing services such as Uber and Go-jek are

increasingly prevalent in cities. Jakarta has an extensive 

transport system featuring commuter trains and Transjakarta, 

Southeast Asia’s 1st and the world’s longest (130 mi) bus rapid 

transit system that uses restricted lanes. Motorbikes, bicycles, 

horse-drawn carts, and foot are common methods of transport 

in rural areas. Trains in Java and Sumatra, and buses on most

islands, are common forms of transport between cities, while

ferry and air services connect the islands (Photo: Downtown 

Jakarta). 

With its strategic location along major Asian maritime trade 

routes, Indonesia uses its roads, railways, ports, airports, and 

pipelines to play a significant role in regional trade and transport. 

Despite significant investments, progress is often slow, and 

many projects remain incomplete for indefinite periods. In 

Jakarta, a 2-line above and below-ground metro (MRT) and 

separate light rail (LRT) systems remain under construction with 

completion dates repeatedly postponed.

Roadways: In 2015, Indonesia had about 326,000 mi of roads, 

with almost 58% paved. While Java, Sumatra, and Bali have 

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well-developed networks of highways and toll roads, Papua, 

Kalimantan, and some outer islands do not. Although roads in 

urban areas are often in good condition, secondary roads in rural 

towns and the countryside are typically unpaved, in poor 

condition, and often impassible during monsoon rains.

Railways: Indonesia has about 5,256 mi of railways, yet only 

around 57% are operational. Railways operate primarily on Java 

and Madura, with less extensive services on Sumatra. On 

average, 850,000 passengers use commuter trains in the 

Jakarta region daily. Initial construction of a planned high-speed 

LRT from Jakarta to Bandung was delayed in 2017 due to land 

title issues. It is now scheduled to open in 2019. 

Ports and Waterways: 

Indonesia has over 13,400 

mi of inland waterways, 

primarily in Kalimantan, 

Papua, and Sumatra. The

Pelni national shipping line 

provides passenger and 

freight services across the 

archipelago and to 

Malaysia, Singapore, Australia, and Timor-Leste. Major ports 

include Tanjung Priok, Banjarmasin, Belawan, Bontang, 

Panjang, and Tanjung Perak (Photo: USS Blue Ridge visits 

Tanjung Priok). 

Airways: Indonesia has 673 airports, 186 with paved runways. 

Jakarta’s Soekarno-Hatta International Airport served over 54 

million passengers in 2015, making it the busiest airport in the 

Southern Hemisphere. Ngurah Rai International Airport in Bali 

served nearly 20 million passengers that year. While Garuda 

Indonesia is the national flag carrier, budget airline Lion Air 

serves nearly twice as many passengers. Both carriers offer

services to many domestic and international destinations. 

Energy 

With its own sources of coal, natural gas, and oil (see p. 5-6 of 

Economics and Resources), Indonesia has a rich and diversified 

mix of energy resources. The country generates about 41% of 

its total energy from coal, 37% from oil, 18% from natural gas, 

and 3% from hydroelectric plants and other renewable 

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resources. As one of the world’s largest producers of biofuels, 

Indonesia plans to increase renewable resources’ contribution

to energy production to 23% by 2025. Some 84% of Indonesians 

had access to electricity in 2016.

Media

While Indonesia’s constitution protects freedom of speech and 

press, the government has used defamation and blasphemy 

laws to curb these freedoms (see p. 26 of History and Myth). 

Other issues include media dominance by a few firms and 

restrictions on journalists in certain regions, notably West 

Papua. Further, journalists sometimes self-censor publications 

to serve the government’s or powerful media firms’ interests. 

Print Media: The Indonesian press includes hundreds of local 

and national periodicals published in Bahasa Indonesia, English, 

and other languages. Kompas, Pos Kota, Jawa Pos, Suara 

Pembaruan, Republika, Media Indonesia, and Koran Tempo are 

popular national daily newspapers with circulations over 

200,000. The Jakarta Post and Jakarta Globe are national 

English-language publications.

Radio and TV: Indonesia has a wide range of both public and 

private radio and TV broadcasters, with TV the most popular 

broadcast media. Satellite, Internet, or cable TV services offer

international content in Bahasa 

Indonesia, English, and other 

languages.

Telecommunications

Indonesia has a rapidly developing 

telecommunications network, with 9 

landline and 132 mobile phone 

subscriptions per 100 people in 2015

(Photo: Jakarta TV tower). 

Internet: Indonesia has one of the 

world’s fastest Internet access growth 

rates, aided by the rapid proliferation 

of mobile phones. In early 2017, nearly 40% of Indonesians had 

Internet access, up from 22% in 2015. While Indonesians can 

visit most websites, the government blocks pornography and 

gambling sites that it alleges violate public decency.

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