NCES 2008-079 U.S. DEpArTMENT OF EDUCATiON

Parent Expectations and 

Planning for College

Statistical Analysis Report

Parent Expectations 

and Planning for College

Statistical Analysis Report

April 2008

Laura Lippman 

Lina Guzman

Julie Dombrowski Keith

Akemi Kinukawa

Rebecca Shwalb

Child Trends

Peter Tice

National Center for Education Statistics

Gail M. Mulligan

Project Officer

National Center for Education Statistics

NCES 2008-079

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
U.S. Department of Education

Margaret Spellings

Secretary

Institute of Education Sciences

Grover J. Whitehurst

Director

National Center for Education Statistics

Mark Schneider

Commissioner

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April 2008

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Suggested Citation

Lippman, L., Guzman, L., Dombrowski Keith, J., Kinukawa, A. Schwalb, R., and Tice, P. (2008). Parent Expectations and 

Planning for College: Statistical Analysis Report (NCES 2008-079). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of 

Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC.

For ordering information on this report, write to

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Content Contact

Gail M. Mulligan

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gail.mulligan@ed.gov
Executive Summary 

The purpose of this report is to examine the characteristics associated with the 

educational expectations parents had for their children and the postsecondary education planning 

practices families and schools engaged in. The results presented in this report are based on a 

sample of about 6,800 students in grades 6 through 12 from the 2003 Parent and Family 

Involvement in Education Survey (PFI) of the National Household Education Surveys Program 

(NHES), and represent the 28,182,000 students in grades 6 through 12 in the United States in 

early 2003. Even though 2003 PFI data were collected from parents of students in kindergarten 

through grade 12, only parents of students in grades 6 through 12 were asked the types of 

postsecondary education questions that apply to this report. These parents were asked about: 

• the level of education they expected their children to achieve; 

• whether their children’s schools provided information to help their children plan for 

postsecondary education; 

• whether they or someone in their family planned to help pay the costs of postsecondary 

education; and 

• whether they felt they had enough information about postsecondary education costs to 

begin planning. 

Parent Expectations for Their Children’s Educational Attainment 

 

About 9 in 10 students (91 percent) in grades 6 through 12 had parents who expected 

them to continue their education beyond high school. Of these, 65 percent had parents who 

expected them to earn a bachelor’s degree or higher, and 26 percent had parents who expected 

them to complete some postsecondary education. 

• A higher percentage of girls (69 percent) than boys (62 percent) had parents who 

expected them to finish college. 

• Eighty percent of Asian students had parents who expected them to finish college, 

compared to 66 percent of White students, 64 percent of Black and Hispanic students, 

and 53 percent of Other, non-Hispanic students. 

• A higher percentage of students who were reported to have earned mostly A’s (86 

percent) had parents who expected them to finish college than students who were 

reported to have earned lower grades (64, 38, and 24 percent for students reported to have 

earned mostly B’s, mostly C’s, and mostly D’s or F’s, respectively). 

• Sixty-nine percent of students from two-parent families had parents who expected them 

to finish college, compared to 58 percent from single parent families, and 52 percent from 

other types of family arrangements. 

• A higher percentage of students from families with a household income greater than 

$75,000 (83 percent) had parents who expected them to finish college than students from 

families with smaller household incomes (51, 56, and 70 percent for students from 

iii 
families with incomes of $25,000 or less, $25,001 to $50,000, and $50,001 to $75,000, 

respectively). 

• Seventy-two percent of students whose parents did not mainly speak English at home had 

parents who expected them to finish college, compared to 65 percent whose parents 

mainly spoke English. Further, 76 percent of students whose parents were not born inside 

the United States had parents who expected them to finish college, compared to 63 

percent whose parents were.1 

• A higher percentage of students whose parents had earned at least a bachelor’s degree (88 

percent) had parents who expected them to finish college than students whose parents had 

completed less education (62 percent for parents who had some postsecondary education, 

and 44 percent both for parents who had graduated from high school and for those with 

less than a high school diploma). 

• Eighty-three percent of private school students had parents who expected them to finish 

college, compared to 64 percent of public school students, and 55 percent of 

homeschooled students. 

Parent Assessment of School Provided Information 

About one-third of students (32 percent) had parents who perceived that their child’s 

school did very well at providing information to help their child plan for postsecondary 

education, while 28 percent had parents who perceived that their child’s school did just ok at 

providing information. However, a little over one-quarter (27 percent) of students had parents 

who perceived that their child’s school provided no information at all, while 13 percent had 

parents who perceived that their child’s school did not do very well at providing information. 

• A higher percentage of students in grades 11 and 12 had parents who perceived that their 

child’s school did very well at providing information (46 percent) than students in grades 

9 and 10 (38 percent) and students in grades 6 through 8 (20 percent). Conversely, a 

higher percentage of students in grades 6 through 8 had parents who perceived that their 

child’s school provided no information at all (42 percent) than students in grades 9 and 

10 (20 percent) and students in grades 11 and 12 (11 percent). 

• A higher percentage of students who were reported to have earned mostly A’s (36 

percent) had parents who perceived that their child’s school did very well at providing 

information to help their child plan for postsecondary education than students who were 

reported to have earned lower grades (32, 27, and 19 percent for students reported to have 

earned mostly B’s, mostly C’s, and most D’s or F’s, respectively). 

• Thirty-eight percent of students who parents did not mainly speak English at home had 

parents who perceived that their child’s school did very well at providing information to 

help their child plan for postsecondary education, compared to 31 percent whose parents 

mainly spoke English. 

 

1

 The United States includes the 50 states and the District of Columbia, plus the following U.S. territories (Puerto 

Rico, Guam, American Samoa, U.S. Virgin Islands, Mariana Islands or Solomon Islands). 

iv 
• Forty-six percent of private school students compared to 31 percent of public school 

students had parents who perceived that their child’s school did very well at providing 

information to help their child plan for postsecondary education. 

Financial Planning for Postsecondary Education 

 

Among students whose parents expected them to continue their education after high 

school, 82 percent had parents who reported that the family was planning on helping to pay their 

child’s postsecondary education costs.2 Furthermore, among those whose family was planning 

on helping to pay the costs, 66 percent had parents who reported that they had enough 

information about postsecondary education costs to begin planning.3

 

• Eighty-seven percent of White and 85 percent of Other, non-Hispanic students had 

parents who reported that the family was planning on helping to pay the costs, compared 

to 77 percent of Asian students, 76 percent of Black students, and 72 percent of Hispanic 

students. Further, a higher percentage of White students (72 percent) had parents who 

reported that they had enough information about postsecondary education costs to begin 

planning than Asian (62 percent), Black (58 percent), Other, non-Hispanic (56 percent), 

and Hispanic (47 percent) students. 

• A higher percentage of students from two parent families had parents who reported that 

the family was planning on helping to pay the costs (86 percent), compared to students 

from single parent families (76 percent) and those from other types of family 

arrangements (64 percent). Further, a higher percentage of students from two parent 

families had parents who reported that they had enough information about the costs to 

begin planning (69 percent) than students from single parent families (60 percent) or 

other types of family arrangements (49 percent). 

• A higher percentage of students whose parents had earned at least a bachelor’s degree 

had parents who reported that the family was planning on helping to pay the costs (92 

percent) than students whose parents had completed less education (81, 75, and 60 

percent for parents who had some postsecondary education, graduated high school, and 

had less than a high school diploma, respectively). Further, a higher percentage of 

students whose parents had earned at least a bachelor’s degree had parents who reported 

that they had enough information about the costs to begin planning (81 percent) than 

students whose parents had completed less education (62, 51, and 31 percent for parents 

who had some postsecondary education, graduated high school, and had less than a high 

school diploma, respectively). 

• Ninety-one percent of private school students had parents who said that the family was 

planning on helping to pay the costs, compared to 82 percent of public school students, 

and 77 percent of homeschooled students. However, 78 percent of private school students 

 

2

 The 2003 PFI asked parents “do you or does anyone in your family plan to help (child) pay for (his/her) education 

after high school, or have you not thought about it yet?” To simplify the text “family” refers to “...you or anyone in 

your family...” 

3

 To further simplify the text, all references to results about parents having enough information on postsecondary 

education costs apply to the sample of students whose parents reported that the family was planning on helping to 

pay for the costs. 

v 
and 77 percent of homeschooled students compared to 65 percent of public school 

students had parents who said that they had enough information about the costs to begin 

planning. 

Study Considerations 

Like most studies, this report has several considerations that should be kept in mind when 

interpreting the results. First, the 2003 PFI data used in this report are based on reports provided 

by parents of the sampled students. While good for studying issues such as perceptions about the 

delivery of useful information about postsecondary education from their children’s schools, 

parent reports are indirect measures of many of the variables reported here such as financial 

planning for the sampled students’ postsecondary education. 

For this study, all group differences were tested for statistical significance using two-tailed 

Student’s t-tests, and all differences discussed in the report are statistically significant at the p < 

.05 level. These bivariate tests examined differences between groups defined by select student, 

family, and parental involvement characteristics on each of the outcome variables of interest. It is 

important to note that the analysis variables employed in this report may be related to one 

another, and complex interactions and relationships have not been explored here. Furthermore, 

this report is descriptive in nature, and readers are cautioned not to draw causal inferences based 

solely on the results presented. Release of this descriptive report and the data upon which it is 

based is intended to encourage more in-depth analyses of the relationship between these 

variables using more sophisticated statistical methods. 

vi 
Foreword 

 This statistical analysis report presents information about the educational expectations 

parents have for their children and several steps both students and parents take to prepare for the 

pursuit of postsecondary education. The data used for the analyses in this report are from the 

2003 National Household Surveys Program (NHES) Parent and Family Involvement in 

Education Survey (PFI). Aspects of this report provide follow-up information from a previous 

NHES report on paying for college (NCES 2003-030), in particular parent expectations for 

postsecondary education for their children and knowledge and plans for paying the costs of 

postsecondary education. 

We hope that the information provided in this report will be useful to a wide range of 

interested readers, including both researchers and policymakers. We further hope that the results 

reported here will encourage others to use the NHES data, both now and in the future. 

 Mark Schneider, Commissioner 

 National Center for Education Statistics 

 

vii 
 

Acknowledgments 

 The authors would like to thank Paula Knepper, Lisa Hudson, and Shelley Burns from 

NCES, Matt Adams, Stephen Mistler, and Aparna Sundaram from the American Institutes of 

Research (AIR) for their thoughtful reviews of this report. 

viii 
Contents 

Page

Executive Summary............................................................................................................. iii 

Parent Expectations for Their Children’s Educational Attainment ............................. iii 

Parent Assessment of School Provided Information ................................................... iv 

Financial Planning for Postsecondary Education ..........................................................v

Study Considerations ................................................................................................... vi

Foreword............................................................................................................................. vii 

Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................. viii 

List of Tables....................................................................................................................... xi 

List of Figures.................................................................................................................... xiii 

Introduction............................................................................................................................1 

Data and Methods ..................................................................................................................5 

Parent Expectations for Their Children’s Educational Attainment .......................................7 

Parent Assessment of School-Provided Information ...........................................................13

Financial Planning for Postsecondary Education ................................................................17

Summary and Conclusions ..................................................................................................25

References............................................................................................................................27

Appendix A—Glossary..................................................................................................... A-1 

Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology.............................................................B-1

Appendix C—Supplemental Tables ..................................................................................C-1

Appendix D—T-test Results Tables ................................................................................ D-1

ix 
 

x
 

List of Tables 

Table Page 

1 Number and percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students according 

to the highest level of education their parents expected them to obtain, by selected student, 

family, school, and parental involvement characteristics: 2003 ..................................................10 

2 Number and percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students according to 

how well their parents perceived that the school provided information about how to 

help students plan for postsecondary education, by selected student, family, school, 

and parental involvement characteristics: 2003...........................................................................15 

3 Number and percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students whose parents 

expected them to attain at least some postsecondary education according to whether parents 

reported that the family was planning on helping to pay postsecondary education costs, by 

selected student, family, school, and parental involvement characteristics: 2003.......................19 

4 Number and percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students whose family was 

planning on helping to pay postsecondary education costs according to whether parents 

reported that they had enough information about college costs to begin planning, by selected 

student, family, school, and parental involvement characteristics: 2003.....................................22 

Appendix C Tables 

C1 Standard errors for table 1: Number and percentage distribution of 6th through 12th 

grade students according to the highest level of education their parents expected them 

to obtain, by selected student, family, school, and parental involvement characteristics: 

2003 ........................................................................................................................................... C-2 

C2 Standard errors for table 2: Number and percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade 

students according to how well their parents perceived the school provided information 

about how to help students plan for postsecondary education, by selected student, family, 

school, and parental involvement characteristics: 2003............................................................. C-4 

xi
 

Table Page 

C3 Standard errors for table 3: Number and percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade 

students whose parents expected them to attain at least some postsecondary education 

according to whether parents reported that the family was planning on helping to pay 

postsecondary education costs, by selected student, family, school, and parental 

involvement characteristics: 2003..............................................................................................C-6 

C4 Standard errors for table 4: Number and percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade 

students whose family was planning on helping to pay postsecondary education costs 

according to whether parents reported that they had enough information about college costs 

to begin planning, by selected student, family, school, and parental involvement 

characteristics: 2003................................................................................................................... C-8 

Appendix D Tables 

D1 T-test results for table 1 comparisons: Percentage distribution of 6th through 12th 

grade students according to the highest level of education their parents expected them 

to obtain, by selected student, family, school, and parental involvement characteristics: 

2003 ...........................................................................................................................................D-2 

D2 T-test results for table 2 comparisons: Percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade 

students according to how well their parents perceived the school provided information 

about how to help students plan for postsecondary education, by selected student, family, 

school, and parental involvement characteristics: 2003.............................................................D-4 

D3 T-test results for table 3 comparisons: Percentage distribution of 6th through 

12th grade students whose parents expected them to attain at least some postsecondary 

education according to whether parents reported that the family was planning on helping to 

pay postsecondary education costs, by selected student, family, school, and parental 

involvement characteristics: 2003..............................................................................................D-6 

D4 T-test results for table 4 comparisons: Percentage distribution of 6th through 

12th grade students whose family was planning on helping to pay postsecondary education 

costs according to whether parents reported that they had enough information about college 

costs to begin planning, by selected student, family, school, and parental involvement 

characteristics: 2003...................................................................................................................D-8 

xii
 

List of Figures 

Figure Page 

1 Percentage of students in grades 6 through 12 according to the highest level of education 

their parents expected them to obtain, by parent-reported students' average grades across 

subjects: 2003 ................................................................................................................................8 

 

2 Percentage of students in grades 6 through 12 whose family was planning on helping to 

pay their postsecondary education costs and whose parents reported that they had enough 

information about college costs to begin planning, by household income: 2003 ........................21 

xiii
 

xiv
Introduction 

The expectations parents have for their children’s educational future can provide a 

foundation for student achievement and educational attainment. Previous studies have attempted 

to show that the educational expectations parents have for their children are associated with the 

educational expectations children have for themselves. For instance, Trusty and Pirtle (1998) 

used National Educational Longitudinal Survey (NELS) data to compare student perceived 

parental expectations for them with their own educational expectations. They found little 

disagreement between the two, and that if anything adolescents reported slightly higher 

expectations for themselves than what they perceived their parents expected of them. In a 

different study involving ninth-grade students from a Midwest state, Hossler and Stage (1992) 

accounted for 36 percent of the variation in students’ predisposition to college (i.e., choice on 

whether to continue their education beyond high school) in a model that found a direct 

association with parents’ expectations. Moreover, the magnitude of the direct association 

between the two was approximately three times larger than the next strongest association 

between participation in high school activities and students’ predisposition to college. 

Other studies have attempted to examine associations between parents’ expectations and 

their children’s academic achievement and attainment. In using first grade data from the 

Beginning School Study, Thompson, Alexander, and Entwisle (1988) found that the performance 

expectations parents held for their children were higher in dual-parent households than in single 

parent households, and that these higher expectations mediated most of the association between 

household composition and the school performance gains children made during first grade. 

Several studies used NELS data to also examine this issue. For instance, Masino and Hodapp 

(1996) found that parents’ expectations were higher among students who performed better in 

school regardless of student disability status. Fan (2001) found that parents’ expectations were 

positively associated with growth in student achievement in reading, mathematics, science, and 

social studies from grade 8 through grade 12, even after statistically controlling for 

socioeconomic status. More recently, Sandefur, Meier, and Campbell (2006) used NELS data to 

examine social capital differences in the predicted probabilities of students working toward a 

four-year college or bachelor’s degree compared with other forms of postsecondary education 

(i.e., two-year college or associate’s degree, certificate or other postsecondary education but not 

working toward a degree). They found that the predicted probability of attending a four-year 

college was nearly six times greater among students whose parents expected them to earn a 

bachelor’s degree, who regularly discussed with them aspects of their schooling (e.g., school 

program, activities at school, and studies), and who frequently made contact with the school on 

academic matters and were more involved in school activities than students whose parents 

expected them only finish high school and who were generally not involved in any aspect of their 

children’s schooling. 

Studies have also examined which characteristics are associated with differences in the 

educational expectations parents have for their children. Many of these studies are also based on 

analysis of NELS data. For example, Cheng and Starks (2002) found that Asian, Hispanic, and 

Black students perceived higher parent educational expectations of them than White students. 

1 
 

However, this finding was evident only when expectations for a four-year college degree and 

graduate education were combined together, as their analysis further documented that White 

students were more likely than students in any of the other three racial/ethnic groups to perceive 

parent expectations of them to complete a four-year college degree only. Both Glick and White 

(2004) and Hao and Bonstead-Bruns (1998) used NELS data to examine differences in parents’ 

expectations based on immigrant status and found that parents of immigrant families tended to 

have higher expectations for their children than parents of non-immigrant families. Finally, 

research on differences based on parental characteristics has shown that expectations are greater 

among parents with higher incomes and higher levels of educational attainment (Fan 2001; 

Roscigno and Crowley 2001). 

The purpose of this report is to describe the educational expectations that parents report 

having for their children, and to examine differences in these expectations across groups that 

differ on some key student, family, and school characteristics as reported by parents (e.g., grade, 

sex, race and ethnicity, household income, parent education, extent of parental involvement in 

educational and cultural activities with their children). In addition, this study will examine the 

extent to which parents who expect their children to obtain postsecondary education plan to 

provide financial assistance for their children’s postsecondary education, the extent to which 

they report they have enough information to begin such planning, and the extent to which they 

perceive their children’s schools as providing useful information for planning for postsecondary 

education. 

The data source for this report was the 2003 National Household Education Surveys 

Program (NHES) Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey (PFI). The 2003 PFI was 

included in the seventh wave of the NHES study and represents the third wave of the PFI. The 

2003 PFI was collected from parents of students enrolled in kindergarten through grade 12 

attending regular schools or being homeschooled in the 50 states and the District of Columbia. 

It focused on parents’ involvement with their children’s schools and participation in educational 

activities outside of school. The analytical sample in this report was restricted to the roughly 

6,800 students in grades 6th through 12th, since questions about postsecondary education were 

only asked of parents of these students.1,2

 

This report addresses the following research questions: 

• What educational expectations did parents of 6th through 12th grade students have for 

their children? Do these expectations vary by student, family, school, and parental 

involvement characteristics? 

• How well did parents of 6th through 12th grade students perceive that their children’s 

schools provided information helpful in planning for postsecondary education? Do these 

parent perceptions vary by student, family, school, and parental involvement 

characteristics? 

 

1

 This includes 170 children who are ungraded, homeschooled, or in special education, but who are in the grade 

equivalent of 6th to 12th grade. 

2

 The plural use of the term ‘parents’ in this report can refer to one or both parents of a student. 

2
 

• Among 6th through 12th grade students whose parents expected them to continue 

education after high school, what percentage of students had parents who reported that 

their families planned to help pay the postsecondary education costs? Further, what 

percentage of students had parents who reported that they had enough information about 

these costs to begin planning? Finally, do these plans to pay postsecondary education 

costs, and perceived levels of knowledge about these costs, vary by student, family, 

school, and parental involvement characteristics? 

 

3
 

4
 

Data and Methods 

The data for this report are from the Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey 

(PFI) of the 2003 National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:2003). NHES 

surveys collect data on education related topics from households.3

 The 2003 PFI collected 

information from parents about topics such as school choice, parental involvement in students’ 

schools and education, students’ participation in extracurricular activities outside of school, 

students’ academic performance and problems in school, parent expectations about their 

children’s educational attainment, and parent financial planning for students’ postsecondary 

education. 

Study Sample and Methods 

The NHES:2003 sample was selected using random digit dialing (RDD) methods, and the 

data were collected using computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) technology. A 

random sample of telephone numbers was selected in the first stage, and within each household 

with eligible children, at least one eligible child was selected in the second stage. The sample for 

the 2003 survey is nationally representative of all children in kindergarten through grade 12 

enrolled in regular school or homeschooled in the 50 states and the District of Columbia. The 

person chosen as the respondent for the interview was the parent or guardian in the household 

who knew the most about the child’s education.4

 Although the interview respondent was an 

adult, the sampling unit and unit of analysis is the child. The weighted response rate for 

NHES:2003 screener was 65 percent with about 32,000 households completing a screener. The 

2003 PFI completion rate, or the percentage of eligible sampled children for whom interviews 

were completed, was 83 percent. In total, parents of about 12,400 students completed the 

interview. Thus, the weighted overall response rate for the 2003 PFI was 54 percent (the product 

of the Screener response rate and the PFI completion rate). 

The sample in this report includes parents of about 6,800 students in grades 6 through 

12.5

 The sample was limited to students in grades 6 through 12 because questions about 

postsecondary education were asked only of parents of these students. Since students are the unit 

of analysis for all analyses presented in this report, the results are discussed as differences 

between populations of students and not parents (e.g., percent of students had parents who...). 

The variables of interest in this report are: 1) the highest level of education parents 

expected their children to obtain, 2) how well parents perceived that their children’s schools 

provided information helpful in postsecondary education planning, 3) parent reports of whether 

families were planning to provide financial support for their children’s postsecondary education, 

and 4) parents’ perceived knowledge about postsecondary education costs. This report compares 

differences in these variables by the following student, family, and parent involvement 

characteristics: 1) grade in school, 2) sex, 3) race/ethnicity, 4) parent-reported average grades 

 

3

 For a detailed description of the survey, see appendix B. 

4

 Hereafter, “parent” is used as shorthand for “parent or guardian.” 5

 This includes 170 students who were ungraded, homeschooled, or in special education, but who were in the grade 

equivalent of 6th to 12th grade. Four students ages 12 to 19 whose grade level could not be determined were 

excluded from the analysis. 

5
 

across all subjects, 5) family structure, 6) household income, 7) language spoken most at home 

by parents at home, 8) parents’ country of birth, 9) parents’ highest level of education, 10) school 

type, 11) joint parent-student participation in educational and cultural activities, and 12) parentstudent discussions about time management strategies. 

The Student’s t-test was used in comparisons to indicate whether differences between two 

estimates were statistically different (see appendix B for more detail including information for 

how to calculate and interpret). All t-tests were two-tailed tests using a .05 level of significance. 

The discussion of results is limited to statistically significant differences across the response 

categories for the variables of interest. Not all statistically significant differences are discussed in 

this report. 6

Study Considerations 

There are several considerations that should be kept in mind when interpreting the results 

presented in this report. First, the 2003 PFI data in this report are based on reports by parents of 

the sampled students. While good for measuring the experiences of the sampled students’ parents 

for such issues as perceptions about postsecondary information received from their children’s 

schools, parent reports are indirect measures of many of the variables included in the analysis of 

this report. More specifically, they are not direct measures of the information schools actually 

provide to help students plan for postsecondary education, or direct measures of the actual plans 

families may have in place to help pay for their children’s postsecondary education and whether 

the information they have is actually sufficient to begin planning on how to pay these costs. 

Another consideration is that the results presented in this report are from bivariate 

comparisons. The bivariate comparisons test for differences between groups defined by each of 

the student, family, and parental involvement characteristics described above on each of the 

outcome variables of interest. Furthermore, this report is descriptive in nature, and readers are 

cautioned not to draw causal inferences based solely on the results presented. It is important to 

note that the analysis variables employed in this report may be related to one another, and 

complex interactions and relationships have not been explored here. Release of this descriptive 

report and the data upon which it is based is intended to encourage more in-depth analyses of the 

relationship between these variables using more sophisticated statistical methods. 

A final consideration is that the 2003 PFI data do not include reports by parents of 

students who have dropped out of school. As noted earlier, the sample is nationally 

representative of all children in kindergarten through grade 12 enrolled in regular school or 

homeschooled. One concern is that some dropouts may end up returning to school to complete 

their education and pursue some form of postsecondary education. 

 

6

 The tables in appendix D provide a summary of statistically significant and non-significant results of all t-test 

comparisons conducted in the analysis to this report. 

6
 

Parent Expectations for Their Children’s Educational 

Attainment 

Parents tend to believe and expect that their child will continue their education after high 

school. Data from the 2003 PFI show that 91 percent of students in grades 6 through 12 had 

parents who expected them to continue their education after high school. Of these, 65 percent 

had parents who expected them to earn at least a bachelor’s degree, and 26 percent had parents 

who expected them to complete some postsecondary education (table 1).7 In this discussion, we 

will focus on some of the statistically significant differences in parents’ expectations that their 

children will finish college. Appendix table D1 summarizes all of the group comparisons that 

were conducted involving parent expectations for postsecondary educational attainment. 

Student Characteristics 

 Parent expectations varied by several student characteristics. The data, for instance, show 

that expectations were lower for older students (grades 9 through 12). Sixty-eight percent of 

students in grades 6 through 8 had parents who expected them to finish college, compared to 62 

percent of students in grades 9 and 10, and 64 percent of students in grades 11 and 12. 

Meanwhile, a higher percentage of girls than boys had parents who expected them to finish 

college (69 percent vs. 62 percent). Differences by student race and ethnicity show that Asian 

students had the highest percentage of parents who expected them to finish college (80 percent 

versus 66 percent among White students, 64 percent among Black and Hispanic students, and 53 

percent among Other, non-Hispanic students). As figure 1 shows, parent expectations were 

higher among students who earned better grades. For instance, 86 percent of students reported to 

have earned mostly A’s had parents who expected them to finish college, compared to 64 percent 

of students reported to have earned mostly B’s, 38 percent of students reported to have earned 

mostly C’s, and 24 percent of students reported to have earned mostly D’s or F’s.8

 

Family Characteristics 

 Parent expectations varied by several family characteristics. A higher percentage of 

students from two-parent families (69 percent) had parents who expected them to finish college 

than students from single-parent families (58 percent) and students from other types of family 

 

7

 The 2003 PFI asked parents how far they expect their child to go in his/her education. The response categories 

were: 1) to receive less than a high school education, 2) to graduate from high school, 3) to attend a vocational or 

technical school after high school, 4) to attend two or more years of college, 5) to finish a four- or five-year college 

degree, and 6) to earn a graduate degree or professional degree beyond a bachelors (see appendix A). For this report 

the responses were combined into three categories: 1) high school or less, 2) some postsecondary education, and 3) 

college graduate or higher. 

8 Additional analysis of the data revealed differences when broken down by grade level. Thirty-five percent of D or 

F performing students in grades 6 though 8 had parents who expected them to finish college, compared to 18 percent 

of similar performing students in grades 9 and 10, and 10 percent of similar performing students in grades 11 and 

12. 

7
 

arrangements (52 percent). 9 Meanwhile, a higher percentage of students from families with 

household incomes greater than $75,000 (83 percent) had parents who expected them to finish 

college than students from families with smaller household incomes (51 to 70 percent). 

Parent expectations varied by the language parents mainly spoke at home and whether 

parents were born inside the United States or not. Seventy-two percent of students whose parents 

mainly spoke a language other than English at home and 76 percent of students whose parents 

were born outside of the United States had parents who expected them to finish college. By 

comparison, 65 percent of students whose parents spoke English and 63 percent of students 

whose parents were born inside the United States had parents who expected them to finish 

college. 

Figure 1. Percentage of students in grades 6 through 12 according to the highest level of 

education their parents expected them to obtain, by parent-reported students' average 

grades across subjects: 2003 

3

11

86

7

29

64

18

44

38 35

42

24

0

20

40

60

80

100

High school or less Some postsecondary

education

Bachelor's degree or higher

Percent

Mostly A's

Mostly B's

Mostly C's

Mostly D's or F's

Parent expectations for child's educational future 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent and Family Involvement 

in Education Survey of the 2003 National Household Education Surveys Program (PFI-NHES:2003). 

 

9

 “Other” types of family arrangements include non-parent guardians (i.e., persons other than birth, adoptive, step or 

foster mothers and fathers such as grandparents, aunts, or uncles). Please see appendix A for more detail on how the 

family type (structure) variable was categorized. 

8
 

School Characteristics 

 Parent expectations were also higher among students who attended private schools. 

Eighty-three percent of private school students had parents who expected them to finish college, 

compared to 64 percent of public school students, and 55 percent of homeschooled students. 

Parental Involvement 

 

 The 2003 PFI asked parents whether they had engaged in a series of activities with their 

child within the previous month. For this report, responses to four activities (visited a library; 

gone to a play, concert, or other live show; visited an art gallery, museum, or historical site; and 

visited a zoo or aquarium) were summed to form an index that ranged from engaged in zero 

(engaged in none of the listed activities) to three or four types (engaged in three or four of the 

listed activities).10 This report also includes a parent involvement variable that is from another 

PFI survey question that asked whether parents discussed time management strategies with their 

children. 

Based on the four educational and cultural activities taken from the PFI survey and used 

in this report, the results show that a higher percentage of students who participated more 

frequently with their parents in these kinds of activities had parents who expected them to finish 

college. Specifically, 80 percent of students whose parents reported participating in three or four 

types of educational activities with them, and 78 percent of students whose parents reported 

participating in two types of activities, had parents who expected them to finish college. The 

difference between these two groups was not statistically significant, but both groups were 

significantly more likely to have parents who expected them to finish college than were students 

whose parents reported engaging in one of the listed types of activities (64 percent), and all three 

groups were significantly more likely to have parents who expected them to finish college than 

were students whose parents reported no participation in any of the listed activities (57 percent). 

 

10 Please see appendix A for details on how the parent-student participation in educational and cultural activities 

index was constructed. 

9
 

 Total 28,182 9 26

Student characteristics

Grade in school

 6 through 8 12,472 9 23 68

 9 and 10 7,936 11 27 62

 11 and 12 7,773 8 28 64

Sex

 Male 14,461 11 27 62

 Female 13,721 7 24 69

Race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 18,026 8 26 66

 Black, non-Hispanic 4,480 11 26 64

 Hispanic 4,066 11 25 64

 Asian/Pacific Islander 755 4 ! 16 80

 Other, non-Hispanic 854 16 30 53

Student's avera

65

ge grades across all subjects2

 Mostly A's 10,581 3 11 86

 Mostly B's 10,444 7 29 64

 Mostly C's 5,234 18 44 38

 Mostly D/F's 1,269 35 42 24

Family characteristics

Family structure

 Single parent 7,699 12 30 58

 Two parent 19,528 8 23 69

 Other 955 19 28 52

Household income

$25,000 or less 6,701 17 32 51

$25,001 to $50,000 7,261 11 33 56

$50,001 to $75,000 6,224 5 25 70

More than $75,000 7,995 4 14 83

Language spoken most at home by parents

 Other 2,927 11 16 72

 English 25,255 9 27 65

Parents' country of birth

 Other 4,914 8 17 76

 United States or U.S. Territories 23,268 9 27 63

Parents' education

 Bachelor's degree or higher 10,104 2 10 88

 Some postsecondary education1 8,612 7 31 62

 High school only 7,450 16 40 44

 Less than high school 2,016 28 29 44

School characteristics

School type

 Public 24,796 10 27 64

 Private 2,732 4 13 83

 Homeschool3 654 12 ! 33 55

See notes at end of table.

Characteristic

Table 1. Number and percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students according to the highest level of education their 

Table 1. parents expected them to obtain, by selected student, family, school, and parental involvement characteristics: 2003

Number of

students 

(in thousands)

High school 

or less

(percent)

Some

postsecondary 

education1

(percent)

Bachelor's degree 

or higher

(percent)

10
 

Parental involvement

Parent-student educational/cultural activities index4

 No activities 10,749 13 30 57

 One activity 9,594 9 27 64

 Two activities 5,492 4 18 78

 Three or four activities 2,347 4 15 80

Discussed time management

 No 6,134 10 26 63

 Yes 22,047 9 25 66

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey of 

the 2003 National Household Education Surveys Program (PFI-NHES:2003).

Bachelor's degree 

or higher

Characteristic (percent)

Number of

students 

(in thousands)

High school 

or less

(percent)

Some

postsecondary 

education1

(percent)

2 This question is based on parental reports of student's average grades and was not asked of parents of homeschoolers who attended public 

or private school less than 9 hours per week.

3 Homeschoolers include children schooled at home who attended public or private schools less than 9 hours per week.

1 "Some postsecondary education" includes attending a vocational or technical school after high school and attending two or more years of 

college but less than finishing a four- or five-year college degree.

NOTE: The "Number of students" column are population totals. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

4 The Parent and Family Involvement in Education (PFI) survey measured four forms of educational and cultural activities that students and 

parents can share. These activities, measured on a monthly basis, include: 1) visiting a library, 2) attending a concert or play, 3) visiting an 

art gallery, museum, or historical site, and 4) visiting a zoo or aquarium. 

! Interpret data with caution. Standard error is more than 30 percent as large as estimate. 

Table 1. Number and percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students according to the highest level of education their 

Table 1. parents expected them to obtain, by selected student, family, school, and parental involvement characteristics: 

Table 1. 2003—Continued

11
 

 

 

12
 

Parent Assessment of School-Provided Information 

Schools can often provide information that is helpful in postsecondary education planning. 

The 2003 PFI asked parents how well they thought their child’s school provided information on 

how to help their child plan for postsecondary education. Table 2 shows that about one-third (32 

percent) of students had parents who perceived that the school did very well at providing 

information and 28 percent had parents who perceived that the school did just ok at providing 

information. However, a little more than one-quarter (27 percent) of students had parents who 

perceived that their child’s school provided no information at all and 13 percent had parents who 

perceived that the school did not provide information very well. In this discussion, we will focus on 

some of the statistically significant group differences in parents’ perceptions that schools a) did 

very well at providing information, or b) provided no information at all. Appendix table D2 

summarizes all of the group comparisons that were conducted involving perceptions of how well 

schools provided information. 

Student Characteristics 

Perceptions parents had about how well their child’s school provided information varied by 

two student characteristics. A higher percentage of older students (grades 9 through 12) than 

younger students (grades 6 through 8) had parents who perceived that their child’s school did very 

well at providing information. Forty-six percent of students in grades 11 and 12 and 38 percent of 

students in grades 9 and 10 had parents who perceived that their child’s school did very well at 

providing information, compared to 20 percent of students in grades 6 through 8. Conversely, 42 

percent of students in grades 6 through 8 had parents who perceived that their child’s school 

provided no information at all, compared to 20 percent of students in grades 9 and 10, and 11 

percent of students in grades 11 and 12. Meanwhile, students reported to have earned mostly A’s 

had the highest percentage of parents who perceived that their child’s school did very well at 

providing information. Thirty-six percent of students reported to have earned mostly A’s had 

parents who perceived that their child’s school did very well at providing information, compared to 

32 percent of students reported to have earned mostly B’s, 27 percent of students reported to have 

earned mostly C’s, and 19 percent of students reported to have earned mostly D’s or F’s. 

Family Characteristics 

Perceptions parents had about how well their child’s school provided information varied by 

several family characteristics. Compared to students from single parent families and students from 

other types of family arrangements, a lower percentage of students from two-parent families (25 

percent versus 30 and 37 percent) had parents who perceived that their child’s school provided no 

information at all. Similarly, 24 percent of students from families with household incomes between 

$50,001 and $75,000 and 23 percent from families with household incomes greater than $75,000 

had parents who perceived that their child’s school provided no information at all, compared to 28 

percent from families with household incomes between $25,001 and $50,000 and 34 percent from 

families with household incomes of $25,000 or less. 

Differences were also found based on the language parents most often spoke at home and 

whether parents were born inside the United States or not. Among students whose parents mainly 

13
 

spoke a language other than English at home, 38 percent had parents who perceived that their 

child’s school did very well at providing information. By comparison, among students whose 

parents spoke English, 31 percent had parents who perceived that their child’s school did very 

well at providing information. Meanwhile, among students whose parents were born outside the 

United States, 35 percent had parents who perceived that their child’s school did very well at 

providing information, compared to 32 percent of students whose parents were born inside the 

United States. 

Finally, among students whose parents had completed a high school education or less, a 

higher percentage had parents who perceived that their child’s school provided no information at 

all than students whose parents had graduated from college. Specifically, 32 percent of students 

whose parents had less than a high school education and 29 percent of students whose parents 

had a high school education had parents who reported similar perceptions, compared to 24 

percent of students whose parents had graduated from college. Further, among students whose 

parents had lower educational expectations for them, a higher percentage had parents who 

perceived that their child’s school provided no information at all. In this case, 33 percent of 

students whose parents did not expect them to continue their education beyond high school had 

parents who reported this, compared to 27 percent of students whose parents expected them to 

complete some postsecondary education, and 26 percent of students whose parents expected 

them to finish college. 

School Characteristics 

 A higher percentage of private school students than public school students had parents 

who perceived that their child’s school did very well at providing information to help their child 

plan for postsecondary education (46 percent versus 31 percent). 

Parental Involvement 

Among students whose parents discussed time management strategies with them, a 

smaller percentage had parents who perceived that their child’s school provided no information 

at all than students whose parents did not (26 percent versus 32 percent). 

 

14
 

 Total 27,528 32 28 13 27

Student characteristics

Grade in school

 6 through 8 12,181 20 24 15 42

 9 and 10 7,792 38 32 10 20

 11 and 12 7,555 46 32 11 11

Sex

 Male 14,152 31 28 13 28

 Female 13,376 33 29 12 26

Race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 17,536 30 31 14 25

 Black, non-Hispanic 4,403 34 25 10 30

 Hispanic 4,030 38 22 9 31

 Asian/Pacific Islander 744 35 31 11 24

 Other, non-Hispanic 815 26 24 11 38

Student's average grades across all subjects1

 Mostly A's 10,581 36 28 12 24

 Mostly B's 10,444 32 28 12 28

 Mostly C's 5,234 27 29 14 30

 Mostly D/F's 1,269 19 27 19 35

Family characteristics

Family structure

 Single parent 7,519 30 26 13 30

 Two parent 19,068 33 29 12 25

 Other 940 32 21 11 37

Household income

$25,000 or less 6,520 32 24 10 34

$25,001 to $50,000 7,075 31 28 13 28

$50,001 to $75,000 6,052 31 32 14 24

More than $75,000 7,881 34 29 13 23

Language spoken most at home by parents

 Other 2,920 38 24 7 32

 English 24,608 31 29 13 26

Parents' country of birth

 Other 4,866 35 25 9 31

 United States or U.S. Territories 22,662 32 29 13 26

Parents' education

 Bachelor's degree or higher 9,854 34 30 12 24

 Some postsecondary education2 8,403 29 30 14 27

 High school only 7,298 32 26 13 29

 Less than high school 1,972 38 22 7 32

Highest level of education parents expect student to obtain

 Bachelor's degree or higher 18,076 34 28 12 26

 Some postsecondary education2 6,974 29 30 14 27

 High school or less 2,478 31 26 10 33

School characteristics

School type

 Public 24,796 31 29 13 27

 Private 2,732 46 23 7 24

See notes at end of table.

Doesn't

do it

at all

Table 2. Number and percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students according to how well their parents perceived that the school 

Table 2. provided information about how to help students plan for postsecondary education, by selected student, family, school, and parental 

Table 2. involvement characteristics: 2003

Characteristic

Number of

students 

(in thousands)

How to help student plan for postsecondary education

(percent)

Does it

very well Just ok

Not

very well

15
 

Parental involvement

Parent-student educational/cultural activities index3

 No activities 10,575 31 29 14 26

 One activity 9,369 31 27 13 28

 Two activities 5,328 34 28 11 27

 Three or four activities 2,255 36 28 7 29

Discussed time management

 No 6,066 30 25 13 32

 Yes 21,462 33 29 12 26

of the 2003 National Household Education Surveys Program (PFI-NHES:2003).

NOTE: The "Number of students" column are population totals. Sample is limited to parents of students who attended private or public school for 9 hours or 

more per week. Details may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey

2

 "Some postsecondary education" includes attending a vocational or technical school after high school and attending two or more years of college but less 

than finishing a four- or five-year college degree.

3 The Parent and Family Involvement in Education (PFI) survey measured four forms of educational and cultural activities that students and parents can 

share. These activities, measured on a monthly basis, include: 1) visiting a library, 2) attending a concert or play, 3) visiting an art gallery, museum, or 

historical site, and 4) visiting a zoo or aquarium. 

1 This question is based on parental reports of student's average grades and was not asked of parents of homeschoolers who attended public or private school 

less than 9 hours per week.

Table 2. provided information about how to help students plan for postsecondary education, by selected student, family, school, and parental 

Table 2. involvement characteristics: 2003—Continued

Characteristic

Number of

students 

(in thousands)

How to help student plan for postsecondary education

(percent)

Does it

very well Just ok

Not

very well

Doesn't

do it

at all

Table 2. Number and percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students according to how well their parents perceived that the school 

 

16
 

Financial Planning for Postsecondary Education 

Families can act upon the expectations they have for their children’s postsecondary 

education by planning to help finance the education costs. Among students whose parents 

expected them to continue their education after high school, the 2003 PFI asked the parents if 

they or someone in their family was planning on helping to pay for their child’s postsecondary 

education, and if they felt they had enough information about the costs to begin planning.11 

The results discussed in this section apply only to students whose parents expected them 

to continue their education after high school. More specifically, the results in table 3 are based on 

the sample of students whose parents expected them to continue their education after high 

school, while the results in table 4 are based on the sample of students whose parents expected 

them to continue their education beyond high school and whose parents reported that they or 

someone in their family was planning on helping to pay for their child’s postsecondary education 

costs. The data presented in table 3 show that 82 percent of students had parents who reported 

that the family was planning on helping to pay the costs of their child’s postsecondary education. 

Meanwhile, the data presented in table 4 show that among students whose parents reported that 

the family was planning on helping to pay the costs, 66 percent had parents who reported that 

they had enough information about postsecondary education costs to begin planning. In this 

discussion, we will focus on some of the statistically significant group differences in the 

percentage of parents who responded affirmatively to these questions. Appendix tables D3 and 

D4 summarize all of the group comparisons that were conducted involving parent-reported 

planning to pay for children’s postsecondary education. 

Student Characteristics 

There were differences in postsecondary education financial planning based on student 

race and ethnicity and students’ average grades across all subjects. A higher percentage of White 

students (87 percent) than Black (76 percent), Hispanic (72 percent), and Asian (77 percent) 

students had parents who reported that the family was planning on helping to pay the costs, while 

a higher percentage of Other, non-Hispanic (85 percent) students than Black or Hispanic students 

had parents who reported the same.12 Moreover, White students had the highest percentage of 

parents who reported that they had enough information about postsecondary education costs to 

begin planning (72 percent versus 62, 58, 57, and 47 percent). Differences were also observed 

based on the average grades students’ were reported to have earned. Eighty-five percent of 

students reported to have earned mostly A’s and 83 percent reported to have earned mostly B’s 

had parents who reported that the family was planning on helping to pay the costs, compared to 

76 percent reported to have earned mostly C’s, and 75 percent reported to have earned mostly 

 

11 These responses were not followed up by asking parents to estimate the costs of college attendance. However in 

the 1999 NHES Youth and Parent Surveys, respondents were asked to estimate the cost. On average, respondents 

were found to overestimate the costs of college and both household income and parents’ education level (i.e., the 

higher the level, the more likely they were to estimate accurately) were associated with the ability to estimate 

tuition. For more details see Horn, Chen, and Chapman 2003. 

12 The mean difference between Other, non-Hispanic students (85 percent) and Asian students (77 percent) was not 

statistically significant. 

17
 

D’s or F’s. Further, 71 percent of students reported to have earned mostly A’s had parents who 

reported that they had enough information about the costs to begin planning, compared to 64 

percent reported to have earned mostly B’s, 59 percent reported to have earned mostly C’s, and 

48 percent reported to have earned mostly D’s or F’s. 

Family Characteristics 

There were differences in postsecondary education financial planning based on all of the 

family characteristics. First, a higher percentage of students from two parent families had parents 

who reported that the family was planning on helping to pay the costs (86 percent) and that they 

had enough information about postsecondary education costs to begin planning (69 percent) than 

students from single parent families (76 and 60 percent) and students from other types of family 

arrangements (64 and 49 percent). The data in figure 2 show financial planning differences by 

household income. For instance, 94 percent of students from families with household incomes 

greater than $75,000 had parents who reported that the family was planning on helping to pay the 

costs, compared to 88 percent with incomes between $50,001 and $75,000, 78 percent with 

incomes between $25,001 and $50,000, and 66 percent with incomes of $25,000 or less. 

Compared to students whose parents did not mainly speak English at home, a higher 

percentage of those whose parents did had parents who reported that the family was planning on 

helping to pay the costs (85 percent versus 62 percent) and that they had enough information 

about postsecondary education costs to begin planning (69 percent versus 34 percent). Among 

students whose parents were born inside the United States, 85 percent had parents who reported 

that the family was planning on helping to pay the costs and 69 percent had parents who said that 

they had enough information about postsecondary education costs to begin planning. By 

comparison, among students whose parents were born outside the United States, the respective 

percentages were 72 percent and 52 percent. 

 Finally, there were differences based on parental educational attainment and the 

educational expectations parents’ had for their children. For instance, a higher percentage of 

students whose parents had earned at least a bachelor’s degree had parents who reported that the 

family was planning to help pay the costs (92 percent versus 81, 75, and 60 percent) and that 

they had enough information about postsecondary education costs to begin planning (81 percent 

versus 62, 51, and 31 percent) than students whose parents had completed less education. 

Additionally, a higher percentage of students whose parents expected them to finish college had 

parents who reported that the family was planning on helping to pay the costs (85 percent) and 

that they had enough information about postsecondary education costs to begin planning (69 

percent) than students whose parents expected them to complete some postsecondary education. 

18
 

 Total 25,623 82 4 13

Student characteristics

Grade in school

 6 through 8 11,370 83 3 14

 9 and 10 7,063 82 4 14

 11 and 12 7,190 83 7 11

Sex

 Male 12,803 81 5 14

 Female 12,820 83 4 13

Race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 16,564 87 4 9

 Black, non-Hispanic 4,009 76 5 20

 Hispanic 3,613 72 2 26

 Asian/Pacific Islander 721 77 3 21

 Other, non-Hispanic 717 85 5 10

Student's average grades across all subjects1

 Mostly A's 10,251 85 4 11

 Mostly B's 9,700 83 4 13

 Mostly C's 4,270 76 4 19

 Mostly D/F's 829 74 6 20

Family characteristics

Family structure

 Single parent 6,797 76 5 19

 Two parent 18,056 86 4 11

 Other 771 64 7 29

Household income

$25,000 or less 5,547 66 6 28

$25,001 to $50,000 6,463 78 6 17

$50,001 to $75,000 5,904 88 4 8

More than $75,000 7,710 94 2 4

Language spoken most at home by parents

 Other 2,598 62 4 34

 English 23,025 85 4 11

Parents' country of birth

 Other 4,542 72 4 23

 United States or U.S. Territories 21,082 85 4 11

Parents' education

 Bachelor's degree or higher 9,940 92 3 5

 Some postsecondary education2 7,999 81 6 14

 High school only 6,222 75 4 21

 Less than high school 1,462 60 4 37

Highest level of education parents expect student to obtain

 Bachelor's degree or higher 18,434 85 4 11

 Some postsecondary education2 7,189 75 6 20

 High school or less † † † †

School characteristics

School type

 Public 22,429 82 4 14

 Private 2,621 91 3 6

 Homeschool3 573 77 8 15

See notes at end of table.

Table 3. Number and percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students whose parents expected them to attain at least some 

Table 3. postsecondary education according to whether parents reported that the family was planning on helping to pay postsecondary 

Table 3. education costs, by selected student, family, school, and parental involvement characteristics: 2003

Characteristic

Number of students 

(in thousands)

Family was planning on helping to pay postsecondary 

education costs (percent)

Yes No

Have not

thought

about it

19
 

Parental involvement

Parent-student educational/cultural activities index4

 No activities 9,371 79 5 16

 One activity 8,753 84 4 12

 Two activities 5,250 85 3 12

 Three or four activities 2,249 85 3 12

Discussed time management

 No 5,504 78 6 16

 Yes 20,120 84 4 13

† Not applicable.

Table 3. Number and percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students whose parents expected them to attain at least some 

Table 3. postsecondary education according to whether parents reported that the family was planning on helping to pay postsecondary 

1 This question is based on parental reports of student's average grades and was not asked of parents of homeschoolers who attended public or 

private school less than 9 hours per week.

Characteristic

Number of students 

(in thousands)

Family was planning on helping to pay postsecondary 

education costs (percent)

Yes No

Have not

thought

about it

Table 3. education costs, by selected student, family, school, and parental involvement characteristics: 2003—Continued

NOTE: The "Number of students" column are population totals. Sample in table is limited to those students whose parents expected them to 

continue their education after high school. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey of the 

2003 National Household Education Surveys Program (PFI-NHES:2003).

2 "Some postsecondary education" includes attending a vocational or technical school after high school and attending two or more years of college 

but less than finishing a four- or five-year college degree.

3 Homeschoolers include children schooled at home who attended public or private schools less than 9 hours per week.

4 The Parent and Family Involvement in Education (PFI) survey measured four forms of educational and cultural activities that students and parents 

can share. These activities, measured on a monthly basis, include: 1) visiting a library, 2) attending a concert or play, 3) visiting an art gallery, 

museum, or historical site, and 4) visiting a zoo or aquarium. 

20
 

Figure 2. Percentage of students in grades 6 through 12 whose family was planning on helping to 

pay their postsecondary education costs and whose parents reported that they had 

enough information about college costs to begin planning, by household income: 2003 

66

49

78

57

88

68

94

81

0

20

40

60

80

100

Family was planning

on helping to pay the

costs

Parents had enough

information about the

costs to begin planning

Percent

$25,000 or less $25,001 to $50,000

$50,001 to $75,000 More than $75,000

Financing child's postsecondary education 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent and Family Involvement 

Survey (PFI) of the 2003 National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:2003). 

School Characteristics 

 Ninety-one percent of private school students had parents who reported that the family 

was planning on helping to pay the costs, compared to 82 percent of public school students, and 

77 percent of homeschooled students. However, a higher percentage of both private school and 

homeschooled students had parents who reported that they had enough information about the 

costs to begin planning (78 and 77 percent) than public school students (65 percent). 

Parental Involvement 

 The only observed difference in postsecondary education financial planning based on 

parent involvement was for parent and student discussions of time management. Eighty-four 

percent of students whose parents discussed time management with them within the preceding 

week had parents who reported that the family was planning on helping to pay the costs, 

compared to 78 percent of those whose parent did not. 

21
 Total 21, 108 66 20 13

Student characteristics

Grade in school

 6 through 8 9,392 63 20 17

 9 and 10 5,775 64 23 13

 11 and 12 5,941 73 19 8

Sex

 Male 10,413 67 20 13

 Female 10,696 66 21 13

Race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 14,325 72 17 11

 Black, non-Hispanic 3,029 58 26 16

 Hispanic 2,591 47 33 20

 Asian/Pacific Islander 552 62 19 19

 Other, non-Hispanic 612 56 27 17

Student's average grades across all subjects1

 Mostly A's 8,687 71 18 11

 Mostly B's 8,099 64 22 14

 Mostly C's 3,264 59 23 18

 Mostly D/F's 617 48 34 18

Family characteristics

Family structure

 Single parent 5,134 60 27 14

 Two parent 15,482 69 18 13

 Other 492 49 27 25

Household income

$25,000 or less 3,685 49 30 21

$25,001 to $50,000 5,010 57 27 16

$50,001 to $75,000 5,175 68 18 14

More than $75,000 7,238 81 12 7

Language spoken most at home by parents

 Other 1,616 34 41 25

 English 19,492 69 19 12

Parents' country of birth

 Other 3,284 52 31 17

 United States or U.S. Territories 17,824 69 18 13

Parents' education

 Bachelor's degree or higher 9,151 81 12 7

 Some postsecondary education2 6,445 62 24 14

 High school only 4,642 51 28 22

 Less than high school 870 31 43 27

Highest level of education parents expect student to obtain

 Bachelor's degree or higher 15,734 69 20 11

 Some postsecondary education2 5,375 58 22 20

 High school or less † † † †

School characteristics

School type

 Public 18,273 65 21 14

 Private 2,394 78 13 9

 Homeschool3 442 77 16 7

See notes at end of table.

Table 4. Number and percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students whose family was planning on helping to pay 

Table 4. postsecondary education costs according to whether parents reported that they had enough information about college costs to 

Table 4. begin planning, by selected student, family, school, and parental involvement characteristics: 2003

Characteristic

Number of students 

(in thousands)

Parents had enough information about college costs to start 

planning (percent)

Yes No

Have not

thought

about it

22 
 

Parental involvement

Parent-student educational/cultural activities index4

 No activities 7,382 63 22 16

 One activity 7,364 68 20 13

 Two activities 4,445 70 19 11

 Three or four activities 1,918 67 21 12

Discussed time management

 No 4,287 65 16 19

 Yes 16,821 67 21 12

† Not applicable.

Table 4. Number and percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students whose family was planning on helping to pay 

Table 4. postsecondary education costs according to whether parents reported that they had enough information about college costs to 

Table 4. begin planning, by selected student, family, school, and parental involvement characteristics: 2003—Continued

Characteristic

Number of students 

(in thousands)

Parents had enough information about college costs to start 

planning (percent)

Yes No

Have not

thought

about it

4 The Parent and Family Involvement in Education (PFI) survey measured four forms of educational and cultural activities that students and parents 

can share. These activities, measured on a monthly basis, include: 1) visiting a library, 2) attending a concert or play, 3) visiting an art gallery, 

museum, or historical site, and 4) visiting a zoo or aquarium. 

NOTE: The "Number of students" column are population totals. Sample in table is limited to those students whose parents expected them to 

continue their education after high school and reported that they or someone in their family was planning on helping to pay for postsecondary 

education costs. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey of the 

2003 National Household Education Surveys Program (PFI-NHES:2003).

1 This question is based on parental reports of student's average grades and was not asked of parents of homeschoolers who attended public or 

private school less than 9 hours per week.

2 "Some postsecondary education" includes attending a vocational or technical school after high school and attending two or more years of college 

but less than finishing a four- or five-year college degree.

3 Homeschoolers include children schooled at home who attended public or private schools less than 9 hours per week.

23
 

24
 

Summary and Conclusions 

The purpose of this report was to examine the educational expectations parents had for 

their children, the perceptions parents had about the information schools provided to assist in 

postsecondary education planning, and whether families were planning to help finance the costs 

of a postsecondary education for their children. 

Based on data from the 2003 PFI, roughly nine out of every 10 students (91 percent) in 

grades 6 through 12 had parents who expected them to continue their education beyond high 

school. About two-thirds (65 percent) had parents who expected them to finish college. These 

estimates are consistent with data from the 1999 NHES that estimated 96 percent of students in 

grades 6 through 12 had parents who said they thought their child would continue their education 

after high school (Horn, Chen, and Chapman 2003). The 2003 PFI data also show that about onethird (32 percent) of students had parents who perceived that their child’s school did very well at 

providing information to help their child plan for postsecondary education, while 27 percent had 

parents who perceived that their child’s school provided no information at all. As to financing a 

postsecondary education, among students whose parents expected them to continue their 

education after high school, 82 percent had parents who reported that the family was planning on 

helping to pay for their child’s postsecondary education costs. Further, among those whose 

parents reported that the family was planning on helping to pay the costs, 66 percent had parents 

who reported that they had enough information about postsecondary education costs to begin 

planning. 

 

25
 

26
 

References 

Cheng, S. and Starks, B. (2002). Racial Differences in the Effects of Significant Others on 

Students' Educational Expectations. Sociology of Education, 75(4): 306–337. 

Fan, X. (2001). Parental Involvement and Students' Academic Achievement: A Growth 

Modeling Analysis. Journal of Experimental Education, 70(1): 27–61. 

Glick, J.E. and White, M.J. (2004). Post-Secondary School Participation of Immigrant and 

Native Youth: The Role of Familial Resources and Educational Expectations. Social Science 

Research, 33(2): 272–299. 

Hagedorn, M., Montaquila, J., Vaden-Kiernan, N., Kim, K., and Chapman, C. (2004a). National 

Household Education Surveys of 2003: Data File User’s Manual, Volume I. (NCES 2004-

101). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. 

Department of Education. Washington, DC. 

Hagedorn, M., Montaquila, J., Vaden-Kiernan, N., Kim, K., and Chapman, C. (2004b). National 

Household Education Surveys of 2003: Data File User’s Manual, Volume II, Parent and 

Family Involvement in Education Survey (NCES 2004-102). National Center for Education 

Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC. 

Hao, L. and Bonstead-Bruns, M. (1998). Parent-Child Differences in Educational Expectations 

and the Academic Achievement of Immigrant and Native Students. Sociology of Education, 

71(3): 175–198. 

Horn, L.J., Chen, X., and Chapman, C. (2003). Getting Ready to Pay for College: What Students 

and Their Parents Know About the Cost of College Tuition and What They Are Doing to Find 

Out (NCES 2003-030). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education 

Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC. 

Hossler, D. and Stage, F.K. (1992). Family and High School Experience Influences on the 

Postsecondary Educational Plans of Ninth-Grade Students. American Educational Research 

Journal, 29(2): 425-451. 

Kalton, G., and Kasprzyk, D. (1986). The Treatment of Missing Survey Data. Survey 

Methodology, 12(1): 1–16. 

Masino, L. and Hodapp, R. (1996). Parental Educational Expectations for Adolescents With 

Disabilities. Exceptional Children, 62(6): 515–523. 

Roscigno, V.J., and Crowley, M.L. (2001). Rurality, Institutional Disadvantage, and 

Achievement/Attainment. Rural Sociology, 66(2): 268–292. 

27
 

Roth, S. B., Montaquila, J. M., and Chapman, C. (2006). Nonresponse Bias in the 2005 National 

Household Education Surveys Program. (NCES 2007-016). National Center for Education 

Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC. 

Sandefur, G.D., Meier, A.M., and Campbell, M.E. (2006). Family resources, social capital, and 

college attendance. Social Science Research, 35(2): 525-533. 

Thompson, M.S., Alexander, K.L., and Entwisle, D.R. (1988). Household Composition, Parental 

Expectations, and School Achievement. Social Forces, 67(2): 424–451. 

Trusty, J. and Pirtle, T. (1998). Parents' Transmission of Educational Goals to Their Adolescent 

Children. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 32(1): 53–65. 

U.S. Census Bureau. (2005). Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United 

States: 2004, P60-299. Washington, DC. 

Wolter, K. (1985). Introduction to Variance Estimation. New York: Springer-Verlag. 

28
Appendix A—Glossary 

This glossary describes the variables used in this report. The variables are grouped into one of two types—survey 

variables and derived variables. Survey variables are taken directly from the Parent and Family Involvement in Education (PFI)

survey. Derived variables are created by using information from one or more survey variables in the PFI. The variables are 

further organized across student, family, school, and community characteristics, as well as by indicators of parental involvement, 

parental expectations and preparations for postsecondary education, parent-student discussions, and student problem behaviors. 

Within characteristics, variables are listed in the order they appear in the tables. Data for all of these variables were collected 

from the student’s parent or guardian. 

Glossary Index 

SURVEY VARIABLES 

STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT 

Sex Discussed time management 

 

SCHOOL CHARACTERISTICS 

School provision of information about planning 

 for postsecondary education 

 

DERIVED VARIABLES 

STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS EXPECTATIONS FOR AND PREPARATION OF 

 Grade in school POST-SECONDARY EDUCATION 

Race/ethnicity Postsecondary education expected by parent 

Student’s average grades across all subjects Family plans to help student pay for 

 postsecondary education 

FAMILY CHARACTERISTICS Family has enough information about college 

Family structure costs to start planning 

Poverty 

Language spoken most at home by parents 

Parents’ country of birth 

Parents’ education 

SCHOOL CHARACTERISTICS

 School type 

PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT

Parent- student educational/cultural activities index 

A-1 
 

SURVEY VARIABLES 

Sex 

Indicates student’s sex as reported in the Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey. 

 

 Male 

 Female 

Household income 

Indicates response to the following question asked in the Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey, “In studies like 

this, households are sometimes grouped according to income. What was the total income of all persons in your household over 

the past year, including salaries or other earnings, interest, retirement, and so on for all household members? Was it...” For this 

analysis, the responses were aggregated into the following categories: 

 $25,000 or less 

 $25,0001 to $50,000 

 $50,001 to $75,000 

 More than $75,000 

School provision of information about planning for college 

Indicates response to the question “Please tell me how well (child)’s (school/current school) has been doing the following things 

during this school year: Provides information on how to help (child) plan for college or vocational school.” 

 

Does it very well 

 Just o.k. 

 Not very well 

 Doesn’t do it at all 

 Don’t know 

 

Discussed time management 

Indicates response to the question, “In the past week, have you or has someone in your family done the following things with 

(child): discussed with (child) how (he/she) would manage (his/her) time?” 

 Yes 

 No 

DERIVED VARIABLES 

Grade in school 

Student’s grade level was derived from two variables that were asked in the Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey. 

1. What grade or year is (child) attending? 

2. What grade would (child) be in if (he/she) were attending (school/a school with regular grades)/ What grade or year is (child) 

attending? 

For this report, the responses to these two questions were aggregated into the following categories: 

Grades 6 through 8 

 Grades 9 and 10 

 Grades 11 and 12 

Race/ethnicity 

Indicates student’s race/ethnicity as reported in the Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey. If the student’s ethnicity 

was reported as Hispanic, the race/ethnicity of the student is Hispanic regardless of whether the student’s race was classified as 

White, Black, or another race. Race/ethnicity was created using three variables that asked: 

A-2
 

1. Is (child)... 

White 

Black 

American Indian or Alaska Native 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

Some other race 

2. A probe was used if the respondent answered “Some other race” with the following categories: 

Hispanic/Latino/Mexican/Spanish/Puerto Rican 

More than one race/biracial/multiracial 

Other 

3. Otherwise, respondents were asked, “Is (he/she) of Hispanic origin?” 

Yes 

No 

The constructed categories for race/ethnicity are: 

 White, non-Hispanic 

 Black, non-Hispanic 

 Hispanic 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

Other (American Indian or Alaska Native, biracial, multiracial), non-Hispanic 

Student’s grades across all subjects 

This variable was created by combining the responses from the following questions asked in the Parent and Family Involvement 

in Education Survey: 

1. “Overall, across all subjects ((he/she) takes at school), does (he/she) get mostly: A’s, B’s, C’s, D’s and lower, or does (his/her) 

school not give these grades?” 

2. Those who responded “child’s school does not give these grades” were asked: “Would you describe (his/her) work as: 

excellent, above average, average, below average, or failing?” Excellent was considered equivalent to A’s; above average to B’s; 

average to C’s; below average to D’s; and failing to F’s. 

For this analysis, the responses were aggregated as follows: 

 Mostly A’s or excellent 

 Mostly B’s or above average 

 Mostly C’s or average 

 Mostly D’s or F’s or below average or failing 

Family Structure 

This variable was created based on another derived variable on family type, which indicates the number of parents and siblings.

The categories of this derived variable are as follows: 

Two parents and sibling(s) 

Two parents, no sibling 

One parent and sibling(s) 

One parent, no sibling 

Other 

The last category, “Other,” includes non-parent guardians (i.e., persons other than birth, adoptive, step or foster mothers and

fathers such as grandparents, aunts or uncles). For analysis in this report, the categories were aggregated as follows: 

Two parent 

Single parent 

Other 

A-3
 

Language spoken most at home by parents 

Indicates responses to the question “What language do you speak most at home?” 

 English 

 Spanish 

 English and Spanish equally 

 English and another language equally 

 Another language 

The responses were aggregated as follows: 

 

Both/only parent(s) learned English first or currently speak(s) English in the home 

 One of two parents learned English first or currently speaks English in the home 

 No parent learned English first and both/only parent(s) currently speak(s) a non-English language in the home 

 

For this analysis, the responses were coded as follows: 

 Both/only parent(s) learned English first or currently speak(s) English in the home 

 One of two parents learned English first or currently speaks English in the home, or no parents learned English first and 

 both/only parent(s) currently speak(s) a non-English language in the home 

NOTE: For this variable, information about student’s guardians was included. 

Parents’ country of birth 

This variable was created by combining the responses from the following questions asked in the Parent and Family Involvement 

in Education Survey: 

1. In what state, country, or territory (were you/was (child)’s (mother/stepmother/foster mother/grandmother)) born? 

 

 One of the 50 states or the District of Columbia 

 One of the U.S. territories (Puerto Rico, Guam, American Samoa, U.S. Virgin Islands, Mariana Islands or 

 Solomon Islands) 

 Some other country 

2. In what state, country, or territory (were you/was (child)’s (father/stepfather/foster father/grandfather)) born? 

 One of the 50 states or the District of Columbia 

 One of the U.S. territories (Puerto Rico, Guam, American Samoa, U.S. Virgin Islands, Mariana Islands or 

 Solomon Islands) 

 Some other country 

The responses were aggregated as follows: 

 Both parents or single parent born in the U.S. or U.S. territories 

 Both parents, one of two parents, or single parent born outside the U.S. 

NOTE: For this variable, information about student’s guardians was included. 

Parents’ education 

Indicates the highest level of education of the student’s parents or nonparent guardians who reside in the household. This 

variable was created based on another derived variable, which was created by aggregating the information collected on parent’s 

highest level of education 

The categories for parent’s highest level of education are as follows: 

Less than high school diploma 

High school graduate or equivalent 

Vocational/technical education after high school or some college 

A-4
 

College graduate 

Graduate or professional school 

For this analysis, the responses were further aggregated as follows: 

Less than high school diploma 

High school graduate or equivalent 

Vocational/technical education after high school or some college 

College graduate, graduate, or professional school 

School Type 

This variable was created by combining responses to the following questions asked in the Parent and Family Involvement in 

Education Survey. 

1. Does (he/she) go to a public or private school? 

 Public 

 Private 

2. Some parents decide to educate their children at home rather than send them to school. Is (CHILD) being schooled at home? 

 Yes 

 No 

For this analysis, responses were coded as follows: 

Public 

Private 

Homeschooled 

NOTE: Some students were reported to attend both regular school and homeschool. Students who were reported to spend less 

than 9 hours per week at public or private school were coded as homeschooled. The rest were coded as attending either a public 

or private school. 

Parent-student educational/cultural activities index 

An index for parent’s educational/cultural activities with student was created based on responses to the four questions listed 

below. 

 

“In the past month, that is, since (month) (day), have you or has someone in your family done the following things with (child):” 

a. Visited a library? 

 Yes 

 No 

b. Gone to play, concert, or other live show? 

 Yes 

 No 

c. Visited an art gallery, museum, or historical site? 

 Yes 

 No 

d. Visited a zoo or aquarium? 

 Yes 

 No 

A-5
 

Responses to each question were summed. Index scores were calculated only when a respondent had valid data for at least 75% 

of the items used for the index. For this 4-item index, a respondent needed to have valid responses to at least 3 items in order to 

receive an index score. If a respondent had invalid responses to two or more questions, the index score was set to missing. If a 

respondent had valid responses to all except one question, available responses were summed and then weighted (by multiplying 

the summed score by four-thirds) so that the summed score would proportionally represent the full score the person would have 

had if he/she had not missed an item. 

Four categories were created based on the index score as follows: 

Engage in no parent-student educational/cultural activities 

Engage in one type of parent-student educational/cultural activities 

Engage in two types of educational/cultural activities 

Engage in three or four types of educational/cultural activities 

Postsecondary education expected by parent 

Indicates responses to the question “How far do you expect (him/her) to go in (his/her) education? Would you say you expect 

(him/her):” 

 To receive less than a high school diploma 

 To graduate from high school 

 To attend a vocational or technical school after high school 

 To attend two or more years of college 

 To finish a four-or five-year college degree 

 To earn a graduate degree or professional degree beyond a bachelors 

The responses were aggregated as follows: 

 

 High school or less 

 Some postsecondary education 

 College graduate or higher 

Family plans to help student pay for postsecondary education 

This variable was created by combining responses to the following question asked in the Parent and Family Involvement in 

Education Survey: 

Do you or does anyone in your family plan to help (child) pay for (his/her) education after high school, or have you not thought 

about it yet? 

 Yes 

 No 

 Has not thought about it 

For this analysis, the responses were aggregated as follows: 

 Yes 

 No or has not thought about yet 

Family has enough information about college costs to start planning 

This variable was created by combining responses to the following questions: 

1. Do you feel you have enough information about the amount needed for college or vocational school to start planning how to 

pay for (his/her) education, or have you not thought about it yet? 

 Yes 

 No 

 Hasn’t thought about yet 

A-6
 

Respondents who said that they had not thought about helping student pay for postsecondary education were not asked the 

question about information on college costs. The analysis was restricted to those respondents who responded “yes” to the 

question on helping student pay for postsecondary education costs. The final categories used in this analysis are listed below: 

 Yes 

 No 

 Hasn’t thought about yet 

A-7
 

A-8
Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

Data Sources 

The data for this report come from the 2003 National Household Education Surveys 

Program (NHES), Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey (PFI). The NHES was 

designed by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) to collect information on 

education in the United States. NHES data were first collected in 1991 and the NHES:2003 is the 

7th round of data collection. 

NHES:2003 was administered between January and April of 2003. The sample was 

selected using random digit dial (RDD) methods and the survey was conducted over the 

telephone using computer assisted telephone interview (CATI) technology. In NHES:2003, two 

different surveys were fielded: 1) Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey (PFI), 

which was used for this report, and 2) Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons Survey 

(AEWR). A screener instrument, which collected demographic and educational information 

from household members, was used to determine eligibility for the two surveys. PFI gathered 

information on homeschooling, school choice, types and frequency of family involvement in 

children’s schools, school practices to involve and support families, learning activities with 

children outside of school, and the involvement of nonresidential parents, and education 

activities. Data were collected from a parent or guardian who was the most knowledgeable about 

a sampled child or youth, typically the mother of the child. More information about the survey 

can be found in the National Household Education Surveys of 2003: Data File User’s Manual, 

Volume I and II (Hagedorn et al. 2004a, 2004b). 

The sample for PFI consists of about 12,400 students in kindergarten through 12th grade 

aged 20 or younger as of December 31, 2002. A maximum of two students were sampled per 

household. The sample includes about 5,700 students enrolled in kindergarten through 5th 

grade, 3,000 students enrolled in 6th through 8th grade, and 3,800 students enrolled in 9th 

through 12th grade. Of the 12,400 students, about 300 were being homeschooled for at least part 

of their instruction. Given the emphasis of this report on parental expectations for their 

children’s educational attainment, in particular their postsecondary education, the analytic 

sample for this report was limited to students in grades 6th to 12th grade. The unweighted size of 

the analytic sample was about 6,800 students. Of those about 200 students were either ungraded, 

homeschooled, or in special education but were in the grades equivalent of 6th to 12th grade. 

Response Rates 

The weighted response rate for NHES:2003 screener was 65 percent with about 32,000 

households completing a screener. The completion rate for PFI, or the percentage of eligible 

sampled children for whom interviews were completed, was 83 percent. In total, parents of 

about 12,400 students completed the interview. Thus, the weighted overall response rate for PFI 

was 54 percent (the product of the Screener response rate and the PFI completion rate). 

B-1 
 

To detect and correct for potential nonresponse bias, a unit nonresponse bias analysis was 

conducted for the 2003 NHES. This study involved an examination of unit response rates as a 

whole and for various subgroups, by variables available for both respondents and 

nonrespondents such as Census region and grade (Hagedorn et al. 2004a), to identify 

characteristics that are associated with screener and extended interview unit nonresponse. No 

significant bias problems were detected, although unit response rates slightly differed by Census 

region. The Midwest had the highest unit response rate (86 percent) whereas the South had the 

lowest (81 percent). The unit response rates did not vary by grade. Additionally, an unpublished 

analysis of bias was conducted in which comparisons were made between population estimates 

from the NHES and the Current Population Survey (CPS) on characteristics such as the 

percentage distribution of children in kindergarten through grade 12 enrolled in public or private 

school, the percentage distribution of children in kindergarten through grade 12 by grade, and the 

percentage distribution of children in kindergarten through grade 12 by household income, 

among others. These analyses revealed few differences between NHES and CPS estimates, 

indicating that the NHES estimates are reasonable estimates of population characteristics. 

Although these comparisons are unpublished, tables with similar comparisons for the 2005 

NHES surveys are presented in Roth, Montaquila, and Chapman (2006). 

The item response rates (the completion rate for individual survey items) for PFI were 

high with a median item response rate of 99.3 percent. The item response rates were less than 90 

percent for 33 items in the PFI data; for most of those items, the rates ranged between 80 and 90 

percent. In most cases, items with low item response rates were asked only of a subset of 

respondents. 

 

Using a method called Hot-deck imputation (Kalton and Kasprzyk 1986), responses were 

imputed for items with missing values that were not specified to have “not ascertained,” “don’t 

know,” and “refused” as a legitimate response categories. Additional information on the 

NHES:2003 unit response rates, item response rates, and nonresponse bias analyses can be found 

in the National Household Education Surveys of 2003: Data File User’s Manual, Volume I 

(Hagedorn et al. 2004a). 

Accuracy of Estimates 

The survey responses were weighted to produce national estimates. The weights were 

designed to adjust for two types of errors, nonsampling and sampling, that can be found in any 

survey sample. Sampling errors occur because observations are made only on samples of 

students and not on entire populations. The sample selected for NHES:2003 is just one of many 

possible samples that could have been selected. Therefore, estimates produced from the 

NHES:2003 sample may differ from estimates that would have been produced from other 

samples. 

Nonsampling errors occur not only in sample surveys but also in complete censuses of 

entire populations. Nonsampling errors can be attributed to a number of sources: inability to 

obtain complete information about all students or all households in the sample (some students or 

households refused to participate, or parents of students participated but answered only certain 

items); ambiguous survey definitions; differences across respondents in interpreting questions; 

B-2
 

inability or unwillingness to give correct information; mistakes in recording or coding data; and 

other errors of collecting, processing, sampling, and imputing missing data. Although 

nonsampling errors due to questionnaire and item nonresponse can be reduced somewhat by the 

adjustment of sample weights and imputation procedures, completely correcting for nonsampling 

errors or gauging the effects of these errors is typically difficult. 

The standard error is a measure of the variability due to sampling when estimating a 

statistic. Standard errors can be used as a measure of the precision expected from a particular 

sample. The probability that a complete census count would differ from the sample estimate by 

less than 1 standard error is about 68 percent. The chance that the difference would be less than 

1.65 standard errors is about 90 percent, and that the difference would be less than 1.96 standard 

errors, about 95 percent. Standard errors for all of the estimates are presented in appendix C. 

 Because the NHES data were collected using a complex sample design, a method known 

as jackknife replication was used to generate accurate standard errors and to estimate the 

statistical significance of the estimates. Complex sample designs result in data that violate some 

of the assumptions that are normally required to assess the statistical significance of the results. 

Prior to corrections for sample design, the sampling errors of the estimates from the survey are 

frequently smaller (given that sample clusters are more homogenous) than would be expected if 

the sample was a simple random sample. The jackknife replication method available in Wesvar 

was used to estimate variances that reflected the actual sample design used in NHES:2003 

(Wolter 1985). 

Statistical Tests 

Differences discussed in this report are significant at the 95 percent confidence level or 

higher, and where a lack of difference is noted, the significance of the difference is below this 

threshold. The Student’s t statistic was used to test the likelihood that the differences between the 

two independent estimates were larger than would be expected due to sampling error. The 

Student’s t values can be computed for comparisons using the estimates in the tables with the 

following formula:

 

 t = 

2

2

2

1

21

eses )..()..(

ee

+

− 

where e1 and e2 are the estimates to be compared and s.e.1 and s.e.2 are their corresponding 

standard errors. 

To determine whether a difference is statistically significant, a t value is calculated for 

the difference between a pair of proportions or means. This value is then compared to t values at 

critical levels, called alpha levels. The alpha level is an a priori statement of the probability of 

inferring that a difference exists when, in fact, it does not. The alpha level used in this report is 

.05 and the critical value for the alpha of .05 is 1.96; differences discussed in the text have been 

tested and found significant at this level. 

B-3
 

In order to make proper inferences and interpretations from the statistics, it is important 

to keep in mind that though comparisons resulting in large t statistics may appear to merit special 

attention, this is not always the case since the size of the t statistic depends not only on the 

observed differences in the two estimates being compared, but also on the standard error of the 

difference. Thus, a small difference between two groups with a much smaller standard error 

could result in a large t statistic, but this small difference is not necessarily noteworthy. 

B-4
Appendix C—Supplemental Tables 

C-1 
 

 Total 9 0.5 0.6 0

Student characteristics

Grade in school

 6 through 8 7 0.7 0.8 1.0

 9 and 10 0 0.9 1.3 1.3

 11 and 12 6 0.8 1.2 1.5

Sex

 Male 177 0.8 0.8 1.0

 Female 176 0.6 0.9 1.0

Race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 161 0.6 0.8 0.9

 Black, non-Hispanic 108 1.4 1.7 2.3

 Hispanic 100 1.2 1.5 1.7

 Asian/Pacific Islander 71 2.4 4.4 4.8

 Other, non-Hispanic 86 5.2 4.9 5.1

Student's average grades across all subjects2

 Mostly A's 214 0.4 0.7 0.7

 Mostly B's 185 0.7 0.9 1.2

 Mostly C's 175 1.3 1.7 1.8

 Mostly D/F's 100 3.3 3.9 3.8

Family characteristics

Family structure

 Single parent 196 1.1 1.2 1.5

 Two parent 194 0.5 0.7 0.8

 Other 84 3.6 3.9 3.9

Household income

$25,000 or less 130 1.4 1.6 1.8

$25,001 to $50,000 202 1.0 1.3 1.5

$50,001 to $75,000 196 0.7 1.3 1.3

More than $75,000 188 0.6 0.9 1.1

Language spoken most at home by parents

 Other 120 1.3 1.8 2.0

 English 119 0.5 0.7 0.8

Parents' country of birth

 Other 157 0.6 0.7 0.8

 United States or U.S. Territories 156 0.8 1.4 1.5

Parents' education

 Bachelor's degree or higher 200 0.3 0.8 0.9

 Some postsecondary education1 225 0.8 1.2 1.3

 High school onl

.8

y 213 1.2 1.4 1.5

 Less than high school 133 3.5 2.9 3.6

School characteristics

School type

 Public 132 0.6 0.7 0.8

 Private 124 1.0 1.4 1.4

 Homeschool3 62 3.9 4.4 5.3

See notes at end of table.

Table C1. Standard errors for table 1: Number and percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students according to the 

Table C1. highest level of education their parents expected them to obtain, by selected student, family, school, and parental

Table C1. involvement characteristics: 2003

Characteristic

Number of students 

(in thousands)

High school 

or less

(percent)

Some

postsecondary 

education1

(percent)

Bachelor's degree 

or higher

(percent)

C-2
 

Parental involvement

Parent-student educational/cultural activities index4

 No activities 187 0.8 1.1 1.3

 One activity 161 0.8 1.2 1.4

 Two activities 174 0.7 1.1 1.2

 Three or four activities 114 1.1 2.0 2.0

Discussed time management

 No 204 0.6 0.7 0.8

 Yes 204 1.1 1.6 2.1

Characteristic

Number of students 

(in thousands)

High school 

or less

(percent)

Some

postsecondary 

education1

(percent)

4 The Parent and Family Involvement in Education (PFI) survey measured four forms of educational and cultural activities that students and 

parents can share. These activities, measured on a monthly basis, include: 1) visiting a library, 2) attending a concert or play, 3) visiting an 

art gallery, museum, or historical site, and 4) visiting a zoo or aquarium. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey of 

the 2003 National Household Education Surveys Program (PFI-NHES:2003).

Table C1. Standard errors for table 1: Number and percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students according to the 

Table C1. highest level of education their parents expected them to obtain, by selected student, family, school, and parental

Table C1. involvement characteristics: 2003—Continued

2 This question is based on parental reports of student's average grades and was not asked of parents of homeschoolers who attended public 

or private school less than 9 hours per week. 

1 "Some postsecondary education" includes attending a vocational or technical school after high school and attending two or more years of 

college but less than finishing a four- or five-year college degree.

3 Homeschoolers include children schooled at home who attended public or private schools less than 9 hours per week.

Bachelor's degree 

or higher

(percent)

NOTE: The "Number of students" column are population totals. 

C-3
 

 Total 62 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.6

Student characteristics

Grade in school

 6 through 8 45 0.9 1.0 0.8 1.0

 9 and 10 28 1.2 1.3 0.7 1.1

 11 and 12 40 1.5 1.5 0.9 0.9

Sex

 Male 182 0.9 1.1 0.7 0.8

 Female 177 1.0 1.0 0.7 0.9

Race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 165 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.8

 Black, non-Hispanic 111 2.2 1.9 1.2 2.0

 Hispanic 101 1.8 1.3 0.9 1.6

 Asian/Pacific Islander 69 4.7 4.4 2.7 4.2

 Other, non-Hispanic 83 5.0 3.5 2.9 4.4

Student's average grades across all subjects1

 Mostly A's 214 0.9 1.0 0.8 1.1

 Mostly B's 185 1.1 1.0 0.8 1.1

 Mostly C's 175 1.7 1.8 1.1 1.8

 Mostly D/F's 100 3.6 3.2 3.0 3.8

Family characteristics

Family structure

 Single parent 197 1.7 1.4 1.2 1.3

 Two parent 197 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.7

 Other 85 3.5 4.2 2.2 4.4

Household income

$25,000 or less 128 1.8 1.6 1.1 1.5

$25,001 to $50,000 202 1.4 1.3 1.1 1.3

$50,001 to $75,000 189 1.5 1.5 1.3 1.2

More than $75,000 190 1.3 1.3 0.8 1.1

Language spoken most at home by parents

 Other 120 2.0 1.8 1.0 2.1

 English 129 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.7

Parents' country of birth

 Other 155 1.6 1.5 1.0 1.5

 United States or U.S. Territories 162 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.7

Parents' education

 Bachelor's degree or higher 205 1.1 1.0 0.9 1.1

 Some postsecondary education2 226 1.3 1.4 1.0 1.1

 High school only 207 1.5 1.3 1.2 1.3

 Less than high school 130 3.0 2.7 1.3 2.7

Highest level of education parents expect student to obtain

 Bachelor's degree or higher 226 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.8

 Some postsecondary education2 190 1.3 1.5 1.2 1.4

 High school or less 128 2.5 2.2 1.6 2.4

School characteristics

School type

 Public 132 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.7

 Private 124 1.9 1.6 1.1 1.8

See notes at end of table.

Table C2. Standard errors for table 2: Number and percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students according to how well their parents 

Table C2. perceived the school provided information about how to help students plan for postsecondary education, by selected student, family, 

Table C2. school, and parental involvement characteristics: 2003

Characteristic

Number of

students 

(in thousands)

How to help student plan for postsecondary education

(percent)

Does it

very well Just ok

Not

very well

Doesn't

do it

at all

C-4
 

Parental involvement

Parent-student educational/cultural activities index3

 No activities 189 1.2 1.1 0.9 1.1

 One activity 158 1.2 1.3 0.9 1.2

 Two activities 173 1.7 1.6 0.9 1.4

 Three or four activities 112 2.5 2.3 1.3 2.3

Discussed time management

 No 204 1.6 1.3 1.2 1.5

 Yes 211 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.6

Doesn't

do it

at all

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey of the 2003 

National Household Education Surveys Program (PFI-NHES:2003).

2 "Some postsecondary education" includes attending a vocational or technical school after high school and attending two or more years of college but less 

than finishing a four- or five-year college degree.

NOTE: The "Number of students" column are population totals. Sample is limited to parents of students who attended private or public 

3 The Parent and Family Involvement in Education (PFI) survey measured four forms of educational and cultural activities that students and parents can 

share. These activities, measured on a monthly basis, include: 1) visiting a library, 2) attending a concert or play, 3) visiting an art gallery, museum, or 

historical site, and 4) visiting a zoo or aquarium. 

school for 9 hours or more per week.

1 This question is based on parental reports of student's average grades and was not asked of parents of homeschoolers who attended public or private school 

less than 9 hours per week.

Table C2. Standard errors for table 2: Number and percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students according to how well their parents 

Table C2. perceived the school provided information about how to help students plan for postsecondary education, by selected student, family, 

Table C2. school, and parental involvement characteristics: 2003—Continued

Characteristic

Number of

students 

(in thousands)

How to help student plan for postsecondary education

(percent)

Does it

very well Just ok

Not

very well

C-5
 

 Total 148 0.8 0.4 0.7

Student characteristics

Grade in school

 6 through 8 85 1.0 0.3 1.0

 9 and 10 74 1.2 0.6 1.1

 11 and 12 63 1.3 0.7 1.1

Sex

 Male 192 1.0 0.5 1.0

 Female 182 0.8 0.4 0.8

Race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 179 0.8 0.4 0.7

 Black, non-Hispanic 113 2.1 1.3 2.1

 Hispanic 103 2.1 0.5 2.1

 Asian/Pacific Islander 66 3.8 1.2 3.6

 Other, non-Hispanic 75 3.4 2.3 2.6

Student's average grades across all subjects1

 Mostly A's 208 1.0 0.6 0.9

 Mostly B's 192 1.1 0.5 0.9

 Mostly C's 157 2.0 0.8 1.9

 Mostly D/F's 76 3.9 1.8 3.7

Family characteristics

Family structure

 Single parent 196 1.5 0.9 1.5

 Two parent 178 0.8 0.4 0.6

 Other 72 5.2 2.2 5.3

Household income

$25,000 or less 124 1.8 0.9 1.7

$25,001 to $50,000 196 1.6 0.8 1.5

$50,001 to $75,000 194 1.1 0.8 0.8

More than $75,000 181 0.8 0.4 0.7

Language spoken most at home by parents

 Other 111 2.7 1.1 2.6

 English 197 0.7 0.4 0.6

Parents' country of birth

 Other 140 1.8 0.8 1.7

 United States or U.S. Territories 212 0.7 0.4 0.7

Parents' education

 Bachelor's degree or higher 197 0.6 0.5 0.4

 Some postsecondary education2 237 1.6 0.8 1.4

 High school only 195 1.6 0.7 1.5

 Less than high school 116 3.1 1.1 3.1

Highest level of education parents expect student to obtain

 Bachelor's degree or higher 220 0.9 0.4 0.7

 Some postsecondary education2 191 1.5 0.7 1.4

 High school or less † † † †

School characteristics

School type

 Public 183 0.8 0.4 0.8

 Private 125 1.3 0.8 1.0

 Homeschool3 57 5.0 3.5 3.7

See notes at end of table.

Table C3. Standard errors for table 3: Number and percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students whose parents expected them 

Table C3. to attain at least some postsecondary education according to whether parents reported that the family was planning on helping to 

Table C3. pay postsecondary education costs, by selected student, family, school, and parental involvement characteristics: 2003

Characteristic

Number of students 

(in thousands)

Family was planning on helping to pay postsecondary 

education costs (percent)

Yes No

Have not

thought

about it

C-6
 

Parental involvement

Parent-student educational/cultural activities index4

 No activities 173 1.3 0.6 1.2

 One activity 181 1.1 0.7 0.8

 Two activities 169 1.2 0.6 1.1

 Three or four activities 113 2.2 1.2 1.9

Discussed time management

 No 176 1.9 0.8 1.6

 Yes 236 0.8 0.4 0.7

† Not applicable.

Table C3. Standard errors for table 3: Number and percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students whose parents expected them 

Table C3. to attain at least some postsecondary education according to whether parents reported that the family was planning on helping to 

Table C3. pay postsecondary education costs, by selected student, family, school, and parental involvement characteristics: 2003—Continued

Characteristic

Number of students 

(in thousands)

Family was planning on helping to pay postsecondary 

education costs (percent)

Yes No

Have not

thought

about it

4 The Parent and Family Involvement in Education (PFI) survey measured four forms of educational and cultural activities that students and parents 

can share. These activities, measured on a monthly basis, include: 1) visiting a library, 2) attending a concert or play, 3) visiting an art gallery, 

museum, or historical site, and 4) visiting a zoo or aquarium. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey of the 2003 

National Household Education Surveys Program (PFI-NHES:2003).

1 This question is based on parental reports of student's average grades and was not asked of parents of homeschoolers who attended public or 

private school less than 9 hours per week.

2 "Some postsecondary education" includes attending a vocational or technical school after high school and attending two or more years of college 

but less than finishing a four- or five-year college degree.

3 Homeschoolers include children schooled at home who attended public or private schools less than 9 hours per week.

NOTE: The "Number of students" column are population totals. Sample in table is limited to those students whose parents expected them to 

continue their education after high school.

C-7
 

 Total 246 0.9 0.8 0.6

Student characteristics

Grade in school

 6 through 8 134 1.3 1.1 0.9

 9 and 10 107 1.7 1.4 1.1

 11 and 12 96 1.5 1.4 0.7

Sex

 Male 204 1.2 1.1 0.9

 Female 196 1.2 1.0 0.9

Race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 197 1.2 1.1 0.7

 Black, non-Hispanic 118 2.6 2.1 2.1

 Hispanic 100 2.1 1.9 1.7

 Asian/Pacific Islander 62 5.6 3.8 5.7

 Other, non-Hispanic 60 5.8 5.0 5.0

Student's average grades across all subjects1

 Mostly A's 197 1.3 1.0 0.8

 Mostly B's 194 1.3 1.2 1.0

 Mostly C's 155 2.2 1.9 1.6

 Mostly D/F's 66 5.5 5.5 4.2

Family characteristics

Family structure

 Single parent 178 1.6 1.7 1.4

 Two parent 241 1.1 0.9 0.7

 Other 57 4.4 4.4 4.3

Household income

$25,000 or less 135 2.4 2.0 2.1

$25,001 to $50,000 173 1.9 1.7 1.2

$50,001 to $75,000 181 2.0 1.6 1.5

More than $75,000 171 1.3 1.1 0.8

Language spoken most at home by parents

 Other 95 2.8 2.3 2.5

 English 260 1.0 0.8 1.2

Parents' country of birth

 Other 126 1.9 1.7 1.7

 United States or U.S. Territories 263 1.0 0.9 0.7

Parents' education

 Bachelor's degree or higher 189 1.0 0.9 0.7

 Some postsecondary education2 229 1.6 1.4 1.1

 High school only 170 2.2 1.9 1.7

 Less than high school 81 4.7 5.6 5.0

Highest level of education parents expect student to obtain

 Bachelor's degree or higher 232 0.9 0.8 0.6

 Some postsecondary education2 169 2.0 1.8 1.6

 High school or less ††††

School characteristics

School type

 Public 260 0.9 0.8 0.7

 Private 120 2.1 1.7 1.2

 Homeschool3 50 5.0 4.4 3.2

See notes at end of table.

Table C4. Standard errors for table 4: Number and percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students whose family was planning on 

Table C4. helping to pay postsecondary education costs according to whether parents reported that they had enough information about college 

Table C4. costs to begin planning, by selected student, family, school, and parental involvement characteristics: 2003

Characteristic

Number of students 

(in thousands)

Parents had enough information about college costs to start 

planning (percent)

Yes No

Have not

thought

about it

C-8
 

Parental involvement

Parent-student educational/cultural activities index4

 No activities 179 1.6 1.3 1.1

 One activity 176 1.3 1.1 1.0

 Two activities 142 1.8 1.5 1.1

 Three or four activities 103 2.9 2.2 1.9

Discussed time management

 No 166 1.8 1.4 1.3

 Yes 243 0.9 0.9 0.6

† Not applicable.

Table C4. Standard errors for table 4: Number and percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students whose family was planning on 

Table C4. helping to pay postsecondary education costs according to whether parents reported that they had enough information about college 

Table C4. costs to begin planning, by selected student, family, school, and parental involvement characteristics: 2003—Continued

Characteristic

Number of students 

(in thousands)

Parents had enough information about college costs to start 

planning (percent)

Yes No

Have not

thought

about it

4 The Parent and Family Involvement in Education (PFI) survey measured four forms of educational and cultural activities that students and parents 

can share. These activities, measured on a monthly basis, include: 1) visiting a library, 2) attending a concert or play, 3) visiting an art gallery, 

museum, or historical site, and 4) visiting a zoo or aquarium. 

NOTE: The "Number of students" column are population totals. Sample in table is limited to those students whose parents expected them to continue 

their education after high school and reported that they or someone in their family was planning on helping to pay for postsecondary education costs.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey of the 2003 

National Household Education Surveys Program (PFI-NHES:2003).

1 This question is based on parental reports of student's average grades and was not asked of parents of homeschoolers who attended public or private 

school less than 9 hours per week.

2 "Some postsecondary education" includes attending a vocational or technical school after high school and attending two or more years of college but 

less than finishing a four- or five-year college degree.

3 Homeschoolers include children schooled at home who attended public or private schools less than 9 hours per week.

C-9
 

C-10
Appendix D—T-test Results Tables 

D-1 
 

Student characteristics

Grade in school

 6 through 8 vs. 9 and 10 X √ √

 6 through 8 vs. 10 and 12 X √ √

 9 and 10 vs. 10 and 12 √ X X

Sex

 Male vs. female √ X √

Race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic vs. Black, non-Hispanic X X X

 White, non-Hispanic vs. Hispanic √ X X

 White, non-Hispanic vs. Asian/Pacific Islander X √ √

 White, non-Hispanic vs. Other, non-Hispanic X X √

 Black, non-Hispanic vs. Hispanic X X X

 Black, non-Hispanic vs. Asian/Pacific Islander √√ √

 Black, non-Hispanic vs. Other, non-Hispanic X X X

 Hispanic vs. Asian/Pacific Islander √ X √

 Hispanic vs. Other, non-Hispanic X X √

 Asian/Pacific Islander vs. Other, non-Hispanic √√ √

Student's average grades across all subjects2

 Mostly A's vs. Mostly B's √√ √

 Mostly A's vs. Mostly C's √√ √

 Mostly A's vs. Mostly D/F's √√ √

 Mostly B's vs. Mostly C's √√ √

 Mostly B's vs. Mostly D/F's √√ √

 Mostly C's vs. Mostly D/F's √ X √

Family characteristics

Family structure

 Single parent vs. Two parent √√ √

 Single parent vs. Other √ X X

 Two parent vs. Other √ X √

Household income

$25,000 or less vs. $25,001 to $50,000 √√ √

$25,000 or less vs. $50,001 to $75,000 √√ √

$25,000 or less vs. More than $75,000 √√ √

$25,001 to $50,000 vs. $50,001 to $75,000 √√ √

$25,001 to $50,000 vs. More than $75,000 √√ √

$50,001 to $75,000 vs. More than $75,000 √√ √

Language spoken most at home by parents

 Other vs. English X √ √

Parents' country of birth

 Other vs. United States or U.S. Territories X √ √

Parents' education

 Bachelor's degree or higher vs. Some postsecondary education √√ √

 Bachelor's degree or higher vs. High school only √√ √

 Bachelor's degree or higher vs. Less than high school √√ √

 Some postsecondary education1 vs. High school only √√ √

 Some postsecondary education vs. Less than high school √ X √

 High school only vs. Less than high school √ √ X

School characteristics

School type

 Public vs. Private √√ √

 Public vs. Homeschool3 XX X

 Private vs. Homeschool √√ √

See notes at end of table.

Table D1. T-test results for table 1 comparisons: Percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students according to the highest level 

Table D1. of education their parents expected them to obtain, by selected student, family, school, and parental involvement characteristics: 2003

Characteristic

High school 

or less

(percent)

Some postsecondary 

education1

(percent)

Bachelor's degree 

or higher

(percent)

D-2
 

Parental involvement

Parent-student educational/cultural activities index4

 No activities vs. One activity √ X √

 No activities vs. Two activities √√ √

 No activities vs. Three or four activities √ √ √

 One activity vs. Two activities √√ √

 One activity vs. Three or four activities √√ √

 Two activities vs. Three or four activities X X X

Discussed time management

 No vs. Yes X X X

√ T-test significant at .05 level of significance.

X T-test not significant at .05 level of significance.

Table D1. education their parents expected them to obtain, by selected student, family, school, and parental involvement characteristics:

Table D1. T-test results for table 1 comparisons: Percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students according to the highest level of 

Table D1. 2003—Continued

Characteristic

High school 

or less

(percent)

Some postsecondary 

education1

(percent)

Bachelor's degree 

or higher

(percent)

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey of the 2003 

National Household Education Surveys Program (PFI-NHES:2003).

2 This question is based on parental reports of student's average grades and was not asked of parents of homeschoolers who attended public or private 

school less than 9 hours per week.

3 Homeschoolers include children schooled at home who attended public or private schools less than 9 hours per week.

4 The Parent and Family Involvement in Education (PFI) survey measured four forms of educational and cultural activities that students and parents 

can share. These activities, measured on a monthly basis, include: 1) visiting a library, 2) attending a concert or play, 3) visiting an art gallery, 

museum, or historical site, and 4) visiting a zoo or aquarium. 

1 "Some postsecondary education" includes attending a vocational or technical school after high school and attending two or more years of college 

but less than finishing a four- or five-year college degree.

D-3
 

Student characteristics

Grade in school

 6 through 8 vs. 9 and 10 √ √√ √

 6 through 8 vs. 10 and 12 √ √√ √

 9 and 10 vs. 10 and 12 √ X X √

Sex

 Male vs. female X X X X

Race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic vs. Black, non-Hispanic X √√ √

 White, non-Hispanic vs. Hispanic √ √√ √

 White, non-Hispanic vs. Asian/Pacific Islander X X X X

 White, non-Hispanic vs. Other, non-Hispanic X X X √

 Black, non-Hispanic vs. Hispanic X X X X

 Black, non-Hispanic vs. Asian/Pacific Islander X X X X

 Black, non-Hispanic vs. Other, non-Hispanic X X X X

 Hispanic vs. Asian/Pacific Islander X √ X X

 Hispanic vs. Other, non-Hispanic X X X X

 Asian/Pacific Islander vs. Other, non-Hispanic X X X √

Student's average grades across all subjects1

 Mostly A's vs. Mostly B's √ X X √

 Mostly A's vs. Mostly C's √ X X √

 Mostly A's vs. Mostly D/F's √ X √ √

 Mostly B's vs. Mostly C's √ XX X

 Mostly B's vs. Mostly D/F's √ X √ X

 Mostly C's vs. Mostly D/F's √ XX X

Family characteristics

Family structure

 Single parent vs. Two parent X X X √

 Single parent vs. Other X √ X X

 Two parent vs. Other X √ X √

Household income

$25,000 or less vs. $25,001 to $50,000 X X √ √

$25,000 or less vs. $50,001 to $75,000 X √√ √

$25,000 or less vs. More than $75,000 X √√ √

$25,001 to $50,000 vs. $50,001 to $75,000 X X X √

$25,001 to $50,000 vs. More than $75,000 X X X √

$50,001 to $75,000 vs. More than $75,000 X X X X

Language spoken most at home by parents

 Other vs. English √ √√ √

Parents' country of birth

 Other vs. United States or U.S. Territories √ √ √ √

Parents' education

 Bachelor's degree or higher vs. Some postsecondary education √ XX X

 Bachelor's degree or higher vs. High school only X √ X √

 Bachelor's degree or higher vs. Less than high school X √√ √

 Some postsecondary education2 vs. High school only X √ X X

 Some postsecondary education vs. Less than high school √ √ √ X

 High school only vs. Less than high school X X √ X

Highest level of education parents expect student to obtain

 Bachelor's degree or higher vs. Some postsecondary education √ XX X

 Bachelor's degree or higher vs. High school or less X XX √

 Some postsecondary education vs. High school or less X X √ √

School characteristics

School type

 Public vs. Private √ √√ X

See notes at end of table.

Table D2. T-test results for table 2 comparisons: Percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students according to how well their parents 

Table D2. perceived the school provided information about how to help students plan for postsecondary education, by selected student, family, 

Table D2. school, and parental involvement characteristics: 2003

Characteristic

How to help student plan for postsecondary education

(percent)

Does it very well Just ok Not very well Doesn't do it at all

D-4
 

Parental involvement

Parent-student educational/cultural activities index3

 No activities vs. One activity X XX X

 No activities vs. Two activities X X X X

 No activities vs. Three or four activities X X √ X

 One activity vs. Two activities X X X X

 One activity vs. Three or four activities X X √ X

 Two activities vs. Three or four activities X X √ X

Discussed time management

 No vs. Yes X √ X √

√ T-test significant at .05 level of significance.

X T-test not significant at .05 level of significance.

Table D2. T-test results for table 2 comparisons: Percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students according to how well their parents 

Table D2. perceived the school provided information about how to help students plan for postsecondary education, by selected student, family, 

Table D2. school, and parental involvement characteristics: 2003—Continued

Characteristic

How to help student plan for postsecondary education

(percent)

Does it very well Just ok Not very well Doesn't do it at all

NOTE: Sample is limited to parents of students who attended private or public school for 9 or more hours per week.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey of the 2003 

National Household Education Surveys Program (PFI-NHES:2003).

2 "Some postsecondary education" includes attending a vocational or technical school after high school and attending two or more years of college but 

less than finishing a four- or five-year college degree.

3 The Parent and Family Involvement in Education (PFI) survey measured four forms of educational and cultural activities that students and parents 

can share. These activities, measured on a monthly basis, include: 1) visiting a library, 2) attending a concert or play, 3) visiting an art gallery, 

museum, or historical site, and 4) visiting a zoo or aquarium. 

1 This question is based on parental reports of student's average grades and was not asked of parents of homeschoolers who attended public or private 

school less than 9 hours per week.

D-5
 

Student characteristics

Grade in school

 6 through 8 vs. 9 and 10 X X X

 6 through 8 vs. 10 and 12 X √ √

 9 and 10 vs. 10 and 12 X √ √

Sex

 Male vs. Female X X X

Race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic vs. Black, non-Hispanic √ X √

 White, non-Hispanic vs. Hispanic √√ √

 White, non-Hispanic vs. Asian/Pacific Islander √ X √

 White, non-Hispanic vs. Other, non-Hispanic X X X

 Black, non-Hispanic vs. Hispanic X X √

 Black, non-Hispanic vs. Asian/Pacific Islander X X X

 Black, non-Hispanic vs. Other, non-Hispanic √ X √

 Hispanic vs. Asian/Pacific Islander X √ X

 Hispanic vs. Other, non-Hispanic √ X √

 Asian/Pacific Islander vs. Other, non-Hispanic X X √

Student's average grades across all subjects1

 Mostly A's vs. Mostly B's X X X

 Mostly A's vs. Mostly C's √ X √

 Mostly A's vs. Mostly D/F's √ X √

 Mostly B's vs. Mostly C's √ X √

 Mostly B's vs. Mostly D/F's √ X X

 Mostly C's vs. Mostly D/F's X X X

Family characteristics

Family structure

 Single parent vs. Two parent √ X √

 Single parent vs. Other √ √ X

 Two parent vs. Other √ X √

Household income

$25,000 or less vs. $25,001 to $50,000 √ X √

$25,000 or less vs. $50,001 to $75,000 √ X √

$25,000 or less vs. More than $75,000 √√ √

$25,001 to $50,000 vs. $50,001 to $75,000 √ X √

$25,001 to $50,000 vs. More than $75,000 √√ √

$50,001 to $75,000 vs. More than $75,000 √√ √

Language spoken most at home by parents

 Other vs. English √ X √

Parents' country of birth

 Other vs. United States or U.S. Territories √ X √

Parents' education

 Bachelor's degree or higher vs. Some postsecondary education √ X √

 Bachelor's degree or higher vs. High school only √√ √

 Bachelor's degree or higher vs. Less than high school √√ √

 Some postsecondary education2 vs. High school only √√ √

 Some postsecondary education vs. Less than high school √√ √

 High school only vs. Less than high school √√ √

Highest level of education parents expect student to obtain

 Bachelor's degree or higher vs. Some postsecondary education2 √√ √

 Bachelor's degree or higher vs. High school or less † † †

 Some postsecondary education vs. High school or less † † †

See notes at end of table.

Table D3. T-test results for table 3 comparisons: Percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students whose parents expected them to 

Table D3. attain at least some postsecondary education according to whether parents reported that the family was planning on helping to 

Table D3. pay postsecondary education costs, by selected student, family, school, and parental involvement characteristics: 2003

Characteristic

Family was planning on helping to pay postsecondary education costs 

(percent)

Yes No

Have not

thought about it

D-6
 

School characteristics

School type

 Public vs. Private √ X √

 Public vs. Homeschool3 XX X

 Private vs. Homeschool √ X √

Parental involvement

Parent-student educational/cultural activities index4

 No activities vs. One activity √ X √

 No activities vs. Two activities √√ √

 No activities vs. Three or four activities √ X √

 One activity vs. Two activities X X X

 One activity vs. Three or four activities X X X

 Two activities vs. Three or four activities X X X

Discussed time management

 No vs. Yes √√ √

√ T-test significant at .05 level of significance.

X T-test not significant at .05 level of significance.

† Not applicable.

Characteristic

Family was planning on helping to pay postsecondary education costs 

(percent)

Yes No

Have not

thought about it

Table D3. T-test results for table 3 comparisons: Percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students whose parents expected them to 

Table D3. attain at least some postsecondary education according to whether parents reported that the family was planning on helping to 

NOTE: Sample in table is limited to those students whose parents expected them to continue their education after high school.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey of the 2003 

National Household Education Surveys Program (PFI-NHES:2003).

1 This question is based on parental reports of student's average grades and was not asked of parents of homeschoolers who attended public or private 

school less than 9 hours per week.

2 "Some postsecondary education" includes attending a vocational or technical school after high school and attending two or more years of college but 

less than finishing a four- or five-year college degree.

3 Homeschoolers include children schooled at home who attended public or private schools less than 9 hours per week.

4 The Parent and Family Involvement in Education (PFI) survey measured four forms of educational and cultural activities that students and parents can 

share. These activities, measured on a monthly basis, include: 1) visiting a library, 2) attending a concert or play, 3) visiting an art gallery, museum, or 

historical site, and 4) visiting a zoo or aquarium. 

Table D3. pay postsecondary education costs, by selected student, family, school, and parental involvement characteristics: 2003—Continued

D-7
 

Student characteristics

Grade in school

 6 through 8 vs. 9 and 10 X X √

 6 through 8 vs. 10 and 12 √ X √

 9 and 10 vs. 10 and 12 √√ √

Sex

 Male vs. Female X X X

Race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic vs. Black, non-Hispanic √√ √

 White, non-Hispanic vs. Hispanic √√ √

 White, non-Hispanic vs. Asian/Pacific Islander X X X

 White, non-Hispanic vs. Other, non-Hispanic √ √ X

 Black, non-Hispanic vs. Hispanic √ √ X

 Black, non-Hispanic vs. Asian/Pacific Islander X X X

 Black, non-Hispanic vs. Other, non-Hispanic X X X

 Hispanic vs. Asian/Pacific Islander √ √ X

 Hispanic vs. Other, non-Hispanic X X X

 Asian/Pacific Islander vs. Other, non-Hispanic X X X

Student's average grades across all subjects1

 Mostly A's vs. Mostly B's √√ √

 Mostly A's vs. Mostly C's √√ √

 Mostly A's vs. Mostly D/F's √ √ X

 Mostly B's vs. Mostly C's X X X

 Mostly B's vs. Mostly D/F's √ √ X

 Mostly C's vs. Mostly D/F's X X X

Family characteristics

Family structure

 Single parent vs. Two parent √ √ X

 Single parent vs. Other √ X √

 Two parent vs. Other √ X √

Household income

$25,000 or less vs. $25,001 to $50,000 √ X √

$25,000 or less vs. $50,001 to $75,000 √√ √

$25,000 or less vs. More than $75,000 √√ √

$25,001 to $50,000 vs. $50,001 to $75,000 √ √ X

$25,001 to $50,000 vs. More than $75,000 √√ √

$50,001 to $75,000 vs. More than $75,000 √√ √

Language spoken most at home by parents

 Other vs. English √√ √

Parents' country of birth

 Other vs. United States or U.S. Territories √√ √

Parents' education

 Bachelor's degree or higher vs. Some postsecondary education √√ √

 Bachelor's degree or higher vs. High school only √√ √

 Bachelor's degree or higher vs. Less than high school √√ √

 Some postsecondary education2 vs. High school only √ X √

 Some postsecondary education vs. Less than high school √√ √

 High school only vs. Less than high school √ √ X

Highest level of education parents expect student to obtain

 Bachelor's degree or higher vs. Some postsecondary education2 √ X √

 Bachelor's degree or higher vs. High school or less † † †

 Some postsecondary education vs. High school or less † † †

See notes at end of table.

Table D4. T-test results for table 4 comparisons: Percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students whose family was planning on 

Table D4. helping to pay postsecondary education costs according to whether parents reported that they had enough information about 

Table D4. college costs to begin planning, by selected student, family, school, and parental involvement characteristics: 2003

Characteristic

Parents had enough information about college costs to start planning 

(percent)

Yes No

Have not

thought about it

D-8
 

School characteristics

School type

 Public vs. Private √√ √

 Public vs. Homeschool3 √ X √

 Private vs. Homeschool X X X

Parental involvement

Parent-student educational/cultural activities index4

 No activities vs. One activity √ X √

 No activities vs. Two activities √ X √

 No activities vs. Three or four activities X X X

 One activity vs. Two activities X X X

 One activity vs. Three or four activities X X X

 Two activities vs. Three or four activities X X X

Discussed time management

 No vs. Yes X √ √

√ T-test significant at .05 level of significance. 

X T-test not significant at .05 level of significance.

† Not applicable.

Characteristic

Parents had enough information about college costs to start planning 

(percent)

Yes No

Have not

thought about it

Table D4. T-test results for table 4 comparisons: Percentage distribution of 6th through 12th grade students whose family was planning on 

Table D4. helping to pay postsecondary education costs according to whether parents reported that they had enough information about 

NOTE: Sample in table is limited to those students whose parents expected them to continue their education after high school and reported that they or 

someone in their family was planning on helping to pay for postsecondary education costs.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey of the 2003 

National Household Education Surveys Program (PFI-NHES:2003).

1 This question is based on parental reports of student's average grades and was not asked of parents of homeschoolers who attended public or private 

school less than 9 hours per week.

2 "Some postsecondary education" includes attending a vocational or technical school after high school and attending two or more years of college but 

less than finishing a four- or five-year college degree.

3 Homeschoolers include children schooled at home who attended public or private schools less than 9 hours per week.

4 The Parent and Family Involvement in Education (PFI) survey measured four forms of educational and cultural activities that students and parents 

can share. These activities, measured on a monthly basis, include: 1) visiting a library, 2) attending a concert or play, 3) visiting an art gallery, 

museum, or historical site, and 4) visiting a zoo or aquarium. 

Table D4. college costs to begin planning, by selected student, family, school, and parental involvement characteristics: 2003—Continued

D-9